 Is the study of the earth’s landforms and processes

that have created them

 TOPOGRAGRAPHY ASSOCIATED WITH HORIZONTAL
LAYERED ROCKS
 This type of topography is associated with
stratified rocks=rocks that are composed of layers.
 Rock layers are called stratus
 The planes that are separating each layer is called
Bedding planes
 Horizontal layers of rock are formed where
sediments have been deposited and then then
uplifted without being change in their horizontal
position by tectonic forces
 Form when sediments are deposited and
compacted to form layers of sedimentary
rock = stratified rocks
 Sometimes igneous rocks also forms in layers
 E.g. dolerite sills are horizontal layers of
igneous rocks that form between layers of
sedimentary rocks
 Lava that flows out onto surface of earth
forms thick layers of basalt
 Type of topography depends on:
 The resistance of the rock layers to
weathering and erosion. Slopes steeper
where rocks more resistant and gentle when
strata wear away more easily
 Climate of area – more humid area with more
rain and running down of water give more
rounded slopes. Slopes steeper in arid areas
with little water running down slopes
These hills have formed because top layer of rock more resistant
to weathering and erosion.
Hills have flat tops because resistant layer of rock is lying parallel to horizon
Horizontally laid sedimentary rock
 Sedimentary rocks made up of layers (strata)
with difference in resistance.
 E.g. shale erodes faster than sandstone
 Occurs when the resistant rock are removed by
weathering and erosion
 Rounded slopes form in humid climate as sheet
wash wash takes place.
 Chemical weathering causes soil to be fine-grained
and thick layers of soil
 Contour ploughing enables crop farming
 Hills with narrow gullies and sharp ridges
 Very little water runs down slopes
 Slopes rugged and uneven
 Mechanical weathering results in coarse-
grained, thin layers of soil
 Areas of little use to humans

Badlands in California
Igneous intrusions
 When hot magma squeezes between two layers of
sedimentary rocks and cools and solidifies, and
igneous sill is formed.
 Igneous sills composed of dolerite (when magma
solidifies a little below surface of earth) – more
resistant than sedimentary rock
 Flat-topped hill when exposed
Cap Rock
 Platberg - Harrismith
 Thick layer of basalt with joints and cracks
has formed flat plateaux (high-lying area)
 Downward stream erosion takes place in
joints
 Flat plateaux with steep cliffs and deeply
carved valleys form
Lava flow – basaltic plateau
 Higher ridges of amphitheatre in Drakensberg
mountains – basaltic plateau because of ancient
lava flow
 Basalt – volcanic igneous rock
 High cliff = more resistant basalt
 Lower ridges = sandstone
 Types of landforms:
 Canyon landscapes
 Karoo landscapes
 Basaltic lava is very runny and spreads across the
earth’s surface over thousands of km
 Tectonic uplift can also form a large, even
plateaux
 Large, flat area formed is called basaltic plateau
 Basalt very resistant to weathering and erosion
 If river carves into plateau it forms a canyon
 Canyon = deep,narrow valley in arid area
 Humid climates – valleys are rounded e.g.
Blyderivier Canyon
 In dry areas canyons are rugged and steep e.g.
Fish River canyon – Namibia; Grand Canyon
formed by Colorado River in USA
Blyderivier Canyon with more rounded hills
Note the stepped appearance because of layers of sedimentary
rocks with differences in resistance
 When the tectonic uplift occurs in a large flat-
surface
 Due to internal forces cracks and joints occur
 Rivers erode vertically along these cracks and
joints forming deep steep valleys.
 The more resistant layers which do not erode
very easily,form more gentle slopes
 The sides of canyons appear as a series of
enormous steps e.g Grand canyon
 The landscape starts off as a Plateau of uplifted rock layers.
 Water falling in this area will find weak areas or cracks in the rock
layers.
 Vertical erosion in these cracks and weak areas will cause a
Plateau to be broken up into canyons
 The water continues to break up the landscape into individual
features such as Mesa ,Butte, Pointed butte , Conical hill
 Over long periods or time canyons carved into plateau are
widened by back wasting or scarp retreat.
 Scarp retreat is when slopes erode backwards, parallel to their
original position. (Dry areas with little rain and surface run-off)
 Picture mesa, butte, conical hill
 Is a process in landscape development where
landforms are reduced in size without being
lowered.
 It occurs when the plateau is reduced to mesas,
mesas are reduced to buttes.
 But the height of the landform remain the same as
the height of original plateau
 As the plateau surface narrows, canyon floor
become wider.
 Over a period of time ,the whole landscape may be
lowered to form a flat area of land called PEDIPLAIN
 Pediplain Is a huge plain with a low gradient
 Plateau area decreases

Pieces of rock falls from cliff

face and collect on talus slope
below

Concave shape

Scarp retreat causes canyons to become

wider and the plateaux becoming narrower
 Is a flat topped tableland.It is formed by
erosion
 It has a cap of resistant rock that protects the
softer layers of rocks beneath.
 The top of mesa is at the same level as the
original plateau
 Width is greater than height
Mesa
 Is a small flat-topped isolated hill
 It has a cap of resistant rock on top and also
found at the same level as the original
plateau
 Height is greater than its width
Butte
Conical Hill
 Arid area so crop farming impossible. Sheep and goat
farming take place to limited extent.
 Hilly landscapes in a humid environment is used for grazing
livestock and contour ploughing for crop farming.
 Difficult to get water from canyons because of steep slopes.
 Canyons canbe used for recreational purposes such as
absailing,hiking,bungee jumping
 Few roads and railways as expensive bridges needs to be
built.
 Canyons attract tourists.
 Basaltic plateau – not good for settlements and farming due
to steep slopes.
 Karoo landscapes (mesa, butte, conical hills) not used by
people but flatter pediments and pediplains used for
grazing livestock. Karoo too dry for crop farming.
 The landforms associated with horizontal strata
may be lifted and tilted by various crustal forces
 The tilting is usually caused by volcanic activity in
the earth’s crust
 The volcanic activity pushes up the overlying
layers.
 When this happens,folding and faulting occur;then
the overlying layers are tilted or are inclined in one
direction to form a Homoclinal Ridges
 Homoclinal Redge is used to describe asymmetrical
ridges which have a steeper slope on one side and
a gentle slope on the other side
Homoclinal ridges or asymmetrical ridges
 When tilted layers of rocks are exposed to
surface of earth they have more gentle (dip)
slope and a steeper (scarp) slope.
 Folding beneath earth’s surface causes
sedimentary strata to form anticlines where
strata bend upwards and synclines where
strata bend downwards
Folded Mountains are
associated with
sedimentary rock
formations. Take a look
at the Horizontal Strata.
 Scarp slope = steeper slope of the homoclinal ridge
 Dip slope =is the gentler slope of the homoclinal
ridge
 Two main types of homoclinal ridges:

 Cuestas

 Hogsback
Erodes in the
direction of the
dip slope

Erosion is less, more

resistant rock
 CUESTA –is a ridge with more gentle dip slope
and steep scarp slope
-Its tilt is between 10˚-35˚ e.g Magaliesberg
Mt range in Tshwane
 HOGSBACK –is a ridge with very steep dip
slope and a scarp slope
-Its tilt is between 45˚ and more
-It is found in Aliece in the Eastern Cape
Rock layers tilt between 35°
and 45° (Fairly steep) Very
little difference between
scarp and dip slope
(Hogsback/Alice in Eastern
Cape)

Scarp slope

10° - 25° angle of dip slope (not very steep)

Magaliesberg near Pretoria
 Homoclinal ridge: dip slope lies at 25°-45° to
the horizontal. Rivers cut poorts(gaps)
through ridges. Roads and railways are
constructed in these ridges.
Is the lowering and shifting of the homoclinal ridge because of the undercutting
of the scarp slope.
The scarp slope is eroded in direction of dip slope – head ward erosion
When position of homoclinal ridge watershed is shifted in this manner =
homoclinal shifting
 Laccolith – Mushroom
shaped Scarp slope inwards

Lopolith – saucer shaped

Scarp slope outwards

 Forms when the rock
stratus are folded
downwards
 Less resistant layers create
a valley of a basin.
 Steep scarp slopes face
towards outside of a basin
 Gentle dip slopes will face
inwards of a basin.
 Steep slopes are formed by
the hard rock
 Gentle slopes are formed
by the soft rock
 Form as part of syncline
 Forms when the rock
stratus are folded upwards.
 Steep scarp slopes face
towards the centre of the
dome
 Gentle dip slopes face
Outside the dome.
 The less resistant rocks
form the valley of the dome
 Steep slops are formed by
the hard rock and the
gentle slopes by the softer
rocks.
 Form as par of anticline
 Gentle dip slopes are suitable for people to
live, farm
 Valleys and plains between cuestas are fertile
areas farming
 Forestry on dip slopes since they do not
require fertile soil
 Steep scarp slopes used for grazing
 Ridges create transport barriers to
development.
 Scarp slopes cannot be used for farming as it
is too steep and rocky
 Cuesta basin often form artesian basin.
Artesian basin is area where underground
water is stored in permeable layer of rock
that lies between two impermeable layers of
rock. Borehole can be sunk into permeable
strata = artesian well
 Identification of Batoliths, Laccoliths, Lopoliths,
Dykes and sills
 Are formed when magma does not reach the
earth surface,but instead pushes into spaces
underground and then solidifies
 Are formed from the cooled hardened magma
 They do not have any layers.
 Largest and deepest
intrusive igneous
feature.
 Surface area larger
than 100km²
 Forms when magma
solidifies deep
underground – largest
and deepest intrusion
 Exposed when
overlying layers
removed by erosion
 Landform – dome
 E.g. Heerenveen
Batholith in Baberton
region
 Igneous intrusion that
forms deep underground
in saucer shape.
 Magma is squeezed
between layers of rock
 Heat and pressure of
large body of magma
causes underlying rock
to sag
 Magma cools and
solidifies in saucer shape
 E.g. Bushveld Igneous
Complex of Magaliesberg
 Rich in minerals such as
chrome and platinum
 Landform – Cuesta basin
 Laccoliths also exfoliate
 Laccolith – Igneous
intrusion that forms a
mushroom shape
underground.
 Magma is squeezed
between layers of rock
 Pressure and heat of
magma causes
overlying rocks to
buckle upwards
 Landform – dome
(Cuesta dome)
 When exposed it
exfoliates
 Smaller igneous
intrusion that solidifies
horizontally.
 Magma cannot bend
layers so it simply
cools in horizontal
position to form sill
 Dolerite is common
rock
 Landform – structural
terrace, mesa, butte
 Structural terrace is a
stepped slope formed
when more than one
sill is exposed
 Smaller igneous
intrusion that forms in
upright position.
 Magma forces its way
up in vertical crack
and solidifies in
upright position
 When dykes are
exposed on the
Earth’s surface,they
form a narrow ridge
called Serrated ridge.
 Granite dome is convex in shape – steep at bottom and
more gentle higher up.
 Granite domes not well jointed but joints develop because
of several reasons.
 Deep underground the igneous intrusions such as a
batholith or lopolith is under great pressure
 Over time the overlying rock is eroded away, releasing
pressure.
Dome is round in shape because:
 When batholith is exposed to surface the granite is
subjected to exfoliation which causes the convex shaped
dome
 Rock heats up and expand during the day ,while at night it
cools and contract causing crakes
 Pieces of rock flakes/peel off as layers.
 Also known as ruware = large granite dome
 Refers to the peeling off rock as layers due to
extremes in temperature that causes
expansion and contraction
 Exfoliation is a type of weathering linked to
the formation of granite domes.
 Exfoliation is an extreme example of
mechanical weathering.
 These domes are eroded on the surface
through the process of exfoliation.
Ayers Rock - Australia
 Is the breaking down of rock into smaller pieces
due to chemical, mechanical and temperature
differences.
 Chemical weathering is the decomposition of
rock due to chemical processes such as water
,oxygen and carbon dioxide.
 Mechanical weathering is the physical break up
of rocks due to extremes in
temperature/temperature differences
 Erosion is the removal of broken rock material by
an agents such as water, wind or ice
 Are piles of rounded weathered boulders/core stones of granite
OR
 Are exposed granite blocks made up of core stones
 They usually surrounded by weathered debris.
 Debris – is a loose/broken down material of the process o erosion
 Tors develop in the granite ,during the cooling of magma deep in
the crust, contraction caused many vertical joints to form.
 Overlying layers are naturally removed by weathering and
erosion. This reduces pressure and expansion allows granite to
expand and form horizontal joints.
 When granite is fairly close to surface it comes into contact with
groundwater which penetrates joints, chemical weathering takes
place
 It can cause kaolin (tiny clay particles) to develop
 As weathering takes place along these joints ,rounded core
stones develop.
 Core stones is rounded rocks that form between joints while
granite is still underground.
 When granite is finally exposed, wind and rain washed away
kaolin and leave core stones balancing on top of each other
 Escarpment – steep slope which joins low-
lying land with high-lying land
 Plateau- a raised, fairly flat area of land
 Great Karoo – lies between the escarpment
and the northern chain of the Cape Fold
Mountains
 Little Karoo – lies parallel between the chains
of the Cape Fold Mountains
Endogenic origin Exogenic origin
Formed by Formed by
internal forces external forces
such as folding & such as erosion
faulting & deposition
125

High mountains barriers to

communication, expensive mountain
passes, transport routes follow contours
of land

North
facing

Hiking trails, climbing, mountain

biking, horse trials

Forestry on steep slopes

Orchards and vineyards on gentle
slopes. Contour ploughing or
terracing to prevent soil erosion.
 Picture steep slope, gentle slope, concave
slope, convex slope
 Slope elements
Crest = Convex, thin covering of
soil

Free face/ Scarp = Almost

vertical, more than 80% to the
horizontal

Tallus/Scree = Debris slope,

eroded material from crest &
free face. Eroded material also
known as regolith
Pediment = Low
angle, concave
Knickpoint = Change in gradient
slope
at the base of the scree slope
 Is a thin layer of soil
found at the top of the
slope
 Soil creep occurs in
this slope
 Convex in shape due to
sheet wash
 Little human activity
takes place here
because of the
difficulty in accessing
this high part of the
landform.
 Is the steepest section
of the hill
 It is formed of hard
resistant layer of rock
 The angle of the cliff
slope is usually 90˚
 A large amount of
weathering& erosion
occurs here this slope
bcz of its steep slope
 No human activities
takes place here
 Below the cliff
 Composed of broken
rock material that has
fallen off the cliff
 It is usually has an
angle of 35˚
 Accumulated material
of loose boulders is
called Scree
 Soil creep and earth
flow
 Slope remain constant
 Form at the base of talus
slope
 The gentle slope ranges
from 1˚to 7˚
 Point where pediment joins
talus is knick line
 This slope enables people
to use it for farming &
building houses ,roads
because it is gentle
 It is covered with soil layer
and vegetation
 The point where pediment Pediplain
joins the talus slope is
called Knick point
 Pediment opens onto
pediplain
 The climate of an area
 Time
 The influence of people on slope(human activity)
 The vegetation cover on slopes
 The process of weathering and erosion that
occurs in an area
 The work of rivers
 Precipitation
 Different rock type such as a alternating hard &
soft layers, promote the resistance of the slope
 Slope decline ( the theory of Peneplanation)
-This theory was proposed by W.M Davis and is based on
slopes that develop in humid climates ,it is formed
whereby the rounded slopes are lowered through the
process of river erosion ,forming a large flat area of land
called PENEPLAIN
 Slope retreat/scarp retreat (the theory of
PEDIPLANATION
-This theory was proposed by L.C King and is based on
slopes that develop in semi-arid regions.it is formed
when rivers erode vertically and widened
 Slope replacement – This theory was proposed by
W.Penck
-He assumed that slope starts with a crest, cliff and talus
-As talus increases in size ,it starts to cover the original
slope, making it gentler over time
 The way in which slopes in arid areas tend to
wear back parallel to their original position;
also called back wasting or scarp recession or
scarp retreat
 Mass movement is the movement of weathered
material down the slope
Factors threaten the stability of slope/events that
cause mass movement
-Heavy rain saturate soil-climate
-The undercutting of slope by human excavation-
people’s actions
-The amount of vegetation cover-sparse vege
-The earthquakes-Natural disasters
- The type of soils-thin ,sandy soils
-Gradient of the slope –On steep slope there more
weathering
-Rock structure-less resistant rock
 126

 Mass wasting = movement of material on a

slope as a result of gravity
 Factors influencing the speed of mass
movement:
1. Gradient of slope
2. Amount of vegetation
3. Amount of moisture in the soil
4. Joint structure of underlying rock
5. Type of soil
 Is the rapid movement of rock boulders from
the cliff down the slope
 ls caused by Vibrations from minor
earthquakes, mine blasting , big trucks
passing, weathering,poor construction
 Is a sudden & violent movement of block of
the land or ground down the slope
 It generally occur on steep slopes
 Causes :earthquakes,heavy rain,poor
construction
 Impacts :can cause a serious damage to
settlements
 Loss of life,destruction of the infrastructure
 Destroy vegetation
 Destroy ecosystem and natural habitats
 Blocks streams
 Remove top soil and cause erosion
 Loose material slipping down a slope along a
curved path.
 Often happens on part of hillside where some
water has accumulated – water allows the
loose material to slide easily.
 Is a fast flowing mass of semi-fluid mud with
gravels down the slope.
 It occurs on steeper slopes and moderate slopes.
 It is caused by heavy rain and volcanic activity
 Impacts; road, houses and bridges are destroyed
-Damage agric land leading to loss of productive
land ,damage ecosystem and natural habitats ,blocks
streams and dam up lakes causing floods
 Loss of life
 Is the slow movement of saturated soil with
gravels down the slope over frozen material
 It occurs in clod climates when the ground in
winter ,but the upper portion of the ground
thaws/get warm in summer.
 The thawed material flows over impermeable
rock frozen soil
 It may be faster if water is present and slope
is steeper
 It usually occurs in moderate slope
 Impact: the top layer of soil is removed
 Rate of movement only a few centimeters a
year.
 Is the slowest movement of soil down the slope –
less than 1cm a year.
 It occurs on moderate slopes
 It is caused by gravity
 Impacts- Terracettes, bent tree trunks, fence posts
and telephone poles bending downslope, cracks in
walls and buildings.
 Removal of vegetation
 Removal of minerals in mining activities
 Building hoses on steep slopes
 Dislodging rocks during hiking
 Road construction
 Soil creep and solifluction cause walls, fences and
telephone poles to lean down slope often needing to
be rebuilt.
 Slumping causes a circular depression and material
that has slipped now covers part of lower slope which
may be agricultural land or a built-up area or roads.
 Mudflows and landslides – side of hill that has been
washed away can no longer be used. Lower slopes
covered in mud are destroyed. Many people injured
or loose their lives.
 Rock falls can injure or kill people.
 Social and economic impact enormous – rescue
operations, cleaning up of areas and rebuilding costs
are high.
 Steepening of slope to build a road
 Removal of vegetation
 Construction on upper slope adding weight
 Construction on upper slope increasing water
seepage
 Vibrations caused by earthquakes, mine
blasting, passing trucks and trains
 Cover steep slopes with mesh wire or spray
with concrete
 Build retaining walls to stabilise slope
 Use rock bolts to hold slope together
 Insert drainage pipes to allow groundwater to
drain out
 Introduce plant species with a strong root
system to hold upper layers of soil together
 Fasten unstable rock with rock bolts
 Not siting on steep slope
 Build gabions (small stone wall at the base of
the slope)
 Uniform in colour and structure.
 No rock strata/layers – when molten magma
solidifies there is no layering of rock
 Cooling that takes place very deep underground
will be slow so crystals will be large and texture
course. Rock has lighter grey colour e.g. granite
like rocks around Cape Town.
 Cooling closer to surface of earth – will be faster,
crystals will be smaller and texture finer. Rock
has a dark grey colour e.g. basalt like high peaks
of Drakensberg Mountains.
 Plateau

Mesa to butte

Conical Hill
 The angle of the slopes is determined by the
nature of the rock being exposed
 Resistant rock – steep slopes
 Soft rock – gentle slopes
 There is an ongoing, continual adjustment of
slopes, depending on the climate and
vegetation cover as well as the type of rock
making up the slope