HKBU Dept.

of Sport, PE & Health

UCHL 1027 Mind and Body Exercises:
Stretching and Pilates
Flexibility
Flexibility refers to the range of motion (ROM) for a given joint. Flexibility
training typically involves exercising at a low intensity to improve the ROM of a
joint or joints. Flexibility is specific to a particular joint or set of joints. Thus, being
flexible in one particular area or joint does not necessarily mean being flexible in
another. Moreover, flexibility is also specific to the action performed
at the joint. For example, the ability to do side splits does not imply the ability to
do front splits even when both actions occur at the hip.
Dynamic flexibility is the ability to perform dynamic movements of the muscles to
bring a limb through its full ROM in the joints.
Static-active flexibility (i.e. active flexibility) is the ability to assume and
maintain extended positions using only the agonists and synergists while the antagonists are
being stretched e.g. lifting the leg and keeping it high without any external force or help.
Static-passive flexibility (i.e. passive flexibility) is the ability to assume extended positions and
then maintain them using only your weight, the support of your limbs, or some other
apparatus (e.g. a chair, a barre, or the floor). Note that the ability to maintain the position
does not come solely from your muscles, as it does with static-active flexibility. Being able
to perform the splits is an example of static-passive flexibility.
Note: Active flexibility is harder to develop and achieve than passive flexibility; not only does
active flexibility require passive flexibility in order to assume an initial extended position, it also
needs muscle strength to be able to hold and keep that position.

Types of Stretching
Static, ballistic, dynamic stretching and proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation are different
forms of flexibility training exercises.

Static Stretching: Static stretching lengthens muscles and connective tissues; less danger of
exceeding limits of connective tissues; helps to relieve muscle soreness. Static
stretching however is not effective in keeping the body warm and there is evidence
that too much static stretching can hinder the muscles to generate forceful
contraction right after. Active static stretching is performed without outside
assistance while passive static stretching involves the assistance of a partner or
some other apparatus.

Ballistic Stretching: Ballistic stretching uses the momentum of a moving body part or a limb in an
attempt to force a joint(s) beyond its normal ROM. This type of stretching provokes the “stretch
reflex” the bouncing movements are interpreted as dangers by the sensors of the muscle, and thus
the muscle goes into contraction to prevent further damage, which contradicts the whole purpose of
doing stretching. Also tends to cause muscle soreness, i.e. micro tears of muscle fibers.

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How to Perform Static Stretching: Stretching is easy to learn, but people can also do stretches
incorrectly. That’s why learning how to stretch properly is important and helpful. Good body
alignment is essential for effective stretches. Pay attention to the part(s) of the body and the
muscles that you are stretching, trying to relax those parts and let them lengthen and accomplish
the desired stretch. Stretching violently or incorrectly may cause discomfort or harm to the body.
Please understand that in order to achieve an effective stretch, the process takes time and should
not be rushed. Gradually over time you would feel more at ease with improved flexibility and then
you would not feel that it is time-consuming any more.
Start easy. Always start easy, especially if you are not used to stretching exercises:
- Hold the stretched position for about 10 – 15 seconds.
- Relax the body parts for about 5 seconds.
- Repeat the above two steps two more times. i.e. 3 repetitions for each stretch.
You would probably feel that the second and the third time are easier to achieve. Please pay
attention to how your body is feeling during the stretch. Only then you could gradually develop a
heightened awareness of how tense or relaxed your body is, and also how it feels like to let your
body calm down and relax. It is a good idea to include all major muscles and body joints for a
comprehensive stretching routine. Aim to do about eight to twelve stretches involving different
major body parts.
More advanced. You could hold the stretched position for up to 30 seconds. The longer you hold a
stretch, the higher the intensity.
- Hold the stretched position for about 20 – 30 seconds.
- Relax the body parts for about 5 seconds.
- Repeat the above two steps two more times. i.e. 3 repetitions for each stretch.
Remember at no time you should feel pain; if you do, ease back and don’t stretch as far. Pain
would cause your body to tense up and thus is not helping with the stretch. Instead of pain, you
should feel a gentle yet firm pulling sensation throughout the stretch. Always remember, the
important point is that you are feeling the stretch and not how far you are actually bending or
extending. Comparisons with others thus would be self-defeating and missing the point.
Moreover, since individuals vary a great deal in terms of bony structures and inborn elasticity of
various connective tissues, not all individual could achieve the same range of motion ultimately.
And it would take longer for some individuals to achieve their desired state of flexibility when
compared to others.
Breathing. You should be breathing slowly and rhythmically during a stretch. For example, when
you are reaching forward to stretch, breathe out when you bend forward; breathe out when you are
holding the stretched position. Then continue to breathe rhythmically. If you find that a particular
stretching pose does not allow you to breathe naturally, then you cannot truly relax and ease into
the stretch. When that happens, ease back a little and resume normal breathing.
Timing. When initially starting as a beginner, you should keep count in your head, or use a timer
to help you keep track of the amount of time you stay with the stretched position. After training
for some time, you could follow how your body is feeling and adjust the stretch duration

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accordingly. There is no need to get too fixated or distracted about keeping time, try to focus on
relaxing instead.

Dynamic Stretching: Dynamic stretching involves movement of limbs or body parts through its
entire range of motion in a controlled manner, purposely activating all
the muscles in moving a particular joint(s). Dynamic stretching takes
advantage of ground reaction forces and mass and momentum of our
body parts to enhance joint mobility. Movements generally integrate
whole body coordination and repetitions in gradually increasing intensity.
For instance, in performing a lunge, we will be engaging the thigh muscles (quadriceps), the hip
flexors in the front, and the glutes at the back. Other examples include squats, balance reaches,
controlled swings, push-up with rotation, and travelling (i.e. locomotor) moves. Dynamic
stretching is helpful in increasing ROM, core temperature, and neuromuscular activity, and these
altogether enable us to perform better movements. Dynamic stretching is ideal for a warm-up, and
it can constitute a workout in itself; it can also facilitate recovery when done after vigorous
activity.
For individuals who are looking for general conditioning exercise, dynamic stretching is a great
option. People who habitually sit all day can benefit in muscle conditions and posture by
incorporating dynamic stretches in their daily routine.
In addition, there is some evidence that static stretching may not improve dynamic flexibility, but
dynamic stretching tends to improve both dynamic and static flexibility.

An example of good lower body dynamic stretching routine prior to activity is as follows:
 Half-Squats to Heel Raise 1 set x 10 reps
 Front/Back Lunge 1 set x 5 reps (each leg)
 Hip Swings - Side to Side 1 set x 10 reps (each leg)

Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation (PNF)

PNF is a more advanced form of flexibility training, which
involves both the stretching and contracting of the muscle
group being targeted. PNF stretching was originally developed
in the 1940s as a form of rehabilitation. PNF stretching is one
of the most effective forms of stretching for improving
flexibility and increasing ROM.
PNF involves three phases of action: 1) passive stretch, 2) resistance, 3) relax into 2nd passive
stretch. PNF takes advantage of the innate ability of a muscle to relax more deeply after a
contraction to achieve better flexibility.
Here’s a typical sequence for performing PNF stretch:
▪ The muscle group to be stretched is positioned so that the muscles are stretched and under
tension.
▪ The individual then contracts the stretched muscle group for 5 – 6 seconds while a partner,

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or immovable object, applies sufficient resistance to inhibit movement. Please note; the
effort of contraction should be relevant to the level of conditioning and the muscle group
you’re targeting. Maximal effort is not required, about 60% of effort is enough to produce
effects.
▪ The contracted muscle group is then relaxed and a controlled stretch is applied for about
20 to 30 seconds. The muscle group is then allowed 30 seconds to recover and the process
is repeated 2 – 4 times.

Sensory Organs involved in Stretching

 Muscle Spindles: Muscle spindles are
located within the belly of a muscle. If a
muscle is stretched (lengthened) too far or
too quickly the muscle spindles are excited
and the stretch reflex is activated, which
causes the muscles to contract, thereby
protecting the muscle from being over
stretched or torn. Muscle spindles are
sensitive to muscle length.
 Golgi Tendon Organs (GTOs): The deep tendon reflex (i.e. the Golgi tendon reflex) helps
prevent injury by enabling a muscle to respond to increases in tension. If a muscle is put under
excessive tension (contraction) the Golgi tendon organs (GTO’s) are excited and the deep
tendon reflex is activated, which causes the muscles to relax, thereby protecting the muscle
from being over stretched or torn. Note that in day-to-day movement, tension in the muscles is
not sufficient to activate the GTO’s deep tendon reflex. On the contrary, the threshold of the
muscle spindle stretch reflex is set much lower. GTO’s are sensitive to muscle tension.

Due to the stretch reflex, if you perform stretches which are too quick or too forceful, the targeted
muscles will contract (i.e. tighten up) and you cannot achieve greater ROM. That’s why it is a
good idea to hold static stretches for at least 10 to 15 seconds so the GTO’s can be activated to
allow the muscle to relax, and thus making it possible to be stretched properly.

Potential Benefits of Stretching

Flexibility exercises can help in the following ways:
- enhance range of motion
- reduce muscle stiffness
- improve posture
- discover, prevent, and correct muscular imbalance
- heighten body awareness
- reduce soreness after a tough workout
- maintain and enhance muscle tone and elasticity of connective tissues
- dynamic stretching can also help warm up the body

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Risks of Overstretching
Despite a number of potential benefits, flexibility is not necessarily directly related to health
outcomes:
- Excessive ROM around joints can lead to too much movements and wearing of joints. Joint
hypermobility tends to affect children more than adults and females more than males.
- Aggressive stretching to already hyper-mobile joints and not addressing issues of hypo-mobile
joints can worsen joint irritation (e.g. in vertebral joints of the spine).
- Ballistic stretching when the body is not thoroughly warmed up can also be risky.

Factors Affecting Flexibility

Inborn Factors: Genetics, Age, Sex
Genetics can determine one’s flexibility. Children are more flexible than
adolescents and they are also more flexible than adults. Females are in
general more flexible than males.
Structural Factors: Muscle/Tendon, Joint Structure, Fascia, Ligaments
Elasticity of the muscle – the capacity of the muscle to stretch and return to its natural state
afterwards, determined by the characteristics of muscle fibers and the connective tissues which
surround them (e.g. fascia, joint capsule, ligaments and skin).
Mobility of the joint – the degree of movement of a joint, which is limited by the type of joint and
its structure. For examples, a “ball and socket” joint has a full ROM; a pivot joint only permits
rotation; a hinge joint only permits flexion and extension.
Situational Factors: Body Temperature, Time of the Day, Daily Activities & Physical Training
Warmer body temperature, especially temperature of the joints and associated tissues, enhances
flexibility. Most people are more flexible in the afternoon than in the morning. The type and amount
of daily activities and physical training will also influence the degree of flexibility. In general, the
bigger ROM in your daily activities, the more flexible you tend to be.

Relationship of Flexibility to Our Health and a Healthy Lifestyle

General Physical Activity Guidelines
• Flexibility is one of the health-related physical fitness components; the other components
include muscular strength and muscular endurance, cardio-respiratory endurance, and body
composition. In striving towards good health and wellness, all health-related physical fitness
components should be viewed as an integration and addressed as such.
• To achieve the most health benefits from physical activity, adults are recommended to do at
least 150 minutes of moderate-intensity aerobic activity (e.g. fast
walking or dancing) each week. Muscle strengthening activity (e.g.
push-ups, or lifting weights) should also be done at least two days
each week. Flexibility training can be done most days of the week or
every other day as a general guideline.
• One of the keys to good health is to move more and sit less. There is strong relationship

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between sedentary behavior and increased risk of heart disease, high blood pressure and
mortality. Any forms of physical activity, especially those of moderate intensity and above,
can help to reduce these risks. Indeed, any amount of physical activity has some health
benefits. Even five to ten minutes of exercise throughout the day is beneficial. Moreover,
physical activity can reduce anxiety and blood pressure and improve quality of sleep and
insulin sensitivity, and all these effects can occur almost immediately.
• In order to keep our body supple and resilient to physical injuries, mobility (i.e. flexibility
with control) training should be incorporated into daily life as an exercise habit.
• Flexibility exercises can be performed in fairly short durations and are thus
ideal in contributing to the overall amount of physical activity done daily.
Stretches targeting the neck and shoulder areas are particularly helpful in
reducing strain and stiffness felt in the upper body (and also eye strain too)
after sitting and working at the desk for a long time. It has been shown that
prolonged sitting can cause hip flexors to become overactive and shortened, which in worst
cases can lead to pain.
• Flexibility exercises are like gentle massage to our body, blood circulation can be enhanced by
doing stretching. Good blood circulation helps to minimize the condition of having cold
fingers and toes.
• Flexibility not only enhances sports performance, it improves functional abilities such as
reaching, or bending in daily living tasks. Stretching is also a great way to get the body
moving in the morning or a way to relax after a long day. Exercises such as Pilates and yoga
which combine stretching, toning, and relaxation can also help to improve balance and overall
body coordination.

Tools for Flexibility Training

Exercise Mat Many stretching moves are better and/or safer done in
sitting or lying position. A good exercise mat can
provide a non-slippery, slightly padded comfortable
surface to rest the body on.

Foam Roller A foam roller can be used to loosen knots and reduce
stiffness or tension in the muscles. Foam rolling effects
by pushing blood away from the area being rolled on
and then allowing blood to rush back in. This increase in
blood flow literally warms up the body part.
Foam rolling is aimed to release and regenerate the
fascia and underlying muscles, stretching focuses on
improving ROM by specifically targeting tissue
extensibility, and training the body for controlled
lengthening of muscles during movement.
Foam rolling of 30 to 60 seconds on a specific body part

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is usually adequate at one time. There is no need to aim
for maximum discomfort in order to get good results, 7
out of 10 is enough (10 being most uncomfortable).
Foam rolling can be done as part of the pre- and post-
workout routine. Post-workout foam rolling reduces
delayed-onset muscle soreness, hence it helps recovery.

Stretching A stretching strap brings the benefits of assisted

Strap/Towel stretching without a partner. With the aid of a strap, one
can perform deeper, gradual stretching of major muscle
groups with more safety, control and effectiveness than
unaided.

Yoga Block The yoga block is a very simple tool that if used
properly can create wonderful effects. The block can aid
alignment and provide physical cues to the body. The
yoga block allows a person to get deeper into the stretch
than on her/his own. It also offers good support for the
body so that stretches and poses can be held for longer
durations.

Pilates
Pilates is an exercise method created in the 1920s by a German
named Joseph H. Pilates. Pilates served as a nurse in World
War I, and he developed the practice as a way to rehabilitate
wounded soldiers. Thus, Pilates as an exercise has a much
shorter history than yoga. Joseph Pilates later moved to the
United States and opened a studio in New York City in 1926.
Gradually dancers, gymnasts, and circus performers there
began to learn of his techniques; they adopted his exercise system and were able to use it to
recover from injuries and stay in good physical conditions.

Joseph Pilates developed more than 600 exercises for the different pieces of apparatus he
invented. The Pilates equipment is designed to condition the
entire body using positions and movement, which ultimately
promote good body alignment and balance. The series of
movements designed for the apparatuses ranged from basic to
master level. Springs and pulleys were used to create progressive
resistance; and the equipment helped in producing muscle
contractions that stimulate functional muscle action. At the same time, the stabilizing muscle

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groups were working to maintain correct positioning and alignment. Pilates termed his method
“Contrology”, which is a way of life and path to total health. He was a pioneer of his time. Pilates
did not become very popular until the 1990s. Now, fitness enthusiasts around the world are
adopting the Pilates method as a way to become and remain injury-free while developing long,
lean muscles and a healthy posture. In essence, Pilates involves stretching, strengthening, and
controlling of the body center.

Targeting the Core

A number of Pilates exercises were developed from ancient yoga asanas; that explains the
similarities in selected exercises between yoga and
Pilates. While a typical yoga class nowadays that
focuses on balancing the entire body, a Pilates class
specifically targets the core muscles. These include the
abdominals, lower back, and the stabilizing muscles
around the back, spine, and trunk. Collectively, these
groups of muscles is often referred to as the
"powerhouse" in Pilates because they provide the foundation around which the limbs and other
muscles move. The majority of Pilates exercises is centered on the core.

Rehabilitation and Coordination

Practicing Pilates, whether on a mat or using a machine, utilizes the
muscles in a controlled, stable, and fluid manner. This helps to create
physical strength and toned muscles in a safe manner. For those with back
injuries or neck pain, Pilates can be a useful way to regain strength and
flexibility without over-straining the body. Pilates has rehabilitation as it’s foundation.
Additionally, Pilates exercises promote correct alignment, which helps to improve posture and
overall physical coordination. It also enhances a person’s sense of the body in space, i.e.
"proprioception," which helps to reduce general clumsiness and physical injuries in daily living.

Benefits of Pilates
“Physical fitness is the first requisite of happiness. In order to achieve happiness, it is
imperative to gain mastery of your body. If at the age of 30 you are stiff and out of shape, you
are old. If at 60 you are supple and strong then you are young.”
- Joseph Pilates

• Stronger abdominal muscles and stronger core in general

• Better posture, balance, and confidence with the body
• Longer, leaner muscles
• Enhanced strength and flexibility
• More awareness and control on breathing
• Feeling taller! (and actually standing taller)

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Six Principles of Pilates
There are six principles of Pilates: Centering, concentration, control, precision, breath, and flow.
Pilates moves are often coordinated with specific breathing techniques. The synchronization of
breath with movement helps to reduce stress, while improving composure and grace.
Centering: This concept is defined as physically bringing one’s attention to the center of the
body, the powerhouse area between the lower ribs and pubic bone. In terms
of energy flow, Pilates exercises all originate from the center. Visualize
your center as a sphere. As you contract the muscles in this area, imagine
the sphere shrinking in size—a three-dimensional movement. During Pilates exercises you
want to maintain this contraction without holding your breath.
Concentration: One should bring full attention to the exercise and do the
exercise with full commitment. During each movement, stay aware, not
only of the moving body part, but also of what the rest of the body is
doing. Only then one could obtain maximum benefit from each movement.
Control: Every Pilates exercise is performed with complete muscular control.
No body part is left to its own devices. The practice of Pilates is a conscious, deliberate act
that the mind is controlling. Thus, it’s a mind-body exercise in every sense. Overexertion of
the muscles is to be avoided.
Precision: Movement precision builds on concentration. Awareness is sustained throughout each
Pilates movement. One should aim for appropriate placement and alignment relative to other
body parts, and proper movement trajectory for each part of the body.
Breath: Joseph Pilates emphasized using a very full breath in his exercises. Most Pilates exercises
coordinate with the breath, and using the breath properly is an integral part of Pilates
exercise. Inhalation is done through the nose and exhalation through the
mouth. Visualize the capacity of the rib cage expanding three-
dimensionally with each breath. In three-dimensional breathing, the ribs
expand forward, sideways and backward during each inhalation. In
exhalation, you are expelling stale air from the depths of your lungs.
Flow: Pilates exercise is done in a flowing fashion. One should aim for fluidity, grace, and ease in
performing the exercises. The energy of an exercise connects all body parts and flows through
the body in a steady way. Avoid jerky and quick movements.

Goals of Doing Pilates

You are aiming to reconstruct your approach to exercise. By following the mat work exercises and
the Pilates principles, you will form a system that is beneficial to your body and your lifestyle.
You are re-educating your body of correct form and movements that hopefully will stay with you
for a lifetime.
The Pilates method is a corrective system of exercise which takes patience and persistence. Since
you will be working muscles that you are not used to work with, it will take time to accustom your
body. Do not give up if you cannot get the movement rights initially. Remember, you are aiming
to break bad habits and re-establish connection with your body.

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Pilates Mat Work Exercises - Beginners

The Hundred Single Leg

Stretch

The Roll-Up Double Leg

Stretch

Single Leg The Spine Stretch

Circles

Rolling Like a Up/Down Side

Ball Kick

Small Circles on
the Side

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Spine Alignment

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Range of Motion of Single Joint Movements in Degrees

Degrees Degrees
Shoulder Girdle Movement
Flexion 90 – 120 Extension 20 – 60
Abduction 80 – 100
Horizontal Abduction 30 – 45 Horizontal Adduction 90 – 135
Medial Rotation 70 – 90 Lateral Rotation 70 – 90

Elbow Movement
Flexion 135 – 160
Supination 75 – 90 Pronation 75 – 90

Trunk Movement
Flexion 120 – 150 Extension 20 – 45
Lateral Flexion 10 – 35 Rotation 20 – 40

Hip Movement
Flexion 90 – 135 Extension 10 – 30
Abduction 30 – 50 Adduction 10 – 30
Medial Rotation 30 – 45 Lateral Rotation 45 – 60

Knee Movement
Flexion 130 – 140 Extension 5 – 10

Ankle Movement
Dorsiflexion 15 – 20 Plantarflexion 30 – 50
Inversion 10 - 30 Eversion 10 – 20

References
ACSM. (2018). ACSM’s health related physical fitness assessment manual (5th ed.). Philadelphia,
PA: Wolters Kluwer, p. 105.
Norkin, C.C., & Levange, P.K. (2011). Joint structure and function: A comprehensive analysis (5th
ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Davis.

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Dictionary of Terms
Abduction Movement where a limb is moved away from the midline which
conceptually divides the body in symmetrical halves. It general involves
moving an arm away from the torso or a leg away from the hip.
Adduction Movement where a limb is brought towards the midline which conceptually
divides the body in symmetrical halves. It general involves moving an arm
toward the torso or a leg toward the hip.
Agonist The muscle that performs a movement.
Antagonist The muscle opposite to the one performing the movement.
Anterior In front.
Atrophy Decrease in size, a reduction in volume, weight and functional activity due
to a lack of nutrition. With respect to muscles, it is often associated with a
reduction of physical activity.
Biomechanics The science that studies the application of mechanics to living beings (see
“mechanics”).
Center of Imaginary point that represents the center of the weight of the body or of
gravity any object, around which all the other parts are balanced.
Circumduction Compound movement of a joint, like the circular motion of the scapula-
humeral joint (the shoulder) or the coccyx-femoral joint (the hip).
Concentric Muscle contraction where the muscle involved is shortening.
Eccentric Muscle contraction where the muscle involved is lengthening.
Elasticity The property of a muscle (or other solid parts) to recover their shape and
extension once the force that stretched it and deformed it stops to exist.
Expiration Exhaling; breathing out.
Extension Unfolding of a joint that was previously flexed (bent).
Fiber The contractile cell of the muscle.
Flexion Action and effect of bending the body or a limb.
Force Any action that tends to maintain or alter the motion of a body or to distort
it. Commonly known as “strength” and the capacity to move a weight or
resistance. Force = Mass x Acceleration (F = MA)
Frontal (plane) Also known as the coronal plane. The plane that divides the body into
equal/unequal front and back parts.
Horizontal Transverse plane, perpendicular to the longitudinal. The plane that divides
(plane) the body into an upper and lower region.
Hyper- Over and beyond. e.g. hyperextension; hypertrophy (increase in the size of a
muscle).
Hypo- Under and less than usual.
Intensity Percentage of work in relation to the maximum force applied to a muscular
effort in particular.
Inspiration Inhaling, breathing in.
Isokinetic Movement with constant velocity (speed), generally associated with a
maximum force. In practice, this type of movement is achieved by the aid of
a training machine.
Isometric Isometric exercise is when muscular contractions occur without movement
of the involved parts of the body, meaning the length of the muscles
involved stays the same.
Isotonic Exercise when a contracting muscle shortens against a constant load, as
when lifting a weight.
Joint Junction of one bone with another.
Kyphosis Convex curving of the spine; natural in the upper back.
Lateral Away from the sagittal plane.
Lordosis Curve of posterior concavity; natural in the lumbar and cervical regions of
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the spine.
Luxation Dislocation; when a bone is forced out of its joint.
Mass Physical quality that expresses the amount of matter that a body contains; its
unit is the kilogram (kg). Mass of an object does not change when an
object’s location changes, but weight does because weight is the
measurement of the pull of gravity on an object. Weight is a force. The unit
for force is the Newton (=1 kg·m/s2) which is abbreviated N.
A weight scale actually shows an estimate of your mass. On the Earth's
surface, gravity makes a 1 kg mass exert about 9.8 Newtons of force. So to
find out how much force your body is exerting on the scale, multiply by 9.8
(to convert kg into Newtons).
Mechanics The science that studies the equilibrium and movement of bodies subjected
to forces.
Medial Close to the sagittal plane.
Mobility Ease and range of movement.
Median The midline plane dividing the body into left and right halves. Also called
(plane) the mid-sagittal plane.
Passive Movement performed without muscle contraction by the person. Often
(movement) assisted by another person or an external object.
Posterior Behind, dorsal.
Pronation Movement of the forearm that turns the wrist inward (from the anatomical
position). It can also be performed by the foot by rolling inward.
Proximal Close to the torso, or close to the origin. The opposite of distal.
Quadruped Position in which the hands and feet/knees are placed on the ground (i.e.
“on all fours”)
Reflex Involuntary movement in response to a stimulus.
Repetition Complete movement of contraction and relaxation, composed of a
concentric and an eccentric phase.
Rotation Turn.
Sagittal Perpendicular to the frontal and transverse planes. The plane that divides the
(plane) body into two halves of right and left.
Supination When you turn your palm or sole of the foot so that it faces forward of your
body, it is supinated. The opposite of pronation.
Synergist A muscle that helps another muscle perform a particular function
effectively.

Image credits: https://physiquedevelopment.com/planes-of-motion-sagittal-frontal-transverse/

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Image credits: https://www.pinterest.com/pin/639511215832734736/

Image credits: https://www.healthpages.org/health-a-z/anatomy-major-anterior-muscles/

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