Waves and Oscillation:

Periodic Motion:
The motion which repeats itself after a regular interval of time over the same
path is called periodic motion. The regular time interval is called the time period
of periodic motion.
Examples: 1. The resolution of earth around the sun.
2. The resolution of moon around the earth.
Oscillatory Motion:
The to and fro motion or up and down repeated motion of a body about a mean
position (equilibrium position) is called vibratory or oscillatory motion.
Examples: 1. The motion of a bob of swinging pendulum.
2. The vibration of mass attached to elastic spring.
It may be noted that all oscillatory motions are periodic motions, but all periodic
motions are not oscillatory.
Simple Harmonic Motion:
When a body moves such that its acceleration ‘a’ is always directed towards a
mean position and varies directly as its distance ‘x’. From that mean position the
body is said to execute simple harmonic motion. Simple Harmonic Motion is an
important type of oscillatory Motion.
Mathematically, a ∝−x
For such a motion to take place, the force acting on the body should be directly
proportional to the displacement from mean position and directed towards the
mean position. The function of the force is to bring the body back to its mean
position and hence this force is often called as Restoring Force.

Differential Equation Of Simple Harmonic Oscillator:

Consider a body of mass ‘m’ executing simple harmonic motion, if x be the
displacement of the body from equilibrium position at the instant ‘t’, then
restoring force acting on the body is
F ∝−x → F = − kx
Where k is the force constant of proportionality, or stiffness or spring constant.
The negative sign shows that the direction of force is opposite to the direction of
increasing displacement. The force const. ‘k’ is defined as ‘The restoring force
per unit displacement’
𝐹
K=
𝑥
 𝑁
Its unit is newton per meter ( )
𝑚
𝑑2 𝑥
If 2 is the acceleration of the body of time ‘t’.
𝑑𝑡
Then F = - kx
Ma = - kx
𝑑2 𝑥
m = - kx
𝑑 𝑡2
2
𝑑 𝑥 −𝑘
= x
𝑑 𝑡2 𝑚
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑘
So, = −𝜔2 x ( put 𝜔2 = )
𝑑 𝑡2 𝑚
𝑑2 𝑥
+ 𝜔2 x = 0 →1
𝑑 𝑡2
This is the general differential equation of motion of a simple harmonic
oscillator.
Solution Of Differential Equation:
𝑑2 𝑥
To find out the solution of differential equation + 𝜔2 x = 0
𝑑 𝑡2
𝑑𝑥
Multiply by 2 ,
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 ( ) + 𝜔2 2 x = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑 𝑡2 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 ( 2 ) + 𝜔2 x 2 = 0 →2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Integrating we have,
𝑑𝑥
( )2 = − 𝜔2 𝑥 2 + C →3
𝑑𝑡
Where C is const. of integration.
When the displacement is maximum, i.e. 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑜 .
𝑑𝑥
Where 𝑥𝑜 is the amplitude of oscillating body, then = 0 i.e. the particle is
𝑑𝑡
momentarily at rest in the extreme position and begins its journey in the
backward direction.
𝑑𝑥
Substitute 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑜 and = 0 , in eq. 3
𝑑𝑡
We have, C = 𝜔2 𝑥𝑜 2
Put value of C in eq. 3
𝑑𝑥
( )2 = − 𝜔2 𝑥 2 + 𝜔2 𝑥𝑜 2
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 2
( ) = 𝜔2 (𝑥𝑜 2 − 𝑥 2 )
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥
= 𝜔 √𝑥𝑜 2 − 𝑥 2
𝑑𝑡
This eq. gives the velocity of the body executing Simple Harmonic Motion, at a
time ‘t’ when the displacement is x.
𝑑𝑥
Also = 𝜔 √𝑥 2 − 𝑥 2
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥
→ = 𝑑𝑡𝜔
√𝑥 2 −𝑥 2
Integrating we have,
𝑑𝑥
∫ 2 2 = ∫ 𝑑𝑡𝜔
√𝑥 −𝑥
𝑥
Sin ( )=𝜔𝑡+ 𝜙
𝑥𝑜
𝑥
= Sin (𝜔 𝑡 + 𝜙)
𝑥𝑜
𝑥 = 𝑥𝑜 sin (𝜔 𝑡 + 𝜙)
Where 𝜙 is another const. of integration, the term (𝜔 𝑡 + 𝜙) is called total phase
of the particle at time t and 𝜙 is known as the initial phase or phase const.

Q: Find an expression for the velocity of a simple harmonic oscillator?

Ans: Velocity of a Simple Harmonic Oscillator:
A particle which execute simple harmonic motion is called simple harmonic
oscillator. The displacement of simple harmonic oscillator at any instant ‘t’ is
given by 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑜 sin (𝜔 𝑡 + 𝜙) → 1
The velocity is defined as the time rate of change of displacement,
𝑑𝑥 𝑑
Velocity, v = = (𝑥𝑜 sin (𝜔 𝑡 + 𝜙))
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
v = 𝑥𝑜 𝜔 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) →2
𝜋
v = 𝑥𝑜 𝜔 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 + ) → 3
2
𝑥
put in eq. 2 As sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) =
𝑥𝑜
√𝑥𝑜 2 −𝑥 2 𝑥2
v = 𝑥𝑜 𝜔 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) = √1 −
𝑥𝑜 𝑥𝑜 2
𝑥𝑜 2 −𝑥 2
v = 𝜔 √𝑥𝑜 2 − 𝑥 2 = √
𝑥𝑜

Maximum Velocity:
𝜋
The velocity of oscillator is maximum when, sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 + ) = 1, →
2
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 =𝑥𝑜 𝜔
The value of v = 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 , then x = 0 i.e. the particle executing S.H.M is in its mean
position.
Comparing eq. 1 and 3, we find that the velocity of S.H.M at any instant of time
𝜋
‘t’ leads the displacement by a phase difference radian (or 90 deg).
2

Q: Find an expression for the acceleration of a Simple Harmonic Oscillator?

Ans: Acceleration of a simple harmonic oscillator:
Acceleration is defined as the time rate of change of velocity,
i.e. v = 𝑥𝑜 𝜔 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) → 1
𝑑𝑣 𝑑
acceleration, a = = (𝑥𝑜 𝜔 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙))
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
a = − 𝑥𝑜 𝜔2 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
a = − 𝜔2 𝑥𝑜 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
a = − 𝜔2 x :>(x = 𝑥𝑜 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙))
2 2
a = − 𝜔 𝑥𝑜 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) = 𝜔 𝑥𝑜 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 + 𝜋) → 2
Maximum Acceleration:
The acceleration of the oscillator is maximum when sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 + 𝜋) = 1
𝑑2 𝑥
and is given by, 𝑎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ( ) 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑥𝑜 𝜔2
𝑑 𝑡2
𝜋
The velocity, v = 𝑥𝑜 𝜔 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) = 𝑥𝑜 𝜔 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 + ) → 3
2

Comparing eq. 2 and 3, we find that the acceleration of a S.H.M leads the
𝜋
velocity radian in phase.
2
The displacement, x = 𝑥𝑜 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) → 4
Comparing eq. 2 and 4, we find that the acceleration of a S.H.M leads the
displacement by 𝜋 radian or (180 deg.)
In phase, i.e. the acceleration and displacement are out of phase.

Q: Derive an expression for the total energy of a Harmonic Oscillator and show
that it is constant and proportional to the square of the amplitude?
Ans: The total energy of a simple harmonic oscillator at any time ‘t’ is the sum
of its kinetic energy and potential energy at that instant of time.
𝐸𝑡 = K.E + P.E → 1
Kinetic Energy: The general eq. of simple harmonic oscillator is x = 𝑥𝑜 sin(𝜔𝑡 +
𝜙)
Where x is the displacement of the oscillator at any time t, 𝑥𝑜 is the amplitude,
𝜔 angular velocity and 𝜙 the initial phase.
𝑑𝑥
The velocity at any instant, v = = 𝑥𝑜 𝜔 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
𝑑𝑡
 1
Kinetic energy of the oscillator = m𝑣 2
2
1
K.E = m [ 𝑥𝑜 𝜔 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)]2
2
1
K.E = m 𝜔2 𝑥𝑜 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
2
Potetial Energy:
The potential energy is equal to the amount of work done against the restoring
force from the mean position through displacement x.
𝑑2 𝑥
Now acceleration a = 2 = − 𝑥𝑜 𝜔2 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
𝑑𝑡
a = − 𝜔2 𝑥
The negative sign shows that acceleration is directed towards the mean position.
The restoring force, F = ma = m𝜔2 𝑥 = kx
Where k is the force constant of proportionality.
Hence the work done by the force through a displacement x is,
𝑥 𝑥 1
W = ∫0 𝐹𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 𝑘𝑥𝑑𝑥 = k𝑥 2
2
1 1
P.E = W = k𝑥 = m𝜔 𝑥𝑜 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
2 2
(where k = m𝜔2 )
2 2

Total energy, 𝐸𝑡 = K.E + P.E

1 1
= m𝑣 2 + k 𝑥 2
2 2
1 1
𝐸𝑡 = m 𝜔2 𝑥𝑜 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) + m 𝜔2 𝑥𝑜 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
2 2
1 1
𝐸𝑡 = m 𝜔2 𝑥𝑜 2 = k 𝑥𝑜 2
2 2
Hence the total energy of simple harmonic oscillator is cont. and proportional to
the square of amplitude.
Maximum K.E:
1
The K.E is given by K.E = m 𝜔2 𝑥𝑜 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
2
It will be maximum for cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) = 1
1
So, 𝐾. 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = m 𝜔2 𝑥𝑜 2
2
Maximum P.E:
1
The P.E is given by P.E = m 𝜔2 𝑥𝑜 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
2
It will be maximum for sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) = 1
1
So, 𝑃. 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = m 𝜔2 𝑥𝑜 2
2
1
Therefore, 𝐾. 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑃. 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = Total Energy E = m 𝜔2 𝑥𝑜 2
2
Graphical Representation of Energy:
The variation of total energy, K.E and P.E of harmonic oscillator is shown
graphically in fig:

Simple Pendulum:
A simple pendulum consists of a small mass (the pendulum bob) suspended
from the end of light, inextensible string. The distance from the point of
suspension to the center of gravity of the bob is called the length of the
pendulum.
The equilibrium or mean position ‘o’ is where the pendulum hangs vertically.
When the bob is displaced slightly to one side from its mean position and
released, then it oscillates about the mean position in an arc of a circle.
To show that the oscillation of simple pendulum is simple harmonic motion,
there are two forces acting on the bob of pendulum of mass ‘m’, the tension ‘T’
and weight (w=mg). The tension T is always along the string acting towards the
point of suspension and ‘mg’ is always vertically downward. The weight ‘mg’
can be resolved into rectangular components i.e. mgcos𝜃 and mg sin𝜃
1. The component ‘mgcos𝜃’ is in line with the string and directed opposite to
T. i.e. the net force along the string is T - mgcos𝜃 = 0 → mgcos𝜃 = T
2. The component ‘mg sin𝜃’ acts tangentially to the arc along which the bob
moves. This component restores the bob towards its equilibrium position
and serves as a restoring force, i.e. Restoring force, 𝐹𝑟 = - mg sin𝜃
For small angle sin𝜃 ≅ 0, then, 𝐹𝑟 = - mg𝜃
The negative sign shows that restoring force points opposite to the direction
of increasing ‘𝜃’ i.e. towards the mean position,
𝐹𝑟 = - mg𝜃
mg = - mg𝜃
a = - g𝜃 also, x = l𝜃
𝑥 𝑥
so, a = - g 𝜃=
𝑙 𝑙
𝑔
a=- x
𝑙
𝑔 𝑔
Now is const. for a given pendulum at a place, so here 𝜔2 =
𝑙 𝑙
2
a=−𝜔 x
a∝-x
Hence the motion of simple pendulum is simple harmonic motion.

Time Period:
 2𝜋
The time period of pendulum is T =
𝜔
2𝜋
T= 𝑔
√
𝑙

𝑙
T=2𝜋√ →1
𝑔
Frequency:
1 1 𝑔
F= So, √𝑙 →2
𝑇 2𝜋
The frequency (and here time period) of a simple pendulum is independent of
mass of bob and depends only on the length ‘l’ and value of g. This fact provides
a simple method to measure ‘g’.

Problem: A mass of 1 kg is attached to a spring of stiffness const. 16 N/m, Find

its natural frequency?
Solution: Stiffness const. K = 16 N/m
Mass = 1 kg
1 𝑘
Frequency, f = √
2𝜋 𝑚
1 16 1 2
F= √ = ×4 = = 0.64 Hz
2𝜋 1 2𝜋 𝜋

Problem: A particle of mass 100 grams is placed in a field of potential

u = 5𝑥 2 + 10 erg/gm, Find the frequency?
Solution: Potential Energy, u = 5𝑥 2 + 10 erg/gm
Mass, m = 100 gm
𝑑𝑢 𝑑
Now Force, F = − = − (5𝑥 2 + 10)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
F = − 10 x
Taking x as the displacement, then
𝑑2 𝑥
F = ma = m
𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑2 𝑥
Now m = − 10 x
𝑑𝑡 2
2
𝑑 𝑥 −10
= x
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚
This is the eq. of S.H.M with force const. k = 10 dyne/cm
1 𝑘 1 10 1 1
Frequency, f = √ = √ =
2𝜋 𝑚 2𝜋 100 2𝜋 √10
 1 1
= = 0.05 Hz
2 ×3.14 √10

𝑚
Problem: A lift is rising up at acceleration of 3 2 , what is the period of
𝑠
oscillation of pendulum of length one meter suspended in the lift?
𝑙
Solution: The time period of pendulum is T = 2𝜋√
𝑔
𝑚
Here g = 9.8 + 3 = 12.8 2
𝑠
Length, l = 1m F = T - mg
𝑙
So, T = 2𝜋√ T = F + mg
12.8
T = 1.756 sec ma’ = ma + mg
a’ = a + g
𝑚
a’ = 3 + 9.8 = 12.8 2
𝑠