See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/301591404

Earth's dynamic surface: A perspective on the past 50 years in geomorphology

Chapter · April 2016

DOI: 10.1130/2016.2523(01)

CITATIONS READS
7 705

3 authors, including:

Ellen Wohl
Colorado State University
543 PUBLICATIONS   19,422 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Characterizing flow resistance in steep mountain streams View project

Carbon storage, dynamics, and decomposition in floodplains View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Ellen Wohl on 20 July 2021.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Downloaded from specialpapers.gsapubs.org on April 27, 2016

The Geological Society of America

Special Paper 523

Earth’s dynamic surface: A perspective on

the past 50 years in geomorphology

Ellen Wohl*,†
Department of Geosciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523-1482, USA

Paul R. Bierman*
Department of Geology, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont 05405-1758, USA

David R. Montgomery*
Department of Earth and Space Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195-1310, USA

ABSTRACT

During the past 50 years, geomorphology has become progressively more quan-
titative, with increasing emphasis on nondimensional metrics that facilitate com-
parison across field sites, on quantitative conceptual models, on quantification and
rigorous dating of geomorphic history, and on exploration of how to quantify physi-
cal processes responsible for producing and redistributing sediment. These shifts in
emphasis have been facilitated by development of new techniques for collecting and
analyzing data, including advances in remote-sensing technology and geochronologic
and isotopic methods. During the past half century, the geomorphic community has
become more diverse with respect to gender, geographic representation, and disci-
plinary background, and this has facilitated interdisciplinary approaches to under-
standing planetary surfaces.

INTRODUCTION the sustainability of ecosystems and human societies have also

This paper provides an overview of changes in the study of
surface processes and landforms on Earth and other planets dur-
ing the past half century. The discipline of geomorphology has
undergone transformative changes during this period, partly as a
result of the development of several categories of new tools that
have changed the questions that geomorphologists can ask and
the methods that they can use to answer those questions. Beyond
the development of new tools, changes in the way the scientific
community and society as a whole perceive natural systems and
driven fundamental changes in geomorphic research directions.
We start by introducing the scope and traditional categories
within the discipline of geomorphology and the state of the dis-
cipline ca. 1960. We then briefly review how changes in society
and the scientific community between 1960 and the present have
been reflected in changes within the geomorphic community and
the research foci of geomorphology. Subsequent sections of the
paper explore new research approaches, research emphases, and
conceptual models now widely used by geomorphologists. We
conclude with a summary of changes in the conceptual framework

*E-mails: ellen.wohl@colostate.edu; paul.bierman@uvm.edu; bigdirt@uw.edu.

†
corresponding author

Wohl, E., Bierman, P.R., and Montgomery, D.R., 2016, Earth’s dynamic surface: A perspective on the past 50 years in geomorphology, in Bickford, M.E., ed., The
Web of Geological Sciences: Advances, Impacts, and Interactions II: Geological Society of America Special Paper 523, p. 1–29, doi:10.1130/2016.2523(01). For
permission to copy, contact editing@geosociety.org. © 2016 The Geological Society of America. All rights reserved.

1
 Downloaded from specialpapers.gsapubs.org on April 27, 2016

2 Wohl et al.

of geomorphology between 1960 and the present. Our emphasis
in this review is on papers published in English-language jour-
nals and books. Although we do not focus exclusively on geo-
morphology in North America, we do not emphasize the history
of geomorphic thinking in Europe, Asia, or other regions.
persal, environmental degradation, agricultural sustainability,
and climate change (e.g., James and Marcus, 2006; Bierman and
Montgomery, 2014; Harden et al., 2014).
Geomorphology Ca. 1960

Introducing Geomorphology A search on the keyword “geomorphology” using the search

engine GeoRef reveals that the topics on which geomorpholo-
Geomorphology is the study of Earth and Earth-like plane- gists were publishing in 1960 were broadly similar to those of
tary surface processes, landforms, and landscape evolution. Early today (Fig. 1). More papers focused on origins and physiogra-
geomorphologists, like other early earth scientists, worked on a phy, words seldom used now, but papers covered the full range
broad range of topics. G.K. Gilbert (1843–1918; Baker and Pyne, of environments—weathering, hillslopes, fluvial, karst, glacial,
1978; Pyne, 1980) and W.M. Davis (1850–1934; Chorley et al., coastal, and so forth—and many of the papers focused on pro-
1973) are generally considered key individuals in the develop- cesses. Research ca. 1960, relative to contemporary geomorphic
ment of geomorphic science within the United States. Both of research, was more likely to focus on Quaternary history in terms
them worked on glacial, hillslope, and fluvial environments, and of climatic changes and effects on geomorphic processes and land-
Gilbert in particular is claimed as a founding father by multiple form configurations. One aspect of this was the initiation of flu-
disciplines within geology. Subsequent geomorphologists have vial paleohydrology in the work of Dury (e.g., Dury, 1954, 1964,
been more likely to focus on a narrower range of environments.
Traditional categories within geomorphology include soils and
weathering, hillslopes, rivers, karst, periglacial, glacial, coastal,
desert and eolian, tectonic, and volcanic environments.
A
Despite this categorization and the attendant specialization
among individual investigators, geomorphologists have long
recognized that Earth’s surface functions primarily as a highly
integrated system. Tectonic uplift driven by deep Earth processes
influences atmospheric circulation patterns, and these patterns
drive the weather and thus climate, which alters bedrock into
sediment (e.g., Molnar and England, 1990; Whipple et al., 1999;
Montgomery et al., 2001; Portenga and Bierman, 2011). Precipi-
tation inputs, tectonic uplift, and biota govern the stability and
downslope transport of sediment onto glaciers and into rivers
(e.g., Burbank et al., 1996; Rahaman et al., 2009). Downstream
fluxes of water, sediment, and solutes within rivers reflect supply
from adjacent uplands, as well as biologically mediated processes
within the river corridor and subsurface inputs from groundwater
B
(e.g., Corenblit et al., 2011; Batlle-Aguilar et al., 2014). Coastal
processes are strongly influenced by river inputs, but they also
reflect nearshore topography, wave dynamics, atmospheric and
oceanic circulation patterns, and biological communities (e.g.,
Parra et al., 2012; Warrick, 2014). Humans have exerted an
increasingly dominant influence on every aspect of surface and
near-surface processes and fluxes (Hooke, 2000).
One of the hallmarks of contemporary geomorphology
is that it is an integrative discipline, drawing on knowledge of
processes operating from the atmosphere down to the biosphere
and hydrosphere and into the mantle, across time scales from
the immediate to tens of millions of years, and spatial scales
from grain-grain interactions to continental tectonics and global Figure 1. Wordle illustrations of words used in geomorphology papers.
atmospheric and circulation patterns (Bierman and Montgomery, These figures were created by using GeoRef to search on the term
2014; Wohl, 2014a). Geomorphology also explicitly incorporates “geomorphology.” For the first 100 entries that resulted, abstracts in
English from periodicals were copied into a text document. This re-
people, both in the context of historical manipulation of surface sulted in a document with ~3750 words for the 1960 search (A) and
environments (e.g., Walter and Merritts, 2008) and with respect 21,620 words for the 2010 search (B). Wordle (www.wordle.net/) was
to ongoing societal responses to issues such as contaminant dis- created by Jonathan Feinberg.
 Downloaded from specialpapers.gsapubs.org on April 27, 2016
Earth’s dynamic surface: A perspective on the past 50 years in geomorphology
1965), Schumm (e.g., Schumm, 1965, 1968), and others (Baker,
2014). Geomorphic research ca. 1960 also put greater emphasis on
mapping and categorizing surface features. Glacial geomorphol-
ogy, in particular, emphasized mapping the distribution of glacial
erosional and depositional features and developing a relative chro-
nology of geomorphic history. Much of this work was being done
in Europe, where various types of geomorphic mapping were par-
ticularly emphasized. European geomorphologists also put greater
emphasis on karst geomorphology and the influence of geologic
structures on surface environments, as well as on climatic controls
on surface process and form, as exemplified in the work of Birot
(Birot, 1960, 1968) and Tricart in France (Tricart and Cailleux,
1965, 1972) and Budel in Germany (Budel, 1982).
The increase in the number of papers published on rivers,
relative to other surface environments, seems to have begun ca.
1960. Fluvial geomorphic papers now constitute the single larg-
est category within geomorphology: 63% of the papers now pub-
lished in the journal Geomorphology, for example, address some
aspect of rivers (Wohl, 2014b). Within fluvial geomorphology,
investigators during the 1960s increasingly emphasized quantita-
tive measurements of processes and conceptual models grounded
in physics and engineering principles (Hack, 1960; Wolman and
Miller, 1960; Langbein and Leopold, 1964, 1966). In contrast to
glacial studies and to earlier fluvial geomorphic research, fluvial
studies ca. 1960 put much less emphasis on chronologies and the
history of changes in river networks.
The influence of quantification and systems theory largely
grew out of seminal papers of Horton (1945) and Mackin (1948).
Horton developed quantitative, dimensionless descriptors of
drainage networks and related these descriptors to geomorphic
processes, an approach followed by A.N. Strahler (e.g., Strahler,
1950, 1952, 1954, 1957, 1958) and his many students (Keylock,
2003), including S.A. Schumm (e.g., Schumm, 1956), M.A.
Melton (e.g., Melton, 1958), and M.E. Morisawa (e.g., Mori-
sawa, 1957). Mackin’s (1948) description of a graded stream,
which related river process and form to specific feedbacks and
the attainment of equilibrium, heavily influenced geomorphic
thought during the 1960s, as exemplified in work by L.B. Leo-
pold, M.G. Wolman, T. Maddock, and S.A. Schumm (Chorley,
2008). Geomorphic research during the 1950s and 1960s empha-
sized a conceptual framework defined by physical principles
believed to be universally applicable (e.g., Leopold et al., 1964),
including adjustments among independent driving variables and
landform response variables characterized by feedbacks, thresh-
olds, minimization of variance through time and space, and per-
sistent, stable conditions (e.g., Leopold and Maddock, 1953;
Lane, 1955; Wolman and Miller, 1960; Schumm, 1969, 1973).
Underlying the emphasis on physical principles was an assump-
tion that physical systems are deterministic, with linear or at least
consistent discoverable properties and causal relations, and a
tendency to relegate specific, place-based geomorphic history to
a much less important role in governing landscape process and
form. These emphases likely reflected the prominence of quan-
titative and experimentally based scientific disciplines such as
3
physics and chemistry (Baker, 1988; Church, 2013), the wide-
spread availability of topographic maps and aerial photographs,
which facilitated larger-scale, quantitative comparisons among
field sites (Church, 2013), and increasing collaboration with civil
engineers (Wohl, 2014b). Increasing emphasis on underlying
physical principles may also have resulted from a reaction against
earlier conceptual models of historical landscape development
(e.g., Davis, 1899), and from limited geochronologic techniques
applicable to Quaternary time scales, which constrained the abil-
ity to determine temporal relations between potential driving and
response variables.
The shift toward more quantitative studies emphasizing
physical principles coincided with the development of a division
among U.S. geomorphologists that has persisted into the twenty-
first century and is reflected in the scientific societies with which
individual geomorphologists most strongly identify. Geomorphic
research presented through meetings and publications of the
American Geophysical Union is more likely to emphasize physi-
cal principles and quantification (e.g., Dietrich, 1982; Dietrich
and Smith, 1984; Jungers et al., 2009) as exemplified by geomor-
phic transport laws (e.g., Dietrich et al., 2003). Research associ-
ated with venues of the Geological Society of America is more
likely to emphasize geological context (e.g., Pazzaglia and Gard-
ner, 1993; Wegmann and Pazzaglia, 2002; Bierman et al., 2014).
Geomorphic research conducted by investigators who identify
primarily as physical geographers is commonly presented in
venues of the Association of American Geographers and more
explicitly incorporates spatial and temporal characteristics of sur-
face processes and landforms, interactions of humans with land-
scape, and spatial analysis techniques (e.g., Knox, 1972; Mar-
ston, 1989; Graf, 2001; Chin et al., 2008; Marston, 2008; James,
2013). Geomorphologists outside of the United States are more
likely to be associated with the physical geography tradition.
Across the discipline, geomorphology ca. 1960 remained a
highly field-focused effort, with place-based case studies domi-
nating research. Almost all of those conducting research were
males in academic and government positions, primarily in the
United States, Europe, and the UK, Australia, and New Zealand.
Among the rare exceptions to male domination of geomorphic
research were Hanna Bremer in Germany, Barbara Kennedy,
Marjorie Sweeting, and Cuchlaine A.M. King in the UK, and
Marie Morisawa in the United States.
Accelerating Changes in Society and Science
Several important changes in society and among scien-
tific professionals directly impacted geomorphology during the
period between ca. 1960 and 2010. Among these were:
(1) rapid increases in global population and associated pat-
terns of resource use and human settlement;
(2) altered perceptions of the natural environment and the
supply of natural resources and ecosystem services;
(3) increasing emphasis on diversity and inclusiveness in all
aspects of society;
 Downloaded from specialpapers.gsapubs.org on April 27, 2016
4 Wohl et al.
(4) increasing numbers of professional scientists and dis-
semination of scientific research via conferences, publi-
cations, and other outlets, and increasing speed of com-
munication and research dissemination;
(5) changing expectations as to what constitutes a scien-
tific discipline, with greater emphasis on quantification
and prediction;
(6) expansion of information sources about Earth’s surface and
near-surface environments via remote-sensing technology,
both space-based as well as ground- (or ship-) based;
(7) increasing emphasis on multi-, inter-, or transdisciplinary
approaches to addressing widespread environmental
problems, including acid rain, ozone depletion, deserti-
fication, sedimentation, erosion, various forms of pollu-
tion, species loss, and climate change;
(8) technological innovations in, and increasing access to,
instrumentation and greater computational power; and
(9) increasing use of geomorphology by government agen-
cies, especially those involved in natural resource man-
agement and regulation; and growth of the practice of
geomorphology by the private sector (mainly in engineer-
ing and environmental analysis).
A review of global environmental trends and societal per-
ceptions of these trends is relevant here because a large portion
of geomorphic research is closely connected to natural hazards
identification and mitigation, as well as environmental engineer-
ing and restoration. Global population increased ~230%, from
~3 billion to ~6.9 billion, between 1960 and 2010. Domesticated
land expanded to ~38% of the ice-free area globally (Foley et
al., 2011; Hooke et al., 2012). More importantly, at least 83%
of ice-free land area was directly affected by human activities
(Sanderson et al., 2002), and accelerating, human-induced cli-
mate warming meant that every part of the planet was at least
indirectly affected by humans.
As global populations became increasingly urban, recogni-
tion grew that human alteration of natural systems was not lim-
ited to small areas, was not easily reversible, and was negatively
affecting the ability of ecosystems to provide basic services such
as arable land (Montgomery, 2007), and clean air and water
(Steingraber, 1998). People became more aware of global-scale
loss of species diversity (Clavel et al., 2011) and altered fluxes
of water, sediment, and nutrients within terrestrial environments
and to the oceans (Vörösmarty et al., 1997; Syvitski et al., 2005;
Scanlon et al., 2007). In some societies, attitudes toward natu-
ral environments gradually shifted from a perception of limitless
supplies of natural resources and natural systems that threatened
and could destroy human societies, to an increasing perception
of a fragile Earth endangered by humans not understanding,
or choosing not to base their activities on, the consequences of
their actions at large scale. This change in perceptions has a firm
foundation: Human activities now appropriate nearly one-third
to one-half of global ecosystem production (Foley et al., 2005),
and some suggest humans are now the dominant agent of surface
change (Hooke, 1994; Meybeck, 2003).
Because these patterns of resource use disproportionately
favor high-income sectors of societies and high-income coun-
tries, ideas of environmental justice and environmental equity
have become increasingly accepted (Cole and Foster, 2001;
Schlosberg, 2007), creating an opportunity for geomorphologists
to quantify patterns of landscape alteration in relation to socio-
economic history and contemporary status. Concepts of environ-
mental justice and equity are the environmental manifestation of
the general trend in some parts (but not all) of the world toward
increasing inclusiveness and equality among different portions of
humanity during the twentieth and twenty-first centuries.
Scientists have also become increasingly diverse with
respect to gender, race, and geographic origin since 1960, a trend
that also applies to geomorphology. Between 1965 and 1985, for
example, the percentage of physical science doctorates awarded
to women in the United States increased from ~4% to nearly 15%
(Widnall, 1988), and as of 2012, 37% of science, technology,
engineering, and mathematics (STEM) doctorates in the United
States were awarded to women (U.S. Department of Education,
2012). Female participation in the annual Binghamton Geomor-
phology Symposium has increased from 7% during 1970–1980
to almost 24% during 2003–2013 (Sawyer et al., 2014). The geo-
graphic origin of papers submitted to the journal Geomorphology
has also become more diverse through time (Fig. 2).
The broadening of participation in scientific research has
occurred simultaneously with a substantial increase in the num-
ber of professional scientists. The U.S. Census Bureau reports
that in 2013 1.7% of the population held a Ph.D. Membership in
the Geological Society of America, for example, increased from
~5500 in 1960 to ~27,000 in 2010, an almost fivefold increase.
The growing number of professional scientists in high-
income countries has been paralleled by proliferation of profes-
sional meetings, journals, and edited or authored technical books.
Geomorphologists in the United States typically belong to the
American Geophysical Union (AGU), the Association of Ameri-
can Geographers (AAG), and/or the Geological Society of Amer-
ica (GSA). All three societies existed in 1960, but their member-
ship has increased much faster than the overall U.S. population
since 1960. Only GSA had a geomorphology specialty group in
1960, whereas all three societies now have such groups. In addi-
tion to the annual meetings of these societies, the Binghamton
Geomorphology Symposium has been held annually since 1970.
The International Association of Geomorphologists was estab-
lished in 1989, and the European Geosciences Union, including
a geomorphology division, was established in 2002. In 1960, 14
earth sciences journals typically included papers on some aspect
of geomorphology, including two journals focused on geomor-
phology (Geografiska Annaler, Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie).
By 2010, the number of journals in which geomorphologists reg-
ularly published was closer to 30, with an additional five journals
focused on geomorphology (Progress in Physical Geography,
Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, Geomorphology, Phys-
ical Geography, Journal of Geophysical Research Earth Surface;
Wohl, 2014b).
 Downloaded from specialpapers.gsapubs.org on April 27, 2016

Earth’s dynamic surface: A perspective on the past 50 years in geomorphology 5

Technological advances in publishing facilitated dissemina- ger necessary to physically attend a conference to access abstracts
tion of the larger numbers of publications resulting from greater or, in some cases, posters or entire oral presentations. This trend
numbers of professional scientists. Looking back to 1960, it is of virtual meeting attendance will presumably grow in the future.
now difficult to imagine the circumstances under which scientific
papers were physically prepared for submission and published. Changes in Geomorphology
From handwritten or manually typed papers with line drawings
and paper photographs mailed to a journal and paper copies of The tendency in fluvial geomorphology starting ca. 1960 to
journals mailed once a month or less frequently, we have now emphasize increasing use of chemical and physical theories and
transitioned to entirely electronic movement of manuscripts and measurements of process, as noted already, mirrored a tendency
papers, with nearly instantaneous appearance of manuscripts to put the earth sciences on a more quantitative basis that empha-
online once they are accepted by a journal. Similarly, it is no lon- sized theory building, experimentation, and prediction, analo-
gous to laboratory sciences such as physics and chemistry. Ernest
Rutherford’s famous utterance, “All science is either physics or
A stamp collecting,” reflected Rutherford’s ignorance of natural
science, but it also posed a challenge to field-based scientists who
0.36
sought to increase the quantitative emphasis in disciplines such
Proportion of papers submitted from U.S.

0.34 as geology, geomorphology, and ecology. In these disciplines,

0.32 an approach based solely on physics is of limited use because
0.30
(1) processes act over such long spatial and temporal scales that
direct manipulation and repetition of experiments is typically not
0.28
feasible, and even direct measurements can be extremely difficult;
0.26 (2) complex natural systems have more dependent than indepen-
0.24 dent variables, creating nonlinear interaction and equifinality; and
0.22
(3) the historical sequence of events through time leaves a legacy
in natural systems that creates contingency, or the inability to pre-
0.20
cisely predict outcomes. Despite these challenges, geomorpholo-
0.18 gists put greater emphasis after 1960 on nondimensional metrics
0.16 that facilitated comparison between sites, on quantitative concep-
1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014
tual models, on quantification and rigorous dating of geomorphic
Year history, and on exploration of how to quantify physical processes
responsible for producing and redistributing sediment across
Earth’s surface. Studies of drainage network structure and evolu-
B tion (Howard, 1971, 1990; Rodriguez-Iturbe and Rinaldo, 1997)
70
provide an example of nondimensional, quantitative approaches
to landforms that arose from this shift in emphasis. Quantitative
conceptual models now exist for numerous types of geomorphic
60
environments and processes (Baas, 2013). Quantification and rig-
orous dating of geomorphic history is exemplified by work on
Number of countries

50
Pleistocene glaciers (e.g., Plummer and Phillips, 2003; Joy et al.,
2014) and the outburst floods from these glaciers (e.g., Baker,
40
1973; O’Connor, 1993). Quantification of physical processes
that create and redistribute sediment is exemplified by studies of
30
weathering (e.g., Anderson, 2007; Yoo et al., 2007; Roering et al.,
2010; Anderson et al., 2013), glacial erosion (e.g., Pratt-Sitaula
20
et al., 2011; Headley et al., 2012), eolian transport and erosion
(e.g., Anderson and Hallet, 1986; Pelletier, 2009), water and sedi-
10 ment fluxes on hillslopes (e.g., Kirkby, 1971, 2014; Dunne, 1979;
1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014
Dunne and Dietrich, 1980; Dunne et al., 1991; Gabet and Dunne,
Year
2002), bedrock channel erosion (e.g., Howard, 1980; Sklar and
Figure 2. Increasing diversity of papers submitted to the journal Dietrich, 2006; Chatanantavet and Parker, 2009), sediment bud-
Geomorphology during the period 1996–2013. (A) The proportion gets (e.g., Dietrich and Dunne, 1978; Hobo et al., 2014), fluvial
of papers submitted to the journal with first authors in the United
bed load, bed form and planform dynamics (Grant et al., 1990;
States. (B) The total number of countries represented by the first
author of submitted papers. Data for these analyses were provided Grant, 1997; Parker and Toro-Escobar, 2002; Wilcock and Ken-
by Daniel Lovegrove. worthy, 2002; Tal and Paola, 2010; Legleiter et al., 2011; Church
 Downloaded from specialpapers.gsapubs.org on April 27, 2016
6 Wohl et al.
and Ferguson, 2015), fluvial and deltaic sediment transport and
sedimentology (e.g., Meade et al., 1985; Mertes et al., 1996;
Benda and Dunne, 1997; Sun et al., 2002; Paola et al., 2010; Pas-
salacqua et al., 2013), and subocean sedimentary processes (e.g.,
Swenson et al., 2005; Violet et al., 2005). Work in these areas sup-
ported the development, after ca. 1990, of numerical simulations
of landscape evolution over time spans ≥103 yr (e.g., Anderson,
1994; Phillips, 1995; Howard, 1997; Hancock et al., 2000; Will-
goose, 2005; Pelletier et al., 2010).
Advances in remote-sensing technology since 1960 have
dramatically expanded the types of questions that geomorpholo-
gists can ask and the methods that they can use to answer these
questions (e.g., Passalacqua et al., 2015). Remotely sensed imag-
ery accessible to geomorphologists in 1960 consisted principally
of aerial photographs, although bathymetric imagery of the sea-
floor and geophysical imagery of Earth’s interior were gradually
increasing in availability. Acquisition of Landsat satellite imag-
ery starting in 1972, followed by shuttle imaging radar (1982),
airborne light detection and ranging (LiDAR), digital elevation
models (DEMs), and survey-grade global positioning system
(GPS) units during the 1990s, terrestrial and water-penetrating
LiDAR during the first decade of the twenty-first century, and
more recent access to inexpensive, personal drones with cameras
(Fig. 3A), all greatly expanded the ability to acquire spatially
detailed information over large areas. The ability to immediately
examine any environment on Earth on an office computer or lap-
top using Google Earth is an extremely convenient tool for many
aspects of geomorphic research and teaching. Geophysical tech-
niques for increasingly detailed remote sensing of near-surface
rock and sediment have also come into increasing use by geo-
morphologists since 1960 (Schrott and Sass, 2008).
Similarly, rapid advances in geochronologic and isotopic
methods have revolutionized the more historical side of geomor-
phology while providing information critical for a process-based
understanding of surface processes. In 1960, radiocarbon dating
was just starting to change the way geomorphologists considered
the age of landforms, and most glacial geologists still thought
that there were only four major glaciations (Flint, 1971). The
development of stable isotopic records of benthic foraminifera
changed that view dramatically, showing clearly that Earth’s cli-
mate has swung between glacial and interglacial states dozens
of times over the past few million years. Routine measurement
of cosmogenic nuclides allowed direct dating of glacial deposits
(Phillips et al., 1990) and the mapping of erosion rates around the
world (Portenga and Bierman, 2011) over time scales relevant to
surface process studies. Thermochronologic techniques, includ-
ing (U-Th)/He and fission-track dating, quantified the linkage
between rates of deep Earth processes and the response of topog-
raphy to such changes through the catalyst of erosion and unroof-
ing (Reiners and Brandon, 2006).
The ability to quickly scan large portions of the planet makes
it difficult to intellectually partition the world into isolated geo-
graphic units or to ignore the evidence that mitigating such high-
profile environmental problems as contaminant dispersal, habi-
tat fragmentation, and loss of biodiversity, or climate warming
requires an approach transcending traditional disciplinary and
political boundaries. Since ca. 1980, the scientific community
has emphasized integrative research, as reflected in funding ini-
tiatives, student interest, and the desires of individual scientists
to conduct societally relevant research. Multiple new hybrid
terms—zoogeomorphology, ecohydrology, biogeomorphology,
biogeochemistry—have been coined to reflect the attempts to
bridge traditional disciplinary boundaries within research and
environmental management. Concepts such as earth system sci-
ence (1990s), the critical zone (NRC, 2001), and diverse forms
of connectivity (Jain and Tandon, 2010; Wainwright et al., 2011;
Fryirs, 2013) reflect this emphasis on crossing the boundar-
ies that earlier scholars erected to stake out intellectual turf and
define their topics of study.
To summarize the trends in society and science between
1960 and 2010 that influenced the development of geomorphol-
ogy, we can say that the world grew more crowded with people
and more altered by human activities, and that people became
more aware of rapidly accelerating environmental trends that
contained the possibility for the crossing of tipping points where
Earth systems changed from one state to another (Lenton et al.,
2008). These changes were reflected within geomorphology in
an increased recognition that surface processes reflect not only
physics and geological materials and processes, but also humans,
other biota, and climate. This recognition was expressed through
increased collaboration across disciplinary boundaries and
increased involvement by geomorphologists in environmental
management.
DEVELOPMENTS IN THE TOOL KIT OF
GEOMORPHOLOGY SINCE 1960
In this section, we briefly review some of the major techno-
logical developments that have facilitated geomorphic research
since 1960. These developments fall into six basic categories:
remote sensing, spatial data manipulation, geochronology,
tracers, high-resolution measurement platforms, and numeri-
cal models.
The broadest change in the geomorphological tool kit over
the past 50 years lies in the conceptual reframing of landscape
evolution in the context of plate tectonics. Similar to how the
concept of evolution reshaped biology, the elaboration of plate
tectonics in the late 1950s and 1960s reshaped the intellectual
realm of Davisian cycles and laid the geophysical foundation for
understanding how landscapes evolve. In light of plate tectonics,
the global distribution of large-scale features on Earth’s surface
could now be studied—and understood—in a process framework
that linked geology, geophysics, and geomorphology in ways that
allowed the evolution of particular landscapes to be investigated
(Short and Blair, 1986). The tectonic bridge between geology
and geomorphology offered a spatial context and temporal scales
over which to address landscape evolution that replaced Davi-
sian concepts of cycles of landscape youth, maturity, and old age
 Downloaded from specialpapers.gsapubs.org on April 27, 2016

Earth’s dynamic surface: A perspective on the past 50 years in geomorphology 7

Figure 3. Illustrations of diverse developments in the tool kit of geomorphology since 1960. (A) Personal drones make it relatively quick and
easy to photograph terrain from different elevations above the ground surface and use the photographs to create digital elevation models using
structure from motion. (B) Sample preparation laboratory for cosmogenic radionuclide samples at the University of Vermont and an example of
the resulting interpretation of erosion rates, here Figure 2 from Portenga and Bierman (2011). (C) Example of an automated sampling platform:
here, a suspended sediment sampler that can be programmed to collect samples based on time intervals or triggers such as changes in height of
the water surface.
 Downloaded from specialpapers.gsapubs.org on April 27, 2016

8 Wohl et al.

to an expanded understanding with different emphasis on initial
and boundary conditions of landscape development. At the same
time, technological advances in instrumentation and data loggers
revolutionized field data collection, making it possible to address
the physics of erosion and sediment transport, and how such pro-
cesses are distributed through time. Automated pressure trans-
ducers, data loggers, and fully instrumented tracers (e.g., smart
rocks) enabled time-series analyses of phenomena that formerly
could only be addressed with limited field measurements or time-
averaged approximations (e.g., Greswell et al., 2009; Chapuis et
al., 2014; Ford, 2014). Such technological advances changed the
way that geomorphologists approach data collection and thereby
the nature of questions that could be addressed.
Remote Sensing and Manipulation of Spatial Data
The space-based remote-sensing imagery of the 1960s con-
sisted of black-and-white photographs of varying resolution.
In the United States, aerial photographs typically began to be
acquired during the late 1920s or early 1930s, and most sections
of the country were rephotographed at approximately decadal
intervals. As reviewed in much greater detail by Gilvear and
Bryant (2003), the numbers of sensors, platforms, and types of
imagery have expanded enormously since the early 1970s and
continue to increase at a rapid rate. As other historical reviews
have noted, investigators are able to think about Earth’s surface
in new ways when they are able to access new landscapes or new
perspectives: The scientific expeditions to the western United
States during the second half of the nineteenth century and the
mapping of seafloor topography provide two well-known exam-
ples (Kious and Tilling, 1996; Sack, 2013). Consequently, the
expansion from black-and-white photographs to, for example,
imagery based on emitted or reflected electromagnetic radia-
tion reveals information that cannot otherwise be detected by
the human eye. The new imagery literally provides new ways of
seeing terrain. Similarly, the ability to image features below the
water surface or underground has been critical to mapping and
interpreting geomorphic features and history. At the same time,
remotely sensed imagery has greatly expanded the study of other
planetary surfaces such as Mars (Baker, 1982), Mercury (Head et
al., 2011), and Titan (Burr et al., 2013). Table 1 lists some of the
basic categories of remotely sensed imagery that have become
available since 1960. Some of these images create two-dimen-
sional (2-D) data that can be used to estimate three-dimensional
(3-D) structures using the technique of structure from motion,
in which spatially sequential 2-D image sequences are coupled
using reference points that are tracked from one image to the next
to develop 3-D imagery (Fonstad et al., 2013).
The ability to determine accurately ground location in real
time has been greatly enhanced by GPS equipment. Survey-grade
GPS units became commercially available during the 1990s, and
the spatial resolution has improved to the point that someone
using a real-time kinematic system can now calculate position
relative to a base station within millimeters (Dail et al., 2000).
This has allowed for detailed geomorphic studies of surfaces
at unprecedented resolution, providing information about both
process and history, such as the evolution of arid-region drain-
age networks after disturbance by wheeled and tracked military
vehicles (Nichols and Bierman, 2001).
As techniques for acquiring information have expanded,
new methods have also been developed to display and manipulate
data. Digital elevation models (DEMs) or digital terrain models

TABLE 1. BASIC CATEGORIES OF REMOTE SENSING THAT HAVE BECOME AVAILABLE

OR MORE WIDELY USED IN GEOMORPHOLOGY SINCE 1960
Technique Char acteristics Sample refere nces
Aboveground platforms
Airborne phot ogr aph y Much greater spatial resolution with time (now Pirot et al. (2014); Strozzi et al. (2010)
<0.5 m)
Airborne imaging spectrometer (e.g., CASI, S p a t i a l ra n g e 0 . 5 – 2 0 m G h r e f at e t a l . ( 2 0 0 7)
AVIRIS)
Airborne multispectral scanner (e.g., Spatial range 0.5 –20 m De M iguel and Gomez-Sanchez ( 1994)
Daedalus 1268 ATM)
Spaceborne multispectral scanner (e.g., Spat ial r ange 10 –80 m S e k o e t a l . ( 1 9 9 8 ) ; P h a n e t a l . ( 20 1 2 )
SPOT, Landsat TM)
Airborne LiDAR Spatial resolution << 1 m R o e r i n g e t a l . ( 20 1 3 )

On-ground platforms
Terrestrial & water-penetrating LiDAR Typically submeter spatial resolution Allouis et al. (2010); Hobbs et al. (2010)
Ground-penetrating radar Detects discontinuities at depths <50 m that result Neal (2004); Kramer et al. (2012)
from changes in grain size, bedding, and
moisture content
Electrical resistivit y Detects discontinuities at depths up to hundreds Stan and Stan-Kleczek (2014)
of meters, depending on spacing of electrodes
Seismic reflection & refraction Handheld sledge can be used to produce seismic Travelletti et al. (2010)
wave suitable for depths up to ~30 m
Fathomete r Penetrates water; varying spatial resolution Wilson and Allison (2008)
Note: Main source: Gilvear and Bryant (2003). ATM—Airborne Thematic Mapper; AVIRIS—Airborne Visible/Infrared Imaging Spectrometer;
CASI—Compact Airborne Spectrographic Imager; LiDAR—light detection and ranging; SPOT—Satellite Pour l’Observation de la Terre; TM—
Thematic Mapper.
 Downloaded from specialpapers.gsapubs.org on April 27, 2016
Earth’s dynamic surface: A perspective on the past 50 years in geomorphology
(DTMs), like the topographic maps that preceded them, strip
away vegetation and human structures to present the underlying
topography at varying levels of spatial resolution. By incorporat-
ing topographic data in digital format, DEMs facilitate uses such
as extracting terrain-describing metrics. Attributes such as drain-
age area and slope that in 1960 had to be laboriously gathered by
hand for individual locations of interest can now be calculated—
and displayed—for whole drainage basins with a few keystrokes.
The development of geographic information system (GIS) soft-
ware starting in the 1980s has also greatly expanded the ability
to manipulate different types of spatial data, particularly now that
DEMs and GIS can be readily used on typical personal comput-
ers and are available free of charge for most of the world.
The diverse forms of remote imagery and spatial data manip-
ulation have enhanced the ability of geomorphologists to map
features, including gradients such as sediment concentrations in
rivers, and to quantify rates and magnitudes of change through
time. Although mapping sounds mundane, it includes delineating
features invisible to the human eye (e.g., Schaber et al., 1990) and
features so large or ephemeral in extent that they cannot be read-
ily analyzed from the ground, such as very large floods (Hallberg
et al., 1973).
Geochronology
Advances in geochronology, specifically the measurement
of diverse sets of isotopes, revolutionized geomorphology in the
decades after 1960. Luminescence dating, which determines the
most recent exposure to sunlight of quartz and feldspar mineral
grains, has improved substantially since the 1980s and is now
applied to diverse fluvial, hillslope, and eolian sediments that
range in age from 1 yr to more than 200,000 yr (Lian, 2007; Rit-
tenour, 2008; Fuchs and Lang, 2009; Rhodes, 2011). Cosmo-
genic nuclides, both those produced in the atmosphere and in situ,
provide dates for landforms and rates for geomorphic processes
including erosion, incision, and faulting (Fig. 3B). Thermochro-
nometers, such as (U-Th)/He dating, record unroofing rates over
millions to tens of millions of years and allow geomorphologists
to understand better the development of topography and the link-
ages between surface and deep Earth processes.
Cosmogenic nuclides produced in the atmosphere, such
as 10Be and 14C, are today widely used by geomorphologists.
Although radiocarbon dating was developed before 1960 (Arnold
and Libby, 1949), use of this isotope for dating expanded rap-
idly as more laboratories came on line in the 1960s and 1970s.
Radiocarbon was used for dating organic material in river ter-
races, glacial moraines, and both marine and freshwater sediment
cores, providing a numerical time scale for historical geomor-
phology that allowed linkage between climate events and land-
scape response starting with such seminal papers as that of Suess
(1956), which established a numerical date for the last glaciation,
and expanding rapidly after that. With the advent of accelerator
mass spectrometry (AMS) in the 1970s (Bennett et al., 1977),
sample size was reduced by an order of magnitude or more, and
9
sample turnaround time was greatly reduced. Now samples as
small as a few tens of micrograms of carbon could be dated,
allowing new applications such as dating paleoearthquakes
(Tucker et al., 1983). Today, AMS dating of organic material is
routine, available to every geomorphologist, and conducted by
commercial laboratories with rapid turnaround.
Meteoric 10Be, which is produced in the atmosphere, has
been measured since the late 1970s (Turekian et al., 1979).
Because concentrations are typically high in earth materials (on
the order of 107 to 109 atoms/g), measurements are easy to make.
In many geomorphic environments, meteoric 10Be adheres tightly
to soil grains (Graly et al., 2010), a prerequisite for using it as a
dating tool (Pavich et al., 1986), an erosion rate monitor (Pav-
ich et al., 1985), and a tracer of surface processes and their rates
(McKean et al., 1993; Jungers et al., 2009; West et al., 2013).
Recent geomorphic applications of meteoric 10Be include the
identification of ancient soil under the Greenland ice sheet (Bier-
man et al., 2014), identifying aspect-dependent variations in soil
movement rates (West et al., 2014), and modeling erosion rates
(Willenbring and von Blanckenburg, 2010).
The measurement of in situ–produced cosmogenic nuclides,
including 3He, 10Be, 14C, 21Ne, 26Al, and 36Cl, has provided age
control for many geomorphic features over much of the world.
First envisioned as a geomorphic tool in the 1950s (Schaeffer
and Davis, 1955), application to surface processes had to wait
until the development and application of AMS in the 1980s
(Elmore and Phillips, 1987). Since then, measurement of these
nuclides has changed the face of geomorphology. For glacial
and fluvial geologists, cosmogenic nuclides provide dates on
terraces (Repka et al., 1997) and moraines (Balco, 2011). For
tectonic geomorphologists, these isotopes allow the calculation
of incision rates (Granger et al., 2001) and the direct dating of
fault scarps (Mitchell et al., 2001). For those interested in land-
scape evolution, measurement of cosmogenic nuclides in river
sediment and in outcrop samples (Portenga and Bierman, 2011)
provides constraint on erosion rates over thousands to millions
of years, depending on the rate of erosion, and can be used to
fingerprint the source of sediment moving through river systems
(Nelson et al., 2014; Clapp et al., 2002).
Thermochronometry, the measurement of mineral ages
using various isotopic, chemical, and physical systems that
begin to accumulate daughter products at different tempera-
tures, has become a powerful tool for understanding long-term
(millions of years) changes in large-scale topography. Fission-
track ages, in combination with assumptions about paleogeo-
thermal gradients, are used to estimate long-term unroofing
rates, with the assumption commonly made that such unroofing
is driven by erosion rather than tectonics (Brown et al., 2002).
More recently, lower-temperature thermochronometers such
as (U-Th)/He have been employed to understand more recent
erosion events, because these chronometers record cooling his-
tories closer to Earth’s surface (Reiners, 2002). Such chrono-
meters have even been used to link erosion to regional climate
patterns (Reiners et al., 2003).
 Downloaded from specialpapers.gsapubs.org on April 27, 2016
10 Wohl et al.
Tracers
Tracers are distinctive materials that can be used to estimate
fluxes of water, ice, or sediment through time and space. Active
tracers are deliberately introduced to an environment, such as
painted clasts placed on the bed of a river or radioactive isotopes
injected into the shallow subsurface of a hillslope as markers
for downslope pathways of water. Active tracers used in fluvial
geomorphology include painted clasts, fluorescent, radioactive,
or ferric coatings, metal collars, and inserted magnets or radio
transmitters (Hassan and Ergenzinger, 2003). Although the use
of painted clasts in rivers dates to the 1930s, tracer techniques
became more diverse and widely applied starting in the 1960s.
Actively introduced tracers also include solutes or dyes used to
examine subsurface water movement in hillslopes (McGlynn et
al., 2002) or aquifers, fluxes within karst systems (Arbel et al.,
2010), or fluxes within channels and hyporheic zones (Liao et
al., 2013).
Passive tracers are materials already present in the environ-
ment that were either introduced at a specific time (e.g., fallout
radionuclides from testing of nuclear weapons; Walling, 2010),
originate from a specific portion of the landscape (e.g., diagnos-
tic physical and chemical properties of sediments from a limited
area within a drainage basin; Peart and Walling, 1986), or experi-
ence isotopic fractionation that records their history of travel and
crystallization (e.g., O isotopes that change as air masses travel or
as glacial ice melts; Zhou et al., 2014).
Fallout radionuclides such as 137Cs, 210Pb, meteoric 10Be, and
7
Be originate from nuclear weapons or from natural processes.
These materials have been used to trace the mobilization, trans-
port, and storage of sediment across the landscape. Use of these
radionuclides is based on known patterns of fallout, radioactive
half-life, and depth distribution in relation to sediment texture
and water content (Walling, 2013). Use of fallout radionuclides
has been particularly valuable in documenting short-term sedi-
ment erosion and redistribution rates (e.g., Reusser and Bierman,
2010; Gartner et al., 2012).
Sediment fingerprinting refers to using distinctive charac-
teristics (typically mineralogy) of sediment grains to infer the
source and relative contribution of different portions of a land-
scape to sediment in transport and in deposits (Collins et al.,
1997). This approach has helped to reveal that the majority of
sediment originates from limited portions of many landscapes. In
the River Severn drainage of the UK, for example, two of the five
subbasins contribute more than 90% of the suspended sediment
(Collins et al., 1997).
Ratios of stable isotopes (δ18O, δD) in surface waters pro-
vide useful tracers because they reflect climatic and hydrologic
processes such as isotopic composition of precipitation (which
reflects air temperature, altitude, and water vapor source), freeze
and melt processes on the ground, and surface-subsurface flow
paths (e.g., Birkel et al., 2011). The isotopic composition of
water has been particularly useful in studies of hillslopes, river
corridors, and snow and glacial processes.
High-Resolution Measurement Platforms
We use the phrase high-resolution measurement platforms to
include diverse technologies that can record observations at high
frequencies and, in some cases, high spatial resolution, such as
digital photogrammetry of stationary sediment on a streambed or
bar (Table 2; Kondolf et al., 2003). Many of the high-resolution
platforms used in geomorphology were developed for measur-
ing flow velocity (Whiting, 2003) or suspended and bed-material
sediment load (Hicks and Gomez, 2003; Gray and Gartner, 2009)
in rivers. These technologies have increasingly focused on indi-
rectly measuring water and sediment fluxes based on some asso-
ciated property that does not require disrupting the flux in order
to measure it. The ability to collect high-frequency temporal data
has facilitated quantification of temporal variation such as turbu-
lence in rivers and pulses of sediment movement (Fig. 3C).
Other platforms focus on topographic data, such as the
ground-based LiDAR platforms and real-time GPS units included
in the previous section on “Remote sensing and manipulation of
spatial data.” These technologies facilitate acquisition of high-
resolution spatial data that can reveal erosional and depositional
forms otherwise difficult to detect. Ability to detect relatively
short-term, fine-scale topographic changes has also increased as
these high-resolution spatial data have become easier to acquire.
For example, this enhances the ability to detect patterns and mag-
nitudes of hillslope erosion following wildfire (Rengers et al.,
2012), glacial processes such as melting and ablation and progla-
cial sediment budgets (Heckmann et al., 2012), increasing size of
river bars (Alho et al., 2009), or changes in beach morphology
(Shim et al., 2010).
Numerical Models
The advent of readily available computational power trans-
formed the role of theory in geomorphology and opened the
door to widespread use of numerical models—from simple
spreadsheet-based approaches to dynamic multiparameter simu-
lations using adaptive analysis grids. We use the phrase “numer-
ical models” to describe quantitative geomorphic hypotheses
expressed as equations, a series of rules, or a computational
algorithm, all of which are typically implemented as a com-
puter program (Pizzuto, 2003). Development of such models
has been greatly facilitated by increases in speed and compu-
tational power of computers. Combined with decreases in the
physical size and cost of computers, these trends have made it
feasible for individual scientists to own computers capable of
running geomorphic numerical models at time frames amenable
to research. Advances in statistical software, and the ability to
perform diverse statistical tests on personal computers, have also
contributed to the ability to develop stochastic numerical models
(Clément and Piégay, 2003).
Numerical models are now used to examine diverse geomor-
phic environments and processes (Table 3). Numerical models
provide a mechanism to rigorously test geomorphic understanding
 Downloaded from specialpapers.gsapubs.org on April 27, 2016

Earth’s dynamic surface: A perspective on the past 50 years in geomorphology 11

TABLE 2. EXAMPLES OF HIGH-RESOLUTION MEASUREMENT PLATFORMS

USED IN GEOMORPHOLOGY SINCE 1960
Measurement pl atform Sa m p l e re f er e nc e s

Measuring flow velocity in rivers and experimental flumes

One-, two-, and three-dimensional electromagnetic current meters MacVicar et al. (2007)
Acoustic Doppler velocimeter and current profiler Wilcox et al. (201 1)
Laser Dopp ler velocime te r N el son e t al . (19 9 5)
Hot-wire anemometer Grant et al. (1968)

Measuring suspended sediment in rivers

Optical sensors (transmissivity or backscattering) Ochiai and Kashiwaya (2010)
A c o u s t i c s e n s o rs Ga rt n er ( 2 00 4 )
Laser diffraction Wren et al. (2000); Voichick
and Topping (2014)

Measuring bed sediment characteristics

Photogrammet r y G ar d ne r a n d A sh m o re ( 2 0 11 )

Measuring bed-material load in rivers

Piezoelectric impact sensors Rickenmann and Fritschi (2010)
Geopho nes Sch ne ide r et al . ( 20 14)

Measuring nearshore velocity and sediment concentration

Acoustic concentration and velocity profiler Hurther et al. (2011)

Measuring glacial ice velocity

Global positioning system Sunil et al. (2009 )

Measuring near-ground wind speed (desert and coastal environments)

Ultrasonic anemometer Sha bani et al. (2 014)

because they start from a conceptual model of (1) what variables
and processes are geomorphically relevant and (2) how those
variables and processes operate through time and space, and then
(3) create numerical descriptions of process or form that can be
tested against actual processes and forms observed directly or via
remote-sensing techniques.
NEW APPROACHES
In this section, we introduce five of the major new con-
ceptual frameworks that influence contemporary geomorphic
research and applications. Nearly all of these can be traced back
to intellectual roots in 1960 or earlier, but the manner in which
research questions are framed or the emphasis placed on indi-
vidual areas has changed substantially since 1960.
Interactions among Climate, Tectonics, and Topography
The conceptual framework for understanding landscape
evolution has shifted dramatically over the past 50 years, from
separate consideration of climatic geomorphology and a pulse-
response conceptualization of mountain building and decay, to
consideration of coupled feedbacks between climate-mediated
erosional and depositional processes, isostatic response, and tec-
tonically driven rock uplift. Several developments have allowed
greater exploration of the linkages among erosional and sedimen-
tary processes, climate, and tectonic forcing in shaping topog-
raphy and the development of geological structures, particularly
the development of thermochronometric and cosmogenic meth-
ods for measuring erosion rates over geological time scales, and
development of numerical models of landscape evolution.
Integrated studies along these lines have revealed a wide
range of intriguing connections in different settings. Sustained
zones of high erosion can create channels of low-viscosity flow
in crustal rocks locally along mountain ranges (Beaumont et al.,
2001, 2004; Hodges et al., 2001; Zeitler et al., 2001; Koons et
al., 2002). Both thermochronometric (Reiners et al., 2003) and
modeling studies (Koons, 1990; Willett et al., 1993; Willett,
1999) have shown how variations in rainfall patterns within and
across mountain ranges result in differential rock uplift and geo-
logical deformation patterns across active orogens. While most
such studies have concentrated on the development of steady-
state topography, the development of coupled models of erosion,
tectonic deformation, and rock uplift is allowing exploration of
transient responses over geological time scales. In some regions,
variations in rainfall are argued to control rock uplift rates (e.g.,
Reiners et al., 2003), whereas in others, rainfall rates are argued
to be a secondary influence on spatial gradients in rock uplift rate
(Gasparini and Whipple, 2014). Continental-scale variations in
rainfall have been argued to influence the physiography of moun-
tain ranges, like the Andes and the Tibetan Plateau (Montgomery
et al., 2001).
In some regions, landscape-scale erosion rates track hill-
slope steepness (Ahnert, 1970), whereas in others, erosion rates
 Downloaded from specialpapers.gsapubs.org on April 27, 2016
12 Wohl et al.
TABLE 3. EXAMPLES OF CATEGORIES OF GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES AND
ENVIRONMENTS EXAMINED USING NUMERICAL MODELS
Model
Hydrologic models (route water across a landscape, from
precipitation inputs to groundwater or stream flow outputs)
Distributed hillslope models (route water through surface and
subsurface, nonchannelized uplands; route sediment
downslope)
One-, two-, and three-dimensional hydraulic models (simulate
hydraulic variables within channelized flow)
Drainage net wor k evolution
Channel cross-sectional and reach-scale geometry
Stre am bank er o s ion
River sediment transport
Bedrock channel incision
Transport of wood in rivers
Channel planform dynamics
Floodplain dynamics
Landscape evolution
Deformation of glacial ice
Glacial ice sliding
Eolian erosion
Beach dynamics
Karst hydrogeology
track river profile steepness (Fig. 4; Wobus et al., 2003). Gla-
cial erosion has been linked to late Cenozoic deformation and
structural evolution of mountain belts, like the St. Elias Range
in Alaska (Berger et al., 2008). Under different circumstances,
glacial erosion has been argued to limit the height of mountain
ranges through the so-called “glacial buzzsaw” (Brozović et al.,
1997; Mitchell and Montgomery, 2006; Engholm et al., 2009)
and to shield mountainous topography from erosion where alpine
glaciers are frozen to their bed (Thomson et al., 2010) or their
erosive activity is confined to ice streams (Gjermundsen et al.,
2015). The reframing of thinking about landscape evolution
through spatial and temporal patterns of climate and tectonic
forcing has transformed broad-scale geomorphological thinking
over the past half century.
Integrative Geomorphology
Integrative geomorphology describes geomorphic research
that crosses traditional disciplinary boundaries in seeking to
understand Earth surface processes and the genesis of landforms.
The scientists who founded the discipline of geomorphology rec-
ognized the importance of climate and processes within Earth’s
interior in shaping landscapes (Gilbert, 1877; Davis, 1899), but
since 1960, geomorphologists have increasingly emphasized
interactions among physical, chemical, and biotic variables. This
change in emphasis is reflected in the fact that many geomor-
phologists now describe their work as focusing on the critical
zone, defined as the “heterogeneous, near-surface environment
Sample references
Li et al. (2008)
Downs and Priestnall (2003)
Nelson et al. (2003)
G i a ch e tt a et al . ( 2 0 14 )
Doyle and Shields (2000)
P o ll en-B a nkh ea d a nd Si mon (2 00 9 )
Benda and Dunne (1997); Cui et al. (2001);
Lancaster et al. (2003); Wilcock and
Kenworthy (2002)
Howard (1980); Finnegan et al. (2005);
Sklar and Dietrich (2006); Chatanantavet
and Parker (2009)
Eaton et al. (2012)
Motta et al. (201 4)
Benjankar and Yager (2012)
Willgoose et al. (1991); Howard (1994);
Coulthard et al. (2013); Gasparini and
Whipple (2014)
Koehn and Sachau (2014)
de Fleurian et al. (2014)
Dupont et al. (2014)
Jamal et al. (201 4)
Yager et al. (2013)
in which complex interactions involving rock, soil, water, air,
and living organisms regulate the natural habitat and determine
the availability of life-sustaining resources” (NRC, 2001, p. 2).
Critical zone geomorphology integrates across space, Earth
environments, and disciplines, just as landscape evolution mod-
eling integrates through time. The more closely geomorpholo-
gists examine surface processes, the more difficult it becomes
to ignore or disentangle abiotic and biotic processes and fluxes
among the atmosphere, land surface, and subsurface in many
environments (Amundson et al., 2007; Anderson et al., 2007).
Explicit focus on physical-biotic interactions, as reflected
in the terms bio- or zoogeomorphology and ecohydrology,
provides one example of integrative geomorphology. Geomor-
phologists historically tended to view biotic communities as pas-
sively responding to habitat created by physical processes (e.g.,
Wentworth, 1943). Since 1960, investigators have increasingly
emphasized more complex interactions in which organisms can
both respond to and influence physical processes and forms
(Rodriguez-Iturbe, 2000; Corenblit et al., 2007, 2011; Gurnell et
al., 2012; Merritt, 2013; Polvi and Wohl, 2013).
Ecohydrologic research related to geomorphology began on
uplands, with a focus on the hydrologic mechanisms underly-
ing interactions among climate, soil, and vegetation (Rodriguez-
Iturbe, 2000). Use of the term was expanded to examine physical
and biotic interactions across a range of geomorphic features,
including rivers (de Carvalho et al., 2002), lakes, coral reefs, wet-
lands (Larsen and Harvey, 2010), and meadows. Whatever the
geomorphic feature of interest, the consistent emphasis within
 Downloaded from specialpapers.gsapubs.org on April 27, 2016
Earth’s dynamic surface: A perspective on the past 50 years in geomorphology
ecohydrology is linkages among hydrological, biogeochemical,
and ecological processes (Newman et al., 2006). For the most
part, these ecological processes have been plant-dominated,
prompting Westbrook et al. (2013) to write a piece titled, “Is eco-
hydrology missing much of the zoo?” which was published in the
journal Ecohydrology.
Within fluvial geomorphology, riparian vegetation (e.g., Gur-
nell et al., 2012; Merritt, 2013), instream wood (e.g., Abbe and
Montgomery, 1996, 2003; Collins et al., 2012; Wohl and Beck-
man, 2014), and, to a lesser extent, beavers (e.g., Persico and
Meyer, 2009; Burchsted et al., 2010; Polvi and Wohl, 2013) have
received the most attention as biotic modifiers of river corridor
process and form, although investigators have recognized that
fish (Hassan et al., 2008; Riebe et al., 2014) and invertebrates
(Statzner et al., 1996) can also affect physical characteristics of
rivers (Riggsbee et al., 2013). Aquatic and riparian vegetation
can strongly influence hydraulic roughness (Griffin et al., 2005),
erosional resistance (Pollen and Simon, 2005), and form (Gurnell
and Petts, 2006; Merritt, 2013) of stream beds, banks, islands, and
13
Figure 4. Illustration of relationships
between tectonics and topography. This
figure, from Wobus et al. (2006, their
figure 10), has slope-area plots and
trunk stream longitudinal profiles from
three river catchments in central Nepal.
In each plot, gray crosses show data
from representative low-uplift-zone
tributaries; black crosses show data
from representative high-uplift-zone
tributaries; and open circles show data
from trunk streams incising through a
mountain range. Dashed lines show
approximate regional upper and lower
bounds on steepness indices of 650 and
95 m, respectively. Gray shading on
slope-area and long profile data shows
extent of high-concavity zone in trunk
streams, representing a maximum esti-
mate of the width of rock uplift gradi-
ents. Open stars show position of abrupt
physiographic transition in central Ne-
pal, as identified from slope maps and
satellite photography.
bars. Recent research, for example, suggests that braided rivers
are the default channel planform in the absence of vegetation (Tal
and Paola, 2007). Only after the evolution of woody vegetation do
meandering and anastomosing river deposits appear in the rock
record (Montgomery et al., 2003; Davies and Gibling, 2011).
Similarly, wood within channels and floodplains increases
hydraulic roughness (Buffington and Montgomery, 1999; Manga
and Kirchner, 2000; Curran and Wohl, 2003; Manners et al.,
2007), flow separation, and associated diversity of flow depth
and velocity (Richmond and Fausch, 1995; Mutz, 2003). Wood
enhances storage of finer sediment and organic matter (Bilby and
Likens, 1980; Brooks et al., 2003; Andreoli et al., 2007; Beck-
man and Wohl, 2014) and alters bed forms (Montgomery et al.,
1995; MacFarlane and Wohl, 2003; Mao et al., 2008), as well as
the distribution of bedrock and alluvial river segments (Mont-
gomery et al., 1996). Wood alters channel cross-sectional geom-
etry (Nakamura and Swanson, 1993), increases overbank flows
and lateral channel mobility (Jeffries et al., 2003; O’Connor et
al., 2003; Brummer et al., 2006), and can result in the formation
 Downloaded from specialpapers.gsapubs.org on April 27, 2016
14 Wohl et al.
of anastomosing channel segments (Collins and Montgomery,
2002; Wohl, 2011) that enhance the physical and biotic diversity
of associated floodplains (Collins et al., 2012; Wohl, 2013a).
Beavers have received more attention from ecologists, who
refer to beavers as ecosystem engineers (Wright et al., 2002), but
geomorphologists have also documented the extensive alteration
that dam building and other beaver activities can create in river
corridors. As with instream wood, beaver dams create obstruc-
tions that slow downstream fluxes of water, sediment, organic
matter, and solutes (Butler and Malanson, 1995; Green and West-
brook, 2009; Polvi and Wohl, 2012; Levine and Meyer, 2014),
promote overbank flows and formation of anastomosing chan-
nels (John and Klein, 2004; Westbrook et al., 2006), and gener-
ally create more physically and biologically diverse segments of
river networks (Naiman et al., 1988; Gurnell, 1998; Burchsted et
al., 2010).
Diverse forms of biological soil crusts not only influence
soil biogeochemistry and moisture, but they also stabilize fine-
grained soils and reduce erosion by wind and unchannelized
running water (Belnap, 2003). Bioturbation associated with
plants and animals can also strongly influence downslope fluxes
of water, sediment, and solutes. Root growth of trees gradually
displaces sediment, toppling of trees abruptly displaces large
amounts of sediment and shallow, fractured bedrock, and infill-
ing of stump-rot pits influences downslope movements of materi-
als (Phillips and Marion, 2006; Gabet and Mudd, 2010; Roering
et al., 2010). Digging activities of animals from the size of griz-
zly bears down to small rodents can displace substantial amounts
of sediment and influence both downslope sediment fluxes and
slope morphology (Butler, 1995).
Studies examining diverse forms of connectivity provide
another example of integrative geomorphology. Connectivity is
the transfer of matter or energy between two different landscape
compartments (Jain and Tandon, 2010; Wainwright et al., 2011;
Fryirs, 2013), such as hillslopes and channels or dunes and pla-
yas. Connectivity can occur through physical contact between
two compartments, as when sediment from an adjacent hillslope
is deposited on an alluvial fan. Connectivity can also occur via
transfer of matter or energy between two physically disconnected
compartments, as when eolian dust eroded from a glacial outwash
plain is transported long distances and deposited in a river val-
ley. Disconnectivity refers to any process or structure that limits
physical contact or transfer between compartments (Wester et al.,
2014), such as an alluvial fan that creates sediment disconnectiv-
ity between a tributary and main-stem river by storing tributary
sediment for periods >103 yr (Harvey, 200). Among the forms
of connectivity described in the geomorphic literature within
the past two decades are hydrologic (Bracken et al., 2013), sedi-
ment (Harvey, 1997; Fryirs et al., 2007), geochemical (Michel
et al., 2000; Anderson et al., 2012), river (Ward, 1997; Jaeger
and Olden, 2012), and biological (Merritt and Wohl, 2002; Erős
et al., 2012). Landscape connectivity describes fluxes between
individual landforms (Brierley et al., 2006; Tetzlaff et al., 2007).
Structural connectivity describes the extent to which individual
landscape features are physically linked to one another, including
features <1 m in scale (With and Crist, 1995). Functional con-
nectivity describes process-specific interactions between mul-
tiple landscape units, such as runoff moving downslope between
patches of grass and patches of exposed soil (With et al., 1997;
Wainwright et al., 2011). By focusing on connectivity and quan-
tifying the characteristics of a landscape that promote or retard
connectivity (Fig. 5; Baartman et al., 2013; Cavalli et al., 2013;
Croke et al., 2013; Heckmann and Schwanghart, 2013), geomor-
phologists emphasize the fluxes that characterize Earth’s surface.
Finally, investigations focused on regional- to global-scale
fluxes and storage of key elements such as carbon and nitrogen
provide a third example of integrative geomorphology. Car-
bon and nitrogen dynamics are research foci because (1) some
forms of these elements act as greenhouse gases and contribute
to climate change, (2) diverse human activities have substan-
tially altered global fluxes and storage of carbon and nitrogen,
and (3) mitigation of the negative effects of human alteration
of carbon and nitrogen dynamics requires spatially detailed,
mechanistic understanding of how carbon and nitrogen move
through surface and near-surface environments. Organic carbon
provides an example.
Organic carbon from terrestrial environments includes
ancient carbon derived from bedrock and modern carbon from
soils and vegetation (Blair et al., 2004; Hilton et al., 2008, 2011;
Gomez et al., 2010). The rates at which this carbon is delivered
from uplands to freshwaters depend on factors such as hillslope
stability, mechanisms of mass wasting, rates of soil production,
and connectivity of uplands to lakes and river networks (Fig. 6;
Leithold et al., 2006; Wohl and Ogden, 2013). Although rivers
were once thought of as “neutral pipes” for carbon delivery to
the oceans (Cole et al., 2007), recent work emphasizes how river
process and form influence partitioning of terrestrially derived
carbon among the atmosphere (outgassing from freshwaters;
Cole et al., 2007), geosphere (burial in sedimentary reservoirs
such as floodplains and deltas; Hoffmann et al., 2009; Cierjacks
et al., 2010; Wohl et al., 2012; Zubrzycki et al., 2013), and oceans
(downstream transport to nearshore and deep-marine environ-
ments; Blair et al., 2004). Human activities alter regional and
global carbon dynamics by:
(1) changing land cover, slope and soil stability, and con-
nectivity of sediment fluxes from uplands to fresh-
waters and from freshwaters to coastal environments
(Stallard, 1998);
(2) reducing physical complexity of channels and flood-
plains and lateral connectivity between channels and
floodplains, and thereby reducing transient to long-term
storage of organic carbon within river corridors (Battin et
al., 2008); and
(3) reducing biotic diversity and abundance within river cor-
ridors, which affect storage and outgassing of carbon
(Aufdenkampe et al., 2011).
Geomorphic understanding of rates and processes of sedi-
ment and organic matter transfer across Earth’s surface is central
Downloaded from specialpapers.gsapubs.org on April 27, 2016

Earth’s dynamic surface: A perspective on the past 50 years in geomorphology 15

Figure 5. Map of relative sediment connectivity in the North St. Vrain Creek (drainage area 345 km2) catchment of Colorado,
United States, using the method of Cavalli et al. (2013). This method employs a geomorphometric index based on average
slope gradient, contributing area, and topographic roughness, here estimated from 10 m digital elevation models, to estimate
sediment connectivity. Red indicates high connectivity, and blue indicates low connectivity. Map courtesy of Scott M. Shah-
verdian and Nicholas A. Sutfin.

Figure 6. Schematic illustration of average annual global fluxes of organic carbon (OC) in petagrams per year (modified
from Aufdenkampe et al., 2011), with sources and storage of organic carbon (in tan boxes) that are a function of diverse
geomorphic processes and forms (italicized font in blue boxes).
 Downloaded from specialpapers.gsapubs.org on April 27, 2016
16 Wohl et al.
to mitigating reduced carbon storage in uplands, freshwaters, and
nearshore environments (Stallard, 1998; Sutfin et al., 2016).
Geomorphic research emphasizing physical-biotic interac-
tions, connectivity, and global-scale fluxes inherently involves
at least a working knowledge of the current state of understand-
ing in closely related disciplines and commonly involves close
collaboration with investigators from other disciplinary back-
grounds. Collaboration has been fostered by requests for propos-
als that require multidisciplinary research (e.g., the U.S. National
Science Foundation’s Dynamics of Coupled Natural and Human
Systems or Interdisciplinary Research in Hazards and Natural
Disasters programs) and by conferences designed to promote
communication between disciplines.
Geomorphology in a Societal Context
Geomorphic research conducted with explicit reference to
human societies includes at least two basic aspects: focus on the
effects of past and contemporary human activities on Earth’s sur-
face, and investigations undertaken in connection with a regula-
tory framework such as the Clean Water Act or Endangered Spe-
cies Act in the United States, or the Water Framework Directive
in the European Union.
Humans have been modifying surface processes and forms
at least since the use of fire in association with hunting (Pyne,
1997; Hooke, 2000). The development of agriculture, by alter-
ing natural land cover, modifying topography, and in some cases
modifying fluxes of water and sediment across landscapes,
intensified human modification of Earth surfaces (Hooke, 1994).
In many regions, the initiation of agriculture appears in the
stratigraphic record of rivers as an increase in sediment deposi-
tion and a change in river geometry (Wohl, 2000). As population
grew and people concentrated in more densely settled regions
with resource-intensive commercial activities, the pace of altera-
tions of Earth surfaces increased (Hooke et al., 2012). Timber
harvesting, mining, construction of transportation corridors in
river networks and on land, land drainage, river engineering,
and urbanization all modified progressively larger swathes of
terrestrial and freshwater environments with time, so that geo-
morphologists and other natural scientists may be hard-pressed
to find portions of Earth’s surface not directly affected by human
activities (Wohl, 2013b).
The presence of contemporary surface alteration is rela-
tively easy to recognize, but historic human activities that are
no longer present can leave subtle effects that are challenging
to detect. An example comes from recent work documenting the
extensive deposition of sediment along small- to moderate-sized
rivers in the eastern U.S. Mid-Atlantic Piedmont region dur-
ing the period when most rivers contained numerous milldams
(Walter and Merritts, 2008). As these dams were abandoned and
buried, their effects on streambed sedimentation and subsequent
river process and form were largely forgotten, to the point that
some of the classic work on river process and form during the
1950s (Wolman, 1955; Wolman and Leopold, 1957) was con-
ducted in these channels under the impression that the observed
channel and floodplain geometry and stratigraphy represented
largely natural conditions.
Although some geomorphic papers published prior to 1960
discussed the diverse effects of humans on geomorphic process
and form (e.g., Marsh, 1864), the number of papers focusing on
this topic and the breadth of human alterations considered by
geomorphologists have expanded substantially since 1960 (e.g.,
Goudie and Viles, 1997; James and Marcus, 2006). This shifting
focus accompanies widespread acceptance among the earth sci-
ences community for the Anthropocene (Crutzen and Stoermer,
2000) as a distinct division of geologic history.
Climate change is arguably the highest-profile aspect of
contemporary human alteration of Earth. Geomorphic research
related to climate change has mostly focused on how warming
climate and associated changes in temperature and precipitation
regimes will affect geomorphic processes, including: weathering
and soil formation (Goll et al., 2014); hillslope stability (Lu et
al., 2010); river discharge, sediment fluxes, and channel geom-
etry (Eckhardt and Ulbrich, 2003; Rood et al., 2008; Goode et
al., 2012); glacial mass balance (Oswood et al., 1992; Ren et al.,
2007); desertification and eolian dust fluxes (Greve et al., 2014);
and coastal processes, configuration, and stability (Bernatchez
and Dubois, 2008). Lane (2013) noted the lack of citations of
geomorphic work in publications from the Intergovernmental
Panel for Climate Change, despite the increasing ability to pre-
dict geomorphic futures, quantify landscape responses to climate
change (Knight and Harrison, 2012; Pelletier et al., 2015), and
to link geomorphic processes to climatically relevant issues such
as carbon dynamics. This likely reflects ignorance among the
climate change community of recent research directions within
geomorphology, as well as a slower rate of explicit engagement
with issues around climate change and carbon cycles among geo-
morphologists than among investigators in other disciplines such
as biogeochemistry.
Geomorphic investigations conducted in the context of a
regulatory framework typically involve (1) documenting how
human alteration of geomorphic processes and forms has moved
natural systems away from desired standards of air or water qual-
ity (e.g., Baron et al., 2000; Reusser et al., 2015), for example,
(2) assessing contemporary conditions of surface environments
with respect to regulatory standards, such as habitat abundance
and diversity in rivers (Orr et al., 2008), or (3) developing man-
agement plans that will restore geomorphic process and form
with the objective of achieving legislated standards or desired
conditions (Mitsch et al., 2001). As noted earlier, the Clean Water
Act and Endangered Species Act drive much of this research in
the United States (NRC, 2007, 2008; Melis, 2011), and the Water
Framework Directive exerts a strong influence on river-oriented
studies within the European Union (Newson and Large, 2006;
Richter et al., 2013).
Prime examples of geomorphic research conducted in rela-
tion to a regulatory framework are the movement to quantify and
implement environmental flows on rivers and the burgeoning
 Downloaded from specialpapers.gsapubs.org on April 27, 2016
Earth’s dynamic surface: A perspective on the past 50 years in geomorphology
industry of river restoration. Dams and flow diversions have
severely altered fluxes of water (Vörösmarty et al., 1997; Nilsson
et al., 2005; Graf, 2006; Poff et al., 2007) and sediment (Syvitski
et al., 2005) on the majority of the world’s rivers. These altera-
tions have caused extensive changes in river corridors, including
altered channel and floodplain geometry and stability, reduced
abundance and diversity of aquatic and riparian habitat, and
reduced connectivity for diverse riverine species (Poff and Zim-
merman, 2010). Actions to restore river flows began during the
1970s with specification of some minimum instream flow needed
to sustain fish populations (Bovee and Milhous, 1978), expanded
with the recognition that a broader range of flows was necessary
to maintain physical diversity of rivers (Andrews and Nanker-
vis, 1995), and are now based on the idea that the entire spec-
trum of the annual hydrograph of a river must be present to some
degree (Poff et al., 1997)—either on slightly longer time scales
than a year or at slightly smaller magnitudes than would occur
naturally—if river ecosystems are to persist in their current forms
(Tharme, 2003; Arthington et al., 2006; Shafroth et al., 2010).
The ability to quantify the magnitude, timing, and duration
of environmental flows needed to achieve desired effects relies
on geomorphic understanding of sediment processes and physi-
cal dynamics of river corridors, as well as on ecological under-
standing of aquatic and riparian organisms (Yarnell et al., 2010).
River management programs for the Colorado River in Grand
Canyon (Rubin et al., 1998; Wiele et al., 2007; Melis, 2011), the
Middle Sacramento River in California (Golet et al., 2013), or
Europe’s Danube River (Bloesch and Sieber, 2003) provide high-
profile examples of this form of geomorphology in a societal
context. Specific flow magnitudes that create desired ecological
effects are also designated functional flows and are evaluated
based on hydraulic forces associated with a discharge magnitude
(Escobar-Arias and Pasternack, 2010).
Environmental flows are part of a broader effort to restore
environments that are regarded as physically and ecologically
degraded. A substantial part of environmental restoration is
focused on river restoration, which is now a multibillion-dollar
industry with thousands of individual restoration projects in North
America, Europe, and other regions (McDonald et al., 2004;
Bernhardt et al., 2005). Although river restoration was initially
implemented mainly by civil engineers and ecologists, geomor-
phologists have taken an increasingly active role in emphasizing
the importance of: water and sediment as dominant independent
variables; processes that maintain river form, habitat, and eco-
logical function; and spatial and temporal hierarchical scales in
understanding adjustments between river process and form (e.g.,
Schmidt et al., 1998; Brooks et al., 2006; Schmidt and Wilcock,
2008; Abbe and Brooks, 2011; Kondolf, 2011; Smith et al., 2011;
Wohl et al., 2015a, 2015b).
Other Planets
The advent of abundant remotely sensed images of other
planets ca. 1972 proved to be an irresistible opportunity for
17
geomorphologists willing to develop hypotheses about surface
process and form in the absence of the ability to visit these sur-
faces and directly test interpretations (Mars Channel Working
Group, 1983; Baker, 2015). The number of planets (Mars, Mer-
cury, Venus) and moons (Earth’s Moon, Titan) and the variety of
geomorphic processes—fluvial, eolian, and mass movements—
investigated have grown through time, to the point that plane-
tary geomorphology is now a distinct subdiscipline with its own
meetings and journals.
In particular, the availability of the Mars Orbital Laser
Altimeter (MOLA) global digital topographic data set for Mars
(Zuber et al., 1992) greatly expanded opportunities for geomor-
phic analyses of Martian landforms. The discovery of compel-
ling evidence for the role of water in shaping Martian landscapes
(Baker and Milton, 1974; Baker, 2001) led to substantial prog-
ress in assessing the role of fluid flows and groundwater sapping
on carving channels on Mars (Higgins, 1982; Malin and Carr,
1999; Coleman, 2003; Manga, 2004). Discovery of evidence for
an ancient delta with meandering river channels at Eberswald
crater (Malin and Edgett, 2003) brought significant attention to
ancient fluvial processes on Mars. The role of early fluvial activ-
ity in carving Martian valley networks and forming large alluvial
fans has also received much attention (e.g., Howard et al., 2005;
Moore and Howard, 2005). Readily accessible MOLA data
enabled analyses of slope stability (Schultz, 2002) and discovery
of what has been interpreted as the largest landslide in the solar
system (Montgomery et al., 2009). The more recent focus on evi-
dence for glacial activity and recognition of the influence of “salt
tectonics” on development of Martian sinkholes (Adams et al.,
2009) further expanded the range of geomorphic studies on Mars.
Advances in understanding the role of wind in shaping Martian
landforms (e.g., Armstrong and Leovy, 2005; Balme et al., 2008)
have focused on the dominant geomorphic process active today
on Mars. High-resolution images of the Martian surface allowed
recognition of wind-carved, periodic, flow-transverse bedrock
ridges (Montgomery et al., 2012). Over the past several decades,
planetary geomorphology has progressed to the point of develop-
ing distinct subdisciplines of hillslope, fluvial, glacial, and eolian
environments and processes. One of the unique contributions of
planetary geomorphology has been to trigger geomorphologists
to search for terrestrial features better displayed on other plan-
etary surfaces (Sharp, 1980).
Tension within Geomorphology
By the end of the twentieth century, the tension that arguably
has been present within geomorphology since at least 1960 was
reflected in subsets of the geomorphic research community divid-
ing their efforts between distinct professional conferences and
journals (Baker, 1988). At a simplified level, this division within
the discipline can be described as being between those who
emphasize reductionist quantification of geomorphic process and
form on the basis of underlying principles of physics versus those
who emphasize the role of place-specific history, which Brierley
 Downloaded from specialpapers.gsapubs.org on April 27, 2016
18 Wohl et al.
(2010) referred to as landscape memory, in creating contingency
and an irreducible level of complexity in geomorphic process and
form. The physics-based approach is exemplified by the devel-
opment of geomorphic transport laws (Dietrich et al., 2003),
which are mathematical expressions of fluxes such as bedrock
weathering and production of sediment (Heimsath et al., 1997),
downslope movement of sediment via diffusion (Roering, 2004),
or bedrock incision by debris flows (Stock and Dietrich, 2006).
The approach emphasizing place-specific history is exemplified
by conceptualizations such as the River Styles framework (Brier-
ley and Fryirs, 2005), which focuses on how differences in resis-
tance and resilience to natural and human disturbances, and the
details of geomorphic history, influence river process and form at
the reach scale. Diversity of conceptual frameworks and research
approaches fosters congenial progress as long as individuals
working within different frameworks recognize and respect the
insights that can result from diverse approaches.
A HALF CENTURY OF CHANGE
IN GEOMORPHOLOGY
Much of the emphasis within geomorphology in 1960
involved establishing a firm quantitative foundation and
process-oriented research agenda for the discipline. Although this
was initially driven by fluvial geomorphic research (e.g., Wol-
man and Miller, 1960; Leopold and Langbein, 1962; Langbein
and Leopold, 1964, 1966; Leopold et al., 1964), the expansion
of quantitative, reproducible geochronologic methods, numerical
models, and high-resolution spatial and temporal measurements
of surface processes and forms facilitated greater emphasis on
quantification of other geomorphic environments with time (e.g.,
Bollmann et al., 2011; Peternell et al., 2014). The emphasis on
basic physics of sediment movement was reflected in the work
of investigators such as Ralph Bagnold, who moved with equal
facility among eolian (Bagnold, 1941), coastal (Bagnold, 1946),
and fluvial (Bagnold, 1956) sediment transport.
Half a century later, the emphasis on quantification of
the physical processes creating geomorphic forms continues,
although scaled through time and space to numerically simulate
landscape development. Many researchers now work across sub-
discipline boundaries among fluvial, hillslope, glacial, and tec-
tonic geomorphology. The discipline of geomorphology has also
broadened to emphasize integration with other disciplines such
as atmospheric sciences and ecology, as well as focusing on how
geomorphologists can contribute to understanding and managing
societally relevant contemporary issues such as climate change
and environmental sustainability.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank Marion (Pat) Bickford for the invitation to write this
chapter. The manuscript benefited greatly from reviews by Vic
Baker, Tom Dunne, and Alan Howard, and we thank them for
their insightful comments.
REFERENCES CITED
Abbe, T., and Brooks, A., 2011, Geomorphic, engineering, and ecological consid-
erations when using wood in river restoration, in Simon, A., Bennett, S.J.,
and Castro, J.M., eds., Stream Restoration in Dynamic Fluvial Systems:
Scientific Approaches, Analyses, and Tools: Washington, D.C., American
Geophysical Union Press, p. 419–451, doi:10.1029/2010GM001004.
Abbe, T.B., and Montgomery, D.R., 1996, Large woody debris jams, chan-
nel hydraulics and habitat formation in large rivers: Regulated rivers:
Research and Management, v. 12, p. 201–221, doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099
-1646(199603)12:2/3<201::AID-RRR390>3.0.CO;2-A.
Abbe, T.B., and Montgomery, D.R., 2003, Patterns and process of wood debris
accumulation in forest channels: Geomorphology, v. 51, p. 81–107,
doi:10.1016/S0169-555X(02)00326-4.
Adams, J.B., Gillespie, A.R., Jackson, M.P.A., Montgomery, D.R., Dooley,
T.P., Combe, J.-P., and Schreiber, B.C., 2009, Salt tectonics and collapse
of Hebes Chasma, Valles Marineris, Mars: Geology, v. 37, p. 691–694,
doi:10.1130/G30024A.1.
Ahnert, F., 1970, Functional relationship between denudation, relief and uplift
in large mid-latitude drainage basins: American Journal of Science,
v. 268, p. 243–263, doi:10.2475/ajs.268.3.243.
Alho, P., Kukko, A., Hyyppa, H., Kaartinen, H., Hyyppa, J., and Jaakkola, A.,
2009, Application of boat-based laser scanning for river survey: Earth
Surface Processes and Landforms, v. 34, p. 1831–1838, doi:10.1002/
esp.1879.
Allouis, T., Bailly, J.-S., Pastol, Y., and Le Roux, C., 2010, Comparison of
LiDAR waveform processing methods for very shallow water bathymetry
using Raman, near-infrared and green signals: Earth Surface Processes
and Landforms, v. 35, p. 640–650.
Amundson, R., Richter, D.D., Humphreys, G.S., Jobbagy, E.G., and Gaillardet,
J., 2007, Coupling between biota and Earth materials in the critical zone:
Elements (Quebec), v. 3, p. 327–332, doi:10.2113/gselements.3.5.327.
Anderson, R.S., 1994, Evolution of the Santa Cruz Mountains, California,
through tectonic growth and geomorphic decay: Journal of Geophysical
Research, v. 99, p. 20,161–20,179.
Anderson, R.S., and Hallet, B., 1986, Sediment transport by wind: Toward a
general model: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 97, p. 523–
535, doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1986)97<523:STBWTA>2.0.CO;2.
Anderson, R.S., Anderson, S., and Tucker, G.E., 2013, Rock damage and rego-
lith transport by frost: An example of climate modulation of the geomor-
phology of the critical zone: Earth Surface Processes and Landforms,
v. 38, p. 299–316, doi:10.1002/esp.3330.
Anderson, S., 2007, Biogeochemistry of glacial landscape systems: Annual
Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, v. 35, p. 375–399, doi:10.1146/
annurev.earth.35.031306.140033.
Anderson, S.P., von Blanckenburg, F., and White, A.F., 2007, Physical and
chemical controls on the critical zone: Elements (Quebec), v. 3, p. 315–
319, doi:10.2113/gselements.3.5.315.
Anderson, S.P., Anderson, R.S., and Tucker, G.E., 2012, Landscape scale link-
ages in critical zone evolution: Comptes Rendus Geoscience, v. 344,
p. 586–596, doi:10.1016/j.crte.2012.10.008.
Andreoli, A., Comiti, F., and Lenzi, M.A., 2007, Characteristics, distribution
and geomorphic role of large woody debris in a mountain stream of the
Chilean Andes: Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, v. 32, p. 1675–
1692, doi:10.1002/esp.1593.
Andrews, E.D., and Nankervis, J.M., 1995, Effective discharge and the design
of channel maintenance flows for gravel-bed rivers, in Costa, J.E., Miller,
A.J., Potter, K.W., and Wilcock, P.R., eds., Natural and Anthropogenic
Influences in Fluvial Geomorphology: Washington, D.C., American Geo-
physical Union Press, p. 151–164, doi:10.1029/GM089p0151.
Arbel, Y., Greenbaum, N., Lange, J., and Inbar, M., 2010, Infiltration pro-
cesses and flow rates in developed karst vadose zones using tracers in
cave drips: Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, v. 35, p. 1682–1693,
doi:10.1002/esp.2010.
Armstrong, J.C., and Leovy, C.B., 2005, Long term wind erosion on Mars:
Icarus, v. 176, p. 57–74, doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2005.01.005.
Arnold, J.R., and Libby, W.F., 1949, Age determinations by radiocarbon con-
tent: Checks with samples of known age: Science, v. 110, p. 678–680,
doi:10.1126/science.110.2869.678.
Arthington, A.H., Bunn, S.E., Poff, N.L., and Naiman, R.J., 2006, The chal-
lenge of providing environmental flow rules to sustain river ecosystems:
 Downloaded from specialpapers.gsapubs.org on April 27, 2016
Earth’s dynamic surface: A perspective on the past 50 years in geomorphology
Ecological Applications, v. 16, p. 1311–1318, doi:10.1890/1051
-0761(2006)016[1311:TCOPEF]2.0.CO;2.
Aufdenkampe, A.K., Mayorga, E., Raymond, P.A., Melack, J.M., Doney, S.C.,
Alin, S.R., Aalto, R.E., and Yoo, K., 2011, Riverine coupling of biogeo-
chemical cycles between land, oceans, and atmosphere: Frontiers in Ecol-
ogy and the Environment, v. 9, p. 53–60, doi:10.1890/100014.
Baartman, J.E.M., Masselink, R., Keesstra, S.D., and Temme, A.J.A.M., 2013,
Linking landscape morphological complexity and sediment connectivity:
Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, v. 38, p. 1457–1471.
Baas, A.C.W., ed., 2013, Quantitative modeling of geomorphology, volume 2,
in Shroder, J.F., ed., Treatise on Geomorphology: San Diego, California,
Academic Press, p. 1–28.
Bagnold, R.A., 1941, The Physics of Blown Sand and Desert Dunes: London,
Methuen, 265 p.
Bagnold, R.A., 1946, Motion of waves in shallow water. Interaction between
waves and sand bottoms: Proceedings of the Royal Society of London,
ser. A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences, v. 187, p. 1–18, doi:10.1098/
rspa.1946.0062.
Bagnold, R.A., 1956, The flow of cohesionless grains in fluids: Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of London, ser. A, v. 249, p. 235–297,
doi:10.1098/rsta.1956.0020.
Baker, V.R., 1973, Paleohydrology and Sedimentology of Lake Missoula
Flooding in Eastern Washington: Geological Society of America Special
Paper 144, 73 p., doi:10.1130/SPE144-p1.
Baker, V.R., 1982, The Channels of Mars: Austin, University of Texas Press,
198 p.
Baker, V.R., 1988, Geological fluvial geomorphology: Geological Society
of America Bulletin, v. 100, p. 1157–1167, doi:10.1130/0016-7606
(1988)100<1157:GFG>2.3.CO;2.
Baker, V.R., 2001, Water and the Martian landscape: Nature, v. 412, p. 228–
236, doi:10.1038/35084172.
Baker, V.R., 2014, Paleohydrology: IAHS Benchmark Papers in Hydrology
9: Wallingford, UK, International Association of Hydrological Sciences
Press, 494 p.
Baker, V.R., 2015, Planetary geomorphology: Some historical/analytical per-
spectives: Geomorphology, v. 240, p. 8–17, doi:10.1016/j.geomorph
.2014.07.016.
Baker, V.R., and Milton, D.J., 1974, Erosion by catastrophic floods on Mars
and Earth: Icarus, v. 23, p. 27–41, doi:10.1016/0019-1035(74)90101-8.
Baker, V.R., and Pyne, S., 1978, G.K. Gilbert and modern geomorphol-
ogy: American Journal of Science, v. 278, p. 97–123, doi:10.2475/
ajs.278.2.97.
Balco, G., 2011, Contributions and unrealized potential contributions of
cosmogenic-nuclide exposure dating to glacier chronology, 1990–2010:
Quaternary Science Reviews, v. 30, p. 3–27, doi:10.1016/j.quascirev
.2010.11.003.
Balme, M., Berman, D.C., Bourke, M.C., and Zimbelman, J.R., 2008, Trans-
verse eolian ridges (TARs) on Mars: Geomorphology, v. 101, p. 703–720,
doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2008.03.011.
Baron, J.S., Rueth, H.M., Wolfe, A.M., Nydick, K.R., Allstott, E.J., Minear,
J.T., and Moraska, B., 2000, Ecosystem responses to nitrogen deposition
in the Colorado Front Range: Ecosystems (New York), v. 3, p. 352–368,
doi:10.1007/s100210000032.
Batlle-Aguilar, J., Harrington, G.A., Leblanc, M., Welch, C., and Cook, P.G.,
2014, Chemistry of groundwater discharge inferred from longitudi-
nal river sampling: Water Resources Research, v. 50, p. 1550–1568,
doi:10.1002/2013WR013591.
Battin, T.J., Kaplan, L.A., Findlay, S., Hopkinson, C.S., Marti, E., Pack-
man, A.I., Newbold, J.D., and Sabater, F., 2008, Biophysical controls
on organic carbon fluxes in fluvial networks: Nature Geoscience, v. 1,
p. 95–100, doi:10.1038/ngeo101.
Beaumont, C., Jamieson, R.A., Nguyen, M.H., and Lee, B., 2001, Himala-
yan tectonics explained by extrusion of a low-viscosity crustal chan-
nel coupled to focused surface denudation: Nature, v. 414, p. 738–742,
doi:10.1038/414738a.
Beaumont, C., Jamieson, R.A., Nguyen, M.H., and Medvedev, S., 2004, Crustal
channel flows: 1. Numerical models with applications to the tectonics
of the Himalayan-Tibetan orogeny: Journal of Geophysical Research,
v. 109, B06406, doi:10.1029/2003JB002809.
Beckman, N.D., and Wohl, E., 2014, Carbon storage in mountainous headwa-
ter streams: The role of old-growth forest and logjams: Water Resources
Research, v. 50, p. 2376–2393, doi:10.1002/2013WR014167.
19
Belnap, J., 2003, The world at your feet: Desert biological soil crusts: Fron-
tiers in Ecology and the Environment, v. 1, p. 181–189, doi:10.1890/1540
-9295(2003)001[0181:TWAYFD]2.0.CO;2.
Benda, L., and Dunne, T., 1997, Stochastic forcing of sediment routing and
storage in channel networks: Water Resources Research, v. 33, p. 2865–
2880, doi:10.1029/97WR02387.
Benjankar, R., and Yager, E.M., 2012, The impact of different sediment con-
centrations and sediment transport formulas on the simulated floodplain
processes: Journal of Hydrology (Amsterdam), v. 450–451, p. 230–243,
doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2012.05.009.
Bennett, C.L., Beukens, R.P., Clover, M.R., Gove, H.E., Liebert, R.B., Lither-
land, A.E., Purser, K.H., and Sondheim, W.E., 1977, Radiocarbon dating
using electrostatic accelerators: Negative ions provide the key: Science,
v. 198, p. 508–510, doi:10.1126/science.198.4316.508.
Berger, A.L., Gulick, S.P.S., Spotila, J.A., Upton, P., Jaeger, J.M., Chapman,
J.B., Worthington, L.A., Pavlis, T.L., Ridgway, K.D., Willems, B.A., and
McAleer, R.J., 2008, Quaternary tectonic response to intensified glacial
erosion in an orogenic wedge: Nature Geoscience, v. 1, p. 793–799,
doi:10.1038/ngeo334.
Bernatchez, P., and Dubois, J.-M.M., 2008, Seasonal quantification of coastal pro-
cesses and cliff erosion on fine sediment shorelines in a cold temperate cli-
mate, north shore of the St. Lawrence maritime estuary, Quebec: Journal of
Coastal Research, v. 24, no. 1A, p. 169–180, doi:10.2112/04-0419.1.
Bernhardt, E.S., Palmer, M.A., Allan, J.D., Alexander, G., Barnas, K., Brooks,
S., Carr, J., Clayton, S., Dahm, C., Follstad-Shah, J., Galat, D., Gloss, S.,
Goodwin, P., Hart, D., Hassett, B., Jenkinson, R., Katz, S., Kondolf, G.M.,
Lake, P.S., Lave, R., Meyer, J.L., O’Donnell, T.K., Pagano, L., Powell, B.,
and Sudduth, E., 2005, Synthesizing U.S. river restoration efforts: Sci-
ence, v. 308, p. 636–637, doi:10.1126/science.1109769.
Bierman, P.R., and Montgomery, D.R., 2014, Key Concepts in Geomorphol-
ogy: New York, W.H. Freeman, 494 p.
Bierman, P.R., Corbett, L., Graly, J., Neumann, T., Lini, A., Crosby, B., and
Rood, D., 2014, Preservation of a pre-glacial landscape under the cen-
ter of the Greenland ice sheet: Science, v. 344, p. 402–405, doi:10.1126/
science.1249047.
Bilby, R.E., and Likens, G.E., 1980, Importance of organic debris dams in the
structure and function of stream ecosystems: Ecology, v. 61, p. 1107–
1113, doi:10.2307/1936830.
Birkel, C., Tetzlaff, D., Dunn, S.M., and Soulsby, C., 2011, Using time domain
and geographic source tracers to conceptualize streamflow generation
processes in lumped rainfall-runoff models: Water Resources Research,
v. 7, W02515, doi:10.1029/2010WR009547.
Birot, P., 1960, Le Cycle d’Erosion sous les Differents Climates: Rio de
Janeiro, Brazil, Universidade do Brasil Centro de Pesquisas de Geografia
do Brasil.
Birot, P., 1968, Cycle of Erosion in Different Climates (trans. C.I. Jackson and K.M.
Clayton): Berkeley, California, University of California Press, 144 p.
Blair, N.E., Leithold, E.L., and Aller, R.C., 2004, From bedrock to burial:
The evolution of particulate organic carbon across coupled watershed–
continental margin systems: Marine Chemistry, v. 92, p. 141–156,
doi:10.1016/j.marchem.2004.06.023.
Bloesch, J., and Sieber, U., 2003, The morphological destruction and subse-
quent restoration programmes of large rivers in Europe: Large Rivers,
v. 14, p. 363–382.
Bollmann, E., Sailer, R., Briese, C., Stoetter, J., and Fritzmann, P., 2011, Potential
of airborne laser scanning for geomorphologic feature and process detec-
tion and quantifications in high alpine mountains: Zeitschrift für Geomor-
phologie, v. 55, p. 83–104, doi:10.1127/0372-8854/2011/0055S2-0047.
Bovee, K.D., and Milhous, R., 1978, Hydraulic Simulation in Instream Flow
Studies: Theory and Techniques: Fort Collins, Colorado, U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, Instream Flow Information Paper 5, FWS/OBS-78/33,
131 p.
Bracken, L.J., Wainwright, J., Ali, G.A., Tetzlaff, D., Smith, M.W., Reaney,
S.M., and Roy, A.G., 2013, Concepts of hydrological connectivity:
Research approaches, pathways and future agendas: Earth-Science
Reviews, v. 119, p. 17–34, doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2013.02.001.
Brierley, G.J., 2010, Landscape memory: The imprint of the past on contempo-
rary landscape forms and processes: Area, v. 42, p. 76–85, doi:10.1111/
j.1475-4762.2009.00900.x.
Brierley, G.J., and Fryirs, K.A., 2005, Geomorphology and River Manage-
ment: Applications of the River Styles Framework: Oxford, UK, Black-
well, 398 p.
 Downloaded from specialpapers.gsapubs.org on April 27, 2016
20 Wohl et al.
Brierley, G.J., Fryirs, K., and Jain, V., 2006, Landscape connectivity: The
geographic basis of geomorphic applications: Area, v. 38, p. 165–174,
doi:10.1111/j.1475-4762.2006.00671.x.
Brooks, A.P., Brierley, G.J., and Millar, R.G., 2003, The long-term control
of vegetation and woody debris on channel and flood-plain evolution:
Insights from a paired catchment study in southeastern Australia: Geo-
morphology, v. 51, p. 7–29, doi:10.1016/S0169-555X(02)00323-9.
Brooks, A.P., Howell, T., Abbe, T.B., and Arthington, A., 2006, Confronting
hysteresis: Wood based river rehabilitation in highly altered riverine land-
scapes of south-eastern Australia: Geomorphology, v. 79, p. 395–422,
doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2006.06.035.
Brown, R.W., Cockburn, H.A.P., Kohn, B.P., Belton, D.X., Fink, D., Gleadow,
A.J.W., and Summerfield, M.A., 2002, Combining low temperature apa-
tite thermochronology and cosmogenic isotope analysis in quantitative
landscape evolution studies: Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 66,
no. S1, p. A106.
Brozović, N.D., Burbank, D., and Meigs, A., 1997, Climatic limits on landscape
development in the northwestern Himalaya: Science, v. 276, p. 571–574,
doi:10.1126/science.276.5312.571.
Brummer, C.J., Abbe, T.B., Sampson, J.R., and Montgomery, D.R., 2006, Influ-
ence of vertical channel change associated with wood accumulations on
delineating channel migration zones, Washington, USA: Geomorphology,
v. 80, p. 295–309, doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2006.03.002.
Budel, J., 1982, Climatic Geomorphology (trans. L. Fischer and D. Busche):
Princeton, New Jersey, Princeton University Press, 443 p.
Buffington, J.M., and Montgomery, D.R., 1999, Effects of hydraulic roughness
on surface textures of gravel-bed rivers: Water Resources Research, v. 35,
p. 3507–3521, doi:10.1029/1999WR900138.
Burbank, D.W., Leland, J., Fielding, E., Anderson, R.S., Brozovic, N., Reid,
M.R., and Duncan, C., 1996, Bedrock incision, rock uplift and thresh-
old hillslopes in the northwestern Himalayas: Nature, v. 379, p. 505–510,
doi:10.1038/379505a0.
Burchsted, D., Daniels, M.D., Thorson, R., and Vokoun, J., 2010, The river
discontinuum: Applying beaver modifications to baseline conditions
for restoration of forested headwaters: Bioscience, v. 60, p. 908–922,
doi:10.1525/bio.2010.60.11.7.
Burr, D.M., Perron, J.T., Lamb, M.B., Irwin, R.P., Collins, G.C., Howard, A.D.,
Sklar, L.S., Moore, J.M., Adamkovics, M., Baker, V.R., Drummond, S.A.,
and Black, B.A., 2013, Fluvial features on Titan: Insights from mor-
phology and modeling: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 125,
p. 299–321, doi:10.1130/B30612.1.
Butler, D.R., 1995, Zoogeomorphology: Animals as Geomorphic Agents:
Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University Press, 231 p., doi:10.1017/
CBO9780511529900.
Butler, D.R., and Malanson, G.P., 1995, Sedimentation rates and patterns in
beaver ponds in a mountain environment: Geomorphology, v. 13, p. 255–
269, doi:10.1016/0169-555X(95)00031-Y.
Cavalli, M., Trevisani, S., Comiti, F., and Marchi, L., 2013, Geomorphometric
assessment of spatial sediment connectivity in small Alpine catchments:
Geomorphology, v. 188, p. 31–41, doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2012.05.007.
Chapuis, M., Bright, C.J., Hufnagel, J., and MacVicar, B., 2014, Detection
ranges and uncertainty of passive radio frequency identification (RFID)
transponders for sediment tracking in gravel rivers and coastal environ-
ments: Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, v. 39, p. 2109–2120,
doi:10.1002/esp.3620.
Chatanantavet, P., and Parker, G., 2009, Physically based modeling of bedrock
incision by abrasion, plucking, and macroabrasion: Journal of Geophysi-
cal Research–Earth Surface, v. 114, F04018, doi:10.1029/2008JF001044.
Chin, A., Daniels, M.D., Urban, M.A., Piegay, H., Gregory, K.J., Bigler, W.,
Butt, A., Grable, J., Gregory, S.V., Lafrenz, M., Laurencio, L.R., and
Wohl, E., 2008, Perceptions of wood in rivers and challenges for stream
restoration in the United States: Environmental Management, v. 41,
p. 893–903, doi:10.1007/s00267-008-9075-9.
Chorley, R.J., 2008, The mid-century revolution in fluvial geomorphology,
in Burt, T.P., Chorley, R.J., Brunsden, D., Cox, N.J., and Goudie, A.S.,
eds., The History of the Study of Landforms, or The Development of
Geomorphology: Volume 4: Quaternary and Recent Processes and Form
(1890–1965) and the Mid-Century Revolutions: London, The Geological
Society, p. 925–960.
Chorley, R.J., Beckinsale, R.P., and Dunn, A.J., 1973, The History of the Study
of Landforms, or The Development of Geomorphology, Volume 2: The
Life and Work of William Morris Davis: London, Methuen, 874 p.
Church, M., 2013, Refocusing geomorphology: Field work in four acts: Geo-
morphology, v. 200, p. 184–192, doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2013.01.014.
Church, M., and Ferguson, R., 2015, Morphodynamics: Rivers beyond
steady state: Water Resources Research, v. 51, p. 1883–1897,
doi:10.1002/2014WR016862.
Cierjacks, A., Kleinschmit, B., Babinsky, M., Kleinschroth, F., Markert, A.,
Menzel, M., Ziechmann, U., Schiller, T., Graf, M., and Lang, F., 2010,
Carbon stocks of soil and vegetation on Danubian floodplains: Journal
of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science, v. 173, p. 644–653, doi:10.1002/
jpln.200900209.
Clapp, E., Bierman, P.R., and Caffee, M., 2002, Using 10Be and 26Al to deter-
mine sediment generation rates and identify sediment source areas in an
arid region drainage basin: Geomorphology, v. 45, p. 67–87.
Clavel, J., Julliard, R., and Devictor, V., 2011, Worldwide decline of specialist
species: Toward a global functional homogenization?: Frontiers in Ecol-
ogy and the Environment, v. 9, p. 222–228, doi:10.1890/080216.
Clément, P., and Piégay, H., 2003, Statistics and fluvial geomorphology, in
Kondolf, G.M., and Piégay, H., eds., Tools in Fluvial Geomorphology:
Chichester, UK, Wiley, p. 597–630.
Cole, J.J., Prairie, Y.T., Caraco, N.F., McDowell, W.H., Tranvik, L.J., Striegl,
R.G., Duarte, C.M., Kortelainen, P., Downing, J.A., Middelburg, J.J., and
Melack, J., 2007, Plumbing the global carbon cycle: Integrating inland
waters into the terrestrial carbon budget: Ecosystems (New York), v. 10,
p. 171–184.
Cole, L., and Foster, S.R., 2001, From the Ground Up: Environmental Racism
and the Rise of the Environmental Justice Movement: New York, New
York University Press, 256 p.
Coleman, N.M., 2003, Aqueous flows carved the outflow channels on
Mars: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 108, no. E5, 5039,
doi:10.1029/2002JE001940.
Collins, A.L., Walling, D.E., and Leeks, G.J.L., 1997, Fingerprinting the origin
of fluvial suspended sediment in larger river basins: Combining assess-
ment of spatial provenance and source type: Geografiska Annaler, v. 79A,
p. 239–254, doi:10.1111/1468-0459.00020.
Collins, B.D., and Montgomery, D.R., 2002, Forest development, log jams,
and the restoration of floodplain rivers in the Puget Lowland: Restoration
Ecology, v. 10, p. 237–247, doi:10.1046/j.1526-100X.2002.01023.x.
Collins, B.D., Montgomery, D.R., Fetherson, K.L., and Abbe, T.B., 2012, The
floodplain large-wood cycle hypothesis: A mechanism for the physical
and biotic structuring of temperate forested alluvial valleys in the North
Pacific coastal ecoregion: Geomorphology, v. 139–140, p. 460–470,
doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2011.11.011.
Corenblit, D., Tabacchi, E., Steiger, J., and Gurnell, A.M., 2007, Reciprocal
interactions and adjustments between vegetation in river corridors: A
review of complementary approaches: Earth-Science Reviews, v. 84,
p. 56–86, doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2007.05.004.
Corenblit, D., Baas, A.C.W., Bornette, G., Darrozes, J., Delmotte, S., Fran-
cis, R.A., Gurnell, A.M., Julien, F., Naiman, R.J., and Steiger, J., 2011,
Feedbacks between geomorphology and biota controlling Earth surface
processes and landforms: A review of foundation concepts and current
understandings: Earth-Science Reviews, v. 106, p. 307–331, doi:10.1016/
j.earscirev.2011.03.002.
Coulthard, T.J., Neal, J.C., Bates, P.D., Ramirez, J., de Almeida, G.A.M., and
Hancock, G.R., 2013, Integrating the LISFLOOD-FP 2D hydrodynamic
model with the CAESAR model: Implications for modelling landscape
evolution: Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, v. 38, p. 1897–1906,
doi:10.1002/esp.3478.
Croke, J., Fryirs, K., and Thompson, C., 2013, Channel-floodplain connectiv-
ity during an extreme flood event: Implications for sediment erosion,
deposition, and delivery: Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, v. 38,
p. 1444–1456.
Crutzen, P.J., and Stoermer, E.F., 2000, The “Anthropocene”: Global Change
Newsletter, v. 41, p. 17–18.
Cui, Y., Dietrich, W.E., and Parker, G., 2001, Routing bedload sediment through
river networks draining steep uplands: Eos (Transactions, American Geo-
physical Union), v. 82, Fall meeting supplement, abstract H51F-09.
Curran, J.H., and Wohl, E.E., 2003, Large woody debris and flow resistance in
step-pool channels, Cascade Range, Washington: Geomorphology, v. 51,
p. 141–157, doi:10.1016/S0169-555X(02)00333-1.
Dail, H.J., Merrifield, M.A., and Bevis, M., 2000, Steep beach morphology
changes due to energetic wave forcing: Marine Geology, v. 162, p. 443–
458, doi:10.1016/S0025-3227(99)00072-9.
 Downloaded from specialpapers.gsapubs.org on April 27, 2016
Earth’s dynamic surface: A perspective on the past 50 years in geomorphology
Davies, N.S., and Gibling, M.R., 2011, Evolution of fixed-channel alluvial
plains in response to Carboniferous vegetation: Nature Geoscience, v. 4,
p. 629–633, doi:10.1038/ngeo1237.
Davis, W.M., 1899, The geographical cycle: The Geographical Journal, v. 14,
p. 481–504, doi:10.2307/1774538.
de Carvalho, V., Eduardo, C., Torres, M., and Paulo, J., 2002, The ecohydrol-
ogy of the Paraiba do Sul River, southeast Brazil, in McClain, M.E., ed.,
The Ecohydrology of South American Rivers and Wetlands: International
Association of Hydrological Sciences (IAHS) Special Publication 6,
p. 179–191.
de Fleurian, B., Gagliardini, O., Zwinger, T., Durand, G., Le Meur, E., Mair,
D., and Raback, P., 2014, A double continuum hydrological model for
glacier applications: The Cryosphere, v. 8, p. 137–153, doi:10.5194/tc-8
-137-2014.
De Miguel, E., and Gomez-Sanchez, P.J., 1994, Airborne multispectral images
in soil survey: Geomorphological cartography at high spatial resolution in
the eastern Duero Basin (Spain), in Staff, E., ed., Proceedings of the Inter-
national Airborne Remote Sensing Conference and Exhibition, Volume 1:
Strasbourg, France, UTB, p. 445–451.
Dietrich, W.E., 1982, Settling velocity of natural particles: Water Resources
Research, v. 18, p. 1615–1626, doi:10.1029/WR018i006p01615.
Dietrich, W.E., and Dunne, T., 1978, Sediment budget for a small catchment in
mountainous terrain: Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie, v. 29, supplement,
p. 191–206.
Dietrich, W.E., and Smith, J.D., 1984, Bed load transport in a river mean-
der: Water Resources Research, v. 20, p. 1355–1380, doi:10.1029/
WR020i010p01355.
Dietrich, W.E., Bellugi, D.G., Sklar, L.S., Stock, J.D., Heimsath, A.M., and
Roering, J.J., 2003, Geomorphic transport laws for predicting landscape
form and dynamics, in Wilcock, P.R., and Iverson, R.M., eds., Prediction
in Geomorphology: Washington, D.C., American Geophysical Union,
p. 103–132, doi:10.1029/135GM09.
Downs, P.W., and Priestnall, G., 2003, Modelling catchment processes, in Kon-
dolf, G.M., and Piégay, H., eds., Tools in Fluvial Geomorphology: Chich-
ester, UK, Wiley, p. 205–230.
Doyle, M.W., and Shields, F.D., 2000, Incorporation of bed texture into a chan-
nel evolution model: Geomorphology, v. 34, p. 291–309, doi:10.1016/
S0169-555X(00)00014-3.
Dunne, T., 1979, Sediment yield and land use in tropical catchments: Jour-
nal of Hydrology (Amsterdam), v. 42, p. 281–300, doi:10.1016/0022
-1694(79)90052-0.
Dunne, T., and Dietrich, W.E., 1980, Experimental investigation of Horton
overland flow on tropical hillslopes. Part II: Hydraulic characteristics
and hillslope hydrographs: Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie, v. 35, supple-
ment, p. 60–80.
Dunne, T., Zhang, W., and Aubry, B.F., 1991, Effects of rainfall intensity, veg-
etation, and microtopography on infiltration and runoff: Water Resources
Research, v. 27, p. 2271–2285, doi:10.1029/91WR01585.
Dupont, S., Bergametti, G., and Simoens, S., 2014, Modeling aeolian erosion in
presence of vegetation: Journal of Geophysical Research–Earth Surface,
v. 119, p. 168–187, doi:10.1002/2013JF002875.
Dury, G.H., 1954, Contribution to the general theory of meandering val-
leys: American Journal of Science, v. 252, p. 193–224, doi:10.2475/
ajs.252.4.193.
Dury, G.H., 1964, Principles of Underfit Streams: U.S. Geological Survey Pro-
fessional Paper 452-A, 73 p.
Dury, G.H., 1965, Theoretical Implications of Underfit Streams: U.S. Geologi-
cal Survey Professional Paper 452-C, 53 p.
Eaton, B.C., Hassan, M.A., and Davidson, S.L., 2012, Modeling wood dynam-
ics, jam formation, and sediment storage in a gravel-bed river: Jour-
nal of Geophysical Research–Earth Surface, v. 117, F00A05, doi:10
.1029/2012JF002385.
Eckhardt, K., and Ulbrich, U., 2003, Potential impacts of climate change on
groundwater recharge and streamflow in a central European low moun-
tain range: Journal of Hydrology (Amsterdam), v. 284, p. 244–252,
doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2003.08.005.
Elmore, D., and Phillips, F., 1987, Accelerator mass spectrometry for mea-
surement of long-lived radioisotopes: Science, v. 236, p. 543–550,
doi:10.1126/science.236.4801.543.
Engholm, D.L., Nielsen, S.B., Pedersen, V.K., and Lesemann, J.-E., 2009,
Glacial effects limiting mountain height: Nature, v. 460, p. 884–887,
doi:10.1038/nature08263.
21
Erős, T., Olden, J.D., Schick, R.S., Schmera, D., and Fortin, M.J., 2012, Char-
acterizing connectivity relationships in freshwaters using patch-based
graphs: Landscape Ecology, v. 27, p. 303–317, doi:10.1007/s10980-011
-9659-2.
Escobar-Arias, M.I., and Pasternack, G.B., 2010, A hydrogeomorphic dynam-
ics approach to assess in-stream ecological functionality using the func-
tional flows model: Part 1. Model characteristics: River Research and
Applications, v. 26, p. 1103–1128, doi:10.1002/rra.1316.
Finnegan, N.J., Roe, G., Montgomery, D.R., and Hallet, B., 2005, Controls on
the channel width of rivers: Implications for modeling fluvial incision of
bedrock: Geology, v. 33, p. 229–232, doi:10.1130/G21171.1.
Flint, R.F., 1971, Glacial and Quaternary Geology: New York, Wiley, 892 p.
Foley, J.A., DeFries, R., Asner, G.P., Barford, C., Bonan, G., Carpenter, S.R.,
Chapin, F.S., Coe, M.T., Daily, G.C., Gibbs, H.K., Helkowski, J.H., Hol-
loway, T., Howard, E.A., Kucharik, C.J., Monfreda, C., Patz, J.A., Pren-
tice, I.C., Ramankutty, N., and Snyder, P.K., 2005, Global consequences
of land use: Science, v. 309, p. 570–574, doi:10.1126/science.1111772.
Foley, J.A., Ramankutty, N., Brauman, K.A., Cassidy, E.S., Gerber, J.S., John-
ston, M., Mueller, N.D., O’Connell, C., Ray, D.K., West, P.C., Balzer, C.,
Bennett, E.M., Carpenter, S.R., Hill, J., Monfreda, C., Polasky, S., Rock-
ström, J., Sheehan, J., Siebert, S., Tilman, D., and Zaks, D.P.M., 2011,
Solutions for a cultivated planet: Nature, v. 478, p. 337–342, doi:10.1038/
nature10452.
Fonstad, M.A., Dietrich, J.T., Courville, B.C., Jensen, J.L., and Carbonneau,
P.E., 2013, Topographic structure from motion: A new development in
photogrammetric measurement: Earth Surface Processes and Landforms,
v. 38, p. 421–430, doi:10.1002/esp.3366.
Ford, M.R., 2014, The application of PIT tags to measure transport of detrital
coral fragments on a fringing reef; Majuro Atoll, Marshall Islands: Coral
Reefs, v. 33, p. 375–379, doi:10.1007/s00338-014-1131-8.
Fryirs, K.A., 2013, (Dis)connectivity in catchment sediment cascades: A fresh
look at the sediment delivery problem: Earth Surface Processes and Land-
forms, v. 38, p. 30–46, doi:10.1002/esp.3242.
Fryirs, K.A., Brierley, G.J., Preston, N.J., and Spencer, J., 2007, Catchment
scale (dis)connectivity in sediment flux in the upper Hunter catch-
ment, New South Wales, Australia: Geomorphology, v. 84, p. 297–316,
doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2006.01.044.
Fuchs, M., and Lang, A., 2009, Luminescence dating of hillslope deposits—
A review: Geomorphology, v. 109, p. 17–26, doi:10.1016/j.geomorph
.2008.08.025.
Gabet, E.J., and Dunne, T., 2002, Landslides on coastal sage-scrub and grass-
land hillslopes in a severe El Nino winter: The effects of vegetation con-
version on sediment delivery: Geological Society of America Bulletin,
v. 114, p. 983–990, doi:10.1130/0016-7606(2002)114<0983:LOCSSA
>2.0.CO;2.
Gabet, E.J., and Mudd, S.M., 2010, Bedrock erosion by root fracture and tree
throw: A coupled biogeomorphic model to explore the humped soil produc-
tion function and the persistence of hillslope soils: Journal of Geophysical
Research–Earth Surface, v. 115, F04005, doi:10.1029/2009JF001526.
Gardner, J.T., and Ashmore, P.E., 2011, Geometry and grain-size characteristics
of the basal surface of a braided river deposit: Geology, v. 39, p. 247–250,
doi:10.1130/G31639.1.
Gartner, J.D., Renshaw, C.E., Dade, W.B., and Magilligan, F.J., 2012, Time
and depth scales of fine sediment delivery into gravel stream beds:
Constraints from fallout radionuclides on fine sediment residence time
and delivery: Geomorphology, v. 151–152, p. 39–49, doi:10.1016/j
.geomorph.2012.01.008.
Gartner, J.W., 2004, Estimating suspended solids concentrations from backscat-
ter intensity measured by acoustic Doppler current profiler in San Fran-
cisco Bay, California: Marine Geology, v. 211, p. 169–187, doi:10.1016/j
.margeo.2004.07.001.
Gasparini, N.M., and Whipple, K.X., 2014, Diagnosing climatic and tectonic
controls on topography: Eastern flank of the northern Bolivian Andes:
Lithosphere, v. 6, no. 4, p. 230–250, doi:10.1130/L322.1.
Ghrefat, H.A., Goodell, P.C., Hubbard, B.E., Langford, R.P., and Aldouri, R.E.,
2007, Modeling grain size variations of aeolian gypsum deposits at White
Sands, New Mexico, using AVIRIS imagery: Geomorphology, v. 88,
p. 57–68, doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2006.10.013.
Giachetta, E., Refice, A., Capolongo, D., Gasparini, N.M., and Pazzaglia, F.J.,
2014, Orogen-scale drainage network evolution and response to erod-
ibility changes: Insights from numerical experiments: Earth Surface Pro-
cesses and Landforms, v. 39, p. 1259–1268, doi:10.1002/esp.3579.
 Downloaded from specialpapers.gsapubs.org on April 27, 2016
22 Wohl et al.
Gilbert, G.K., 1877, Report on the Geology of the Henry Mountains: Washing-
ton, D.C., U.S. Geological Survey, doi:10.5962/bhl.title.51652.
Gilvear, D., and Bryant, R., 2003, Analysis of aerial photography and other
remotely sensed data, in Kondolf, G.M., and Piégay, H., eds., Tools
in Fluvial Geomorphology: Chichester, UK, Wiley, p. 135–170,
doi:10.1002/0470868333.ch6.
Gjermundsen, E.F., Briner, J.P., Akcar, N., Foros, J., Kubik, P.W., Salvigsen,
O., and Hormes, A., 2015, Minimal erosion of Arctic alpine topography
during late Quaternary glaciation: Nature Geoscience, v. 8, p. 789–792,
doi:10.1038/ngeo2524.
Golet, G.H., Brown, D.L., Carlson, M., Gardali, T., Henderson, A., Holl, K.D.,
Howell, C.A., Holyoak, M., Hunt, J.W., Kondolf, G.M., Larsen, E.W.,
Luster, R.A., McClain, C., Nelson, C., Paine, S., Rainey, W., Rubin, Z.,
Shilling, F., Silveira, J., Swagerty, H., Williams, N.M., and Wood, D.M.,
2013, Successes, failures, and suggested future directions for ecosystem
restoration of the Middle Sacramento River, California: San Francisco
Estuary and Watershed Science, v. 11, p. 1–29.
Goll, D.S., Moosdorf, N., Hartmann, J., and Brovkin, V., 2014, Climate-driven
changes in chemical weathering and associated phosphorus release since
1850: Implications for the land carbon balance: Geophysical Research
Letters, v. 41, p. 3553–3558, doi:10.1002/2014GL059471.
Gomez, B., Baisden, W.T., and Rogers, K.M., 2010, Variable composi-
tion of particle-bound organic carbon in steepland river systems: Jour-
nal of Geophysical Research–Earth Surface, v. 115, F04006, doi:10
.1029/2010JF001713.
Goode, J.R., Luce, C.H., and Buffington, J.M., 2012, Enhanced sediment
delivery in a changing climate in semi-arid mountain basins: Implica-
tions for water resource management and aquatic habitat in the northern
Rocky Mountains: Geomorphology, v. 139–140, p. 1–15, doi:10.1016/j
.geomorph.2011.06.021.
Goudie, A., and Viles, H., 1997, The Earth Transformed: An Introduction to
Human Impacts on the Environment: Oxford, UK, Blackwell, 276 p.
Graf, W.L., 2001, Damage control: Restoring the physical integrity of Amer-
ica’s rivers: Annals of the Association of American Geographers, v. 91,
p. 1–27, doi:10.1111/0004-5608.00231.
Graf, W.L., 2006, Downstream hydrologic and geomorphic effects of large dams
on American rivers: Geomorphology, v. 79, p. 336–360, doi:10.1016/j
.geomorph.2006.06.022.
Graly, J.A., Bierman, P.R., Reusser, L.J., and Pavich, M.J., 2010, Meteoric 10Be
in soil profiles—A global meta-analysis: Geochimica et Cosmochimica
Acta, v. 74, p. 6814–6829, doi:10.1016/j.gca.2010.08.036.
Granger, D.E., Fabel, D., and Palmer, A.N., 2001, Pliocene–Pleistocene inci-
sion of the Green River, Kentucky, determined from radioactive decay
of cosmogenic 26Al and 10Be in Mammoth Cave sediments: Geological
Society of America Bulletin, v. 113, no. 7, p. 825–836, doi:10.1130/0016
-7606(2001)113<0825:PPIOTG>2.0.CO;2.
Grant, G.E., 1997, Critical flow constrains flow hydraulics in mobile-bed
streams: A new hypothesis: Water Resources Research, v. 33, p. 349–358,
doi:10.1029/96WR03134.
Grant, G.E., Swanson, F.J., and Wolman, M.G., 1990, Pattern and origin of
stepped-bed morphology in high-gradient streams, western Cascades,
Oregon: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 102, p. 340–352,
doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1990)102<0340:PAOOSB>2.3.CO;2.
Grant, H.L., Stewart, R.W., and Moilliet, A., 1968, The spectrum of temper-
ature fluctuations in turbulent flow: Journal of Fluid Mechanics, v. 34,
p. 423–442, doi:10.1017/S0022112068001990.
Gray, J.R., and Gartner, J.W., 2009, Technological advances in suspended-
sediment surrogate monitoring: Water Resources Research,
v. 45, W00D29, doi:10.1029/2008WR007063.
Green, K.C., and Westbrook, C.J., 2009, Changes in riparian area structure,
channel hydraulics, and sediment yield following loss of beaver dams:
Journal of Ecosystems and Management, v. 10, p. 68–79.
Greswell, R., Ellis, P., Cuthbert, M., White, R., and Durand, V., 2009, The
design and application of an inexpensive pressure monitoring system
for shallow water level measurement, tensiometry and piezometry:
Journal of Hydrology (Amsterdam), v. 373, p. 416–425, doi:10.1016/j
.jhydrol.2009.05.001.
Greve, P., Orlowsky, B., Mueller, B., Sheffield, J., Reichstein, M., and Senevi-
ratne, S.I., 2014, Global assessment of trends in wetting and drying over
land: Nature Geoscience, v. 7, p. 716–721, doi:10.1038/ngeo2247.
Griffin, E.R., Kean, J.W., Vincent, K.R., Smith, J.D., and Friedman, J.M., 2005,
Modeling effects of bank friction and woody bank vegetation on channel
flow and boundary shear stress in the Rio Puerco, New Mexico: Journal
of Geophysical Research, v. 110, F04023, doi:10.1029/2005JF000322.
Gurnell, A.M., 1998, The hydrogeomorphological effects of beaver dam-
building activity: Progress in Physical Geography, v. 22, p. 167–189.
Gurnell, A.M., and Petts, G., 2006, Trees as riparian engineers: The Tagliamento
River, Italy: Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, v. 31, p. 1558–1574,
doi:10.1002/esp.1342.
Gurnell, A.M., Bertoldi, W., and Corenblit, D., 2012, Changing river chan-
nels: The roles of hydrological processes, plants and pioneer fluvial land-
forms in humid temperate, mixed load, gravel bed rivers: Earth-Science
Reviews, v. 111, p. 129–141, doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2011.11.005.
Hack, J.T., 1960, Interpretation of erosional topography in humid temperate
regions: American Journal of Science, v. 258-A, p. 80–97.
Hallberg, G.R., Hoyer, B.E., and Rango, A., 1973, Application of ERTS-1 to flood
inundation mapping, in Freden, S.C., Mercanti, E.P., and Witten, D.E., eds.,
Symposium on Significant Results Obtained from the Earth Resources Tech-
nology Satellite-1: Washington, D.C., National Aeronautics and Space Admin-
istration (NASA) Special Publication 327, p. 745–753.
Hancock, G.R., Evans, K.G., Willgoose, G.R., Moliere, D.R., Saynor, M.J., and
Loch, R.J., 2000, Medium-term erosion simulation of an abandoned mine
site using the SIBERIA landscape evolution model: Australian Journal of
Soil Research, v. 38, p. 249–264, doi:10.1071/SR99035.
Harden, C.P., Chin, A., English, M.R., Fu, R., Galvin, K.A., Gerlak, A.K.,
McDowell, P.F., McNamara, D.E., Peterson, J.M., Poff, N.L., Rosa, E.A.,
Solecki, W.D., and Wohl, E.E., 2014, Understanding human-landscape
interactions in the “Anthropocene”: Environmental Management, v. 53,
p. 4–13, doi:10.1007/s00267-013-0082-0.
Harvey, A.M., 1997, Coupling between hillslope gully systems and stream
channels in the Howgill Fells, northwest England: Temporal implications:
Geomorphologie, v. 3, p. 3–19, doi:10.3406/morfo.1997.897.
Harvey, A.M., 2002, Effective timescales of coupling in fluvial systems: Geo-
morphology, v. 44, p. 175–201.
Hassan, M.A., and Ergenzinger, P., 2003, Use of tracers in fluvial geomorphol-
ogy, in Kondolf, G.M., and Piégay, H., eds., Tools in Fluvial Geomorphol-
ogy: Chichester, UK, Wiley, p. 397–423.
Hassan, M.A., Gottesfeld, A.S., Montgomery, D.R., Tunnicliffe, J.F., Clarke,
G.K.C., Wynn, G., Jones-Cox, H., Poirier, R., MacIsaac, E., Herunter,
H., and Macdonald, S.J., 2008, Salmon-driven bed load transport and bed
morphology in mountain streams: Geophysical Research Letters, v. 35,
L04405, doi:10.1029/2007GL032997.
Head, J.W., Chapman, C.R., Strom, R.G., Fasett, C.I., Denevi, B., Blewett, B.T.,
Ernst, C.M., Watters, T.R., Solomon, S.C., and Murchie, S.L., 2011, Flood
volcanism in the northern high latitudes of Mercury revealed by MES-
SENGER: Science, v. 333, p. 1853–1856, doi:10.1126/science.1211997.
Headley, R., Hallet, B., Roe, G., Waddington, E., and Rignot, E., 2012, Spa-
tial distribution of glacial erosion rates in the St. Elias Range, Alaska,
inferred from a realistic model of glacier dynamics: Journal of Geophysi-
cal Research, v. 117, F03027, doi:10.1029/2011JF002291.
Heckmann, T., and Schwanghart, W., 2013, Geomorphic coupling and sedi-
ment connectivity in an alpine catchment—Exploring sediment cascades
using graph theory: Geomorphology, v. 182, p. 89–103, doi:10.1016/j
.geomorph.2012.10.033.
Heckmann, T., Haas, F., Morche, D., Schmidt, K.-H., Rohn, J., Moser, M., Leo-
pold, M., Kuhn, M., Briese, C., Pfeifer, N., and Becht, M., 2012, Inves-
tigating an Alpine proglacial sediment budget using field measurements,
airborne and terrestrial LiDAR data, in Collins, A.L., Golosov, V., Hor-
rowitz, A.J., Lu, X., Stone, M., Walling, D.E., and Zang, X., eds., Erosion
and Sediment Yields in the Changing Environment: International Asso-
ciation of Hydrological Sciences (IAHS)–Association Internationale des
Sciences Hydrologiques (AISH) Publication 356, p. 438–447.
Heimsath, A.M., Dietrich, W.E., Nishiizumi, K., and Finkel, R.C., 1997, The
soil production function and landscape equilibrium: Nature, v. 388,
p. 358–361, doi:10.1038/41056.
Hicks, D.M., and Gomez, B., 2003, Sediment transport, in Kondolf, G.M., and
Piégay, H., eds., Tools in Fluvial Geomorphology: Chichester, UK, Wiley,
p. 425–461.
Higgins, C.G., 1982, Drainage systems developed by sapping on Earth and
Mars: Geology, v. 10, p. 147–152, doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1982)10<147
:DSDBSO>2.0.CO;2.
Hilton, R.G., Galy, A., Hovius, N., Chen, M.-C., Horng, M.-J., and Chen, H.,
2008, Tropical cyclone-driven erosion of the terrestrial biosphere from
mountains: Nature Geoscience, v. 1, p. 759–762, doi:10.1038/ngeo333.
 Downloaded from specialpapers.gsapubs.org on April 27, 2016
Earth’s dynamic surface: A perspective on the past 50 years in geomorphology
Hilton, R.G., Galy, A., Hovius, N., Horng, M.-C., and Chen, H., 2011, Efficient
transport of fossil organic carbon to the ocean by steep mountain rivers:
An orogenic carbon sequestration mechanism: Geology, v. 39, p. 71–74,
doi:10.1130/G31352.1.
Hobbs, P.R.N., Gibson, A., Jones, L., Pennington, C., Jenkins, G., Pearson, S.,
and Freeborough, K., 2010, Monitoring coastal change using terrestrial
LiDAR, in Fleming, C., Marsh, S.H., and Giles, J.R.A., eds., Elevation
Models for Geoscience: Geological Society, London, Special Publication
345, p. 117–127.
Hobo, N., Makaske, B., Wallinga, J., and Middelkoop, H., 2014, Reconstruc-
tion of eroded and deposited sediment volumes of the embanked River
Waal, the Netherlands, for the period AD 1631–present: Earth Surface
Processes and Landforms, v. 39, p. 1301–1318, doi:10.1002/esp.3525.
Hodges, K., Hurtado, J.M., and Whipple, K., 2001, Southward extrusion of
Tibetan crust and its effect on Himalayan tectonics: Tectonics, v. 20,
p. 799–809, doi:10.1029/2001TC001281.
Hoffmann, T., Glatzel, S., and Dikau, R., 2009, A carbon storage perspective
on alluvial sediment storage in the Rhine catchment: Geomorphology,
v. 108, p. 127–137, doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2007.11.015.
Hooke, R.LeB., 1994, On the efficacy of humans as geomorphic agents: GSA
Today, v. 4, no. 9, p. 217, 224–225.
Hooke, R.LeB., 2000, On the history of humans as geomorphic agents: Geol-
ogy, v. 28, p. 843–846, doi:10.1130/0091-7613(2000)28<843:OTHOHA
>2.0.CO;2.
Hooke, R., LeB., Martin-Duque, J.F., and Pedraza, J., 2012, Land transforma-
tion by humans: A review: GSA Today, v. 22, no. 12, p. 4–10, doi:10.1130/
GSAT151A.1.
Horton, R.E., 1945, Erosional development of streams and their drainage
basins: Hydrophysical approach to quantitative morphology: Geologi-
cal Society of America Bulletin, v. 56, p. 275–370, doi:10.1130/0016
-7606(1945)56[275:EDOSAT]2.0.CO;2.
Howard, A.D., 1971, Optimal angles of stream junction: Geometric, stability
to capture, and minimum power criteria: Water Resources Research, v. 7,
p. 863–873, doi:10.1029/WR007i004p00863.
Howard, A.D., 1980, Thresholds in river regimes, in Coates, D.R., and Vitek,
J.D., eds., Thresholds in Geomorphology: London, George Allen and
Unwin, p. 227–258.
Howard, A.D., 1990, Theoretical model of optimal drainage networks:
Water Resources Research, v. 26, p. 2107–2117, doi:10.1029/
WR026i009p02107.
Howard, A.D., 1994, A detachment-limited model of drainage basin evolution:
Water Resources Research, v. 30, p. 2261–2285, doi:10.1029/94WR00757.
Howard, A.D., 1997, Badland morphology and evolution: Interpretation using a
simulation model: Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, v. 22, p. 211–
227, doi:10.1002/(SICI)1096-9837(199703)22:3<211::AID-ESP749>3.0
.CO;2-E.
Howard, A.D., Moore, J.M., and Irwin, R.P., III, 2005, An intense terminal
epoch of widespread fluvial activity on early Mars: 1. Valley network
incision and associated deposits: Journal of Geophysical Research,
v. 110, E12S14, doi:10.1029/2005JE002459.
Hurther, D., Thorne, P.D., Bricault, M., Lemmin, U., and Barnoud, J.-M., 2011,
A multi-frequency acoustic concentration and velocity profiler (ACVP)
for boundary layer measurements of fine-scale flow and sediment trans-
port processes: Coastal Engineering, v. 58, p. 594–605, doi:10.1016/j
.coastaleng.2011.01.006.
Jaeger, K.L., and Olden, J.D., 2012, Electrical resistance sensor arrays as a
means to quantify longitudinal connectivity of rivers: River Research and
Applications, v. 28, p. 1843–1852, doi:10.1002/rra.1554.
Jain, V., and Tandon, S.K., 2010, Assessment of (dis)connectivity and its appli-
cation to the Ganga River dispersal system: Geomorphology, v. 118,
p. 349–358, doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2010.02.002.
Jamal, M.H., Simmonds, D.J., and Magar, V., 2014, Modelling gravel
beach dynamics with XBeach: Coastal Engineering, v. 89, p. 20–29,
doi:10.1016/j.coastaleng.2014.03.006.
James, L.A., 2013, Legacy sediment: Definitions and processes of episodi-
cally produced anthropogenic sediment: Anthropocene, v. 2, p. 16–26,
doi:10.1016/j.ancene.2013.04.001.
James, L.A., and Marcus, W.A., 2006, The human role in changing fluvial sys-
tems: Retrospect, inventory, and prospect: Geomorphology, v. 79, p. 152–
171, doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2006.06.017.
Jeffries, R., Darby, S.E., and Sear, D.A., 2003, The influence of vegetation
and organic debris on flood-plain sediment dynamics: Case study of a
23
low-order stream in the New Forest, England: Geomorphology, v. 51,
p. 61–80, doi:10.1016/S0169-555X(02)00325-2.
John, S., and Klein, A., 2004, Hydrogeomorphic effects of beaver dams on
floodplain morphology: Avulsion processes and sediment fluxes in
upland valley floors (Spessart, Germany): Quaternaire, v. 15, p. 219–231,
doi:10.3406/quate.2004.1769.
Joy, K., Fink, D., Storey, B., and Atkins, C., 2014, A 2 million year glacial chro-
nology of the Hatherton Glacier, Antarctica, and implications for the size
of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet at the Last Glacial Maximum: Quaternary
Science Reviews, v. 83, p. 46–57, doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2013.10.028.
Jungers, M.C., Bierman, P.R., Matmon, A., Nichols, K., Larsen, J., and Fin-
kel, R., 2009, Tracing hillslope sediment production and transport with in
situ and meteoric 10Be: Journal of Geophysical Research–Earth Surface,
v. 114, F04020, doi:10.1029/2008JF001086.
Keylock, C.J., 2003, Mark Melton’s geomorphology and geography’s quantita-
tive revolution: Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, v. 28,
p. 142–157, doi:10.1111/1475-5661.00084.
Kious, W.J., and Tilling, R.I., 1996, This Dynamic Earth: The Story of Plate
Tectonics: Washington, D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office, 67 p.
Kirkby, M.J., 1971, Hillslope process-response models based on the continu-
ity equation, in Brunsden, D., ed., Slopes: Form and Process: Institute of
British Geographers Special Publication 3, p. 15–30.
Kirkby, M.J., 2014, Do not only connect: A model of infiltration-excess over-
land flow based on simulation: Earth Surface Processes and Landforms,
v. 39, p. 952–963, doi:10.1002/esp.3556.
Knight, J., and Harrison, S., 2012, The impacts of climate change on ter-
restrial Earth surface systems: Nature Climate Change, v. 3, p. 24–29,
doi:10.1038/nclimate1660.
Knox, J.C., 1972, Valley alluviation in southwestern Wisconsin: Annals
of the Association of American Geographers, v. 62, p. 401–410,
doi:10.1111/j.1467-8306.1972.tb00872.x.
Koehn, D., and Sachau, T., 2014, Two-dimensional numerical modeling of frac-
turing and shear band development in glacier fronts: Journal of Structural
Geology, v. 61, p. 133–142, doi:10.1016/j.jsg.2012.11.002.
Kondolf, G.M., 2011, Setting goals in river restoration: When and where can
the river ‘heal itself’? in Simon, A., Bennett, S.J., and Castro, J.M., eds.,
Stream Restoration in Dynamic Fluvial Systems: Scientific Approaches,
Analyses, and Tools: Washington, D.C., American Geophysical Union,
p. 29–43, doi:10.1029/2010GM001020.
Kondolf, G.M., Lisle, T.E., and Wolman, M.G., 2003, Bed sediment measure-
ment in Kondolf, G.M., and Piégay, H., eds., Tools in Fluvial Geomor-
phology: Chichester, UK, Wiley, p. 347–395, doi:10.1002/0470868333.
Koons, P.O., 1990, The two-sided orogeny: Collision and erosion from the
sand box to the Southern Alps, New Zealand: Geology, v. 18, p. 679–682,
doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1990)018<0679:TSOCAE>2.3.CO;2.
Koons, P.O., Zeitler, P.K., Chamberlain, C., Craw, D., and Meltzer, A.S., 2002,
Mechanical links between erosion and metamorphism in Nanga Parbat,
Pakistan Himalaya: American Journal of Science, v. 302, p. 749–773,
doi:10.2475/ajs.302.9.749.
Kramer, N., Wohl, E.E., and Harry, D.L., 2012, Using ground penetrating radar
to “unearth” buried beaver dams: Geology, v. 40, p. 43–46, doi:10.1130/
G32682.1.
Lancaster, S.T., Hayes, S.K., and Grant, G.E., 2003, Effects of wood on debris
flow runout in small mountain watersheds: Water Resources Research,
v. 39, 1168, doi:10.1029/2001WR001227.
Lane, E.W., 1955, The importance of fluvial morphology in hydraulic engineering:
American Society of Civil Engineers Proceedings Separate, v. 81, p. 1–17.
Lane, S.N., 2013, 21st century climate change: Where has all the geomorphol-
ogy gone?: Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, v. 38, p. 106–110,
doi:10.1002/esp.3362.
Langbein, W.B., and Leopold, L.B., 1964, Quasi-equilibrium states in chan-
nel morphology: American Journal of Science, v. 262, p. 782–794,
doi:10.2475/ajs.262.6.782.
Langbein, W.B., and Leopold, L.B., 1966, River Meanders—Theory of Mini-
mum Variance: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 422H, 21 p.
Larsen, L.G., and Harvey, J.W., 2010, How vegetation and sediment transport
feedbacks drive landscape change in the Everglades and wetlands world-
wide: American Naturalist, v. 176, p. E66–E79, doi:10.1086/655215.
Legleiter, C.J., Harrison, L.R, and Dunne, T., 2011, Effect of point bar develop-
ment on the local force balance governing flow in a simple, meandering
gravel bed river: Journal of Geophysical Research–Earth Surface, v. 116,
F01005, doi:10.1029/2010JF001838.
 Downloaded from specialpapers.gsapubs.org on April 27, 2016
24 Wohl et al.
Leithold, E.L., Blair, N.E., and Perkey, D.W., 2006, Geomorphologic con-
trols on the age of particulate organic carbon from small mountain-
ous and upland rivers: Global Biogeochemical Cycles, v. 20, GB3022,
doi:10.1029/2005GB002677.
Lenton, T.M., Held, H., Kriegler, E., Hall, J.W., Lucht, W., Rahmstorf, S., and
Schelinhuber, H.G., 2008, Tipping elements in the Earth’s climate system:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of
America, v. 105, p. 1786–1793, doi:10.1073/pnas.0705414105.
Leopold, L.B., and Langbein, W.B., 1962, The Concept of Entropy in Land-
scape Evolution: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 500-A, 26 p.
Leopold, L.B., and Maddock, T., 1953, The Hydraulic Geometry of Stream
Channels and Some Physiographic Implications: U.S. Geological Survey
Professional Paper 252, 57 p.
Leopold, L.B., Wolman, M.G., and Miller, J.P., 1964, Fluvial Processes in Geo-
morphology: San Francisco, California, W.H. Freeman, 544 p.
Levine, R., and Meyer, G.A., 2014, Beaver dams and channel sediment dynam-
ics on Odell Creek, Centennial Valley, Montana, USA: Geomorphology,
v. 205, p. 51–64, doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2013.04.035.
Li, Q., Unger, A.J.A., Sudicky, E.A., Kassenaar, D., Wexler, E.J., and Shikaze,
S., 2008, Simulating the multi-seasonal response of a large-scale water-
shed with a 3D physically-based hydrologic model: Journal of Hydrology
(Amsterdam), v. 357, p. 317–336, doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2008.05.024.
Lian, O.B., 2007, Optically-stimulated luminescence, in Elias, S.A., ed., Ency-
clopedia of Quaternary Science: Amsterdam, Elsevier, p. 1491–1505,
doi:10.1016/B0-44-452747-8/00057-0.
Liao, Z., Lemke, D., Osenbrueck, K., and Cirpka, O.A., 2013, Modeling and
inverting reactive stream tracers undergoing two-site sorption and decay
in the hyporheic zone: Water Resources Research, v. 49, p. 3406–3422,
doi:10.1002/wrcr.20276.
Lu, X.X., Zhang, S., and Xu, J., 2010, Climate change and sediment flux from
the Roof of the World: Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, v. 35,
p. 732–735.
MacFarlane, W.A., and Wohl, E., 2003, Influence of step composi-
tion on step geometry and flow resistance in step-pool streams of
the Washington Cascades: Water Resources Research, v. 39, 1037,
doi:10.1029/2001WR001238.
Mackin, J.H., 1948, The concept of the graded river: Geological Soci-
ety of America Bulletin, v. 59, p. 463–512, doi:10.1130/0016-7606
(1948)59[463:COTGR]2.0.CO;2.
MacVicar, B.J., Beaulieu, E., Champagne, V., and Roy, A.G., 2007, Measuring water
velocity in highly turbulent flows: Field tests of an electromagnetic current
meter (ECM) and an acoustic Doppler velocimeter (ADV): Earth Surface Pro-
cesses and Landforms, v. 32, p. 1412–1432, doi:10.1002/esp.1497.
Malin, M.C., and Carr, M.H., 1999, Groundwater formation of Martian valleys:
Nature, v. 397, p. 589–591, doi:10.1038/17551.
Malin, M.C., and Edgett, K.S., 2003, Evidence for persistent flow and aqueous
sedimentation on early Mars: Science, v. 302, p. 1931–1934, doi:10.1126/
science.1090544.
Manga, M., 2004, Martian floods at Cerberus Fossae can be produced by
groundwater discharge: Geophysical Research Letters, v. 31, L02702,
doi:10.1029/2003GL018958.
Manga, M., and Kirchner, J.W., 2000, Stress partitioning in streams by
large woody debris: Water Resources Research, v. 36, p. 2373–2379,
doi:10.1029/2000WR900153.
Manners, R.B., Doyle, M.W., and Small, M.J., 2007, Structure and hydraulics
of natural woody debris jams: Water Resources Research, v. 43, W06432,
doi:10.1029/2006WR004910.
Mao, L., Andreoli, A., Comiti, F., and Lenzi, M.A., 2008, Geomorphic effects
of large wood jams on a sub-Antarctic mountain stream: River Research
and Applications, v. 24, p. 249–266, doi:10.1002/rra.1062.
Mars Channel Working Group, 1983, Channels and valleys on Mars: Geologi-
cal Society of America Bulletin, v. 94, p. 1035–1054, doi:10.1130/0016
-7606(1983)94<1035:CAVOM>2.0.CO;2.
Marsh, G.P., 1864, Man and Nature: New York, Scribner, 560 p.
Marston, R.A., 1989, Geomorphology, in Gaile, G.L., and Willmott, C.J.,
eds., Geography in America: Merrill, Wisconsin, Merrill Publishing Co.,
p. 70–94.
Marston, R.A., 2008, Land, life, and environmental change in mountains:
Annals of the Association of American Geographers, v. 98, p. 507–520,
doi:10.1080/00045600802118491.
McDonald, A., Lane, S., Haycock, N., and Chalk, E., 2004, Rivers of dreams:
On the gulf between theoretical and practical aspects of an upland river
restoration: Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, v. 29,
p. 257–281, doi:10.1111/j.0020-2754.2004.00314.x.
McGlynn, B.L., McDonnell, J.J., and Brammer, D.D., 2002, A review of the
evolving perceptual model of hillslope flow paths at the Maimai catch-
ments, New Zealand: Journal of Hydrology (Amsterdam), v. 257, p. 1–26,
doi:10.1016/S0022-1694(01)00559-5.
McKean, J.A., Dietrich, W.E., Finkel, R.C., Southon, J.R., and Caffee, M.W.,
1993, Quantification of soil production and downslope creep rates from
cosmogenic 10Be accumulations on a hillslope profile: Geology, v. 21,
no. 4, p. 343–346, doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1993)021<0343:QOSPAD>2
.3.CO;2.
Meade, R.H., Dunne, T., Richey, J.E., Santos, U., De, M., and Salati, E.,
1985, Storage and remobilization of suspended sediment in the lower
Amazon River of Brazil: Science, v. 228, p. 488–490, doi:10.1126/
science.228.4698.488.
Melis, T.S., ed., 2011, Effects of Three High-Flow Experiments on the Colo-
rado River Ecosystem Downstream from Glen Canyon Dam, Arizona:
U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1366, 147 p.
Melton, M.A., 1958, Correlation structure of morphometric properties of drain-
age systems and their controlling agents: The Journal of Geology, v. 66,
p. 442–460, doi:10.1086/626527.
Merritt, D.M., 2013, Reciprocal relations between riparian vegetation, fluvial
landforms, and channel processes, in Wohl, E., ed., Treatise on Fluvial
Geomorphology: Amsterdam, Elsevier, p. 219–243, doi:10.1016/B978-0
-12-374739-6.00239-6.
Merritt, D.M., and Wohl, E.E., 2002, Processes governing hydrochory along
rivers: Hydraulics, hydrology, and dispersal phenology: Ecological Appli-
cations, v. 12, p. 1071–1087, doi:10.1890/1051-0761(2002)012[1071
:PGHARH]2.0.CO;2.
Mertes, L.A.K., Dunne, T., and Martinelli, L.A., 1996, Channel-floodplain
geomorphology along the Solimoes-Amazon River, Brazil: Geological
Society of America Bulletin, v. 108, p. 1089–1107, doi:10.1130/0016
-7606(1996)108<1089:CFGATS>2.3.CO;2.
Meybeck, M., 2003, Global analysis of river systems: From Earth system
controls to Anthropocene syndromes: Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society of London, ser. B, Biological Sciences, v. 358, p. 1935–
1955, doi:10.1098/rstb.2003.1379.
Michel, R.L., Campbell, D., Clow, D., and Turk, J.T., 2000, Timescales for
migration of atmospherically derived sulphate through an alpine/
subalpine watershed, Loch Vale, Colorado: Water Resources Research,
v. 36, p. 27–36, doi:10.1029/1999WR900276.
Mitchell, S.G., and Montgomery, D.R., 2006, Influence of a glacial buzzsaw
on the height and morphology of the Cascade Range in central Wash-
ington State, USA: Quaternary Research, v. 65, p. 96–107, doi:10.1016/j
.yqres.2005.08.018.
Mitchell, S.G., Matmon, A.S., Bierman, P.R., Enzel, Y., Caffee, M., and Rizzo,
D., 2001, Displacement history of a limestone normal fault scarp, north-
ern Israel, from cosmogenic 36Cl: Journal of Geophysical Research,
v. 106, no. B3, p. 4247–4264, doi:10.1029/2000JB900373.
Mitsch, W.J., Day, J.W., Gilliam, J.W., Groffman, P.M., Hey, D.L., Randall,
G.W., and Wang, N., 2001, Reducing nitrogen loading to the Gulf of
Mexico from the Mississippi River basin: Strategies to counter a persis-
tent ecological problem: Bioscience, v. 51, p. 373–388, doi:10.1641/0006
-3568(2001)051[0373:RNLTTG]2.0.CO;2.
Molnar, P., and England, P., 1990, Late Cenozoic uplift of mountain ranges
and global climate change: Chicken or egg?: Nature, v. 346, p. 29–34,
doi:10.1038/346029a0.
Montgomery, D.R., 2007, Soil erosion and agricultural sustainability: Proceed-
ings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of Amer-
ica, v. 104, p. 13,268–13,272, doi:10.1073/pnas.0611508104.
Montgomery, D.R., Buffington, J.M., Smith, R., Schmidt, K., and Pess, G.,
1995, Pool spacing in forest channels: Water Resources Research, v. 31,
p. 1097–1105, doi:10.1029/94WR03285.
Montgomery, D.R., Abbe, T.B., Buffington, J.M., Peterson, N.P., Schmidt,
K.M., and Stock, J.D., 1996, Distribution of bedrock and alluvial chan-
nels in forested mountain drainage basins: Nature, v. 381, p. 587–589,
doi:10.1038/381587a0.
Montgomery, D.R., Balco, G., and Willett, S.D., 2001, Climate, tecton-
ics, and the morphology of the Andes: Geology, v. 29, p. 579–582,
doi:10.1130/0091-7613(2001)029<0579:CTATMO>2.0.CO;2.
Montgomery, D.R., Collins, B.D., Abbe, T.B., and Buffington, J.M., 2003, Geo-
morphic effects of wood in rivers, in Gregory, S.V., Boyer, K.L., and Gurnell,
 Downloaded from specialpapers.gsapubs.org on April 27, 2016
Earth’s dynamic surface: A perspective on the past 50 years in geomorphology
A.M., eds., The Ecology and Management of Wood in World Rivers: Bethesda,
Maryland, American Fisheries Society Symposium 37, p. 21–47.
Montgomery, D.R., Som, S.M., Jackson, M., Schreiber, B.C., Gillespie, A., and
Adams, J., 2009, Thin-skinned, continental-scale salt tectonics on Mars
and the origin of Valles Marineris and associated outflow channels: Geo-
logical Society of America Bulletin, v. 121, p. 117–133.
Montgomery, D.R., Bandfield, J.L., and Becker, S.K., 2012, Periodic bed-
rock ridges on Mars: Journal of Geophysical Research–Planets, v. 117,
E03005, doi:10.1029/2011JE003970.
Moore, J.M., and Howard, A.D., 2005, Large alluvial fans on Mars: Journal
of Geophysical Research, v. 110, E04005, doi:10.1029/2004JE002352.
Morisawa, M., 1957, Accuracy of determination of stream lengths from topo-
graphic maps: Transactions of the American Geophysical Union, v. 38,
p. 86–88, doi:10.1029/TR038i001p00086.
Motta, D., Langendoen, E.J., Abad, J.D., and Garcia, M.H., 2014, Modification
of meander migration by bank failures: Journal of Geophysical Research–
Earth Surface, v. 119, p. 1026–1042, doi:10.1002/2013JF002952.
Mutz, M., 2003, Hydraulic effects of wood in streams and rivers, in Gregory,
S.V., Boyer, K.L., and Gurnell, A.M., eds., The Ecology and Management
of Wood in World Rivers: Bethesda, Maryland, American Fisheries Soci-
ety Symposium 37, p. 93–107.
Naiman, R.J., Johnston, C.A., and Kelley, J.C., 1988, Alteration of
North American streams by beaver: Bioscience, v. 38, p. 753–762,
doi:10.2307/1310784.
Nakamura, F., and Swanson, F.J., 1993, Effects of coarse woody debris on
morphology and sediment storage of a mountain stream system in west-
ern Oregon: Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, v. 18, p. 43–61,
doi:10.1002/esp.3290180104.
National Research Council (NRC), 2001, Basic Research Opportunities in
Earth Science: Washington, D.C., National Academies Press, 168 p.
National Research Council (NRC), 2007, Progress toward Restoring the Ever-
glades: Washington, D.C., National Academies Press, 235 p.
National Research Council (NRC), 2008, Hydrology, Ecology, and Fishes of
the Klamath River Basin: Washington, D.C., National Academies Press,
249 p.
Neal, A., 2004, Ground-penetrating radar and its use in sedimentology: Prin-
ciples, problems and progress: Earth-Science Reviews, v. 66, p. 261–330,
doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2004.01.004.
Nelson, J.M., Shreve, R.L., McLean, S.R., and Drake, T.G., 1995, Role of near-
bed turbulence structure in bed load transport and bed form mechanics:
Water Resources Research, v. 31, p. 2071–2086, doi:10.1029/95WR00976.
Nelson, J.M., Bennett, J.P., and Wiele, S.M., 2003, Flow and sediment-transport
modeling, in Kondolf, G.M., and Piégay, H., eds., Tools in Fluvial Geo-
morphology: Chichester, UK, Wiley, p. 539–576.
Nelson, A.H., Bierman, P.R., Shakun, J.D., and Rood, D.H., 2014, Using in
situ cosmogenic 10Be to identify the source of sediment leaving Green-
land: Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, v. 39, p. 1087–1100,
doi:10.1002/esp.3565.
Newman, B.D., Wilcox, B.P., Archer, S.R., Breshears, D.D., Dahm, C.N., Duffy,
C.J., McDowell, N.G., Phillips, F.M., Scanlon, B.R., and Vivoni, E.R.,
2006, Ecohydrology of water-limited environments: A scientific vision?:
Water Resources Research, v. 42, W06302, doi:10.1029/2005WR004141.
Newson, M.D., and Large, A.R.G., 2006, ‘Natural’ rivers, ‘hydromorphologi-
cal quality’ and river restoration: A challenging new agenda for applied
fluvial geomorphology: Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, v. 31,
p. 1606–1624, doi:10.1002/esp.1430.
Nichols, K.K., and Bierman, P.R., 2001, Fifty-four years of ephemeral channel
response to two years of intense World War II military activity, Camp
Iron Mountain, Mojave Desert, California: Geological Society of Amer-
ica Reviews in Engineering Geology, v. XIV, p. 123–136, doi:10.1130/
REG14-p123.
Nilsson, C., Reidy, C.A., Dynesius, M., and Revenga, C., 2005, Fragmentation
and flow regulation of the world’s large river systems: Science, v. 308,
p. 405–408, doi:10.1126/science.1107887.
Ochiai, S., and Kashiwaya, K., 2010, Measurement of suspended sediment for
model experiments using general-purpose optical sensors: Catena, v. 83,
p. 1–6, doi:10.1016/j.catena.2010.06.008.
O’Connor, J.E., 1993, Hydrology, Hydraulics, and Geomorphology of the Bonne-
ville Flood: Geological Society of America Special Paper 274, 84 p.
O’Connor, J.E., Jones, M.A., and Haluska, T.L., 2003, Flood plain and channel
dynamics of the Quinault and Queets Rivers, Washington, USA: Geomor-
phology, v. 51, p. 31–59, doi:10.1016/S0169-555X(02)00324-0.
25
Orr, H.G., Large, A.R.G., Newson, M.D., and Walsh, C.L., 2008, A predictive
typology for characterizing hydromorphology: Geomorphology, v. 100,
p. 32–40, doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2007.10.022.
Oswood, M.W., Milner, A.M., and Irons, J.G., 1992, Climate change and Alas-
kan rivers and streams, in Firth, P., and Fisher, S.G., eds., Global Climate
Change and Freshwater Ecosystems: New York, Springer, p. 192–210,
doi:10.1007/978-1-4612-2814-1_9.
Paola, C., Twilley, R.R., Edmonds, D.A., Kim, W., Mohrig, D., Parker, G.,
Viparelli, E., and Voller, V.R., 2010, Natural processes in delta restoration:
Application to the Mississippi Delta: Annual Review of Marine Science,
v. 3, p. 67–91, doi:10.1146/annurev-marine-120709-142856.
Parker, G., and Toro-Escobar, C.M., 2002, Equal mobility of gravel in streams:
The remains of the day: Water Resources Research, v. 38, p. 46-1–46-8,
doi:10.1029/2001WR000669.
Parra, J.G., Marsaglia, K.M., Rivera, K.S., Dawson, S.T., and Walsh, J.P., 2012,
Provenance of sand on the Poverty Bay Shelf, the link between source and
sink sectors of the Waipaoa River sedimentary system: Sedimentary Geol-
ogy, v. 280, p. 208–233, doi:10.1016/j.sedgeo.2012.04.012.
Passalacqua, P., Lanzoni, S., Paola, C., and Rinaldo, A., 2013, Geomorphic
signatures of deltaic processes and vegetation: The Ganges-Brahmaputra-
Jamuna case study: Journal of Geophysical Research–Earth Surface,
v. 118, p. 1838–1849, doi:10.1002/jgrf.20128.
Passalacqua, P., Belmont, P., Staley, D.M., Simley, J.D., Arrowsmith, JR.,
Bode, C.A., Crosby, C., DeLong, S.B., Glenn, N.F., Kelly, S.A., Lague,
D., Sangirddy, H., Schaffrath, K., Tarboton, D.G., Wasklewicz, T., and
Wheaton, J.M., 2015, Analyzing high resolution topography for advanc-
ing the understanding of mass and energy transfer through landscapes:
A review: Earth-Science Reviews, v. 148, p. 174–193, doi:10.1016/j
.earscirev.2015.05.012.
Pavich, M., Brown, L., Valette-Silver, J.N., Klein, J., and Middleton, R., 1985,
10
Be analysis of a Quaternary weathering profile in the Virginia Piedmont:
Geology, v. 13, p. 39–41, doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1985)13<39:BAOAQW
>2.0.CO;2.
Pavich, M.J., Brown, L., Harden, J.W., Klein, J., and Middleton, R., 1986, 10Be
distribution in soils from Merced River terraces, California: Geochimica
et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 50, no. 8, p. 1727–1735, doi:10.1016/0016
-7037(86)90134-1.
Pazzaglia, F.J., and Gardner, T.W., 1993, Fluvial terraces of the lower Susque-
hanna River: Geomorphology, v. 8, p. 83–113, doi:10.1016/0169
-555X(93)90031-V.
Peart, M.R., and Walling, D.E., 1986, Fingerprinting sediment source: The
example of a drainage basin in Devon, UK, in Hadley, R.F., ed., Drainage
Basin Sediment Delivery: International Association of Hydrological Sci-
ences (IAHS) Publication 159, p. 41–55.
Pelletier, J.D., 2009, Controls on the height and spacing of eolian ripples and
transverse dunes: A numerical modeling investigation: Geomorphology,
v. 105, p. 322–333, doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2008.10.010.
Pelletier, J.D., DeCelles, P.G., and Zandt, G., 2010, Relationships among cli-
mate, erosion, topography, and delamination in the Andes: A numeri-
cal modeling investigation: Geology, v. 38, p. 259–262, doi:10.1130/
G30755.1.
Pelletier, J.D., Murray, A.B., Pierce, J.L., Bierman, P.R., Breshears, D.D.,
Crosby, B.T., Ellis, M., Foufoula-Georgiou, E., Heimsath, A.M.,
Houser, C., Lancaster, N., Marani, M., Merritts, D.J., Moore, L.J., Ped-
erson, J.L., Poulos, M.J., Rittenour, T.M., Rowland, J.C., Ruggiero,
P., Ward, D.J., Wickert, A.D., and Yager, E.M., 2015, Forecasting the
responses of Earth’s surface to future climatic and land-use changes: A
review of methods and research needs: Earth’s Future, v. 3, p. 220–251,
doi:10.1002/2014EF000290.
Persico, L., and Meyer, G., 2009, Holocene beaver damming, fluvial geomor-
phology, and climate in Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming: Quater-
nary Research, v. 71, p. 340–353, doi:10.1016/j.yqres.2008.09.007.
Peternell, M., Dierckx, M., Wilson, C.J.L., and Piazolo, S., 2014, Quantifi-
cation of the microstructural evolution of polycrystalline fabrics using
FAME: Application to in situ deformation of ice: Journal of Structural
Geology, v. 61, p. 109–122, doi:10.1016/j.jsg.2013.05.005.
Phan, T.T., Ngo, V.L., Nguyen, V.H., Hoang, Q.V., Bui, V.T., Bui, T.T., Mai,
T.T., and Nguyen, H., 2012, Late Quaternary tectonics and seismotecton-
ics along the Red River fault zone, north Vietnam: Earth-Science Reviews,
v. 114, p. 224–235, doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2012.06.008.
Phillips, F., Zreda, M., Smith, S., Elmore, D., Kubik, P., and Sharma, P., 1990,
Cosmogenic chlorine-36 chronology for glacial deposits at Bloody
 Downloaded from specialpapers.gsapubs.org on April 27, 2016
26 Wohl et al.
Canyon, eastern Sierra Nevada: Science, v. 248, p. 1529–1532,
doi:10.1126/science.248.4962.1529.
Phillips, J.D., 1995, Biogeomorphology and landscape evolution: The prob-
lem of scale: Geomorphology, v. 13, p. 337–347, doi:10.1016/0169
-555X(95)00023-X.
Phillips, J.D., and Marion, D.A., 2006, Biomechanical effects of trees on soil
and regolith: Beyond treethrow: Annals of the Association of American
Geographers, v. 96, p. 233–247, doi:10.1111/j.1467-8306.2006.00476.x.
Pirot, G., Straubhaar, J., and Renard, P., 2014, Simulation of braided river ele-
vation model time series with multiple point statistics: Geomorphology,
v. 214, p. 148–156, doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2014.01.022.
Pizzuto, J.E., 2003, Numerical modeling of alluvial landforms, in Kondolf,
G.M., and Piégay, H., eds., Tools in Fluvial Geomorphology: Chichester,
UK, Wiley, p. 577–595.
Plummer, M.A., and Phillips, F.M., 2003, A 2-D numerical model of snow/
ice energy balance and ice flow for paleoclimatic interpretation of glacial
geomorphic features: Quaternary Science Reviews, v. 22, p. 1389–1406,
doi:10.1016/S0277-3791(03)00081-7.
Poff, N.L., and Zimmerman, J.K.H., 2010, Ecological responses to altered flow
regimes: A literature review to inform the science and management of
environmental flows: Freshwater Biology, v. 55, p. 194–205, doi:10.1111/
j.1365-2427.2009.02272.x.
Poff, N.L., Allan, J.D., Bain, M.B., Karr, J.R., Prestegaard, K.L., Richter,
B.D., and Sparks, R.E., 1997, The natural flow regime: A paradigm
for river conservation and restoration: Bioscience, v. 47, p. 769–784,
doi:10.2307/1313099.
Poff, N.L., Olden, J.D., Merritt, D.M., and Pepin, D.M., 2007, Homogenization
of regional river dynamics by dams and global biodiversity implications:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of
America, v. 104, p. 5732–5737, doi:10.1073/pnas.0609812104.
Pollen, N., and Simon, A., 2005, Estimating the mechanical effects of ripar-
ian vegetation on stream bank stability using a fiber bundle model: Water
Resources Research, v. 41, W07025, doi:10.1029/2004WR003801.
Pollen-Bankhead, N., and Simon, A., 2009, Enhanced application of root rein-
forcement algorithms for bank stability modeling: Earth Surface Pro-
cesses and Landforms, v. 34, p. 471–480, doi:10.1002/esp.1690.
Polvi, L.E., and Wohl, E., 2012, The beaver meadow complex revisited—The
role of beavers in post-glacial floodplain development: Earth Surface Pro-
cesses and Landforms, v. 37, p. 332–346, doi:10.1002/esp.2261.
Polvi, L.E., and Wohl, E., 2013, Biotic drivers of river planform—Implications
for understanding the past and restoring the future: Bioscience, v. 63,
p. 439–452, doi:10.1525/bio.2013.63.6.6.
Portenga, E., and Bierman, P.R., 2011, Understanding Earth’s eroding surface
with 10Be: GSA Today, v. 21, no. 8, p. 4–10, doi:10.1130/G111A.1.
Pratt-Sitaula, B., Burbank, D.W., Heimsath, A.M., Humphrey, N.F., Oskin,
M., and Putkonen, J., 2011, Topographic control of asynchronous glacial
advances: A case study from Annapurna, Nepal: Geophysical Research
Letters, v. 38, L24502, doi:10.1029/2011GL049940.
Pyne, S.J., 1980, Grove Karl Gilbert: A Great Engine of Research: Austin,
Texas, University of Texas Press, 306 p.
Pyne, S.J., 1997, Fire in America: A Cultural History of Wildland and Rural
Fire: Princeton, New Jersey, Princeton University Press, 654 p.
Rahaman, W., Singh, S.K., Sinha, R., and Tandon, S.K., 2009, Climate control
on erosion distribution over the Himalaya during the past ~100 ka: Geol-
ogy, v. 37, p. 559–562, doi:10.1130/G25425A.1.
Reiners, P.W., 2002, (U-Th)/He chronometry experiences a renaissance: Eos
(Transactions, American Geophysical Union), v. 83, no. 3, p. 21–27,
doi:10.1029/2002EO000012.
Reiners, P.W., and Brandon, M.T., 2006, Using thermochronology to under-
stand orogenic erosion: Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences,
v. 34, p. 419–466, doi:10.1146/annurev.earth.34.031405.125202.
Reiners, P.W., Ehlers, T.A., Mitchell, S.G., and Montgomery, D.R., 2003,
Coupled spatial variations in precipitation and long-term erosion rates
across the Washington Cascades: Nature, v. 426, p. 645–647, doi:10.1038/
nature02111.
Ren, D., Karoly, D.J., and Leslie, L.M., 2007, Temperate mountain glacier-
melting rates for the period 2001–30: Estimates from three coupled GCM
simulations for the Greater Himalayas: Journal of Applied Meteorology
and Climatology, v. 46, p. 890–899, doi:10.1175/JAM2499.1.
Rengers, F., Tucker, G.E., and Moody, J.A., 2012, Quantifying post-wildfire
erosion patterns using terrestrial LiDAR: San Francisco, California,
American Geophysical Union, Fall meeting, abstract EP31C-0832.
Repka, J.L., Anderson, R.S., and Finkel, R.C., 1997, Cosmogenic dating of flu-
vial terraces, Fremont River, Utah: Earth and Planetary Science Letters,
v. 152, no. 1–4, p. 59–73, doi:10.1016/S0012-821X(97)00149-0.
Reusser, L.J., and Bierman, P.R., 2010, Using meteoric 10Be to track fluvial
sand through the Waipaoa River basin, New Zealand: Geology, v. 38,
no. 1, p. 47–50, doi:10.1130/G30395.1.
Reusser, L., Bierman, P.R., and Rood, D., 2015, Quantifying human impacts
on rates of erosion and sediment transport at a landscape scale: Geology,
v. 43, p. 171–174, doi:10.1130/G36272.1.
Rhodes, E.J., 2011, Optically stimulated luminescence dating of sediments over
the past 200,000 years: Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences,
v. 39, p. 461–488, doi:10.1146/annurev-earth-040610-133425.
Richmond, A.D., and Fausch, K.D., 1995, Characteristics and function of large
woody debris in subalpine Rocky Mountain streams in northern Colo-
rado: Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, v. 52, p. 1789–
1802, doi:10.1139/f95-771.
Richter, S., Voelker, J., Borchardt, D., and Mohaupt, V., 2013, The Water
Framework Directive as an approach for integrated water resources man-
agement: Results from the experiences in Germany on implementation,
and future perspectives: Environmental Earth Sciences, v. 69, p. 719–728,
doi:10.1007/s12665-013-2399-7.
Rickenmann, D., and Fritschi, B., 2010, Bedload Transport Measurements
Using Piezoelectric Impact Sensors and Geophones: U.S. Geological
Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2010-5091, 17 p.
Riebe, C.S., Sklar, L.S., Overstreet, B.T., and Wooster, J.K., 2014, Opti-
mal reproduction in salmon spawning substrates linked to grain
size and fish length: Water Resources Research, v. 50, p. 898–918,
doi:10.1002/2013WR014231.
Riggsbee, J.A., Doyle, M.W., Julian, J.P., Manners, R., Muehlbauer, J.D.,
Sholtes, J., and Small, M.J., 2013, Influence of aquatic and semi-aquatic
organisms on channel forms and processes, in Wohl, E., ed., Treatise on
Fluvial Geomorphology: Amsterdam, Netherlands, Elsevier, p. 189–202,
doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-374739-6.00237-2.
Rittenour, T.M., 2008, Luminescence dating of fluvial deposits: Applications
to geomorphic, palaeoseismic and archaeological research: Boreas, v. 37,
p. 613–635, doi:10.1111/j.1502-3885.2008.00056.x.
Rodriguez-Iturbe, I., 2000, Ecohydrology: A hydrologic perspective of
climate-soil-vegetation dynamics: Water Resources Research, v. 36,
p. 3–9, doi:10.1029/1999WR900210.
Rodriguez-Iturbe, I., and Rinaldo, A., 1997, Fractal River Basins: Chance and
Self-Organization: Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University Press, 547 p.
Roering, J.J., 2004, Soil creep and convex-upward velocity profiles: Theoretical
and experimental investigation of disturbance-driven sediment transport
on hillslopes: Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, v. 29, p. 1597–
1612, doi:10.1002/esp.1112.
Roering, J.J., Marshall, J., Booth, A.M., Mort, M., and Qusheng, J., 2010,
Evidence for biotic controls on topography and soil production: Earth
and Planetary Science Letters, v. 298, p. 183–190, doi:10.1016/j
.epsl.2010.07.040.
Roering, J.J., Mackey, B.H., Marshall, J.A., Sweeney, K.E., Deligne, N.I.,
Booth, A.M., Handwerger, A.L., and Cerovski-Darriau, C., 2013, “You
are HERE”: Connecting the dots with airborne LiDAR for geomor-
phic field work: Geomorphology, v. 200, p. 172–183, doi:10.1016/j
.geomorph.2013.04.009.
Rood, S.B., Pan, J., Gill, K.M., Franks, C.G., Samuelson, G.M., and Shepherd, A.,
2008, Declining summer flows of Rocky Mountain rivers: Changing seasonal
hydrology and probable impacts on floodplain forests: Journal of Hydrology
(Amsterdam), v. 349, p. 397–410, doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2007.11.012.
Rubin, D.M., Nelson, J.M., and Topping, D.J., 1998, Relation of inversely
graded deposits to suspended-sediment grain-size evolution during the
1996 flood experiment in Grand Canyon: Geology, v. 26, p. 99–102,
doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1998)026<0099:ROIGDT>2.3.CO;2.
Sack, D., 2013, Geomorphology and nineteenth-century explorations of
the American West, in Orme, A.R., and Sack, D., eds., The Founda-
tions of Geomorphology: Amsterdam, Netherlands, Elsevier, p. 53–63,
doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-374739-6.00004-X.
Sanderson, E.W., Jaiteh, M., Levy, M.A., Redford, K.H., Wannebo, A.V., and Wool-
mer, G., 2002, The human footprint and the last of the wild: Bioscience, v. 52,
p. 891–904, doi:10.1641/0006-3568(2002)052[0891:THFATL]2.0.CO;2.
Sawyer, C.F., Butler, D.R., and O’Rourke, T., 2014, An historical look at the
Binghamton Geomorphology Symposium: Geomorphology, v. 223,
p. 1–9, doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2014.06.022.
 Downloaded from specialpapers.gsapubs.org on April 27, 2016
Earth’s dynamic surface: A perspective on the past 50 years in geomorphology
Scanlon, B.R., Jolly, I., Sophocleous, M., and Zhang, L., 2007, Global impacts
of conversions from natural to agricultural ecosystems on water resources:
Quantity versus quality: Water Resources Research, v. 43, W03437,
doi:10.1029/2006WR005486.
Schaber, G.G., Olhoeft, G.R., McCauley, J.F., Breed, C.S., and Davis, P.A.,
1990, The ‘Radar Rivers’ of the Eastern Sahara: Signal Penetration and
Subsurface Scattering Observed by the Shuttle Imaging Radar: U.S. Geo-
logical Survey Open-File Report 90-0414, 61 p.
Schaeffer, O.A., and Davis, R., 1955, Chlorine-36 in nature: Annals of the New
York Academy of Sciences, v. 62, p. 105–122.
Schlosberg, D., 2007, Defining Environmental Justice: Theories, Movements,
and Nature: New York, Oxford University Press, 238 p., doi:10.1093/
acprof:oso/9780199286294.001.0001.
Schmidt, J.C., and Wilcock, P.R., 2008, Metrics for assessing the down-
stream effects of dams: Water Resources Research, v. 44, W04404,
doi:10.1029/2006WR005092.
Schmidt, J.C., Webb, R.H., Valdez, R.A., Marzolf, G.R., and Stevens, L.E.,
1998, Science and values in river restoration in the Grand Canyon: Bio-
science, v. 48, p. 735–747, doi:10.2307/1313336.
Schneider, J.M., Turowski, J.M., Rickenmann, D., Hegglin, R., Arrigo, S., Mao,
L., and Kirchner, J.W., 2014, Scaling relationships between bed load vol-
umes, transport distances, and stream power in steep mountain channels:
Journal of Geophysical Research–Earth Surface, v. 119, p. 533–549,
doi:10.1002/2013JF002874.
Schrott, L., and Sass, O., 2008, Application of field geophysics in geomorphol-
ogy: Advances and limitations exemplified by case studies: Geomorphol-
ogy, v. 93, p. 55–73, doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2006.12.024.
Schultz, R.A., 2002, Stability of rock slopes in Valley Marineris, Mars: Geophys-
ical Research Letters, v. 29, p. 38-1–38-4, doi:10.1029/2002GL015728.
Schumm, S.A., 1956, Evolution of drainage systems and slopes in badlands at
Perth Amboy, New Jersey: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 67,
p. 597–646, doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1956)67[597:EODSAS]2.0.CO;2.
Schumm, S.A., 1965, Quaternary paleohydrology, in Wright, H.E., and Frey,
D.G., eds., The Quaternary of the United States: Princeton, New Jersey,
Princeton University Press, p. 783–894.
Schumm, S.A., 1968, River Adjustment to Altered Hydrologic Regimen, Mur-
rumbidgee River and Paleochannels: U.S. Geological Survey Professional
Paper 598, 65 p.
Schumm, S.A., 1969, River metamorphosis: Journal of the Hydraulics Divi-
sion, American Society of Engineers, v. 95, p. 255–273.
Schumm, S.A., 1973, Geomorphic thresholds and complex response of drain-
age systems, in Morisawa, M., ed., Fluvial Geomorphology: Binghamton,
New York, State University of New York–Binghamton Publications in
Geomorphology, p. 299–310.
Seko, N., Yabuki, H., Nakawo, M., Sakai, A., Kadota, T., and Yamada, Y.,
1998, Changing surface features of Khumbu Glacier, Nepal Himalayas,
revealed by SPOT images: Bulletin of Glacier Research, v. 16, p. 33–41.
Shabani, B., Nielsen, P., and Baldock, T., 2014, Direct measurements of wind
stress over the surf zone: Journal of Geophysical Research–Oceans,
v. 119, no. C5, p. 2949–2973, doi:10.1002/2013JC009585.
Shafroth, P.B., Wilcox, A.C., Lytle, D.A., Hickey, J.T., Andersen, D.C., Beau-
champ, V.B., Hautzinger, A., McMullen, L.E., and Warner, A., 2010, Eco-
system effects of environmental flows: Modeling and experimental floods
in a dryland river: Freshwater Biology, v. 55, p. 68–85, doi:10.1111/
j.1365-2427.2009.02271.x.
Sharp, R.P., 1980, Geomorphological processes on terrestrial planetary sur-
faces: Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, v. 8, p. 231–261,
doi:10.1146/annurev.ea.08.050180.001311.
Shim, J., Kim, J., Park, H., and Kim, S., 2010, Terrestrial LiDAR measurements
and analysis of topographical changes on Malipo Beach: Ocean and Polar
Research, v. 32, p. 73–84, doi:10.4217/OPR.2010.32.1.073.
Short, N.M., and Blair, R.W., Jr., eds., 1986, Geomorphology from Space:
A Global Overview of Regional Landforms: National Aeronautics and
Space Administration Special Publication 486, 717 p.
Sklar, L.S., and Dietrich, W.E., 2006, The role of sediment in controlling
steady-state bedrock channel slope: Implications of the saltation-
abrasion incision model: Geomorphology, v. 82, p. 58–83, doi:10.1016/j
.geomorph.2005.08.019.
Smith, S.M.C., Belmont, P., and Wilcock, P., 2011, Closing the gap between
watershed modeling, sediment budgeting, and stream restoration, in
Simon, A., Bennett, S.J., and Castro, J.M., eds., Stream Restoration
in Dynamic Fluvial Systems: Scientific Approaches, Analyses, and
27
Tools: Washington, D.C., American Geophysical Union, p. 293–317,
doi:10.1029/2011GM001085.
Stallard, R.F., 1998, Terrestrial sedimentation and the carbon cycle: Coupling
weathering and erosion to carbon burial: Global Biogeochemical Cycles,
v. 12, p. 231–257, doi:10.1029/98GB00741.
Stan, D., and Stan-Kleczek, I., 2014, Application of electrical resistivity
tomography to map lithological differences and subsurface structures
(eastern Sudetes, Czech Republic): Geomorphology, v. 221, p. 113–123,
doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2014.05.027.
Statzner, B., Fuchs, U., and Higler, L.W.G., 1996, Sand erosion by mobile pre-
daceous stream insects: Implications for ecology and hydrology: Water
Resources Research, v. 32, p. 2279–2287, doi:10.1029/96WR00977.
Steingraber, S., 1998, Living Downstream: A Scientist’s Personal Investigation
of Cancer and the Environment: New York, Random House, 374 p.
Stock, J.D., and Dietrich, W.E., 2006, Erosion of steepland valleys by debris
flows: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 118, p. 1125–1148,
doi:10.1130/B25902.1.
Strahler, A.N., 1950, Equilibrium theory of erosional slopes approached by
frequency distribution analysis: American Journal of Science, v. 248,
p. 673–696, 800–814, doi:10.2475/ajs.248.10.673.
Strahler, A.N., 1952, Hypsometric (area-altitude) analysis of erosional topog-
raphy: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 63, p. 1117–1142,
doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1952)63[1117:HAAOET]2.0.CO;2.
Strahler, A.N., 1954, Statistical analysis in geomorphic research: The Journal of
Geology, v. 62, p. 1–25, doi:10.1086/626131.
Strahler, A.N., 1957, Quantitative analysis of watershed geomorphology:
Transactions of the American Geophysical Union, v. 38, p. 913–920,
doi:10.1029/TR038i006p00913.
Strahler, A.N., 1958, Dimensional analysis applied to fluvially eroded land-
forms: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 69, p. 279–300,
doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1958)69[279:DAATFE]2.0.CO;2.
Strozzi, T., Delaloye, R., Kaeaeb, A., Ambrosi, C., Perruchoud, E., and Weg-
mueller, U., 2010, Combined observations of rock mass movements using
satellite SAR interferometry, differential GPA, airborne digital photo-
grammetry, and airborne photography interpretation: Journal of Geophys-
ical Research–Earth Surface, v. 115, doi:10.1029/2009JF001311.
Suess, H.E., 1956, Absolute chronology of the last glaciation: Science, v. 123,
p. 355–357, doi:10.1126/science.123.3192.355.
Sun, T., Paola, C., and Parker, G., 2002, Fluvial fan deltas: Linking channel
processes with large-scale morphodynamics: Water Resources Research,
v. 38, p. 26-1–26-10.
Sunil, P.S., Reddy, C.D., Ponrai, M., Dhar, A., Jaypaul, D., and Dharwadkar, A.,
2009, Determination of the velocity vector of Schirmacher Glacier (Dron-
ning Maud Land, Antarctica) using global positioning system: Indian
Journal of Geosciences, v. 63, p. 235–240.
Sutfin, N.A., Wohl, E., and Dwire, K.A., 2016, Banking carbon: A review of
2019 organic carbon reservoirs in river systems: Earth Surface Processes
and Landforms, v. 41, p. 38–60.
Swenson, J.B., Paola, C., Pratson, L., Voller, V.R., and Murray, A.B., 2005, Fluvial
and marine controls on combined subaerial and subaqueous delta prograda-
tion: Morphodynamic modeling of compound-clinoform development: Jour-
nal of Geophysical Research, v. 110, F02013, doi:10.1029/2004JF000265.
Syvitski, J.P.M., Vörösmarty, C.J., Kettner, A.J., and Green, P., 2005, Impacts
of humans on the flux of terrestrial sediment to the global coastal ocean:
Science, v. 308, p. 376–380, doi:10.1126/science.1109454.
Tal, M., and Paola, C., 2007, Dynamic single-thread channels maintained
by the interaction of flow and vegetation: Geology, v. 35, p. 347–350,
doi:10.1130/G23260A.1.
Tal, M., and Paola, C., 2010, Effects of vegetation on channel morphodynam-
ics: Results and insights from laboratory experiments: Earth Surface Pro-
cesses and Landforms, v. 35, p. 1014–1028, doi:10.1002/esp.1908.
Tetzlaff, D., Soulsby, C., Bacon, P.J., Youngson, A.F., Gibbins, C., and Malcolm,
I.A., 2007, Connectivity between landscapes and riverscapes—A unify-
ing theme in integrating hydrology and ecology in catchment science?:
Hydrological Processes, v. 21, p. 1385–1389, doi:10.1002/hyp.6701.
Tharme, R.E., 2003, A global perspective on environmental flow assessment:
Emerging trends in the development and application of environmental
flow methodologies for rivers: River Research and Applications, v. 19,
p. 397–441, doi:10.1002/rra.736.
Thomson, S.N., Brandon, M.T., Tomkin, J.H., Reiners, P.W., Vasquez, C., and
Wilson, N.J., 2010, Glaciation as a destructive and constructive control on
mountain building: Nature, v. 467, p. 313–317, doi:10.1038/nature09365.
 Downloaded from specialpapers.gsapubs.org on April 27, 2016
28 Wohl et al.
Travelletti, J., Demand, J., Jabovedoff, M., and Marillier, F., 2010, Mass move-
ment characterization using a reflexion and refraction seismic survey with
the sloping local base level concept: Geomorphology, v. 116, p. 1–10,
doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2009.10.006.
Tricart, J., and Cailleux, A., 1965, Introduction à la Geomorphologie Clima-
tique: Paris, Société d’Édition d’Enseignement Superieur, 204 p.
Tricart, J., and Cailleux, A., 1972, Introduction to Climatic Geomorphology
(trans. C.J.K. de Jonge): London, Longman, 336 p.
Tucker, A.B., Woefli, W., Bonani, G., and Suter, M., 1983, Earthquake dating:
An application of carbon-14 atom counting: Science, v. 219, p. 1320–
1321, doi:10.1126/science.219.4590.1320.
Turekian, K.K., Cochran, J.K., Krishnaswami, S., Langford, W.A., Parker, P.D.,
and Bauer, K.A., 1979, The measurement of 10Be in manganese nodules
using a tandem Van De Graaff accelerator: Geophysical Research Letters,
v. 6, p. 417–420, doi:10.1029/GL006i005p00417.
U.S. Department of Education, 2012, The Condition of Education 2012: NCES
2012-045: Washington, D.C., 351 p.
Violet, J.A., Sheets, B.A., Pratson, L., Paola, C., Beaubouef, R.T., and Parker,
G., 2005, Experiment on turbidity currents and their deposits in a model
3D subsiding minibasin: Journal of Sedimentary Research, v. 75, p. 820–
843, doi:10.2110/jsr.2005.065.
Voichick, N., and Topping, D.J., 2014, Extending the Turbidity Record: Mak-
ing Additional Use of Continuous Data from Turbidity, Acoustic-Doppler,
and Laser Diffraction Instruments and Suspended-Sediment Samples in
the Colorado River in Grand Canyon: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific
Investigations Report 2014-5097, 31 p.
Vörösmarty, C.J., Sharma, K.P., Fekete, B.M., Copeland, A.H., Holden, J.,
Marble, J., and Lough, J.A., 1997, The storage and aging of continental
runoff in large reservoir systems of the world: Ambio, v. 26, p. 210–219.
Wainwright, J., Turnbull, L., Ibrahim, T.G., Lexarta-Artza, I., Thornton, S.F.,
and Brazier, R.E., 2011, Linking environmental regimes, space and time:
Interpretations of structural and functional connectivity: Geomorphology,
v. 126, p. 387–404, doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2010.07.027.
Walling, D.E., 2010, Using fallout radionuclides to investigate erosion and
sediment delivery: Some recent advances, in Banasik, K., Horowitz, A.J.,
Owens, P.N., Stone, M., and Walling, D.E., eds., Sediment Dynamics for
a Changing Future: International Association of Hydrological Sciences
(IAHS)–Association Internationale des Sciences Hydrologiques (AISH)
Publication 337, p. 3–16.
Walling, D.E., 2013, Beryllium-7: The Cinderella of fallout radionuclide sedi-
ment tracers?: Hydrological Processes, v. 27, p. 830–844, doi:10.1002/
hyp.9546.
Walter, R.C., and Merritts, D.J., 2008, Natural streams and the legacy of water-
powered mills: Science, v. 319, p. 299–304, doi:10.1126/science.1151716.
Ward, J.V., 1997, An expansive perspective of riverine landscapes: Pattern and
process across scales: River Ecosystems, v. 6, p. 52–60.
Warrick, J.A., 2014, Eel River margin source-to-sink sediment budgets:
revisited: Marine Geology, v. 351, p. 25–37, doi:10.1016/j.margeo
.2014.03.008.
Wegmann, K., and Pazzaglia, F.J., 2002, Holocene strath terraces, climate change,
and active tectonics: The Clearwater River basin, Olympic Peninsula, Wash-
ington State: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 114, p. 731–744,
doi:10.1130/0016-7606(2002)114<0731:HSTCCA>2.0.CO;2.
Wentworth, C.K., 1943, Soil avalanches on Oahu, Hawaii: Geological Society
of America Bulletin, v. 54, p. 53–64, doi:10.1130/GSAB-54-53.
West, N., Kirby, E., Bierman, P., Slingerland, R., Ma, L., Brantley, S., and
Rood, D., 2013, Regolith production and transport at the Susquehanna
Shale Hills Critical Zone Observatory, Part 2: Insights from meteoric
10
Be: Journal of Geophysical Research–Earth Surface, v. 118, no. 3,
p. 722–740, doi:10.1002/jgrf.20121.
West, N., Kirby, E., Bierman, P., and Clarke, B., 2014, Aspect-dependent varia-
tions in regolith creep revealed by meteoric 10Be: Geology, v. 42, no. 6,
doi:10.1130/G35357.1.
Westbrook, C.J., Cooper, D.J., and Baker, B.W., 2006, Beaver dams and over-
bank floods influence groundwater-surface water interactions of a Rocky
Mountain riparian area: Water Resources Research, v. 42, W06404,
doi:10.10292005WR004560.
Westbrook, C.J., Veatch, W., and Morrison, A., 2013, Is ecohydrology missing
much of the zoo?: Ecohydrology, v. 6, p. 1–7, doi:10.1002/eco.1365.
Wester, T., Wasklewicz, T., and Staley, D., 2014, Functional and structural
connectivity within a recently burned drainage basin: Geomorphology,
v. 206, p. 362–373, doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2013.10.011.
Whipple, K.X., Kirby, E., and Brocklehurst, S.H., 1999, Geomorphic limits to
climate-induced increases in topographic relief: Nature, v. 401, p. 39–43,
doi:10.1038/43375.
Whiting, P.J., 2003, Flow measurement and characterization, in Kondolf, G.M.,
and Piégay, H., eds., Tools in Fluvial Geomorphology: Chichester, UK,
Wiley, p. 323–346.
Widnall, S.E., 1988, AAAS Presidential Lecture: Voices from the pipeline: Sci-
ence, v. 241, p. 1740–1745, doi:10.1126/science.241.4874.1740.
Wiele, S.M., Wilcock, P.R., and Grams, P.E., 2007, Reach-averaged sedi-
ment routing model of a canyon river: Water Resources Research, v. 3,
W02425, doi:10.1029/2005WR004824.
Wilcock, P.R., and Kenworthy, S.T., 2002, A two-fraction model for the trans-
port of sand/gravel mixtures: Water Resources Research, v. 38, p. 12-1–
12-12, doi:10.1029/2001WR000684.
Wilcox, A.C., Wohl, E.E., Comiti, F., and Mao, L., 2011, Hydraulics, mor-
phology, and energy dissipation in an alpine step-pool channel: Water
Resources Research, v. 47, W07514, doi:10.1029/2010WR010192.
Willenbring, J.K., and von Blanckenburg, F., 2010, Meteoric cosmogenic
beryllium-10 adsorbed to river sediment and soil: Applications for
Earth-surface dynamics: Earth-Science Reviews, v. 98, p. 105–122,
doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2009.10.008.
Willett, S.D., 1999, Orogeny and orography: The effects of erosion on the
structure of mountain belts: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 104,
p. 28,957–28,981, doi:10.1029/1999JB900248.
Willett, S.D., Beaumont, C., and Fullsack, P., 1993, Mechanical model for the tec-
tonics of doubly vergent compressional orogens: Geology, v. 21, p. 371–374,
doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1993)021<0371:MMFTTO>2.3.CO;2.
Willgoose, G., 2005, Mathematical modeling of whole landscape evolution:
Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, v. 33, p. 443–459,
doi:10.1146/annurev.earth.33.092203.122610.
Willgoose, G., Bras, R.L., and Rodriguez-Iturbe, I., 1991, A coupled channel
network growth and hillslope evolution model. 2. Nondimensionaliza-
tion and applications: Water Resources Research, v. 27, p. 1685–1696,
doi:10.1029/91WR00936.
Wilson, C.A., and Allison, M.A., 2008, An equilibrium profile model for
retreating marsh shorelines in southeast Louisiana: Estuarine, Coastal and
Shelf Science, v. 80, p. 483–494, doi:10.1016/j.ecss.2008.09.004.
With, K.A., and Crist, T.O., 1995, Critical thresholds in species’ response to
landscape structure: Ecology, v. 76, p. 2446–2459, doi:10.2307/2265819.
With, K.A., Gardner, R.H., and Turner, M.G., 1997, Landscape connectivity
and population distributions in heterogeneous environments: Oikos, v. 78,
p. 151–169, doi:10.2307/3545811.
Wobus, C.W., Hodges, K., and Whipple, K., 2003, Has focused denudation at
the Himalayan topographic front sustained active thrusting near the Main
Central thrust?: Geology, v. 31, p. 861–864, doi:10.1130/G19730.1.
Wobus, C., Whipple, K.X., Kirby, E., Snyder, N., Johnson, J., Spyropolou,
K., Crosby, B., and Sheehan, D., 2006, Tectonics from topography:
Procedures, promise, and pitfall, in Willett, S.D., Hovius, N., Brandon,
M.T., and Fisher, D., eds., Tectonics, Climate, and Landscape Evo-
lution: Geological Society of America Special Paper 398, p. 55–74,
doi:10.1130/2006.2398(04).
Wohl, E., 2000, Anthropogenic impacts on flood hazards, in Wohl, E.E., ed.,
Inland Flood Hazards: Human, Riparian, and Aquatic Communities:
Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University Press, p. 104–141, doi:10.1017/
CBO9780511529412.005.
Wohl, E., 2011, Threshold-induced complex behavior of wood in mountain
streams: Geology, v. 39, p. 587–590, doi:10.1130/G32105.1.
Wohl, E., 2013a, Floodplains and wood: Earth-Science Reviews, v. 123,
p. 194–212, doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2013.04.009.
Wohl, E., 2013b, Wilderness is dead: Whither critical zone studies and geomor-
phology in the Anthropocene?: Anthropocene, v. 2, p. 4–15, doi:10.1016/j
.ancene.2013.03.001.
Wohl, E., 2014a, Rivers in the Landscape: Science and Management: Chiches-
ter, UK, Wiley-Blackwell, 318 p.
Wohl, E., 2014b, Time and the rivers flowing: Fluvial geomorphology since
1960: Geomorphology, v. 216, p. 263–282.
Wohl, E., and Beckman, N.D., 2014, Leaky river: Implications of the loss of
longitudinal fluvial disconnectivity in headwater streams: Geomorphol-
ogy, v. 205, p. 27–35, doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2011.10.022.
Wohl, E., and Ogden, F.L., 2013, Organic carbon export in the form of wood
during an extreme tropical storm, Upper Rio Chagres, Panama: Earth Sur-
face Processes and Landforms, v. 38, p. 1407–1416.
 Downloaded from specialpapers.gsapubs.org on April 27, 2016
Earth’s dynamic surface: A perspective on the past 50 years in geomorphology
Wohl, E., Dwire, K., Sutfin, N., Polvi, L., and Bazan, R., 2012, Mechanisms
of carbon storage in mountainous headwater rivers: Nature Communica-
tions, v. 3, p. 1263, doi:10.1038/ncomms2274.
Wohl, E., Bledsoe, B.P., Jacobson, R.B., Poff, N.L., Rathburn, S.L., Walters,
D.M., and Wilcox, A.C., 2015a, The natural sediment regime in rivers:
Broadening the foundation for ecosystem management: Bioscience, v. 65,
p. 358–371, doi:10.1093/biosci/biv002.
Wohl, E., Lane, S.N., and Wilcox, A.C., 2015b, The science and practice
of river restoration: Water Resources Research, v. 51, p. 5974–5997,
doi:10.1002/2014WR016874.
Wolman, M.G., 1955, The Natural Channel of Brandywine Creek, Pennsylva-
nia: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 271, 63 p.
Wolman, M.G., and Leopold, L.B., 1957, River Flood Plains: Some Obser-
vations on Their Formation: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper
282-C, p. 87–107.
Wolman, M.G., and Miller, J.P., 1960, Magnitude and frequency of forces
in geomorphic processes: The Journal of Geology, v. 68, p. 54–74,
doi:10.1086/626637.
Wren, D.G., Barkdoll, B.D., Kuhnle, R.A., and Derrow, R.W., 2000,
Field techniques for suspended-sediment measurement: Journal of
Hydraulic Engineering, v. 126, p. 97–104, doi:10.1061/(ASCE)0733
-9429(2000)126:2(97).
Wright, J.P., Jones, C.G., and Flecker, A.S., 2002, An ecosystem engineer,
the beaver, increases species richness at the landscape scale: Oecologia,
v. 132, p. 96–101, doi:10.1007/s00442-002-0929-1.
Yager, R.M., Plummer, L.N., Kauffman, L.J., Doctor, D.H., Nelms, D.L., and
Schlosser, P., 2013, Comparison of age distributions estimated from envi-
ronmental tracers by using binary-dilution and numerical models of frac-
tured and folded karst: Shenandoah Valley of Virginia and West Virginia,
29
USA: Hydrogeology Journal, v. 21, p. 1193–1217, doi:10.1007/s10040
-013-0997-9.
Yarnell, S.M., Viers, J.H., and Mount, J.F., 2010, Ecology and manage-
ment of the spring snowmelt recession: Bioscience, v. 60, p. 114–127,
doi:10.1525/bio.2010.60.2.6.
Yoo, K., Amundson, R., Heimsath, A.M., Dietrich, W.E., and Brimhall,
G.H., 2007, Integration of geochemical mass balance with sediment
transport to calculate rates of soil chemical weathering and trans-
port on hillslopes: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 112, F02013,
doi:10.1029/2005JF000402.
Zeitler, P.K., Meltzer, A.S., Koons, P.O., Craw, D., Hallet, B., Chamberlain,
C.P., Kidd, W.S.F., Parker, S.K., Seeber, L., Bishop, M., and Shro-
der, J., 2001, Erosion, Himalayan geodynamics, and the geomorphol-
ogy of metamorphism: GSA Today, v. 11, p. 4–9, doi:10.1130/1052
-5173(2001)011<0004:EHGATG>2.0.CO;2.
Zhou, S., Wang, Z., and Joswiak, D.R., 2014, From precipitation to runoff: Sta-
ble isotopic fractionation effect of glacier melting on a catchment scale:
Hydrological Processes, v. 28, p. 3341–3349, doi:10.1002/hyp.9911.
Zuber, M.T., Smith, D.E., Solomon, S.C., Muhleman, D.O., Head, J.W., Garvin,
J.B., Abshire, J.B., and Bufton, J.L., 1992, The Mars Observer laser altim-
eter investigation: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 97, p. 7781–7797,
doi:10.1029/92JE00341.
Zubrzycki, S., Kutzbach, L., Grosse, G., Desyatkin, A., and Pfeiffer, E.-M., 2013,
Organic carbon and total nitrogen stocks in soils of the Lena River delta: Bio-
geosciences, v. 10, p. 3507–3524, doi:10.5194/bg-10-3507-2013.
MANUSCRIPT ACCEPTED BY THE SOCIETY 2 MARCH 2016
MANUSCRIPT PUBLISHED ONLINE 22 APRIL 2016
Printed in the USA
Downloaded from specialpapers.gsapubs.org on April 27, 2016
 Downloaded from specialpapers.gsapubs.org on April 27, 2016

Geological Society of America Special Papers Online First

Earth's dynamic surface: A perspective on the past 50 years in geomorphology
Ellen Wohl, Paul R. Bierman and David R. Montgomery

Geological Society of America Special Papers, published online April 22, 2016;
doi:10.1130/2016.2523(01)

E-mail alerting services click www.gsapubs.org/cgi/alerts to receive free e-mail alerts when new articles cite
this article

Subscribe click www.gsapubs.org/subscriptions to subscribe to Geological Society of America

Special Papers
Permission request click www.geosociety.org/pubs/copyrt.htm#gsa to contact GSA.

Copyright not claimed on content prepared wholly by U.S. government employees within scope of their
employment. Individual scientists are hereby granted permission, without fees or further requests to GSA,
to use a single figure, a single table, and/or a brief paragraph of text in subsequent works and to make
unlimited copies of items in GSA's journals for noncommercial use in classrooms to further education and
science. This file may not be posted to any Web site, but authors may post the abstracts only of their
articles on their own or their organization's Web site providing the posting includes a reference to the
article's full citation. GSA provides this and other forums for the presentation of diverse opinions and
positions by scientists worldwide, regardless of their race, citizenship, gender, religion, or political
viewpoint. Opinions presented in this publication do not reflect official positions of the Society.

Notes

© Geological Society of America

View publication stats