7689 1989 Reff2020

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Electrical Installations Sectional Committee, ETDC 20
FOREWORD
This Indian Standard ( First Revision ), was adopted by the Bureau of Indian Standards on 29 May 1989,
after the draft finalized bv the Electrical Installations Sectional Committee had been approved by the
Electrotechnical Division Council.
Static elertricitv occurs commonly in industry and in daily life and can be a source of danger as well as
d’iscomfort or inconvenience. T he main hazard is that of explosions and fires initiated bv electrostatic
discharges, but shocks to personnel can also. on occasion, cause accidents. In addition, static electricity
mtroduces operational problems during manufacturing or handling processes, for example, by causing
articles to adhere to .each other or attract dust.
Static electricity is generated in many operations, including the flow of liquids or powders, the production
of spravs and the contact and separation of solids, and, therefore, gives rise to problems in a wide range of
industries. The purpose of this guide is to provide recommendations for the control of static electricity.
In some cases, static electricity .is a.n integral part of a process, for example, paint spraying, but more often
it is an unwelcome side effect and it is with the latter that this guide is concerned.
It is very seldom that an electrostatic hazard occurs in isolation. Precautions against static electricity
should, therefore, be consistent with those taken to avoid other hazards that may be present such as
ignitions due to other causes and toxicity. Tt is important that all sources of risk in a systemof work are
considered and that a balanced basis of safetv covering all risks be considered. In particular, care should
be exercised in the provision of earthing svstems where thev may interfere with other protective systems
( for example, cathodic protection or intrinisically safe electrical equipment ) .I
Besides providing general guidelines. this guide details principal methods of safe control and dissipation
of static electricity generated hv solid objects, person<, liquids, dusts and gases which contain entrained
solid or liquid particle ( transfer of nure gas generates no static ). It further includes recommendations
for some specific processes in which the generation of static charges is a major hazard or inconvenience.
However, there are a multitude of processes in which static causes operating problems, and it is not
possible to include specific recommendations on back of them. It is felt that together with the principal
control methods, the guide is intended to promote an understanding of the problems thereby providing a
sound basis on which judgement can be applied for sowing problems not specifically mentioned.
Although lightning is a form of static electricity of atmospheric origin -It is not intended that this guide
should be used to obtain guidance on the nrntection of structures against lightning. For this purpose,
reference should be made to TS : 23n9 - 1980 Code of practice* for protection of buildings and allied
structures against lightning ( second revision )‘.
This guide is divided into five sections as follows:
Section 1 General and fundamentals of static electricity,
Section 2 Electrostatic hazards and their control,
Section 3 Earthing and bonding,
Section 4 Methods of measuring or estimating various parameters, and
Section 5 Recommendations for -particular industrial situations.
Tn the preparation of this standard, assistance has been derived from the following standards issued by the
British Standards Institution:
BS 5958 Code of practice for control of undesirable static electricity:
Part 1 : 1980 General considerations
Part 2 : 1983 Recommendations for particular industrial situations
Composition of Electrical Installation Sectional Committee, ETDC 20, which was responsible for the
preparation of this standard is given in Annex A.
For the purpose of deciding whether a particular requirement of this standard is complied with, the final
value, observed or calculated, expressing the result of a test, shall be rounded off in accordance with
IS : Z-1960 ‘Rules for rounding off numerical values ( revised ) ‘. The number of significant places retained
in the rounded off value should be the same as that of the specified value in this standard.
IS 7689 : 1989
CONTENTS
Page
1. SCOPE 3
2. REFERENCES 3
3. D EFINITIONS 4
4. S TATUTORY PROVISIONS 5
5. E LECTROSTATIC CHAROINO 5
6. R ETENTION OF E LECTROSTATIC CHARGES P 6
7. ELECTROSTATIC DISCHARCZS 7
8. INCENDIVITY OF E LECTRICAL DISCHARCXS 8
9. PHYSIOLOQICAL EFFECTS OF ELECTROSTATIC D ISCHARGES 9
10. ELECTROSTATICS IN L IQUIDS 11
. 11. ELECTROSTATICS IN POWDERS 15
12. ELECTROSTATICS IN HIGH R~SISTIVITY SOLIDS 18
13. S TATIC E LECTRICITY IN G ASES 21
14. S TATIC ELECTRXCIT~ ON P ERSONNEL 22
15. EARTHING AND B ONDING 24
16. GUIDANCE ONM ETHODS FOR M EASURING OR E STIMATING V ARIOUS P ARAMETERS 29
17. FIXED METAL T ANKS FOR THE S TORAGE OF L I Q U I D S 46
18. FIXFD NO N- METALLIC T ANKS FOR THE STORAGE OF L IQUIDS S ITED PARTIALLY 47
OR W HOLLY A BOVE G ROUND
19. F IXED N O N-METALLIC T ANKS FOR THE S TORAGE OF L IQUIDS S ITED C OMPLETELY 48
B ELOW GROUKD
20. GAUGING AND SAMPLINQ OF T A N K S 48
21. M ETAL R OAD/ RAIL T ANKS FOR L IQUIDS 49
22. N O N- METALLIC R O A D/ RAIL T ANKS FOR L I Q U I D S 5 1
23. TRANSFIZR OF L IQUIDS TO AND FRO ROAD/RAIL VE H I C L E S 51
24. L I Q U I D/ LIQUID AND S O L I D/ LIQUID B LENDING AND Mxxr~a 52
25. S MALL M ETAL C ONTAINERS FOR L IQUIDS 53
26. SMALL NON-METALLIC CONTAINERS FOR LIQUIDS 54
27. S HIPS ( TANKERS ) AND BARBER 55
28. T ANK CLEANING WITH HIGH PRESSURE W ATER J ETS OR STEAM 56
29. A IRCRAFT F UELLING 57
30. F INE P ARTICLE F ILTERS W ATER S EPARATORS
AND 58
31. M ETAL C O N T A I N E R S A N D TAN= WITH A ~FIXED IN T E R N A L NON-&TALI,,IC 59
C OATING FOR THE STORAQE AND T RANSPORT OF LIQUIDS
32. M ETAL C ONTAINERS FOR L IQUIDS HUH OUT ER NO N- METALLIC COATINGS OR 60
JACKETS
33. P IPELINES FOR L IQUIDS AND G ASES 60
34. C ONTAINERS FOR HIGH RESI~TIVITY PO W D E R S / 61
35. RE M O V A B L E N O N- METALLIC L INERS IN C ONTAINERS FOR S O L- VENT W E T 63
M ATERIALS OR D RY POWDERS
36. M ANUAL A DDITION OF POWD ERS TO F LAMMABLE LIQUIDS 63
37. R ELEASE OF G ASES AND V APOURS 64
3%. S PRAYING OF P AINTS AND P OWDERS 65
39. R IGID PLASTICS S HEETING, WALLS AND S CREENS 66
1
IS 7689 : 1989
Page
40. P ROCESSING OF F LEXIBLE S HEET OR F ILM M A T E R I A L S 66
41. E XPLOSIVES M A N U F A C T U R E, HANDLING AND S T O R A G E 67
42. HANDLING OF E L E C T R O - EXPLOSIVE D E V I C E S 68
43. EARTHING OF PERSONNIX 69
44. HAZARDS FROM CLOTX-IINO 70
A NNEX A 72
IS 7689 : 1989
Indian Standard
GUIDEFORCONTROLOF UNDESIRABLE
STATICELECTRICITY
( First Revision )
1 SCOPE 1.5 The static electricity problems that can occur
with personnel and their clothing are also describ-
1.1 This standard covers guidelines on the control ed and the precautions are given for avoiding
of undesirable static electricity.
these problems. i(
1.2 This guide gives basic information on the
generation of undesirable static electricity in 2 REFERENCES
solids, liquids and gases and also on persons, and
describes how the charges produced give rise to 2.1 The following Indian Standards are necessary
discharges which may cause ignitions or electric adjuncts to this Code:
shocks. It gives the methods available for mini- IS AGo. Title
mizing such generation and for safety dissipating
\ the charges produced. IS 2309 : 1989 Code of practice for pro-
tection of buildings and
1.3 Guidance is included in this standard on the allied structures against
means of measuring or estimating the parameters lightning ( second revi-
which need to be taken into account when decid- sion ) ;
ing upon the action to be taken to control static
electricity. IS 3043 : 1987 Code of practice for
earthing ( jirst revision );
1.4 This standard also deals with static electricity
problems which are encountered in particular IS XV: ( Part 1 ) : Classification of hazar-
situations during the handling of different types dous areas ( other than
of materials including liquids, powders, gases, mines ) for electrical
sprays, explosives and electro-explosive devices. installations : Part I
In each case the source and nature of the hazard Areas having flammable
or nuisances are identified and specific recommen - gases and vapours (first
~dations are then given for dealing with th em. revision ) .
3
IS 7689 : 1999
SECTION 1 GENERAL AND FUNDAMENTALS OF STATIC ELECTRICITY
3 DEFINITIONS may therefore sustain fire or explosion when such

reaction is initiated by a,suitable spark, flame or
3.1 Antistatic Conductive ( as an adjective ) hot surface.
Used to indicate that a material is, by virtue of its NOTES
low resistivity, incapable of retaining a significant
electrostatic charge when in contact with earth. 1 Many liquids and solids, though regarded as
flammable, nevertheless do not normally burn. The
NOTE - The terms ‘antistatic’ and ‘conductive’ are application of heat to such materials serves to release
frequently used as synonyms, hence the common defini- vapour that may burn with atmospheric oxygen. The
tion above. However, in such contexts where they have heat of the subsequent reaction serves to release further
specific meanings, -for example, in relation to footwear, vapour for combustion. Flame may propagate through
the above definition is qualrfied in the appropriate suspensions of dusts by this mechanism.
clauses of this code.
2 In normal usage ‘gas’ and ‘vapour’ are syno-
3.2 Antistatic Additive nymous.
A substance added to a liquid or a solid in order 3.10 Flammable Mixture, Explosive Mixture
to increase its conductivity so that it is incapable
of retaining a significant electrostatic charge when A mixture with air of a flammable material? in
in contact with earth. the form of a’gas, droplets or dust, which is wrth-
in the flammable range and therefore capable of
3.3 Bonding being ignited.
The use of an -additional independent connection
between conductors to provide electrical conti- 3.11 Elammable Range
nuity when this cannot otherwise be ensured. The range of concentrations in air of a flammable
3.4 Breakdown Strength material, in the form of a gas, droplets or dust,
between the lower and upper flammable limits.
The minimum electric field strength in a medium
at which electrostatic discharges can occur in a 3.12 Hazardous Area
given situation.
An area in which flammable or explosive gas-air
3.5 Conductivity mixtures are, or may be expected to be, present
The reciprocal of resistivity. in quantities such as to require special precau-
tions against’ignition.
3.6 Conductor
Hazardous areas are classified into the following
Amaterial possessing an electrical conductivity three zones [ see IS 5572 ( Part 1 ): 1978 1.
sufficiently high to render it incapable of retain-
ing an electrostatic charge unless insulated from Zone ~0 In which an explosive gas-air mixture
earth. is continuously present or present for
long periods.
3.7 Earthing
Zone 1 In which an explosive gas-air mixture
The electrical connection of a conductor to the is likely to occur in normal operation.
main body of the earth to ensure that it is at
earth potential. Zone 2 In which an explosive gas-air mixture
is not likely to occur in normal opera-
3.8 Flammable tion, and if it occurs it will exist only
Capable of being ignited. for a short time.
3.9 Flammable Material 3.13 Incendive
A gas, vapour, liquid, dust or solid that can react Capable of igniting a prescribed flammable
continuously with atmospheric oxygen and that mixture.
4
IS 7689 : 1989
3.14 Inert Gas 4 STATUTORY PROVISIONS

A gas or a mixture of gases incapable of support- 4.1 The regulations or control of static laid by
ing the combustion of a flammble material. the statutory bodies like Directorate General of
Civil Aviation, Chief Inspectorate of Factories,
3.15 Ion Department of Explosives, etc, shall be taken into
account.
An atomic or molecular particle carrying &Ctri-
cal charge. 5 ELECTROSTATIC CHARGING
3.16 Lower Flammable Limit 5.0 Introduction
The concentration in air of a flammable material, The primary source of electrostatic charge is con-
in the form of a gas, droplets or dust, below tact electrification, where two dissimilar materials
which there is insufficiency of the material to are brought into contact and then separated,
support and propagate combustion. carrying equal and opposite charges. Conducting
objects may also become charged by the process
3.17 Mass Charge Density of induction from another charged object or
The net quantity of charge carried by unit mass objects in the vicinity. Objects can also receive
of a material. charge by direct transfer either from-other objects
or by the impingement upon them of a stream of
3.18 Minimum Ignition Energy ions.
The smallest quantity of energy that can ignite 5.1 Contact Electrification
a mixture of a specified flammable material with Contact electrification can occur at solid/solid,
air or oxygen, measured by a standard procedure. liquid/liquid or solid/liquid interfaces. Gases
3.19 Non-conductor cannot be charged in this way, but if a gas has
solid particles or liquid droplets in suspension
A material possessing an electrical resistivity suffi- these may be charged by contact, so that such a
ciently high to enable it to retain enough charge gas can carry an electrostatic charge.
to give rise to electrostatic effects.
In the case of dissimilar solids, initially uncharged
3.28 Relaxation ” and at the same, normally earth, potential, a
small amount of charge is transferred from one
The dissipation of an electrostatic charge by con- material to the other when they make contact.
duction. The two materials are therefore oppositely charged.
3.21 Relaxation Chamber and there is a potential difference between them
which is of the order of 1 V. If the materials are
A part of a liquid flow system which provides then separated, work has to be done to overcome
sufficient residence time for the charge on the the attraction between the opposing charges and
liquid to be reduced to a safe level. the potential difference between them therefore
increases. This higher potential difference tends
3.22 Relaxation Time to drive charge back across the interface whilst
The time required for the charge or potentialon any contact remains. In the case of two conduc-
a liquid or a solid to decay to I/e of its original tors the recombination of charges is virtually
level ( e is the base of natural logarithms ). complete and no significant amount of charge
. remains on either material after separation. If
3.23 Surface Charge Density one material, or both, is a non-conductor, the
recombination cannot take place completely and
The net quantity of charge per unit area of the the separating materials hold part, at least, of
surface of a solid or a liquid. their charges. Because the clearance between the
3.24 Surface Resistivity ( of a substance ) surfaces when in contact is extremely small the
potential generated on separation can easily
The resistance between the opposite edges of a reach many kilovolts despite the small amount of
square. charge involved. For reasons not fully understood
the charging is enhanced if the contact and sepa-
3.25 Upper Flammable Limit ration involves rubbing.
The concentration in air of a flammable material,
in the form of a gas, droplets or dust, above Contact electrification in liquids depends on the
which there is insufficient of the air to support presence of ions or sub-microscopic charged parti-
and propagate combustion. cles ( the latter are usually less important ). Ion
( or particles ) of one polarity are adsorbed at
3.26 Volume Resistivity ( ofa substance ) the interface and they then attract ions of oppo-
site polarity which form a diffuse layer of charge
The resistance at unit length and unit cross- close to the surface. If the liquid is then moved
sectional area. relative to the interface, it carries away this diffuse
5
IS 7689 : 1989
layer, thereby bringing about separation of the In all cases the charge leaks away at a rate
opposing charges. As in the case of solids a high determined by the resistances of the non-
voltage is generated because of the work done to conductors in the system. This process is known
bring about the separation, provided that the as relaxation. The resistance and resistivity or
liquid is sufficiently non-conducting to prevent conductivity values which are needed to produce
recombination. Such processes can occur at both hazardous situations depend greatly upon the
solid/liquid and liquid/liquid interfaces. system under consideration and will be discussed
in Section 2.
5.2 Charging by Induction
There is an electric field around any charged 6.2 In many industrial processes~there is a con-
object. -A conductor introduced into this field tinuous generation of static electricity which accu-
changes the distribution of potential in the field mulates on an insulated conductor, for example,
in its vicinity and at the same time there is a when a steady stream of charged liquid or powder
separation of opposing charges in the conductor flows into an insulated metal container. The
under the influence of the field. If it is insulated potential on the insulate@ conductor is then the
the conductor takes up a potential, dependent result of a balance between the rate of input of
upon its position in the field, and is said to be charge and the rate of leakage. The equivalent
charged by induction. By virtue of its potential, electrical circuit is shown in Fig. 1 and t h e
coupled with the separated charges that it carries, potential of the conductor is given by the equation:
the conductor is capable of an electrostatic
discharge. V cp IR ( 1 - e-t/R= )
If, while it is in the field, the conductor is momen- where
tarily earthed, its potential is reduced to zero,
but an imbalance of charges remains on it. V is the potential of the conductor ( in V )
Removal of the conductor from the vicinity of C is its capacitance ( in F )
the original charged ~object, however, makes the
remaining charge available to provide a spark. R is the leakage resistance to earth ( in Q )
This type of induction sparking can be hazardous,
for example, in the case of an insulated person I is the electrostatic charging current ( in A )
moving about near electrostatically charged t is the time from’ the commencement of
materials. charging ( in s )
5.3 Charge Transfer \
The maximum potential is reached when t is
Whenever a charged object makes contact with large and is, therefore
one that is uncharged, the charge is shared bet-
ween them to the extent that their conductivities
allow. This is a potent source of electrostatic Vmai = IR
charging when charged sprays, mists or dusts
impinge upon a solid object, for example, by
settling. A similar transfer of charge can also
take place when a stream of gaseous ions is
incident upon an initially uncharged object.
.6 RETENTION OF
CHARGES
ELECTROSTATIC
1 Charging current. I
6.1 Even after separation in the charging process,

electrostatic charges will quickly recombine either Leakage
directly or via the earth unless they are prevented Capacitance resistbnce.R
from doing so. If a charge is on a non-conductor c
it is retained by virtue of the resistance. of the
material itself. To retain charge on a conductor
it has to be insulated from other conductors and
from earth by means of a non-conductor. It is
shown in 15.2 that to retain a significant electro-
static charge a resistance to earth in excess of
l.MQ is required.
Pure gases under normal conditions are non-
conductors and the suspended particles, or
“r
_A.-
Leakage current
droplets, in dust clouds, mists or sprays can

therefore retain their charges, often for very long
periods, irrespective of the conductivity of the Fro. 1 EQUIVALENT E LECTRICAL C IRCUIT FOR
particles themselves. AN E L EC TR OS T AT IC AL L Y C HARGED C O N D U C T O R
IS 7689 : 1989
7 ELECTROSTATIC DISCHARGES and the maximum energy released in spark dis-

charge would be
7.0 Introduction E max - 3 CVamax - 25OmJ
Charge retained on a liquid or a solid creates a The charge retained on the drum to give a
hazard only if it is discharged to another body or, potential of 100 kV is
more usually, to earth. Electrostatic discharges
vary greatly in the type and incendivity. In this Q max = cv,,, - 5 X lo-sc
Code they are classified as described in the
following paragraphs, although the differentiation Table 1 Typical Electrical Capacitances
&;;;en the various types is not completely ( czause 7.1 )
.
7.1 Sparks
Object Capacitance
A spark is a discharge between liquid or solid
conductors. It is characterized by a well defined PF
luminous discharge channel carrying a high Small metal items ( scoop, hose 10 to 20
density current. Ionization of gas in the channel nozzle )
is complete over its whole length. The discharge Small containers ( bucket, 10 to 100
is very rapid and gives rise to a sharp crack. 50-litre drum )
Medium containers ( 250 litres to 50 to 300
A spark occurs between conductors when the field 500 litres )
strength between them exceeds a level known as Major plant items ( reaction 100 to 1000
the breakdown strength, which depends upon the vessels ) immediately surround-
ed by earthed structure
gap width. For flat or large radius surfaces 10 mm
Human body 100 to 300
or more apart this field strength is about 3 x 10s
kV/m and it increases somewhat as the gap
decreases. 7.2 Corona
Because the bodies concerned in the discharge are This is a form of discharge from a conductor
conductors, all the charge is drawn into the when it is very small, pointed, or has a sharp
spark, which in most practical cases dissipates edge, that is, where a surface with a small radius
almost all the available energy. Referring to the of curvature exists. The discharge may be directed
equivalent electrical circuit of Fig. 1, therefore, towards another object, or it may be dissipated
the energy of the spark is: into the atmosphere.
The field strength near the pointed feature is very
large and falls off rapidly with increasing distance
where from it. The gas adjacent to the point is ionized
and current can, therefore, leave the conductor.
E is the energy dissipated ( in J ) However, farther away from the point ionization
Q is the quantity of charge on the conductor is not complete and a low stable current is set up
( in C ) which is controlled by the gas conduction in this
V is its potential ( in V ) area. It is kqown as a corona discharge and is
characterized by a hissing sound and, sometimes,
C is its capacitance ( in F )
by a faint glow.
This is the maximum value of energy; the energy A corona discharge may continue indefinitely or it
in the spark is less if there is resistance in the dis- may be in discrete short bursts. The energy
charge path to earth, and the duration of the density in the discharge is much less than in a
spark is then also greater. spark. In certain circumstances, for example, if
there is an increase in the potential of the pointed
Typical values for the capacitances of conductors conductor, corona can develop into a spark to
are given in Table 1. another object.
A typical calculation of spark discharge energy is 7.3 Brush Discharges
that involved when an unearthed metal drum is
filled with powder from a grinding unit. In such Brush discharge occurs from a charged non-con-
a case I might be 10-r A. The leakage resistance ductor to a conductor. It takes the form of spark-
4 of the drum to earth, R, is, for example, lOI* Sz like discharges from discrete areas of the surface
and its capacitance about 50 -pF. The maximum of the non-conductor; effectively, each discharge
voltage on the drum is then: is a small spark limited by the quantity of charge
that can flow to it over the surface. The total
Vmsx = IR - 100 kV discharge often has a brush-like appearance. If
7
IS 7689 t 1989
the conductor to which the current is flowing is the lower and upper flammable limits anp
pointed,,the discharge at the conductor will be in normally expressed in terms of the concentration
the form of corona. of flammable material in air. The rangeof con-
centrations between these limits is known as the
The localized energy density in a brush discharge flammable range, and any mixture within this
may be high enough to be incendive; empirical range is termed a flammable mixture. *The
tests suggest, however, that the energy release is majority of gases have flammable limits within
unlikely to exceed about 4 mJ. the range 2 ( v/v ) to 10 percent ( v/u ). However,
7.4 Propagating Brush Discharges there are substances, for example, acetylene,
ethylene and hydrogen, whose flammable limits
This type of discharge is a development of the exceed this range.
normal brush discharge which can occur from a
high resistivity non-conductor in sheet form with In general, it is possible to avoid an explosion
large opposing charges on its two surfaces. Often hazard due to an electrostatic discharge, or any
the sheet is backed by a conductor, but the other source of ignition, by eliminating any
essential point is that the sheet is polarized and flammable mixture, tha& is, present. This can be
in the same state as the dielectric of a charged done either by ventilation with air to reduce the
capacitor. If a conductor approaches the non- concentration of the flammable material below
conductor surface the resultant electrostatic field the lower flammable limit or by adding inert gas.
promotes ionization across a large area of the An inert gas is one containing little or no oxygen,
surface. A discharge can then take place in which such as boiler flue gas, and by its use the oxygen
the charge from an extensive area of the non- content of the atmosphere can be reduced to such
conductor rapidly flows to the initial discharge a low figure that combustion is not possible at
point through the ionized gas adjacent to the any concentration of flammable material in air.
surface. The result is an intense and highly The required oxygen concentrations are, for
energetic spark-like discharge which can be example, about 11 percent u/v for hydrocarbon
very dangerous. gases and about 5 percent v/v for hydrogen, corn
pared with the normal atmospheric oxygen con-
7.5 Field Emission Discharges tent of 21 percent v/v. It is usual in practice to
The energy of this type of discharge is very small include a factor of safety; a maximum oxygen
and it is likely to be of concern only when explo- content of 8 percent ( v/v ) is frequently specified
,sives are involved. The discharges described so far for hydrocarbons.
have all depended upon gas ionization brought 0.1.2 Explosives
about by high field strength, but it is believed that These are mixtures or compounds whose violent
a different ionization process operates in field exothermic reaction can be initiated by electro-
emission discharges, that is, possibly the ejection static discharges or other sources of ignition with-
of electrons from the surfaces; surface condition out the intervention of air.
appears to be important. Discharges have been
observed with a potential difference of 50 V if 8.2 Ignition Energy
two conductor surfaces are brought within a dis- Whether or not an electrostatic discharge will
tance of IO-3 mm of each other, which is equivalent ignite a flammable mixture depends upon the
to a field strength of about 5 x IO* kV/m. These composition and temperature of the mixture the
figures compare with afield strength of about 3 x energy of the discharge and the distribution of
10s kV/m for the more usual discharges, with a this energy ,is space and time. In practical situa-
threshold potential difference of about 300 V. tions the most frequent source of ignition is a
8 INCENDIVITY OF ELECTRICAL spark from an insulated conductor, and a spark
DISCHARGES is therefore the commonly accepted means of
measuring ignition energies, using a voltage of at
NOTE -The data given in this clause are, strictly least IO kV. For a given flammable material a
speaking, only appropriate to normal atmospheric
temperatures. If higher temperatures are involved, graph of the lowest energy for ignition as a funo
specialist advice should be sought. tion of concentration in air takes the form shown
in Fig 2. The energy corresponding to the lowest
8.1 Flammability and Explosivity point on this curve is called the minimum ignition
8.1.1 Flammable Mixtures energy and is the best general measure of the
smallest quantity of energy needed to initiate an
In the combustion process flammable material explosion or fire involving the flammable
reacts with an oxidant to liberate energy, The material in question.
oxidant is usually air but it can be another gas
mixture, containing more or less oxygen than air, Most organic vapours and hydrocarbon gases in
or some other oxidizing agept. air have minimum ignition energies in the range
0.01 m J to 1 m J. Carbon disulphide and hydrogen
A mixture in air of a flammable material in the in air have values in the region of 0.02 mJ, while
form of a gas, droplets or dust cannot burn unless explosives can have minimum ignition energies as
its composition lies within two limits, known as low as O*OOl mJ.
8
IS 7689 : 1989
Similar considerations apply to dust clouds or part of the stored energy may be dissipated in the
liquid droplet suspensions except that the resistance and the duration of the spark may
minimum ignition energies are higher than those increase.
of gases because of the need to heat up the suspend-
ed matter present. For dust clouds the values The incendivities of corona discharges are less
t than those -of sparks. The stored energy on a con-
range from less than 2 mJ to greater than 5 000
mJ- ductor, L/2 CD, therefore, tends to over-estimate
the ignition risk. The relatively low incendivity of
The minimum ignition energy of a dust cloud corona allows it to be used in passive eliminators
depends on the particle size distribution in the as a means of safely removing static electricity,
cloud, as well as on its chemical composition, although, if there is any possibility of the presence
although published data frequently do not specify of a flammable mixture, it is essential that great
the particle size. A decrease in particle size or an care be taken in the design of the system.
increase in the percentage of fines in general
decreases the minimum ignition energy. In some There is no generally accepted method of deter-
cases this effect is very marked, as in the example mining the incendivity of the brush discharges
given in Table 2. from non-conductors. U$ually the rate of release
of energy is comparatively low because the high
Table 2 Example of Dependence of surface resistivlty impedes the flow of charge but,
Minimum Ignition Energy on Particle due to the presence of high energy density cores,
Size of a Dust brush discharges can be more incendive than
( Clause 7.2 ) corona. A propagating brush discharge from a
high resistivity non-conducting sheet, with nor
I--
without a metal backing, is highly incendive.
Particle Size Range Minimum Ignition Where a precise assessment of the incendivity of a
Energy
brush discharge is required, ignition tests should
be made using the flammable mixture of interest.
pm mJ In the case of a propagating brush discharge, if
the total energy stored on the non-conductor can
710 to 1680 > 5 000 be estimated, it may be compared with the
355 to 709 250 to 500 minimum ignition energy.
180 to 354 50 to 250 9 PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF
ELECTROSTATIC DISCHARGES
105 to 179 < 10
53 to 104 c 10 9.1 The smallest spark energy that a person can feel!
when a discharge occurs to or from his body is
5 < 10 about 1 mJ, that is, potential of about 2.5 kV if his
- capacitance is 300 pF. As the potential is increas-
ed, variations in response are observed. Some
As a practical guide, experience suggests that people find 10 mJ uncomfortable due to muscular
the sensitivity of a dust cloud to ignition is contraction, whereas others can accept several
realistically determined by using dust that has hundred millijoules before they experience sharp
passed through a 200 mesh ( 75 pm ) sieve. muscular contraction. 1 000 mJ, ( that is 1 J ),
affects everybody severaly. In incidents in which
. 8.3 A s s e s s m e n t o f t h e Incendivity of people have been rendered unconscious the energy
Discharges of the discharge was estimated to be several joules.
Sparks from insulated conductors constitute the
most important electrostatic ignition risk. As dis- Since in most situations discharge energies are
cussed in 7.1, sparks are of very short duration below 100 mJ serious physiological shock is very
and, in many cases, virtually all the available rare. There are exceptions; for example, a dis-
electrostatic energy appears in the discharge. To charge to a person due to highly charged parti-
assess the incendivity of such a discharge, there- culate matter collected in a non-conducting con-
fore, it is usually valid to compare the stored tainer can be as much as several joules (see 12.2.3).
energy, measured by l/2 CVI, with the minimum Irrespective of whether the shock itself is harmful,
ignition energy of the combustible material in the involuntary muscular reaction to a discharge
question. The comparison may not be valid if may cause an accident through, for example, the
there is resistance in the discharge path, because dropping of a tool or by precipitating a fall.
IS 7689 : 1989
-
--I
b=
1
x 3
P
&
C
5
C
0
z
E
cl 2
-
Mrtlmu-n ignition energy
2 ’ L 6 8 10 12
Percentage flammable material in air by volume
NOTE - This graph is purely diagrammatic and is not to be used in any assessment of incendivity.
F1o.2 I GNITION E NERGY AS A FUNCTION OF F LAMMABLE MATERIALCONCENTRATION IN AIR
IO
IS 7669 : 1989
-SECTION 2 ELECTROSTATIC HAZARDS AND THEIR CONTROL
10 ELECTROSTATICS IN LIQUIDS For practical purposes the pipe can be considered

to be of infinite length if:
10.1 Charge Generating Mechanisms
L> 3nv 7
10.1.1 Flow of Single ~Phase Liquids Through Pifies
and r = y x 101s
When a liquid flows through a pipe, charge
separation occurs ( see 5.1 ) and the liquid emerg- where
ing from the pipe is charged. The amount of
charge is dependent, amongst other things, upon L is the length of the pipe ( in m ),
the flow conditions. Turbulent flow generates
more charge than laminar flow; for a single phase T is the relaxation time of the liquid ( in s ),
liquid the current generated is roughly propor- E is the relative permittivity of the liquid,
tional to the velocity in the case of laminar flow
and to the square of the velocity in the case of Ed is the permittivity of free space
turbulent flow. Because laminar flow problems ( 8.85 x 10-1s F/m ), and
are less severe this code will deal exclusively with y is the conductivity of the liquid ( in pS/m ).
turbulent flow conditions.
Very few data are available for charge generation
For single phase flow, the current generated by a during liquid flow in pipes made of materials
liquid flowing through an infinitely long pipe, having volume resistivities greater than 1OlsQ m.
made of metal or of any material with a volume It has been found that for liquids with conducti-
resistivity less than about lOlsQ.m, does not vities in the range 1 pS/m to 100 pS/m the
change greatly with the conductivity and relative current leaving a polyethylene pipe decreases
permittivity of the liquid. In practice, as the with increasing duration of the flow and finally
liquid levels the pipe it is no longer subject to the
reaches an equilibrium value in good agreement
charge separation process and charge relaxes back
with that from a metal pipe. On this evidence,
to the wall of the pipe through the emerging
the expression for charge generation by a con-
liquid. Therefore, the net current carried by the
ducting pipe can be used to estimate’ the equili-
liquid as it enters the receiving vessel decreases as
brium generation by a non-conducting pipe.
the liquid conductivity increases.
However, prior to the establishment of equili-
brium, the current is greater than that for a
Also, as the flow rate decreases the current conducting pipe, but this is unlikely to affect the
decreases. degree of hazard in a sustained pumping opera-
tion.
For single phase liquids whose conductivities are
low enough for them to retain a dangerous 10.1.2 Flow of Liquid/Liquid or -Liquid/Solid Mixtures
charge, there are a number of empirical relation- Through Pipes
ships giving the maximum charge generation.
One such relationship leads to the following Whenever such mixtures are pumped through
approximate expression for the charge density on pipes, charge generation occurs in the same way
the liquid leaving an infinitely long pipeline: as with a single phase liquid. The rate of genera-
tion may be greater than with a single phase
because of the increased interfacial area, but it is
not amenable to calculation.
where ? is the charge density ( in @/ms ) and v 10.1.3 Flow of Liquids Through Strainers and Filters
is the liner velocity of the liquid .( in m/s ). Thus,
for linear velocities of 1 m/s and 10 m/s the Strainers and gauzes are very coarse filters,
charge densities are about 5 PC/m* and 50 pC/ms, usually with mesh numbers less than 350 ( 30 pm
respectively. apertures ) designed to remove large particles from
11
IS 7689 : 1989
liquids. They do not normally cause any signifi- charge is not predictable; it depends upon the
cant current generation and can be ignored when nature and cleanness of the surface as well as on
handling single phase liquids. If a second phase is the type and concentration of ions in the liquid.
present they may aid its dispersion, thereby In general, the more conducting the liquid, the
promoting increased charge generation elsewhere greater the charge generation. For example, a
in the system. water jet produces more charge than an oil jet,
but water/oil mixtures may produce more than
’ Fine particle filters can be prolific generators of either water or oil.
static electricity; in general, the more stringent
the filtration requirement the greater the charge 10.1.6 Ejection of L-iquid Dropletsfrom a Nozzle
generation. The current generated by very fine
micronic filters can exceed, by several orders of A wet gas stream issuing from a nozzle can be
magnitude, produced by a pipeline. Typical highly charged. The liquid layer on the inside of
charge densities in the liquid leaving such a filter the pipe is sheared by the gas stream and broken
can be in the range 10 PC/m8 to 5 000 pC/ms. up into droplets. If the sheared layer has a charge
Unfortunately it is not possible to predict the as a result of its motion along the pipe surface,
charge generation of a fine particle filter; even the droplets emerging from the nozzle are
apparently identical filters of the same type can charged. The amount of charge depends amongst
give widely differing results. other things, on the conductivity of the liquid and
Current generation in a fine particle filter depends on the gas velocity.
upon flow rate, liquid conductivity, the type of 10.1.7 Stirring and Mixing
ions in the liquid and, possibly, the state of the
filter element surfaces. In general, generation Any motion of a liquid in a container generates
increases with increasing flow rate. As the liquid static electricity, to an extent dependent upon the
conductivity increases from a very low level conductivity of the liquid and the relative motion
( O-1 pS/m ) , generation at first also increases. between the liquid and the solid surfaces with
This is because the increasing ion concentration which it is in contact. Normally, the~amount of
makes a positive contribution to both conducti- charge generated in much less than that produced
vity and charge generation. However, the current by the flow of a liquid through a pipe or a fine
emerging from the filter reaches a maximum and filter, because the turbulence is less, but a hazard
then declines with further increase in conductivity can arise in some blending operations.
as the normal relaxation process carries charge
back to the filter. The lack of predictability of 10.2 Discharges Involving Liquids
the current generation is attributed to variations 10.2.1 General
in the nature and concentration of the ions pre- For some processes it is possible to calculate both
sent and to the ‘complexities of the liquid/filter charge generation and charge retention ( see 7.1 )
element interface.
and hence to assess the degree of hazard due to a
10.1.4 Settling of Solids or Liquids in Liquids discharge and to decide upon counter measures.
In many other cases, however, calculations are
Any settling process, such as that of water in impossible and measurements have to be relied
hydrocarbon, generates charge. The process of upon. This usually involves the use of electro-
charge generation in such systems is very compli- static voltmeters or electrostatic field meters to
cated and has been studied only to a very limited monitor the.“problem and to determine the critical
extent. Low conductivity of the continous liquid parameters. Because charge generation is very
phase promote the occurrence of a high settling variable it is important to be satisfied that the
potential by retarding relaxation. worst case has been tested.
10.1.5 Splashing of Liquid Jets
10.2.2 Discharges from Liquids
As liquid emerges from a pipe into a receiving
vessel two processes may give rise to charged mist Charges that have been separated as a result of
or spray. the flow of a liquid attempt to recombine. If’ the
liquid has a low conductivity it can, however,
In the first, the liquid is .charged during its flow retain the charge, irrespective of whether it is
through the pipe as described in 10.1.1 and, if the pumped into an earthed, conducting ( normally
liquid column is unbroken, part of the charge metal ) tank or into a non-conducting tank or
relaxes back to the pipe. If, however, the column container.
breaks up into droplets, any remaining charge is
distributed amongst the droplets. The resultant A measure of the rate of charge dissipation from
spray is therefore charged. a liquid in contact with earthed metal is its
relaxation time, the expression for which was
Secondly, if the jet hits an obstruction, additional given in 10.1.1: It is the time required for the
charge can be produced by electrification at the potential of the liquid to fall to about 37 percent
point of impact and the resultant spray may, there- of its original level as it decays exponentially. It
fore, be highly charged. The magnitude of this is accepted in any applications that if a liquid
12
IS 7689 : 1989
has a conductivity greater than 50 pS/m, equi- C> inmersion of a conducting object in
valent to a relaxation time of about 0.35 seconds, charged liquid ( the object takes up the
it is incapable of retaining a hazardous charge. potential of the point where it is situated .
Alcohols and ketones are in this category and so in the liquid; an example is an unearthed
also are all black petroleum oils ( containing metal component in a sampling or ullaging
residual material ) and crude oils. Clean or white system ), and
oils. such as kerosene or gasolene, however, nor-
mally have conductivities below 50 pS/m,~and are, d) settling of charged mist or spray on the
therefore, able to retain a significant charge. object, for example, an unearthed object in
the vicinity of a steam leak.
When a liquid is charged, electric fields exist both
within the liquid and in the space around it. If The possibility of charging by induction should
these fields are high enough, discharges can occur. always be borne in mind where there are insulat-
Discharges within the liquid are, in general, not ed conductors in the vicinity of charged liquid.
an ignition hazard, but they may bring about
chemical changes altering the specified properties As described in 7, thfe discharges from con-
of the liquid or causing corrosion of the plant ductors are usually sparks and are potentially
involved. hazardous. The energy can be calculated using
the procedure given in 7.1. In some cases, for
Discharges in the atmosphere can be hazardous. example,, an empty can floating in a liquid, the
Within a tank, the field strength between the conductor may be~mobile, and the calculation is
liquid surface and earthed walls or structure can then complicated because the capacitance is vari-
exceed the breakdown strength. It is rarely able.
possible to estimate the energy of the resultant
discharges and, in any event, this energy cannot Discharges from non-conductors are considered
be compared with the minimum ignition energy in 12.
.determined using metal electrodes.
10.2.4 Charge Retention on Mists and Sprays
It is sometimes possible to avoid a hazardous
situation by controlling the rate of charge input to Suspensions of charged droplets retain their
the tank so as to keep the field strength at the charge by virtue of the insulation provided by the
liquid surface below the breakdown value. This surrounding atmosphere. When the mist or spray
field strength can, in principle, be calculated from is being produced continuously, as, for example,
the input current given information on the con- when washing a tank with water or injecting
ductivity of the liquid, the size and shape of the steam, the charge density builds up to an equili-
tank and of any internal structure, and the ullage brium value where the rate of input of charge is
of the liquid. equal to the rate of loss by processes such as settl-
Charge retention on liquids in similar in both i,ng or impingement of the droplets on the struc-
conducting and non-conducting containers ture of the tank.
although in the latter case relaxation may be There is an electric field both within and around a
controlled by the resistivity of the container. A charged cloud of mist or spray. The field strength
non-conducting container can be expected to at anypoint depends on the charge density, the
increase the possibility of discharges from a size and shape of the-cloud and the size and shape
liqnid, but few quantitative data are available on of the vessel; if any, containing the cloud. Insulat-
this subject. ed conductors within or near the cloud can be ,
10.2.3 Discharges from Solids charged by induction or by the settling of droplets
and are then capable of yielding incendive sparks
Both non-conductors and conductors with a resis- to earth. With very high charge densities complete
tance path to earth greater than 1OsQ can become ionization could occur in the atmosphere between
charged through the agency of a liquid by many the droplets, leading to a lighting type discharge,
processes. These include: but there is no evidence that this occurs in indus-
flow of a low conductivity liquid past them trial situations. Corona discharges are possible,
4 more especially from earthed projections to the
( the charge may be due to contact electri-
fication between the liquid and the object, cloud, and these are believed to contribute to the
of to charge transfer from a liquid already establishment of an equilibrium charge density
carrying charge_; examples are an insulated in the cloud.
metal flange, an insulated section of metal
pipe in a non-conducting pipeline or a An important example of a charged mist is that
length of non-conducting pipeline itself ); produced during the water washing of the cargo
tanks of tankers. One type of insulated conductor
b) collection of charged liquid, as when in this process is provided by isolated slugs of
charged liquid is poured into an unearthed water produced as the water jets entering the tank
can; break up.
13
IS7689 $1989
10.3 Precautions Against Static Electricity tank filling operations when no second phase is.
from Low Conductivity Liquids present. In the light of present knowledge it is ’
undesirable in any case for the pipeline velocity to
10.3.1 General exceed 7 m/s, but in some instances it might need
Measures to avoid ignitions due to static electricity to be as low as 2 m/s.
( and any other sources of ignition ) are necessary 10.3.2.2 Free fall
if the presence of a flammable mixture is known
or suspected. One type of precaution is to eliminate The splashing and impingement on surfaces,
the flammable mixture by ventilation with air or associated with the free fall of low conductivity
by inserting inert gas ( see 8.1.1 ). Alternatively, liquids are sources of electrostatic charging. Free
the space in which the flammable mixture could fall should be avoided in tanks, either by arrang-,
form can be removed, for example, by means of ing for bottom entry of the liquid or by the use of
floating roof tanks as used in the oil industry. In a fill pipe extending to the bottom of the tank.
the absence of the possibility of a flammable
mixture there may still be a risk of serious 10.3.2.3 Agixation and mixjng
physiological shock; this can be eliminated by Mechanical mixing or agitation of low conducti-
bonding and earthing both conductors and vity liquids with air, steam, gas or jet nozzles.
personnel. should be kept to a minimum because of the
If the presence of a flammable mixture is .possible, charge which may be produced on the mist or
electrostatic discharges should be controlled. The spray formed above the liquid.
methods available are: 10.3.2.4 The presence of immiscible comfionents
a) bonding and earthing of conductors, in&d - The presence of a second liquid phase, commonly
ing personnel, water, in a low conductivity liquid may increase
b) minimizing electrostatic charge generation, electrostatic problems. As already indicated ( see-
and 10.3.2.1 ) the flow velocity should be kept at.
c) maximizing charge dissipation. about 1 m/s whilst the second phase is present.
Efforts should be made to eliminate it, for
In some cases, these measures either singly or in example, by reducing the water bottom in tanks.
combination may not be entirely adequate and as much as possible and by draining down
they should then be supplemented by appropriate thoroughly any water-flushed pipelines.
operational procedures and design features to avoid 10.3.3 Charge Dissipation
discharges.
10.3.3.1 Relaxation
Bonding and earthing are considered in detail in When a liquid is highly charged, for example
Section 4. Other methods are dealt with in 10.3.2 after passage through a fine particle filter, most
and 10.3.3. Because of the very wide range of of the charge can be dissipated by allowing the
possibilities, precise and totally comprehensive liquid to pass slowly through a relaxation cham-
advice is difficult to give. Each application should ber. This may be a small tank or, more frequen-
be considered on its merits. tly, a length of large-diameter pipe. For liquids:
with conductivities down to 2 pS/m the residence
10.3.2 Control of Charge Gerieration time in the relaxation chamber should be 3 r
10.3.2.1 Flow rate r where r is the relaxation time of the liquid,
and for less conductive liquids it should be.
The generation of electrostatic charge increases 100 seconds.
with the rate of flow of liquids. Also, high The charge on the liquid entering any metal
velocities encourage the entrainment and dis- container relaxes in a similar manner. Relaxation
persion of a second phase, such as water, thereby in non-conducting tanks is controlled by the
increasing charging in pipeline systems as well as relaxation time of the material of the tank. In
allowing subsequent charge generation by settling such cases charge can be dissipated by arranging
in tanks. The point of entry into a tank should be for the liquid to be in contact with earthed metal,
at a low level and the flow velocity should be usually an earthed metal plug at the bottom of.
kept low until the incoming stream no longer the tank, or any earthed metal components, such
breaks through the liquid surface. as the fill pipe, extending to the bottom of the
A flow velocity of 1 m/s is recommended in the tank.
filling of storage tanks with low conductivity
liquids ( conductivities less than about 50 pS/m ) 10.3.3.2 Antistatic additives
when any second phase may exist in the pipe. A These additives increases the conductivity of
second phase is most likely to be present in the liquids. The addition of such an additive to raise
initial stages of a filling operation. It is not possi- the conductivity to SO pS/m or more decreases the
ble at present to make a general statement on the relaxation time sufficiently to remove any electro-
upper limit of velocity of flow rate to cover all static hazard in a conducting system.
14
IS 7689 : 1989
-10.3.3.3 Ionifation generation is usually difficult to predict. Electrifica-

tion can be expected whenever a powder comes
Radiation may be used to promote ionization of into contact with a dissimilar surface, for example,
.ithe atmosphere adjacent to the liquid surface to inmixing, grinding, sieving, pouring, micronizing
facilitate the leakage of charge from the liquid. and pneumatic transfer.
This method can rarely be employed in practice
because it usually requires a prohibitively large The amount of charge carried by a powder in
number of radio-active sources and it can only suspension in a gas cannot exceed a level at which
relax the charge on the liquid near the surface. the field strength at the surface of each particle is
sufficient to produce ionization of the atmosphere
10:3.4 Operational and Design Features around it, allowing charge to leak away. This
Whenever there is the possibility of the presence field depends on the particle size and shape on a
of a flammable mixture, any metallic object p a r t i c l e i s a b o u t lO,&/ma. A s t h e p a r t i c l e s
lowered into a tank, for example, ullaging or approach each other more closely the field
sampling equipment, should be earthed and any strength at the boundary of the cloud increases,
person using such equipment should be earthed. discharges occur and Qence the total charge
However, if a low conductivity liquid is being carried becomes less.
pumped into the tank, a discharge may occur The charge carried by unit mass of powder is
between the decending earthed equipment and the usually the critical parameter in considering
liquid surface as they approach each other. Dipp- electrostatic phenomena involving powders. In
ing, ullaging or sampling should, therefore, be the case of spherical particles it is given by:
avoided whilst pumping is in progress and time
should be left for relaxation on completion of 3a
pumping. For a single phase liquid in a metal 4 = &-
tank a period of 3 r or 100 seconds, depending on where
conductivity, is sufficient ( see 10.3.3.1 ). How-
ever, if the liquid contains a second immiscible q = mass charge density ( &/pg ),
phase, such as water in suspension, the delay u = surface charge density ( &/rns ),
,should be 30 minutes to permit settling of the
second phase and the relaxation of any settling d = density o f t h e p o w d e r p a r t i c l e s
potential. ( kg/ms ), and
r = radius of particles ( m ).
A similar hazard exists if there are conductive
earthed metal projections downwards into a tank A given powder in suspension in air retains its
which could discharge to the liquid surface as it maximum mass charge density when it is we11
rises towards them. Such projections should be dispersed and approaches 10pCjma. It is also
avoided, unless it can be shown that charging is evident from this relationship that a larger
not at a dangerous level. amount of charge can be carried when the
Earthing of conductors is the most commonly particles size is small.
-used precaution against static electricity and is For the purposes of this Code it is helpful to
usually comparatively simple to arrange. In a few divide powders into three groups depending on
instances, however, an unearthed conductor may the volume resistivity of the material of which the
inadvertently be present, for example, an empty particles are composed. These groups are:
can floating in a liquid. The greatest care should
be taken to ensure the absence of such potential 4 low resistivity powders, for example,
insulated conductors. metals, having volume resistivities up to
about 10Qm;
11 E L E C T R O S T A T I C S I N P O W D E R S
b) medium resistivity powders, for example,
11.1 General many organic powders, such as flour having
volume resistivities in the approximate
‘In this Code the term powder ‘means particulate range lOsam to lO%Jm; and
-solid matter with particle sizes ranging from these
in fine dust to granules or chips. The behaviour 4 high resistivity powders, for example, many
of powders has to be consideredboth when the synthetic polymers and some minerals, such
particles are in suspension as a cloud and when as quartz, having volume resistivities above
they have settled as a bulked powder. about 1 OrsQm.
11.2 Charge Generation In practice, low resistivity powders are rarely

encountered. Even metal powders do not remain
Contact electrification occurs extensively in conductive for very long because oxide films on
powders. The charging characteristics are often the particles increase their effective resistivity
determined at least as much by surface contami- sufficiently to put them into the medium resistivity
nation of the particles as by the chemical category. This Code is therefore predominantly
composition of the powder itself and charge concerned with medium and high resistivity
15 .
IS 7689 t 1989
powders. Problems can arise with low resistivity on the process to which they have been subjected.
powders if they are insulated from earth, for Not only are their volume resistivities very high,
example, in a non-conducting container. but they are also very hydrophobic and in bulk
they are capable of retaining charge for hours or
Measurements with medium resistivity powders even days even when in contact with earthed
indicate that their mass charge densities depend metal. Charge retention is in many instances con-
on the process to which they have been subjected trolled by the field strength, and the surface
and on their degree of fineness, rather than on charge density may therefore be of the order of
their chemical compositions. The charge density lO,C/m*.
is for greater in grinding or micronizing opera-
tions than in sieving or pouring. One reason for 11.3 Discharges Involving Powders
this is that the former type of operation produce
11.3.1 Ignition Energy
much smaller particles.
The processes of charge generation and retention
Table 3 gives measured data on the charge levels in powders are in general not sufficiently well
on medium resistivity powders emerging from defined to permit calculations to be made of the
different processes. energies likely to be involved in discharges, and
Table 3 Charge Generation on Medium
tests using the system in question are the most
Resistivity Powers reliable means~of assessing the risks.
Where the spark energy can be calculated, such as.
( Clause 11.2 ) in discharges from insulated conductors in the
vicinity of charged powders, it may be compared
Operation Mass Charge Density with the minimum ignition energy of the powder,
&/kg measured by the method described in Section 4.
Sieving 10-a to 10-5 There is another commonly used procedure for
Pouring 10-l to 10-3 measuring minimum ignition energies of powders
Scroll feed transfer 1 to 10-s in which a capacitor is discharged through a
Grinding 1 to 10-l
transformer to a spark gap; the result is quoted in
terms of the energy lost from the capacitor,
Micronizing 10s to 10-l
making no allowance for losses in the transformer.
The use of the result of this type of test in com-
When a medium resistivity powders comes to rest parison with discharge energies understates the
in bulk.the charge retained depends on the resis- hazard and should be avoided.
tance between the powder and earth. If the 11.3.2 Discharges from Dust Clouds
powder is in an earthed container or in contact
with earthed metal components, charge rotation In principle, discharges can occur within dust
is determined by the volume resistivity of the bulk clouds or from dust clouds to earth when the field
powder, which includes the inter-particle resis- strength due to the charged particles high enough.
tances and is measured as described in section 4. Recent work has indicated that the discharges are
The relaxation time of a bulked powder is given of a corona type. Spark or lightning type dis--
by the equation: charges have not been observed in dust clouds of
the size encountered in industrial operations. On
7 = EEoP
the basis of the evidence so far, the risk of an
where ignition due to a discharge from a dust cloud is
very low, except for highly sensitive atmospheres,
r is the relaxation time ( in s ) for example, very fine dust suspensions cr flam--
E is the relative permittivity of the mable gas mixtures.
powder,
11.3.3 DischargesJrom Bulk Powders
e. is the permittivity of free space
( 8.85 x 10-1s F/m ) The probability of an electrostatic discharge in-
p is the volume resistivity of the powder creases as the powder settles out in bulk form,
( inf2m > thus concentrating the charge and increasing the
field strength in the surrounding space.
For a volume resistivity of lQl*Qm this gives a
relaxation time of about 20 seconds, so that, even In the case of medium resistivity powders most of
making no allowance for contact resistance the charge relaxes as the particles make contact
between the particles, medium resistivity powders with each other, provided that the powder is in
at the upper end of the resistivity range can retain an earthed metal container or in contact with
their charge for an appreciable period. earthed metal. In these circumstances it is unlikely
that a discharge from the surface of the powder
The charge generated on high resistivity powders would be capable of igniting a dust cloud with a
depends much more on their mode of transfer, minimum ignition energy greater than 20 m J to,
that is, whether in suspension or semi-bulked, than 30 m J. In a non-conducting container, relaxation.
16
I
IS 7889 t 1989
may be slower and a discharge to earth would Abe are likely to be comparatively low and incapable
potentially more incendive depending upon the of igniting the powder. This does not apply, how-
resistivity of the container. ever, if a mixture with a minimum ignition
energy is present, such as a flammable gas
High resistivity powders do not dissipate their mixture; an example is the pouring of a powder
charges by conduction when they enter a contai- into a flammable solvent. Earthing of plant and
ner whether or not the container is conducting. personnel is also effective in avoiding physiologi-
Low energy air discharges occur from the bulking cal shocks.
point ( where the particles first contact the heap )
to the wall of the container. However, the energy Earthing and bonding are considered in detail in
readily available to such a discharge by con- Section 4. In the handling of powders, the pre-
duction within the powder is limited, and expe- sence of the powder itself can increase the resis-
rience so far is that this type of discharge to the tance to earth of metal com_ponents and it is
walls of the container does not ignite dusts with necessary, therefore, etisure that earthing is
minimum ignition energies greater than 20 m J to adequate when the plant is dirty as well as when
30 mJ. There may be a scale effect whereby the clean. This applies partidtlarly to floors.
longer discharges possible in a large container When further precautions are considered nmeces-
are more energetic. sary, control of both generation and dissipation of
charge should be considered.
11.3.4 Discharges from Solids and from Personnel
Insulated conductors in powder handling systems 11.4.2 Control of Charge Generation
are readily charged by contact electrification. For Systems ‘handling powders are less amenable to
example, an isolated length of metal pipe or duct- design for the control of static electricity genera-
ing can be charged to a high potential by the tion than those handling liquids because the
flow of powder through it and is then capable of details of the process are often determined by
energetic sparking to earth. Powders, in suspen- factors such as the flow properties of the powder,
sions or in bulk, can also charge insulated con- which can rarely be modified enough to have a
ductors in their vicinity by induction or by significant effect on charge generation. With high
sharing charge with them. Thus, the pouring of a resistivity powders, some reduction may be possi-
powder into an unearthed metal container can ble by using high density ( semi-bulked ) flow
result in a spark from the container dissipating a rather than low density flow. However, control of
charge equivalent to the total charge accumulated charge generation can seldom be used as the
inside the container. primary means of minimizing static electricity
It is a feature of certain types of powder processing risks in powder handling systems.
operations that personnel come into close contact 11.4.3 Charge Dissijation
with the powders, for example, when sampling or
during transfer of powder from one container to 11.4.3=1 Humi@ication
another. If the person concerned is not earthed he
constitutes an insulated conductor and can collect Normal atmospheric air is a poor conductor of
a significant charge by induction or charge electricity irrespective of its relative humidity.
sharing. Humidification is, therefore, ineffective as a
means of dissipating the charge from a dust cloud
Non-conducting solids and containers in contact of any kind.
with charged powders are potentially hazardous.
It is possible in some circumstances for a highly High relative humidity is capable of decreasing
energetic propagating brush discharge to occur. the surface resistivity of many powders and hence.
This subject is dealt with in more detail in 12.2.3. of facilitating charge relaxation in the bulked
powder when in an earthed metal container.
11.4 Precautions Against Static Electricity However, for hydrophobic materials, a relative
from Powders humidity well in excess of 70 percent RH may be
needed and it is often impracticable to operate
11.4.1 General powder processing units at this high level of
When an ignition risk exists in a powder handling humidity.
system, the precautions needed to avoid a static 11.4.3.2 Ionization
electricity hazard depend, to some extent, on the
presence of other potential ignition sources in the The electrical conductivity of the gas in which a
system. If the latter necessitate explosion protec- powder is suspended can be increased by ioniza-
tion ( for example, explosion vents, an explosion tion, produced either by corona discharge from
suppression system or inert gas ), then precau- pointed conductors or by the use of radio-active
tions against electrostatic ignitions can often be sources. In practice, however, such systems are
limited to the earthing of metal components and, not widely used for removing the charge from
where appropriate, personnel, because the energies powders except, occasionally, for preventing dust
of discharges from non-conductors in thd system deposition on surfaces. It is difficult to provide
17
ES 7689 : 1989
the ionization required throughout the relatively operation, such as rubbing of the external surface
large volume of dust cloud enclosures owing to of a-plastics pipe. Charge sharing is often asso-
ion losses and recombination. Also, the total ciated with the introduction of charged powder
charge to be dissipated is often greater than the into a high resistivity container and the sharing
change that can be transferred by a radio-active process then involves discharges from the powder
ionization system. Similar considerations apply to to the container.
the use of ionization for removing charge from Owing to their very high resistivities, the maxi-
bulked powders. mum charge that can be retained on these non-
Localized discharges from pointed, earthed, con- conductors is determined not by conduction, but
ducting probes or wires can be of value in both by the breakdown strength of the atmosphere
dust clouds and bulked powders when the surface adjacent to the charged surface. Theoretical con-
charge density approaches lO&/ms and the elec- siderations indicate that when the surface is
tric field strength is close to the breakdown value, remote from earthed metal the maximum charge
a situation likely to be encountered with high density in air at norm temperatures and pres-
resistivity powders. Such earthing probes or wires sures is about SO@/m 9 . The precise maximum
placed at the bulking point as a powder enters a depends on many factors including the shape of
container can reduce the energy of individual the surface,
discharges to a low level. If the powder enters a In the case of extended sheets of a high resistivity
non-conducting container it can also provide a non-conductor, the charge density for breakdown
safe route to earth for the accumulating charge, depends on whether there is earthed metal either
thereby avoiding propagating brush discharges near or in contact with the side of the sheet
( see 12.2.3 ). opposite that where the charge resides. In the
Where substances with very low minimum igni- absence of metal, the field due to the charge is
tion energies are involved, for example, hydro- directed outwards from the sheet roughly equally
carbon gases, it is difficult, in large containers, to on both sides, as shown diagrammatically in
avoid incendive discharges by means of rods and Fig. 3 (a). The presence of earthed metal behind
wires. The ignition problem should then be dealt the sheet causes a redistribution of the field so
with by other means, such as inert gas or explo- that much of it is directed towards the metal, leav-
sion venting; if necessary, rods can be used in ing less going outwards from the surface. This
these systems to avoid physiological shocks. is illustrated in Fig. 3 (b), where the density of
the arrows is an indication of the field strength.
11.4.3.3 Antistatic additives In these circumstances a charge density much
In the case of powders there is no equivalent to greater than 30&/m* can be accommodated on
the antistatic additives available for reducing the the non-conductor surface before discharges com-
resistivity of liquids. Such additives are used in mence. The field outwards from the surface is
the case of solid polymers but are not-normally least when the sheet is in contact with the metal
present at the stage when these materials are as a coating or liner [ see Fig. 3 (c) ] and the
being handled as granules. maximum charge density before discharge is
correspondingly greater. This maximum charge
12 ELECTROSTATICS IN HIGH density increases as the thickness of the coating or
RESISTIVITY SOLIDS liner becomes less.
12.1 Charge Generation 12.2 Dischwge Involving High Resistivity
Non-conducting materials are being used increas- Materials
ingly in equipment and structures in a multipli- 12.2.1 General
city of forms including pipes, containers, sheets,
coatings and liners. This subclause is concerned Charged high resistivity materials can give rise to
with those having volume and surface resistivities ~discharge either directly from their surfaces or
in excess of about 101s Qm and 101s Q, respectively, through the agency of insulated conductors, by
.and, therefore, capable of retaining charge for induction or charge sharing.
long period ( relaxation time greater than about The usual type of discharge from a high resistivity
20 seconds ). Most synthetic polymers fall into surface is a brush discharge~as described in 6.3.
this category. The diversity of discharge characteristics and the
These materials are readily charged by contact state of knowledge concerning them are such that
electrification and also by sharing charge with no general quantitative measure is available of
other charged bodies. The contact electrification the incendivity of the discharge. The form of the
is often a consequence of process in which the discharge depends on the design of the equip-
materials is being used; for example, the pneu- ment in which the material is incorporated, more
matic transfer of a powder or the flow of a liquid particularly on the proximity of earthed matallic
through a plastics pipe generates charge on the structure.
inner surface of the pipe. Alternatively, the charg- A number of cases are considered in 12.2.2 to
ing can be due to something extraneous to the 12.2.6.
18
IS7889 r1989
4 1 i 4 1
j + : I : + ] i : l : : i l Non-conductor
(al Isolated sheet
Metal
-
-
lb) Sheet with adjacent earthed metal at rear
Metal
,
-L_ -
(c) Sheet backed by earthed metal
F I G. 3 T HE E LECTRIC F IELD D UE TO A CHARGE&EET OF A H IGH RESISTIVITY NON-COPU’DUCTOK
12.2.2 Surfaces Remote from Earthed Metallic powder, discharges occur from the bulking point
Structure of the powder to the inside surface of the con-
tainer, and from the metal structure to the out-
It is known that brush discharges from high resis- side of the container. This leads to polarization
tivity surfaces can ignite flammable gas mixtures across the wall of the container with consequent
with minimum ignition energies less than about very .high surface charge density and stored.
4 mJ. Mixtures with greater minimum ignition energy density. The container wall in effect acts
energies can be ignited in some circumstances. like the dielectric of a charged capacitor. A pro-
For example, contamination may make the sur- pagating brush discharge ( see 7.4 ) can then
face more conductive so that it behaves as a occurif an earthed conductor or person approaches
conductor and the total charge in the contaminat- the interior surface, for example, to clean it.
ed area can then be released as a spark to earth
which may be highly incendive. 12.2.4 High Resistivity Non-conducting Coatings on
12.2.3 High Resistivity Non-conducting Containers Metals
.Near Earthed Metallic Structure
The risk of an incendive discharge from a thin
In addition to the types of discharge mentioned high resistivity non-conducting coating on an earth-
in 11.2.2, the much more serious hazard associated metal surface is usually less than that from an
ed with propagating brush discharges may be isolated thin sheet of a similar material. As des-
encountered when a container made of high resis- cribed in 12.1, a greater surface charge density is
tivity material is mounted close to an earthed required to initiate a discharge from the coating
metal structure in a powder handling system. As and the form of the discharge is likely to be less
the container is filled with highly charged incendive because of the smaller discharge gap
19
IS 7689 : 1989
and the smaller area from which charge can be highly dangerous because it combines the possibi-
drawn. lity of the long-term retention of a large amount
of charge with the possibility of virtually all of
The probability of an incendive discharge the stored energy being released as a highly
depends on the surface charge density and on the incendive spark.
thickness of the coating, becoming less as the coat-
ing becomes thinner. 12.3 Precautions Against Discharges from
A completely safe thickness cannot be specified, High Resistivity Solids
’ but very thin layers, such as paint films and thin
epoxy coatings, are unlikely to present a hazard. 12.3.1 General
Often these very thin films break down electri-
cally before a hazardous surface charge density is The occurrence of discharges from high resistivity
reached, allowing the charge to flow to the earth- materials can, in principle, be avoided by either
ed metal backing. minimizing the generation of static electricity or
encouraging its dissipatiop. In practice, the mea-
If the charge density is very high akd electrical sures that can be taken are mostly in connection
breakdown does not take place across the coating, with charge dissipation; the principal measures
the approach of an earthed conductor may are considered in 12.3.2 to 12.3.6.
precipitate a propagating brush discharge liberat-
ing virtually all the energy stored in the polarized
coating. 12.3.2 Reduction of Resistivity
It is also known that the separation of a high Many items fabricated from polymeric materials;
resistivity non-conducting coating from its sub- for example, rubbers, are being made available
strate metal can cause incendive discharges commercially in conducting forms by the incor-
between the two. The same type of discharge can poration of suitable additives, such as carbon
also occur when a high resistivity liner is removed black.
from an earthed metal container.
The resistivity required to prevent the retention
Another consequence of the comparatively small of charge and the production of undesirable
field outwards from a thin coating on earthed effects depends on the nature of the effect, for
metal is that it is much less likely to attract dust example, whether it is dust contamination or igni-
than a similar isolated film. tion risk, and on the rate of accumulation of
charge on the material. -Surface and volume
12.2.5 High Resistivity Non-conducting Films resistivities below about 10s Q and 10s Qm res-
Polymer films readily acquire charge whilst being pectively, are generally regarded as producing no
processed and this is particularly troublesome undesirable effects except possibly in relation to
when the film is wound on to a reel. Personnel explosives. In many applications, however, sur-
approaching the reel can experience shocks and face and/or volume resistivities below about
the discharges are capable of igniting flammable 1011 Q and 1010 Cm respectively, may be sufficient
gas mixtures. The breakdown value of the atmot under normal ambient conditions.
phere limits the surface charge density, which
rarely exceeds IO&/m”. Discharges to the atmos- 12.3.3 HumidiJication
phere leave charge patterns on the film surface,
known as Lichtenberg figures, which involve high With many materials, including cotton, cellulose
positive and negative charges adjacent to each acetate, paper and gelatin, increased humidity
other. The resultant fields can anchor dust to the brings about a marked reduction in resistivity and
surface. is helpful in reducing electrostatic effects. Many
polymeric materials, however, are highly hydro-
Occasionally film acquires polarization charges, phobic and with these it would be necessary to
that is, equal and opposite charges on the two raise the relative humidity to the impracticably
surfaces of the film. Although such charges may high levels of 80 percent RH or even 90 percent
reach higher surface densities than the usual RH to ensure reliable relaxation of charge to
single surface charges, they do not give additional earth.
problems in most circumstances.
12.2.6 Insulated Conductors 12.3.4 Ionization
Both unearthed metal plant and unearthed It is possible to assist the neutralization of the
personnel near charged high resistivity non-con- charge on the surface of high resistivity materials
ducting components or structures can be charged by ionization of the atmosphere near the charge.
by induction or charge sharing and they are then As usual with this technique care is required in
sources of incendive sparks to earth. The close the . presence
. of substances with low minimum
proximity of a charged high resistivity non- ignition energies, such as flammable gas mixtures,
conducting material to an insulated conductor is but it is valuable in avoiding shocks to personnel.
20
IS 7689 : 1989
An important application of ionization is in the container, or by any earthed metal reaching near
handling of high resistivity films. The following to the bottom ( see 10.3.3.1 ). Even so, a risk may
three types of static eliminator based on ionization remain, associated with charge on the wall of the
are available: container. In the case of powders the technique,
described in 11.4.3.2, of applying earthed rods or
4 Passive - Corona discharges from earthed wires at the bulking point is effective. However,
sharp needles, fine wires or conductive this method involves ionization and should not be
tinsel in the field of the film provide ions used in the presence of flammable gas mixtures or
to neutralize the charge on the film. A dis- sensitive dust clouds.
advantage of the passive eliminator is that
the charge density on the film has to reach 12.3.6 The Use of Earthed Metal Meshes
a threshold before it can operate, and this A degree of protection against static electricity
threshold is too high for complete safety can be achieved by incorporating an earthed
unless the device is sited well away from metal mesh mto a high resistivity material or by
earthed metalwork which attracts a signi- wrapping such a mesh arpund its surface.
ficant proportion of the field originating
on the film. It may, however, be used An internal mesh permits the flow of some charge
safely in flammable mixtures with mini- to earth but the high resistance of the non-con-
mum ignition energies greater than about ductor keeps the rate of charge transfer at a low
0.2 mJ, but not in more sensitive, for level. The mesh does, however, increase the
example, oxygen enriched, atmospheres. capacitance of the system so that more charge is
High Voltage - Ionization at a needle tip needed to produce a breakdown field at the
b) surface. Improved safety is, therefore, the result of
is produced by applying a high voltage to
it; commercial systems commonly used a control of field strength rather than of earthing.
5 kV to 10 kV mains -frequency supply to An earthed wire mesh on the surface provides a
a row of points. There are ‘shockless’ path to earth for charge, but with highly charged
versions which are safe to touch and materials the transfer of charge to the mesh pro-
encapsulated designs, some of which are bably involves corona discharges. In a properly
intended for use in flammable atmos- designed system these discharges are unlikely to
pheres, but expert advice should be obtain- be incendive to most flammable mixtures, but the
ed before employing such devices in this possibility of their igniting more sensitive mixtures
situation. cannot be ignored.
c) Radio-activity - Ionization is produced by With both internal and external meshes a failure
means of a radio-active source; the maxi- to earth the mesh may result in a high energy
mum ion current is usually quite low. discharge. The use~of meshes in conjunction with
Radio-active ionization itself does not pre- high resistivity non-conductors is best considered
sent an ignition hazard, but discharge to on an individual basis and not as part of normal
the installation are possible which neces- earthing procedures.
sitate precautions in flammable atmos-
pheres. Passive eliminators are often used 13 STATIC ELECTRICITY IN GASES
for this purpose.
13.1 The movement of pure gases or of a mixture
For dissipating charges from awkwardly shaped of gases, such as the atmosphere, generates little,
objects, ionized air blowers using either high vol- if any, staticelectricity, Gases can, however, carry
tage~or radio-active sources are available. electrostatic charges on suspended liquid or solid
particulate matter and it is with charges of this
12.3.5 Earthing type that this clause is concerned. The particles
may be extraneous matter, such as dust or water
The earthing and bonding of metalwork are dealt droplets, or they may be a condensed phase of
with in general in Section 4. Particular care is the gas itself, such as carbon dioxide ‘snow’,
needed in systems incorporating metals and high liquefied gas mists or the droplets in wet steam.
resistivity non-conductors. Components whose
earthing could be overlooked are, for example, a Charging is due to contact eleceification of the
length of metal pipe suspended between two particles, and separated charge may, therefore, be
sections of non-metallic pipe, the internal metal left on items of equipment, for example, pipes or
wire reinforcement in a non-metallic hose, wire nozzles, with which the gas makes contact. The
mesh wrapped around pipe cladding, and small particles in the gas may also share their charge
components, such as valves, insulated by high with any object on which the gas impinges, and
resistivity packing materials. the gas stream may induce a potential on any
insulated conductor in its vicinity.
Dangerous discharges involving high resistivity
containers can be avoided by earthing their con- Examples where extraneous matter is involved are
tents. In the case of liquids, this should be done the charging of the nozzles of large industrial
by means of an earthed plug at the base of the vacuum cleaners and of pipework in systems used
21
1s 7689 : 1989
for the pneumatic transport of small articles. Igni- Examples of charge generating mechanisms are:
tion of flammable mixture and serious shocks to rising from a chair or brushing against a.
personnel are both possible unless the equipment 4
wall ( the initial charge separation is
in question is made of metal and earthed. The between the outer surface of the clothing
pneumatic transport of powders is a particular and the other surface involved; the body is
case of the carriage of charge by gases where the the ncharged by induction );
particulate matter is present at a comparatively
high concentration, this has been considered in b) walking on an insulating floor, such as a
detail in 11. carpet made of high resistivity material
( the initial charge separation is between
13.2 The escape or release of any compressed gas the floor and the footwear, and the body is
containing particulate matter, for’example, jets of then charged by sharing in case of con-
compressed air carrying water or dust issuing from ducting footwear, or by induction in the
orifices, valves or flange leaks, is potentially case of insulating footwear );
hazardous. Because of their low minimum ignition 4 removal of an opter garment, where the
energies, the release of hydrogen/air or acetylene/ contact electrification is between the inner
air mixtures requires particular care if they and outer layers of clothing and the body
contain entrained particles. is then charged by sharing or by induc-
tion;
The release of liquefied carbon dioxide results in 4 pouring of liquids or powders from a con-
a mixture of the gas and carbon dioxide snow tainer held by a person ( the liquid or
which can be highly charged; potentials up to powder carries away charge of one polarity
12 kV have been measured on the nozzle and on leaving an equal and opposite charge on.
an insulated metal object on which the gas stream the body ) ; and
impinges. This could be a hazard when using
carbon dioxide for inerting if suitable precautions e> contact with charged material, as w h e n
sampling a highly charged powder.
are not taken. Liquefied petroleum gases ( LPG ),
such as liquid propane, are similar to carbon When there is a continuous charge generation
dioxide in that they form a mist as they are process, the maximum body potential is limited
rapidly expanded. LPG is normally handled in to about 50 kV by electrical leakage and sparking.
closed systems where there is no release to the 14.2 Discharge Involving Personnel
atmosphere and the gas concentration within the
system is always well above the upper flammable 14.2.1 Sparks from the Body
limit. However, flammable concentrations can The total stored energy on a charged person is
occur outside the system, for example, during the given by the expression $CVl as derived in 7.1.
filling of liquid propane bottles. A typical body capacitance is in the range 100 pF
to 300 pF. Not all the energy stored on the body
In all systems handling gas the main precaution is is released in the spark discharge, the amount
to bond together and earth all metallic equipment depending on the circumstances of the discharge.
in the system and also any metallic parts on Consideration should be given to the need for
which the gas may impinge outside the system. precautions when the minimum ignition energy
The use of non-conductors should be avoided is less than about 100 m J, for example, in the
where there is any possibility that they could ~presence of flammable ~gas mixtures and sensitive
retain charge, either generated on them by con- dust clouds. ’
tact electrification or imparted to them by a gas
stream in their vicinity. 14.2.2 Sparks from Clothing
It will be seen from 14.1 that in many cases cloth-
14 STATIC ELECTRICITY ON PERSONNEL ing becomes charged, but there is little chance of
serious sparking direct from clothing if the wearer
14.1 Charge Generation is earthed, because only a small proportion of the
field due to the charged clothing is directed out-
The volume resistivity of the human body is low wards from the person. Also sparks from clothing
enough for it to act as a conductor. If a person are limited by the resistivity of the material.
insulated from earth becomes charged, therefore, Consequently, the energy of any discharge is
he can give rise to sparks which may be sufllcien- small and unlikely to be dangerous except in
tly energetic to ignite flammable mixtures or to atmospheres with very low minimum ignition
cause electric shocks to himself or others. His insu- energies, as when enriched with oxygen, or in
lation may arise because he is wearing insulating handling explosives.
footwear or because he is standing on an insulat-
ing floor. The body can be charged by contact If an article of clothing is removed, however, its
electrification, or by induction or charge sharing charge~is more readily available and a dangerous,
involving other charged objects or, more parti- spark is more~likely to occur, either directly or by
cularly, the clothing being worn. induction from it.
22
IS 7689 :, 1989
14.3 Precautions Against Static Electricity 14.3.2 Discharges from Clothing

“0x1 Personnel
14.3.1 Discharges from the Body In general, clothing made from any material can
be worn provided that the wearer is earthed
Static electricity discharges from a person can be either directly or through approved antistatic or
-minimized by providing an adequately conduct- conducting footwear and floors. Exceptions are
ing path between the person and earth through in areas where explosives are handled, where
his footwear and the floor. Leather soled footwear there are highly flammable gas mixtures ( for
is usually sufficiently conductive for this purpose example, oxygen-enriched atmospheres ) and in,
in normal humidity conditions, although it may the manufacture of solid state devices. In such
.fail if very dry. cases garments made of high resistivity materials
should not be worn, and conductive outer gar-
Electrically conducting and antistatic footwear ments should be earthed. Clothing can be made
are both effective, provided that the floor does not conductive by treatment with antistatic agents,
impede the dissipation of charge. Antistatic foot- but the effect of some offthese is temporary and
.wear is intended for use in situations where pro- they should be re-applied at regular intervals,
tection is also required against dangerous electric at least after each washing. Many antistatic
shock in the event of apparatus becoming defec- agents, and also conductive clothing made from
tive when operating at voltages of up to 250 V to natural fibres ~such as cotton, flax or linen, rely
earth; conductive footwear is for use where there on the presence of atmospheric moisture.
is no such danger of electric shock. The resistance
‘of both types of footwear may increase in use and,
in addition, insulating layers, for example, of oil Clothing should not be removed in areas where
or wax, can be formed on their soles. The foot- flammable gas mixtures or low minimum ignition
wear should therefore be tested regularly, energy dust clouds are present ( see 14.2.2 ).
23
IS 7689 i 1989
SECTION 3 EARTHING AND BONDING
15 EARTHING AND BONDING ignition energy of any flammable material pre-

sent. With few exceptions, earthing installations.
15.1 General are intended to prevent all discharges that could
be incendive, and the first of these conditions is,
The most common source of danger from static then, the one to be satisfied, irrespective of spark
electricity is the retention of charge on a conduc- energy. That is, IR < potential required to
tor, because virtually all the stored energy can initiate an incendive discharge.
be released in a single spark to earth or to
another conductor. The accepted method of A potential of at least 300 V is considered to be
avoiding the hazard is to connect all conductors necessary to initiate an incendive discharge in
to each other and to earth by electrical paths normal industrial operations, but in explosive
with resistances sufficiently low to permit the manufacturing plant, lo0 V is considered to be
relaxation of the charges. Similar earthing and hazardous. Taking the latter figure, therefore,
bonding techniques are also associated with the requirement for the safe dissipation of static
electricity power supply systems and lightning electricity is:
protection installations, although the criteria for
their design are not necessarily the same. The R+L2
present discussion is concerned only with protec-
tion against static electricity.
15.2.2 Practical Criteria
15.2 Criteria for the Dissipation of Static
Electricity from a Conductor In the development of earthing specifications,.
each situation, that is, each individual value of I,
15.2.1 Basic Considerations cannot be considered separately. It is known that
charging currents range from 10-u A, to IO-4 A,
The maximum resistance that will prevent the and the corresponding values of R are lo-13 Q and
retention on a conductor of a dangerous amount 10s Q. Taking the maximum value of I leads to
of charge depends upon the rate at which the the conclusion that a resistance to earth of 10s Q.
conductor is receiving charge. The same principle will ensure safe dissipation of static electricity in
apply to both earthing and bonding; the condi- all situations. In most industrial cperations I does
tion that has to be satisfied in all cases is that not exceed 10-s A and a resistance to earth of
the total resistance to earth should not exceed an 10s Q is, therefore, safe in many situations.
acceptable maximum.
In electrical terms, the majority of situations is Conductors in good contact with earth have a
adequately represented by the circuit shown in resistance to earth far less than 10s Q and, for
Fig. 1, where R is the resistance to earth from the practical convenience, a much lower resistance is.
conductor. As stated in 6 and 7 the maximum often specified as the maximum permitted earth- .
potential and the maximum stored energy on the ing resistance. The following are amongst the
conductor are: factors to be considered in choosing a resistance
value for this purpose.
V max = IR
4 The resistance between metals in good
a n d E,,, = 4 CL’&, = 4 CIB Rz contact rerely exceeds a few ohms. A value.
where the symbols have the meanings assigned to less than 100 Q is readily attainable and
them in 6 and 7. is unlikely to deteriorate with time to a
level above 10s Q unless the plant is sub-
An incendive discharge occurs when two condi- ject, for example, to serious corrosion.
tions are satisfied. These are: that the potential b) Resistances of the order of thousands of
of the conductor reaches a value such that the ohms across apparent metal/metal contacts
associated field strength exceeds the breakdown suggest contamination by corrosion products.
strength of the atmosphere, and that the energy or paint and there is some risk that the
released in the spark exceeds the minimum resistance might in time rise above 1Cc ,Q.
24
IS 7889 t 1989
c> The resistance specified to avoid static to ensure a resistance to earth below 10 Q, unless
electricity hazard should be compatible a higher prescribed resistance can be accepted
with that required for other reasons. In ( see 15.3.2 ).
order to provide protection against lightn- A pipeline is sometimes a temporary installation
ing or to meet the requirements for earth- possibly less well connected to the structure of
ing associated with an electricity power the plant and incorporating lenghts oi non-
supply system, resistance to earth as low conducting pipe. In such cases special earthing
as 1 Q may be needed. IS 3043-198: connections may be needed.
should be consulted for details of the pre-
cise requirements. In the past, the use of bonding connectors across
For reasons such as these, and for convenience in all joints in a metal pipeline has been recommend-
monitoring, maximum resistance to earth in the ed in some guidelines. The general application
range 1OQ to lO@Q have been specified for electro- of this principle can cause practical difficulties
static earthing system for conductors. The parti- and such bonds should be used only when the
cular value chosen is, to a degree, an arbitrary design is such that the! 10 Q criterion may be
one. 10 Q has the advantage of being equal to exceeded.
the value prescribed for lightning protection of 15.3.1.2 Transportable metal items
existing plants and will be used in-the remainder
of this discussion. A clear distinction should, These are items of equipment, including drums
however, be made between a value such as this, and road and rail tankers, which cannot be
chosen for reasons of practical convenience, and permanently connected to earth through the
the value of 10s Q which is in fact the upper main plant structure. In many cases, their resis-
limit for the resistance to earth of a conductor. tance to earth may be well below 106 a, but, for
example, when standing on the dry concrete floor
The criterion of 10 Q is generally suitable for or on pneumatic tyres, it may not be adequately
wholly metallic systems but cannot always be controlled and may well rise above 10s Q in use.
applied to systems involving non-metallic ( such TO meet this situation, the resistance to earth of
as plastics ) components, which are becoming these types of equipment should be kept below
increasingly common. Requirements for earthing 10 Q by the provision of suitable earthing con-
are, therefore, now required to cover a variety of nections. The minimum essential requirement is
different situations. A number of possibilities are that such earthing should be in position at any
considered in 15.3 and 15.4. time when a flammable mixture may be present
15.3 Earthing Requirements in Practical and theitem may retain an electrostatic charge,
Systems such as during the filling or emptying of a’
container with a flammable liquid.
15.3.1 All-Metal Systems
15.3.2 Metal Plant with .Non-conducting Elements
15.3.1.1 Fixed structures
Plant of metal construction has always contained
The main ‘structure of a metal plant and the some non-conducting items which could affect
major components mounted on it such as reactors, electrical continuity and earthing. Examples are
mills, blenders or tanks, and also items such as lubricating oils and greases, and more recently,
pipelines, are permanent installations normally components made of high resistivity non-
with ~bolted or welded joints. They are usually in conductors such as polytetrafluoroethylene or poly-
direct contact with the electricity power supply ethylene. Normally, all metallic parts of the plant
earthing system and their resistance to earth are earthed either directly or through suitable
to protect against lightning should, where appli- earthing connections land all paths to earth have
cable, be less than 10 Q. There is, in general, no resistances less than 10 a. Problems arise when
difficulty in establishing and maintaining a resis- this solution presents difficulties owing to the
tance to earth of 10 Q or less, and there is little design of the equipment in question.
risk of this deteriorating to a value above 10s Q.
For these reasons a prescribed maximum resis- As already mentioned ( see 15.2.2 ) a resistance
tance of 10 Q is acceptable to avoid static electri- to earth of less than 10s a ( or more generally
city hazards and, in most instances, this will be 100/Z Q ) is adequate for the relaxation of static
achieved without special earthing connections. electricity, and in many cases advantage can be
These connections are to be recommended only taken of this. An important example is the oils
when the plant design and usage make it difficult and greases used in the lubrication of rotating
to maintain a low resistance to darth without shafts, stirrers, etc. In the past the use of con-
them. ducting brushes pressing on rotating shafts has
beer recommended, but they are difficult to
Plants are being developed which incorporate adjust and maintain and their long-term effecti-
major items not in direct electrical connection veness is doubtful. Tests have shown that the
with the main structure, for example, items on resistance across a lubricating film in a bearing
flexible or vibratory mountings or on load cells. is unlikely to exceed 10s Q, so that it is in Fact
These should have ,special earthing connections capable of dissipating static electricity without
24
1s 7689 I 1989
special earthing devices. The same approach can may be surface contamination with a conducting
be applied to other plant items where the resis- material, such as w ater, and if this does not cover
tance to earth is less than 106 Q but where a 10 Q the whole surr8ce and is not in contact with
limit is dilIicult to achieve, such as roller conve- earth, it constitutes an insulated conductor which
yors or scroll feeds. In such cases a maximum can be the source of a high energy spark. Also,
resistance to earth of 106 C can be specified pro- these non-conducting systems often contain metal
vided that: components which will give rise to sparks if not
earthed. Examples are the connecting bolts and
a) the resistance calculated using the volume backing flanges in a plastics pipelines and the
resistivity of the non-cunductor and the metal mesh extending throughout some types of
dimensions of the leakage path is less than non-conducting wall cladding.
106 Q, and
b) tests made in normal operations are in Because of their electrostatic properties and the
reasonable agreement with the calcula- general fire risk the use of high resistivitynon-
tions and indicate that the resistance will conductors in association with flammable mix- .
remain stable land less than 10s a. tures or flammable ii&ids in bulk should be
avoided whenever possible. There are, however,
This approach removes the need for many special situations where such materials are virtually
earthing devices to meet a 10 Q criterion and essential ( for handling highly corrosive liquids,
enables effort and resources to be concentrated for example ) in areas from which flammable
on situations where such a level of resistance to mixtures cannot be wholly excluded.
earth is justified.
Ideally, all isolated conductors in a non-conduct- ’
When high resistivity polymers are involved as ing system should be earthed, but effective
the insulating elements, a resistance in excess of earthing in many cases requires the extensive use
106 Q, is almost inevitable and the only solution of special earthing devices and an unrealistic
is to provide an earthing connection between the degree of inspection and maintenance. The
isolated conductor and adjacent earthed metal general recommendation that all conductors in
components. The appropriate maximum resis- high resistivity non-conducting systems should be
tance would be 10 a. Examples are ball valves earthed in, therefore, open to question. The
with polytetrafluoroethylene packing and seals, measures taken to maintain safety will depend on
pipe spacing rings insulated by polytetrafluoro- the individual installation, and no general earth- .
ethylene coated gaskets, isolated metal pipeline ing specification can be prescribed.
sections between plastics connectors and metal
nozzles at the end of plastics lines. Lack of earthing alone is not sufficient to produce
an ignition. The risk depends also on:
A major problem is the detection of plant items
which may be insulated. In many cases a non- a) the probability that the non-conductor will
conducting component within a piece of equip- become charged,
ment is not visible and may not be detected by b) the probability of an incendive spark from
external resistance testing. It is essential that any conductors, and
design change involving the incorporation of non- c) the probability of a flammable mixture
conducting materials- should be studied in detail being present.
to ascertain whether its presence will cause the
insulation of any metallic component. Condition (c) can be considered in terms of the
hazardous areas developed in connection with
15.3.3 High Resistivity Non-conducting Materials
flammable gases and defined in 4 for convenience,
Materials such as glass and high resistivity poly- the same concept is taken here to apply also to
mers are increasingly being used as major items dusts.
of equipment. The considerations in 15.2 con-
cerning the&appropriate criteria for resistance to The overall principle adopted is to evaluate the
earth to avoid electrostatic hazard can be hrobability of an ignition induced by static
extended to these materials. The basic condition electricity and bv means of the techniques most
to be satisfied is that the resistance ( in ohms ) appropriate to the system in question, including
to earth from every part of the non-conductor earthing, to reduce this probability to a level no
should be less than 100/l. However, the provision greater than that from other sources of ignition,
of the large number of closely spaced contacts for example, electrical equipment, and also to a
with earth required to meet this condition is level acceptable to the user. In zone 0 or zone 1
impracticable, and the non-conductors will, there- areas this necessitates the elimination of the static
fore, retain their charge for long period. electricity hazard by preventing generation and
retention on both non-conductors and conductors
The discharges from high resistivity non-conduc- by whatever technique is appropriate; the avoi-
tors are of comparatively low energy, although dance of the flammable mixture by inerting
they + may be sufficient to ignite sensitive should also be considered. In nearly all cases
flammable mixtures. In practice, however, there earthing in some form would be involved.
.
IS 7689 : 1989
However, in a zone 2 area, if static electricity is 15.4 The Establishment and Monitoring of
very improbable, the overall igniticm probability Earthing Systems
may be so low that earthing of isolated conduc-
tors in non-conducting systems solely for the con- 15.4.1 Design
trol static electricity can be dispensed with. At the design stage, the plant should be examin-
ed to ascertain the possible electrostatic hazards,
153.4 Conductive and Antistatic Materials and the earthing requirements should be deter-
mined using the guidance given in 15.3. Where
Materials are increasingly becoming available no other form of earthing exists it should be
which combine the desirable properties of poly- achieved by connections to copper rods or plates
mers, such as corrosion resistance with a low driven into or buried in the ground. However,
enough volume resistivity to prevent the retention special earthing devices, such as bonding cables,
of dangerous levels of static electricity, provided straps or brushes should be kept to the minimum
that they are in contact with earth ( see 12.3.2 ). essential. Where they are required, cables or straps
A resistance to earth of the order of 10 Q is not to meet the 10 Q maxitim resistance criterion
applicable. The basic requirement is for a resis- should be connected to threaded studs or bosses
tance ( in ohms ) to earth of less than 100/Z and welded or brazed to the metal work of the
this is often in the range of 104 a to 10s Q. %or structure.
general use a maximum value of 10s a is pro-
bably the most appropriate, but if it cannot be Important features in the design of earthing
met, 100/Z would be acceptable. Values above devices are:
10s 51, however, are acceptable only in special they should be recognized as such and
circumstances after assessment of the hazard. a)
accepted as essential to the safe operation
of the -plant;
15.3.5 Summary of Earthing Requirements they should be robust and should be sited
b)
so that they are not affected by high resis-
For practical convenience, an appropriate value tivity contamination, for example, by
for the maximum resistance to earth from all corrosion products or paint;
parts of fixed metal equipment is 10 Q, although
a resistance up to ltls Q can be accepted, provided 4 they should be clearly visible, or else essen-
that it can be maintaned. Special earthing con- tial to the correctfunctioning of the plant,
nections are not normally required, unless, for so that any shortcoming is quickly detect-
example, equipment is mounted on insulating ed;
supports, or if high resistivity contamination may 4 they should be easy to install and to
develop across a joint. replace; and
e) cables for earthing transportable items
Transportable metal items should have a resis- should be equipped with a robust clip
tance to earth of 10 Q or less, provided by a capable of penetrating through paint or
special earth connection. rust layers. The clip should be attached
before the operation commences and should
The use of high resistivity materials ( polymers ) remain in place until it has been finished
for the construction of plant for use in the pre- and all dangerous electrostatic charges
sence of flammable mixtures is not generally have been eliminated.
recommended and should rarely be encountered.
No generally applicable resistance value to earth 15.4.2 Monitoring
can be suggested and safety measures should be The checking of earthing as a protection against
developed for each individual plant to reduce the static electricity should be recognized as quite
hazard to an acceptable level. In a zone 2 area distinct from that for other reasons, such as the
where the risk of electrostatic generation is suffi- maintenance of earthing systems associated with
ciently low, earthing of metal components solely electricity power supply and lightning protection
for the control of static electricity may not be installations. Checks should be made before the
necessary. plant is brought into use, at each scheduled
maintenance, and after any other maintenance or
Antistatic or conductive type materials can be modification.
used to avoid the retention of static electricity.
The most appropriate maximum value for the The basis of monitoring is the measurement of
resistance to earth form all parts of such equip- the resistance between the different parts of the
ment is 10s a although values up to 10s Q may plant and earth, but it is important that this should
be acceptable in some cases. be supplemented by visual inspection. This will
help to detect any incipient malfunction of the
earthing devices and to minimize the risk of
A brief review of earthing resistance recommend- modifications leading *to the insulation of a con-
ations isgiven in Table 4. ductor.
27
IS 7689 t 1989
Where resistances to earth greater than 10 Q are be capable not only ot‘ monitoring these higher
permitted, the stability of the resistance is a resistances but also of bringing to light any
critical feature. The monitoring system should changes of resistance.
Table 4 Summary of Recommended Earthing Resistances for the Control of

Static Electricity
( Clause 15.3.5 )
T
-
Ref Type of Electrical Recommended Comments
Clause Installation Area Max Resistance
Classi- to Earth, Sz
fication
- - _-
15.3.1.1 Main metal plant struc- Zones 10 Earthing normally inherent in the struc-
ture 0,1,2 ture
__
15.3.1.1 Large fixed metal plant Zones 10 Earthing normally inherent in the struc-
items ( reaction vessels, 0,132 ture. Occasionally items may be mount-
powder silos, etc ) ed on non-conducting supports and
special earthing connections may then
be required
-
15.3.1.1 Metal pipelines Zones 10 Earthing normally inherent in the struc-
0,192 ture. Special earthing connections may
be required across joints if there is doubt
that the 10 a criterion will be satisfied
15.3.1.2 Transportable metal items Zones 10 Special earthing connections are normally
( drums, road and rail 0,1,2 required
tankers, etc )
15.3.2 Metal plant with some Zones 106 In special cases a limit of 100/r 0 may be
non-conducting ele- 0,1,2 acceptable, but in general if a 10s 8
ments ( rotating shafts, criterion cannot be satisfied a special
stirrers, etc ) earthing connection should be used to
obtain a resistance to earth of less than
10 9
15.3.3 High resistivity non- Zones No generally The general electrostatic ignition risk and
conducting items with or Cl,2 applicable the fire hazard normally preclude the
without isolated metal v a l u e use of such non-conducting materiale
components (for exam unless it can be shown that significant
ple, bolts in plastic ~ charge accumulation, earthing is not
pipeline) required in zone 2 areas
_ I
-/
15.3.4 Items fabricated from con
ductive o r antistati
Zones
0,192
I 10s - 108
materials
-
28
IS 7669 : 3989
SECTION 4 ~METHODS OF MEASURING OR ESTIMATING VARIOUS PARAMETERS
16 GUIDANCE ON METHODS FOR These requirements impose limits on the applied

MEASURING OR ESTIMATING VARIOUS voltage, the electrode spacing and the duration
PARAMETERS of the test, which may ndt be as well satisfied in
Method A as in Method B.
16.0 Introduction
The measures recommended for the control of 16.1.2 Method A, for Routine, Use
undesirable static electricity depend to a consi-
derable extent upon a knowledge of particular Proprietary instruments are available which are
characteristics of the medium involved, for intended for use mainly in the range 50 pS/m to
example, the conductivity of a liquid or resistivity 600 pS/m although some are scaled well below
of a powder. In some instances the required this range. They include instruments for dipping
information can be obtained from the appropriate into storage tanks and open containers and for
manufacturer but, to cover the situation where recording continuously the conductivity of liquid
such information is not readily available, this flowing in a pipeline. Each should be used in
section has been included in this Code. accordance with the manufacturer’s recommenda-
tions.
Measurements made in flammable atmospheres
should be carried out strictly to the requirements Precautions should be taken to avoid sample con-
of the relevant Indian Standard. tamination, which will usually give a high, and
hence optimistic, result; errors from this source
16.1 Electrical Conductivity of a Liquid
are more likely at low conductivities, below~
16.1.1 Introduction about IO pS/m. Contamination is most likely
when a sample is transferred from the bulk supply
The electrical conductivity of a liquid indicates to the instrument by means of a sample bottle or
whether or not it is capable of retaining a hazar- can. If contamination of the container is suspect-
dous electrostatic charge. For liquids with ed it should be rinsed several times with a mixture
conductivities above about 10 000 pS/m, the of equal parts by volume of toluene and acetone.
measurement can be made using traditional ac It should next be rinsed with n-heptane and
bridge methods. Below this level, such methods finally it should be rinsed several times with the
are difficult to use and specialized equipment is liquid to be tested.
required. Two methods of measurement are
described in 16.1.2 and 116.1.3, Method A for A similar cleaning procedure should be applied
routine use in the field and method B for more to the measuring cell of the conductivity meter if
precise measurements in the laboratory. it has been used for testing a high conductivity
Low conductivity liquids do not strictly obey liquid or has been in contact with aqueous
,Ohm’s law, and to obtain reproducible results the material.
conditions of measurement should be carefully
selected and controlled. In particular: Precautions should be taken to avoid errors due
to charge in the liquid resulting from previous
a> the liquid should be uncharged at the time
of the measurement ( if it has been charg-
movement. For instruments ~dipped into tanks or
open containers, such errors are likely only with
ed, adequate time should be allowed for very low conductivities; if such errors are suspect-
relaxation and for the establishment of ed, readings should be repeated at five-minute
ionic equilibrium; the resultant conduc- intervals until a constant value is obtained. A
tivity is called the ‘rest conductivity’ mean- continuous conductivity meter should be installed
ing that the liquid is electrically at rest, in such a way that:
although not necessarily quite motionless );
the measurement process should not lead a) any charge in the liquid is relaxed before
b) it enters the measuring cell, and
to ion depletion, and significant polariza-
tion voltages should not be allowed to b) charge generation due to flow through the
develop. cell has a negligible effect on the reading.
29
IS 7689 : 1989
This becomes progressively more difficult as the 2) n-heptane -Prepare by ~percolating high
conductivity decreases, and, so far, continuous nuritv n-hentane ( of analytical reagent
meters have only been available for conductivities quality ) thiough ‘silica gel: After treat-
ab-ove 50 pS/m. ment, the n-heptane should have a condu-
ctivity, measured by the present method,
The precision of Method A measurements, of less than 0.03 pS/m.
especially at low conductivities, is expected
b) Preparation of test cell - The cleaning pro-
to be inferior to that of Method B.
cedure depends largely on the nature of
16.1.3 Method B, for Precision Laboratory Use the sample to be measured. If the sample
is believed to contain the same ionic
16.1.3.1 Summary of method material at the same concentration as the
This is suitable for use with organic liquids having sample measured in the previous test, the
conductivities down to 0.1 pS/m. cell need only be rinsed a few times with
treated n-heptane. p
A dc voltage is applied to a pair of electrodes in
a test cell containing a sample, under such condi- If the sample to be measured either has
tions that depletion of ions and polarization at ionic material different from that in the
the electrodes are negligible. The maximum previous test, or it is at a much lower
current through the cell is measured and the concentration, rinse’ the cell thoroughly
conductivity of the sample is then calculated from five times with fresh tolueneacetone mix-
the values of the voltage, the current and a cell ture and then once with treated n-heptane.
constant. When the cell has been used for testing
samples with high conductivities ( more
16.1.3.2 Apparatus than, say, 1 000 pS/m )1 or when solutions,
The following apparatus is required: containing surface active materials have.
been measured, cleaning the cell may be
a) The test cell - A recommended design is difficult. In such cases dismantle the cell
shown in Fig. 4, for which the cell constant and place all parts except the plug remov-
is 1.00 mm fl percent. If another cell is ed from the outer electrode in a Soxhlet
used, the electrode spacing should not be ’ apparatus containing boiling toluene-
less than 1 mm and the voltage gradient acetone mixture and leave it for several
across the gap should not exceed 1.6 hours. Then rinse, all parts with treated
V/mm; precision will deteriorate as the n-heptane before assembly, and rinse the
electrode spacing is decreased. It will be cell again after assembly.
necessary to determine the cell constant
using a liquid of known conductivity. If If it is required to measure both low con-
the design of the cell does not provide ductivities ( less than 1 pS/m ) and high
screening of the liquid, the live electrode conductivities ( greater than 1 000 pS/m ),
and the ammeter input lead, a separate it is advisable to keep one cell solely for
earthed screen should be placed around the low conductivity samples.
the cell. After the cell has been cleaned, it should
b) Electrical circuit - The cell is included in be checked by measuring the conductivity
the circuit shown in Fig. 5. The voltage of the treated n-heptane, which should be.
source provides a constant dc voltage which less than 0.03 pS/m, repeat the cleaning
for the cell of Fig. 4, should be in the procedure using the toluene-acetone and
range 9 V to 11 V. A battery or a well n-heptane solvents, and check again with
regulated, low ripple voltage supply’ is treated n-heptane. If this fails, check the
suitable. If the latter is used, line varia- electrical leakage of the cell itself by carry-
tions should be effectively suppressed, so ing out the measurement procedure with
as to avoid irregular results when measur- the cell empty and dry. The result should
ing conductivities below 10 pS/m. be less than O-01 pS/m; a typical result
would be 0.002 pS/m. If the result is grea-
The voltmeter should be capable of ter than 0.01 pS/ m, clean the cell using
measuring the applied voltage with an the Soxhlet procedure described above.
accuracy of at least 2 percent and the
ammeter should have a lowest measuring c) Sampling the liquid and loading the cell -
range of at most 10-n A full scale deflec- Clean at1 equipment using the same pro-
tion, cedure as for the cell. To avoid loss of
active components from the sample by
16.11.3.3 Procedure transfer to the wall of the container, keep.
a) Solvents the storage time in the container and the
surface to volume ratio as small as possible.
1) Toluene-acetone mixture - Mix equal Avoid unnecessary pouring of the sample.
volumes of toluene and acetone. from one container to. another.
30
IS 7689 : 1989
Ou!er electrode
aium~n~um alloy
inner elect rode

cluminium ailov
i #N?w Bcit. brass
insuioto:
i polytetrafiuoroethyl ene I
fitting leak free in
outer electrode
&J---- coax plug
Screw cap, brass
All dimensions in millimetres; scale 1 : 1.
FIG, 4 M AIN F EATURES OF LIQUID CONDUCTIVITY CELL D ESIGN
Limiting
/ resistor
D. C.
voltage
source
Voltmeter
Insulation
Fra. 5 A RRANGEMENT OF EQUIPMENT FOR M EASUREMENT
31
IS 7689 : 1989
Flush the cleaned cell three times with the retain static electricity. For this purpose it is
sample, empty it completely and then fill sufficient to know the order of magnitude of the
it. When using the cell of Fig. 4, load it resistivity. The equipment is suitable for measur-
with 100 ml of sample. ing volume resistivities in the range 107 Q m to
Measurements - Place the cell on a piece 1014 Q m.
4
of insulating material with a resistance to
earth greater than 107 Q. With the switch 16.2.2 Summary of Method
turned to earth and the ammeter short-
circuited, make the electrical conn’ections A sample of the powder is placed between two
to the cell. If the cell can be adjusted, set parallel electrodes and a high potential is applied
the voltage supply at 10 V ( if using the to it. The resistance is derived by measuring the
cell of Fig. 4 ) and set the ammeter so that resultant current and the volume resistivity
the voltage drop across its input resistance calculated from it using the dimensions of the
is less than 0.1 V. electrode system.
Allow some time for any charge on the 16.2.3 Apparatus

liquid to relax, if the conductivity is
expected to be below 1 pS/m. The presence The powder is ‘placed in a resistivity cell; the
of this charge can be detected by switch- essential details and typical dimensions ot’ such a
ing the ammeter into the circuit. If the cell are shown in Fig 6. For powders with resisti-
reading is small compared with that expec- vities towards the lower end of the resistivity
ted for the actual measurement, the range, the resistance between the electrodes can
influence of the charge can be neglected. be determined with a commercial instrument such
After such a check short-circuit the amme- as an insulationtester or a megohmmeter.
ter again.
When relaxation is complete, turn the For higher resistivity powders the cell is included
switch to the voltage supply and, after a in a circuit such as that shown in Fig. 7, where
fraction of a second, switch the ammeter the test potential is provided by a 500 V to 1 000
into the circuit. Take the maximum curr- V dc source with an inbuilt current limiting
ent reading, which is normally reached resistor for safety purposes. The resultant current
within one or two seconds, and then turn is measured by a dc ammeter with a range of
the switch to earth and short-circuit the lo-l2 A to lo-4 A, depending on the resistivity of
ammeter. Finally, measure the tempera- the powder involved. The earthed guard ring
ture of the sample with a clean thermo- around the low voltage lead from the cell pre-
meter. vents any leakage current that might flow around
the walls of the cell from reaching the electro-
The measurement procedure should be meter, and this guard can be extended to screen
repeated with fresh cell fillings until a the lead to the electrometer. In order to avoid
constant current reading is obtained. the flow of a dangerously high current if, for
16.1.3.4 Calculation of result example, the powder proved to be highly conduc-
tive, or the positive electrode were shorted to
The conductivity of the sample at the measure- earth, a 1 M C resistor is put in series with the
ment temperature is given by the equation: dc source.
y&I
V
x 101” 16i2.4 Procedure
where 4 Preparation of the sample - The measured
resistance of the powder will depend upon
y is the electrical conductivity ( in the degree of compaction of the sample.
pS/m ); Reproducible results are usually obtained
k is the cell constant ( in m-1 ). For the if, after filling, the powder is tamped down
cell of Fig. 4, k = 1.00 m-1 f 1 per- by gently knocking the cell on the bench.
cent; Ideally, the compaction should be similar
I is the measured current ( in A ); and to that occurring in practice and, as an
alternative to tamping, it may be possible
V is the applied potential difference to achieve this by pressing the powder with
( in V ). an appropriate weight.
16.2 The Volume Resistivity of a Powder Measurements - Comparative measurements
b)
16.2.1 Introduction should always be made at the same tem-
perature and relative humidity, preferably
This test is designed to measure the volume resis- those obtaining when the powder is in
tivity of powder in order to assess its ability to use.
32
IS 7689 : 1989
In the electrometer circuit of Fig. 7, apply should be taken.

a potential between 500 V and 1 kV to the
cell and allow sufficient time for initial If a commercial instrument is used for
polarization transients to decay before measuring the resistance between the ele-
measuring the steady current. The pre- ctrodes, the maker’s instructions should be
cautions normal for high voltage equipment followed.
>
n
5
n n
PalytetrafCuoraethylene
msulating collar
\
Circular stainless
Powder steel electrodes
All dimensions in millimetres.
FIG. 6 M AIN FEATURES OF POWDER RESISTIVITY CELL DESIGN
I Re,sistivity
I
I
DC.
Cl. C. ammeter vo! toge
source
FIG. 7 A RRANGEMENT OF E QUIPMENT FOR THE M EASUREMENT OF RESISTIVITY OF P OWDER
33
IS 7689 8 1989
16.2.5 Calculation of Result from the plant into a collector. A critical point
is where the powder moves from the main units
The volume resistivity of the powder is given by ( for example, mills, pneumatic transfer lines ) to
the equation: air/powder ~disentrainment or storage units, for
P ,R+- example, cyclones, filter bags, silos, etc ).
16.3.2 Summary of Method
where A quantity of charged powder is collected in an
p is the volume resistivity ( in Q m ), insulated metal container. The potential induced
R is the resistance of the powder ( in Q ), on the container is measured. The quantity of
charge on the powder is equal to that repelled
A is the area of each electrode ( in m2 ), towards earth from the comainer, which is calcu-
and lated from the measured potential and the
capacitance of the container and measuring
1 is the distance between the electrodes system. Alternatively, the current draining to
(inm). earth from the container in a measured time is
Thus, for the dimensions given in Fig. 6: noted in order to obtain the quantity of charge.
Division of the charge ~by the mass of powder
P = O-393 $ Q m yields the mass charge density.
16.3.3 A#@aratus
This equation is adequate for deriving the order
of magnitude of the resistivity. It assumes a The essential features of the apparatus are shown
uniform current density between the electrodes in Fig. 8. A conveniently sized metal container
and no distortion of the current flow at the edges is insulated from earth and placed so as to collect
of the electrodes. The error due to edge effects powder issuing from the plant, Between the con-
could be reduced by adopting a guard ring format tainer and earth is connected either an electro-
for the electrodes as in dielectric test cells. static voltmeter or a current electrometer having
an input impedance such that the leakage current
16.3 Mass Charge Density of a Powder is insignificant compared with the charging cur-
rent; typical values are 1W Q to 1014 Q. This
16.3.1 Introduction simple system is usually entirely adequate, but if
One means of assessing the electrostatic hazard the readings are unsteady or fluctuating, screen-
due to powder in a ~powder handling plant is to ing of the container and of the lead to the instru-
measure the mass charge density of the powder. ment may be helpful.
For this purpose an estimate of the order of It should be remembered that if the voltmeter
magnitude of the charge density is adequate. The system is used the container constitutes an insu-
following simple test can be used at any point in lated conductor and appropriate precautions
the system where the powder can be diverted should be taken.
Voltmeter or
lnsulat ion
F IG. 8 ARRANGEMENT FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF M ASS CHARGE DENSITY OF A PownER
34
IS.7689 : 1989
16.3.4 Procedure b) From current measurement - The mass charge

density is given by the equation:
Before the test is started, earth the container by
connecting it momentarily to a convenient earth- - q=$ x 10s
ed point.
where the symbols have the same meanings as in
Allow the powder to flow into the container for the calculation in the voltage measurement case.
a convenient period of time and measure either
the final voltage or the current flowing to earth. 16.4 Measurement of Charge Density and
Determine the mass of powder by weighing the Potential by Means of An Electrostatic Field
container and its contents and subtracting the Meter
mass of the container.
16.4.1 Introduction ’
If the voltmeter system is used, the capacitance
of the container/measurement system is required. Methods of investigating the distribution of
This can be measured by normal ac bridge electrostatic charges or potentials usually rely upon
methods. the detection and measurement of the associated
electrostatic fields. Many commercial field meters
16.3.5 Calculation of Result are available for such measurements. 16.4.2
a) From v&age mesurement - The mass charge
and 16.4.3 consider the types of meters and give
-density of the powder is given by the equa- some examples of their use for the assessment of
tion: electrostatic hazards.
VC 16.4.2 Apparatus
q=-x10-s
In most modern field meters, ,an insulated metal
where plate is used as a field-sensing probe. The poten-
q is the mass charge density ( in p C/kg ), tial induced on this plate is measured and this
indicates the strength of the electric field.
V is the measured potential I ( in V ),
In practice, the induced potential is low and,
C En;he measured capacitance ( in pF ),
relative to the charges in its vicinity, the plate
behaves essentially as an earthed conductor.
m is the-mass of powder ( in kg ).
In the simplest form ofmeter, a dc system is used
Also, the average rate of charge input to the con- to measure the potential, and care is required to
tainer is given by the equation: maintain a very high degree of insulation ( grea-
ter than, say, lOI* Q ) of the probe from earth,
IE F x 10-1s and to prevent drift in the instrument zero due
to the collection of charge on the probe. Frequ-
where ently, the ‘field mill’ principle is used, in which
a rotor alternately exposes and shields the probe,
I is the rate of charge input ( in A ), so that an ac signal is generated. This reduces
V is the measured potential ( in V ), the problems of insulation and zero drift. Instru-
C,fd the measured capacitance ( in pF ), ments based on radio-activity are also available,
but, these are used more for qualitative than for
t is the time of flow ( in s ). quantitative tests.
Probe
7 -
Guard nng-
\ J
t+ttttttt+++t++t
I////’
Charged sheet
FIG. 9 A RRANGEMENT FOR MEASUREY~NT OF SURFACE CHARGE D ENSITY ON A HIGH RESI~TIVITY
.I N ON-CONDUCTING SHEET
35
IS 7689 : 1989
16.4.3 Procedure only in the absence of conductors which would

16.4.3.1 General attract a proportion of the field due to the charge
on the sheet.
Quantitative interpretation of field measurements
has to take account of the geometrical arrange- The charge density obtained with the arrange-
ment of the field meter, the charged object or ment of Fig. 9 is the algebraic sum of the densities
objects and any nearby conductors. The reading of all charges present, whether they are on the
of a calibrated meter gives the average field upper or lower surface of the sheet or trapped
strength over the area of the probe, but care is within it. If charge is present on both surfaces,
needed in its interpretation. The field may have but not within the volume of the sheet, that on
been badly distorted by the presence of the probe, the upper one can be measured with the arrange-
or it may be part of a highly non-uniform field ment in Fig. 11, where the lower surface is in
distribution. Examples of the use of field meters contact with an earthed metal plate. The same
are given in 16.4.3.2 to 16.4.3.4. method is applicable to a coating on metal with
a charge on its outer surface.
16.4.3.2 Qualitative use
In the arrangement o$Fig. 11, the charge density
Any field meter can be used qualitatively in the on the upper surface is given by:
diagnosis of electrostatic problems, for example,
to locate a centre of high charge density, or to a -_ a b/c
+ blc co K
check on the efficiency of a static eliminator. It
is useful to bear in mind two significant field where
strength levels:
a is the surface charge density ( in
3 x 1Cs kV/m : the breakdown strength of C/m* ),
air in large gaps, which sets
K-” is. the measured field strength ( in
an upper limit to the fields
observable in air.
10 kV/m : electrostatic forces generally CO is the permittivity of free space (8.85~
have no appreciable effect 10-1s F/m ) ,
unless the field exceeds this a is the thickness of the sheet ( in m ),
level. b is the distance between the probe and
16.4.3.3 Measurement of surface charge density on high the surface ( in m ), and
resistivity sheet materials E is the relative permittivity of the mate-
rial of the sheet.
In this application it is important to surround the
probe with a guard ring to define the area under Fielb Charge
examination. Figure 9 shows the basic arrange- strength density
ment of equipment for measurements on an (kV/ml (wC/m*I
isolated sheet carrying a uniform distribution of
charge. 3000 Air limit fpr uniform fields
The guard diameter should be at least 10 times
greater than that of the active area of the probe. 10
The probe/guard assembly is held parallel to the 1000
surface of the sheet in a region well away from
metal objects such as rollers and brackets. With
this arrangement: Gling of thin films
Q=EsX
where
a is the surface charge density ( in
C/mP ), , Passive eliminators become
100 effective above this level
X is the measured field strength ( in
V/m ), and
~0 is the permittivity of free space Oust attraction begins
( 8.85 x 10’1s F/m ).
The result is virtually independent of the distance
from the probe to the surface, but anomalous
readings may be obtained with a non-uniform
charge distribution, unless the probe to surface
distance is small compared with the diameter of
the active part of the probe.
Figure 10 gives a chart of the relationship bet-
-ween a and X with an indication of the pheno-
mena to be expected at various levels. It gpplies
10
[I
01
FIG. 10 G U I D E
Residual level obtalnabie
with eliminators
T O F I E L D STRENQTH@TRFACE
CHARGE DENSITY R ELATIONSHIP FOR H I G H
RESISTIVITV SHEETS
36
IS 7689 11989
-_----_____L& i+ __A+
a
--_
b - -.-
Chargei sheet Earded metal.

base
FIQ. 11 A RRANGEMENT FOR THE M EASUREMENT OF THE S URFACE C HARGE D ENSITY ON A S HEET
WITH C HARGES ON BETH SIDES
16.4.3.4 Measurement of potentials b) S’ace charge potential - For a large vessel

containing a uniform distribution of charge
If the field pattern associated with a system of throughout its volume, experimental and
charges is known, an observation of the field theoretical studies have shown that a field
strength at one place can be used, in principle, meter introduced into the volume on the
to derive surface and space potentials in the end of an earthed metal tube gives a read-
system. In some cases, the field pattern can be ing which is proportional to the potential
obtained by mathematical modelling, or a which would exist at the probe position if
correlation between field and potential values may the field meter and tube were absent alto-
be established experimentally. The procedures are gether. For a tube of diameter about
complicated and each situation requires indivi- 100 mm, the potential is given by:
dual treatment. Two important cases are menti-
oned briefly in (aj and (b) below: V= kX
a) Liquid surface potential - A measurement of where
the vertical field strength is made by means Y is the potential ( in V ),
of a field meter suspended at a known k is a constant with a value 0.12 m, and
distance above the surface of the charged
liquid. To a first approximation, it can be X is the measured field strength ( in
assumed that the field between the surface V/m j.
and the probe is uniform. The potential Potentials at other points may then be computed
of the surface is then given by: assuming “a uniform charge distribution. An
vs xx alternative approach is to set the field meter probe
in the wall of the vessel.
where
Precautions should be taken where flammable
V is the surface potential ( in V ), mixtures may be involved.
X is the measured field strength ( in 16.5 Minimum Ignition Energy
V/m ), and
x is the distance between the probe 16.5.X Introduction
and the surface ( in m ). The purpose of the test is to obtain information
When quoting a potential derived in this on minimum ignition energy which can be used
way, an estimate should also be given of to assess the ignition risk due to static electricity
the uniformity of the field. discharges. Test techniques are available for both
flammable gases and dusts. The minimum igni-
It should be remembered that the intro- tion energies of gases are comparatively low and
duction of the field meter may trigger in the following ranges:
sparking, and appropriate precautions
should be taken if there is any possibility gasloxygen mixtures : 0,002 mJ to O-1 mJ
of a flammable mixture. gas/air mixtures : O:Ol mJ to I.0 mJ
37
IS 7689 I 1989
Since these levels are below ‘the energies frequ- giving a series of sparks, each of the same energy.
ently available in electrostatic discharges, it is A current-limiting resistor with a value between
normal to assume that flammable gases present 1OQ and lO9Q is included in the circuit. The
an electrostatic hazard, and there is then no need potential across the capacitor is measured by an
to measure their minimum ignition energies. If, electrostatic voltmeter with a decoupling resistor
in a particular application, an accurately measur- in series having value between 1OsQ and 1OQ.
ed value is needed, suitable techniques are describ-
ed by Lewis and von Elbe*. 16.5.4 Procedure
In contrast to gases, the minimum ignition energies
of powders can be very large, covering a range a> Preparation of the sample - The sensitivity
of the powder to ignition depends not only
from less than 2 mJ up to 5 000 m J or more, on its chemical composition but also on its
and measured values are required for hazard physical form and water content.
assessments. The procedure described is, there-
fore, that applicable to powders.
The sample for test Fshould have a particle
N O T E - This test is intended for use with the size distribution representative of the finest
normal range of flammable powders and should not be
used for highly reactive materials or detonating defla- cloud that can be formed with -a flammable
grating explosives. concentration. With few exceptions, the
sample should be sieved so that all parti-
16.5.2 Summary of Method cles have a size l&s than 75 pm ( passing
The type of discharge in the majority of electro- a 200-mesh sieve ). The water content of
static ignitions is a spark from an insulated the powder should be the minimum
conductor. In the test method, sparks are produc- encountered during the normal processing
ed by the discharge of a capacitor and, since and use of the powder.
virtually all the stored energy on the capacitor
appears in the spark, the energy released is given b) Measurements - The general procedure is
by 3 CVB, where C is the capacitance in the to make tests with sparks at standard
circuit and V is the potential at the moment of energy levels; those recommended are 500
discharge. mJ, 25 mJ, 10 mJ and 1 mJ. If a more
precise measure of the minimum ignition
Sparks of various energies are produced in energy is needed, tests can be made at
suspensions of the dust under test, and the occur- intermediate energy levels.
rence of ignitions is recorded; a range of dust
concentrations is explored to cover the most
readily ignitable mixture in air. The settings for sparks of the required
energy are determined before any powder
Consistent results may not be achieved until is placed in the ignition chamber. After
experience of the method has been gained, owing choosing a capacitor of appropriate value,
to the difficulty of making adequate dust disper- select a voltage in the range 10 kV to
sions. As a check that reasonable results are being 30 kV and then adjust voltage and elect-
obtained tests should be made using anthroqui- rode separation by trial until sparks of the
none powder passing a 200-mesh sieve; its mini- required energy, given by 4 CVs, occur at
mum ignition energy should be less than 10 mJ. the maximum possible electrode spacing
( not less than 2 mm ). In this expression,
16.5.3 Apparatus V is the-voltage at which the spark occurs
A diagram of the apparatus is shown in Fig. l2. and C is the total capacitance at the high
Powder in the dispersion cup is dispersed by a voltage electrode, which can be measured
blast of air injected through the pipe at the base by normal ac bridge methods.
and directed downwards by the conical deflector
over the end of the pipe. The air is released by To make an ignition test, earth the high voltage
a solenoid valve from an air reservoir having a electrode and load a quantity of prepared powder
volume of about 50 ml, where it is held at a of the order of 0.5 g to 1.0 g into the dispersion
pressure between 8 kPa and 10 kPa. Sparks pass cup. Then switch the dc voltage supply into the
between the hemispherical metal electrodes; the circuit and as sparks start to pass between the
electrode separation can be varied but should be electrodes disperse the powder by operating the
not less than 2 mm. solenoid valve. Note whether ignition occurs and.
flame propagates away from the spark gap.
The sparks are produced by the electrical circuit
shown in Fig. 13. The high voltage dc supply
slowly raises the potential of the capacitor until a The first test should be at a spark energy of 500
spark occurs, and the cycle is then repeated, mJ. If there is an ignition, reduce the ignition
energy to 100 mJ, and continue in this way
*Static Electrification; Institute of Physics Confe- down the energy range until ignition does not
rence; Serial No 11, p : 158, 1971. occur.
38
80
U-A
-- 330 _j
4- 600
--.-~.I__.----~---~---
Glass tube: 80 mm 0
DisfSi?won cup: 70 mm c,
Deflector
Solenoid valve
Electrodes: 10 mm Q
Rckervoir: 50 ml
Pressure gauge: 0 to 10 bar
-- -__L-__ .--.----I__ _--.._ . -----_ J Hand operated valve or solenqid valve
22 _I
F IG. 12 A PPARATUS FOR THE D E T E R M I N A T I O N O F M I N I M U M I G N I T I O N ENERGIPS OF DCJSTS
IS 7689 t 1989
Current
limiting
D.C.
voltage
source
/
Capacitor
\ C lect:ostatic
- volt meter
F I G. 13 A RRANGEMENT FOR P RODUCTION OF S PARKS OF K NOWN E NERGY
If, at any energy level, there is no ignition, the obey Ohm’s law, so that the measured resistance
test should be repeated ten times. If there has to earth depends on the applied voltage. A value
still been no ignition, further tests should be of about 500 V is taken as standard in this
made varying the quantity of powder, before method, although a lower voltage may he used
concluding that ignition does not occur at the in some circumstances ( see 16.6.3 ).
spark energy in question.
The precautions normal for the use of high voltage 16.6.3 Apparatus
equipment should be taken throughout the test
procedure, and the operator should be protected For resistances up to 10s Q, measurements should
from the dust ignition. preferably be made using a proprietary insulation
tester or megohmmeter having a nominal open-
16.5.5 Interpretation of Results circuit voltage of 500 V dc.
A chart is given in Fig. 14 to provide guidance Alternatively, and for higher resistances, a circuit
on the precautions which would be appropriate such as that shown in Fig. 15 may be used. The
with powder suspensions in air. It should be voltage source is a battery or a rectified power
supplemented by reference to the appropriate source, and -a current limiting resistor, Y , is
clauses of this code. . included. Its value should be such that when the
maximum permissible resistance to earth, R, is
16.6 Resistance to Earth from Metallic and being measured, the potential applied to the
Non-metallic Objects object under test is not less than 400 V, that is,
16.6.1 Introduction r should be above R/4.
In many installations, particularly those contain- The voltmeter should have a range of 0 V to
ing non-conductors, there is a need to check that 500 V, and the range of the ammeter depends on
the various parts of the system are adequately the resistance being measured ( for example, 0 to
earthed, For this purpose, instrumentation is 10-s A for 10s~ 3. With suitable switching, a
required to measure resistances in the range single multifunctional meter may be used.
105 Q up to say 10s Q, between earth and metal Measurements using the above instrumentation
components which may be partially insulated from may produce incendive sparks and tests should
earth, and between earth and any part of the not, therefore, be made in flammable atmos-
surface of an object made of non-conducting pheres. If tests are required under these condi-
material. tions, specialized equipment and techniques should
be used. The use of low voltage equipment is
16.6.2 Summary of Method acceptable if a maximum limit on resistance only
is being sought; because of possible deviations
A direct voltage is applied between earth and from Ohm’s law it may give an abnormally high
the object under test and the ensuing current to result and hence cause a satisfactory piece of
earth is measured. Some non-conductors do not equipment to fail the test.
40
IS 7689 : 1989
Mjnlmum ignition
energy of the
powder (mJ1
Low sensitivity to Ignition. Earth plant when ignition energy is at

or below this level.
Consider earthlng personnel when ignition energy IS at oi below

100 this level.
The majority-of ignition incidents occur wherl tynition energy is

25 below this level.
High sensltlvity to Ignltlon. Consider restrictlons on the use of

high resistlvity non-conductors when ignition energy is at or
below this level.
Extremely sensitive to ignition. Precautions shouki be as for

flammable liquids and gases when ignition energy is at or below
this level.
NOTE - This guide should not be applied to the special case of high resistivity powders in large non-conducting
containers ( se.5 11.3.3 ).
FIG. 14 G UIDE TO E LECTROSTATIC P RECAUTIONS FOR P OWDER S USPENSIONS IN A I R
Electrode
or probe
Object under
test
F I G. 15 M E A S U R E M E N T ~OF RESISTANCE TO EARTH
41
IS 7689 I 1989
The earth corm ection should be a buried elec- where

trode, a water pipe or part of the metallic struc- R is the resistance ( in Q ),
ture of a building. It is important to ensure that
the lead to the object under test is adequately V is the applied potential (in V ), and
insulated from the operator and from any earthed I is the measured current ( in A ).
readings before contact is made with the surface. 16.7 Personnel Resistance Monitor
16.6.4 Procedure 16.7.1 Introduction
a) Electrical contact with the object - If the The manufacture of a shoe sole material to have
object is metallic, a simple metal to metal the ~desired degree of conductivity after moulding,
contact presents no difficulty. and the addition of inner soles and liners, is difh-
cult to control. The conductivity of the finished
If the object is made of non-conducting product can, subsequently, be affected in use by
material, such as a polymer treated to have exposure to certain chemicals or physical condi-
some degree of conductivity, precautions tions. There is therefq;re, a need to measure,
may be required to ensure satisfactory under normal conditions of use, the total resis-
electrical contact. The contact should then tance between a person and earth through his
be made by means of an electrode consist- footwear, to check that it is appropriate to the
ing of a metal disc of 50 mm diameter con- circumstances.
forming in shape to the surface being
tested. The surface beneath the electrode 16.7.2 Summary of Method
should be coated with a conductive
A small constant current is arranged to flow
medium. Suitable media are a conductive
through the person from his hand through his
silver lacquer, aqueous colloidal graphite,
footwear to an earthed metal plate on which he
which may be allowed to dry, or a conduc-
stands. A voltmeter displays a reading propor-
tive liquid such as the following: tional to the potential drop across the person and
Parts by mass is calibrated to give the required resistance
directly.
Anhydrous polyethylene glycol,
( molar mass 600 ) 800 16.7.3 A@aratus
Water 200 In order to make the measurement, current is
Wetting agent ( detergent ) 1 passed through the person from a conducting
Potassium chloride 10 handle which he grasps to an earth plate on
which he stands. This imposes limits on the
In the absence of a conductive medium a voltage and current that can be used, or which
high result can be expected, but provided could arise under fault conditions.
that this falls below the permissible maxi-
mum resistance, and no minimum is ,A monitoring instrument can be designed either
specified, direct contact between the sur- to give a meter indication of the resistance or
face and electrode is acceptable. conductance, a <go/no go’ signal at a specified
In some tanks constructed of polymeric limit value, or both. A high level of insulation is
materials, a partially conductive inner layer required, particularly at the operating handle, to
is protected from contact with the liquid avoid faulty low readings by partial short-circuit-
contents by a thin non-conductive gel coat. ing. The operating handle and its associated
To measure the resistance to earth of the switches should be of robust construction.
conductive layer, a sharp-pointed electrode Equipment of this type is available commercially.
may be used to penetrate the gel coat and The basic circuit of a highly stabilized monitor
make contact with the underlying layer. suitable for a permanent installation is shown in
Measurements - The measurement is made Fig, 16. The meter gives a linear indication from
by contacting the object under test with a zero to 2 x 10s Q with an accuracy of f 2 percent
suitable lead or electrode and observing of full scale deflection ( FSD ). Amplifiers Al and
the current on the ammeter. Before the A2 form a current generator producing, through
test is carried out the object should be R2, R3 and R4, a current which is constant and
allowed to reach equilibrium with its proportional to V ref,RP. Adjustment of this
surroundings and both the temperature and current is provided by the ‘Span’ preset. The
the relative humidity should be recorded ‘Balance’ preset trims the circuit and ensures that
at the time of the measurement. changes in input resistance do not affect the cons-
tant current. Additional optional circuitry is
16.6.5 Calculation of Result - The resistance to included to provide ‘Red’ ( dangerous ) and
earth is given by: ‘Green’ ( safe ) indicator lamps; the operating
E l - point for these lamps can be set to any value in
R Y the range.
42
IS 7689-z 1989
-62 462V
Rl
Ij’
operotmg
hond(e
+15
P
ov Power
. - SuPplY
Balance
-15
FICL 16 T YPICAL B ASIC C IRCUIT FOR P ERSONNEL R ESISTANCE M ONITOR
To make a measurement, the person is put in Under practical conditions, realistic values for
place of Rh through operation of the relay RL Al personnel resistance determined by means of a
and his resistance to earth is displayed directly on monitor are:
the meter M.
antistatic: 1 x 10s C to 1 x 10s Q.
Since the equipment is mains operated, it should
be sited outside hazardous areas. conducting: less than 1 x 10s Q,
16.7.4 Procedure 16.8 The Surface Resistivity of a Textile
Fabric
The person under test stands on the foot plate,
grasps the operating handle and depresses it to 16.8.1 Introduction
close the test circuits. His resistance is shown on
the meter, and if it exceeds the preset limit, the The ability of textile fabrics, used for clothing,
‘Red’ ( dangerous ) lamp is illuminated and a domestic or industrial purposes, to dissipate static
buzzer sounds. electricity depends upon their surface resistivities.
In such woven or knitted materials, the surface
16.7.5 Interpretation of Result resistivity usually varies with the direction of
current flow in the specimen, and ~a mean value
Two classes of soling material which will dissipate is conveniently obtained by using concentric
. static electricity are recommended. electrode geometry.
a) antistatic footwear having a resistance bet-
ween 5 x 104 Q and 5 x 107 C. The test is intended for fabrics with moderate or
low surface resistivities, less than, say, 101s C. It
b) conducting footwear having a resistance is applicable mainly to homogeneous fabrics, new
less than l-5 x 105 C. fabric blends, coated apparel fabrics in which the
coating is less resistive than the substrate, and is
Testing of these properties are under considera- worn outermost, and fabrics containing small
tion. The voltage specified for use in these tests quantities of conducting fibres. In the last case,
is not less than 2OOV, which is much higher than the maximum measured resistivity is used, and
can be permitted in a personnel tester. Some not typically low values ( less than 10s C ) due to
rubbers give resu!ts dependent on the test voltage. conductive fibres bridging the electrodes.
43
IS7689r1989
16.8.2 Summary of Method Tests on full garments which are not to be dest-
royed should be made on the outer fabric of the
An electrode assembly is placed on a sample of garment only.
the fabric and the resistance between the ele-
ctrodes is measured. The average surface resis- New fabrics and garments may have finishes on
tivity is derived from the resistance using the them which reduce the resistivity of the material
dimensions of the electrode system. Owing to the and which are usually removed during washing
dependence of the electrostatic properties of most or dry cleaning. In some cases it may, therefore,
fabrics upon humidity and temperature, these be appropriate to wash or dry clean the material
variables are controlled. before doing the tests.
16.83 Afiparatus
16.8.4.2 Measurement
The electrodes comprise a central cylindrical and
an outer annular electrode arranged concentri- Wipe clean the lower surfaces of the electrodes
cally. Suitable electrodes are available commerci- and the upper surface ot; the plastics base plate
ally having the dimensions shown in Fig. 17; they with a paper tissue damped with isopropyl
are of solid brass and the space between them is alcohol. Place the fabric on the plastics base plate
filled with a high resistivity plastics. Incorporated
and rest the electrode assembly on it. If a meg-
in this plastics annulus is a brass guard ring, andohmmeter is being used, measure directly the
both plastics and guard ring are recessed so that resistance -between the electrodes. When using an
they do not contact the fabric surface. Concen- electrometer, make the connections as shown in
tric electrodes of other dimensions may be used. Fig. 17; the reading changes with time after
The fabric under test is placed on a sheet of high applying the voltage, and it is recommended that
resistivity plastics which, for thr: electrodes of a period of 15 seconds should be allowed to elapse
Fig. 17, should have dimensions not less than before taking a reading.
250 mm x 250 mm x 10 mm. This in turn is on
an earthed metal plate. The electrode assembly Repeat this measurement procedure twice at other
rests on the fabric as shown in Fig 17. parts of the fabric.
A direct measure of the resistance across the With lined clothing, the plastics base plate and
annular area of fabric between the electrodes can earthed metal plate are inserted between the
be obtained by means of a megohmmeter with an lining and the outer fabric so that only the latter
applied voltage of 500 V. Alternatively, a poten- is between the electrodes and the base plate.
tial of 500 V can be supplied from a dc source
with an inbuilt safety resistor, and the current 16.8.5 Calculation of Results
measured with an electrometer of input imped-
ance of not less than 1014 Q. From each of the three values of resistance, the
16.8.4 Procedure surface resistivity is calculated using the following
equation, and the mean value is determined:
16.8.4.1 Sample conditioning
2x
Fabric pieces of sufficient size to obtain three R
independent values of surface resistivity, prefer- s = log, ( r&1 >
ably not less than 1 ms in area, are recommended.
They should be conditioned and tested at a where
relative humidity and temperature appropriate to s is the surface resistivity ( in Q ),
the conditions in which they are to be used. For
monitoring purposes 65 or 2 percent R H a t R is the measured resistance ( in Q ),
27 f 2°C is widely used in the textile industry, r1 is the radius of the inner electrode
but 40 f 2 percent RH at 27 f 2°C is more ( in mm ), and
relevant to conditions in practice. The condi-
tioning time prior to measurement should be not rs is the inner radius of the outer electrode .
less than 16 hours. ( inmm).
44
IS 7689 : 1989
To electrometer
Guard to earth
To 500 V d.c. supply
Fabric udder test
Sect ion AA-
T
-0
TA A

FIG. 17 E L E C T R O D E S YSTEM FOR S URFACE RESISTWITY OF T EXTILE F A B R I C S
45
16 7689 : 1989
SECTION 5 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PARTICULAR INDUSTRIAL LOCATIONS
17 FIXED METAL TANKS FOR THE 17.3.2 For liquids with conductivity up to and in-
STORAGE OF LIQUIDS cluding 50 pS/m the inlet should be designed to
minimize turbulence and the agitation of any
17.1 General heavier immiscible liquid or sediment on the tank
bottom.
Static electricity hazards can arise in various ope-
rations connected with fixed storage tanks for 17.3.3 Entrained air or other gas should be avoid--
liquids, including filling, gauging and sampling. ed in liquids with conductivities up to and in-
Charge on the liquid may be generated within the cluding 50 pS/m if there is any possibility of
tanks due to splashing or free fall, and/or, in the immiscible liquid or sediment on the tank bottom.
pipeline system feeding the tank. Charging may
also be associated with personnel undertaking 17.3.4 For liquids with conductivity up to and
tasks on the tank, such as gauging or sampling, including 50 pS/ m, the linear flow velocny in the
and with cleaning oparations. pipe entering the tank should not exceed 1 m/s.
until the inlet has been covered and should be
An ignition hazard is created when charge is retain- maintained at 1 m/s if a second immiscible phase
ed in the liquid, on insulated conductors or on is present; an example is water suspended in oil.
personnel in the presence of a flammable vapour/ A precise value for the safe maximum linear velo-
air mixture, mist or foam. To avoid these hazards city in the absence of a second phase in large
the recommendations given in 17.2 to 17.8 should tanks has not been established. However, experr-
be followed. ence indicates that the limitations on flow rates.
imposed by the present designs of pipeline systems
-17.2 Earthing have been adequate to maintain safe operations.
There is no evidence that flow velocities up to
17.2.1 The tank and its associated pipework and and including 7 m/s are hazardous. For storage
fittings should all be in good electrical contact with tanks of the order of size of road/rail tanks the
each other and with earth, so that the resistance safe maximum linear velocity should be calculated
to earth is at all points less than 10 Q. Electrical by the procedure given in 21.3.3.
continuity checks should be made before the
equipment is brought into use, and subsequently 17.3.5 For liquids with conductivity greater than
where maintenance or modification could affect 50 pS/m the requirements of 17.3.1, 17.3.3,
electrical continuity ( see 15 ). and 17.3.4 can be disregarded. An antistatic
additive may be used to raise the conductivity of a.
17.2.2 New tanks or tanks that have been out of low conductivity liquid above 50 pS/m, provided
service for repairs, should be inspected prior to the that it is compatible with the intended use,of the,
initial fill for any potential floating objects, such liquid.
as cans, that could form insulated conductors.
Such objects should be removed. 17.4 %ilters
17.2.3 It should be ensured that personnel work- Fine particle filters~installed in the pipeline system
ing on the tanks do not present an ignition risk upstream of the tank can produce a significant
(see 43.3.1 ). amount of charge. It is recommended that the
methods for dealing with the charge given in 30,
17.3 Tank Filling are followed.
17.3.1 Splash filling~into a tank where a flammable 17.5 Gauging and Sampling
atmosphere may exist should be avoided, in order
to prevent the formation of a charged mist. This The introduction into a tank of equipment for
can be achieved either by bottom entry or by the gauging and sampling may produce additional
use of a fill pipe reaching to the bottom of the tank static electricity hazards. It is recommended that
without actually touching it. the procedures given in 20 are followed.
46
IS 7689 : 1989
17.6 Tank Cleaning is increased risk outside the tank if it is situated

in a hazardous area, owing to the possibility of
Tank cleaning operations may give rise to static charge on the tank itself, even when a non-flam-
electricity hazards. It is recommended that the mable liquid is being handled.
procedures given in 28 are followed.
Recommendations for avoiding electrostatic
17.7 Floating Roof Tanks hazards are given in 18.2, 18.3 and 18.4. They
When a liquid with conductivity up to and includ- should be considered in conjunction with mea-
ing 50 pS/m is pumped into a metal tank with sures to deal with risks from other sources, for
a floating roof, precautions for earthing ( see 17.2 ), example, the general fire risk associated with the
filling ( see 17.3 ), fine particle filters ( see 17.4 ) storage of large quantities of flammable liquids in
and gauging and sampling ( see 20 ) are applicable non-metallic containers and mechanical strength
until the floating roof is buoyant. Thereafter, limitations on larger containers.
only the earthing, gauging and sampling precau-
18.2 Tanks M a d e 916 H i g h Resistivity
tions are necessary.
Materials
17.8 Floating Blankets The use of large storage tanks completely fabri-
17.8.1 Floating blankets in tanks used for storing cated from high resistivity materials, such as
liquids with conductivities up to and including synthetic polymers and glass reinforced plastics
50 pS/m should be fabricated from metal, from having a volume resistivity greater than 10s Qm
non-conducting material entirely coated with and/or a surface resistivity greater than 1010 Q is-
antistatic material or from antistatic material. not recommended. The exception is when it
The blanket should be adequately earthed. Tanks can be shown that the liquid handling operations
with such blankets should be treated as if the do not produce dangerous levels of static electri-
blanket were a floating roof ( see 17.7 ). city and that no charge generating processes exist
outside the tank.
17.8.2 Conducting floating spheres of balls in-
tended to suppress evaporation loss should not Specialist advice should be sought before installing
be used with liquids having a conductivity up to tanks of high resistivity materials.
and including 50 pS/m. Non-conducting spheres If such a tank is installed, rubbing of its surface,
should not be used with liquid at any conducti- for example, in cleaning operations, should be
vity level if there is any possibility of the presence avoided when a flammable atmosphere may be
of a flammable atmosphere. present.
18 FIXED NON-METALLIC T A N K S F O R 18.3 T a n k s Made from Conductive
THE STORAGE OF LIQUIDS SITED Nonmetallic Materials
PARTIALLY OR WHOLLY ABOVE GROUND
Storage tanks made from conductive non-metallic
18.1 General materials ( see 12.3.2 ) present no electrostatic
hazards additional to those existing for metal
The charging processes and static electricity haz-
tanks, provided they that are earthed and the
ards associated with fixed metal storage tanks
precautions for metal tanks are fully implemented
( see 17.1 ) are also encountered with non-metallic
( see 17 ). Such tanks should be permanently
tanks. If tanks are made from high resistivity
marked as ‘Antistatic material’ or ‘Conducting
materials charge may also be generated and
material’.
retained on the materials itself by the liquid handl-
ing operation or by internal or external rubbing. 18.4 High Resistivity Tanks Incorporating
This presents additional hazards, especially if Conducting Elements
there are insulated metal components, such as
bolts, flanges and valves, or if the surface is conta- 18.4.1 Electostatic hazards in the use of the tanks
minated with isolated areas of conductive made from high resistivity materials can be mini-
material, such as water or grease. mized by the incorporation, on or just below the
surface throughout the material, of a permanent
As in metal tanks, an ignition hazard is created robust conducting element, for example, a metal
when charge is retained on the liquid, on insulated grid, connected to earth ( see 12.3.6 ). Such tanks
conductors or on personnel in the presence of a are supplied by specialist manufacturers who will
flammable vapour/air mixture, mist or foam. The usually advise on their suitability for specific
risk of an internal discharge from the liquid sur- applications.
face, for example, during gauging, is enhanced
with tanks of high resistivity material because the 18.4.2 The recommendations for metal storage
dissipation of charge from the liquid is impeded tanks in 17.2 to 17.6 apply also to tanks incor-
and because the distribution of the field within porating conducting elements. To facilitate the
the tank results in a greater field strength at the earthing of personnel walking on a tank, a con-
surface than in a metal tank, In addition, there ducting walkway should be provided.
47
/
IS 7689 : 1989
18.4.3 The liquid in the tank should be in direct should be individually designed for each specific
contact with earth. If the conducting element application. Such tanks. are normally supplied by
covers the inner surface of the tank this provides specialist manufacturers and the necessary risk
the necessary earth connection. If the conducting assessment is usually carried out in consultation
element is not in contact with the liquid an with the supplier. The degree of safety derived
earthed metal plate should be provided in the from the presence of earth around the tank
base of the tank with an area given by: depends on the maximum charge that can be pro-
duced and on the thickness of the tank wall. To
A = 0.04 v confirm the safety of the installation it is neces-
where sary to show that the maximum charge produced
m filling the tank does not produce a field
A is the area of the metal plate ( in ms ), and strength at which a discharge can occur.
v is the volume of the tank ( in ms ).
19.2.2 The whole of the outer surface of the
Experiments have demonstrated that this relation- tank, including the roof, should be in contact
ship is satisfactory for tanks with capacities up to with the earth. F
and including 5 ms provided that the liquid is at
no point more than 2 m from the earthed plate. 19.2.3 The liquid in the tank should be in direct
For larger tanks, specialist advice should be contact with earth by means of an earthed metal
sought but there appears to be no reason why plate in the base of the tank with an area given
the same relationship should not be valid. by:
18.4.4 Although rubbing may generate sufficient A = 0.04 v
charge on the tank surface to give an incendive
‘discharge, the probability that this will occur in where
normal practice is low. Nevertheless, vigorous d is the area of the metal plate (in ms), and
rubbing of the surface, for example, in cleaning v is the volume of the tank (in ms).
operations, should be avoided when flammable
atmosphere may be present. This relationship is satisfactory for tanks with
capacities up to 5 ms, provided that the liquid is
19 FIXED NON-METALLIC TANKS FOR at no point more than 2 m from the earthed
THE STORAGE OF LIQUIDS SITED plate.
COMPLETELY BELOW GROUND
For larger tanks specialist advice should be
19.1 General sought.
Tanks fabricated from non-metallic materials 19.2.4 Provided that the design of the tank is in
which are partly or completely above ground are accordance with l-7.2.1, 19.2.2 and 19.2.3, the
considered in 18. The major differences when the recommendations for metal storage tanks in 17.2
tank is buried are in respect of tanks of high to 17.6 apply, except that the tank itself cannot
resistivity materials having a volume resistivity be earthed.
greater than lO*a m and/or a surface resistivity
greater than 1OrOa. When buried, such tanks can- 19.3 Tanks Made of Conductive
not be charged by external movement or rubbing. Non-metallic Materials
Also, the proximity of the earth all around the
Buried storage tanks made from conductive non-
tank increases the electrical capacitance of its con-
metallic materials ( see 12.3.2 ) present no
tents and, therefore, increases the amount of charge
electrostatic hazards additional to those existing
required to produce the break-down field strength
inside the tank. The liquid may, however, still for metal tanks, provided that they are earthed
be insulated from earth and the possibility of an and the precautions for metal tanks are fully
implemented ( see 17 ). Such tanks should be
incendive discharge from its surface cannot be
permanently marked as ‘Antistatic material’ or
wholly excluded.
‘Conducting material.’
hazards are given in 19.2 and 19.3. They should 20 GAUGING AND SAMPLING OF TANKS
be considered in conjunction with measures to deal 20.1 General
with risks from other sources, for example, the
general fire risk associated with the storage of There are static ~electricity hazards in the gauging
large quantities of flammable liquids in non- and sampling of storage tanks and tanker cargo
metallic containers and mechanical strength limi- tanks. Electrostatic charge may be present in the
tations on larger containers. liquid in the tank either because it is beingpump-
ed or because it is being subjected to agitation,
19.2 Tanks Made of High Resistivity for example, in a mixing operation ( see 4 ).
Materials Charge may also be generated on the gauging or
19.2.1 Large storage tanks made entirely of high sampling equipment or on the personnel using the
resistivity materials and sited below ground equipment.
48
IS 7689 : 1989
An ignition hazard is created if such charges are 20.3.3 If a liquid with conductivity up to and in-
generated in the presence of a flammable vapour/ cluding 50 pS/m but without a separate water
air mixture, mist or foam. An incendive discharge phase has been pumped into a tank, the tank
may occur between the liquid and the gauging should not be gauged or sampled immediately
or sampling equipment as they approach each after the cessation of the operation. A period of,
other or between the equipment, or the personnel say, 10 minutes should be allowed to elapse before
handling it, and the rim of the manhole or dip gauging or sampling.
hatch through which the operation is taking
_ place. To avoid these hazards the recommenda- 20.3.4 After a mixing operation involving a liquid
tions in 20.2, 20.3 and 20.4 should be followed. with conductivity up to and including 50 pS/m,
gauging or sampling should not take place while
20.2 Materials of Construction, Earthing there is any settling of the components of the
and Bonding mixture.
20.2.1 All metallic parts of gauging or sampling 20.3.5 If the liquid, or liquids, being pumped or
equipment should be connected to the tank, or if mixed all have conduqtivities greater than 50
the tank is constructed of high resistivity material, pS/m, gauging and sampling can take place at
directly to earth. %or this purpose the connections any time.
may be metallic giving, a resistance to earth at all
points less than 1052, or they may be of higher 20.3.6 After a cleaning operation, gauging and
resistivity material, provided that the resistance sampling should be delayed until any charge mist
to earth is low enough to relax any charge on the generated has settled. This may take several
metal components ( see 15 ). Thus the tape or hours.
cord may be of metal or of a natural fibre such 20.3.7 The recommendations in 20.3.1 to 20.3.6
as sisal or manila. A metal chain should not be need not be followed with fixed gauging equipment
used. or if the gauging takes place in a fixed, earthed
20.2.2 A high resistivity ( synthetic polymer ) dip pipe extending to the bottom of the tank.
cord or dip stick is not acceptable, unless it can 20.4 Precautions in Adverse Weather
be shown that a hazardous level of charge will Conditions
not be generated. However, it is considered that
small sampling containers of high resistivity Gauging and sampling of flammable liquids
materials are comparatively safer than similar should not be undertaken during thunderstorms,
metal containers ( see 26.5 ). showstorms or hailstorms or where there is
reason to believe that disturbed atmospheric
20.2.3 Gauging and sampling equipment may be
electrical conditions ~could occur.
constructed entirely of natural or other materials,
such as wood or natural fibres the, resistivities of 21 METAL ROAD/RAIL TANKS FOR
which are such that they are unlikely to accu- LIQUIDS
mulate electrostatic charges or to give rise to
discharges. Such equipment should be earthed. 21.1 General
20.2.4 Ensure that personnel engaged in gauging Various liquid handling operations associated
or sampling operations do not present an ignition with road/rail .vehicles can give rise to ignition
risk ( see 43.3.1 ). The problems this may pre- risks due to static electricity. Examples are load-
sent on board ships have been mentioned ing, gauging and sampling.. Chargeon the liquid
in 27.2.4. mav be generated within the vehicle tank and/or
in ihe pypeline system feeding the tank. Charg-
20.3 Precautions with Systems Containing ing may also be associated with personnel under-
Conductive Components taking tasks on the tank, such as gauging or
20.3.1 Gauging and sampling should not be sampling, or with cleaning operations. Charging
carried out while any charge generating operation arising in the equipment when transfer ring
is going on in a tank containing a flammable liquid to or from the vehicle is considered in 23.
vapourlair mixture, mist or foam. These opera- An ignition hazard is created when charge is
tions include the pumping into a tank of liquids retained in the liquid, on insulated conductors
with conductivities up to and including 50 pS/m or on personnel in the presence of a flammable
and any cleaning procedures. vapour/air_mixture, mist or foam. The flammable
atmosphere in the tank may be due to the liquid
20.3.2 If a liquid with conductivity up to and currently being handled or to liquid carried in a
including 50 pS/m and containing a separate previous load ( switch loading operation ). To
water phase has been pumped into a tank Ior has avoid these hazards the recommendations given
been involved in a mixing operation in a tank, the in 21.2 to 21.6 should be followed.
tank should not be gauged or sampled until at
least 30 minutes has elapsed after completion of 21.2 Earthing
the operation, unless it can be shown that charge 21.2.1 The tank and its associated metal pipe-
relaxation is complete in a shorter period. work and fittings should all be in good electrical
49
IS 7689 s 1989
contact with each other and with the main metal Nis a constant with a value of-O.5 ml/s for liquid
structure of the vehicle. During loading, the conductivities above 5 pS/m. The value of N
vehicle should be earthed directly or connected to which should be applied for liquid conductivities
the earthed loading gantry so that the resistance up to and including -5 pS/m is a matter for debate;
to earth is at all points less then 10 Q. Electrical values of 0.38 me/s and 0.5 ms/s have been accept-
continuity checks should be made on the vehicle ed, there being only a very small degree of risk
before it is brought into use, and subsequently with either level.
where maintenance or modification could affect
electrical continuity ( see 15 ). If the length of the tank or compartment into
21.2.2 The tanks or compartments of new vehicles which the single phase liquld is flowing is less
or of vehicles that have been out of service for than 2 m the velocity u in the pipe section to
repairs should be inspected, prior to the initial which it applies determines the maximum flow
loading, for any potential floating objects, such as rate in the system. If the tank or compartment
cans, which could form, insulated conductors. lenth, L, is between 2 m and 4.5 m the limiting
-
Such objects should be removed. velocity, u, may be increased by a factor dL/2
while if the length L is greater than 4.5 rn the
21.2.3 It should be ensured that personnel work- limiting velocity should be 1.5 u, provided that
ing on the vehicles do not present an ignition risk the maximum of 7 m/s is not exceeded.
( see 43.3.1 ).
21.3 Loading Rottom loading generates higher potentials at the
liquid surface than top loading because of the
21.3.1 Splash filling into a tank where a flam- absence of the earthed 611 pipe. Therefore, unless
mable atmosphere may exist should be avoided, an equivalent earthed fitting, such as a dip tube,
in order to prevent the formation of a charged standpipe or baffle plate, is mounted centrally in
mist. This can be achieved either by bottom entry the tank, reaching from top to bottom, it is re-
or, if top loading is used, by the use of a fill pipe commended that the flow rates for bottom loading
reaching to the bottom of the tank. Where filling should be 25 percent below those for top loading;
is carried out through an open manhole or filling calculated was above.
hatch not provided with an internal fill pipe, the
hose or loading arm nozzle should be inserted to The flow rate established by the above procedure
the bottom of the tank without actually touching may be exeeded for a particular system and liquids
it. if many years of experience with that system and
21.3.2 Entrained air or other gas should be avoid- liquids has demonstrated that it is safe to do so.
ed in liquids with conductivities up to and
including 50 pS/m if there is any possibility of 21.3.4 For liquids with conductivity greater than
immiscible liquid or sediment on the tank bottom. 50 pS/m the requirements of 21.3.2 and 21.3.3
can be disregarded. An antistatic additive may be
21.3.3 For liquids with conductivities up to and used to raise the conductivity of a low conducti-
including 50 pS/m, the liner flow velocity in a vity liquid above 50 pS/m, -provided that it is
pipe used for top loading should not exceed 1 m/s compatible with the intended use of the liquid.
if a second immiscible phase is present; an exam-
ple is water suspended in oil. In the absence of a 21.4 Filters
second phase, charge generation increases with
increasing flow velocity. The maximum linear Fine particle filters installed in the pipeline
flow velocity for top loading may be expressed in system upstream of the vehicle can produce a
terms of a velocity, u, of the liquid flowing in a significant amount of charge. It is recommended
pipe section of diameter d. The velocity u is the that the methods for dealing with the charge
lower of those given by the expressions: given in 30 are followed.
u=7
21.5 Gauging and Sampling
ud = N
The introduction of equipment into a tank for
where u is in m/s, d is in m and Nis in ms/s. gauging and sampling may produce additional
These expressions should be applied to the small- static electricity hazards. It is recommended that
est diameter pipe section upstream of the tank or the procedures given in 20 are followed.
compartment being filled, except when the length
of the section is less than 10 m and it is only one 21.6 Tank Cleaning with High Pressure
pipe size smaller than the next larger diameter Water Jets or Steam
pipe ( that is, its diameter is not less than 67 per-
cent of that of the larger ). If both these condi- These cleaning operations may give rise to static
tions are satisfied the velocity u should be derived electricity hazards. It is recommended that the
for the next larger size pipe. procedures given in 28 are followed.
50
IS 7689 : 1989
22 NON-METALLIC ROAD/RAIL TANKS hazards additional to those existing for metal

FOR LIQUIDS tanks, provided that they are earthed and the
precautions for metal tanks are fully implement-
22.1 General ed ( see 21 ). Such tanks should be permanently
The charging processes and static electricity marked as ‘Antistatic material’ or ‘Conducting
hazards associated with metal road/rail tanks material’.
( see 21.1 ) are also encountered with non-metallic 22.4 High Resistivity Tanks Incorporating
road/rail tanks. If tanks are made from high resis- Conducting Elements
tivity materials charge may also be generated
and retained on the material itself by liquid 22.4.1 Electrostatic hazards in the use of tanks
handling operations or by internal or external made from high resistivity materials can be mini-
rubbing. This presents additional hazards especi- mized by the incorporation. on or just below the
ally if there are insulated metal components, such surface throughout the ~material, of a permanent
as bolts, flanges or values or if the surface is con- robust conducting element, for example, a metal
taminated with isolated areas of conductive grid, connected to earth ( see 12.3.6 ). Such
material, such as water or grease. tanks are supplied by specialist manufacturers
who will usually advise on their suitability for
As with metal tanks an ignition hazard is created specific applications.
when charge is retained on the liquid, on insulated
conductors or on personnel in the presence of a 22.4.2 The recommendations for metal road/rail
flammable vapour/air mixture, mist or foam. The tanks in 21.2 to, 21.6 apply also to tanks incorporat-
risk of an internal discharge from the liquid sur- ing conducting elements. To facilitate the
face, for example, during dipping, is enhanced earthing of personnel working on a tank a
with high resistivity tanks both because the dissi- conducting walkway should be provided.
pation of charge from the liquid is impeded and
because there is a greater field strength at the 22.4.3 The liquid in the tank should be in direct
liquid surface. There is increased risk external to contact with earth, If the conducting element is
the tank if it is situated in a hazardous area, or is not in contact with the liquid an earthed metal
moved into such an area, owing to the possibility plate should be provided in the base of the
of charge on the tank itself, even when a non- tank, as recommended in 18.4.3.
flammable liquid is being handled. Also, personnel 22.4.4 Although rubbing may generate sufficient
working on the tank may be insulated from charge on the tank surface to give an incendive
earth. discharge, the probability that this will occur in
Recommendations for avoiding electrostatic normal practice is low. Nevertheless, vigorous
hazards are given in 21.2, 22.3 and 22.4. They rubbing of the surface, for example, in cleaning
should be considered in conjunction with mea- operations, should be avoided when a flammable
sures to deal with risks from other sources, for atmosphere may be present.
example, the general fire risk associated with the 23 TRANSFER OF LIQUIDS TO AND FROM
carriage of large quantities of flammable liquids in ROAD/RAIL VEHICLES
non-metallic containers and mechanical strength
limitations on larger containers, In applying these 23.1 General
recommendations it will be necessary to bear in Transfers between installations and road/rail
~mind relevant national and international trans- vehicles are frequently carried out by means of’
port regulations. fixed standpipes and/or flexible hoses and the
2$zteT;,lks Made of High Resistivity operations can give rise to static electricity
. hazards. Additional ingition risks may be encoun-
tered when hose connections are made or broken,
22.2.1 The carriage of flammable liquids is not due to sparking from stray currents flowing in
recommended in road/rail tanks completely fabri- the hose string.
cated from high resistivity materials, such as
synthetic polymers and glass reinforced plastics, Three types of hoses are available, as follows:
having a volume resistivity greater than 10s Qm
and/or a surface resistivity greater than 1010 Q. a) Conductive Hose - This is made of material
of high electrical resistivity with an em-
22.212 Such tanks can be used for the carriage bedded reinforcing wire and/or enshroud-
of non-flammable liquids, provided that the ing wire braid or armouring incorporated
vehicle is not in, or does not move into, an area during manufacture. These conducting
where there may be a flammable atmosphere. components are bonded to the metal
22.3 Tanks Made from Conductive fittings permanently attached to the ends
Nonmettillic Materials of the hose, so that when several lengths
are coupled together there is a continuous
Road/rail tanks made from conductive non-metal- low resistance electrical path along the
lic materials ( see 12.3.2 ) present no electrostatic entire run of the hose.
51
IS 7689 t 1989
b) Semi-Conductive Hose - Part of the material 23.3.2 In general, when a delivery is made
of which this hose is made, usually its from a road tanker to a storage tank, for example,
outer laver. has a conductivitv h i g h at a petrol filling station, the hose couplings ‘to
enongh t&disperse static electricity but lgw both the vehicle and the receiving tank will
enough to restrict stray currents to safe ensure adequate electrical continuity and earthing
limits, and this layer is in contact with provided that this continuity is regularly moni-
the end fittings. The hose map have a tored.
metal reinforcing wire and/or enshrouding
braid or armouring, but this is not in con- 23.3.3 Liquefied petroleum gas road tankers,
tact with the end fittings. however, should be earthed during both loading
and dis charging by being bonded to a suitable
cl Non-Conductive Hose - This’is mad of emate- earth point. The bond should remain in position
rial of high electrical resistivity without until the operation has been completed.
incorporated conducting wire or braid,
and is incapable of dispersing static 23.4 Earthing of Rail Tankers
electricity.
23.4.1 Both rails of railtiy tracks where loading
The recommendations given in 23.2 to 23.5 or unloading takes place should be bonded per-
inclusive are intended to guard against external manently to each other and to the earthed gantry
el ectrostatic sparks when transferring flammable or pipeline. The railcar itself is earthed by con.
liquids, including loading into a road or rail tank tact between its wheels and the rails. A separate
with a flammable atmosphere due to a previous flexible bonding cable between the tank and the
load ( switch loading operations ). Charging on pipeline is, therefore, not required unless doubt
the liquid, giving rise to hazards within such exists concerning the electrical continuity between
tanks, is dealt with in 21 and 22. the tank and the running gear. If a bonding cable
23.2 Earthing : The Installation is used, the recommendations given in 23.3.3
should be followed. If a railcar detector system
23.2.1 All metal parts of the installation should requiring a resistance between the rails is in use,
be in good electrical contact with each other and the value of the resistance should not be of such
with earth, so that the resistance to earth and a magnitude as to prevent the safe dissipation of
with earth, so that the resistance to earth is at all charge.
points less than 10 a. Electrical continuity checks
should be made before the equipment is brought 23.4.2 If an insulating flange is installed in a
into use, and subsequently where maintenance or loading line to prevent the passage of stray curr-
modification could affect continuity ( see 15 ). ents, the filling nozzle should be bonded to the
Swivel joints in stand pipes and metal loading railcar by a flexible cable to ensure that the hose
arms should be electrically continuous. assembly downstream of the insulating flange is
23.2.2 Whenever there is a possibility of a flam- earthed. This connection should be made before
mable atmosphere within or outside the vehicle the operation commences and should remain in
tank, conductive or semi-conductive hose should place until it is complete.
be used. Non-conductive hose may itself become
charged and if two or more such hoses are joined 24 LIQUID/LIQUID A N D SOLID/LIQUID
by metallic flanges these flanges may be capable BLENDING AND MIXING
of producing incendive sparks unless each is pro- 24.1 General
vided with a bonding cable to earth.
The mixting together of liquids or of liquids and
23.2.3 The resistance between the flanges of each solid particulate matter can give rise to static
length of conductive or semi-conductive hose electricity ignition risks. Charge may be generat-
should be checked with sufficient frequency to ed when the mechanical energy of the mixing
ensure that its conductive properties are being process is expended in systems containing one or
maintained. more low conductivity liquids. It is then retained
23.2.4 It should be ensured that personnel work- on the continuous liquid phase, on suspended
ing on the installation do not present an ignition liquid or solid particulate matter, or on any insu-
risk ( see 43.3.1 ). lated metallic object. If a flammable vapour/air
mixture, mist or foam is present there is an igni-
23.3 Earthing of Road Tankers tion hazard and to avoid this the recommen-
,23.3.1 Before the loading of such a vehicle is dations in 24.2 to 24.5 should Abe followed.
commenced, before any pipe connections are 24.2 Earthing
made and before any man lids are opened, its
tank should be bonded to the appropriate earth 24.2.1 All metallic parts of the equipment should
point and the bond should remain in position be connected together and earthed so that the
throughout the operation. Automatic monitors are resistance to earth eat all points is less than 10 C.
available to check the effectiveness of the earthing If steam is used for. inerting, the nozzle of the
system. steam hose should be earthed by an independent
IS 7689 : 1989
bonding wire, rather than relying on the conduc- 24.4.6 As an alternative to raising liquid conduc-
tivity of the hose itself. tivities, the vapour space in the blending vessel
‘24.2.2 If a blending vessel has an internal insu- can be inerted. Restriction of the power output
lating lining, relaxation of charge on the contents is then not required. The use of inerting agents
should be promoted by the provision of internal should be in accordance with the recommenda-
earthing, for example, the mounting of earthed tions of 43.
metal strips or plates on or near the bottom of the 24.5 Jet Mixing
vessel. This precaution may not be necessary if the
lining is thin enough to permit charge dissipation 24.5.1 The jet mixing of liquids with conductivi-
or to avoid a dangerous surface potential ties greater than 50 pS/m is not hazardous provid-
( set 12.2.4 ). ed that the jet does not break the liquid surface
. and that the liquid and all metal parts of the
24.2.3 It should be ensured that personnel work- equipment are earthed.
ing in the vicinity of a blending vessel do not
present an ignition risk (see 43.3.1). 24.5.2 If a liquid has a low conductivity, an
antistatic additive may be used to raise the
24.3 In-line Blending conductivity above 50 pS/m, provided that it is
. In . this method, mixing takes place within
24.3.1 compatible with the intended use of the mixture.
a pipe Into which the various constituents are
pumped at prescribed rates. There is, therefore, no 24.5.3 As an alternative to raising liquid conduc-
vapour space in which a flammable mixture can tivities, the vapour space in the tank can be
occur, and hence no ignition risk when the mixing inerted. The use of inerting agents should be in
is taking place. accordance with the recommendations of 43.
24.3.2 The recommendations in 17 to 22 and 27 24.5.4 If a liquid has a low conductivity and
should be adopted, as appropriate, to avoid igni- neither the use of an antistatic additive nor
tion hazards in the receiving tank arising from inerting is possible, the hazard will depend upon
charge generated in the mixing operation or in circumstances and expert advice may be needed
subsequent flow to the tank. to control the surface potential of the liquid in
the tank. Factors to be considered include:
24.4 Blending in Vessels or Tanks
4 the proximity of internal projections in the
24.4.1 The mixing of liquids produce a single tank to the liquid surface; an excessive
phase of low conductivity is not considered to be field strength could occur in the vapour
unduly dangerous, provided that the normal pre- space due to &arges in the incoming
cautions appropriate to liquid handling operations liquid being carried up to the surface by
are taken ( see 17 ). the jet;
24.4.2 If the resultant mixture contains dispersed b) the presence of a separate phase ( usually
liquid or solid particulate matter, it is advisable to water ) at the bottom of the tank;
minimize the generation of static electricity by whether the tank is being filled whilst the
increasing the condutivities of low conductivity Cl
mixing is taking place; and
liquids in the system by means of antistatic addi-
tives, provided that they are compatible with the 4 the time that has elapsed since the com-
intended use of the mixture. pletion of a filling operation.
24.4.3 If the phases in a mixture are all liquids 24.5.5 Gauging and sampling should be carried
it is usually sufficient to raise the conductivity of out in accor’dance with the recommendations
the continuous phase above 50 pS/m. of 20.
24.4.4 If one or more of the dispersed phases is a 25 SMALL METAL CONTAINERS FOR
solid the conductivity of the continuous phase LIQUIDS
may need to be much greater than 50 pS/m, and
it may in addition be necessary to restrict the 25.1 General
power input of the stirrer. As an example, in This clause is concerned with metal containers
one operation a conductivity-of 1 000 pS/m was that are easily portable or movable, rather than
required with a power input limited to 0.37 with such ~equipment as fixed storage tanks
kW/ ms of the suspension. Each case should be or road/rail vehicle tanks. Charge may be gene-
considered on its merits, taking expert advice if rated during the filling or emptying of such
necessary. containers or during cleaning operations and
24.4.5 The gauging and sampling of wholly an ignition hazard is created when charge is
liquid systems should be carried out in accord- retained in the liquid, on insulated conductors or
ance with the recommendations of-20. If there is a on personnel in the presence of a flammable
.dispersed solid phase the precautions will depend vapourjair mixture, mist or foam. The flammable
upon the specific mixture aud no general advice atmosphere may be due to the liquid currently
can be given. being handled or to the previous contents of the
53
IS 7689 : 1989
container or it may be the result of conducting been used, a flexible bond should be pro-
the operation in a hazardous area. vided between adjacent lenghts of metal
ducting.
To avoid these hazards the recommendations
given in 25.2 to 25.5 inclusive should be followed. e) Filling hoses should be semi-conductive or
In applying these recommendations it will be of an approved type ( see 23 ).
necessary to bear in mind relevant national and
international transport regulations. 25.4 Filters
25.2 Earthing Fine particle filters installed in the filling system
upstream of the container can produce a significant
25.2.1 During both filling and emptying, the con- amount of charge. This charge should be dealt
tainer and all metallic parts of the system, such with by the methods given in 30.
as funnels and nozzles, should ,be bonded toge-
ther and/or earthed ( see 15.3.1 ). Care should be 25.5 Cleaning
taken to ensure that a metal funnel is not insulat-
ed from the container by a plastics bush. It is The container, the cleaging equipment and per-
preferable to avoid the use of-plastics funnels; if sonnel carrying out the operation should all be
they are used, particular care is needed to ensure earthed if there is any possibility of the presence
that they do not lead to the insulation of any of a flammable atmosphere within or outside the
metal component. container.
25.2.2 It should be ensured that personnel engaged 26 SMALL NON-METALLIC CONTAINERS
in filling, emptying or cleaning operations do not FOR LIQUIDS
present an ignition risk ( see 43.3.1 ).
26.1 General
25.3 Filling
25.3.1 For liquids with a conductivity less This clause is concerned with non-metallic con-
than 50 pS/m the linear flow velocity in the pipe tainers that are easily portable or movable, rather
entering the container should not exceed 1 m/s if than with such equipment as fixed storage tanks
a second immiscible phase is present; an example or road/rail vehicle tanks. The great majority of
is water suspended in oil. In the absence -of a these containers, however, are made from high
second phase, the limitations on flow rates impos- resistivity materials having a volume resistivity
ed by present designs of filling stations, coupled greater than 10s p m and/or a surface resistivity
with the avoidance of insulated conductors, have greater than 1010 fi m and it becomes necessary to. ’
been adequate to maintain safe operations in consider the charge that may be generated and
containers up to 200 I. retained on the material itself by liquid handling
or by internal or external rubbing. This presents
25.3.2 For liquids with a conductivity greater additional hazards, especially if there are insulat-
than 50 pS/m the requirements of 25.3.1 can be ed conducting component, such as metal closures,
disregarded. An antistatic additive may be used or if the surface is contaminated by isolated areas-
to raise the conductivity of a low conductivity of conductive material such as water or grease.
liquid above 50 pS/m, provided that it is compati-
ble with the intended use of the liquid. As with metal containers, an ignition hazard is.
25.3.3 Particular care is required in the filling of created when charge is retained on the liquid con-
tents, on insulated couductors or on personnel in
liquefied petroleum gas containers to ensure that
the presence of a flammable vapour/air mixture,
earthing is effective at all times, for example, as
mist or foam. The risk of an internal discharge
follows: from the liquid surface is enhanced with high re-
4 All the metal-work of building plant and sistivity containers both because the dissipation of
equipment should be electrically conti- charge from the liquid is impeded and because
nuous and earthed. It may be advisable to the field ~within the container is intensified at the
use a common earthing system, within liquid surface. There is increased risk external
which the resistance to earth should not to the container if it is situated in a hazardous
exceed 10 Q at any point. area, or is moved into such an area, owing to the-
possibility of charge on the container itself, even
b) Weighing machine platforms should be when a non-flammable liquid is being handled.
electrically continuous with the weighing
machine bases which should be connected
to the earthing system. Recommendations for avoiding electrostatic
hazards are given in 26.2 to 26.6. In applying
cl The conveyor track should be electrically these recommendations it will be necessary to bear
continuous and earthed. in mind relevant national and international trans--
4 If a fan ducting system is used it should be port regulations. In the case of resistivity con-
electrically continuous and earthed. At a tainers the precautions are considered in terms of”
joint where high resistivity material has the hazardous zones defined in 4.12.
54
IS 7689 : 1989
26.2 Containers Made of High Resistivity Also, as the volume of the container increases,
Materials in Non-hazardous Areas both the electrostatic ignition risk and the scale of
the ensuing fire increase.
If a non-flammable liquid is being handled in an
area where there is no possibility of a flammable 26.4.3 When a high conductivity liquid is being
atmosphere from another source, there is no igni- handled, the precautions given in 26.3.2 to 26.3.6
tion hazard and precautions against static electri- are adequate in filling and emptying operations.
city are not required. If it can be established that charging of con-
tainer itself can be kept to a low level it is per-
26.3 Containers Made of High Resistivity missible to use container sizes up to the maxi-
Materials in Zone 2 Areas mum specified in relevant regulations.
26.3.1 The container can be considered to be safe 26.4.4 When a low conductivity liquid is being
in a Zone 2 area if a non-flammable liquid is handled and the precautions given in 26.3.2
being handled and the possibility of a flammable to 26.3.6 are applied, a small electrostatic charge
atmosphere from another source during normal may remain but it is com?on practice to use high
operations is unlikely. The precautions in 26.3.2 resistivity containers with capacities up to 5 I.
to 26.3.6 should then be sufficient to avoid an Larger containers should be used only after
ignition. specialist consultation.
26.3.2 All conducting components, particularly 26.5 Containers Made of High Resitivity
metal funnels, should be earthed, metal caps and Materials in Zone 0 Areas
cotiductive labels~should be avoided. Any adjacent
metal objects should be earthed, for example, In areas where a flammable atmosphere is present
metal trollys with insulating wheels. continuously, or for long periods, the use of high
resistivity containers is not in general reconmmend-
26.3.3 During filling operations the liquid should ed, irrespective of the size of the container.
be in good contact with earth by means of an There are exceptions; for example, small sampling
earthed metal fill pipe reaching to the bottom of containers of high resistivity materials for use in
the container. During emptying operations the storage tanks are considered safer than similar
appropriate precautions should also be applied to metal containers. Expert advice should be com-
the receiving vessel. paratively sought to assess such cases.
26.3.4 The liquid flow rate during filling opera- 26.6 Containers Made of Conductive
tions should not be greater than that recommend- Non-metallic Materials
ed for an equivalent metal container ( see 26.3.1).
Small containers made from conductive non-
26.3.5 Rubbing of the external surface of the con- metallic materials ( see 12.3.2 ) present no electro-
tainer should be avoided, together with any other static hazards additional to those existing for
potential charging process, such as steam impinge- metal containers, provided that they are earthed
ment . arid the precautions for metal containers, are
fully implemented ( see 25 ). Such containers
26.3.6 It should be ensured that personnel in the should be permanently marked as ‘Antistatic
vicinity of the container do not present an igni- material’ or ‘Conducting material’.
tion risk ( see 43.3.1 ).
27 SHIPS ( TANKERS ) AND BARGES
26.4 Containers Made of High Resistivity
Materials in Zone 1 Area 27.1 General?
26.4.1 The container can be considered to be in Various liquid handling operations associated
a Zone 1 area if a flammable liquid is being with tankers and barges ( both referred to subse-
handled, or if a non-flammable liquid is being quently as ‘ships’ ) can give rise to ignition risks
handled and there is a possibility of the presence due to static electricity. Examples are loading,
of a flammable atmosphere from another source gauging and sampling. Charge on the liquid may
during normal operations. be generated within a tank and/or in the pipeline
system feeding the tank. Charging may also be
26.4.2 Containers of high resistivity materials associated with personnel undertaking tasks on a
should only be used in Zone 1 areas if it can be tank, such as gauging or sampling, or with clean-
shown that the electrostatfc ignition risk is accept- ing operations. An ignition hazard is created
able. This requires a balance to be struck when charge is retained in the liquid, on insulat-
between the electrostatic risk and the protection ed conductors or on personnel in the presence of
afforded by a high resistivity container in other a flammable vapour/air mixture, mist or foam.
respects, such as corrosion resistance or advan- The flammable atmosphere in the-tank may be
tageous behaviour in flame engulfment conditions; due to the liquid currently being handled or to
specialist guidance may be needed in reaching a liquid carried in a previous cargo. To avoid such
decision. In general, the lower the conductivity hazards the recommendations given in 27.2
of the liquid, the greater is the electrostatic risk. to 27.6 should be followed.
55
fS 7689 I 1989
Certain sizes of tankers carrying crude oil or 27.3.2 For liquids with conductivity up to and
petroleum products having a tiash point less than including 50 pS/m, the bottom entry or fill pipe
60°C or other liquids having a similar fire hazard should be designed to minimize turbulence and
have to be provided with an inert gas system. the agitation of any heavier immiscible liquid or
This requirement does not apply to chemical sediment on the tank bottom.
tankers having a valid ‘Certificate of Fitness for
the Carriage of Dangerous Chemicals in Bulk’. 27.3.3 Entrained air or other gas should be avoid-
ed in liquids with conductivities up to and includ-
27.2 Earthing ing 50 pS/m if there is any possibility of
27.2.1 Ships of metal construction are inherently immiscible liquid or sediment on the tank bottom.
earthed because they float in water. All metal 27.3.4 For liquids with conductivity up to and
fittings, pipework and associated equipment including 50 pS/m the linear flow velocity in the
should be earthed to the ship ( see 15 ). Electri- pipe entering the tank should not exceed 1 m/s
cal continuity checks should be made to establish until the inlet has been covered, and maintained
that all metal parts of equipment such as valves at 1 m/s if a second immiscible phase is present;.
and ullage devices are properly earthed to the an example is water suspended in oil. A precise
ship. These checks should take place before the value for the safe maximum linear flow velocity
ship is brought into use, and subsequently in the absence of a second phase has not been
whenever maintenance modification or deterio- established. However, experience indicates
ration could affect continuity, that the limitations on flow rate imposed by
the present designs of pipeline systems have
27.2.2 The ship-shore loading line is normally been adequate to maintain safe operations. There
conducting. It is customary to includein the line is no evidence that flow velocities up to a n d
an insulating flange or a single length of non- including 7 m/s are hazardous.
conducting hose to prevent any hazards arising
from stray currents due to any potential differ- 27.3.5 For liquids of conductivity greater than
ence between ship and shore. All metal on the 50 pS/m the requirements of 27.3.2 to 27.3.4 can
shore side of such a flange or hose length should be disregarded. An antistatic additive may be
be electrically continuous to the jetty earthing used to raise the conductivity of a low conducti-
system and all metal on the seaward side should vity liquid above 50 pS/m, provided that it is
be electrically continuous to the ship. compatible with the intended use of the liquid.
A separate bonding cable between ship and shore 27.4 Filters
is not required to avoid static electricity hazards.
Fine particle filters installed in the pipeline system
27.2.3 Tanks in new ships or tanks that have upstream of the cargo tank can produce a signi-
been out of service for repairs should be inspect- ficant amount of charge. It is recommended that
ed, prior to the initial fill, for any potential the methods for dealing with the charge given
floating objects, such as cans, which could form in 30 are followed.
insulated conductors. Such objects should be
removed. 27.5 Gauging and Sampling
27.2.4 It should be ensured that personnel work- gauging and sampling may produce additional,
ing in the vicinity of cargo tanks do not present an static electricity hazards. It is recommended that
ignition risk ( see 43.3.1 ). This may be difficult the procedures given in 7 are followed.
on board ship and it is advisable, therefore,
to minimize the occurrence of flammable atmos- 27.6 Tank Cleaning
pheres, for example, by using a closed gaug-
ing svstem and avoiding open hatches. If a Tank cleaning by high pressure jets in recognized
flakmable mixture is possible,-every effort should to be a potential static electricity hazard. Refe-
be made to prevent personnel from becoming rence should be made to 28.
charged, for example, by close attention to the
materials used in dip tapes, etc. In many cases 28. T A N K CLEANING WITH HIGH
the marine environment is probably an alleviat- PRESSURE WATER JETS OR STEAM
ing factor.
28.1 General
27.3 L o a d i n g 1
The techniques for cleaning tanks cover a very
27.3.1 Splash filling into a tank where a flamma- wide range, including the-use of water or oil jets.
ble atmosphere may exist should be avoided, in and the imbingement of steam. In some cases the
order to prevent the formation of a charged mist. cleaning liquid is recycled and this may I.ead to a
This can be achieved by bottom entry or by the two phase liquid, for example, an oil-in-water
use of a fill pipe reaching to the bottom of the suspension, and the system may also be compli--
tank. cated by the inclusion of surface-active chemicals.
56
IS 7889 : 1989
Most of the techniques can give rise to electro- 29 AIRCRAFT FUELLING

static charge, and the operation becomes hazar-
dous if the charge is retained on insulated 29.1 General
conductors, bulk liquid or mist in the presence of Aircraft are most frequently fuelled by means of
a flammable vapour/air mixture, mist or foam. mobile fuellers or by hydrant systems feeding the
The subject is highly complex and not yet aircraft system through mobile dispensers. Fuel
fully understood; general advice on the avoidance transfers are made through flexible hoses and
of hazakdous discharges is given in 28.2 to 28.4. ignition hazards due to static electricity may arise
during the operations. Charge may be generated
In tank cleaning procedures it is highly probable on the fuel in the system feeding the aircraft or in
that hazards other than those due to static electri-
the aircraft tank, which is normally of metal
city may be present, and reference should, there- construction, In addition, charge accumulates on
fore, be made to other appropriate documents. In the aircraft itself during flight and, if insulated,
this Code no recommendations are included for it can, in some atmospheric conditions, become
tank cleaning using hydrocarbons or other orga-
nic solvents. The spraying of these materials can charged whilst on the grouped.
generate large amounts of static electricity and at Although not an electrostatic hazard, the possi-
the same time produce a flammable atmosphere, bilily exists of sparking when making or breaking
and specialized procedures are required to carry hose connections. Sparks are due to stray currents
out such operations safely. arising from, for example, electrical power instal-
lations or cathodic protection systems. -Precautions
28.2 Earthing
against static electricity ignitions need, therefore,
28.2.1 All ~metallic components in the cleaning to be consistent with the avoidance of stray
system should be in good electrical contact with current sparking.
each other and with earth, using bonding icon-
nections if necessary, so that the resistauce to Recommendations for avoiding static electricity
earth at all points is less than 10 Q. The tank hazards are given in 2962 to 29.4. They assume
itself and its associated pipework and fittings, if of the presence in the fuelling system of a fine parti-
metallic construction, should be similarly earthed. cle filter and/or a water separator.
28.2.2 It should be ensured that personnel 29.2 Hoses
working on the tank do not present an ignition
risk ( see 43.3.1 ). 29.2.1 Flexible hoses should preferably be of the
semi-conductive type ( see 23.1 ) so as to facilitate
28.2.3 The effects of high resistivity materials, the dispersion of static electricity while limiting
such as synthetic plastics, in either the cleaning stray current flow. If conductive hose is used in a
system or the tank structure should be carefully hydrant system, an insulating flange should be
assessed before they are used where a flammable inslalled at the end of the hydrant riser. The use
vapourlair mixture, mist or foam may be of ‘non-conducting hoses should be limited to
encountered. situations where a flammable atmosphere is not
likely to be present and where charging of the
28.3 Additional Safety Measures outer surface is unlikely, for example, where the
hose lies on ~the ground.
28.3.1 Earthing will remove one hazard but there
may remain hazards arising from the electrostatic 29.2.2 The resistance between the end flanges of
charge generated in the tank space. Risks from each length of conductive or semi-conductive
this can be eliminated either by control of the hose should be checked with sufficient frequency
flammable atmosphere or by restricting the space to ensure that its conductive properties are being
potential. Methods of achieving safety will depend maintained.
on the industry concerned.
28.3.2 Wet steam-in particular presents a source 29.3 Earthing and Bonding
of very high charge generation. Safety should, 29.3.1 All the metallic parts within each fuelling
therefore, be based on the removal of the flamm- vehicie should be in good electrical contact with
able atmosphere before steaming, unless it can be each other, so that the resistance between any
shown that dangerous potentials are not produced two points on each unit is less than 10 Q. Similar
in the -particular operation. electrical continuity should exist within the hyd-
28.4 Gauging -and Sampling rant system and also within each hydrant
dispenser.
such operations as gauging should be avoided as 29.3.2 It is recommended that fuelling vehicles
far as possible during tank cleaning. If gauging is and hydrant dispensers should have antistatic
considered to be essential the recommendations tyres. Aircraft are normally equipped with such
in 20 should be scrupulously followed. tyres.
57
IS 7689 : 1989
29.3.3 Although the aircraft should be earthed have large horizontal areas and little depth and
through tyres, additional earthing is sometimes this reduces the hazard of the fuelling operation.
provided by means of a bonding cable betwen The majority of aircraft fuels contain an anti-
the aircraft and an earthing point in the con- static additive and, where this is known to be pre-
crete apron. This connection should be made only sent, flow rates up to 7 m/s are acceptable.
to an earthing rod provided for the purpose; on no Where no additive is used the recommendations
account should hydrant pits or pit valves be used, of the Civil Aviation Authority should be followed.
owing to the possibility of stray current sparking.
The connection should be direct from the aircraft 30 FINE PARTICLE FILTERS AND WATER
to the earthing rod and independent of the fuell- SEPARATORS
ing vehicle or hydrant dispenser.
30.1 General
29.3.4 A bonding connection should be made
between the aircraft and the fuelling vehicle or The presence of a fine particle filter and/or a
hydrant dispenser before any fuel system con- water separator in a pipeline system can greatly
nections are made and should remain in position increase electrostatic charge generation in a liquid,
until the operation has been completed and all because the very large surface area of the filter or
fuel system connections have been broken. For separator medium promotes extensive charge
this purpose the fuelling vehicle or dispenser separation as the liquid passes through it. Typical
should carry a cable firmly connected to the charge densities in the liquid leaving such a
vehicle, and this connection should be tested with device can be in the range 10 ~1 C/m” to 5 000
sufficient frequency to ensure that its resistance ,J C/ms that is, up to several orders of magnitude
remains below 10 n ( see 15 ). greater than those encountered in pipelines.
Coarse strainers and gauzes do not normally
29.3.5 Bonding connections on the aircraft should cause any significant charge generation.
be firm and made to unpainted metal parts.
Where possible bonding lugs should be used and If a flammable vapour/air mixture, mist of foam
equipment such as pitot head tubes, aerials and is present in the tank downstream of the filter or
propellers should be avoided. water separator there is an ignition hazard and,
29.3.6 There should be a direct bond between the to supplement the recommendations for tanks
aircraft fuelling orifice and the metallic end of the given in 20 to 22 and 27, the measures in 30.2
fuelling hose. With underwing fuelling the to 38.6 should be adopted.
necessary connection is achieved by the metal-to-
metal contact between the hose end coupling and 30.2 Earthing
the aircraft fuelling, adaptor. With overwing.
fuelling the hose nozzle should be bonded to the 30~21 All metallic parts of fine particle filters
aircraft by a separate cable before the filler cap and water separators should be connected to
is removed and the bond should remain in posi- each other and to earth, so that the resistance to
tion until the operation has been completed and earth at all points is less than 10 fi ( see 15 ).
the filler cap replaced.
30.2.2 It should be ensured that personnel do not
With some light aircraft bonding may not be present an ignition risk ( spe 43.3.1 ).
possible because of the absence of a bonding lug
near the fuelling orifice, and a semi-conductive
hose is then strongly recommended. 305 Charge Relaxation
29.3.7 Some over wing operations may require The charge generated in the fine particle filter or
the use Qf a funnel. This should be metallic and water separator can be dissipated by the provi-
should be bonded both to the fuelling nozzle and sion of sufficient residence time between the
to the aircraft before the aircraft filler cap is device and the receiving tank. This may be
removed. achieved by including in the line between them
a metal relaxation chamber; in some cases there
29.3.8 Earthing and bonding procedures similar may be sufficient residence time in the pipeline,
to the above apply also to fuel deliveries to air- which should be of metal construction and
craft from drums and other containers. earthed, without the need for a special chamber.
29.3.9 It should be ensured that personnel do For liquids with conductivities down to 2 pS/m
not present an ignition risk ( see 43.3.1 ). the residence time should be 3r, where r is the
29.4 Fuelling Rate relaxation time of the liquid, and for less conduc-
tive liquids it should be 100 s. The relaxation
During the fuelling of aircraft, liquid velocities in time is given by the equation:
the delivery system or the aircraft fuel manifolds
often exceed the levels recommended for road/
rail vehicles ( see 21.3.3 ). However, aircraft tanks
IS 7689 : 1989
where An ignition hazard is created when chaxge is

retained on the liquid, on insulated conductors, on
I is the relaxation time ( in s ), the coating itself or on personnel in the presence
E is the relative permittivity of the liquid, of a flammable vapour/air mixture, mist or foam.
E& is the permittivity of free space ( 8.85 x 10-1s The risk of a discharge from the liquid surface,
F/m ), and for example, during gauging, depetrds upon the
rate of charge input, the volume of the container,
y is conductivity of the liquid ( in pS/m ). the conductivity of the liquid and the thickness
Thus, for a liquid with a relative permittivity and conductivity of the coating.
of about 2, the residence time is about 50 ps.
Disadvantages of the relaxation procedure are: hazards are given in 31.2 and 31.3. They should
be considered in conjunction witn measures to
a) the range of conductivities needs to be deal with other hazards that may arise in the
known at the design stage; storage and transport of flammable liquids.
b) low conductivity liquids require large f
relaxation chambers; 31.2 Containers with an Internal High
c) these chambers have always to be kept Resistivity Coating
completely full during pumping operations,
to avoid the ignition hazard which would 31.2.1 There should be good contact between the
occur in the vapour space above the liquid. container and the ~coating.
30.4 The,Use of Antistatic Additives 31.2.2 Provided that the precautions recommend-
ed for the equivalent uncoated container are
The residence time required down-stream ~of a applied ( see 17, 21, 25 and 27 ), internal coat-
fine particle filter of water separator may be ings such as paint, with a thickness less than 2 mm
reduced by using an antistatic additive to increase are unlikely to create hazards additional to those
the conductivity of the liquid, provided that it is normally expected in an uncoated container,
compatible with the intended use of the liquid. except where there are rapid fillings.
30.5 TheUse of Floatiag Tanks or Floating 31.2.3 For layers thicker than about 2 mm, or
Blankets where there is a possibility of rapid repeat fillings,
If the use of a relaxation chamber or an antistatic the precautions for an equivalent uncoated con-
additive is -not possible, liquid may be pumped tainer should be supplemented by providing a
directly from a fine particle filter or water sepera- conducting path between the liquid contents and
tor into a floating roof tank, or into a fixed roof earth. For conducting liquids this path can be,
tank equipped with an earthed conducting floating for example, and earthed metal fill pipe or dip
blanket. The precautions given in 20.7 and 20.8 pipe extending almost to the bottom of the con-
should be adopted. Until the floating roof or tainer but not touching it. Additional earthing
blanket is buoyant the flow rate should be low may be needed for low conductivity liquids,
enough to allow relaxation before the liquid depending on the type and thickness of the coat-
enters the tank. Thereafter, the flow rate can be ing, the iize of the container and the conducti-
increased to that normally acceptable for the tank. vity of the liquid. The conductivity level at which
additional earthing is likely to be needed is not
30.6 Filling and Emptying definitely established, but it should not be neces-
sary if the conductivity exceeds 50 pS/m for
Fine particle filters and water separators should
storage tanks or 1 030 pS)m for tanks in which
be filled and emptied slowly, and on no account
should they be emptied by means of compressed blending is taking place.
air. 31.2.4 The inner surface should not be rubbed in
31 METAL CONTAINERS AND TANKS the presence of a flammable vapour/air mixture,
WITH A FIXED INTERNAL mist or foam. This is important when cleaning a
NON-METALLIC COATING, FOR THE container that has held a flammable liquid.
STORAGE AND TRANSPORT OF LIQUIDS Flammable solvents should not Abe used for clean-
ing the inside of a container.
31.1 General
31.3 Containers with an Internal Conductive
The charging processes and static electricity Coating
hazards associated with metal containers (see 17.1)
still apply when the container has a fixed internal Coatings made from conductive non-metallic
non-metallic coating. If the coating is made from materials ( see 12.3.2 ) are acceptable provided
high resistivity material, charge may also be gene- that the precautions recommended for equivalent
rated and retained on the coating itself by the uncoated metal containers are applied ( see 17, 21,
liquid handling operations or by internal rubbieg. 25 and 27 ).
59
IS 7689 : 1989
~32 METAL CONTAINERS FOR LIQUIDS be considered on its merits, taking expert advice
WITH OUTER NON-METALLIC COATINGS if necessary. In processes where the rate of
OR JACKETS external charge generation is very high, for
example, electrostatic spraying, there is a possibi-
32.1 General lity of a propagating brush discharge ( see 7.4 ).
The charging processes and static electricity 32.3 Containers wit& an Outer High Resis-
hazards associated with metal containers ( see 17.1) tivity Coating Protected by an Earthed
are still encountered when the container has Conducting Sheath
a non-metallic coating on its outer surface. If
the coating is made from high resistivity material, A conductor on which an outer coating of high
charge may also be generated and retained on the resistivity material is completely covered by a
coating itself when subjected to processes produc- permanent earthed sheath of conducting material
ing high charging rates, for example, -excessive is acceptable irrespective of the thickness of the
rubbing. In some designs of container the high high resistivity coating. The inner metallic con-
resistivity coating supports metallic components tainer should be earthed and all the precautions
not in contact with the main metal container and recommended for an kquivalent uncoated con-
these can be a source of discharges if not earthed. tainer should be applied.
However, the presence of the coating in close con- 32.4 Containers with an Outer Conductive
tact with the metal provides a system of relatively Coating
high capacitance and a large amount of charge is
required on such components to raise their poten- Coatings made from conductive non-metallic
tials sufficiently to give rise to incendive dischar- materials ( see 12.3.2 ) are acceptable provided
ges. Personnel walking on such high resistivity that the precautions recommended for equivalent
coatings may also be insulated from earth. uncoated metal containers are applied.
An ignition hazard is created when charge is 33 PIPELSNES FOR LIQUIDS AND GASES
retained on the liquid, on insulated conductors,
on the coating itself or on personnel, in the pre- 33.1 General
sence of a flammable vapour/air mixture, mist or When a liquid flows in a pipe, charge separation
foam. Recommendations for avoiding electrostatic occurs between the liquid and the internal surface
hazards are given in 32.2 to 32.4. They should be of the pipe, producing electrostatic charges on
considered in conjunction with measures to deal both the liquid and the pipe, in the case of a
with other hazards that may arise in the storage pure gas, or a mixture of pure gases, flowing
and transport of flammable liquids. through a pipe there is no generation of static
32.2 Containers with an Outer High electricity. However, in practice, gases often
Resistivity Coating contain solid or liquid particulate matter and
charge can then be generated where these parti-
32.2.1 The metal container and any metallic .cles impinge on the walls of the -pipe or on
components in the vicinity, including those mount- obstructions such as orifices or valves.
ed on the high resistivity coating, should be
earthed. The extent to which the charges are retained
depends upon the resistivity of the pipe material
32.2.2 It should be ensured that personnel do not and upon the conductivity of the pipe contents
present an ignition risk ( see 43.3.1 ). Where in the case of liquids. High resistivity pipes may
appropriate, conducting walkways should be have metaliic components, such as flanges or
provided. valves, and these may retain charge if they are
32.2.3 The full range of precautions recommend- not earthed.
led for an equivalent uncoated container should In addition to charge generation within the pipe
be applied. by liquid or gas flow, charging processes, such as
32.2.4 In most situations coatings, such as paint, rubbing or steam impingement, can lead to the
with a thickness less than 2 mm are unlikely to accumulation of charge on the outer surface of a
create hazards additional to those expected with high resistivity pipeline and on any insulated
an uncoated container, provided that all the metal components in the line.
precautions for the uncoated container are Potentials high enough to cause incendive dis-
applied. In processes where the rate of external charges can be generated by the flow of both
charge generation is very high, for example, elec- flammable and non-flammable liquids and gases.
trostatic spraying, there is a possibility of a pro- If such discharges do occur the hazard external to
pagating brush discharge ( see 7.4 ). the pipeline depends upon the presence of a
32.2.5 For coatings thicker than 2 mm the hazard flammable atmosphere adjacent to the pipe, which
depends on such variables as the external charge may be due to leakage from the pipe itself if its
generating mechanism and the thickness and contents are flammable, or to flammable gas or
resistivity of the coating and each situation should vapour from some other source. Also, if the liquid
60
IS 7689 I 1989
or gas in the pipe is flammable, there may be, an The presence of high resistivity ~pipelines carry-
internal ignition risk if air enters the system and ing high conductivity liquids is, therefore, accept-
produces a flammable mixture within the pipe. able in Zones 0 and 1 areas if the liquid is
earthed in this way, if all metallic components
It should be noted that the use of plastics pipe- are earthed and if there are no external sources
lines with flammable liquids or gases may be of electrostatic charge generation, such as rubbing
restricted by requirements imposed by the general or steam impingement. They are also acceptable
fire risk. in Zone 2 areas with the same provisos, except
To avoid the ignition hazards that may arise in that external sources of electrostatic generation
various situations, the recommendations given can be tolerated if it can be shown that the
in 33.2 to 33.7 inclusive should be followed. consequent ignition risk is low, that is, compara-
ble with the ignition risk from Zone 2 electrical
It should be noted that these refer to pipeline equipment.
flow situations and additional precautions may 33.5 Buried Pipelines
be necessary if the line contains any elements,
such as fine filters, capable of high charge genera- 33.5.1 When a pipe is bGried its whole external
tion. surface is in contact with the earth and no further
earthing of matallic or conductive pipe or of
33.2 Avoidance of a Flammable Attiosphere metallic components of high resistivity pipelines
When a flammable atmosphere external to a pipe is required. If a high conductivity liquid ( con-
is due to a leak of flammable gas or liquid from ductivity greater than 100 pS/m ) is being carried
the pipe, the escape should be stopped as soon as in a high resistivity pipeline steps should be taken
possible by closing valves or, in the case of a to ensure that the liquid is earthed at some point,
flexible non-metallic pipe, ,by the application of such as an earthed metal tank or valve.
mechanical clamps on either side of the leak. If 33.5.2 When a metallic or conductive pipeline is
the presence of a flammable atmosphere is consi- exposed by excavation it remains in contact with
dered possible, personnel should be earthed. earth at both ends of the excavation and it
( see 43.3.1 ). requires no further earthing.
33.3 Metallic and Conductive Non-metallic 33.5.3 When a high resistivity pipeline is exposed
Pipes Above Ground by excavation any metallic components in the
excavated section of pipe should be earthed if
All parts of the pipeline should be earthed, includ- there is any possibility ofthe presence of a flamm-
ing any metal cladding netting reinforcement of able atmosphere.
‘coatings. The criterion for satisfactory earthing is
that the resistance to earth at any point should 3X5.4 For all types of buried pipelines, when
not ~exceed 10s Q, although a’ resistance not exposed by excavation adjacent conductors should
exceeding 10 Q should be obtainable in a wholly be earthed if the presence of a flammable atmos-
metallic system ( see 15.2.2 and 15.3.4 ). phere is suspected. It is very hazardous to make
the earthing connection to an insulated conductor
33.4 High Resistivity Pipes Above Ground while flammable gas or vapour is present.
33.4.1 All metallic components in the pipeline 33.6 Ignition Hazard Within a Pipeline
system, including any metal cladding or netting
reinforcemnt of coatings, should be earthed with If a flammable mixture occurs in a pipeline due
resistance to earth of 10s Q to the inadvertent ingress of air the risk of an
&?lr;~Z~fl electrostatic ignition may be very high, depend-
ing on circumstances, and flow should Abe stopped
33.4.2 The transfer of gases and low conductivity until the risk has been evaluated. Intentional
liquids ( conductivity uP to and including pumping of a flammable mixture should never be
100 pS/m ) through high resistivity pipes is not, attempted without taking expert advice.
in general, recommended in Zones 0, 1 and 2
hazardous areas ( see 4.12 ). If the use of such a 33.7 Valves
pipeline in these circumstances is considered to be It is important when using ball valves in such
essential, the electrostatic hazard should be care- systems that they are fitted with antistatic devices.
fully evaluated, using expert advice, if necessary.
34 CONTAINERS FOR HIGH RESISTIVITY
33.4.3 When a high conductivity liquid ( conduc- POWDERS
tivity above 100 pS/m ) flows in a high resistivity
pipe it prevents the accumulation on the inner 34.1 General
surface of the vive of sufficient charge to cause a
hazardous fieid’outside the pipe, provided that With few exceptions, all particles, including chips
the liquid is in contact with earth at some point, and granules, readily become charged during trans-
for example, in an earthed metal tank or valve. port through pipes and ducts. This is especially
61
true when the particles rema,in well separated from 34.2.4 For containers with capacities exceeding
each other, as in pneumatic transport. When the 5 ms and containing a flammable atmosphere
highly charged particles are bulked in a container there is an as yet unknown probability of an
discharges occur between the powder and the incendive discharge from the charged powder
container ( see 11.3 ) and these constitute an suspension in air. In addition to the earthing of
ignition hazard if a flammahle vapourlair mixture equipment and personnel, consideration should
or powder suspension in air is present. Other therefore be given to installing some form of’
discharges may also occur involving the container explosion protection, as mentioned in 34.2.3,
or personnel in its vicinity and these also present unless it can be he shown that discharges from
. .
ignmon hazards. In the case of a container of both the suspended and the bulked powder will
high resistivity material the discharges from the not occur.
powder to the container may lead to polarization
across the thickness of the container wall and to 34.3 Containers of High Resistivity
the risk of a propagating brush discharge if an Materials
earthed conductor or person approaches the 34.3.1 The recommendations given in 34.3.2
inner surface ( see 12.2.3 ). Such a discharge is to 34.3.9 apply to coneainers fabricated ~from
not only highly incendive but can cause severe materials having a volume resistivity greater than
physiological shock. .High resistivity containers 10s Q m and/or a surface resistivity greater than
can also be charged externally by rubbing or by 1010 n.
other charge generating mechanisms, such as
steam impingement; these charges may constitute 34.3.2 If the contents of the container are solvent-
an ignition hazard. wet and can produce a flammable atmosphere the
advice given in 26.4 and 26.5 for flammable
To avoid these hazards the recommendations liquids in high resistivity containers should be
given in 34.2 and 34.3 should be followed. The followed.
specific case of a removable liner in a container
is included in 35. 34.3.3 Any metallic equipment in the vicinity of
the container, including the fill pipe, if present,
The phenomena are complex and in many ins- should be earthed.
tances it may be appropriate to take expert
advice. 34.3,4 For dry powders in containers with capaci-
ties up to and including 5 ms, in the presence of
~34.2 Metallic and Conductive Non-metallic flammable mixtures of materials with minimum
- Containers I ignition energies greater than 25 mJ, earthing of
metallic equipment should provide adequate
34.2.1 The container and any metallic equipment protection. It should also be established that the
in the vicinity, including the fill pipe, if present, rate of charge input with the powder is insufhci-
should be earthed. ent to promote propagating brush discharges. If
34.2.2 For containers with capacities up to and a suspension in air of a powder with a minimum
including 5 ms in the presence of flammable ignition energy less than 100 mJ could occur
mixtures of materials with minimum ignition personnel should also be earthed ( see 43.3.1 j.
energies greater than 25 mJ, earthing of equip- 34.3.5 For dry powders in containers with capa-
ment should provide adequate protection. How- cities up to and including 5 ms, where a vapour[
ever, if a suspension in air of a powder with a air mixture or dust suspension could occur of
minimum ignition energy less than 100 mJ could any material with a minimum ignition energy up
occur, personnel should also be earthed to and including 25 mJ, protective measures
( see 43.3.1 ). additional to the earthing of equipment and
personnel should be considered to deal with
34.2.3 ‘For containers of capacities up to and discharges from the bulked powder, if it cannot
including 5 ms where a flammable mixture could be shown that the quantity of charge present is
occur of any material with minimum ignition insufficient to cause incendive discharges. These
energy up to and including 25 mJ, protective protective measures include the reduction of
measures additional to the earthing of equipment charge on the incoming powder, for example,
and personnel should be considered to deal with by neutralization using ionized air, or the installa-
discharges from the bulked powder, although tion of some form of explosion protection, such as
practice has shown that such additional precau- inerting, air purging, explosion suppression or
tions are seldom needed. If it is found that explosion venting.
incendive discharges are possible, the protective
measures that may be used include the reduction 34.3.6 For dry powders in containers with capa-
of the quantity of charge on the incoming cities up to and including 5 ms, where propagat-
powder, for example, by neutralization using ing brush discharges, giving rise to physiological
ionized jair, or the installation of some form of shock, are possible, one or more earthed rods ~may
explosion protection, such as inerting, air purg- be inserted into the container to assist relaxation,
ing, explosion suppression or explosion venting. of charge from the powder. Precautions as given
in 34.3.5 are still required if a vapour/air mixture may in principle be ignited and the possibility of
or dust suspension could occur of any material such ignition should be assessed for dust clouds of
with a minimum ignition energy up to andinclud- minimum ignition energy less than 25 mJ. A pro-
ing 25 mJ. pagating brush discharge would be much more
incendive and could also cause serious physiologi-
The possibility of a propagating brush discharge cal shock. Recommendations for avoiding these
can be reduced by prebulking the incoming pow- hazards are given in 35.2 and 35.3.
der in an earthed metal hopper. The precautions
given in 34;2 should be applied to the hopper. 35.2 Liners of Conductive Materials in
Metal or Conductive Containers
34.3.7 For containers with capacities exceeding
5 ms there is as yet an unknown probability of an 35.2.1 If a non-metllic liner is used in circums-
incendive discharge from the charged powder tances where there may be an ignition hazard, or
suspension in air. In addition to the earthing of where propagating brush discharges giving rise to
equipment and personnel, consideration should physiological shock are possible, it is strongly
therefore be given to installing some form of recommended that the lirler should be conductive
,explosion protection, as mentioned in 34.3.5, with a surface resistivity not exceeding 1OlQ.
unless it can be shown that discharges from both
the suspended and the bulked powder ‘will not 35.2.2 All the precautions recommended for the
occur. The insertion of earthed rods should also equivalent unlined container should be applied
be considered if there is any risk of physiological ( see 34.2 ).
shock to personnel owing to propagating brush 35.3 Liners of High Resistivity Materials
.discharges. in Metal or Conductive Containers
34.3.8 If the container and its contents are in, or Liners with surface resistivities greater than 1OlQ
are moved into, an area where a flammable should be used only if they are essential, for
atmosphere could be present, rubbing of the sur- example, for reasons of chemical compatibility
face of the container should be avoided, together between the liner and the material being handled.
with any other charging process such as steam The ignition risk and the possibility of physiologi-
impingement. cal shock from propagating brush discharges
34.3.9 Powder should not be emptied from a high depends very much on the thickness and resistivity
resistivity container in presence of a flammable of the liner, the handling procedure, the electrical
atmosphere. When the powder itself is liable to properties of the materialbeing handled and the
produce a sensitive dust cloud ( minimum ignition nature of any flammable mixture that may be
energy less than 25 mJ ) then, ideally, high resis- present. Each situation should be considered on its
tivity containers should not be used unless it can merits, taking expert advice, if necessary.
be shown that the charge levels developed during 35.4 Liners in High Resistivity Containers
pouring do not produce incendive discharges.
The precautions required are the same as those
35 REMOVABLE NON-METALLIC LINERS for the handling of powders in high resistivity
IN CONTAINERS FOR SOLVENT-WET containers in the absence of a liner ( see 34.3 ).
MATER-IALS OR DRY POWDERS The use of conductive liners within high resistivity
35.1 General containers is not generally recommended because
of the danger that they will remain electrically
In some operations, particularly the handling of isolated and contribute towards an ignition
solvent wet or dry powders in drums, it is con- hazard. Conductive liners should therefore only
venient to use an inner liner, such as a plastics be used with high resistivity containers if the liner
bag, as a precaution against contamination. If is effectively earthed.
made of high resistivity material, such a liner can
be charged during filling and emptying. Dan- 35.5 Removal of Liner
gerous potentials can be generated if the liner is An essential precaution in almost all situations is
removed from the container because of the that the liner should not be removed from the
separation of charges which then occurs. In some container, for example, to shake out any residue,
processes, for example, when filling the container if there is a possibility of the presence of a
with a highly charged high resistivity powder, flammable vapour/air mixture or a sensitive dust
there is a possibility of a propagating brush dis- cloud.
charge from the liner ( see 7.4‘). In addition to
these consequences of charging the liner, it may 36 MANUAL ADDITION OF POWDERS TO
also insulate the material being handled from FLAMMABLE LIQUIDS
earth, even though the conducting outer con- 36.1 General
tainer is earthed. The discharges that may occur
in operations with high resistivity liners can give A significant number of fires/explosions during
rise to an ignition hazard if a flammable vapour/ the manual addition of powder from drums
air mixture is present. Sensitive dust clouds ( metal or plastics ) and sacks ( paper or plastics )
63
IS 7689 : 1989
to flammable liquids have been attributed to charged powder stream as it enters the receiver
electrostatic discharges. Electrostatic charge is cannot be precisely defined. Available evidence
generated by the pouring of the powder ,down suggests that, with two possible exceptions, this
any chute into the receiving vessel. If this charge does not present an ignition risk. The exceptions
is permitted to accumulate then potentials can be are:
developed on the container being emptied, any a) if the length of the charge chute exceeds
liner in this container, the receiving vessel, load- 2 m, or
ing chute, powder stream, vessel cantents and
personnel carrying out the operation. b) if high resistivity powders are involved.
For reasons of general fire and toxicity risk the In both situations the risk is considered to be low
flammable vapour should be contained within the in the majority of operations but it is recom-
receiving vessel and the formation of dust clouds mended that expert advice should be sought when
around the loading point should be strictly con- these conditions exist.
trolled. In the following precautions it has been 36.6 Vessel Contents fi
assumed that flammable vapour and dust clouds
will be formed only within the receiving vessel 36.6.1 Liquid of Conductivity Greater than
and the immediate vicinity of the entry point. 50 pS/m
The elimination of flammable atmospheres can There is no hazard provided that the liquid is in
provide one basis for safe operation. Alternatively, contact with earth. In an uncoated metal receiver.
the recommendations given in 36.2 to 36.7 should the earthing system for the receiver provides the
be followed to avoid an electrostatic ignition. necessary earth path. If the liquid is insulated
from earth by a lining then a special earth point
36.2 Container being Emptied should be provided near to the base of the
36.2.1 Metal, Paper and Conductive receiver.
Non-metallic Containers 36.6.2 Liquid of Conductivity Less than
These should be earthed ( see 15 ) prior to being 50 pS/m
emptied and remain earthed when in the presence A dangerous level of charge may be retained on
of a flammable atmosphere. In the case of a the liquid. The degree of risk depends on the
paper sack the use of an earth clip may not be conductivity of the liquid and the levels of charge
very practicable and the sack can be earthed by generated during the loading operation. Ideally
contact with the earthed plant. the liquid should be made conducting by the use
36.2.2 High Resistivity Non-metallic of~a suitable antistatic additive. If this cannot be
Containers done then expert advice should be sought to
establish a safe procedure.
In areas where a flammable atmosphere is pre-
sent, the use of high resistivity containers is not, 36;7 Earthing
in general, recommended except in situations in It should be ensured that personnel do not
which the flammable atmosphere does not come present an ignition risk ( see 43.3.1 ).
into contact with the container. Sensitive dust
clouds may in principle be ignited and the possi- 37 RELEASE OF GASES AND VAPOURS
bility of such an ignition should be assessed for
dust clouds of materials of minimum ignition 37.1 General -
energy less than 25 mJ.
Gas issuing under. pressure from an orifice very
36.3 Liner frequently carries with it liquid or solid parti-
culate matter. This may be a condensed phase of
The precautions in 35.3 to 35.5 should be applied. the gas itself, such as carbon dioxide snow or
water droplets in wet steam, or it may be a diffe-
36.4 Receiving Vessel/Loading Chute rent material, such as rust or dirt or atomized
36.4.1 Metal and Conductive Non-metallic Items paint. Charge separation occurs at the orifice and.
equal and opposite charges are produced on the
These should be earthed ( see 15 ). orifice and on the particulate material. Any un-
36.4.2 High Resistivity Items earthed object in or near the cloud of particles can
then acquire a charge from it. The charges on the
In general, the use of receiving vessels and orifice, if insulated from earth, and on other un-.
loading chutes fabricated completely from high earthed objects may be hazardous if a flammable
xesistivity materials is not recommended ( see 18.2 ). mixture of any kind is present, and there may
36.5 Powder Stream also be a risk of physiological shock to personnel.
The conditions under which an incendive dis- TO avoid these hazards the recommendations
charge could be released by the electrostatically given in 37.2 to 37.6 should be followed,
64
/
IS 7689 : 1989
37.2 Deliberate Release of Compressed Gas 37.5.3 Whatever substance is used for inerting, it
is advisable to introduce it slowly through a large
37.2.1 In processes where a gas containing parti- orifice, to minimize the pick-up of dirt and scale
culate matter is deliberately released, as in com- from the lines and to avoid raising dust or spray
pressed air grit blasting, the equipment itself and by direct impingement after the gas has entered
adjacent metal objects should be earthed. It the vessel.
should be ensured that personnel working in the
area do not present an ignition risk ( see 43.3.1 ). 37.6 Spraying of Paints and Powders
37.2.2 Both processes should not be carried out in Recommendations for avoiding electrostatic
the presence of flammable gases or vapours until hazards when using these processes are given
it has been established that incendive discharges in 25.
do not occur from the particulate suspension.
38 SPRAYING OF PAINTS AND POWDERS
37.3 Accidental Leakage of Compressed Gas
38.1 General
Hazardous charges may be produced when either
flammable or non-flammable gases are released The clouds of droplets 6r particles produced by
accidentally, if they carry liquid or solid parti- paint or powder spraying are frequently high
culate matter. Wherever a leak could occur the charged. Both the spraying equipment and any
containing vessel or pipe and any adjacent con- object within the range of the spray may be-
ducting objects should be earthed if there is any come charged. There may then be a risk of
possibility of the presence of a flammable atmos- physiological shock, and there will be an ignition
phere, due either to the leakage or to other hazard if the cloud of droplets or particles is
causes. Earthing is also required if a charged flammable.
object could be moved into an area where a These problems are normally present with airless
flammable atmosphere is present. It should be and electrostatic processes but the level of charg-
ensured that personnel going into the area of such ing with air-atomized spraying equipment is
leaks, for example, to effect repairs, do not pre- usually not high enough to cause concern. How-
sent an ignition risk ( see 43.3.1 ). ever, if sparking or electric shocks are encounter-
ed, air-atomized equipment should be submitted
37.4 Fire Extinguishers to the same precautions as other types of spraying
37.4.1 Some types of pressurized fire extinguisher, equipment. These precautions are given in 38.2
particularly those using carbon dioxicle, can to 38.4.
generate highly charged clouds. If there is a fire It is emphasized that spraying operations often
this is of little importance. However, if such involve the production of flammable atmospheres
equipment is situated where a flammable atmos- and the prevention of electrostatic hazards should
phere could be present the container and the not be considered in isolation. Precautions against
associated pipework should be earthed. In the a wider range of hazards may be required.
absence of fire, the system should not be operated
for testing, demonstration or inerting until it has 38.2 Earthing
been ascertained that flammable mixtures are
absent from the area. The spraying equipment and all metallic objects
in the vincinity of a paint or powder cloud should
37.4.2 The use of hand-held extinguisher may be earthed ( see 15 ). It should be ensured that
cause charging of the operator if he is not earth- personnel operating the equipment do not present
ed, with a consequent risk of minor physiological an ignition risk ( see 43.3.1 ).
shock. Nozzles are being developed to minimize
this risk. It is very important to earth the object being
sprayed and it should be remembered that de-
3765 Inerting posits laid down during spraying may tend to
destory the earth connection. This problem may
37.5.1 The precautionary inerting of vessels con- be overcome by the design of jigs and/or by the
taining flammable gas mixtures or dust suspen- provision of automatic earth checking devices.
sions should be done only with gases that do not
contain particulate matter and that do riot con- 38.3 Spraying of High Resistivity Objects
dense to a liquid or solid phase when released at
high pressure, for example, .~clean dry nitrogen, Objects made from high resistivity materials
unless it can be shown that a hazardous potential should not be sprayed with electrostatically charg-
will not be reached, ed paints. There is much less hazard with powder
spraying but the degree of hazard should be
37.5.2 Wet steam should not be used for inerting checked.
a vessel containing a flammable mixture of any
kind. Dry steam is acceptable provided that all 38.4 Plastics Spray Cabinets
cdndensed water is removed from the lines prior Spray cabinets of high resistivity materials should
to the inerting operation. not be used in the spraying of flammable paints,
65
IS 7689 I 1989
and they should be used with powders only if it 39.4 Sheeting Incorporating Conducting
can be shown that there is no ignition risk. Elements
Cabinets of conductive material are acceptable
with all types of spray, provided that they are 39.4.1 The electrostatic hazard from high resis-
earthed. tivity materials is minimized in some types of
sheeting by the incorporation in them of a con-
39 RIGID PLASTICS SHEETING, WALLS ducting grid or support ( usually metallic ) or a
AND SCREENS plastics laminate, throughout the area of the sheet
( see 12.3.6 ).
39.1 General
39.4.2 The conducting element and any metallic
Rigid plastics sheeting for wall cladding, internal components mounted on the sheeting should be
room screens, etc ( referred to subsequently as earthed.
sheeting ), does not readily accumulate electro-
static charge in normal use. However, sheeting 39.4.3 Although rubbing may generate sufficient
made from high resistivity materials can become charge on the surface toa give an incendive dis-
charged by rubbing of the surface and by other charge, the probability that this will occur in
generating processes, such as paint spraying or normal practice is low. Where processes with a
steam impingement. In such situations there is a very high rate of charge generation, such as
possible ignition hazard if a flammable atmos- electrostatic spraying, occur, this type of sheeting
phere is present. Generally, the items being con- should not be. used if there is any possibility of
sidered form part of a building and severe res- the presence of a flammable atmosphere.
traints are then placed on the occurrence of
flammable atmospheres. 40 PROCESSING OF FLEXIBLE SHEET OR
FILM MATERIALS
To avoid these ignition hazards the recommenda-
tions given in 39.2 to 39.4 should be followed. 40.1 General
High resistivity sheet and film materials, includ-
In the case of sheeting of high resistivity ing many papers, plastics and textiles, readily
materials, precautions are considered in terms of acquire electrostatic charge during manufacture
the hazardous zones defined in 4.12. and conversion processes. Mere contact with a
39.2 Sheeting Made from Conductive metal roller generally leaves charge on the surface
Materials of the materials; the metal takes the complemen-
tary charge, which rapidly dissipates provided that
There is no electrostatic ignition hazard in con- the machiriery is properly earthed. The major
nection with sheeting made from conductive non- problems caused by charges on sheets and films
metallic materials ( see 12.3.2 ) provided that. it are ignitions of flammable atmospheres, physiolo-
is earthed. The resistance between every point on gical shock, handling difficulties, and dirt and
ihe surface and earth should not exceed 10s a, as dust attraction.
measured by the test procedure described in 16.
Examples of these problems are as follows:
39.3 Sheeting Made from High Resistivity
Materials a) Accumulation t of charged material on
wound-up reels, causing shocks to personnel
39.3.1 In Zone 0 areas the use of sheeting made at reel change.
from high resistivity materials is not recom- b) Charging of unearthed metal parts by
mended. passage of film over guides and rollers,
leading to spark discharges liable to ignite .
39.3.2 In Zone 1 and Zone 2 areas such sheeting
volatile solvents. Personnel may also
as acceptable provided that the charge generation become charged by induction as well as by
from any source is small and gives rise to an charge transfer from the film material.
acceptably low ignition risk, equivalent to that
from Zone 2 electrical equipment. In many cases 4 Disruption of stacking by mutual repulsion
it will be obvious that no significant charge of charged sheets.
generation will occur. If there is any doubt it is 4 qlinging of thin films to metal rollers, etc.
recommended that expert advice should be sought
before high resistivity sheeting is used in Zone 1 e) Quality degradation by attraction of dirt
and dust to charged surfaces during
and Zone 2 areas. coating.
39.3.3 In Zone 1 and Zone 2 areas any metallic To avoid such problems the recommendations
component mounted on the sheeting should be in 40.2 and 40.3 should be followed, as appro-
earthed and precautions should be taken to see priate.
that isolated conducting areas are not produced
by deposits on the surface, if it is considered that 40.2 Earthing
any of them could accumulate a dangerous level 40.2.1 All metallic parts of machinery should be
of charge. earthed. If a flammable atmosphere may be
66
IS 7689 t 1999
present, non-metallic components, such as rollers necessary to site the eliminate? opposite ‘free
conveying tapes and trays or containers for sheets web’ as far away from earthed metalwork as
and cut-offs, should be conductive and, where possible, so as not to detract from the self-field
possible, should have a resistance to earth less of the charge being neutralized to the eliminator.
than 10s a. Nevertheless, it should be noted that Performance is critically dependent on distance
earthing of metal rollers does not prevent the from the film: too far away and neutralization is
charging of the high resistivity sheet or film incomplete, too near and overcompensation
itself. occurs. The finall setting ( usually in the range
10 mm to 50 mm ) is best obtained with the aid
40.2.2 It should be ensured that personnel work- of a field meter to test for charge left on the film.
ing on or passing near the machinery do not Eliminators should be used singly; it is neither
present an ignition risk ( see 43.3.1 ) . necessary nor desirable to have eliminators facing
40.3 Control of Charge on the Material both sides of the film which carries the charge.
Special eliminators are available for fast produc-
40.3.1 The operating conditions of the machinery tion lines and for the changing geometry of stack-
should be chosen to minimize electrostatic charging and reeling operatiotis.
ing. Thus, excessive running speeds and, very
importantly, sticking rollers should be avoided. 41 EXPLOSIVES MANUFACTURE,
Any friction between a sheet and its conveying HANDLING AND STORAGE
and guiding system should be reduced by reducing
the area of contact as much as possible, for 41.1 General
example by using corrugated surfaces. The press- For the purposes of this clause explosives are
ure between rollers of drive nips should be kept materials defined as such in the Explosives Act.
as low as is consistant with preventing any slip. Static electricity accumulated on insulated con-
ductors or personnel may cause the ignition of
40.3.2 Hydrophylic materials, for example, cellulo-
explosives with possibly severe or even catastro-
sits, including cotton and paper, should have the
phic results. There are various types of explo-
highest moisture content compatible with process
sives, solid, powder or liquid and they may be
efficiency.
encountered in many forms, such as bulk, bagged,
40.3.3 It may be possible to increase the conduc- plastics, pelletized, compacted, moulded or filled
tivity of some sheet or film materials by the use into metal or plastics containers. Before handling
of antistatic additives. As most antistatic agents or processing explosives, consideration should be
depend on water absorption to enhance their given to the specific recommendations given
ionic conduction, low relative humidity should be below, but in addition reference should be made
avoided when they are employed. In some cir- to those clauses of this Code that are relevant to
cumstances it may be acceptable .to use a conduct- the particular operations to be performed.
ing composite ( for example, containing carbon The energy required in a spark to cause ignition
black ), where conduction is independent of df an explosive varies with the type of explosive
humidity. and its physical state. In general, primary explo-
sives are much more sensitive than propellants of
40.3.4 High charges are often imparted to sheet high explosives, while pyrotechnics exhibit a wide
or film materials either deliberately, for example, range of sensitivity.
in electrostatic ‘pinning’ to enhance grip between
the material and a roller or base plate, or as a The extent of the precautions that should be
side eYl’ect of an electrical process, for example, applied depends upon the minimum spark energy
in electrical discharge ( ‘corona’ ) treatment for ignition, and explosives may be divided into
which is commonly used to improve adhesion to three classes depending upon this minimum spark
plastics. It is then essential to neutralize these energy. It is not the minimum ignition energy
charges as soon as possible, and especially before test described in 15, which should never be used
the material passes forward to a printing or coat- with explosives.
ing unit where any flammable solvent is used.
The three classes of explosives and the precau-
40.3.5 Neutralization of charge on the surface of tions that should be adopted for them are given
sheet or film materials may be readily accompli- in 41.2 to 41.4. There should be no deviation
shed by means of a static eliminator bases on air from them without taking expert advice. Speciali-
ionization ( see 12.3.4 ). The choice of eliminator zed earthing techniques are used in the explo-
depends mainly on the application concerned, but sives industry for sensitive or very sensitive
in many cases a simple passive type is all that explosives, information may be obtained from the
is necessary to prevent incendive discharges relevant Statutory Authority.
taking place. Where a passive eliminator will not 41.2 Comparatively Insensitive Explosives
work, for example, in the confines, of metal
machinery, a high voltage eliminator should be 41.2.1 These materials have a minimum spark
tried. For efficient working of any eliminator it is energy for ignition greater than 450 m J and the
67
IS 7689 11999
first degree precautions given in 41.2.2 are 42 HANDLING OF ELECTRO-EXPLOSIVE
sufficient when they are handled. DEVICES
42.1 General
41.2.2 All large conducting objects, such as fixed
plant and equipment and pneumatic systems, Electra-explosive devices such as electric detona-
should be earthed. Where the earthing is by tors may inadvertently be ignited by a discharge
means of metallic conductors the resistance to of static electricity, either through the fusehead 01
earth should be less than 10 a. Conductive or between the metal case and the fusehead. Many
antistatic non-metallic materials may also be electro-explosive devices can be more senstitive
used for earthing ( see 15 ). to electrostatic energy in this latter configuration.
The static electricity may accumulate on insulat-
41.3 Very Sensitive Explosives ed personnel as a result of their movements,
and personal and items of equipments may be-
41.3.1 The minimum spark energy for ignition come charged during dust or dry sand storms.
of these materials is up to and including 1 mJ Charge may also be generated during the pneu-
and the full second degree precautions given matic loading of bore hoks with granular blasting
in 41.3.2 to 41.3.7 are required. explosives.
41.3.2 All equipment, including movable and Precautions to avoid the hazard are given in 42.2
portable items, should be earthed. High resistivity to 42.5 and they should be observed at all times
materials should be rigorously excluded. when electro-explosive devices are being handled,
that is, during storage, issue and use.
41.3.3 All personnel should be earthed by means It should be recognized that there are other
of conducting floors and footwear ( see 43 ). A sources of hazard ~when handling electro-explo-
personnel resistance monitor ( see 17 ) should sive devices and appropriate manuals should be
be installed at every entrance to any area consulted for these, for example, the pick-up of
where such footwear is required. When handling energy from sources of electromagnetic radiation,
compositions having ignition energies of less testing for continuity of the firing circuit, and
than 100 mJ consideration should be given to procedures for the custody of the exploder key
the installation of personnel resistance monitors or the exploder.
at the individual work stations.
42.2 Earthing
41.3.4 Outer clothing should not be made from
high resistivity materials. Clothing should in no 42.2.1 Personnel should have an adequately con-
circumstances be removed in the area where the ducting path to earth, for exampel, by wearing
explosive is being handled ( see 44 ). leather soled footwear, and preferably they should
wear cotton type clothing. However, in some
41.3.5 Metallic objects which could act as spark environments, for example, mines, continuous
promoters should be avoided, for example, rings earthing of personnel may not be feasible, and
on personnel, conductive tools or wires. it is recommended that the procedures in 42.3
and 42.4 should therefore always be followed.
41.3.6 The relative himidity of the atmosphere 42.2.2 All conducting equipment in the area, such
should not be less than 65 percent. as rails and piping, and all machinery should be
earthed. It should be noted that other codes of
41.3.7 Care should be taken to prevent a number practice may’also require conductors to be bonded
of small capacitances working together to give a to each other to avoid any difference in potential
much larger capacitance. between them which might cause a current to flow
through lead wires making contact with them.
41.4 Sensitive Explosive 42.2.3 If a granular type explosive is being loaded
pneumatically into a bore hole, the loading equip-
41.4.1 These are materials with senstiveness ment should~be earthed. The hose should be semi-
between those dealt with in 41.2 and 41.3, and conductive and should be connected to earth.
Tlave minimum spark energies for ignition greater Specialized codes of practice exist on this subject
than 1 mJ and up to and including 450 mJ. and should be consulted.
42.3 Ptecautions During Storage and Issue
41.4.2 Depending on the properties of the parti-
cular explosive and the way in which it is handled, Electra-explosive devices are received from the
some relaxation of the full second degree than manufacturer with the leads folded and wrapped
precautions given in 41.3 may be acceptable. and the bare ends twisted together. If the bare
Specialist advice should be sought to determine ends are found to be unconnected, the operative
t.he level of precautions applicable to each specific should earth himself and reconnect them. If the
case. possibility of significant electromagnetic fields exists
68
IS 7689 : 1989
then care should be taken to ensure that such pro- 43 EARTHING OF PERSONNEL
cedures do not create a radio frequency ignition
hazard. These devices should not be packaged or 43;l General
transported in insulating materials, for example, The human body has a low enough volume resis-
polyethylene bags or polystyrene foam packs; the tivity to act as a conductor and if insulated from
use of metallic or conducting packs and advised earth it can accumulate electrostatic charge. The
for this purpose and these may also provide some charge may be produced by contact electrification,
protection against any radio frequency hazard. for example, by walking~across an insulating floor,
or by touching charged equipment or materials.
42.4 Precautions During Use It may also arise by induction due to charge on
42.4.1 When the firing cable has been laid out the the clothing or adjacent charged objects
bare wires at each end should be connected to ( see 14.1 j.
each other and to a suitable earth, such as a metal A troublesome consequence of the electrostatic
rod driven into the ground, which should be potential on charged personnel is that it can be
wetted if very dry. This cable and all other leads high enough to cause c#amage to electrostatic
should be kept separate from conductors in the sensitive devices, such as semiconductors, when
area, such as rails and piping. these are being handled or assembled.
42.4.2 A check should be made to see that the A discharge from a charged person can occur on
device leads are connected together. After con- touching any metallic object and a shock may be
necting them if necessary ( see 42.3 ), they should felt which, although not physically harmful, can
be earthed to the earth rod or other suitable be unpleasant. Involuntary reaction, however,
earth at the firing end. The device leads can then can lead to accidents. If a flammable mixture of
be uncoiled and laid along the ground. any kind is present with an ignition energy less
than about 100 mJ the discharge may cause
42.4.3 The operative should then make sure that ignition ( see 14.2.1 ).
he is earthed before -he handles the metal case of
the device prior to connecting it to the firing In many situations the resistance of the footwear
cable. This is to prevent a discharge from the and flooring is fortuitously low enough to provide
metal case to the fusehead. The use of insulating adequate earthing. The precautions that should
or similar self-adhesive tapes near electro-explo- be applied, using special equipment and materials
sive devices is not advisable and should be camp if necessary, are given in 43.2 to 43.5.
letely avoided near devices having no-fire energies
less than 100 mJ. If used at all, the piece of tape 43.2 Precautions in the Absence of
should be removed from the reel before use. Flammable Mixtures
Under no circumstances should tape be wound
from the reel in the proximity of these devices. 43.2.1 Uncomfortable shocks due to discharges
from personnel may be avoided by wearing foot-
42.4.4 The charge may then be inserted into the wear and using flooring materials such that the
bore hole. The device leads and the firing cable total resistance between the body and earth is less
wires at the firing end should then be disconnect- than 5 x 1OsQ. Floors of bare concrete, wood or
ed from earth and connected to each other so cork are likely to be satisfactory for this purpose,
that the device is in series with the cable. During provided that they are kept clean and are not
this process the operative automatically earths covered by aqinsulating floor covering. Where a
himself on touching the leads prior to disconnec- risk of exposure to mains voltage cannot be exclud-
tion. It is recommended that the device is connected the resistance to earth should be not less than
ed to the firing cable at the firing end before it is 5x 1O”Q.
inserted into the charge. The operative should
earth himself immediately before handling the 43.2.2 Disconcerting shocks are experienced by
device case or its leads. individuals walking on highly insulating floor
coverings, usually carpets. Such shocks can be
42.4.5 The operative should then retire to the avoided by increasing the conductivity of the
other end of the firing cable. When he is ready to floor covering.
fire he should disconnect the cable leads at the
exploder end from earth and connect them to the 43.3 Precautions in the Presence of
terminals of the exploder. Flammable Vapours and Powders
42.5 Precautions in Adverse Weather 43.3.1 LYhere a person may come into contact
Conditions with a flammable vapour or dust of minimum
ignition energy up to and including 100 mJ, it is
Electra-explosive devices should not be used on recommended that he be earthed. This can be
the approach of and during thunderstorms or achieved by the use of suitable antistatic or con-
‘during dust or dry sand storms. ducting footwear and floors. It is emphasized that
69
IS 7689 : 1989
conducting footwear should only be used where it 44 HAZARD8 FROM CLOTHING

is compatible with the substance being processed
and in situations where there is no risk of ex- 44.1 General
posure to dangerous electric shock in the event of Clothing on the body can readily acquire an,
apparatus becoming defective when operating at electrostatic charge when, for example, it rubs or
voltages of up to 250 V to earth. presses against an external surface. Also, if an
outer garment is removed, charge may be pro-
43.3.2 The resistance of footwear may increase in
duced on the remaining clothing and on the gar-
use due to continuous flexing and it may decrease
ment that has been removed. The charged cloth-
because of permeation of perspiration through or
ing on the body induces a similar charge on the
around the insole. B-Jth antistatic and conductive
body which will remain for some time if the
footwear should be discarded if their resistance
person is insulated from earth by the footwear or
rises above 1OQ. Where a risk of exposure to
the floor. Discharges may occur between the
mains voltage cannot be excluded the footwear body, or the clothing on the body, or the clothing
should be discarded if its resistance falls below
removed from the body and any conductor
5 x 104Q. The resistance of the footwear while
with which they happeA to make contact. The
being worn can be measured by means of a charge on the body can be eliminated by earthing
personnel resistance monitor of the type described
( see 43 ) but in some circumstances charge can
in 17. , still remain on the clothing. Discharges from the
43.3.3 It is emphazised that conducting floors clothing may be sufficient to cause ignitions and
should only be installed where there is no danger the voltage may be -high errough to damage
of exposure to mains voltage. The flooring should electrostatic sensitive devices, such as semi-conduc-
not raise the total resistance between the person tors, when they are being handled.
and earth above 1OsQ. Deposits of insulating con- Precautions to avoid hazards due to the clothing
taminants on the floor, such as oil or high resisti- *are given in 44.2 to 44.6 which should be read in
vity powder, should be removed. Where there is conjunction with 43.3.
any doubt about the resistance between the
person and earth it may be measured by means 44.2 Precautions with Materials with
of a suitably modified personnel resistance monitor Minimum ignition Energies Greater than
of the type described in 17. 0’2 m,J
43.3.4 If the flammable mixture is confined to a Any garment, including those made from high
limitedarea, for example, near a vessel containing resistivity materials, such as some synthetic fibres.
a flammable liquid, it may be sufficient to render and coated fabrics, may be worn in the presence
only a small area of the floor conductive. One of mixtures in air of vapours, powders or dusts
method is to provide an earthed metal plate for with minimum ignition energies greater than
the person to stand on. 0.2 mJ, provided that the resistance between the
person and earth complies with the recnmm.enda-
43.4 Precautions for Highly Sensitive tions of 43.3.
Materials
44.3 Precautions for Highly Sensitive
43.4.1 In areas where materials, such as some Flammable Materials
explosives or oxygen enriched flammable mix-
tures, are present conducting footwear should be 44.3.1 Where materials with the minimum igni-
worn. It is emphasized that conducting footwear tion energies up to and including 0.2 mJ may be
should be used only where there is no danger of present, such as some explosives and oxygen
exposure to mains voltage. The footwear should enriched flammable mixtures, the resistance bet-
be discarded when its resistance rises above 1OQ. ween the person and earth should comply with
the recommendations of 43.4.
43.4.2 The flooring should not raise the total
resistance between the person and earth above 44.3.2 Garments should not be warn in these
1OQ. The floor should be cleaned frequently to situations if their surface resistivity is greater than
ensure the absence ~of insulating contaminants, 5 x 1OlQ. Natural fibres, such as cotton, flex or
such as oil or high resistivity powder. A regular linen, meet this requirement provided that the
check should be made on the resistance between relative humidity is moderately high, say 65
the person and earth by means of a suitably percent or more, and the temperature is about
modified personnel resistance monitor of the type 20°C. Many synthetic fibres and coated fabrics
described in 17. should be used only if they have been treated as
described in 44.3.3 to reduce their surface resisti-
43.5 The Handling of Electrostatic Sensitive vities below 5 x 1OlQ There are special require-
Devices ments for hospitals The surface resistivities of
garment materials may be measured using the
The special precautions should be applied in the method given in 18 with specimens conditioned
handling and assembly of electrostatic sensitive at the minimum relative humidity expected in the.
devices. working environment.
70
IS 7689 : 1989
-44.3.3 The simplest and most widely used method 44.4 Removal of Clothing
.of reducing the electrostatic charge on fabrics is
to apply an antistatic finish which reduces the Garments should not normally be removed in the
surface resistivity. Some of these finishes are effec- presence of a f l a m m a b l e vapourjair mixture,
tive on a range of different fibres, while others are powder or dust,
specific to only a few types of fibre. Most anti-
static finishes function for only a limited period 44.5 Gloves
and they should, therefore, be applied at regular When gloves satisfying other safety requirements
intervals, at least every time the garment is are used for handling metallic or conductive ob-
washed. Because the majority of them depend jects in the presence of a flammable mixture of
upon moisture from the atmosphere they are most any kind, either the gloves should be of conduc-
effective in humid conditions. tive or antistatic material or the objects should be
44.3.4 Good antistatic properties can be achieved earthed, for example, by means of an earthed clip
by introducing a small proportion of highly con- lead. The resistance between each object and
,ducting fibres into fabrics. Such materials have earth should not exceed l@Q for mixtures in air
the advantage over the antistatic finishes describ- of materials with minimum ignition energies
ed in 44.3.3 that they are resistant to repeated g r e a t e r t h a n 0.2 mJ, land 1OsQ for those with
washings and are effective in warm, dry condi- minimum ignition energies up to and including
tions. 0.2 mJ.
71
IS 7689 : 1999
ANNEX A
( Foreword )
COMPOSlTION OF ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS SECTIONAL COMMITTEE, ETDC 20~
Chaiman
SHRI M. L. DONQRE
M-3 Satyam, 88 Sion Circle, Bombay 400 022
Members Representing
SHRI P. ANANTEA~AYAN Engineer-in-Chief’s Branch, Army Headquarters ( Ministry of
Defence ), New Delhi
SHKI S. K. SHANQARI ( Alternuts ) F
SHRI P. D. BAoADE Tata Consulting Engineers, Bombay
SHRI R. K. KAUL ( Alternate )
SEXI V. S. BHATIA Siemens India Ltd, Bombay
S HRI M. M. SHETHNA ( Alternuts )
S HRI K. V. CHAUBAL Federation of Electricity Undertaking of India, Bombay
SHRI K. S. Josar ( Alternate )
S HRI R. R. CROUDHIJRI Larsen & Toubro ( Construction Group ), Madras
S HRI N. BALASUBRAMANLAN ( Alternate )
CFIIE~ ELECTRICAL ENQINEER Railway Board ( Ministry of Railways ), New Delhi
D EPUTY D IRECTOR S TANDARDS ( ELEC )-DI,
RDSO (Alternate )
C HIEF E LECTRICAL I NSPECTOR TO G OVERNMENT Chief Electrical Inspector to Government of Tamil Nadu, Madras
OF T AMIL NADU
E LECTRICAL I NSPECTOR ( TECHNIOAL ) T O
G OVERNMENT OF TAMIL NADIJ ( Alternate )
CHIEF ENQI~EER (ELEc)-I Central Public Works Department, New Delhi
SUPERINTEEDENT SURVEYOR OB WO R K S
( ELEC )-I ( Alferna~e )
SHRIDEVENDERNATH Larsen & Toubro Ltd, Bombay
SHRI T.P. R.SARMA ( Alternate j
S HRI K. W. DHARMADHIK~RI Jyoti Ltd, Vadodara
D R V. N. MALLER ( Alternate )
S HRI G.L. DUA Rural Electrification Corporation Ltd, New Delhi
SHEI S. K.SETHI ( Aftesnde )
SERI R.C. K H A N N A Delhi Electric Supply Undertaking, New Delhi
SHRI P.S. SAWHNEY (Alternate)
M EMBER (HYDRO-ELECTRIC) Central Electricity Authority, New Delhi
DIRECTOR ( HED )-I ( Alternate)
ER S. PAXEERSELVAI~ Tamil Nadu Electricity Board, Madras
S HRI V. JANARDHANAN ( Alternate )
S HRI K. P. R. PILLAI Fact Engineering and Design Organization, Udyogamandal
SVRI C. R. R. MENON ( Alternate )
S HRI V. RADIIA KIXSHNAN Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd, Hyderabad
.%a~ H. S. RA O Crompton Greaves Ltd, Bombay
PROFG.RAVEENDRANNAI~ Chief Electrical Inspector to the Government of Kerala, Trivandrum
SHRI S.R.SARDA Maharashtra State Electricity Board, Bombay
S HBI R. S A T H I Y A B A L Tariff Advisory Committee ( General Insurance ), Bombay
S HRI K. K. M ONDAL ( Alternate )
S HRI H.K. SITARAM Calcutta Electric Supply Corporation Ltd, Calcutta
SHRI S. K. PALIT ( Alternate )
SHRI P.SRINIVASA POTI Karnataka Electricity Board, Bangalore
SHRIJOSEPH PHILOXENY ( Alternate)
SHEI D.S. TAWARE Electrical Engineer to Government of Maharashtra, Bombay
SHRI S.J.HARIDAS (Alternate )
SHRI G.N.THADABI Engineers India Ltd, New Delhi
SHRI S. K. GHOSH ( Alternate )
S HRI G. S. T H A K C R Chief Electrical Inspector, Government of Madhya Pradesh, Shopal
SHRIV.T.WARANQ Bombay Electric Supply and Transport Undertaking, Bombay
SERI R. P.PATEL ( Afternate)
SRRI S. P. SACHDEV , Director General, BIS ( Ex-o&o Member )
Director (Electech )
Secretary
SHRIK.GANESH_ ~~
Deputy Director ( Elec tech ), BIS
72

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Free Standard provided by BIS via BSB Edge Private Limited to Pramod Raijadhav -

Nashik(pramodraijadhav@gmail.com) 157.33.13.192 [for non-commercial use only].

Electrical Installations Sectional Committee, ETDC 20

SECTION 1 GENERAL AND FUNDAMENTALS OF STATIC ELECTRICITY

3 DEFINITIONS may therefore sustain fire or explosion when such

3.14 Inert Gas 4 STATUTORY PROVISIONS

6.1 Even after separation in the charging process,

droplets, in dust clouds, mists or sprays can

7 ELECTROSTATIC DISCHARGES and the maximum energy released in spark dis-

Mrtlmu-n ignition energy

F1o.2 I GNITION E NERGY AS A FUNCTION OF F LAMMABLE MATERIALCONCENTRATION IN AIR

-SECTION 2 ELECTROSTATIC HAZARDS AND THEIR CONTROL

10 ELECTROSTATICS IN LIQUIDS For practical purposes the pipe can be considered

-10.3.3.3 Ionifation generation is usually difficult to predict. Electrifica-

11.2 Charge Generation In practice, low resistivity powders are rarely

(al Isolated sheet

lb) Sheet with adjacent earthed metal at rear

14.3 Precautions Against Static Electricity 14.3.2 Discharges from Clothing

SECTION 3 EARTHING AND BONDING

15 EARTHING AND BONDING ignition energy of any flammable material pre-

Table 4 Summary of Recommended Earthing Resistances for the Control of

SECTION 4 ~METHODS OF MEASURING OR ESTIMATING VARIOUS PARAMETERS

16 GUIDANCE ON METHODS FOR These requirements impose limits on the applied

inner elect rode

i #N?w Bcit. brass

&J---- coax plug

Screw cap, brass

All dimensions in millimetres; scale 1 : 1.

FIG, 4 M AIN F EATURES OF LIQUID CONDUCTIVITY CELL D ESIGN

Allow some time for any charge on the 16.2.3 Apparatus

In the electrometer circuit of Fig. 7, apply should be taken.

FIG. 6 M AIN FEATURES OF POWDER RESISTIVITY CELL DESIGN

FIG. 7 A RRANGEMENT OF E QUIPMENT FOR THE M EASUREMENT OF RESISTIVITY OF P OWDER

16.3.4 Procedure b) From current measurement - The mass charge

16.4.3 Procedure only in the absence of conductors which would

Chargei sheet Earded metal.

16.4.3.4 Measurement of potentials b) S’ace charge potential - For a large vessel

Low sensitivity to Ignition. Earth plant when ignition energy is at

Consider earthlng personnel when ignition energy IS at oi below

The majority-of ignition incidents occur wherl tynition energy is

High sensltlvity to Ignltlon. Consider restrictlons on the use of

Extremely sensitive to ignition. Precautions shouki be as for

F I G. 15 M E A S U R E M E N T ~OF RESISTANCE TO EARTH

The earth corm ection should be a buried elec- where

FICL 16 T YPICAL B ASIC C IRCUIT FOR P ERSONNEL R ESISTANCE M ONITOR

Fabric udder test

Sect ion AA-

All dimensions in millimetres.

SECTION 5 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PARTICULAR INDUSTRIAL LOCATIONS

17.6 Tank Cleaning is increased risk outside the tank if it is situated

22 NON-METALLIC ROAD/RAIL TANKS hazards additional to those existing for metal

Most of the techniques can give rise to electro- 29 AIRCRAFT FUELLING

where An ignition hazard is created when chaxge is

conducting footwear should only be used where it 44 HAZARD8 FROM CLOTHING

COMPOSlTION OF ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS SECTIONAL COMMITTEE, ETDC 20~

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