Digital Security and Forensics

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VE-1

Cryptography
 Topic & Structure of The Lesson

• Cryptographic Techniques
– Symmetric
– Asymmetric
– Hash function

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 Learning Outcomes

• At the end of this topic, you should be able to

– Differentiate three main cryptographic techniques

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 Key Terms You Must Be Able To Use

• If you have mastered this topic, you should be able to use the
following terms correctly in your assignments and exams:
– Cryptographic Techniques
• Symmetric
• Asymmetric
• Hash function

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 Secure Systems

1. Security policy 3. Security mechanisms

– What needs to be protected – Cryptography
– Kinds/level of protection – Authentication
– Responsibilities – Security protocols
– Auditing policy
2. Security environment 4. Monitoring and auditing
– Physical environment procedures
– Physical security – Monitor access
– Hardware, operating system – Audit trails
– Firewalls, etc. – Feedback on failures, security
breaches
– Containment & recovery

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Cryptography Concepts
 Cryptography

Latin

Cryptography Crypt secret

Graphia writing

And when you need a shoulder to cry on
When you need a friend to rely on
When the whole world is gone
You won't be alone, cause I'll be there
I'll be your shoulder to cry on
And when you need a shoulder to cry on
When you need a friend to rely on
When the whole world is gone
You won't be alone, cause I'll be there
I'll be your shoulder to cry on

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 Cryptography

• Concerned with developing algorithms:

- Verify the correctness of a message to the recipient

(authentication)

- Form the basis of many technological solutions to computer

and communications security problems

cryptography - study of encryption principles/methods

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 Goals & Setting

• To ensure the security of communication across

an insecure channel.

• The ideal channel:

Adversary (Attacker) The source of all
possible threats

Dedicated, untappable, impenetrable

Pipe/tube
Sender Receiver

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 Basic Terminology

• Plaintext - the original message

• Ciphertext - the coded message
• Cipher - algorithm for transforming plaintext to ciphertext
• Key - info used in cipher known only to sender/receiver
• Encipher (encrypt) - converting plaintext to ciphertext
• Decipher (decrypt) - recovering ciphertext to plaintext
• Cryptography – a study of encryption principles/methods
• Cryptanalysis (codebreaking) - the study of principles/ methods of
deciphering ciphertext without knowing key
• Cryptology - the field of both cryptography and cryptanalysis
• Steganography – the technique of hiding data within an ordinary,
non-secret data or file

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 Simple Process

Sender Receiver

Plaintext - The original Message Plaintext - The original Message

The secret message is: The secret message is:
You can get A-/A+ in This subject; You can get A-/A+ in This subject;
(however, depending on you) (however, depending on you)

Decipher
Encipher Key (Decrypt)
(Encrypt) Encryption info used in cipher known Decryption recovering
converting only to sender/receiver ciphertext to
plaintext to plaintext
ciphertext

Cipher
hjfjghkf@#@#$%^&jklll
Algorithm for transforming 098GHJFD!@#$#$#$%
plaintext to ciphertext Ciphertext
The coded message
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 Categories of cryptography

• conventional / private-key / single-key
• sender and recipient share a common key
• all classical encryption algorithms are
private-key
• uses two keys – a public & a private key
• asymmetric since parties are not equal
• uses clever application of number theoretic
concepts to function
• complements rather than replaces private
key crypto

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Information Protection by
Cryptography
 Cryptography and Security
Characteristic Description Protection
Encrypted information can only be
Ensures that only authorized
Confidentiality viewed by those who have been
parties can view the information.
provided the key.
Ensures that the information is
Encrypted information cannot be
correct and no unauthorized
Integrity changed except by authorized
person or malicious software has
users who have the key.
altered that data.
Authorized users are provided the
Ensures that data is accessible to
Availability decryption key to access the
authorized users.
information.
Cryptography can prove that the
Provides proof of the genuineness
Authenticity sender was legitimate and not an
of the users.
imposter.
Cryptography non-repudiation
Proves that a user performed an prevents an individual from
Non-repudiation
action. fraudulently denying they were
involved in a transaction.

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Symmetric Encryption
 Symmetric Encryption
❑ conventional / secret-key / single-key
❑ sender and recipient share a common key
❑ all encryption algorithms are private-key
❑ 2 Techniques: Classical & Modern

Classical Techniques Modern Techniques

• Substitution: • DES
➢Caesar Cipher • 3DES
➢ Monalphabatic Cipher • AES
➢ Playfair Cipher • Blowfish
➢ Hill Cipher • Serpent
➢ Polyalphabetic Cipher • Twofish
➢ One-Time Pad

• Transposition
• Rotor Machines

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 Symmetric Cipher Model

A secret key shared by A secret key shared by

Sender and recipient Sender and recipient

Sender Receiver
The secret
The secret
message is:
message is: Transmitted You can get A-
You can get A- Ciphertext /A+ in This
/A+ in This
Encryption Decryption subject;
subject;
(however,
(however,
depending on
depending on
Decryption Algorithm you)
you) Encryption Algorithm
(e.g., DES) (Reverse of encryption Plaintext
Plaintext
algorithm) Output
Input

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 Requirements

• two requirements for secure use of symmetric encryption:

– a strong encryption algorithm
– a secret key known only to sender/receiver, have:
• plaintext X
• ciphertext Y
• key K
• encryption algorithm Ek
• decryption algorithm Dk

– Ciphertext Y = EK(X) Plaintext X = DK(Y)

• assume encryption algorithm is known

• implies a secure channel to distribute key

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What are the essential
ingredients of a symmetric
cipher?

ⓘ Start presenting to display the poll results on this slide.

 How many keys are
required for two people to
communicate via a
cipher?

ⓘ Start presenting to display the poll results on this slide.

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 Explanation of Symmetric Encryption
Techniques

Symmetric Encryption

Classical Technique Modern Technique

Stream cipher Block cipher

• Substitution • DES
• Transposition • 3DES
• Rotor Machines • AES
• Steganography • Blowfish
• Serpent
• Twofish

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Stream Cipher
 Stream Cipher Structure

• A typical stream cipher encrypts plaintext one byte at a time.

• Use a key as input to a pseudorandom bit generator that produces a
stream of 8-bit numbers that are apparently random.
• Pseudorandom stream is one that is unpredictable without knowledge of
the input key.

Key K Key K

Pseudorandom byte Pseudorandom byte

Generator Generator
(key stream generator) (key stream generator)

K K
Ciphertext Plaintext
Plaintext
Byte stream
M
+ Byte stream
C
+ Byte stream
M
Encryption Decryption

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 Stream Cipher Structure

The output of the generator, called a keystream, is combined one byte at a time
with the plaintext stream using the bitwise exclusive-OR (XOR) operation.

11001100 Plaintext

+ 01101100 key stream

10100000 Ciphertext

Decryption requires the use of the same pseudorandom sequence:

10100000 Ciphertext

+ 01101100 key stream

11001100 Plaintext

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 Examples of Classical Technique
Substitutions are effective cryptographic devices. In fact, they
were the basis of many cryptographic algorithms used for
diplomatic communication through the first half of the century.
1 Substitution
But substitution is not the only kind of encryption technique.
The goal of substitution is confusion; the encryption method is
an attempt to make it difficult for a cryptanalyst or intruder to
determine how a message and key were transformed into
ciphertext.

A transposition is an encryption in which the letters of the

message are rearranged. With transposition, cryptography aims
2 Transposition for diffusion, widely spreading the information from the
message or key across the ciphertext. Transpositions try to break
established patterns. Because a transposition is rearranged of
the symbols of a message, it is also known as a permutation.

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 1. Substitution (Caesar Cipher)

• where letters of plaintext are replaced by other letters or by

numbers or symbols.

• or if plaintext is viewed as a sequence of bits, then substitution

involves replacing plaintext bit patterns with ciphertext bit
patterns.

• earliest known substitution cipher by Julius Caesar

• first attested use in military affairs

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 Caesar Cipher

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 To test your understanding

Caesar wants to arrange a secret meeting with Marc

Anthony, either at the Tiber (the river) or at the Coliseum
(the arena). He sends the ciphertext EVIRE. However,
Anthony does not know the key, so he tries all possibilities.
Where will he meet Caesar?

Among the shifts of EVIRE, there are two words: arena

and river. Therefore, Anthony cannot determine where to
meet Caesar.

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 Cryptanalysis of Caesar Cipher

• only have 26 possible ciphers

– A maps to A, B,..Z
• could simply try each in turn
• a brute force search
• given ciphertext, just try all shifts of letters
• do need to recognize when to have plaintext

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 2. Transposition Ciphers

• now consider classical transposition or permutation ciphers

• these hide the message by rearranging the letter order
• without altering the actual letters used
• can recognise these since have the same frequency distribution
as the original text

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 Rail Fence cipher
write message letters out diagonally over a few rows
then read off cipher row by row
e.g., write the message out as: “meet me after the toga party”

m e m a t r h t g p r y
e t e f e t e o a a t

giving ciphertext: MEMATRHTGPRYETEFETEOAAT

1st Row m e m a t r h t g p r y
2nd Row e t e f e t e o a a t

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 Row Transposition Ciphers

• a more complex scheme is to write the message in a rectangle, row by row, and read the
message off, column by column, but permute the order of the columns. The order of the
columns then becomes the key of the algorithm.
• write letters of message out in rows over a specified number of columns.
• then reorder the columns according to some key before reading off the rows.

attack postponed until two am xyz

Key 4 3 1 2 5 6 7

Plaintext a t t a c k p

o s t p o n e

d u n t i l t

w o a m x y z

Ciphertext T T N A A P T M T S U O A O DW C O I X K N L Y P E T Z

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 Row Transposition Ciphers
Let’s try!
• KEY - LOVES
• PLAINTEXT – TOO SLEEPY
• CIPHERTEXT - SYTEOELOP
Key L O V E S
Number arrangement 2 3 5 1 4
Plaintext T O O S L

E E P Y

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 Product Ciphers

• Ciphers using substitutions or transpositions are not secure

because of language characteristics
• Hence consider using several ciphers in succession to make it
harder, but:
– two substitutions make a more complex substitution
– two transpositions make more complex transposition
– but a substitution followed by a transposition makes a new much harder cipher
• this is bridge from classical to modern ciphers

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Block Ciphers
 Block Ciphers

• A block cipher is one in which a block of plaintext is treated as a

whole and used to produce a ciphertext block of equal length.

• Typically, a block size of 64 or 128 bits is used.

• Block cipher algorithms can operate in many Modes. A block cipher

algorithm can be a :
✓ Electronic Codebook Mode
✓ Cipher block Chaining Mode
✓ Cipher Feedback Mode
✓ Output Feedback Mode
✓ Counter Mode

• provide secrecy and/or authentication services

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 Block Cipher Design
• Divide input bit stream into n-bit sections, encrypt only that section,
no dependency/history between sections
• In a good block cipher, each output bit is a function of all n input bits
and all k key bits

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Public-key Cryptography
 Private-Key Cryptography Definition

• Public-key/two-key/asymmetric cryptography involves the use

of two keys:
– a public-key, which may be known by anybody, and can be used to encrypt
messages, and verify signatures
– a private-key, known only to the recipient, used to decrypt messages, and sign
(create) signatures

• Asymmetric because
– those who encrypt messages or verify signatures cannot decrypt messages or
create signatures

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 Private-Key Cryptography - Concept

• Allows users to communicate securely without having prior

access to a shared secret key,
– by using a pair of cryptographic keys, designated
• as public key and
• private key, which are related mathematically.

• The private key is generally kept secret, while the public key
may be widely distributed.
• In a sense, one key "locks" a lock; while the other is required to
unlock it. It should not be possible to deduce the private key of
a pair given the public key.

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 Public-Key Basic Concept

Alice Message (M) Message (M)

Ciphertext Bob
Plaintext Plaintext
Man needs 123456696 Man needs
Woman, 096785403 Woman,
Woman 657849302 Woman
Needs 610395867 Needs
Money for 567484509 Money for
shopping 121212347 shopping

Message is encrypted Message is decrypted

EB DB

Bob’s Public Key (EB) Bob’s Private Key (DB)

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 Public-Key Basic Concept

Alice Message (M) Message (M) Bob

Plaintext Ciphertext Plaintext
Man needs 123456696 Man needs
Woman, 096785403 Woman,
Woman 657849302 Woman
Needs 610395867 Needs
Money for 567484509 Money for
shopping 121212347 shopping

Message is encrypted Message is decrypted

EB DB

Confidentiality

• This model provides no authentication because any party

could also use Bob’s “public key” to encrypt Message (M)

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 Private-Key Cryptography

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 Public-Key Cryptography Options
There are many forms of public-key cryptography, including:

1. Public-key encryption — keeping a message secret from anyone that does not
possess a specific private key.

2. Public-key digital signature — allowing anyone to verify that a message was

created with a specific private key.

3. key agreement — generally, allowing two parties that may not initially share a
secret key to agree on one.

The most obvious application of a public key encryption system is confidentiality; a

message that a sender encrypts using the recipient's public key can only be decrypted by
the recipient's paired private key.

Public-key digital signature algorithms can be used for sender authentication. For instance,
a user can encrypt a message with his own private key and send it. If another user can
successfully decrypt it using the corresponding public key, this provides assurance that the
first user (and no other) sent it.
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 To Provide Authentication & Signature

Alice Message (M) Message (M)

Ciphertext Bob
Plaintext Plaintext
Man needs 123456696 Man needs
Woman, 096785403 Woman,
Woman 657849302 Woman
Needs 610395867 Needs
Money for 567484509 Money for
shopping 121212347 shopping
E D

Message is encrypted Message is decrypted

EA DA
Alice use her private key Bob user Alice’s public key
Alice has “signed” the message

• This model does provide authentication and digital signature

• But, this scheme not provide confidentiality, because anyone
has Alice’s public key can decrypt the ciphertext.

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 To Provide Confidentiality, Authentication and Signature

Alice Message (M) Message (M)

Ciphertext Bob
Plaintext Plaintext
Man needs 123456696 123456696 123456696 Man needs
Woman, 096785403 096785403 096785403 Woman,
Woman 657849302 657849302 657849302 Woman
Needs 610395867 610395867 610395867 Needs
Money for 567484509 567484509 567484509 Money for
shopping 121212347 121212347 121212347 shopping
E E D D
Message is encrypted Message is encrypted Message is decrypted Message is decrypted

EA EB DB DA
Alice use Alice use Bob use Bob use
her private key Bob’s public key his private key Alice’s public key

Digital Signature Confidentiality

&
Authentication
•Bottleneck: The public-key algorithm is complex and must be exercised
four times rather than two in each communication
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 Why Public-Key Cryptography?

• developed to address two key issues:

– key distribution – how to have secure communications in general without having
to trust a shared secret key
– digital signatures – how to verify a message comes intact from the claimed
sender

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 Public-Key Applications

• can classify uses into 3 categories:

– encryption/decryption (provide secrecy)
– digital signatures (provide authentication)
– key exchange (of session keys)
• some algorithms are suitable for all uses, others are specific to
one

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 Example of Public-Key Cryptographic Techniques

1) Well-regarded public-key techniques include:

• Diffie-Hellman
• RSA encryption algorithm
• ElGamal
• DSS (Digital Signature Standard), which incorporates the
Digital Signature Algorithm.
• Various Elliptic Curve techniques
• Various Password-authenticated key agreement techniques
• Paillier cryptosystem

2) Protocols using asymmetric key algorithms include:

• PGP – Pretty Good Privacy
• GNU Privacy Guard (GPG) an implementation of OpenPGP
• Secure Shell (SSH)
• SSL now implemented as an IETF standard;
Trasnsport Layer Security (TLS)

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Hash Function
 Hash Functions
Can use for encryption, authentication and
digital signature.

• Hash function accepts a variable-size

message M as input and produces a fixed-
size output, referred to as a hash code H(M).
• A Hash Function produces a fingerprint of
some file/message/data

h = H(M)

▪ condenses a variable-length message

M
▪ to a fixed-sized fingerprint

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 Activity

Hash functions produce a fixed-size output

• Certutil supports the following cryptographic hash functions: MD2,

MD4, MD5, SHA1, SHA256, SHA384, SHA512.

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 Hash Functions

• Hash code does not use a key

• Function only of the input message (One-way function)
• Also referred to as a message digest or hash value
• The hash code is a function of all the bits of the message
and provides an error-detection capability
– A change to any bit or bits in the message results in a
change to the hash code.

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 Activity

Hash is a one-way function – prove it!

https://crackstation.net/
http://onlinemd5.com/
https://www.openwall.com/john/

• Hash common password (google search common password list)

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 Hash Function Properties

• Assumed to be public
• Provides integrity (error checking/checksum)
• Provides authenticity (digital signature)
• Provides security (to store sensitive data in d/b)

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 Activity

Hash functions provide integrity

1. Create a text file – save it and calculate the hash value.

2. Open the saved file, add space, save the file, calculate the hash value
and compare.

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 A Practical Use of Hash Algorithm

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 A Practical Use of Hash Algorithm
Hashed value
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459384502392 = 123456 hashed 123456

PIN entered on keypad

Use Hashing Algorithm

The hash value is based on algorithm

Haval MD2 MD4 MD5

SHA Hash Functions (SHA-1, SHA-2)

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 List of Cryptographic Hash Function

Haval RIPEMD-160

MD2 SHA Hash Functions

(SHA-0, SHA-1, SHA-2)

MD4 Snefru

MD5 Tiger

N-Hash Whirlpool

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Steganography
 Steganography

• Steganography is the technique of hiding secret data within an

ordinary, non-secret, file or message in order to avoid detection;
the secret data is then extracted at its destination.
• The use of steganography can be combined with encryption as
an extra step for hiding or protecting the data.

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 Quick Review Question

• Explain how cryptography is used as security mechanisms.

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 Summary of Main Teaching Points

• Cryptographic Techniques
– Symmetric
– Asymmetric
– Hash function

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 Q&A

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