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BIOLOGY NOTES
(REVIEW!)

LESSON 1: Non-vascular and

Vascular Plants
NONVASCULAR PLANTS (Bryophytes)
➔ Lacks vascular tissues
➔ Lack true leaves, seeds, roots,
stems and flowers
➔ Limited growth capabilities Life cycle ng isang nonvascular plant

➔ “Simple plants”
CALYPTRA - Protects the sporophyte
➔ RELIES IN MOIST ENVIRONMENT
offspring from dehydration.
TO REPRODUCE !!
SPOROPHYTE - Life cycle of a plant
Examples of NonVascular Plants
and some algae. Asexual.
MOSSES (Bryophyta)
● Coarse, multicellular rhizoids
SEEDLESS VASCULAR PLANTS
with tiny leaf-like structures.
(TRACHEOPHYTES)
● USED TO CHECK AIR QUALITY !!
➔ Have vascular tissues but
LIVERWORTS (Hepatophyta)
LACKS or DO NOT HAVE seeds
● Leaf-like, lobed, or ribbon-like
➔ Have true leaves, seeds, stems,
photosynthetic tissues rather
and roots
than leaves.
➔ Mas complex siya kay
HORNWORTS (Anthocerophyta)
nonvascular
● Have fine rhizoids and lack
➔ Trees, Flowers, Bushes, Etc.
stems
➔ Have Xylem and Phloem (Both
functions to transport)
RHIZOIDS
XYLEM - Conduction of water +
➔ Anchor and Absorb Nutrients
minerals
➔ Performs the function of roots
PHLOEM - Transport +
*Sila ang nag-aapear sa mga
sugar/sucrose/organic compounds
nonvascular plants, as true roots are
not present.*
Examples of Vascular Plants
CLUB MOSSES (Lycopodiaceae)
● Needlike or scalelike leaves
PHYLUM MONILOPHYTA
FERNS (Pteridopsida)
● Plant body is a sporophyte
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**TAKE NOTE: When naming
something scientifically, MAKE SURE
NAKA-UNDERLINE !!**

CLUB MOSSES VS MOSSES !

CM M

Vascular NonVascular

Can reproduce
Parts of Fern!
sexually by
HORSETAILS (Arthrotypes)
means of pores
● Also called “jointed plants” (or
seen beside horsetails!)
● Rings of small leaves or
branches emerge from each
joint, stem is the main
photosynthetic organ.
WHISK FERNS (Psilotum)
● Known as Psilotum nudum

EPIPHYTES - Any plant that grows

upon another plant for physical
support (e.g., ORCHIDS)

Life cycle ng isang vascular plant

??HOW TO NAME A PLANT’S
SPORANGIA - produce spores that
SCIENTIFIC NAME??
develop into tiny, heart-shaped
// Unahin muna ang genus ng plant
gametophytes
(GENUS SHOULD START WITH A
ANTHERIDIA - produce sperm with
CAPITAL LETTER!)
many cilia
// After that, proceed with the species
ARCHEGONIA - produce eggs
name. (SPECIES NAME SHOULD START
WITH A LOWERCASE LETTER!)
Summary: NONVASCULAR VS
SEEDLESS VASCULAR!
EXAMPLE:
Scientific Name for WHISK FERNS NV SV

Psilotum nudum Lacks vascular Has vascular

(Genus) (Species)
tissues tissues but does
not have or
lacks seeds
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● These were the diets
Lack true leaves, Have true
during the age of
seeds, roots, leaves, seeds,
dinosaurs (meaning,
stems and roots, stems
sobrang tagal na dito si
flowers
phylum cycadophyta)
Simple plants Complex plants ● Cycads also have a
history of use as food
Depends on Terrestrial
moist environment (?) (starch and flour) and
environment medicine. It treats
hypertension,
Mosses, Ferns, Horsetails,
gastrointestinal distress,
Liverworts, Whisk Ferns
and cough
Hornworts
Ex: Cycads
c. GINKGOPHYTA
LESSON 2: Gymnosperms and
(Keyword: Ginkgo)
Angiosperms ● Dioecious
● Regarded as a Living
Lesson 2a: gymnosperms
fossil
GYMNOSPERMS
● Used as a herb
➔ Do not have fruit encasing the
★ WHY?: Oldest living tree
seed
species siya and it is the only
➔ “Gymnos”: Naked, “Sperma”:
remaining representative of a
Seed (Naked seed) - GREEK
perished botanical family
WORDS !
(Ginkgoaceae)
➔ Seed producing plant (w/o
Ex: Ginkgo biloba
fruit)
d. GNETOPHYTA
➔ Cone-like structures forms at
(Keyword: Gnetum)
the end of its stalks
● Dioecious
CLASSIFICATIONS OF GYMNOSPERMS
● Used in medication
Four Phyla:
Ex: Ephedra, Gnetum, Welwitschia
a. CONIFEROPHYTA
★ EPHEDRA - Treatment for
(Keyword: Conifers)
asthma, bronchitis, and hay
● Monoecious
fever
● Used for lumber, resins
Ex: Spruce, Fir, Pinus, Sequoia, Cypress
IMPORTANCE OF GYMNOSPERMS
b. CYCADOPHYTA
1. Food
(Keyword: Cycads)
2. Medicine
● Dioecious
3. Decoration
● Tropics
4. Furniture
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Additional terms and definitions ! ➔ Also known as Dicots
(maeencounter mo siya dito) (Dicotyledon)
➔ Having TWO cotyledons
MONOECIOUS - Having both female Ex: Bean, Coffee, Apple, Mint, Maple,
and male reproductive organs in the Rose, Tomato, Sunflower
same organism. d. MONOCOT
DIOECIOUS - Having both female and ➔ Also known as
male reproductive organs in Monocotyledons
separate organisms. ➔ Having ONE cotyledon
EVERGREEN - Retains leaves Ex: Onion, Corn, Grass, Coconut,
throughout the year Banana, Wheat, Agave
DECIDUOUS - Changes leaves Cotyledon: Embryonic leaf (first to
throughout the year. appear from germinating seed)

Lesson 2b: angiosperms MONOCOTS VS. DICOTS !!

ANGIOSPERMS
MN DC
➔ Flowering plants
➔ “Angion”: Container, “Sperma”: ONE cotyledon TWO cotyledons

Seed (Greek) Fibrous Tap root

➔ Evolved 140-160 million years
Parallel leaf Net leaf veins
ago
veins
➔ Highly adapted to terrestrial
habitat Scattered stem Vascular
➔ Can be male, female, or both vascular bundles from
➔ Phylum Anthophyta / bundles ring

Magnoliophyta Flower parts in Flower parts in

CLASSIFICATIONS OF ANGIOSPERMS threes fours or fives
a. BASAL ANGIOSPERMS
➔ Carpels of flower are
FLOWERS !
free from each other or
➔ Part ng angiosperm
there is only one carpel
➔ Reproductive structures of
in a flower.
plants
Ex: Star Anise, Lotus
PARTS OF FLOWERS:
b. MAGNOLIIDS
➔ Clade of flowering
plants.
Ex: Laurel, Magnolia, Black Pepper
c. EUDICOT
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A flower is perfect when it contains
all the male and female
reproductive parts.

A flower is complete when it

contains the four flower parts
(sepals, petals, pistils/carpels, and
stamen)
A. PETAL: Outer parts of flowers;
usually brightly colored POLLINATION
B. SEPAL: Protects flower that is ➔ Transferring pollen from the
still in the bud male anther of the flower to
C. RECEPTACLE: Parts of the flower the female stigma
are attached ➔ SELF POLLINATION: Sariling
D. PEDICEL: Stalk bears the flower pollen tinatransfer sa sariling
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE STRUCTURE: stigma
CARPEL / PISTIL !! ➔ CROSS POLLINATION: Pollen is
1. STIGMA: Receives the transferred into another
pollen flower’s stigma
2. STYLE: Leads from ➔ Wind and water
stigma to structure at REMEMBER !!
base of carpel ● Gymnosperms rely on WIND
3. OVARY: Contains one or POLLINATION
more ovules **Pollinators are usually attracted to
4. OVULE: Forms the seed smell and brightly colored flowers**
5. POLLEN TUBE: Deliver POLLINATORS EXAMPLE: Bees, Birds,
sperm cells to the ovary Bats, Lemurs
for fertilization
MALE REPRODUCTIVE STRUCTURE: Paano naman ang mga plants that
STAMEN !! have strong odor? Insects ang
6. ANTHER: Site where usually nagpopollinate sa kanila (not
pollen is produced sure)
7. FILAMENT: Holds anther
❖ SEEDS: Fertilized ovule; capable
★ COROLLA: Group of Petals of developing into another
★ CALYX: Group of Sepals plant
★ ANDROECIUM: Group of ❖ FRUITS: Matured ovary;
Stamens protects seed and aids in seed
★ GYNOECIUM: Group of Carpels dispersal
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having common origin and
OVULE —------> Seed performing identical function
OVARY —------> Fruit
TWO TYPES
PARTHENOCARPY:
➔ Occur due to lack of pollination a. Meristematic Tissue
➔ Pollination occurs but - Have cells continuously
fertilization does not dividing
➔ Followed by embryo or seed - Found in growing
abortion regions of plant (apices
Ex: Grapes, Bananas, Pineapples of roots and shoot
- Cells are immature and
SUMMARY: GYMNOSPERM VS. are capable of
ANGIOSPERM !! undergoing repeated
division throughout their
GYM ANGIO
life.
Cone-bearing Flowering BASED ON ORIGIN

Naked Seed Container Seed PROMERISTEM:

➔ Youngest stage of growing
Evolved 390 Evolved 140-160
organ and gives rise to
million years million years
primary meristem
ago ago
PRIMARY MERISTEM:
Relies on wind Relies on ➔ Embryonic tissues and gives
for pollination pollinators for rise to epidermis, the cortex,
pollination
leaves and the pith
Coniferophyta Basal Angio SECONDARY MERISTEM:
Cycadophyta Magnoliids ➔ Develops later from
Ginkgophyta Eudicot non-meristematic tissues at a
Gnetophyta Monocot certain stage of development
of an organ of a plant.
**GINKGO not GINGKO** BASED ON THE LOCATION
APICAL MERISTEM:
LESSON 3: Plant tissues ➔ Area of actively dividing cells
➔ About ~420 million years ago, that locates at the tip of the
first land plants evolve roots and the shoots
➔ Aids increase of height of the
PLANT TISSUES: Group of cells of the plant by facilitating growth of
same type or of the mixed type, shoot and root
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INTERCALARY MERISTEM: b. Permanent tissue
➔ Area of actively dividing cells - Cells that have lost the
that locates at the internodes. power of division, having
➔ Contributes to increase in attained their definite
height, w/ the growth of the form and sizes
internodes.
LATERAL MERISTEM:
SIMPLE COMPLEX TISSUE
➔ Area of actively dividing cells PERMANENT
that locates at the lateral side
Parenchyma Xylem
of the stem and root.
Collenchyma Phloem
➔ Increases the thickness of the
Sclerenchyma
plant by increasing the
diameter of the plant.
DERMAL TISSUE:
➔ Covers plant and can be found
BASED ON FUNCTION
on outer layer of roots, stems,
and leaves
➔ Transpiration, gas exchange
and defense
➔ Epidermis, periderm
PERIDERM: First line of defense
for the plant, protecting it from
fire or heat injury, dehydration,
freezing conditions, disease.

PROTODERM: GROUND TISSUE:

➔ Outermost plant tissue and ➔ Parenchyma
forms epidermis ● Isodiametric cells
➔ Located around the outside of ● Thin walls made of cellulose
stem and protects the plant ● Either closely packed or have
from any mechanical shocks intercellular space
PROCAMBIUM: ● Perform photosynthesis,
➔ Innermost tissue storage and secretion
➔ Gives rise to XYLEM AND TWO TYPES OF PARENCHYMA:
PHLOEM 1. Chlorenchyma: Chloroplasts
GROUND MERISTEM: and Chlorophyll
➔ Cells are large with thick walls 2. Aerenchyma: Large air spaces
➔ Gives rise to ground tissue between cells.
➔ Collenchyma
● Layer below epidermis
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● Perform photosynthesis when ● Conduct water and provide
chloroplasts are present mechanical support
● Corners thickened with VESSELS:
cellulose ● Wider, shorter, thinner walled,
● No intercellular space less tapered
● Provide mechanical support ● Perforation plates that enable
● Help support young parts of water to flow freely through
plant shoot vessels
● Elongated cells that have PHLOEM:
thicker primary walls ➔ Transport of food products
● Provide flexible support w/o from green parts of the
restraining growth storage organs and other
organs of plants
➔ Sclerenchyma ➔ BAST or LEPTON
● Long narrow cells Sieve Elements:
● Usually dead or without ● Sieve derives from the strainer
protoplast appearance given to the cells
● Supporting elements in the by presence
plant but are much more rigid ● Longitudinal transmission of
● Contains large amount of food
lignin - indigestible Sieve tube Elements:
strengthening polymer ● Lack nucleus, ribosomes,
TWO TYPES OF SCLERENCHYMA distinct vacuole, cytoskeletal
1. Fiber: Made up of pure elements
cellulose ● Sieve plates: connection site
2. Sclereids (Grit cells) : May Companion cells:
occur in cortex, pith, phloem, ● Connected to sieve-tube
hard seed, nuts, stony fruits, element by numerous
leaves and stems of many plasmodesmata
plants ● Help load sugars into sieve
tube elements, which transport
VASCULAR TISSUES: sugars to other parts of plant
XYLEM:
➔ Performs conduction of water
and mineral salts from roots to
top of plants
TRACHEIDS:
● Long tapered ends
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IMAGES OF THE THREE TISSUES ROOT SYSTEM
(PARENCHYMA, COLLENCHYMA, Taproot system
SCLERENCHYMA) ➔ Radicle → primary root
➔ Vertical root that develops to
primary root
➔ Absorption is at the tips of
lateral roots
➔ Facilitates anchorage of plant
in the soil
➔ Enables the plant to grow taller
to access more sunlight
➔ Provides advantage for pollen
and seed dispersal
IMAGES OF VASCULAR TISSUE
Fibrous Root system
➔ Radicle dies at early stage and
REPLACED by root primordia
➔ Primary roots and do not
develop into taproot
➔ Present in small vascular
plants with trailing growth
habit
➔ Has thick mass of slender roots
LESSON 4: Roots spreading out below the soil
Roots surface
➔ Stores carbohydrates and Adventitious Roots
other reserves ➔ Emerge from stem
➔ Anchor the plant firmly to a ABSORPTION OF WATER - Near tips of
substrate elongating roots
➔ Absorb water and minerals
➔ Produce hormones PRIMARY GROWTH OF ROOTS
➔ Vegetative reproduction ➔ Length
➔ Derived from apical meristem
Primary root ➔ Root Caps: Protects apical
➔ Originated in seed embryo meristem as root pushes
➔ First root to emerge from through abrasive soil
germinating seed
➔ Branch to form lateral roots ROOT CAP
➔ Calyptra

➔ Covers actual growing tip
➔ Mechanical shield for the root’s
delicate growing point
➔ Worn away and renewed by
cell multiplication
★ CALYPTROGEN: Cell
ginagamit pag-renew ng root
cap
MUCIGEL
➔ Lubricates passage of root
➔ Release nutrient ions to diffuse
more rapidly toward the roots
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➔ ENDODERMIS: Separates cortex
from stele (Innermost layer of
cortical cells differentiate into
Cylinder)
Endodermis protoplast =
na CASPARIAN STRIPS - Controlling the
types of minerals that enter xylem
water stream
PARTS OF THE ROOTS

ZONE OF CELL DIVISION

➔ Stem cells of root apical
meristem and their immediate
products
➔ Quiescent Center: Inactive
central region that forms a EPIDERMIS
new apical meristem ➔ Surrounds areas of ground
HOW DO WE KNOW IF THE APICAL and vascular tissue
MERISTEM IS DAMAGED? ➔ Protection, helps absorption
● Fungi ROOT HAIR
● Pathogens ➔ Increase root surface area
● Burrowing Animals ➔ Carbon dioxide given off by
ZONE OF ELONGATION respiration of root hairs
➔ Millimeters behind root tip combines with soil water to
➔ Growth; root cells elongate form carbonic acid
➔ Keep adding cells but is still GROUND TISSUE
not matured enough ➔ CORTEX AND PITH
➔ Protoderm, ground meristem, Cortex = Epidermis and Vascular
procambium Tissue
ZONE OF MATURATION OR Pith = Vascular tissue and center of
DIFFERENTIATION root
➔ Complete, matured ➔ Cells that store photosynthetic
➔ Bears clusters of ROOT HAIRS products
➔ Minerals don't have free Pericycle = origin of lateral roots
access to vascular tissues
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ROOT MODIFICATION PARTS OF STEM:
Food Storage:
★ CONICAL (Carrot)
★ FUSIFORM (Radish)
★ NAPIFORM (Beet, Turnip)
★ TUBEROUS (Cassava, Sweet
Potato)
MNEMONICS (if you need to try
remembering): CO-FU-NA-TU
Nodes: Leaves emerge
Internodes: Region between nodes
Better Respiration:
Terminal Bud: Gives rise to extension
★ PNEUMATOPHORES (Perform
of existing stem
Gas Exchange)
Axillary Bud: Found on leaf axis and
★ Have minute pores (breathing
can give rise to new stem
pores) on the exposed tips.

INTERNAL ORGANIZATION OF STEM

Nitrogen FIxation:
Primary vs Secondary !
★ ROOT NODULES (Bear small
tubercles or swellings) PRIMARY SECONDARY
★ RHIZOBIUM LEGUMINOSARUM
Length of Plant Thickness of
(Nitrogen fixing bacteria; Fixing plant (diameter)
nitrogen into nitrates which
Apical meristem Lateral
can be absorbed by roots)
meristem

Better Support: Epidermis, Bark, periderm,

★ STILT ROOT (Corn) cortex and lenticels,
★ PROP ROOT (Balete) primary secondary
vascular tissues phloem,
★ CLIMBING ROOT (Money Plant)
secondary
★ BUTTRESS ROOT (Dao Tree)
xylem

Primary Growth
➔ Meristems
PRIMARY MERISTEMS = protoderm,
procambium, ground meristem
LESSON 5: Stem
Stem
➔ Ascending Portion of the Plant
which develops from PLUMULE
of the embryo
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➔ Large, thin walled and
isodiametric (same dimension,
EQUAL)
➔ Forming ground meristem =
PITH and CORTEX
★ Bud

★ APICAL MERISTEM
➔ Source of all other meristems
➔ Protoderm, procambium,
ground meristem
★ Leaf Primordia
➔ Swelling near apex
➔ Enlarge and become ★ EPIDERMIS
connected to vascular system ➔ Prevents water loss
★ Axillary Bud ➔ Allow gas exchange for
➔ Swellings next to leaf primordia respiration and PS
➔ Few axillary buds remain ➔ Cuticle, stomata, trichomes
dormant and serve as reserve ★ VASCULAR BUNDLE
growth centers ➔ XYLEM and PHLOEM
➔ Branches, leaf traces, leading
to leaves
➔ MONO: Scattered
DICO: Discrete Rings

★ Protoderm
➔ Outermost layer of cells
➔ Develops into epidermis
(protects underlying tissues) MONOCOT VS DICOT
★ Procambium
MONOCOT DICOT
➔ Vascular tissue = XYLEM and
PHLOEM Numerous Vascular
vascular bundles are less
★ Ground Meristem
bundles of in number
different sizes
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➔ Rise to secondary growth
Scattered Forms a ring
CORK CAMBIUM:
No concentric Internal tissues
layer are arranged in
concentric
layers

GROUND TISSUE
➔ Occupies most volume of stem
➔ CORTEX: Outside of Vascular
● Arise from cortical, epidermal,
Bundle
or phloem cells
➔ PITH: Make up central core of
● Cork cells (periderm) that
the stem
replaces epidermis for older
➔ PARENCHYMA
stem
- Principal tissue of cortex
WOOD
- Function in the storage
of food and PS
➔ COLLENCHYMA
- Outermost cell of the
cortex (young stem)
- Strengthening tissue in
young expanding stems
➔ SCLERENCHYMA
- Support and protection
- Walls are thick and
made up of LIGIN

Secondary Growth
➔ Formation of secondary tissue
➔ Herbaceous and woody plants
➔ Vascular Cambium and Cork
Cambium ➔ Accumulation of secondary
xylem produced by vascular
VASCULAR CAMBIUM: cambium
● Division of procambial cells ➔ Strengthening tissue
● Adds secondary xylem and ➔ Forms a central core (PITH) in
phloem a series of concentric layers
● Cambium Ring called Growth Rings
➔ Interfascicular cambium, HEARTWOOD: Center of the stem,
fascicular DOES NOT conduct water
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SAPWOOD: Light colored, less dense 2. BULBIL - Undergo Vegetative
region; conduct water propagation to form a new
ANNUAL RINGS: Nagform every plant (Agave, Pineapple)
season 3. CLADODE - Consists of only
one internode; Cylindrical but
BARK not fleshy (Asparagus)
➔ Materials outside vascular
cambium LESSON 5: Leaves
➔ Cork cells get dried up and die EXTERNAL FEATURES OF LEAVES
➔ LENTICELS - Allow gas ● Color / Level of Greenes
exchange ● Texture
● Average length of leaves
Stem Modification ● Leaf Venation
Underground ● Arrangement of leaves along
1. RHIZOME - Capable of stem
producing the shoot and root
system of a new plant PHYLLOTAXY - Arrangement of
(GINGER) leaves
2. BULB - Fleshy Scale Leaves are 1. Alternate - One leaf per node
present (GARLIC,ONION) (Sunflower) - LIGHT
3. TUBER - Corry skin with a 2. Opposite - Two leaves per
number small depressions node (Guava) - LIGHT
called EYES (represents a node 3. Whorled - More than two
per each) leaves per node (Aloe Vera) -
Sub-aerial SUNLIGHT
1. RUNNER - Runs horizontally on
the surface of soil; Arise from PARTS OF THE LEAF
auxiliary buds (Strawberry) a. Lamina / Leaf Blade
2. SUCKER - Arises from basal - Thin flat part (usually green)
part of the main stem - Leaf tip, Leaf margin, Veins and
(Banana) Venules (Three subparts)
3. STOLON - Terminal bud gives - Photosynthesis
rise to a new stem and - Transpiration: Evaporation of
adventitious roots (Mint) water
Aerial b. Leaf base
1. THORN - Pointed hard structure - Lowermost
which MAY or MAY NOT bear - Protects young auxiliary Bud
flowers, leaves and branches - Closest to Petiole
(Rose) c. Petiole
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- Connects leaves from stem - Unfold leaves
- Providing support, transporting
water and nutrients and Mesophyll
photosynthetic products ● Middle leaf
● Contains many chloroplast
TISSUE ORGANIZATION OF LEAVES ● Photosynthesis
Epidermis (Dermal) Palisade Mesophyll / Parenchyma
● Regulation of gas exchange - Below epidermis
● One cell layer thick - Upper leaf cells
● CUTICLE - waxy layer (ayun - Capturing incoming sunlight
ung sinesecrete) - Decreases intensity of sunlight
Upper Epidermis: Allow sunlight to Spongy Mesophyll
pass through - Loosely arranged cell of an
Lower Epidermis: Contains more irregular shape
stomata and cooler than upper ES; - Gas exchange
Less prone to water loss - Transporting Sap from the root
Trichomes to the leaf and food from the
● Specialized tissues that protect leaf to ll other parts of the
plants from extra transpiration, plant
UV, high temperature and
herbivore attack Xylem and Phloem - Vascular
● Produces compounds that has Bundles
a bad taste and is toxic XYLEM = up
● Absorbs water from the PHLOEM = down
atmosphere ● Has sclerenchyma which
● Denser on lower side of leaf increases structural support
Stomata for vein
- Opening where gas exchange
takes place Why do plants transpire
Guard Cells ● Accessing nutrients from the
- Regulates opening and closing soil
of stomata (Parang door siya) ● Carbon Dioxide Entry
Bulliform Cells ● Evaporative cooling
- Motor cells Guttation: Secreting liquid from tips
- Huge bubble shaped of the leaves; only happens in small
epidermal cells found at top of plants
the surface
- Found on top of adaxial leaf
surface