EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
education.
LESSON 1: AN INTRODUCTION TO
EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
An overview of the field of educational
psychology including research in the field.
Theories in educational psychology and their
application in the classroom are discussed. The
analysis of classroom problems and the design of
teaching-learning interventions are tacked using
the practitioner-researcher approach.
MEANING & HISTORICAL
BACKGROUND OF PSYCHOLOGY
➢ The word psychology is derived from Greek
word psycho & logos. ‘Psycho’ means “soul”
and ‘logos’ means “science”. The science of
soul.
➢ First Stage: Psychology was defined as the
“study of the soul”
➢ Second Stage: It was again defined as the
“study of the mind”
➢ Third Stage: Again, it was defined by
William James (1890) as the “Study of
Consciousness”
➢ Fourth Stage: “Study of total Behavior”
(consciousness and unconsciousness).
➢ It is scientific because it is systematic study
of observable events/behavior and behavior
is unlearned process where in include
reflexes, physiological process and instincts
and it is learned behavior also because all
behavior acquires through practice.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
➢ WILLIAM JAMES (1842-1910) – Soon
after launching the First Psychology
Textbook, Principles of Psychology (1890),
he gave a series of lectures called Talks to
Teachers in which he discussed the
applications of psychology to educating
children.
➢ For James, laboratory psychology
experiments often can’t tell us how to
effectively teach children. He argued for the
importance of observing teaching and
learning in classrooms for improving
JOHN DEWEY (1859-1952)
➢ Dewey established the first major educational
psychology laboratory in the United States at
the university of Chicago in 1894.
According to John Dewey:
➢ The child is an active learner; children learn
best by doing.
➢ Education should focus on the whole child
and emphasize the child’s adaptation to the
environment. Hence, children should learn
how to be reflective problem solvers.
➢ Children deserve to have competent
education; Dewey was one of the influential
psychologists- educators who pushed for a
competent education for all children- girls
and boys as we children from different
socioeconomic and ethnic groups.
E.L. THORNDIKE (1874-1949)
➢ Edward Lee Thorndike initiated an emphasis
on assessment and measurement and
promoted the scientific underpinnings of
learning.
➢ He argued that one of schooling’s most
important tasks is to hone chine’s reasoning
skills, and he excelled at doing exacting
scientific studies of teaching and learning.
➢ Thorndike especially promoted the idea that
educational psychology must have a
scientific base and that is should focus
strongly on measurement.
WHAT IS EDUCATION?
➢ Education act or experience that has a
formative effect on the mind, character, or
physical ability of an individual.
➢ A process by which society, through schools
Colleges, Universities, and other institutions,
deliberately transmits its cultural heritage – it
accumulates knowledge, values, and skills
from one generation to another.
➢ Formalization of the “teaching” and
“learning processes”, which is being carried
out in schools, Colleges and Universities.
OTHER DEFINITIONS
➢ HERMAN HORNE, an idealist: ‘Education
is the external process of superior adjustment
of the physically and mentally developed,
free, conscious, human being of God, as
manifested in the intellectual, emotional and
volitional environment of man.” relating to
the use of one's will. "acceptance is a
volitional act“.
➢ JOHN DEWEY, a pragmatist: Education is
a process of continuous reconstruction of
experience with the purpose of widening and
deepening its social content, while at the
same time, the individual gains control of the
methods involved.”
➢ Pope Pius XI: “Education consists
essentially in preparing man for what he must
be and for what he must do here below in
order to attain the sublime end for which he
was created. The subject of education is man;
whole and entire, soul united to body in unity
of nature, will all his faculties, natural and
supernatural, such as right reason and
revelation show him to be.”
As a process Education is the act of educating or
teaching someone and/or oneself.
EDUCATION is what we received through
learning- the knowledge, ideals and the
techniques that we are taught.
PSYCHOLOGY – the science or scientific study
of the behavior of living organisms with special
attention to human behavior
SCIENCE - systematized body of knowledge
based on truths and facts.
BEHAVIOR – reaction or responses to stimuli,
which includes:
✓ Overt or covert
✓ Rational or irrational
✓ Voluntary or involuntary
✓ Conscious and unconscious
WILHELM WUNDT (1832-1920)
➢ Often regarded as the “Father of
Psychology,” Wilhelm Wundt opened the
Institute for Experimental Psychology at the
University of Leipzig in Germany in 1879.
This was the first laboratory dedicated to
Psychology, and its opening is usually
thought of as the beginning of modern
psychology.
RENE DESCARTES (1596-1650)
➢ The “Father of Modern Philosophy,”
Descartes suggested that whereas the mind is
the source of ideas and thoughts (which he
correctly located in the brain), the body is a
machine- like structure to be studied and
understood.
➢ Descartes believed in both nativism and
rationalism. A nativist believes that all
knowledge is innate or inborn, whereas a
rationalist believes that to gain knowledges
one rationalizes or discovers the truth through
experience and the operation of the mind.
➢ Descartes struggles to rationalize his own
existence, trying to prove that he was real (in
a Philosophical way). His answer to the
problem was to suggest” Cognito, ergo sum”
meaning I think therefore I am.”
WHAT IS EDUCATIONAL
PSYCHOLOGY?
➢ Educational Psychology is the branch of
Psychology that specializes in understanding
teaching and learning in educational settings.
➢ Crow and Crow put it as: “Educational
Psychology describes and explains the
learning experience of an individual from
birth through old age”. (1973) • According to
Peel: “Educational Psychology is the science
of education. (1956)
➢ “Educational Psychology is the branch of
psychology which deals with teaching and
learning (by: Skinner)
➢ Trow- ''Educational psychology is the study
of the psychological aspect of educational
situations."
➢ WALTER B KOLESNIK ''Educational
psychology is the study of those facts and
principles of psychology which helps to
explain and improve the process of
education.'' Judd- ''Educational Psychology is
the science which explains the changes that
take place in the individual as they pass
through the various stages of development."
LINKING EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
AND TEACHING
➢ William James” talks to Teachers about
Psychology
➢ G. Stanley Hall – First President of APA
American Psychological Association
➢ John Dewey Father of the progressive
Education movement
➢ E.L. Thorndike Journal of Educational
Psychology
EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY WITH
REGARD TO TEACHING & LEARNING
➢ To Know the learner
➢ To select and organize the subject-matter or
learning experiences
➢ To suggest art and techniques of learning as
well as teaching
➢ To arrange learning situation or environment
➢ To acquaint him with the mechanism of
heredity and environment
➢ Helping in maintaining discipline
➢ Rendering guidance services
➢ Helping in evaluation and assessment
➢ Solving classroom problems
➢ Knowing about himself
➢ Motivation for Teaching and Learning
➢ Knowledge about group study and group
behavior
➢ All-round development personality
EDUCATION AND EDUCATIONAL
PSYCHOLOGY
➢ Education by all means, is an attempt to mold
and shape the behavior of students. Its aims
to produce desirable changes in them for all-
round development of their personalities.
NATURE OF EDUCATIONAL
PSYCHOLOGY
➢ Its nature is scientific since it has been
accepted that it is a science of education.
➢ The relationship between education and
education psychology also throws light on its
nature.
SCOPE OF EDUCATIONAL
PSYCHOLOGY
✓ Learning Experiences
✓ Learner or pupil
✓ Teacher Learning situation and
environment
✓ Learning processes
FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATIONAL
PSYCHOLOGY
➢ First Function - To afford a thorough
knowledge of the nature of the child
➢ Second function - To provide an
understanding of the nature, aims, and
purposes of education.
➢ Third Function - To acquire familiarity with
the technical vocabulary and to further an
understanding and an appreciation of the
scientific procedures by which the data of
educational psychology are obtained.
➢ Fourth Function - To provide a significant
knowledge of developmental process with
particular emphasis upon the promotion,
guidance and control of mental and moral
aspects.
➢ Fifth Function - To provide an
understanding of the principles governing
learning, together with a knowledge of the
techniques for guiding improvement in
learning and their application to the practical
problems in the classroom.
➢ Sixth Function - To present the theories
underlying the measurement and evaluation
of mental abilities, aptitudes, achievements,
interest and personality organization.
➢ Seventh Function - To present the principles
and conclusions regarding the prevention of
all types of maladjustments together with the
approved practices for achieving satisfactory
adjustments.
➢ Eight Functions - “Culminating Function” -
To inculcate prospective teacher the
realization that the most essential purpose.
TEACHERS MAKE A DIFFERENCE
Several studies speak to the power of teachers in
the lives of students.
➢ The first found that the quality of the teacher–
student relationship in kindergarten predicted
several aspects of school success through the
eighth grade.
➢ The second study found similar results for
students from preschool through fifth grade,
a finding confirmed by almost 100 students
in countries around the world.
➢ The third study examined math achievement
for students.
Again, the quality of the teacher made a
difference to close the achievement gap: higher-
level (not just basic skills) instruction and
positive relationships with teachers.
GOOD TEACHERS
➢ Good teachers are committed to their
students. They must deal with a wide range of
student abilities and challenges: different
languages, different home situations, and
different abilities and disabilities. They must
adapt instruction and assessment to students’
needs. The whole time that these experts are
navigating through the academic material,
they also are taking care of the emotional
needs of their students, propping up sagging
self-esteem, and encouraging responsibility.
From the first day of class, they carefully plan
and teach the basic procedures for living and
learning in their classes.
RESEARCH METHODS IN
EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGy
➢ Correlational methods identify
relationships and allow predictions.
➢ A correlation is a number that indicates both
the strength and the direction of a relationship
between two events or measurements. The
closer the correlation is to either 1.00 or –
1.00, the stronger the relationship.
➢ Experimental studies allow researchers to
detect causes, not just make predictions.
➢ Experimental studies should help teachers
implement useful changes. Instead of just
observing and describing an existing
situation, the investigators introduce changes
and note the results.
➢ Quasi-experimental studies meet most of
the criteria for true experiments, with the
important exception being that the
participants are not assigned to groups at
random.
➢ Instead, existing groups such as classes or
schools participate in the experiments. In
single-subject experimental designs,
researchers examine the effects of treatments
on one person, often by using a
baseline/intervention/ baseline/intervention,
or ABAB, approach.
➢ Clinical interviews, case studies, and
ethnographies look in detail at the
experiences of a few individuals or groups. If
participants are studied over time, the
research is called longitudinal.
➢ If researchers intensively study cognitive
processes in the
➢ midst of change—as the change is actually
happening—over several sessions or weeks,
then the research is micro genetic. No matter
what method is used, results from the
research are used to further develop and
improve theories, so that even better
hypotheses and questions can be developed to
guide future research.
A PRINCIPLE is an established relationship
between two or more —between a certain
teaching strategy, for example, and student
achievement.
A THEORY is an interrelated set of concepts that
is used to explain a body of data and to make
predictions.
THE PRINCIPLES FROM RESEARCH
➢ The principles from research offer a number
of possible answers to specific problems, and
the theories offer perspectives for analyzing
almost any situation that may arise.
➢ Research is a continuing cycle that involves
clear specification of hypotheses or questions
based on good theory, systematic gathering
and analyzing of data, modification and
improvement of explanatory theories based
on the results, and the formulation of new,
better questions based on the improved
theories.
LESSON 2: STUDENT'S COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT EDUCATIONAL
PSYCHOLOGY
Development in its most general psychological
sense refers to certain changes that occur in
human beings (or animals) between conception
and death.
Human development can be divided into:
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT (changes in the
body),
PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT (changes in an
individual’s personality),
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT (changes in the
way an individual relates to others), and
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT (changes in
thinking).
➢ Changes during development are simply
matters of growth and maturation.
➢ Maturation refers to changes that occur
naturally and spontaneously and that are, to a
large extent, genetically programmed. Such
changes emerge over time and are relatively
unaffected by environment, except in cases of
malnutrition or severe illness. cognitive
development (changes in thinking).
• NATURE of an individual (heredity, genes,
biological processes, maturation, etc.)
• NURTURE of environmental contexts
(education, parenting, culture, social policies,
etc.)
• A CRITICAL PERIOD is a maturational
stage in the lifespan of an organism during
which the nervous system is especially
sensitive to certain environmental stimuli.
"The ability to acquire one's first language.
• The SENSITIVE PERIOD refers to the
notion that the effects of environmental
stimuli on the developing organism are
stronger during certain periods of
development.
• A CONTINUOUS PROCESS would be like
gradual improvement in your running
endurance through systematic exercise.
• A DISCONTINUOUS CHANGE (also
called qualitative) would be like many of the
changes in humans during puberty, such as
the ability to reproduce—an entirely different
ability. Qualitative changes are contrasted
with purely quantitative change, such as the
adolescent growing taller.
THE BRAIN AND COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT
CEREBELLUM coordinates and orchestrates
balance and smooth, skilled movements. The
cerebellum may also play a role in higher
cognitive functions such as learning. The
HIPPOCAMPUS is critical in recalling new
information and recent experiences, while the
AMYGDALA directs emotions. The
THALAMUS is involved in our ability to learn
new information.
The CORTEX is a crumpled sheet of neurons
that serves three major functions: receiving
signals from sense organs (such as visual or
auditory signals), controlling voluntary
movement, and forming connections. The part of
the cortex that controls physical motor movement
develops or matures first, then the areas that
control complex senses such as vision and
hearing, and last, the frontal lobe, which controls
higher-order thinking processes.
WHAT IS LATERALIZATION, AND WHY
IS IT IMPORTANT?
LATERALIZATION is the specialization of the
two sides, or hemispheres, of the brain. For most
people, the left hemisphere is the major factor in
language, and the right hemisphere is prominent
in spatial and visual processing. Even though
certain functions are associated with particular
parts of the brain, the various parts and systems
of the brain work together to learn and perform
complex activities such as reading and
constructing understanding.
AS CHILDREN MOVE FROM
SENSORIMOTOR TO FORMAL-
OPERATIONAL THINKING, WHAT ARE
THE MAJOR CHANGES?
Piaget believed that young people pass through
four stages as they develop: sensorimotor,
preoperational, concrete-operational, and formal-
operational. In the SENSORIMOTOR STAGE,
infants explore the world through their senses and
motor activity, and they work toward mastering
object permanence and performing goal- directed
activities. In the PREOPERATIONAL
STAGE, symbolic thinking and logical
operations begin. Children in the stage of
CONCRETE OPERATIONS can think
logically about tangible situations and can
demonstrate conservation, reversibility,
classification, and seriation. The ability to
perform hypothetico-deductive reasoning,
coordinate a set of variables, and imagine other
worlds marks the stage of formal operations.
• Piaget believed that children take an
active role in the learning process, acting
much like little scientists as they perform
experiments, make observations, and
learn about the world.
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT are the
changes that occur in children’s mental skills and
abilities over time. How children think, explore
and figure things out. It is the development of
knowledge, skills, problem solving and
dispositions, which help children to think about
and understand the world around them.
THE MAIN INFLUENCES ON COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT
Adaptation: how a child handles new
information from what they already know.
Assimilation: the process of taking in new
information into our existing cognitive structures.
Accommodation: is modifying ones cognitive
structures to include the new information
SCHEMES are the basic building blocks of
thinking. They are organized systems of actions
or thought that allow us to mentally represent or
“think about” the objects and events in our world.
Schemes may be very small and specific
(grasping, recognizing a square), or they may be
larger and more general (using a map in a new
city). People adapt to their environment as they
increase and organize their schemes.
LEV VYGOTSKY was a Russian psychologist
who is best known for his sociocultural theory.
He believed that social interaction plays a critical
role in children's learning. Through such social
interactions, children go through a continuous
process of learning.
• Asserts that learning is an essentially
social process in which the support of
parents, caregivers, peers and the wider
society and culture plays a crucial role in
the development of higher psychological
functions.
• Vygotsky believed that human activities
must be understood in their cultural
settings. He believed that our specific
mental structures and processes can be
traced to our interactions with others; that
the tools of the culture, especially the tool
of language, are key factors in
development; and that the ZPD is where
learning and development are possible.
PSYCHOLOGICAL TOOLS are signs and
symbol systems such as numbers and
mathematical systems, codes, and language that
support learning and cognitive development.
They change the thinking process by enabling and
shaping thinking. Many of these tools are passed
from adult to child through formal and informal
interactions and teachings.
HIGHER MENTAL PROCESSES appear first
between people as they are co- constructed during
shared activities. As children engage in activities
with adults or more capable peers, they exchange
ideas and ways of thinking about or representing
concepts. Children internalize these co-created
ideas. Children’s knowledge, ideas, attitudes, and
values develop through appropriating, or “taking
for themselves,” the ways of acting and thinking
provided by their culture and by the more capable
members of their group.
KEY TERMS
ADOLESCENT EGOCENTRISM describes
the tendency for adolescents to have differing
perceptions between what they believe others
think about them and what other people actually
think about them. Adolescents typically think
others are more aware and attentive of their
behavior and appearance than people actually are.
In learning, CO-CONSTRUCTION is a
distinctive approach where the emphasis is on
collaborative or partnership working.
ASSISTED LEARNING the acquisition of
knowledge and skill through active helping and
supporting among status equals or matched
companions.
COLLECTIVE MONOLOGUE, children’s
self-directed talk “egocentric speech.” Piaget
assumed that this egocentric speech is another
indication that young children can’t see the world
through the eyes of others, so they chat away
without taking into account the needs or interests
of their listeners.
DECENTERING (also known as Decentration)
refers to the ability to consider multiple aspects of
a situation. In Piaget's theory of cognitive
development, the third stage is called Concrete
Operational stage, where a child age 7-12 shows
increased use of logic.
DISEQUILIBRIUM, the inability to fit new
information into our schema. When you come
across information or experiences that do not fit
into your current knowledge base, this is where
disequilibrium begins.
OBJECT PERMANENCE knowing that an
object still exists, even if it is hidden.
BRAIN PLASTICITY, also known as
neuroplasticity, is the brain's ability to change as
a result of experience.
REVERSIBILITY - The child learns that some
things that have been changed can be returned to
their original state.
REVERSIBLE THINKING is the ability
people have to be reason things in different
directions.
INSTRUCTIONAL SCAFFOLDING, also
known as "Vygotsky scaffolding" or just
"scaffolding," is a teaching method that helps
students learn more by working with a teacher or
a more advanced student to achieve their learning
goals.
ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT"
OR ZPD -The ZPD is the set of skills or
knowledge a student can't do on her own but can
do with the help or guidance of someone else. It's
the skill level just above where the student
currently is.
In Piaget's theory of cognitive development, the
third stage is called the Concrete Operational
Stage. One of the important processes that
develops is that of SERIATION, which refers to
the ability to sort objects or situations according
to any characteristic, such as size, color, shape, or
type.
EQUILIBRATION is a concept developed by
Piaget that describes the cognitive balancing of
new information with old knowledge. This is a
major component of Piaget's theory of childhood
cognitive development.
CONSERVATION is the understanding that
something stays the same in quantity even though
its appearance changes. To be more technical
conservation is the ability to understand that
redistributing material does not affect its mass,
number, volume or length.
REMEMBER
➢ Cognitive development requires both
physical and social stimulation.
➢ To develop thinking, children have to be
mentally, physically, and linguistically
active. They need to experiment, talk,
describe, reflect, write, and solve problems.
But they also benefit from teaching,
guidance, questions, explanations,
demonstrations, and challenges to their
thinking.
➢ Teaching students what they already know is
boring. Trying to teach what the student isn’t
ready to learn is frustrating and ineffective.
➢ Challenge with support will keep students
engaged but not fearful.
LESSON 3: THE SELF, SOCIAL AND
MORAL DEVELOPMENT
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
Describe the changes in physical development of
children in the preschool, elementary, and
secondary grades. During the preschool years,
there is rapid development of children’s gross-
and fine-motor skills. Physical development
continues throughout the elementary school
years, with girls often ahead of boys in size. With
adolescence comes puberty and emotional
struggles to cope with all the related changes.
MARIA MONTESSORI
“play is a children’s work”
➢ Vygotsky and Piaget also agreed that play is
essential for development
➢ Play contributes to the cognitive, physical,
social, and emotional wellbeing of children
and youth.
Cultural difference in play
➢ there are culture difference in play
➢ adults are not seen as appropriate play
partners for children
EXERCISE AND RECESS
Phillip Tomporowski concluded "systematic
exercise programs may actually enhance the
development of specific types of mental
processing known to be important for meeting
challenges encountered both in academics and
throughout the lifespan." Physical Activity and
Students With Disabilities
o concern for physical activity for children is
because of obesity
WHAT IS THE ROLE OF RECESS AND
PHYSICAL ACTIVITY IN
DEVELOPMENT?
➢ Play supports brain development, language,
and social development. Children release
tensions, learn to solve problems, adapt to
new situations, cooperate, and negotiate. The
increase in childhood obesity is linked to
inactivity and increased time spent watching
TV and playing passive games such as video
and Internet games.
CHALLENGES IN PHYSICAL
DEVELOPMENT
➢ physical development has psychological
consequences
➢ because physical development is "public" , it
is as if everyone is evaluating you.
Obesity
➢ obesity rates increase consequences: health -
diabetes, bones and joints, respiratory
problem, social - target for cruel teasing
EATING DISORDERS
➢ Bulimia (excessive eating, followed by
excessive exercise, purging or fasting)
➢ Anorexia nervosa (self-starving)
➢ Anorexic people encounter health problems,
they often are depressed, insecure, moody,
and lonely
➢ DSM5 added binge eating as a disorder
(recurring episode of eating more food in
short period of time partnered with feelings
of lack of self-control)
➢ Eating disorders are sometimes encourage
and supported by pro-ano (pro-anorexia
nervosa) and pro-ima (pro-bulimia)
URIE BRONFENBRENNER: THE SOCIAL
CONTEXT FOR DEVELOPMENT
➢ Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model
development recognizes that physical and
social contexts in which we develop are
ecosystems because they are constantly
interacting with and influencing each other.
➢ Microecosystem, inside of mesosystem,
embedded in exosystem, all of which are part
of macrosystem. Development also
influenced by chronosystem (time period)
➢ Micro: person’s immediate relationship,
(reciprocal and relationship);
➢ Mesosystem: set of interactions and
relationships among all the element;
➢ Exosystem: includes all social setting
through the individual is not a direct member
of these systems;
➢ Macrosystem: larger society
FAMILIES
➢ The influence of family begins before birth
(mother’s womb as first environment for
child’s development)
FAMILY STRUCTURE
➢ Blended families: children today are part of
this family structure, with stepbrothers or
sisters
➢ Extended families: filipinos, with
grandparents, aunts and other living in the
small household
➢ Students do not learn alone but with with
company(teachers, peers, etc)
➢ These people are part of the person's context
➢ Context - total situation that surrounds and
interacts with an individual's thoughts,
feelings, and actions to shape development
learning
➢ context influence the development of
behaviors, beliefs and knowledge by
providing resources, supports, incentives,
and punishments, expectations, teachers,
models, tools - all building blocks of learning
and developments (Dodge, 2011)
PARENTING STYLES
Diane Baumrind on 4 parenting styles
1. Authoritative - ideal, equal level of warmth
and control. More on guidance
2. Authoritarian - low in warmth & high in
control, cold and controlling.
3. Permissive- high warmth & low control. Bigay
lahat, pasunod sa anak. They have few rules
4. Rejecting/Neglecting/Uninvolved parents –
low warmth & low control
➢ children with authoritative parents are likely
to do well in school and more happy with
themselves.
CULTURE AND PARENTING
➢ depends on the culture
➢ Ruth Chao challenge Baumrind's conclusion
about Asian families. Merong alternative
style ang mga asians CHIAO SHUN
(translates as training).
➢ Melanie Domenech Rodriguez included third
dimension of parenting: AUTONOMY
➢ protective - high on warmth, high on control
and low in granting autonomy
➢ authoritative - high on all three
DIVORCE
➢ stressful life event for an individual
➢ divorce and the happenings after it may
disrupt the child's lfe
➢ divorce is harder on boys than girls
➢ adjustment to divorce is an individual matter
ATTACHMENT
➢ the emotional bond that forms between
people
➢ first attachment is bet the child and the first
caregiver
➢ Thompson & Raikes, quality of first
attachment have implications in forming
relationships throughout life
➢ secure attachment, disorganized or insecure
attachment; secure attachment
CROWDS
➢ Crowds- less intimate, more loosely
organized groups based on shared interests,
activities, attitudes or reputations. They
necessarily join the crowds but they are
assigned by other students or people based on
reputation and stereotypes.
➢ Collins & Steinberg - crowds "an identity
'way station' or placeholder during the period
between individuation from parents and
establishment of a coherent personal identity"
PEERS
➢ Children develop within peer groups.
➢ two kinds of peer group: cliques and crowds
➢ Cliques - relatively small, friendship- based
groups, cliques serve young peoples'
emotional and security needs by providing
stable social context in which group members
know each other well and form close
friendships
PEER CULTURES
➢ At any age wherein students have set of rules
(clothes and everything)
FRIENDSHIPS
➢ Friendships are central to students’ lives at
every stage
➢ Peer relationship influences student’s
motivation and achievement in school
➢ Characteristic of friends and quality of the
friendships matter too
➢ Influence of friendship is not always positive
POPULARITY
4 categories of children:
1. Popular children- both academically &
socially competent
2. Rejected - rejected aggressive: high rates of
conflict and hyperactivity/impulsivity
characterize this subgroup; rejected withdrawn:
timid and withdrawn, often target of bullies
3. Controversial - have both positive and
negative social qualities, status can change over
time
4. Neglected - most neglected children are well
adjusted and they are not less socially competent
than other children.
CAUSE AND CONSEQUENCES OF
REJECTION
➢ children are not always tolerant of
differences.
➢ part of being rejected is just being different
from the norm
➢ many aggressive and withdrawn students
lack social skills (pro social behavior)
➢ rejected children may develop emotional
problems
AGRESSION
➢ As behavior that is intended to harm another
individual who dos not wish to be harmed.
➢ Sometimes rejection becomes aggression
➢ It is different from assertiveness
RELATIONAL AGGRESSION
➢ Sometimes called social aggression
➢ Insults, gossips, exclusions, taunts
➢ Relational aggression can be more damaging
than overt aggression
DIFFERENT FORMS OF AGGRESSION
cyber aggression - final type of hostile
aggression, using social media accounts to spread
rumors, make threats , or otherwise terrorize
peers.
Hostile aggression – inflicting intentional harm.
Hostile aggression can take the form of either
overt aggression, such as threats or physical
attacks, or relational aggression, which involves
threatening or damaging social relationships.
Boys are more likely to use over aggression.
Instrumental aggression – intended to gain an
object or privilege, such as shoving to get a chair
or snatching a book from another student. The
intent is to get what you want, not t hurt the other
child, but the hurt may happen anyway.
MEDIA, MODELLING, AND
AGGRESSION
➢ modeling plays important role in expression
of aggression
➢ another source is TV
➢ Research on violent televisions &films,
videogames, and music reveals unequivocal
evidence that media violence increases the
likelihood of aggressive behavior in both
immediate and long term
VIDEO GAMES AND AGGRESSIVE
BEHAVIOR
➢ Found that playing violent video games is a
crucial factor for increased aggressive
thoughts, feelings, actions, and decreased
feelings of empathy.
➢ Playing positive video games increase
prosocial behavior.
REACHING EVERY STUDENT: TEACHER
SUPPORT
academic caring – setting high but reasonable
expectations and helping them achieve the goal
personal caring – being patient, respectful,
humorous, willing to listen, interested in
student’s issues and problems
IDENTITY AND SELF-CONCEPT
➢ IDENTITY - is a broader concept than the
self-terms (self esteem, self concept, self
worth)
➢ Identity includes people's general sense of
themselves along with all other beliefs,
emotions, values, commitments, and
attitudes.
➢ Organization of the individual’s drives,
abilities, beliefs, and history into a consistent
image of the self. It involves deliberate
choices and decisions, particularly about
work, values, ideology, and commitment to
people and ideas.

EXPLORATION – process wherein
adolescence consider and try out alternative
beliefs, values and behavior in an effort to know
which will give them more satisfaction.
COMMITMENT – individual’s choices
concerning political and religious beliefs.
MARCIA IDENTIFY 4 IDENTITY STATUS
ARISE FROM PATTERNS OF
EXPLORATIONS AND COMMITMENT
1. Identity achievement - exploring realistic
options, the individual has made choices and is
committed in pursuing them. Identity once
achieved may not be unchanging for everyone
2. Moratorium - Erikson used this term to
describe exploration with a delay in commitment
to personal and occupational choices. The period
is no longer a crisis since experience is a gradual
exploration rathe r than traumatic upheaval. Both
Moratorium & Identity achievement are healthy
Statuses.
3.Identity Foreclosure – commitment without
exploration. They did not experienced with
different indentities or explored their options but
have committed with the goals and values or
lifestyles of others.
4.Identity Diffusion – when individuals do not
explore and do noy commit any actions. They
reach no conclusion for who they want to do with
their lives.
IDENTITY AND TECHNOLOGY
➢ forming a separate identity that can be
complicated since they are connected to a lot
of people and it is because of technology.
➢ 7-10 y/o with phone. Kids now a days are
more connected with people without being
with them.
➢ Turkle (2011) called the recipient a new
cellphone "tethered child". They are able to
participate in activities such as spending time
at a mall or on the beach that would not have
been allowed without the safety of a tether
phone. Tethered is neve r alone. No more
autonomy in resolving conflict they ask help
from other people instead of their pa rents.
Call a friend. No time for their physical and
social environment. Remember Exploration
is important.
RACIAL-ETHNIC IDENTITY
some psychologist consider ethnic identity a
"master status" that dominates all other identity
concerns when judging the self. Ethnic Identities:
Outcome and Process- Phinney's 4 outcomes of
Ethnic minority
1. Assimilation – adopting yung values ng
majority culture and rejecting ethnic culture
2. Separated - as sociating only with member of
the ethnic group
3. Marginality - living in the majority culture but
feeling dis connected in it and disconnected from
minority cultures as well
4. Biculturalism (integration) - maintaining ties
to both cultures
RACIAL IDENTITY: OUTCOME AND
PROCESS
Cross identity 5 stages to racial identity, called
this process Nigrescence (example African
Americans).
Pre-encounter - this stage people range from
ignoring race to feeling neutral about it. People
value other aspects of their identity such as
religion, profession or social status
Encounter - This stage is often triggered by
encounters with overt, covert or institutional
racism. Realized that race matters in society.
Immersion/Emersion - transitioning. They are
now eager to understand their racial heritage
more fully
Internalization-commitment - very closely
connected with internalization. With continued
interest in their race, and sometimes dedicating
their works for their race.
SELF-CONCEPT
➢ Generally refers to our perception of
ourselves – how we see our abilities,
attitudes, attributes, beliefs and expectations.
Mental picture of who we are. This scheme is
not permanent and our self-perception varies
from situation to situation.
RACIAL & ETHNIC PRIDE
➢ pride in family and community is pa rt of the
foundation of stable identity. A cognitive-
emotional construct in which a person
expresses his or her affiliation with their
native ethnic or cultural group, along with
high regard for this affiliation.
The self-concept construct - A model in which
self-esteem is seen as a global construct
underpinned by increasingly differentiated
aspects of the self, including physical, social, and
academic self-perceptions.
Self -Esteem - overall judgment of self-worth
that includes feeling proud or ashamed of
yourself as a person. Self-concept is who I am,
Self-esteem is how I feel about myself.
William James - self-esteem is determined by
how successful we are in accomplishing tasks or
reaching goals we value.
Moral Development - refers to the process
through children develop the standards of right
and wrong within their society, based on social
and cultural norms, and laws.
UNDERSTANDING OTHERSAND MORAL
DEVELOPMENT
Theory of Mind and Intention
➢ 2 to 3 y/o people are beginning to develop a
theory of mind
➢ an understanding that other people are people
too, with their own minds, thoughts, feelings,
beliefs and behavior. They need a theory of
mind to make sense of other people's
behavior. To understand that people can have
different views.
➢ age 2 child ren have a sense of intention, at
least of their own intention.
➢ the perspective-taking ability develops over
until it is quite sophisticated in adults.
KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF MORAL
DEVELOPMENT
STEP 1: punishment and obedience orientation.
Obey rules to avoid punishment.
STEP 2: naïve hedonism. Conforms to get
rewards and to have favors returned.
STEP 3: good boy/girl morality. Conforms to
avoid disapproval or dislike by others.
STEP 4: conforms to avoid censure by
authorities.
STEP 5: conforms to maintain communities.
Emphasis on individual rights
STEP 6: individual principles of conscience.
CRITICISMS OF KOHLBERG’S THOERY
➢ Theory of Kohlberg is biased with the
western male values that emphasize
individualism.
➢ Gilligan proposed different sequence of
Moral Development According kay Carol
Gilligan., individuals move from a focus self-
interest, to moral reasoning based on
commitment to specific people and
relationship, then to highest level of morality
based on the principles of responsibility and
care for all people.
➢ Carol Gilligan‘s innovative contributions to
moral development theory and her analysis of
the influences of patriarchy on women, girls,
➢ and boys position her as a critical pedagogue.
As an educator, researcher, psychologist,
author, feminist, and advocate she continues
to influence how the voices of women and
men are heard and valued.
MORAL VS CONVENTIONAL DOMAIN
(By Nucci) Moral domain
two fundamental issues are justice and
compassion
Distributive justice (Damon, 1994)
➢ fair distribution is based on equality Children
move through stages in reasoning about
moral issues
1. Sense of justice means equal treatment for all
2. An appreciation of equity and special needs
3. More abstract integration of equity and
equality along with sense of caring in social
relations, finally, as adults, a sense of morality
involves benevolence and fairness.
Conventional domain - children begin in
believing that rules simply exist. Piaget called
this state Moral Realism (child believes that
rules in play or about conduct is absolute and cant
be changed.) child believes punishment should be
determined how much damage is done, not by the
intention of the child.
Morality of cooperation - as children interact
gradually shift the reasoning to this. Children
come to understand that people make rules and
can change them. When the damage is done and
intention is take into account.
DIVERSITY IN MORAL REASONING
Results indicate that course-related diversity
learning has a positive effect in the development
of moral reasoning among this group of college
students. this suggests that previous exposure to
course-related diversity learning has a positive
effect on students’ capacities for
postconventional moral reasoning.
➢ Collectivist cultures, putting first the opinion
of the group before self
Beyond Reasoning: Haidt’s Social
Intuitionist Model of Moral Psychology
➢ Jonathan Haidt based his social intuitionist
model on social and evolutionary psychology
and neuroscience.
3 key principles:
1. Intuition comes first, reasoning second.
Automatic our reaction then we reason to
justify our choice. Reasoning is important in
maintaining our position and respect in our
group.
2. There is more to morality than fairness and
harm – there are four other of moral
foundation than justice and welfare
(loyalty/betrayal, authority/subversion,
sanctity/degradation, liberty/oppression).
3. Morality binds and blinds - when a group
share the same moral beliefs the group is
bound together. But in being bound together
they are blind to the moral beliefs of other
groups that seems so wrong.
According to Haidt’s Social Intuitionist Model
(SIM) of moral judgment, most moral judgments
are generated by the intuitive process and the
purpose of reasoning is to provide a post hoc and
biased basis for justification.
LESSON 4: THE LEARNER DIFFERENCES
AND LEARNING NEEDS
KEY TERMS
ABSENCE SEIZURE: A seizure involving only
a small part of the brain that causes a child to lose
contact briefly with ongoing events—short lapses
of consciousness.
ARTICULATION DISORDERS: Any of a
variety of pronunciation difficulties, such as the
substitution, distortion, or omission of sounds.
ATTENTION-DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY
DISORDER (ADHD): Current term for
disruptive behavior disorders marked by
overactivity, excessive difficulty sustaining
attention, orimpulsiveness.
AUTISM/AUTISM SPECTRUM
DISORDERS: Developmental disability
significantly affecting verbal and nonverbal
communication and social interaction, generally
evident before age 3 and ranging from mild to
major.
AUTOMATICITY: The ability to perform
thoroughly learned tasks without much mental
effort. The result of learning to perform a
behavior or thinking processso thoroughly that
the performance is automatic and does not require
effort.
CEREBRAL PALSY: Condition involving a
range of motor or coordination difficulties due to
brain damage.
CRYSTALLIZED INTELLIGENCE: Ability
to apply culturally approved problem- solving
methods.
DEVIATION IQ: Score based on a statistical
comparison of an individual’s performance with
the average performance of others in that age
group.
DISABILITY: The inability to do something
specific such as walk or hear.
EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIORAL
DISORDERS: Behaviors or emotions that
deviate so much from the norm that they interfere
with the child’s own growth and development
and/or the lives of others—inappropriate
behaviors, unhappiness or depression, fears and
anxieties, and trouble with relationships.
EPILEPSY: Disorder marked by seizures and
caused by abnormal electrical discharges in the
brain.
FLUID INTELLIGENCE: Mental efficiency,
nonverbal abilities grounded in brain
development.
FLYNN EFFECT: Because of better health,
smaller families, increased complexity in the
environment, and more and better schooling, IQ
test scores are steadily rising.
GENERAL INTELLIGENCE (G): A general
factor in cognitive ability that is related in varying
degrees to performance on all mental tests.
GENERALIZED SEIZURE: A seizure
involving a large portion of the brain.
GIFTED AND TALENTED: Students who
demonstrate outstanding aptitudes and
competences in one or more of many domains.
HANDICAP: A disadvantage in a particular
situation, sometimes caused by a disability.
INCLUSION: The integration of all students,
including those with severe disabilities, into
regular classes.
INSIGHT: In problem solving, the sudden
realization of a solution. In the triarchic theory of
intelligence, the ability to deal effectively with
novel situations.
INTEGRATION: Fitting the child with special
needs into existing class structures.
INTELLECTUAL DISABILITIES/MENTAL
RETARDATION: Significantly below-average
intellectual and adaptive social behavior, evident
before age 18.
INTELLIGENCE: Ability or abilities to acquire
and use knowledge for solving problems and
adapting to the world.
INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT (IQ): Score
comparing mental and chronological ages.
LEARNED HELPLESSNESS: The
expectation, based on previous experiences with
a lack of control, that all of one’s efforts will lead
to failure.
LEARNING DISABILITY: PROBLEM with
acquisition and use of language; may show up as
difficulty with reading, writing, reasoning, or
math.
LEARNING PREFERENCES: Preferred ways
of studying and learning, such as using pictures
instead of text, working with other people versus
alone, learning in structured or in unstructured
situations, and so on.
LEARNING STYLES: Characteristic
approaches to learning and studying.
LEGALLY BLIND: Seeing at 20 feet what a
person with normal vision would see at 200 feet
and/or having severely restricted peripheral
vision.
LOW VISION: Vision limited to close objects.
MAINSTREAMING: Teaching children with
disabilities in regular classes for part or all of their
school day.
MENTAL AGE: In intelligence testing, a
performance that represents average abilities for
that age group.
PERVASIVE DEVELOPMENTAL
DISORDER (PDD): A term favored by the
medical community to describe autism spectrum
disorders.
RESPONSE TO INTERVENTION (RTI): A
process to make sure students get appropriate
research- based instruction and support as soon as
possible and that teachers are systematic in
documenting the interventions they have tried
with these students so they can use this
information in planning instruction.
SPASTICITY: Overly tight or tense muscles,
characteristic of some forms of cerebral palsy.
SPEECH DISORDER: Inability to produce
sounds effectively for speaking.
THEORY OF MULTIPLE
INTELLIGENCES (MI): In Gardner’s theory
of intelligence, a person’s eight separate abilities:
logical-mathematical, linguistic, musical, spatial,
bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal,
and naturalist.
TRIARCHIC THEORY OF SUCCESSFUL
INTELLIGENCE: A three-part description of
the mental abilities (thinking processes, coping
with new experiences, and adapting to context)
that lead to more or less intelligent behavior.
VOICING PROBLEMS: Inappropriate pitch,
quality, loudness, or intonation.
PERSONALITY CENTERED STYLES –
assess more stable personality traits
ACTIVITY CENTERED STYLES – a
combination of cognition and personality traits
that affect how people approach activities.
DIRECT INSTRUCTION – clear explanations
and demonstrations of new material, teaching in
small steps with practice after each step,
immediate feedback, and teacher guidance and
support.
STRATEGY INSTRUCTION – specific rules
for focusing attention and accomplish tasks.
STUDENTS WITH VISION
IMPAIRMENTS. - There is a definition for
legally blind that focuses on visual acuity and
field of vision. To qualify as legally blind, a
student must see at 20 feet what a person with
normal vision would see at 200 feet and/or have
severely restricted peripheral vision.
STUDENTS WHO ARE DEAF - In the past,
educators have debated whether oral or manual
approaches are better for children who are deaf or
hard of hearing. Oral approaches involve speech
reading (lip reading) and to train students to use
whatever limited hearing they may have. Manual
approaches include sign language and
fingerspelling. Research indicates that children
who learn some form of manual method of
communicating perform better in academic
subjects and are more socially mature. Today, the
trend is to combine both approaches.
LESSON 5: LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
KEY TERMS
ACADEMIC LANGUAGE: The entire range of
language used in elementary, secondary, and
university-level schools including words,
concepts, strategies, and processes from
academic subjects.
BALANCED BILINGUALISM: Adding a
second language capability without losing your
heritage language.
BILINGUAL: Speaking two languages and
dealing appropriately with the two different
cultures. Code switching: Moving between two
speech forms.
CRITICAL PERIODS: If learning doesn't
happen during these periods, it never will.
CULTURAL DEFICIT MODEL: a model that
explains the school achievement problems of
ethnic minority students by assuming that their
culture is inadequate and does not prepare them
to succeed in school.
DIALECT: any variety of a language spoken by
a particular group.
EMERGENT LITERACY: the skills and
knowledge, usually developed in the preschool
years, that are foundation for the development of
reading and writing.
ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE: the
classes devoted to teaching english who are
English language learners.
ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS:
students who are learning English and whose
primary or heritage language is not English.
EXPRESSIVE VOCABULARY: all the
different words a person uses in speaking or
writing.
FUNDS OF KNOWLEDGE: all the different
words a person uses in speaking or writing.
GENDERLECTS: different ways to talking for
males and females.
HERITAGE LANGUAGE: the language
spoken in the student’s home or by members of
the family.
INSIDE-OUT SKILLS: the emergent literacy
skills of knowledge of graphemes, phonological
awareness, syntactic awareness, phoneme-
grapheme correspondence, and emergent writing.
METALINGUISTIC AWARENESS:
understanding about one’s own use of language.
MONOLINGUAL: speaking only one language
OUTSIDE-IN SKILLS: the emergent literacy
skills of language, narrative, convention of print,
and emergent reading.
OVERREGULARIZE: to apply a rule of syntax
or grammar in situations where the rule does not
apply, for example, “the bike was broke.”
PRAGMATICS: the rules for when and how to
use language to be an effective communication in
a particular culture.
RECEPTIVE VOCUBALARY/LANGUAGE:
the words a person can understand in spoken or
written words.
SEMI-LINGUAL: a lack of proficiency in any;
speaking one or more languages inadequately.
SENSITIVE PERIODS: times when a person is
especially ready to learn certain things or
responsive to certain experiences.
SYNTAX: the order of words in phrases or
sentences.
ADDITIVE BILIGUALISM – you kept your
first language and added another
SUBTRACTIVE BILINGUALISM – you lost
your first language when added a second one.
CODE SWITCHING – moving between two
speech forms
LESSON 6: CULTURE AND DIVERSITY PREJUDICE: Prejudgment or irrational
generalization about an entire category of people.
KEY TERMS
RACE: A socially constructed category based on
CULTURALLY RELEVANT PEDAGOGY:
appearances and ancestry.
Excellent teaching for students of color that
includes academic success, RESILIENCE: The ability to adapt successfully
developing/maintaining cultural competence, and in spite of difficult circumstances and threats to
developing a critical consciousness to challenge development.
the status quo.
RESISTANCE CULTURE: Group values and
CULTURE: The knowledge, values, attitudes, beliefs about refusing to adopt the behaviors and
and traditions that guide the behavior of a group attitudes of the majority culture.
of people and allow them to solve the problems
SEXUAL IDENTITY: A complex combination
of living in their environment.
of beliefs about gender roles and sexual
DISCRIMINATION: Treating or acting orientation.
unfairly toward particular categories of people.
SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS (SES): Relative
ETHNICITY: A cultural heritage shared by a standing in the society based on income, power,
group of people. background, and prestige.
GENDER BIASES: Different views of males SOCIOLINGUISTICS: The study of the formal
and females, often favoring one gender over the and informal rules for how, when, about what, to
other. whom, and how long to speak in conversations
within cultural groups.
GENDER IDENTITY: The sense of self as male
or female as well as the beliefs one has about STEREOTYPE: Schema that organizes
gender roles and attributes. knowledge or perceptions about a category.
GENDER SCHEMAS: Organized cognitive STEREOTYPE THREAT: The extra emotional
structures that include gender-related information and cognitive burden that your performance in an
that influences how children think and behave. academic situation might confirm a stereotype
that others hold about you.
LGBTQ: Individuals whose sexual orientation is
lesbian, TRACKING: Assignment to different classes
and academic experiences based on achievement.
MINORITY GROUP: A group of people who
have been socially disadvantaged—not always a
minority in actual numbers.
MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION:
Education that promotes equity in the schooling
of all students.
PARTICIPATION STRUCTURES: The
formal and informal rules for how to take part in
a given activity.
PRAGMATICS: The rules for when and how to
use language to be an effective communicator in
a
SOCIAL CLASS is a marker of one's positioning
within society related to one's socioeconomic
status. Socioeconomic status is typically defined
by a combination of one's financial income and
level of education and occupation. social class is
associated with youth's opportunities as well as
outcomes.
GENDER - traits and behaviors that a certain
culture judges to be appropriate for men and for
women
SEX - biological differences of men and women
Three components of an individual’s identity
of gender and sex:
1. GENDER IDENTITY - person’s self-
identification as male or female
2. SEXUAL ORIENTATION - involves the
person’s choice of a sexual partner
3. GENDER - role behaviors- behaviors and
characteristics that the culture associates with
each gender
CULTURAL DIVERSITY is important because
our country, workplaces, and schools
increasingly consist of various cultural, racial,
and ethnic groups. Cultural diversity helps us
recognize and respect “ways of being”