General Physiology and Neurophysiology Learning Module

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Ruth Diaz-Fernandez, PTRP, LPT, MASPED

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents Page
Introduction of the Module …….………………………………...……………………... 3

Requirements of the course ……………………………………..………………. 3
Copy of Rubrics……..………………………………………………………………. 4
Course Learning Outcomes ………………….…………………………………. 10
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Study Schedule ………………………………….………………………………… 11
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Lesson 1: Internal Environment and Body’s Feedback Mechanism …………….. 20
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Lesson 2: Body’s Tiniest Living Structures: Physical Structure of the Cell .………. 33
Lesson 3: Body’s Tiniest Living Structures: Functional Systems of the Cell ..……. 42
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Lesson 4: It’s in the Genes …………………..……………………………………….…. 51
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Lesson 5: The Mighty Gatekeeper …………………….………………………….…… 67
Lesson 6: Cell Membrane Potentials ………………………..……………………….. 85
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Lesson 7: Nerve Cell Membrane Potentials ……………..………………………….. 102

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Lesson 8: Neurologic Functions ………………………………………………………… 122

Lesson 9: Muscular Contraction ………………………………………………………. 143
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References ………………………………………………………...…………………..…. 161

Course Evaluation ………………………………………………...…………………….. 162
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INTRODUCTION OF THE MODULE
Course Code PTGNPH1
Course Title General Physiology with Neurophysiology
Course Description
The course centers on the basic and fundamental concepts and principles in the
study of the functions of the human body. It provides an introduction to cellular
physiology concerned with both those properties that characterized all living cells and
those that are unique to special type such as neurons and muscle fibers. Laboratory
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sessions provide practical application of theories on human physiology through critical
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thinking activities and simulations of certain physiology concepts.
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Requirements of the Course
Here are the requirements of the course:

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1. You need to have your own copy of the following textbooks:
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a. Hall, J. (2016). Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology. 13th Ed.
Elsevier: Philadelphia, PA
b. Tortora, G. and Derrickson, B. (2017). Principles of Anatomy and Physiology.
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15th Edition. Wiley and Sons, Inc.

2. You have to read and understand the assigned topics per lesson in this module.
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3. You need to have good internet connection for online discussions and for some
video clips to watch.
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4. You are expected to diligently accomplish each activity in this module.

5. You have to submit accomplished activities on set schedules (see study schedule).
6. You are likewise required to log in to our website, google classroom, CANVAS
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course, or group chat regularly for updates.

7. You are expected to take online assessments on timely manner and with utmost
integrity.
8. You are likewise required to read and follow guidelines stipulated in the UB Primer.
9. Your completion of all activities per lesson will be rated using the rubric for activity
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completion. Your respective activity completion scores will be credited to your

Laboratory grade.
10. Your scores on assessment activities such as concept mapping and short-answer
questions and evaluate activities will be credited under the lecture component.
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Here are the rubrics that will commonly be used through this module.
RUBRIC FOR ACTIVITY COMPLETION
Excellent Very Satisfactory Needs

(100 % of the Satisfactory (60 % of the Improvement
total score for (80 % of the total score for (40 % of the
CATEGORY Score
each total score for each total score for
category) each category) each
category) category)
Citing Completely Cited Did not cite
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references (5) cited references for reference/s or
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(As reference/s some tasks missed some
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applicable) including parts of
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page/s for reference
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each required cited
task
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Completeness Accomplished Accomplished Accomplished Accomplished
of work (5) diligently all required tasks 50-70% of the less than 50%
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required tasks required tasks of the
required tasks
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RUBRIC FOR STORYBOARD

(100 % of Satisfactory (60 % of the Improvement
the total (80 % of the total score for(40 % of the
CATEGORY Score
score for total score for each total score
each each category) for each
category) category) category)
Organization Storyboard Storyboard Reader/viewer Reader/
(5) presents presents has difficulty viewer
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information information in following cannot
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in logical, logical storyboard understand
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interesting sequence because presentation
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sequence which screens are because
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which reader/viewer not clearly there is no
reader/
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viewer can information.
follow.
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Content Storyboard Storyboard Storyboard Storyboard
Knowledge presents full presents has limited does not
(10) content content explanation present any
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knowledge knowledge on content information

(more than with enough
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required) explanations
with brief or
explanations elaboration.
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or
elaboration.
Images (5) Storyboard Storyboard Storyboard Storyboard
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has very has clear and has limited has very

clear appropriate images; minimal
interesting images to images images;
and represent present only a images are
appropriate processes few processes too small;
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images to images do
represent not represent
processes processes
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RUBRIC FOR CONCEPT MAP
CATEGORY Excellent Very Satisfactory Needs Score

total score for (80 % of the total score (40 % of the
each total score for each total score
category) for each category) for each
category) category)
Concepts Most concepts Most Minimal but Insufficient
(10) and all concepts acceptable number of
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significant relating to number of concepts
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concepts topic were concepts selected
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selected and selected selected, relating to
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they clearly with some topic
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relate to the relationships
topic
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Arrangement Arrangement Arrangeme Arrangemen Arrangement
of concepts of concepts nt of t of of concepts
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(10) demonstrates concepts concepts illustrates no
complete demonstrat demonstrat understandin
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understanding es an es simple g of
of subordinate understandi understandi conceptual
conceptual ng of ng of relationships
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relationships subordinate subordinate

conceptual conceptual
relationships relationships
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Hierarchical Concepts Concepts Limited Concepts

Structure (10) connected in connected hierarchical are
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a hierarchical in a structure displayed in

structure hierarchical used a linear
leading to structure sequence.
move specific Little or no
concepts sense of
hierarchical
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structure
Linkages (5) All Most Straightforw Some basic
relationships relationships ard relationships
indicated by a indicated relationships indicated by
connecting with a connected connected
line and connecting with linking lines
accurately line and words
labeled with labeled with Linking words
are simple
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appropriate linking Linking and
linking words words words show repetitive
variety
Linking words Linking
are expressive words are
and accurate
purposeful and varied
Cross Links Cross links Cross links Few cross Cross links
(5) show complex used to links are not used
relationships reflect used to
between two straightforw illustrate
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or more ard mindful
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distinct connections connections
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segments of
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the concept
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map
Rubric adapted from Bev Elaschuk, S. (n.d.) Sample Rubric for Evaluating a concept
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https://i.pinimg.com/564x/c7/6f/5c/c76f5c5e505878387192e936d13e64da.jpg on July 7,
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2020.
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RUBRIC FOR SHORT ANSWER RESPONSE

category) category)
Introduction Introduces the Introduces Partially Attempts to
(5) topic clearly the topic introduces introduce the
through an with an the topic by topic.
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exemplary effective demonstrati However, the
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topic topic ng a topic
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sentence sentence developing sentence is
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form of irrelevant
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topic and/ or may
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inaccurately
Supporting Uses relevant Effectively Uses some Attempts to
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details (10) and sufficient uses text-based use text-
text-based relevant details to based
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details to and support and details, but

support and sufficient explain the the details
explain the text-based topic are vague,
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topic in an details to inaccurate,

exemplary support and and loosely
manner explain the connect to
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topic the topic

Conclusion Concludes the Effectively Partially Attempts to
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(10) topic through concludes concludes provide a

an exemplary the topic the topic by conclusion.
and logical through an demonstrati However, the
closing effective ng a closing
sentence closing developing sentence is
sentence form of a irrelevant
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closing and/ or may

sentence be applied
inaccurately
Sentence Exemplary use Effectivenes Developing Attempts to
structure (5) of varied s of varied a varied, vary
sentence sentence but sentence
structure with structure inconsistent structure and
transitions, with use of includes few,
creating transitions sentence if any,
cohesion, that are structure transitions to
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and/ or effective, with create
clarifying the creating transitions cohesion or
relationships cohesion, that partially clarify
among ideas and/ or link the relationships
and concepts clarifying major among ideas
the sections of and
relationships the text, concepts
among creating
ideas and cohesion,
concepts and/ or
clarifying
the
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relationships
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among
ideas and
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concepts
Conventions Writing has Writing has Writing has Writing has
(5)
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few, if any,
errors in
some errors several
in spelling, errors in
many errors
in spelling,
spelling, punctuation spelling, punctuation,
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punctuation, , punctuation capitalization
capitalization,capitalizatio , , grammar
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grammar and n, grammar capitalizatio and usage

usage and usage n, grammar that
that are and usage somewhat
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repetitive, that distract interfere with

but do not from the
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interfere readability readability of

with the of the the response
readability response
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of the
response
Rubric adapted from Short Answer Response Rubric retrieved from
https://www.yumpu.com/en/document/read/29753259/ntms-short-answer-response-
rubric on July 7, 2020
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Course Learning Outcomes
Upon completion of this course, you would have developed the following learning
outcomes:
1. apply knowledge of physical sciences, social sciences, health sciences and

natural sciences to the practice of physical therapy
2. practice beginning management and leadership skills in various practice settings
3. actively engage in lifelong learning activities.
4. demonstrate proficiency in oral and written communication skills as well as
reading and listening
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5. demonstrate social and professional responsibility and ethical behaviors in multi-
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cultural settings and scenarios.
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6. maximize the use of innovative technology in the practice of the profession.
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Study Schedule
Week No. Lesson and Topics Topic Learning Activities

Outcomes
1 Orientation to the At the end of the Engage:

Course learning experience, Answer self-assessment
you will be able to: and pre-assessment
Lesson 1: Internal 1. discuss activities
Environment and appropriately
Body’s Feedback the significance
Explore:
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System of human
Answer activities given
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physiology in the through recall and use
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field of physical of Anatomy-Physiology
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therapy. references
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Levels of Structural
Organization 2. define
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Explain: Lecture-
The Internal related
discussion; Outline
Environment terminologies.
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presentation; Self-
3. explain correctly
Extracellular Fluid assessments; Feedback;
the levels of
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Read assigned topics

Intracellular Fluid organization of
from references
the human
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indicated
body.
4. differentiate the Elaborate: Answer
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body’s external activities on critical

environment thinking
from internal
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environment. Evaluate: Summative

5. determine the Assessment
components of
the feedback
loop.
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6. discuss negative
feedback and
positive
feedback.
Submission of Outputs
2-3 Lesson 2: Body’s Tiniest At the end the learning Engage:

Living Structures: Part experience, you will be Answer self-assessment
able to and pre-assessment
activities
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(Physical Structure of 1. identify correctly
the Cell) the different Explore:
cellular Answer activities given
Typical Human Cell through recall and use
structures.
of Anatomy-Physiology
Protoplasm 2. discuss well the references
structures that
Cell and its Organelles make up the
protoplasm. Explain: Lecture-
Membranous discussion; Outline
3. determine
Structures properly the presentation; Self-
functions of
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assessments; Feedback;
Fluid Mosaic Model of
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cellular
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Plasma Membrane
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organelles.
from references
4. explain clearly
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indicated
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the function of
the cell Elaborate: Answer
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lipid bilayer. thinking
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Evaluate: Summative
Assessment
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4-5 Lesson 3: Body’s Tiniest At the end the learning Engage:

Living Structures: Part II experience, you will be Answer self-assessment
(Functional Systems of able to activity
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the Cell)
1. Describe Explore:
Closer Look at Cell correctly the Answer activities given
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different through recall and use

Organelles
physiologic
Cellular Processes references
mechanisms
regarding
Functional Systems of
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cellular activities. Explain: Lecture-

the Cell
2. Explain clearly discussion; Outline
the functional presentation; Self-
systems of the assessments; Feedback;
cell. Read assigned topics
3. Discuss properly from references
the membrane indicated
transport
mechanisms.
4. Create a
storyboard to
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animate the Elaborate: Answer
cellular activities on critical
processes. thinking
Create a storyboard for

the cellular processes
Evaluate: Summative
Assessments
6 First Grading Exam Online Exams
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7-8 Lesson 4: It’s in the At the end of the Engage:
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Genes learning experience, Answer self-assessment
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you will be able to: activity
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The Cell’s Nucleus 1. distinguish DNA
DNA and RNA
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2. distinguish Answer activities given
Transcription and through recall and use
Transcription
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Translation of Anatomy-Physiology
from Translation references
Protein Synthesis 3. distinguish Mitosis
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Genetic Control of from Meiosis

4. discuss Explain: Lecture-
Protein Synthesis
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accurately the discussion; Outline

Genetic Control of importance of presentation; Self-
Cell Function
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genetic control assessments; Feedback;

Control of Gene of cell function. Read assigned topics
Function and 5. differentiate from references
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Biochemical Activity clearly the indicated

in Cells significant
Elaborate: Answer
characteristics of
Control of Cell activities on critical
mitosis and
Reproduction thinking
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meiosis.
Cancer Cells 6. describe Watch video clips for
Aging correctly the emphasis
mechanisms of
protein synthesis, Evaluate: Summative
cell Assessments
reproduction.
7. explain properly
why cells
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degenerate or
age.
8. discuss the
mechanism that
occurs with
cancer cells.
9-10 Lesson 5: The Mighty At the end of the Engage:

Gatekeeper learning experience, Answer pre-assessment
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you will be able to: and self-assessment
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1. determine the activities
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The Cell Membrane
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substances that
Phospholipid bilayer
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make up the cell Explore:
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and Membrane Answer activities given
membrane
Proteins through recall and use
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Functions of role of membrane references
Membrane Proteins proteins
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3. discuss properly
Membrane Physiology each type of Explain: Lecture-
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transport discussion; Outline

Transport Mechanisms presentation; Self-
mechanism
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4. differentiate assessments; Feedback;

Osmosis
correctly the Read assigned topics
Volume Abnormalities passive from from references
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active transport indicated

mechanisms
Elaborate: Answer
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5. compare
activities on critical
accurately the
thinking
types of active
transport Evaluate: Summative
6. explain properly Assessments
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the concept of
osmosis
7. determine the
different types of
volume
abnormalities
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11 Lesson 6: Cell At the end of the Engage:
Membrane Potentials learning experience, Answer pre-assessment
Definition of Terms you will be able to: and self-assessment
1. define terms activities
Ions in the ECF and correctly
ICF Explore:
2. discuss diligently
Membrane Potentials Answer activities given
the principles of
through recall and use
Nernst Potential membrane of Anatomy-Physiology
potentials references
Action Potential in 3. explain diligently
Nerve and Muscle
Cells the mechanisms of
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Explain: Lecture-
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action potential
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Refractory Period discussion; Outline
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4. compute correctly
presentation; Self-
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Propagation of Action for Nernst potential
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Potential 5. determine assessments; Feedback;
Phases of Nerve correctly the Read assigned topics
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Action Potential phases of action from references
potential along a indicated
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nerve cell, cardiac
Elaborate: Answer
muscle cell, and
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stomach muscle
thinking
cell
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6. discuss properly Evaluate: Summative

the characteristics Assessments
of action potential
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along a nerve cell,

cardiac muscle
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cell and stomach

muscle cell
7. differentiate
correctly absolute
and relative
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refractory periods
8. create a concept
map on
membrane
potentials
12 Midterms Online Exams
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13 Lesson 7: Nerve Cell At the end of the Engage:
Membrane Potentials learning experience, Answer pre-assessment
you will be able to: activities
The Nerve Cell 1. describe the
nerve cell Explore:
Neurons and Action 2. distinguish action Answer activities given
Potentials through recall and use
potentials from
Electrical Signals in graded references
Neurons potentials
3. discuss fully
Ion Channels synaptic Explain: Lecture-
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transmissions discussion; Outline
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Resting Membrane
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4. determine presentation; Self-
Potential
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properly the assessments; Feedback;
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events involved Read assigned topics
Action potentials vs
in synaptic from references
Graded potentials
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Signal Transmission at 5. determine
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Elaborate: Answer
Synapses correctly the
structures that activities on critical
Role of Calcium Ions make up the thinking
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neuromuscular
Electrical vs Chemical junction. Evaluate: Summative
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Synapses 6. discuss properly Assessments

how an impulse
Neuromuscular from a nerve
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Junction ending transmits

to a skeletal
Acetylcholine muscle fiber.
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Formation, Secretion 7. describe

and Destruction correctly the
formation,
Myasthenia Gravis secretion,
destruction and
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role of
acetylcholine at
the
neuromuscular
junction
8. explain
accurately the
effect of
acetylcholine at
motor end
plates.
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9. discuss the
pathophysiology,
manifestations
and treatment of
myasthenia
gravis.
10. create a
concept map on
propagation
action potentials
and nerve cells.
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14-15 Lesson 8: Neurologic At the end of the Engage:
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Functions learning experience, Answer pre-assessment
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Nervous System
Functions
1. explain the
functions of the Explore:
nervous system Answer activities given
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Cranial Nerves and 2. discuss well the through recall and use
Cranial Nerve Testing concepts of of Anatomy-Physiology
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neurologic references
Spinal Cord and assessment
3. determine
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Reflex Arc
correctly the Explain: Lecture-
Sensory and Motor twelve (12) discussion; Outline
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Function Tests cranial nerves presentation; Self-

4. explain properly assessments; Feedback;
Reflexes and Reflex the components
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Testing of reflex arc

5. perform from references
accurately indicated
Motor Control System
cranial nerve
testing, sensory Elaborate: Answer
and motor activities on critical
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testing, and thinking

deep and
superficial reflex Watch videos on testing
testing on procedures
simulated
patients Perform testing
6. create concept procedures on
maps on nervous simulated patients
system and (record as video clips)
motor control
system
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Evaluate: Summative
Assessments
16-17 Lesson 9: Muscular At the end of the Engage:

Contraction learning experience, Answer pre-assessment
Neuromuscular 1. explain
Junction accurately the Explore:
events that Answer activities given
Types of Muscle Tissues through recall and use
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occur at the
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Skeletal Muscle neuromuscular references
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Structure junction
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2. discuss properly
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Energetics of Skeletal the excitation- Explain: Lecture-
Muscle Contraction
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coupling presentation; Self-
Types of Skeletal assessments; Feedback;
3. determine
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Muscle Fibers Read assigned topics
correctly the
composition of from references
Smooth Muscle
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skeletal muscle indicated

Structure
cells
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Elaborate: Answer
Cardiac Muscle 4. differentiate the
Structure types of muscle
thinking
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contraction
Mechanics of Skeletal
5. determine Watch video clips for
Muscle Contraction
accurately the emphasis
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Excitation-Contraction composition of
smooth muscle Evaluate: Summative
Coupling
6. differentiate Assessments
Walk-Along appropriately
Mechanism skeletal from
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smooth muscle
Length-Tension
physiology
Relationship
Skeletal vs Smooth
muscle contraction
Excitation of Visceral
Smooth Muscle
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Online Exams
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LESSON 1
INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT AND BODY’S FEEDBACK SYSTEM
Introduction
This lesson will give us a recap on the basics of studying the human body as you
have encountered in your NSIHAP1 class. It will discuss thoroughly on the ways the body
conditions are regulated with feedback systems and how important for the internal
environment to be healthy.
Learning Outcomes of the Lesson
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At the end of the learning experience, you will be able to:
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1. discuss appropriately the significance of human physiology in the field of physical
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therapy.
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2. define accurately related terminologies.
3. explain correctly the levels of organization of the human body.
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4. differentiate the body’s external environment from internal environment.
5. determine the components of the feedback loop.
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6. discuss negative feedback and positive feedback.
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Introduction to Human Physiology

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“…If we break up a living organism by isolating different parts, it is only for the sake of
ease in analysis and by no means in order to conceive them separately. Indeed, when
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we wish to ascribe to a physiological quality its value and true significance, we must
always refer it to the whole and draw our final conclusions only in relation to its effects
on the whole.” – Claude Bernard (1865)
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 Self Assessment 1. Write down your insight or interpretation to the quote by Claude
Bernard.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
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 Pre-Assessment 1. Definition of Terms. Using the Venn Diagram, compare and
contrast the terms Anatomy and Physiology.
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 Self-Assessment 2. Physiology in the Field of PT. What do you think is the
importance of Physiology in the field of Physical Therapy? Scribble as many as you can.
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Responsiveness is a significant characteristic of life. It is a reason for us human

organisms for our internal environment adapts to the various stimuli from the external
environment. The way our body responds to these stimuli depends on the smooth
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coordination of our receptors, integrating center, and effectors. From the simplest
chemical component of the body to the human organism itself, appropriate feedback
or response is necessary to keep the physiologic processes in our body in dynamic
balance. Hence, healthy response from the chemical level will benefit the cells, the
tissues, the organs and the systems as a whole leading to a healthy, normal and
functional human body.
 Activity 1. Levels of Structural Organization. Discuss the levels of structural

organization of the human body from the simplest to the complex. Provide an example
for each level.
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 Recall the previously cited quote and previous activities. The human body is made
up of several structures and in order for us to comprehend how each structure works,
we have to remember that each structural level relates with each other. For us to fully
understand our body processes, we keep in mind that a healthy human organism is
made possible if each of these structures are healthy and maintained well within the
internal environment.
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 Activity 2. Internal and External Environment. Describe the internal environment and
external environment in the table below.
INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT
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THE INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT

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 All cells live in essentially the same environment – the extracellular fluid.
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 The extracellular fluid is also called the internal environment of the body, or the
milieu intérieur
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EXTRACELLULAR FLUID vs. INTRACELLULAR FLUID
The body is made up of 60% fluids of total body mass in average adult male.
There are two major fluid compartments: the extracellular fluid (ECF) compartment and
the intracellular fluid (ICF) compartment. The ECF surrounds cells and provides medium
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for substance exchange between cells. Also, the ECF contains large amounts of
sodium, chloride, and bicarbonate ions, plus nutrients for cells such as oxygen, glucose,
fatty acids, and amino acids. On the other hand, the ICF serves as essential fluid within
every cell and contains significanyttly larger amounts of potassium, magnesium and
phosphate ions. Special mechanisms for transporting ions through cell membranes
maintain ion concentration differences between the ECF and ICF.
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 Reading Task: Read the topics on Functional Organization of the Human Body
and Control of the “Internal Environment” and Introduction to the Human Body using
the following textbooks:
1. Hall, J. (2016). Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology. 13th Ed. Elsevier:
Philadelphia, PA
2. Tortora, G. and Derrickson, B. (2017). Principles of Anatomy and Physiology. 1th
Edition. Wiley and Sons, Inc.
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✓Let’s pause and check your understanding!
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 Activity 3. ECF and ICF. Summarize the characteristics of ECF and ICF on the
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following table.
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Extracellular Fluid Intracellular Fluid
Location
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% in the body
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Sub-compartments
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Constituents
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Osmolarity
pH
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Function
 Activity 4. Homeostasis.
a. Define Homeostasis.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
b. Discuss the components of the feedback system.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
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c. Briefly discuss how oxygen and carbon dioxide concentrations are regulated
in the extracellular fluid.
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d. Discuss how arterial blood pressure is regulated.

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Summative Assessment
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 Summative Assessment 1. Homeostasis Applied. The following are series of
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questions that will lead you to the process of understanding some common body
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conditions. Provide short answers with respective references. Afterwhich create a
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diagram of your answer. Draw one diagram per body condition. Be guided with the
key components of your diagram below. Place your respective answers inside the
figures.
22 PH B Return to normal condition
Diagram guide:
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Normal condition: (a) (a)
Stimulus: (b)
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Receptors: (c)
Integrating center: (d) (c) (e)
(b) (f)
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Effectors: (e) (d)

Response: (f)
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A. Body fluid:
a. What is the normal amount of body fluid for an average adult male?
U
_________
b. What condition will lead to an immediate decreased amount of body fluid?
_________
c. What receptor will detect the decreased amount of body fluid? _________
d. Where is such receptor located? (identify the particular organ) _________
e. What organ will respond to increase the amount of the body fluid?
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___________
f. How will such organ increase the amount of the body fluid?
_____________________
26
g. In the same manner, create another diagram that depicts the reverse of the
condition presented above.
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h. Predict what happens if the feedback does not work normally.
___________________________________________________________________________
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___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
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___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
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___________________________________________________________________________
B. Temperature
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a. What is the normal body temperature for an average adult? _________

b. What condition will lead to an immediate decreased body temperature?
__________
c. What receptor will detect the decreased body temperature? _________
d. Where is such receptor located? (identify the particular organ) ___________
e. What organ will respond to increase the body temperature? ___________
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f. How will such organ increase the body temperature?

____________________________
27
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g. In the same manner, create a diagram that depicts the reverse of the
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condition presented above.
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h. Predict what happens if the feedback does not work normally.

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
28
C. Hemostasis
a. What happens with the blood flow when a blood vessel is cut?
___________________
b. How does an injured blood vessel heal?
___________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
c. Diagram the possible events that occur to prevent blood loss with an injured
blood vessel. (You may modify the sample diagram to depict the feedback
mechanism for this condition)
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Predict what happens to the body if the feedback on hemostasis does not
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work normally.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
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___________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Which of the conditions present a negative feedback system?

____________________________
Which of the conditions present a positive feedback system?
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____________________________
 Summative Assessment 2. Short-answer Response. Construct a conclusion on the

importance of homeostasis in daily body function.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
29

category) category)
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form of irrelevant
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topic and/ or may
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sentence be applied
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topic the topic
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closing and/ or may
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sentence be applied
inaccurately
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the sections of and
among creating
ideas and cohesion,
concepts and/ or
clarifying
the
relationships
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among
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ideas and
concepts
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23 1 ag
(5) few, if any, some errors several many errors
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errors in
spelling,
in spelling,
punctuation
errors in
spelling,
in spelling,
punctuation,
N of
capitalization, capitalizatio , , grammar
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but do not from the

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of the
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response
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RUBRIC FOR LESSON 1 ACTIVITY COMPLETION

CATEGORY Score
category) category)
reference/s some tasks missed some
including parts of
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each required cited
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task
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23 1 ag
required tasks
22 PH B required tasks of the
required tasks
Neatness of No erasures; There are
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work (5) no erasures in the
crumples/folds illustrations; or
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in the paper; paper is

handwriting is crumpled/
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clearly legible folded; or

handwriting is
not legible
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LESSON 2
BODY’S TINIEST LIVING STRUCTURES: PART I
PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE CELL
Introduction
This lesson will help you recall the basic principles on the smallest living units of
the human body – our cells. Likewise, you get to be re-introduced to the various
structures that make up this amazing living unit of our body.
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At the end the learning experience, you will be able to
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1. identify correctly the different cellular structures.
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2. discuss well the structures that make up the protoplasm.
3. determine properly the functions of cellular organelles.
4. explain clearly the function of the cell membrane as a lipid bilayer.
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TYPICAL HUMAN CELL

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In your previous physiology classes, you were introduced to this amazing tiniest
living structure that makes up the human body – the cell. Can you recall how a typical
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human cell looks like? It is worth to note that a good understanding of its structures and
functions will help you comprehend larger anatomic structures and more complex
processes that occur in our body.
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 Self-Assessment 1. The Cell. Can you recall the basic parts of the cell as seen under
a compound microscope? Illustrate what you can recall as a typical cell under a
compound microscope in the box below. Label the parts.
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33
 Pre-assessment 1. The Protoplasm. Have you any idea of what the basic substances
of protoplasm are? Draw lines to match the substances of protoplasm on the first
column (*) with their respective description on the second column (⬧).
Carbohydrates * ⬧ Principal fluid medium of the cell

Ions * ⬧ Include potassium, magnesium, phosphate,
Proteins * sulfate, bicarbonate
Lipids * ⬧ Include cholesterol and triglycerides
Water * ⬧ Form as part of glycoprotein molecules
⬧ Second most abundant substance
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 Activity 1. Substances of Protoplasm. Now, let’s pause to check if you can determine
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the significance or importance of the substances that make up the cell’s protoplasm.
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Use the table below for your answers.
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Basic Substance Significance
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1.
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2.
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3.
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4.
5.
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 A typical human cell is made up of very minute, but highly organized organelles and
a nucleus suspended in the cytosol secured within a double-layered cell (plasma)
membrane. Knowledge on the structures and functions of the cell and the processes a
typical cell is involved in is important in appreciating how the human body maintains
life.
34
 Activity 2. Definition of Terms. Let’s define the following terms:
CYTOPLASM: _______________________________________________________________________
CYTOSOL: __________________________________________________________________________
ORGANELLES: ______________________________________________________________________
PROTOPLASM: ______________________________________________________________________
 Activity 3. Human Cell and Organelles. Sketch out the typical human cell depicting
its organelles. Label and color each part accordingly.
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 Activity 4. Membranous Structures. Get back to your drawing of the cell. Can you
identify membranous structures? List down at least 5 membranous structures of the cell:
1. ________________
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2. ________________
3. ________________
4. ________________
5. ________________
35
PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE TYPICAL HUMAN CELL
The cell contains highly organized physical structures,

called the intracellular organelles. This means that each
organelle has its own place or location in the cytoplasm.
 Reading Task: Read onwards the topics on Physical Structure of the Cell (Hall,
2016) and The Cellular Level of Organization (Tortora, 2014) using the following
textbooks:
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Philadelphia, PA 19103-2899
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2. Tortora, G. and D. (2017). Principles of Anatomy and Physiology. 15th Edition.
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Wiley and Sons, Inc.
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 From your previous reading task, let us further elaborate on the cellular structures,
their description and functions.
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 Activity 5. Cellular Organelles and Structures. Identify the cellular structures

according to their description and function. Write your answers on the first column.
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Cellular Structures Description Function

Consists of 3-20 flattened Entry (cis) face accepts proteins
membranous sacs called from rough ER; medial cisternae
cisternae; structurally and form glycoproteins, glycolipids,
functionally divided into entry and lipoproteins; exit (trans)
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(cis) face, medial cisternae, face modifies molecules further,

and exit (trans) face. then sorts and packages them
for transport to their
destinations.
Vesicle containing oxidases Oxidizes amino acids and fatty
(oxidative enzymes) and acids; detoxifies harmful
catalase (decomposes substances, such as hydrogen
hydrogen peroxide); new peroxide and associated free
peroxisomes bud from radicals.
preexisting ones.
Fluid mosaic lipid bilayer Protects cellular contents;
(phospholipids, cholesterol, makes contact with other cells;
36
glycolipids) studded with contains channels, transporters,
proteins; surrounds cytoplasm receptors, enzymes, cell-identity
markers, and linker proteins;
mediates entry and exit of
substances.
Pair of centrioles plus The pericentriolar material
pericentriolar material contains tubulins, which are
used for growth of the mitotic
spindle and microtubule
formation.
Motile cell surface projections Cilia move materials (mainly
that contain 20 microtubules fluid) over cell’s surface while
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flagella move the entire cell
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Cellular contents between Site of all intracellular activities
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the plasma membrane and except those occurring in the
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nucleus – cytosol and nucleus.
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organelles
A network of microfilaments,
22 PH B Maintains shape and general
intermediate filaments and organization of cellular
microtubules contents; responsible for cellular
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movements
Composed of two subunits Protein synthesis
containing ribosomal RNS
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and proteins; may be free in

cytosol or attached to rough
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endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

Composed of water, solutes, Fluid in which many of cell’s
suspended particles, lipid metabolic reactions occur.
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droplets, and glycogen

granules
Membranous network of Rough type synthesizes
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flattened sacs or tubules. The glycoproteins and phospholipids

rough type is covered by that are transferred to cellular
ribosomes and is attached to organelles, instead into plasma
the nuclear envelope; while, membrane, or secreted during
smooth one lacks ribosomes exocytosis, on the other hand,
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smooth type synthesizes fatty

acids and steroids, inactivates
or detoxifies drugs, removes
phosphate group from glucose-
6-phophate; and stores and
releases calcium ions in muscle
cells.
Consists of a nuclear Nuclear pores control the
envelope with pores, nucleoli movement of substances
and chromosomes, which between the nucleus and
cytoplasm, nucleoli produce
37
exist as a tangled mass of ribosomes, and chromosomes
chromatin in interphase cells. consist of genes that control
cellular structure and direct
cellular functions
Tiny barrel-shaped structure Degrades unneeded,
that contains proteases damaged, or faulty proteins by
(proteolytic enzymes). cutting them into small
peptides.
Vesicle formed from Golgi Fuses with and digests contents
complex; contains digestive of endosomes, pinocytic
enzymes vesicles, and phagosomes and
transports final products of
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digestion into cytosol; digests
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worn-out organelles
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(autophagy), entire cell
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(autolysis), and extracellular
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materials
22 PH BConsists of an outer and inner Site of aerobic cellular
mitochondrial membrane, respiration reactions that
cristae, and matrix; new produce most of a cell’s ATP.
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mitochondria form from Plays an important early role in
preceding ones apoptosis.
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 Activity 6. Plasma Membrane. Make a sketch of the fluid-mosaic model of the cell
membrane. Label and color accordingly.
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38
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 Continue with the assessment only if you are ready. That is, you are to do the
assessment tasks with utmost integrity. Without looking at any references, answer what
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is asked. Use permanent ink for final answers. Keep your work neat!
22 PH B
 Summative Assessment 1. Multiple choice. Highlight the structure that corresponds
to your answer.
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1. Which of the following organelles are NOT covered by membranes composed of
proteins and lipids?
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Mitochondria Lysosomes Ribosomes Golgi complex

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2. The following are primary substances that make up the protoplasm, EXCEPT
Proteins Lipids Glucose Carbohydrates
3. What is the collective term for substances that make up the cell?
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Cytoplasm Cytosol Organelles Protoplasm
4. Which of the following structures have resemblance to lysosomes but are more
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consistently spherical and their content is less dense?

Ribosomes Mitochondria Peroxisomes Golgi complex
5. They function in the synthesis of protein cells and are composed of a mixture of
ribonucleic acid and proteins.
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Peroxisomes Ribosomes Glycoproteins Lysosomes
6. These refer to the slender processes of uniform length and diameter on the apical
surface if certain epithelial cells.
Pseudopods Flagella Cilia Microvilli
7. This a collective term for the filaments seen the cytoplasm of the cell.
Microtubules Microfilaments Cytoskeleton Cytoplasmic organelles
8. This is the largest organelle in secretory cell types:

Endoplasmic reticulum Lysosome Golgi complex Mitochondria
39
9. This is a structure which is visible in the living cell as a more-or-less spherical refractile
body eccentrically in the nucleus.
Residual body Ribosome DNA Nucleolus
10. The organelles involved in the removal of damaged cells are the__
Golgi Apparatus Lysosomes Mitochondria Secretory vesicles
 Summative Assessment 2. Short-answer Response. Discuss in not less than 5

sentences the role of the cell membrane as a lipid barrier. Write your answer in the box
provided.
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CATEGORY Score
category) category)
including parts of
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each required cited
B U ui
task
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23 1 ag
required tasks
required tasks
Neatness of No erasures/ No erasures/ With erasures/ With erasures/
N of
work (5) unnecessary unnecessary unnecessary crumples/folds
markings on markings on markings on in the paper;
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the paper; the paper; the paper; penmanship is

penmanship is penmanship is penmanship is not legible
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clearly and not legible legible

neatly
appealing
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41
LESSON 3
BODY’S TINIEST LIVING STRUCTURES: PART II
FUNCTIONAL SYSTEMS OF THE CELL
Introduction
This lesson is a continuation of Lesson 2 on the study of the cells. Particularly,

this lesson will focus on the physiologic mechanisms or processes that occur during
cellular activities. Likewise, this lesson will present detailed functions of cellular
organelles including membrane transport mechanisms.
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At the end the learning experience, you will be able to
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1. describe correctly the different physiologic mechanisms regarding cellular
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activities.
2. explain clearly the functional systems of the cell.
22 PH B
3. discuss properly the membrane transport mechanisms.
4. create a storyboard to animate the cellular processes.
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CLOSER LOOK AT CELL ORGANELLES
You have just finished learning about the characteristics of the organelles and
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cell membrane in our previous lesson.
 Self-Assessment 1. Let’s do a recap! Without looking at your notes and references,

list down all the intracellular organelles you can recall. Beside each structure, write just
ONE word to describe it. Use the box provided for your answers.
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 Activity 1. Cellular Processes. Differentiate the following processes seen in the

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following figures. Write your answers inside the corresponding boxes.

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ENDOCYTOSIS EXOCYTOSIS
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PHAGOCYTOSIS PINOCYTOSIS
43
AMEBOID MOTION CILIARY MOTION
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ACTIVE TRANSPORT PASSIVE TRANSPORT
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MITOSIS MEIOSIS
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There are indeed several processes that the cellular structures do to

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keep and maintain the cell as a living unit. These are outlined as
follows:
I. Ingestion by the Cell—Endocytosis
II. Digestion of Pinocytic and Phagocytic Foreign Substances Inside the Cell
Function of the Lysosomes
III. Synthesis and Formation of Cellular Structures by Endoplasmic Reticulum

and Golgi Apparatus
a. Specific Functions of the Endoplasmic Reticulum
44
b. Specific Functions of the Golgi Apparatus
IV. Extraction of Energy from Nutrients—Function of the Mitochondria

a. Chemical Processes in the Formation of ATP—Role of the Mitochondria
b. Uses of ATP for Cellular Function
 Reading Task: Read the topics under Functional Systems of the Cell (Hall, 2016) :
Philadelphia, PA
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From your previous reading task, let’s get on the
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detailed functions of the organelles. Here is a synthesis on
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the cell’s functional systems carried out by the cellular
organelles. (Hall, 2016)
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 Activity 2. Cellular Processes Animated. Create a storyboard to depict the processes
that occur in the following activities and organelle functions. Use short bond paper
(8”x11”) with maximum of 6 screens per paper per topic. You may use a maximum of 3
bond papers per topic. Layout may either be portrait or landscape, whichever you
prefer provided you use only one layout throughout all the topics.
a) Phagocytosis and Pinocytosis
b) Functions of Endoplasmic Reticulum
c) Vesicle formation of Golgi Apparatus
d) Function of Mitochondria
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RUBRIC FOR STORYBOARD

(100 % of Satisfactory (60 % of the Improvement
the total (80 % of the total score for(40 % of the
CATEGORY Score
score for total score for each total score
each each category) for each
category) category) category)
Organization Storyboard Storyboard Reader/viewer Reader/
(5) presents presents has difficulty viewer
information information in following cannot
in logical, logical storyboard understand
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interesting sequence because presentation
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sequence which screens are because
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which reader/viewer not clearly there is no
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reader/ can follow. organized sequence of
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viewer can information.
follow.
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Content Storyboard Storyboard Storyboard Storyboard
Knowledge presents full presents has limited does not
N of
(10) content content explanation present any
knowledge knowledge on content information
(more than with enough
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required) explanations
with brief or
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explanations elaboration.
or
elaboration.
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Images (5) Storyboard Storyboard Storyboard Storyboard

has very has clear and has limited has very
clear appropriate images; minimal
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interesting images to images images;

and represent present only a images are
appropriate processes few processes too small;
images to images do
represent not represent
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processes processes
47
 Continue with the assessment only if you are

ready. That is, you are to do the assessment tasks
with utmost integrity. Without looking at any
references, answer what is asked. Use
permanent ink for final answers. Keep your work
neat!
 Summative Assessment 1. Sequencing. Using numbers 1-5, arrange the following
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events of phagocytosis.
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___ The edges of the membrane around the points of attachment evaginate outward
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within a fraction of a second to surround the entire particle; then, progressively
more and more membrane receptors attach to the particle ligands.
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___All this occurs suddenly in a zipper-like manner to form a closed phagocytic vesicle.
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___The cell membrane receptors attach to the surface ligands of the particle.
___The contractile proteins then pinch the stem of the vesicle so completely that the
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vesicle separates from the cell membrane, leaving the vesicle in the cell interior in
the same way that pinocytotic vesicles are formed.
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___ Actin and other contractile fibrils in the cytoplasm surround the phagocytic vesicle
and contract around its outer edge, pushing the vesicle to the interior.
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events involved in the function of lysosomes.
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____ In most instances, the residual body is finally excreted through the cell membrane
by a process called exocytosis.
____ The products of digestion are small molecules of amino acids, glucose,
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phosphates, and so forth that can diffuse through the membrane of the vesicle into the
cytoplasm.
____ What is left of the digestive vesicle, called the residual body, represents indigestible
substances.
____ Thus, a digestive vesicle is formed inside the cell cytoplasm in which the vesicular
hydrolases begin hydrolyzing the proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and other substances
in the vesicle.
48
____ Almost immediately after a pinocytotic or phagocytic vesicle appears inside a cell,
one or more lysosomes become attached to the vesicle and empty their acid
hydrolases to the inside of the vesicle.
 Summative Assessment 3. Enumeration.
1. List 2 types of vesicles formed by the Golgi Complex.

a. _________________________________
b. _________________________________
2. Enumerate 3 principal substances from foodstuffs from which cells extract energy
from.
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a. ________________________________
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b. ________________________________
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c. _______________________________
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3. Asides from protein and lipid synthesis, provide 2 more functions of the Endoplasmic
Reticulum.
a. ____________________________________________________________________________
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__________________________________________________________________________
b. ____________________________________________________________________________
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__________________________________________________________________________
4. List 3 major cellular functions that require ATP.
a. _______________________________
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b. _______________________________
c. _______________________________
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RUBRIC FOR LESSONS 3 ACTIVITY COMPLETION

CATEGORY Score
category) category)
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including parts of
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each required cited
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task
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of work (15) diligently all
22 PH B required tasks 50-70% of the less than 50%
required tasks
N of
Neatness of No erasures/ No erasures/ With erasures/ With erasures/
work (5) unnecessary unnecessary unnecessary crumples/folds
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markings on markings on markings on in the paper;

the paper; the paper; the paper; penmanship is
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penmanship is penmanship is penmanship is not legible

clearly and not legible legible
neatly
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appealing
BSU
50
LESSON 4
IT’S IN THE GENES
Introduction
This lesson will emphasize on the DNA and RNA structures and functions. You
will get to learn the process involved in transcription and protein synthesis. Likewise,
this lesson will provide a closer look on processes of cell reproduction and aging.
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1. distinguish DNA from RNA
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2. distinguish Transcription from Translation
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3. distinguish Mitosis from Meiosis
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4. discuss accurately the importance of genetic control of cell function.
5. differentiate clearly the significant characteristics of mitosis and meiosis.
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6. describe correctly the mechanisms of protein synthesis, cell reproduction.
7. explain properly why cells degenerate or age.
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8. discuss the mechanism that occurs with cancer cells.
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The Cell’s Nucleus
By now you are aware that genes play an important role in controlling heredity.
Genes are basically found within the cell’s nucleus and genes control not only heredity
but daily body functions as well. This is through its role in synthesizing proteins.
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Let’s start with the structure of the nucleus. Can you still recall how the nucleus of
the cell looks like?
 Self-Assessment 1. The Nucleus. Sketch the cell’s nucleus. Label its associated
structures.
51
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✓ Let’s check what you can recall from your subjects NSBCHM1 and NSIHAP1.
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 Pre-Assessment 1. RNA and DNA. Using the Venn Diagram, compare and contrast
DNA and RNA.
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 Pre-Assessment 2. Transcription and Translation. Using the Venn Diagram, compare
and contrast the Transcription and Translation.
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DNA AND RNA

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Proteins, as the 2nd most abundant of substances next to water, come in various
forms and functions. These structures take part in chemical processes and various
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cellular activities. The DNA and RNA play key roles in making proteins.
Let us understand further the characteristics of DNA and RNA.

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 Activity 1. DNA and RNA. In a tabular form, compare DNA and RNA by their
building blocks, synthesis, nucleotide formation and activation. Draw your table in the
space provided.
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53
 Now, let us look further into the structure of the DNA. The Deoxyribonucleic Acid is a
helical, double-stranded structure of the gene. The outside strands are composed of
phosphoric acid and the sugar deoxyribose, while the internal molecules connecting
the two strands of the helix are purine and pyramidine bases which determines the
“code” of the gene.
 Activity 2. DNA Structure. Draw, color and label the DNA structure as described
above. Draw inside the box provided.
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BASIC BUILDING BLOCKS OF DNA:

1. Phosphoric acid
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2. Deoxyribose (sugar)
3. Bases (nitrogenous)
a. Purines
• Adenine
• Guanine
b. Pyrimidines
• Thymine
• Cytosine
➢ Formation of DNA = 1 molecule of phosphoric acid + one molecule of
deoxyribose + 1 for each of the four bases
➢ 4 separate Nucleotides: deoxyadenylic, deoxythymidylic, deoxyguanylic,
deoxycytidylic acids
54
 The importance of DNA is its ability to control the formation of proteins in the cell. It
does this by means of the so-called genetic code. (Hall, 2016)
BASIC BUILDING BLOCKS OF RNA

➢ Almost the same as those of DNA, except:
o Deoxyribose is not used, rather, in its place is ribose
o Thymine is replaced by uracil
3 TYPES OF RNA
a. Messenger RNA
b. Transfer RNA
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c. Ribosomal RNA
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PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
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➢ The process in which cells make proteins

➢ 2 stages:
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o Transcription – occurs inside the nucleus; genetic instructions are

transferred from DNA to mRNA
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➢ Note that ribose nucleotide bases ALWAYS combine with deoxyribose bases
DNA bases RNA bases

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Guanine → Cytosine
Cytosine → Guanine
Adenine → Uracil
Thymine → Adenine
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o Translation – occurs outside the nucleus (in the cytoplasm); genetic code
in mRNA is read and used to make a protein
 Reading Task: Read the topics under Genetic Control of Protein Synthesis, Cell
Function and Cell Reproduction (Hall, 2016) :
Philadelphia, PA
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GENETIC CONTROL OF CELL FUNCTION
The figure depicts the general schema of genetic control. Each
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gene, which is a nucleic acid called deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA),
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automatically controls the formation of another nucleic acid,
ribonucleic acid (RNA); this RNA then spreads throughout the cell
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to control the formation of a specific protein. Because there are
more than 30,000 different genes in each cell, it is theoretically
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(Hall, 2016)
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 Activity 3. Video Clips for Emphasis. Watch the following video clips for more of
DNA, RNA, protein synthesis, and cell reproduction. Prior to watching, kindly recall the
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following terms: DNA, RNA, Genes, Transcription, Translation, Biomolecules, Protein

synthesis, Chromosomes, Chromatids, Meiosis, Mitosis from what you have already read
on.
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1. DNA Structure and Function on https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_POdWsii7AI

2. DNA vs. RNA on https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JQByjprj_mA
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3. Protein Synthesis on https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oefAI2x2CQM

4. Mitosis vs. Meiosis: Side by Side Comparison on
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zrKdz93WlVk
 Activity 4. Post-viewing. Now that you have watched the video clips, list down what
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you have learned and understood better with what were presented (as compared to
your readings and previous activities).
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
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 Activity 5. Transcription. Using a flow diagram, present the events in the process of
transcription. Use the box for your answers.
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Control of Gene Function and Biochemical Activity in Cells

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Gene Regulation, also known as gene expression, covers the entire process from
the transcription of genetic code in the nucleus to the formation of proteins in the
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cytoplasm. It provides the ability to respond to changes in the environment for all living
organisms.
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• When DNA splits, it exposes purine and pyramidine bases which form the
genetic code
• Genetic code consists of three (3) successive bases (“triplets”)
 Activity 6. Genetic Code. What is the importance of genetic code?

_____________________________________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
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Enzyme Regulation
 Activity 7. Enzyme Regulation. Differentiate enzyme inhibition from enzyme

activation.
ENZYME INHIBITION ENZYME ACTIVATION
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Control of Cell Reproduction
The genes and their regulatory mechanisms determine the growth

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characteristics of the cells and also when or whether these cells will divide to form new
cells. In this way, the all-important genetic system controls each stage in the
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development of the human being, from the single-cell fertilized ovum to the whole
functioning body. (Hall, 2016).
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 Activity 8. Using the Venn Diagram, compare and contrast the following paired
physiologic concepts/ processes.
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Mitosis and Meiosis

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Nuclear and Cytoplasmic Division
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Somatic Cell and Reproductive Cell Division
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 Through cell reproduction, life is maintained. Yet, cells also eventually wear off and
die. Have you wondered how cells die? There are two general ways for cell death:
Apoptosis or Necrosis. Apoptosis is programmed cell death or similarly, natural cell
death, while necrosis involves swelling and bursting of cell due to loss of cell membrane
integrity as in the case of injury or illness. There have been several theories on aging
that exemplify either apoptosis or necrosis.
 Let’s ponder on cancer cells. Have you any idea how cancer cells occur? Do we
have cancer cells or only certain individuals develop it?
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 Activity 9. Cancer Cells. Briefly discuss how cancer cells occur. Include the
mechanism how cancer cells can kill. Please remember to cite your references. Write
your answers in the box provided.
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 Activity 10. Aging. Research for and discuss 3 physiologic theories of aging. Please
remember to cite your references. Write your answers in the box provided.
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assessment tasks with utmost integrity. Without looking at your module, notes or
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textbooks, answer what is asked. Use permanent ink for final answers. Keep your work
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neat!
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 Summative Assessment 1. Multiple Choice. Highlight your answer from the choices
given per statement or question.
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1. Suppose that a DNA segment has the following nucleotide sequence: CTC ATA
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CGA TTC AAG TTA. Which of the following nucleotide sequences would be found in
a complimentary mRNA?
GAG UAU GAU AAC AAU
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GAG TAT GCT AAG TTC AAT

GAG UAU GCU AAG UUC AAU
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GUG UAU GGA UUG AAC GGU
2. This type of RNA transfers amino acid molecules to protein molecules as the proteins
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are being synthesized.

Messenger RNA
Transport RNA
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Ribosomal RNA
Transfer RNA
3. This refers to the sequence of nucleotides that encode the information necessary for
synthesis if all different RNAs and proteins of the body.
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Transcription
Deoxyribonucleic acid
Translation
Replication
4. The chemical and physical events of DNA replication is characterized by which of

the following?
DNA replication is similar to RNA translation
Both entire strands of DNA helix are replicated from end to end
The principal enzymes in replicating DNA are deoxyribonucleases
All of the above
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5. Two sets of daughter chromosomes are pushed completely apart in which mitotic
stage?
Anaphase
Metaphase
Prometaphase
Telophase
6. Cell reproduction begins with_

DNA replication
DNA synthesis
Interphase
Prophase
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7. During this phase of mitosis, 46 pairs of chromatids are separated, forming 46
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daughter chromosomes.
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Anaphase
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Metaphase
Prophase 22 PH B
Telophase
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8. Which of the following are rod structures formed in the nucleus at prophase of cell
division?
Pseudopods
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RNA
DNA
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Chromosomes
9. Which of the following statements is true of mitosis?

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Shortly before mitosis is to take place, the two pairs of centrioles begin to move
apart from each other.
There are 23 chromosomes present that undergo mitosis
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Both statements above are true

Neither statement above is true
10. This is a kind of cell division that occurs only in the production of gametes.
Mitosis
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Meiosis
Apoptosis
Necrosis
 Summative Assessment 2. Identification. Write your answers on the lines provided

after each statement of question
1. This refers to programmed cell death. __________________________

2. This is the other term for gene regulation. _________________________
3. Crossing over is an event in which phase of cell division? ________________________
4. Enzyme regulation process that occurs when most of the ATP is depleted in a cell.
_________________________
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5. These are structures considered as the main sites of protein synthesis.
______________________
 Summative Assessment 3. Enumeration.
Steps of protein synthesis

1. _____________________
2. _____________________
Bases of RNA
1. _____________________
2. _____________________
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3. _____________________
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4. _____________________
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Backbone of DNA
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1. ______________________
2. ______________________
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Somatic cells
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1. ______________________
2. ______________________
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events of protein synthesis.
____The polymerase moves along the DNA strand, temporarily unwinding and
separating the two DNA strands at each stage of its movement. As it moves along,
it adds at each stage a new activated RNA nucleotide to the end of the newly
forming RNA chain.
____ After the RNA polymerase attaches to the promoter, the polymerase causes
unwinding of about two turns of the DNA helix and separation of the unwound
portions of the two strands.
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____ It causes a hydrogen bond to form between the end base of the DNA strand and
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the base of an RNA nucleotide in the nucleoplasm.
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____ When the RNA polymerase reaches the end of the DNA gene, it encounters a new
sequence of DNA nucleotides called the chain-terminating sequence; this causes
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the polymerase and the newly formed RNA chain to form still more new RNA
chains.
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____ As the new RNA strand is formed, its weak hydrogen bonds with the DNA template
break away, because the DNA has a high affinity for rebonding with its own
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complementary DNA strand. Thus, the RNA chain is forced away from the DNA
and is released into the nucleoplasm.
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____ In the DNA strand immediately ahead of the initial gene is a sequence of
nucleotides called the promoter. The RNA polymerase has an appropriate
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complementary structure that recognizes this promoter and becomes attached to

it. This is the essential step for initiating formation of the RNA molecule.
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___ One at a time, the RNA polymerase breaks two of the three phosphate radicals
away from each of these RNA nucleotides, liberating large amounts of energy
from the broken high-energy phosphate bonds; this energy is used to cause
covalent linkage of the remaining phosphate on the nucleotide with the ribose on
the end of the growing RNA chain.
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CATEGORY Score
category) category)
including parts of
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each required cited
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task
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required tasks
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LESSON 5
THE MIGHTY GATEKEEPER
Introduction
In this lesson, you will learn more of the cell/ plasma membrane, its composition,
functions and processes that occur along it. Moreover, it will focus on the different
transport mechanisms performed by the cell membrane.
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1. determine the substances that make up the cell membrane
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2. explain well the role of membrane proteins
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3. discuss properly each type of transport mechanism
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4. differentiate correctly the passive from active transport mechanisms
5. compare accurately the types of active transport
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6. explain properly the concept of osmosis
7. determine the different types of volume abnormalities
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The Cell Membrane

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After learning about the internal structures of the cell

and the significant functions of gene regulation, we now
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come up with looking into the equally important processes

and function of the cell membrane.
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 Pre-Assessment 1. Structure and Function of Cell Membrane. Review on cell

membrane structure and function. Without looking at your notes and textbooks,
honestly complete the statements by filling in the lines the appropriate terms. Please
use capital letters for your answers.
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1. The two main substances of the cell membrane are _____________________ and
______________________
2. The head part of the phospholipid molecule is ___________________
3. The tail part of the phospholipid molecule is ___________________
4. Examples of materials that are lipid soluble are __________________,
_________________ and __________________
5. The model that depicts the combination of substances of the cell membrane is
the __________________
6. To get across the cell membrane water molecules pass through
_____________________
7. The most abundant ion in the ECF is ____________________
8. The most abundant ion in the ICF is ___________________
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9. Na-K pump is an example of _____________________active transport.
10. The form of membrane transport that uses ATP is ________________________
From previous activities and discussions, we have learned that the cell
membrane serves as the gatekeeper of the cell as it regulates substances to pass
through. The cell membrane, being semipermeable, allows certain molecules to move
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in and out of the while keeping some molecules “locked up” inside or outside the cell.
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Phospholipid Bilayer and Membrane Proteins
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By now, you are aware that the major substances that make up the cell
membrane are lipids and proteins. Specific type of lipids are phospholipids arranged in
dual layer surrounding materials within the ICF. On the other hand, particular proteins
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are the membrane proteins which generally function as either channel proteins or
carrier proteins.
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 Activity 1. Phospholipid and Proteins. Make a simple sketch of the cell membrane
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depicting the phospholipid bilayer and cell membrane proteins. Draw within the box
provided. Label accordingly.
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 Activity 2. Functions of Membrane Proteins. Briefly discuss the functions of each of
the cell membrane proteins.
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MEMBRANE PHYSIOLOGY
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Important Substances that make up the cell membrane:
❖ Lipid Molecules – not miscible (do not mix) with the ICF or the ECF; the molecules
basically form a barrier against water molecules. Only lipid-soluble materials can
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easily pass through the lipid bilayer. These substances include oxygen, nitrogen,
carbon dioxide and alcohols
❖ Membrane Proteins – come in two general forms: transport or carrier proteins
and channel proteins. Membrane proteins are located or seemingly scattered
to interrupt the continuity of phospholipid molecules .
Transport or Carrier Proteins bind with molecules
Channel Proteins serve as passageways for materials
 Membrane proteins are selective and specific. This means that membrane proteins
bind with only specific molecules or permit certain substances to pass through them.
Example is carrier protein for glucose will only bind with glucose while water molecules
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pass through only specific aquapores or water channels. Hence, the cell membrane
limits and regulates entry and exit of materials through it. Additional membrane
features are the gating mechanisms (i.e voltage gate and ligand gate) which allows
opening or closing of the protein channels. With the aforementioned characteristics of
membrane proteins, the cell membrane is known to be very selective of the substances
that may pass through it (selective permeability).
Transport Mechanisms
❖ Diffusion - random movement of substances through kinetic energy; considered

as passive form of cell transport as molecules move DOWN their concentration
gradient and does not require additional form of enery.
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o Fick’s Law of Diffusion: net diffusion rate of gas across a fluid membrane is
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proportional to the difference in partial pressure proportional ro the are of
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the membrane and inversely proportional to the thickness of the
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o Factors affecting net rate of diffusion:
▪ Concentration difference on net diffusion through a membrane
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▪ Membrane electrical potential on diffusion of ions – “Nernst
Potential”
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▪ Pressure difference across the membrane
o All molecules and ions in body fluids are in CONSTANT MOTION
o motion - temperature (heat)
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o Motion never ceases except at absolute zero temperature

o Subtypes:
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▪ Simple – no interaction with carrier proteins; diffusin rate depends

on the ff: available substances, velocity of kinetic motion, number
and sizes of channel openings
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▪ Facilitated – requires interaction with carrier proteins
• Gating Mechanisms
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o Provide a means of controlling ion permeability of the channels

o Believed that some of the gates are actual gatellike extensions of
the transport protein molecule
o 2 ways of gate control
▪ Voltage gating – the molecular conformation of the gate or
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of its chemical bonds respond to the electrical potential

across the cell membrane.
▪ Chemical (Ligand) gating – the conformational or chemical
bonding change of the gate is caused by binding of
chemical substance (a ligand) to the membrane protein
• OSMOSIS – net diffusion of water molecules; it is the net diffusion of water

caused by a concentration difference
o Osmotic pressure – determined by the number of osmotic particles
❖ Active Transport – movement of molecules AGAINST a concentration gradient;

requires additional energy in the form of ATP
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o 2 Forms:
▪ Primary Active Transpport – energy is derived directly from
breakdown of ATP or some other high-enrgy phosphate compound
▪ Secondary Active Transport – energy is derived secondarily from
the energy that has been stored in the form of ionic concentration
differences of secondary molecular or ionic substances between
two sides of a cell membrane, created originally by primary active
transport
o Physiologic processes that involve actvie transport mechanisms: Sodium-

potassium pumps, calcium pumps and hydrogen pumps. Active transport
likewise occurs through cellular sheets of the following : intestinal
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epithelium, epithelium of renal tubules, epithelium of all exocrine glands,
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epitehlium of gallbladder, and membrane of choroid plexus. The basic
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transport mechanisms in these cellular sheets involve active transport on
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one side of the sheet and either simple or facilitated diffusion on the other
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side.

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Reading Task: Read the topics under Transport of Substances Through the Cell
Membrane (Hall, 2016) :
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Philadelphia, PA
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 Keep in mind that the cell membrane basically acts as a gatekeeper of the cell. It
allows very specific materials to get through. Lipid soluble molecules can easily pass
through the phospholipid bilayer through simple diffusion. While non-lipid soluble
materials can easily pass through the cell membrane through protein channels or
transport proteins. The cell membrane continues to regulate substances to get across
in order to maintain homeostasis.
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 Activity 3. Transport Mechanisms. Differentiate each pair of the following transport
mechanisms. Give one (1) example for each type. Write your answers in the boxes
provided.
PASSIVE TRANSPORT ACTIVE TRANSPORT
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PRIMARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT

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SYMPORT ANTIPORT
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SIMPLE DIFFUSION FACILITATED DIFFUSION
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VOLTAGE GATING LIGAND GATING

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OSMOSIS
 Osmosis is an example of passive transport. Particularly under the type of simple

diffusion. Water molecules move from an area of high concentration to an area of low
concentration of water molecules. The net movement of water molecules are
influenced with 2 forces: osmotic pressure and hydrostatic pressure.
➢ Osmotic pressure – considered as pulling force. Osmotic particles attract water

molecules
➢ Hydrostatic pressure – considered as pushing force. It prevents or “pushes” water
molecules away
o Let’s understand further! Water molecules move away from a solution
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if there is high hydrostatic pressure in the solution. While water molecules
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get attracted by a solution that has greater osmotic pressure.
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o Osmolality – refers to the number of solute particles per kg of water
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▪ 1 osmole = 1 gm molecular weight
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o Osmolarity – refers to the number of solute particles per liter of solution
▪ Osmoles per liter instead of per kilogram
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o A solution is made up of solvent and solute. Water is basically the
___________! Osmotic particles are the solutes.
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o There are three types of solution: isotonic, hypertonic and hypotonic
solutions
▪ Isotonic solution has same or equal amount of solvent and solutes
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▪ Hypertonic solution has greater amount of solutes

▪ Hypotonic solution has lesser amount of solutes
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 Going back to our topic on osmosis! With your reading and notes above, can you
now determine how water molecules move in and out of the cell? (Kindly put a check)
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___ YES ____ NO ____ MAYBE
 To elaborate further on osmosis, let’s have some exercises. Study the following figures.
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 Activity 4. Osmosis. Draw an arrow ( or ) at the center of the figure (across the
solid green line) to indicate the movement direction of water molecules from one
compartment to another. The first one is done for you. Also, answer the questions after
each figure. Write your answers on the lines provided after each question. Use all
capital letters for your answers. For completing the statements, highlight your choice
from those within the parenthesis.
Figure 1.
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• Both compartments represent an isotonic solution

• There is equilibrium with regards to movement of water molecules should
the molecules move from one compartment to another. The solid line at
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the center represents a semipermeable membrane.

• A normal red blood cell immersed in either compartment will not change
in shape.
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Figure 2.
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1. Which compartment represents a hypertonic solution?
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_____________________
2. Which compartment represents a hypotonic solution?
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_____________________
3. Which compartment has greater osmotic pressure? _____________________
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4. Which compartment has greater hydrostatic pressure?

_____________________
5. If a normal cell is immersed in compartment A, the cell will (shrink, burst,
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remain its shape)

6. If a normal red blood cell is immersed in compartment B, the cell will
(shrink, burst, remain its shape)
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Figure 3.
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1. Which compartment represents a hypertonic solution?
_____________________
2. Which compartment represents a hypotonic solution?
_____________________
3. Which compartment has greater osmotic pressure? _____________________
4. Which compartment has greater hydrostatic pressure?
_____________________
5. If a normal cell is immersed in compartment A, the cell will (shrink, burst,
remain its shape)
6. If a normal red blood cell is immersed in compartment B, the cell will
(shrink, burst, remain its shape)
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VOLUME ABNORMALITIES
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❖ Dehydration - water and Na+ loss leading to decrease in the ECF; this is
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determined by the amount of sodium ions in the body
o Isosmotic dehydration – no major change in osmolality
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o Hyperosmotic dehydration – decrease in the amount of both ICF and ECF;
increase in osmolality
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o Hyposmotic dehydration – there is renal loss of sodium chloride
❖ Overhydration – large amount of ECF than normal
o Isosmotic overhydration – overall expansion of ECF without change in
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osmolality of both ECF and ICF compartments

o Hyperosmotic overhydration – increase in plasma osmolality causing an
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increase in plasma volume

o Hyposmotic overhydration – water enters the plasma resulting to a decline
in plasma osmolality
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 Activity 5. Volume Abnormalities. List down conditions that lead to each of the
different volume abnormalities. Write your answers in the box provided.
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DEHYDRATION OVERHYDRATION
Isosmotic Isosmotic
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Hyperosmotic Hyperosmotic
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Hyposmotic Hyposmotic
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assessment tasks with utmost integrity. Without looking at your references, answer what
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 Summative Assessment 1. Concept Mapping: Create a concept map on the topic
on membrane physiology. Use the box for your answers.
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category) category)
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topic to the topic
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of concepts of concepts
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concepts sense of
hierarchical
structure
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appropriate linking Linking are simple
linking words words words show and
variety repetitive
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and accurate
or more ard mindful
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the concept
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map
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 Summative Assessment 2. Identification/ Short-Answer. Provide what is asked. Write
your answers on the lines provided at the end of each question or statement. Use
upper case or capital letters for your answers.
1. This refers to the movement of substances against a concentration gradient.

______________________
2. What is osmosis?
_____________________________________________________________________________
3. This type of cell membrane gating responds to the electrical potential across the
cell membrane. ______________________
4. This type of cell membrane gating is important in the transmission of nerve signals
and muscle contraction. _______________________
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5. Differentiate cotransport from counter-transport mechanisms.
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______________________________________________________________________________
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____________________________________________________________________________
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6. This type of diffusion do not require interaction with carrier proteins.
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_______________________
7. The two (2) important substances that make up the plasma membrane are
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__________________ and ___________________
8. This refers to the sum of all forces of different molecules striking a unit surface
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area at a given time. ____________________
9. This non-lipid molecule utilizes protein channels called aquaporins to get across
the cell membrane. ________________
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10. Briefly discuss selective permeability.

______________________________________________________________________________
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____________________________________________________________________________
 Summative Assessment 3. Multiple Choice. Given are situations or conditions that

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depict types of solution and volume abnormalities.

Types of solution: Hypertonic/ Isotonic/ Hypotonic;
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Types of Volume abnormalities: Dehydration/ Overhydration and specify:

Hyperosmotic/ Isosmotic/ Hyposmotic.
Write your answers on the lines after the statement or phrases. Print your answers.
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1. Overall expansion of ECF without change in osmolality of ECF and ICF.

________________________
2. Severe hemorrhage _________________________
3. Increased sweating due to fever __________________________
4. Renal loss of NaCl ________________________
5. Ingestion of large volume of water __________________________
6. Vomiting ___________________
7. Decreased water intake _______________________
8. Gastrointestinal fluid loss _______________________
9. Syndrome of Inappropriate ADH Secretion __________________________
10. Intravenous infusion of 0.9% of NaCl solution __________________________
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11. Solution that has greater amount of solvent than the other solution
________________________
12. Solution that has lesser amount of solute than the other solution
__________________________
13. A red blood cell immersed in this solution will crenate _______________________
14. A red blood cell immersed in this solution will lyse _______________________
15. A solution that creates a high osmotic pressure _______________________
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CATEGORY Score
category) category)
including parts of
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each required cited
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task
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required tasks
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LESSON 6
CELL MEMBRANE POTENTIALS
Introduction
This lesson will discuss on particular cells having the characteristic of excitability.
Likewise, the activities will guide you to understand cell membrane potentials and how
action potentials travel along nerve and muscle cells.
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1. define terms correctly
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2. discuss diligently the principles of membrane potentials
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3. explain diligently the mechanisms of action potential
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4. compute correctly for Nernst potential
5. determine correctly the phases of action potential along a nerve cell, cardiac
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muscle cell, and stomach muscle cell
6. discuss properly the characteristics of action potential along a nerve cell, cardiac
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muscle cell and stomach muscle cell
7. differentiate correctly absolute and relative refractory periods
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8. create a concept map on membrane potentials

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Definition of Terms
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From the previous activity, you were introduced to the various factors for the cell
membrane to allow particles to get through its lipid bilayer and protein structures.
When cell membranes are at their resting state, certain ions are kept inside and outside
the cell while other non-ion substances such as water may constantly move across the
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cell membrane. Considering that ions are electrically charged particles, electric
potential exists within cells and such are necessary to either open or close the gates, as
in the case of voltage-gated process to elicit impulse along nerve or muscle
membranes.
 Self-Assessment 1. Definition of Terms. Let’s check if you are familiar with the
following terms. Without looking into any references, briefly define or describe the
following terms using your own words:
1. Ions -_________________________________________________________________________
2. Anions - _____________________________________________________________________
3. Cations - _____________________________________________________________________
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4. Excitability - __________________________________________________________________
5. Action potential - _____________________________________________________________
6. Membrane Potential - ________________________________________________________
7. Depolarization - ______________________________________________________________
8. Repolarization - ______________________________________________________________
9. Absolute Refractory Period - __________________________________________________
10. Relative Refractory Period - ___________________________________________________
Do you remember the major ions found in the ECF?

____ YES, I do remember the major ions in the ECF. These are the ___________________
____ NO, I do not recall the major ions in the ECF
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 Do you remember the major ions in the ICF?
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____ YES, I do remember the major ions in the ICF. These are the ___________________
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____ NO, I do not recall the major ions in the ICF
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 Electrical potentials exist in virtually all cells of the body;
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nerve cells and muscle cells are capable of generating
rapidly electrochemical impulses at their membranes; other
types of cells, such as glandular cells, macrophages, and
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ciliated cells, local changes in membrane potentials also

activate many of cell’s functions. (Hall, 2016)
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Before we move onward, let us recall that sodium, chloride,

and bicarbonate ions are found in greater number outside
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the cell than in the inside of the cell. On the other hand,
potassium, magnesium and phosphate are located in
greater number in the ICF than the ECF.
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 Activity 1. Ions in the ICF and ECF. Now that you are aware of the major ions in and
out of the cell, make a simple sketch of a cell depicting the major ions in its ICF and
ECF. Place your sketch in the box provided. Label accordingly.
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 Activity 2. Cations and Anions. Enumerate the cations in the ECF and ICF.
Enumerate as well the anions in the ECF and ICF. Use the boxes below for your answers.
ECF Cations ICF Cations
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ECF Anions ICF Anions
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 Your knowledge on these cations and anions will serve as your basis in further
understanding the occurrence of action potentials in a resting membrane as well as in
the propagation of impulses along nerve and muscle cells.
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Here are some terms you need to get acquainted with:

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Membrane Potential – exists due to the differential distribution of ions. Note from your
previous activity, the ions in the ECF, example Na+ ions do not equate to the number of
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Na+ ions in the ICF.
Donnan Equilibrium – equilibrium that exists between two (2) solutions that are
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separated by a membrane.
Osmotic Equilibrium – fluid concentration are equal on two (2) sides of the cell
membrane; free movement of water molecules from ECF to ICF exists.
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Nernst Potential – diffusion potential level across a membrane that exactly opposes net
diffusion of particular ion through the membrane.
Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz (GHK) Equation – used if 2 or more ions contribute to

membrane potential
Resting Membrane Potential (RMP) – steady state; determined by the net flow of ions
through the “leak” channels that are open in the resting state. Note that the nature of
ions and their exact proportions vary from cell to cell.
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Action Potential – when membrane potential of a specific axon location rapidly rises
and falls (depolarization), this causes adjacent locations to similarly depolarize; the
change in electrical potential is associated with the passage of an impulse along a
membrane of a muscle or a nerve.
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MEMBRANE POTENTIALS
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 Membrane potentials, in order to exist need to consider 2 factors:
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a. Ion concentration difference or ion concentration gradients
b. Selective ion channels in the plasma membrane; in most cells, the Na+, K+ and
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Cl- channels are very important
 NERNST POTENTIAL of any given ionic species is the membrane potential at which the
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ionic species is in equilibrium (meaning there is no net movement of ions across the
membrane); opposes net diffusion of ions.
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 Nernst Potential is equilibrium potential
 NERNST EQUATION allows for calculating potential that will be established; can be
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used to calculate the Nernst potential for any univalent ion at normal body
temperature of 98.6 oF (37oC).
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EMF (millivolts) = ± 61 log concentration of ions inside

concentration of ions outside
Where EMF is electromotive force
 DIFFUSION POTENTIAL is caused by ion concentration difference on two (2) sides of

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the membrane; note that on resting state of the cell, ions move down their
concentration gradient.
Resting Membrane Potential of Nerves
▪ RMP of large nerve fibers when not transmitting nerve signals is about -90
millivolts. This means that the potential inside the fiber is 90 millivolts more
negative than the potential in the ECF.
The Na+-K+ Pump

▪ Pumps Na+ ions outside of the cell and pumps K+ ions inside the cell
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▪ Electrogenic pump – there are more positive charges pumped to the outside of
the cell than to the inside (3 Na+ : 2 K+), leaving a net deficit of positive ions on
the inside; this causes a negative potential inside the cell membrane
Nerve Action Potential

▪ Action potentials – rapid changes in the membrane potential that spread
rapidly along the nerve fiber membrane
▪ To conduct a nerve signal, the action potential travels along the nerve fiber
until it reaches the fiber’s end
Stages of Action Potential

1. Resting Stage
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2. Depolarization Stage
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3. Repolarization Stage
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Propagation of Action Potential
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▪ To communicate information from one part of the body to another, action
potentials in a neuron must travel (propagate) from where they arise at the
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trigger zone of the axon to the axon terminals.
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 Reading Task: Read the topics under Membrane Potentials and action Potentials
(Hall, 2016) and Membrane Potentials (Phyiologyweb.com and Tortora, 2014):
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Philadelphia, PA
2. Related topics on https://physiologyweb.com/
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 Remember that cell membrane potentials exist because of

ion concentration differences and selective ion channels.
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Recall also the principles of diffusion as presented in the

previous lesson, diffusion potential, Nernst potential and Nernst
equation.
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 On Nernst Equation, if the ion diffusing from the inside of the cell is an ANION, the
symbol (+) is used. On the other hand, if the ion diffusing from the inside of the of the
cell is a CATION, the symbol (-) is used. Nernst potential opposes net diffusion of ions.
This means further, that at some point ions reach their peak of movement and reach
equilibrium (see equilibrium potential)
 Activity 3. Nernst Equation. Let’s do some math! Bring out your calculator and
compute for the Nernst Potential using the Nernst equation. Given the following
scenario of ions and respective ion concentrations inside and outside the cell,
determine the equilibrium potential using Nernst equation.
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IONS INSIDE OUTSIDE EMV in millivolts
Sodium 15 145
Potassium 150 4
Hydrogen 63 40
Chloride 10 110
Bicarbonate 15 24
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For the next activity, I want you to consider that each of the following ions are existing
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solely in the inside and outside of the cell.
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 Activity 4. Diffusion of Ions. For the following questions, highlight your answer from
the choices inside the parenthesis.
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1. Assuming that potassium ions are to diffuse, to which direction will they move to?
Potassium ions will diffuse towards the (outside/inside) the cell.
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2. Assuming that hydrogen ions are to diffuse, to which direction will they move to?
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Hydrogen ions will diffuse towards the (outside/inside) the cell.
3. Assuming that sodium ions are to diffuse, to which direction will they move to?
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Sodium ions will diffuse towards the (outside/inside) the cell.
4. Assuming that chloride ions are to diffuse, to which direction will they move to?
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Chloride ions will diffuse towards the (outside/inside) the cell.
5. Assuming that calcium ions are to diffuse, to which direction will they move to?
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Calcium ions will diffuse towards the (outside/inside) the cell.
6. Assuming that magnesium ions are to diffuse, to which direction will they move to?
Magnesium ions will diffuse towards the (outside/inside) the cell.
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7. Assuming that bicarbonate ions are to diffuse, to which direction will they move
to? Bicarbonate ions will diffuse towards the (outside/inside) the cell.
8. If potassium ions diffuse, the inside of the cell becomes more (positive, negative)
9. If hydrogen ions diffuse, the inside of the cell becomes more (positive, negative)
10. If bicarbonate ions diffuse, the inside of the cell becomes more (positive,
negative)
11. If sodium ions diffuse, the inside of the cell becomes more (positive, negative)
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12. If chloride ions diffuse, the inside of the cell becomes more (positive, negative)
13. If magnesium ions diffuse, the inside of the cell becomes more (positive,
negative)
14. If calcium ions diffuse, the inside of the cell becomes more (positive, negative)
Excitable Cells.
 Nerve cells and muscle cells are excitable. This means that a stimulus can create
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action potentials that can propagate along these cells.
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 Activity 5. Action Potential in Nerve and Muscle Cells.
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a. To illustrate further how action potential occurs in nerve and muscle fibers,
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draw graphs that represent action potential in a nerve, cardiac muscle and
stomach smooth muscle cells. Label the components of the graphs accordingly.
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Action Potential in a Nerve Action Potential in a Action Potential in a
Cell Cardiac Ventricular Stomach Smooth Muscle
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Muscle Cell Cell
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b. Briefly discuss the observed similarities and differences on the graphs.

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
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 Activity 6. Refractory Period. Briefly discuss the difference between absolute
refractory period and relative refractory period.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
 Activity 7. Propagation of Action Potentials. Briefly discuss the difference on

propagation of action potential between a myelinated nerve fiber and a
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nonmyelinated nerve fiber.
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_____________________________________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
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 Actviity 8. Phases of Nerve Action Potential. Briefly describe the five (5) phases of a
nerve cell (Tortora,2014). Place your answer in the box provided.
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assessment tasks with utmost integrity. Without looking at your previous lesson, notes or
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 Summative Assessment 1. Multiple Choice. Read the statements carefully. Activate
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your neurons & choose the best answer. Use a highlighter to highlight your answer.
1. The following describes membrane potentials, EXCEPT:

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Influx of sodium ions create depolarization

When potential becomes more negative, there is hyperpolarization
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An overshoot is created when increased negative ions are entering the cell
An action potential creates a disturbance in the RMP
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2. Which of the following is correct with the membrane potentials?

Resting potential in nerves is -90mV
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Threshold in nerves is -55mV

Resting potential in cardiac muscles is -70 mV
All of the above
3. Which of the following is true of Nernst equilibrium?

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It is the idea that kinetic motion of molecules brings about diffusion

It states that ions continue to move against their concentration gradient
It determines the electrical difference that will balance a concentration
difference of univalent ions
All of the above
4. When HCO3- leaves the cell, the interstitial fluids are more negatively charged.
There is greater Cl- in the cytosol than ECF.
First statement is true, second statement is false
First statement s false, second statement is true
Both statements are true
Both statements are false
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5. Which of the ff statements is true of the Na+-K+ pump?
It is an example of an ionic channel
It is an example of facilitated diffusion
It pumps 2 sodium out and 3 potassium in
It pumps 3 sodium out and 2 potassium in
6. If the ventricular cell is stimulated during the spike of the action potential, it
would fall during the:
Absolute refractory period
Supernormal phase
AV mode
Resting phase
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7. Depolarization is initiated when this moves inside the cell:
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Potassium
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Calcium
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Chloride
Sodium 22 PH B
8. Decrease in resting membrane potential, making it more positive:
Depolarization
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Membrane denervation
Hyperpolarization
Action potential degradation
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9. ` Which of the following correctly describes the electrogenic nature of the Na+-K+
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pump?
It creates positivity in the exterior but leaves a deficit of positive ions inside the
cell.
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It creates a chemical gradient across the cell membrane

It pumps 3 sodium inside the cell and 2 potassium outside the cell
It leaves a deficit of negative ions inside the cell.
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10. The sodium-potassium pump creates

Negativity of cytosol
Positivity of cytosol
Both
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Neither
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 Summative Assessment 2. Concept Mapping. Create a concept map on cell
membrane potentials. Use the box for your answers.
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category) category)
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topic to the topic
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N of
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concepts sense of
hierarchical
structure
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variety repetitive
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and accurate
or more ard mindful
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segments of
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the concept
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map
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 Summative Assessment 3. Short Answer Response. Discuss the characteristics of
action potential along a nerve cell, cardiac muscle cell and stomach muscle cell.
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category) category)
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form of irrelevant
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topic and/ or may
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sentence be applied
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topic the topic
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closing and/ or may
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sentence be applied
inaccurately
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the sections of and
among creating
ideas and cohesion,
concepts and/ or
clarifying
the
relationships
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among
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ideas and
concepts
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errors in
spelling,
in spelling,
punctuation
errors in
spelling,
in spelling,
punctuation,
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but do not from the

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of the
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response
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100

CATEGORY Score
category) category)
including parts of
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each required cited
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task
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required tasks
required tasks
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handwriting is
not legible
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Lesson 7
NERVE CELL MEMBRANE POTENTIALS
Introduction
This lesson will emphasize on the neurons and how action potentials propagate
along their axons. As an introduction to neurophysiology, some principles on neural
synapses and synaptic transmissions will also be presented. A close look at the
neuromuscular junction will be included in the latter part of this lesson.
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1. describe the nerve cell
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2. distinguish action potentials from graded potentials
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3. discuss fully synaptic transmissions
4. determine properly the events involved in synaptic transmissions
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5. determine correctly the structures that make up the neuromuscular junction.
6. discuss properly how an impulse from a nerve ending transmits to a skeletal
muscle fiber.
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7. describe correctly the formation, secretion, destruction and role of acetylcholine
at the neuromuscular junction
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8. explain accurately the effect of acetylcholine at motor end plates.

9. discuss the pathophysiology, manifestations and treatment of myasthenia gravis.
10. create a concept map on propagation action potentials and nerve cells.
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THE NERVE CELL
From previous activity, you have seen that the resting or steady state of a cell
membrane gets disturbed with the charges of ions that are present on each side of the
cell membrane. With this lesson, you will learn how action potentials propagate
through nerve fibers and get through muscle fibers, thus initiating contraction. Before
we do such, let’s us get back to anatomy!
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 Pre-Assessment 1. Nerve Cell Structure. I want you to sketch a nerve cell. Label the
parts properly. After such determine the function of each basic part of the cell. Use
the box below for your answers.
STRUCTURE OF A NERVE CELL (Place your FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF THE NERVE
sketch here) CELL (Write down the parts and beside
each part, write its function/s)
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 Recall that action potentials travel the length of the nerve axon. The nerve axons
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are either myelinated unmyelinated axons. Can you remember how action potential
propagates through these axon types? Please put a check on the corresponding line.
____ YES ____ NO. If your answer is “YES” then proceed to the next activity. If your
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answer is “NO”, please get back to the previous lesson and review your answers on the
activity on propagation of action potentials before proceeding to the next activity of
this lesson.
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 Pre-Assessment 2. Axon. Keeping in mind the way nerve impulses travel along the
axon, I want you to draw a myelinated and non-myelinated nerve fibers. Label the
parts. Using arrows, illustrate the propagation of action potentials in each nerve fiber.
Use the boxes provided for your drawings.
ACTION POTENTIAL IN MYELINATED NERVE ACTION POTENTIAL IN UNMYELINATED

FIBER NERVE FIBER
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NEURONS AND ACTION POTENTIALS
➢ The nervous system plays an important role in the conduct of action potential
along nerve fibers to control target organs. Neurons or nerve cells function to
receive signals, process information, propagate and transmit signals to other
cells. Three types of neurons are sensory neurons, interneurons and motor
neurons. Each type of neuron performs respective neuron functions in the
central nervous system.
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• Neurons are excitable cells meaning they can propagate action potentials.
Other excitable cells include the muscle cells and endocrine cells
• An action potential, (a.k.a. nervous impulse or electrical impulse) is a rapid and

reversible reversal of the electrical potential difference across the plasma
membrane of excitable cells such as neurons, muscle cells and some endocrine
cells. In a neuronal action potential, the membrane potential rapidly changes
from its resting level of approximately -70 mV to around +50 mV and,
subsequently, rapidly returns to the resting level again. The neuronal action
potential forms an important basis for information processing, propagation, and
transmission. In muscle cells, the action potential precedes, and is necessary to
bring about, muscle contraction. (Physiologyweb.com)
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ELECTRICAL SIGNALS IN NEURONS
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➢ 2 Types:
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o Graded potentials – used for short-distance communication; most occur
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in the dendrites and cell body of the neuron
o Action potentials – allow communication over long distances within the
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body
➢ Graded potentials and nerve and muscle action potentials are involved in the
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relay of sensory stimuli, integrative functions such as perception, and motor
activities. (Tortora, 2014)
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Ion Channels
➢ open and close due to the presence of gates.
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➢ Electrical signals produced by neurons and muscle fibers rely on four (4) types of
gates:
o Leak channels – found in almost all cells, including dendrites, cell bodies
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and axons of all types of neurons; plasma membrane has more potassium
leak channels than sodium leak channels
o Ligand-gated channel – opens and closes in response to the binding of a
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ligand (chemical) stimulus; examples of chemical ligands include

neurotransmitters, hormones and particular ions; located in dendrites of
some sensory neurons and in dendrites and cell bodies of interneurons
and motor neurons
o Mechanically gated channel – open and closes in response to
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mechanical stimulation in the form of vibration (such as sound waves),

touch, pressure, or tissue stretching
o Voltage-gated channel – opens in response to a change in membrane
potential (voltage); participate in the generation and conduction of
action potentials in the axons of all types of neurons.
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Resting Membrane Potential (RMP)
 Recall the previous lesson on resting membrane potentials

and how these exist. The RMP is an electrical potential
difference (voltage) that exists across the plasma membrane
of an excitable cell under resting conditions.
➢ The RMP arises from three (3) major factors:
o Unequal distribution of ions in the ECF and
cytosol
o Inability of most ions to leave the cell
o Electrogenic nature of Na+/K+ ATPases
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Propagation of Action Potential (AP)
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➢ 2 types of axons:
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o Myelinated fiber – saltatory conduction
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o Unmyelinated fiber – continuous conduction
➢ Factors that affect speed of conduction or propagation of nerve impulse
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o Amount of myelination – presence of myelination provides greater speed
of propagation of AP
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o Axon diameter - the larger the axon diameter, the faster the propagation
of AP
o Temperature – lower speeds when axons are cooled
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 Reading Task: Read the topics under Central Nervous System Synapses (Hall,
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2016), Neuronal Action Potential (Phyiologyweb.com) and Electrical Signals in Neurons

(Tortora, 2014):
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Philadelphia, PA
2. Related topics on https://physiologyweb.com/
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 Let’s elaborate on the two (2) forms of electrical

signals in the nervous system.
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 Activity 1. Graded and Action Potentials. Using the Venn Diagram, compare and
contrast graded potentials and action potentials
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 For better understanding on action potentials, let us look into nerve impulses
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transmitting to other cells.
SIGNAL TRANSMISSION AT SYNAPSES

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Synapse: a junction point between one neuron to

the next
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• Most synapses are either axodendritic,

while others are axosomatic, or axoaxonic.
Presynaptic neuron: refers to a nerve cell that
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carries a nerve impulse toward a synapse

Postsynaptic cell: cell that receives a signal; it can
be a postsynaptic neuron that carries a nerve
impulse away from a synapse or an effector cell
that responds to the impulse at the synapse.
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Anatomy of a Synapse
➢ Figure 1 presents a typical anterior motor
neuron, showing presynaptic terminals on the neuronal soma and dendrites.
Note also the single axon. (Hall, 2016)
Figure 1. Anatomy of a synapse (Hall, 2016)
Physiology of a Synapse
➢ Figure 2 presents the physiologic anatomy of a synapse. Note that the
membrane of postsynaptic neuron contains large numbers of receptor proteins.
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➢ 2 components of receptor proteins:
o Binding component-binds with
neurotransmitter coming from
presynaptic terminal
o Ionophore component
▪ Ion channel – allows passage of
specified types of ions through
the membrane
▪ “Second messenger” activator
– a molecule that protrudes
into the cell cytoplasm and
activates one or more
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substances inside the
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postsynaptic neuron. These substances in turn serve as “second
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messengers” to increase or decreaseFigure
specific cellular functions.
2. Physiologic Anatomy of a Synapse (Hall, 2016)
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 Activity 2. Role of Calcium Ions. Briefly discuss the role of calcium ions in the release
of a transmitter substance from the presynaptic cell.
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_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
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___________________________________________________________________________________
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Electrical vs. Chemical Synapses
ELECTRICAL SYNAPSES CHEMICAL SYNAPSES

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- Characterized by direct open fluid - Presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons

channels that conduct electricity from are close but do not touch.
one cell to the next - Synaptic cleft - space between
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- Action potentials conduct directly presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons

between the plasma membranes of - Indirect form of communication
adjacent neurons through structures - Neurotransmitter (transmitter
called gap junctions (consist of small substance) is released by the
protein tubular structures that allow presynaptic neuron and binds with
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free movement of ions from the interior plasma membrane of postsynaptic

of ions from the interior of one cell to cell; transmitter acts on receptor
the interior of the next) proteins of plasma membrane of next
- Gap junctions are common in visceral neuron to excite, inhibit or modify its
smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and sensitivity in some other way
the developing embryo, also in the - Postsynaptic neuron receives
brain chemical signal and in turn produces
- 2 main advantages: postsynaptic potential (type of graded
Faster communication-action potential)
potential passes directly from - Presynaptic neuron converts an
electrical signal (nerve impulse) into
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presynaptic cell to the postsynaptic chemical signal (released
cell neurotransmitter)
Synchronization-electricals synapses - Acetylcholine, norepinephrine,
can synchronize (coordinate) the epinephrine, histamine, gamma-
activity of a group of neurons or aminobutyric acid (GABA), glycine,
muscle fibers serotonin, and glutamate.
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NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION (NMJ)
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➢ Synapse between a motor neuron and skeletal muscle cell.
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 Activity 3. Video Clip for Emphasis. Watch the video clip to learn more of action
potentials along the Neuromuscular Junction
1. Neuromuscular Junction Muscle Contraction Part 1 Anatomy Tutorial SCA CSCS
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Exam, ACEPT Exam on https://youtube.com/watch?v+8Hu5W_tFXLs
 Activity 4. Structure of the Neuromuscular Junction. Draw and color the

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neuromuscular junction. Label the structures accordingly.

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 Activity 5. Acetylcholine Secretion. Using a flowchart diagram, present the
secretion of acetylcholine by the nerve terminals. Place your diagram in the box
provided.
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 Activity 6. Acetylcholine Formation, Release and Destruction. Using a flowchart
diagram, present the stages of the formation, release and destruction of acetylcholine
at the neuromuscular junction. Place your diagram in the box provided.
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 Activity 7. Myasthenia Gravis. Answer the following questions on Myasthenia Gravis.
1. What is Myasthenia Gravis?

_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
2. How does myasthenia gravis occur?

_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
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3. What are the signs and symptoms of myasthenia gravis?
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_______________________________________________________________________________
B U ui
_______________________________________________________________________________
O
_______________________________________________________________________________
23 1 ag
4. How can myasthenia gravis be treated?
22 PH B
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
N of
_______________________________________________________________________________
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BSU
neat!
112
 Summative Assessment 1. Terminology. Decipher the following jumble-lettered
terms from the first column. Write the correct term on the second column. Give a short
description of the term on the third column.
Jumble-lettered terms Deciphered terms Description
1. ACCILUM
2. NXAO
y
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nl
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O
3. TIRSERDND
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4. ESPANYS
22 PH B
N of
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5. HPEROIONO
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6. TYILNEOHCLECA
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U
7. RGDADE
8. TCANOI OPELAITNTS
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9. MPUSIEL
10.GIALDN
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11.UEORSNN
12.YEIMLN
13.ABXITLCTYIE
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nl
B U ui
O
23 1 ag
14.CEYLSEAROETSHEINCLTA
22 PH B
15.ATYROSLTA
N of
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BSU
114
 Summative Assessment 2. Concept Mapping. Create a concept map on action
potentials along nerve cells. Use the box for your answers.
y
se o
nl
B U ui
O
23 1 ag
22 PH B
N of
TG ity
_P ers
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U
BS
115

category) category)
y
se o
nl
B U ui
O
topic to the topic
23 1 ag
N of
TG ity
_P ers
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U

concepts sense of
hierarchical
structure
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variety repetitive
116
and accurate
or more ard mindful
y
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segments of
nl
the concept
B U ui
map
O
23 1 ag
22 PH B
N of
TG ity
_P ers
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BSU
117
 Summative Assessment 3. Short Answer Response. Briefly discuss the importance of
electrical signals in the neurons.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
y
_____________________________________________________________________________________
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nl
_____________________________________________________________________________________
B U ui
_____________________________________________________________________________________
O
_____________________________________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
22 PH B
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
N of
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________________________________
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BSU
118

category) category)
y
se o
nl
B U ui
form of irrelevant
O
topic and/ or may
23 1 ag
sentence be applied
N of
TG ity

_P ers

topic the topic
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U

closing and/ or may
BS
sentence be applied
inaccurately
119
the sections of and
among creating
ideas and cohesion,
concepts and/ or
clarifying
the
relationships
y
se o
among
nl
B U ui
ideas and
concepts
O
23 1 ag
22 PH B
errors in
spelling,
in spelling,
punctuation
errors in
spelling,
in spelling,
punctuation,
N of
TG ity

_P ers
but do not from the

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of the
U
response
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120

CATEGORY Score
category) category)
including parts of
y
se o
nl
each required cited
B U ui
task
O
23 1 ag
required tasks
required tasks
N of
TG ity

_P ers

handwriting is
not legible
PT niv
BSU
121
Lesson 8
NEUROLOGIC FUNCTIONS
Introduction
This lesson will focus on some functions of the nervous system and will give you an
idea on how these neurologic functions are tested. This lesson will present assessment
procedures for assessment of cranial nerves, superficial reflexes and deep tendon
reflexes.
y
1. explain the functions of the nervous system
se o
nl
2. discuss well the concepts of neurologic assessment
B U ui
3. determine correctly the twelve (12) cranial nerves
O
4. explain properly the components of reflex arc
23 1 ag
5. perform accurately cranial nerve testing, sensory and motor testing, and deep
and superficial reflex testing on simulated patients
22 PH B
6. create concept maps on nervous system and motor control system
N of
NERVOUS SYSTEM FUNCTIONS
You have learned from previous lessons that the nervous system is responsible for
TG ity
many functions, including initiation and coordination of movement, reception and

perception of sensory stimuli, organization of thoughts processes, control of speech,
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and storage of memory. A close integration exists between the neurologic system and
all other body systems.
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Let us review the anatomy and physiology of the nervous

system!
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 Pre-Assessment 1. Nervous System. Without looking at any references, answer the

following items. Write your answers on the lines provided after each question/
statement. Use uppercase letters for your answers.
1. These are the three (3) basic functions of the nervous system
__________________________; ______________________; __________________________
2. What are the two (2) main cells of the nervous system?
______________________________; ______________________
122
3. These compose the structural division of the nervous system.
___________________________; ______________________
4. These are cells that form the myelin sheath of neurons in the central nervous
system. ______________________
5. These cells form the myelin sheath of neurons in the peripheral nervous system.
______________________
6. This clear fluid surrounds the brain and the spinal cord.
______________________________
7. This is a bony structure that serves as protective covering of the spinal cord.
______________________
8. What are the two (2) components of the autonomic nervous system?
______________________; _______________________
y
9. This is also known as the emotional brain. ____________________________
se o
nl
10. What part of the brain is the seat of intelligence? ___________________________
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11. This brain part controls gross movement coordination. _________________________
O
12. The somatic component of the peripheral nervous system innervates what
23 1 ag
structure? _______________________
13. This is the dominant hemisphere. _____________________________
22 PH B
14. This cranial nerve innervates the lateral rectus muscle of the eye.
_________________________
N of
15. What cranial nerve supplies the trapezius muscles?
______________________________
16. This is the toughest of the three meninges. _____________________________
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17. This is the space between the skull and the dura mater.
________________________________
_P ers
18. What is the brain structure that connects the two (2) hemispheres together?
___________________________
19. This is a gland in the diencephalon that produces the hormone melatonin.
PT niv
___________________________ .
20. When the Achilles tendon is tapped with a reflex hummer, the ankle normally
moves towards? ____________________________
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 Remember your lesson on Nervous system under NSIHAP1.

This is just a short recap for you to be able to apply the theories
on neurophysiology to the principles of some neurologic
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assessments.
123
Basic Functions of the Nervous System
1. Sensory – involves detecting internal or external stimuli through sensory receptors
2. Integrative – involves processing information by analyzing and storing some of it
and by making decisions regarding appropriate responses
3. Motor – involves responding to integration decisions
Anatomical/ Structural Division

a. Central Nervous System (CNS) – brain and spinal cord
b. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) - nerves
Functional Division
a. Sensory (afferent) – provides input from the body into the CNS
y
b. Motor (efferent) – carries signals to muscles and glands (effectors)
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nl
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CRANIAL NERVES
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23 1 ag
NUMBER NAME COMPONENTS FUNCTION
I Olfactory
22 PH B Sensory Smell
II Optic Sensory Vision
III* Oculomotor Mainly motor Supplies superior, inferior, & medial
N of
rectus and inferior oblique of the eye;
levator palpebrae superioris; and the
internal eye muscles controlling lens
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shape and pupil size

IV Trochlear Mainly motor Supplies superior oblique muscle
_P ers
V Trigeminal Sensory Skin of face and mucosa of nose and

mouth
Motor
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Muscles of mastication
VI Abducens Mainly motor Supplies lateral rectus of the eye
VII* Facial Sensory Taste on anterior 2/3 of the tongue
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Motor Muscles of face; lacrimal and salivary

glands
VIII Vestibulocochlear Mainly sensory Vestibular branch transmits impulses
for the sense of balance
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Cochlear branch transmits impulses

for the sense of hearing
IX* Glossopharyngeal Sensory Taste on posterior 1/3 of tongue and
pressure receptors of carotid artery
Motor Pharyngeal muscles that promote
swallowing and saliva production
X* Vagus Sensory and Pharynx, larynx, abdominal and
Motor thoracic viscera; promote digestive
activity; help regulate heart rate
activity
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XI Spinal Accessory Mainly motor Sternocleidomastoid (SCM) and
Trapezius
XII Hypoglossal Mainly motor Tongue movements
Cranial nerves with asterisk (*) have autonomic component.
SPINAL CORD AND REFLEXES
Spinal Cord
➢ main pathway for information connecting the brain and peripheral nervous
system
➢ extends from medulla oblongata to superior border of L2 (adults); L3 or L4
(newborn)
y
se o
➢ located in the vertebral foramen
nl
➢ made up of 31 segments: 8 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral and 1
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coccygeal
O
➢ Major functions:
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o Propagates nerve impulses from periphery to the brain and to conduct
motor impulses from the brain to the periphery
22 PH B
o Serves as an integrating center for spinal reflexes; integration occurs in the
gray matter
N of
Reflexes
➢ Reflex: fast, predictable, automatic responses to changes in the environment
➢ Reflex Arc: pathway followed by nerve impulses that produce a reflex
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➢ Components of reflex arc

o Sensory receptor
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o Sensory neuron
o Integrating center
o Motor neuron
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o Effector organ
 Activity 1. Reflex Arc. Illustrate a simple reflex arc. Color and label accordingly. To
U
connect to our previous and succeeding lessons, depict a reflex arc involving motor
innervations. Use the box provided for your drawing.
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125
y
se o
nl
B U ui
O
23 1 ag
22 PH B
N of
TG ity
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Testing Procedures for Neurologic Function
An assessment of neurological function can be time consuming. An efficient

examiner integrates neurological measurements with other parts of the physical
BS
examination. Many variables must be considered when deciding the extent of the
examination. A client’s level of consciousness influences the ability to follow directions.
A person’s general physical status influences tolerance to assessment. For example, an
inability to walk makes a detailed assessment of coordination difficult. The client’s chief
compliant also helps determine the need for a thorough neurological assessment. If the
client complains of headache or a recent loss of function in an extremity, a complete
neurological review is needed. In this next activity, you are expected to be able to
perform some neurologic assessments on simulated patients.
 Activity 2. Testing procedures, Watch the testing procedures on video clips

https://www.youtube.com/c/Physiotutors/videos.
126
a. After watching the demo videos, I want you to ask a family member or a friend
as your practice patient. Observe respect and safety. Practice all the tests
that you can perform safely on your simulated patient.
b. Choose 2 tests per assessment area where you take a video of yourself testing
your simulated patient.
c. Limit the video clip to 1-2 minutes per test.
d. Submit video clips to the google classroom.
.
Cranial Nerve Function and Assessment. Watch the respective cranial nerve assessment
on https://www.youtube.com/c/Physiotutors/videos. Describe the methods used to test
each cranial nerve. List the expected normal responses per test.
y
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Cranial nerve Method Normal Responses
nl
Olfactory
B U ui
O
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Optic 22 PH B
N of
Oculomotor
Trochlear
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Abducens
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Trigeminal
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Facial
U
Vestibulocochlear
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Glossopharyngeal
Vagus
127
Accessory spinal
Hypoglossal
Assessment of Sensory Nerve Function
Watch the video that I will provide for the following sensory testing. Describe the
y
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methods used to test each sensory nerve. List the expected normal responses.
nl
B U ui
Function Method Normal Responses
O
23 1 ag
Pain
22 PH B
Temperature
N of
TG ity
Light touch
_P ers
Vibration
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Position
Two-point
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discrimination
128
Assessment of Motor Function
Watch the video that I will provide for assessment of motor function. Describe the
methods used to test each motor function. List the expected normal responses.
Function Method Normal Responses
Coordination
Balance
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nl
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O
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Assessment of Common Reflexes.
22 PH B
Watch the video that I will provide for the assessment of common reflexes. Describe
the methods used to test each reflex. List the expected normal responses.
N of
Type Method Normal Responses
Deep Tendon
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Reflexes
Biceps
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Triceps
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Patellar
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Achilles
Cutaneous
Reflexes
Plantar
129
Abdominal
y
How our body responds to the various tests has something to
se o
nl
do with how intricate and complex our nervous system is, particularly the structures
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(synapses/ connections) that make up the motor control system.
O
23 1 ag
MOTOR CONTROL SYSTEM

22 PH B
Reading Task: Read the topics under Nervous System: Motor Neurophysiology
(Hall, 2016):
N of
Philadelphia, PA
TG ity
_P ers
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U
BS
 Activity 4. Concept Mapping. Create a concept map to depict the extensive

interconnections between the various components of the Motor Control System. Use
the box provided for your answers.
130
BS U
PT niv
_P ers
TG ity
N of
22 PH B
23 1 ag
B U ui
se o
O
nl
y
131

category) category)
y
se o
nl
B U ui
O
topic to the topic
23 1 ag
N of
TG ity
_P ers
PT niv

U

concepts sense of
hierarchical
structure
BS

variety repetitive
132
and accurate
or more ard mindful
y
se o
segments of
nl
the concept
B U ui
map
O
23 1 ag
22 PH B
N of
TG ity
_P ers
PT niv
BSU
133
y
se o
nl
B U ui
O
23 1 ag
neat!
22 PH B
 Summative Assessment 1. Multiple Choice. Read the statements carefully. Activate
your neurons & choose the best answer. Use a highlighter to highlight your answer.
N of
1. A physical therapist placed a vibrating tuning fork on vertex of the skull or
forehead and the patient is asked to indicate the side where the tone is louder.
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With this procedure, which of the following cranial nerves is being tested by the
therapist?
_P ers
A. CN II
B. CN V
C. CN VIII
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D. CN IX
2. The following cranial nerves are tested with patient’s eyes covered, EXCEPT:
U
A. Olfactory
B. Abducens
C. Facial
D. Glossopharyngeal
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3. A lesion in the cerebellum will have a patient to manifest difficulty in which of the
following?
A. Coordination
B. Balance
C. Both
D. Neither
134
4. Which of the following cranial nerves has NO parasympathetic component?
A. Trigeminal
B. Olfactory
C. Facial
D. Glossopharyngeal
5. A reflex arc has the following components, EXCEPT:

A. Afferent neuron
B. Effector
C. Associate neurons
y
D. None of the above
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nl
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6. This reflex is tested with stroke on the ball of the foot from the lateral plantar aspect.
O
A. Babinski
23 1 ag
B. Plantar
C. Both
22 PH B
D. Neither
N of
7. A disorder of the posterior column of the spinal cord will manifest as a dysfunction
of:
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i. Vibratory sense
ii. Position sense
_P ers
iii. 2-point discrimination

iv. Pain
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A. i,ii,iii only
B. ii,iii, iv only
C. i,iii, iv only
U
D. i, ii, iv only
8. The nerve that innervates the superior oblique muscles is which of the following?
A. Abducens
B. Optic
BS
C. Oculomotor
D. Trochlear
9. Dysphagia, dysphonia and regurgitation of food into the nose on swallowing is a

result of bilateral lesion to this nerve:
A. Glossopharyngeal nerve
B. Accessory nerve
C. Hypoglossal nerve
D. Vagus nerve
135
10. A therapist assesses the motor component of this nerve if he resists shoulder
elevation.
A. Vestibulocochlear
B. Trochlear
C. Accessory spinal
D. Facial
 Summative Assessment 2. Short-Answer Response. Discuss the importance of the

motor control system. Write your answer on the lines provided.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
y
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_____________________________________________________________________________________
nl
B U ui
_____________________________________________________________________________________
O
_____________________________________________________________________________________
23 1 ag
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
22 PH B
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
N of
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
TG ity
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_P ers
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
U
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
BS
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
136

category) category)
y
se o
nl
B U ui
form of irrelevant
O
topic and/ or may
23 1 ag
sentence be applied
N of
TG ity

_P ers

topic the topic
PT niv

U

closing and/ or may
BS
sentence be applied
inaccurately
137
the sections of and
among creating
ideas and cohesion,
concepts and/ or
clarifying
the
relationships
y
se o
among
nl
B U ui
ideas and
concepts
O
23 1 ag
22 PH B
errors in
spelling,
in spelling,
punctuation
errors in
spelling,
in spelling,
punctuation,
N of
TG ity

_P ers
but do not from the

PT niv

of the
U
response
BS
138
 Summative Assessment 3. Concept Mapping. Create a concept map on the
general structures and functions of the nervous system. Use the box for your answers.
y
se o
nl
B U ui
O
23 1 ag
22 PH B
N of
TG ity
_P ers
PT niv
U
BS
139

category) category)
y
se o
nl
B U ui
O
23 1 ag
topic to the topic
Arrangement Arrangement
22 PH B Arrangeme Arrangemen Arrangement
of concepts of concepts nt of t of of concepts
N of
TG ity

_P ers
PT niv

U

concepts sense of
hierarchical
structure
BS

variety repetitive
140
and accurate
or more ard mindful
y
se o
segments of
nl
the concept
B U ui
map
O
23 1 ag
22 PH B
N of
TG ity

_P ers

PT niv
CATEGORY Score
U
category) category)
including parts of
BS

each required cited
task
required tasks
141
handwriting is
not legible
y
se o
nl
B U ui
O
23 1 ag
22 PH B
N of
TG ity
_P ers
PT niv
U
BS
142
Lesson 9
MUSCULAR CONTRACTION
Introduction
This lesson is basically on muscle physiology. You will learn how action potentials
create muscle contraction. It will also present the types of muscle tissue. Particularly,
you will study the similarities and differences in the characteristics of the three muscle
tissues in terms of physical structures and muscle contraction mechanisms.
y
se o
nl
1. explain accurately the events that occur at the neuromuscular junction
B U ui
2. discuss properly the excitation-contraction coupling
O
23 1 ag
3. determine correctly the composition of skeletal muscle cells
4. differentiate the types of muscle contraction
22 PH B
5. determine accurately the composition of smooth muscle
6. differentiate appropriately skeletal from smooth muscle physiology
N of
TG ity
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Neuromuscular Junction
BS
 Can you still recall the structures that make up the neuromuscular junction? Please
put a check on the corresponding line. ____ YES ____ NO. If your answer is “YES” then
proceed to the next activity. If your answer is “NO”, please get back to the previous
lesson and review the structure of the neuromuscular junction before proceeding to
Pre-assessment 1 of this lesson.
143
 Pre-Assessment 1. NMJ. Label the structures on the following diagram. Use
uppercase letters for your answers.
y
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nl
B U ui
O
23 1 ag
22 PH B
N of
TG ity
_P ers
Using the diagram on NMJ, answer the following questions:

PT niv
1. Which is the presynaptic cell? ______________________

2. Which is the postsynaptic cell? ______________________
3. What enzyme breaks down acetylcholine? _____________________
U
4. What type of gating is used in the NMJ? _____________________

5. What ions are important for the release of neurotransmitters? __________________
BS
The previous lesson on neuromuscular junction

and synapses has presented on how the nervous
system controls the excitation of muscular structures.
The propagation of action potentials along axons
stimulate muscle activity as soon as the action
potential reaches the muscle fiber. There are three
types of muscle tissue – skeletal, smooth, and cardiac.
144
 Activity 1. Muscle Tissues.
a. Make a sketch of the three types of muscle tissues. Below each type, list their
general functions. Use the following boxes for your answers.
SKELETAL MUSCLE SMOOTH MUSCLE CARDIAC MUSCLE
y
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nl
B U ui
O
23 1 ag
22 PH B
FUNCTIONS (SKELETAL) FUNCTIONS (SMOOTH) FUNCTIONS (CARDIAC)
N of
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_P ers
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U
BS
b. Briefly discuss the similarities and differences among the characteristics of the
3 muscle tissues.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
145
SKELETAL MUSCLE STRUCTURE
➢ The following figure presents the structural

organization levels of a skeletal muscle.
➢ Note the connective tissue coverings:
o Epimysium – covers the whole muscle
o Endomysium – covers a muscle fiber (cell)
o Perimysium – covers a bundle of muscle fibers called
fascicles
y
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nl
➢ Sarcolemma – plasma
B U ui
membrane of the muscle
O
fiber; made up of thin layer of
23 1 ag
polysaccharide that contains
numerous thin collagen fibers;
22 PH B
end of muscle fibers connects
to tendon
N of
➢ Sarcoplasm – the ICF
between myofibrils with large
quantities of potassium, magnesium, phosphate plus multiple protein enzymes;
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also has tremendous amounts of mitochondria; Mitochondria form the ATP to

supply contracting myofibrils
_P ers
➢ Sarcoplasmic Reticulum – Fig. 1 Organizational levels of skeletal muscle
specialized endoplasmic Image retrieved from https://open.oregonstate.education/aandp/chapter/10-2-skeletal-muscle/

on July 7, 2020.
reticulum of skeletal muscle;

PT niv
important in regulating calcium storage, release and reuptake and muscle

contraction
U
SARCOMERE
➢ Contractile unit of skeletal muscle; Figure 2 presents the structure of sarcomere
➢ Made up of the following proteins
BS
146
o Myosin
▪ Myosin head functions
as ATPase enzyme
which allows head to
cleave ATP to
energize contraction
process
o Actin
▪ F-actin protein
molecule serves as
backbone of actin
filament
y
▪ Tropomyosin – covers
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active sites of actin
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filament
O
▪ Troponin – complexes of 3 loosely bound protein subunits
23 1 ag
• Troponin I
22 PH B • Troponin T Fig. 2. Structure of a sarcomere
Image retrieved from https://open.oregonstate.education/aandp/chapter/10-2-skeletal-muscle/
• Troponin C on July 7, 2020.
o Titin Filamentous Molecules – keep myosin and actin in place

N of
▪ One end is elastic and attaches to Z disk; other end tethers to
myosin
▪ One of the largest protein molecules in the body; springy
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Molecular Mechanism of Muscle Contraction

_P ers
➢ Sliding Filament Mechanism

o Cross-bridges: cause actin to slide inward
o For contractile process to proceed, energy which comes from high-
PT niv
energy bonds in ATP is needed; ATP has to be degraded into ADP to

liberate energy.
➢ Troponin-Tropomyosin Complex – inhibits actin filament; Large amounts of
U
calcium ions inhibits the troponin-tropomyosin complex
Energetics of Skeletal Muscle Contraction
 What is the main source of muscle contraction? ___________________

BS
 Unlike most cells of the body, skeletal muscle fibers often switch between a low level
of activity, when they are relaxed and using only a modest amount of ATP, and a high
level of activity, when they are contracting and using ATP at a rapid pace. (Tortora,
2014)
➢ A huge amount of ATP is needed for the ff:
▪ Power the contraction cycle
▪ Pump calcium ions into the sarcoplasmic reticulum
▪ Other metabolic reactions involved in muscle contraction
o 3 ways to produce ATP:
▪ From creatine phosphate
▪ By anaerobic cellular respiration
147
▪ Aerobic cellular respiration
 Activity 2. Sources of ATP Outline the characteristics of ATP sources. Use the table
provided.
Creatine Phosphate Anaerobic Cellular Aerobic Cellular

Respiration Respiration
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nl
B U ui
O
23 1 ag
22 PH B
N of
TG ity
_P ers
Types of Skeletal Muscle Fibers

PT niv
 Skeletal muscle fibers are not all alike in composition and function (Tortora, 2014). The
following table presents the different characteristics of the 3 types of skeletal muscle
U
fibers.
BS
148
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22 PH B
Source: Tortora and Derrickson (2014)
N of
SMOOTH MUSCLE STRUCTURE
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➢ Figure 3 presents the physical structure of smooth

_P ers
muscle. The left-hand fiber shows actin filaments

radiating from dense bodies. The lower left-hand
fiber and the right-hand diagram demonstrate the
PT niv
relation of myosin filaments to actin filaments. (Hall,

2016)
➢ Types of smooth muscle:
U
o Multi-unit
▪ Discrete, separate smooth muscle
fibers
▪ Often innervated by as single nerve
ending
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▪ Each fiber can contract

independently of others
▪ Ex: ciliary eye muscles, piloerector
muscles
o Unitary
▪ Also known as syncytial smooth
muscle; also known as visceral
smooth muscle
▪ Mass of hundreds or thousands of smooth muscle Figurefibers
3. Physicalcontract
structure of
together as a single unit smooth muscle (Hall, 2016)
▪ Cell membranes are joined by many gap junctions through which

ions can flow freely form one muscle cell to the next
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 Activity 3. Smooth Muscle Cell Innervation. Illustrate the innervation of the smooth
muscle cell. Color and label accordingly. Use the following box for your drawing.
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CARDIAC MUSCLE STRUCTURE

➢ Figure 4 shows the “syncytial” – the
interconnecting nature of cardiac muscle fibers
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(Hall, 2016)
➢ Intercalated discs – where cell membranes fuse
with one another in such a way that they form
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permeable “communicating” junctions (gap

junctions) Figure 3. “Syncytial” (Hall, 2016)
➢ Ions move with ease in the intracellular fluid
along the longitudinal axes of the cardiac muscle fibers; action potentials travel
easily from one cardiac muscle cell to the next.
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 Activity 4. Cardiac Electrical Activity. Illustrate the initiation and propagation of

action potentials along the cardiac electrical activity. Color and label accordingly.
Use the following box for your illustration.
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 Reading Task: Read the topics on Contraction of Skeletal Muscle, Excitation of
Skeletal Muscle: Neuromuscular Transmission and Excitation-Contraction Coupling,
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Contraction and Excitation of Smooth Muscle, and Heart Muscle (Hall, 2016), and topics
on Muscular Tissue (Tortora, 2014):
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MECHANICS OF SKELETAL MUSCLE CONTRACTION
 After reading through the texts, you most likely have a grasp on how muscles
contract. To further understand the flow of action potentials along a motor neuron and
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bringing about skeletal muscle contraction, here are few more activities you have to
perform.
 Activity 5. Video Clips for Emphasis.

 Watch the following video clips on muscle contraction.
1. Muscle Contraction Process on
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ousflrOzQHc
2. Muscle Excitation Contraction Coupling on
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zUUB3nqh79c
 Activity 6. Post-Viewing. Now that you have watched the video clips, list down
what you have learned and understood better with what were presented (as
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compared to your readings and previous activities).
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 Activity 7. Walk-Along Mechanism of Contraction. Illustrate the concept of walk-
along mechanism of contraction of a muscle. Note that heads of cross-bridges bend
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back and forth and step by step walk along the actin filament, pulling ends of 2
successive actin filaments toward center of myosin. Label accordingly. Use the box for
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your drawing.
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 Thus, as actin filaments move toward the center of the sarcomere, the sarcomere
shortens. Shortening is muscle contraction.
 Create a storyboard to depict the processes that occur from the generation of
action potentials from the NMJ to the excitation-contraction coupling. Use short bond
paper (8”x11”) with maximum of 6 screens per page. You may use a maximum of 3
bond papers per topic. Layout may either be portrait or landscape, whichever you
prefer provided you use only one layout throughout.
Length-Tension Relationship
 Question here is how much force or tension does a muscle develop as it contracts?
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The answer would depend on the amount of actin and myosin overlap and the
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muscle’s functional length. Study the following figures that present length-tension
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relationship. (Hall, 2016)
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➢ Normal resting length of sarcomere is at 2 micrometers
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➢ Maximum strength of contraction is with length of 2-2.2 micrometers
➢ The increase in tension during contraction, called active tension, decreases as
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the muscle is stretched beyond its normal length – that is, to a sarcomere length
greater than about 2.2 micrometers.
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Figures on Length-Tension Relationship lifted from Hall (2014)

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Velocity of Contraction
➢ When loads are applied, velocity of contraction becomes less as loads increase
➢ The decrease in velocity with load is caused by the fact that a load on
contracting muscle is a reverse force that opposes contractile force
 ATP as Energy source for muscle contraction

➢ Muscle contraction – work is performed, thus energy is required
➢ The greater the amount of work performed by a muscle; the greater amount of
ATP is cleaved (Fenn effect)
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 Activity 8. Cleaving of ATP. Outline the sequence on how ATP is cleaved. Place your
answer in the box provided.
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 Activity 9. Skeletal muscle contraction vs Smooth muscle contraction. Using a
flowchart diagram, present in side-by-side view the process of skeletal muscle
contraction and smooth muscle contraction. Use the boxes for your answers.
SKELETAL MUSCLE CONTRACTION SMOOTH MUSCLE CONTRACTION
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 Activity 10. Visceral Smooth Muscle.
a. Discuss excitation of visceral smooth muscle by muscle stretch.

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b. What is the role of calcium pump in smooth muscle relaxation?
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assessment tasks with utmost integrity. Without looking at any references, answer what
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Summative Assessment 1. Matching Type. Match the characteristics of muscle fibers in
column A with their muscle fiber type in column B. Write the letter of your choice on the
lines provided after each item.
Column A Column B
1. Seen in ciliary muscles of the eyes. ___
A. Skeletal muscle fiber
2. Makes up piloerector muscles. ___
B. Smooth muscle fiber (multi-unit)
3. Presence of intercalated discs. ___
4. Innervated by a single nerve ending. C. Smooth muscle fiber (unitary)
___ D. Cardiac muscle fiber
5. Striations are evident under E. Both smooth muscle fiber types
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microscope. ___ F. Both skeletal and smooth muscle
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6. Plateau phase in the graphs fibers
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representing its action potential ___ G. Both skeletal and cardiac muscle
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7. Resting membrane potential is -80 to - fibers
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90mv. ___ H. Both smooth and cardiac muscle
8. Blood vessels and ureters are made up
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of this myofiber ___
9. Very slow attachment and
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detachment of cross-bridges with
actin. ___
10. Nerve endings secrete Acetylcholine. ___
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 Summative Assessment 2. Multiple Choice. Activate your neurons and choose the
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correct answer from the choices provided. Using a highlighter, highlight your answer
from the choices given per statement or question.
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11. This is the region in the sarcomere that is made up of both actin and myosin
myofilaments.
H zone I band A band M line
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12. The correct nomenclature of skeletal muscle tissue is as follows:

Fibers→filaments→fascicles →fibrils→individual muscles
Filaments→fibrils→fibers →fascicles→individual muscles
Fibrils→fascicles→fibrils →fibers→individual muscles
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Individual muscles→fibers →filaments →fibrils→fascicles
13. True of the sliding filament theory, EXCEPT:

Actin slide past myosin
There is shortening of sarcomere
Actin head attaches to myosin through myosin binding sites
Z disks approximate each other
14. Muscle atrophy is caused by, EXCEPT
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Reduction in intramuscular capillary density
Synthesis of contractile protein
Decline in the number of myofibril
Decrease in the diameter of muscle fiber
15. This is the innermost noncontractile connective tissue that separates individual
muscle fibers and myofibrils.
Epimysium Endomysium Perimysium Fascia
16. Neurotransmitter that increase K ion conductance will:

Depolarize the membrane
Stimulate the neuron and propagate the action potential
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Hyperpolarize the membrane
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All of these
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17. Which of the statements correctly describes dark bands?
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They are also called I bands
The M line is due to a thick bulge in the thin filament
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They have an H band in the center
They are preceded by a G band off center
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They have a Z line in the middle
18. Which of the following has the least number of slow twitch muscle fibers?
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Runners Basketball players Swimmers Weight lifters

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19. The coupling mechanism is brought about by which of the following?

The release of calcium ions
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The depolarization of the sarcolemma

The hydrolysis of ATP
All of the above
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20. The following characteristics describe type I muscle fiber, EXCEPT:

Higher myosin ATPase activity than other fiber types
Resistant to fatigue, with high levels of oxidative enzyme activity and low levels
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of glycolytic enzyme activity

Contained in motor units characterized by a low firing frequency or discharge
rate
Associated with extensive capillary density and high concentration of
myoglobin
21. During muscle contraction, they slide toward each other:

A band Myosin I band Actin
22. What ions are responsible for the plateau stage for smooth and cardiac muscle
action potentials?
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Sodium Potassium Calcium Magnesium
23. The following statements describe the relation of velocity of contraction to load.
A skeletal muscle contracts extremely rapidly when it contracts against an
increased load.
When loads are applied, velocity of contraction becomes progressively less
Both
Neither
24. Which of the following best describes a motor unit?

This refers to all motor neurons innervated by single muscle fiber.
Smaller muscle fibers with finer or complex movements have fewer nerve
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fibers.
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Large muscles have several hundred muscle neurons.
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Muscle fibers in each motor unit are not all bunched together but overlap
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other motor units.
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25. The interaction between actin and myosin filaments during muscle contraction is
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brought to a stop because of__
ionization of the cell
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depolarization of the cell membrane
sodium pump reversal
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decrease concentration of intracellular calcium ions

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159

CATEGORY Score
category) category)
including parts of
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each required cited
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task
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required tasks
required tasks
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handwriting is
not legible
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REFERENCES
Gunstream, S. (2010) Anatomy and Physiology with Integrated Study Guide. 4th ed.
McGraw-Hill Education, New York.
Hall, J. (2011). Guyton and Hall textbook of medical physiology. Philadelphia:

Saunders Elsevier.
Kisner, C. & Colby, L.A. (2012) Therapeutic exercise: Foundation and techniques. (6th
edition). Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Co.
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LaPres, J., Kersten, B., & Tang, Y. (2016). Gunstream’s Anatomy and Physiology with
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Integrated Study Guide. McGraw-Hill Education, New York.
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Marieb, E. (2012). Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology. Pearson Education,
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Inc.
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Seeley, R. R. (2012) Anatomy and physiology. 9th ed. Boston : McGraw-Hill
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Tortora, G. and D. (2014). Principles of Anatomy and Physiology. 14th Edition. Wiley and
Sons, Inc.
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Physiologyweb.com
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https://www.youtube.com/c/Physiotutors/videos.
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161
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Dear Student,
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Kindly express your insights regarding the course PTGNPH1. The following are questions
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that require short and honest answers. Your responses will be utilized for the evaluation
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and improvement of the course contents. Thank you very much.
Sincerely,
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Ms Ruth D. Fernandez
PTGNPH1 Instructor
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1. What activity/ lesson did you enjoy most? Why?

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2. What is the most important lesson which you can apply in your daily life?
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3. What are the new insight/ discoveries that you learned?
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4. What topics do you find least important?
__________________________________________________________________________________
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5. What possible topics should have been included?
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6. What other remarks or suggestions do you have?
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General Physiology and Neurophysiology Learning Module

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General Physiology and Neurophysiology Learning Module

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Ruth Diaz-Fernandez, PTRP, LPT, MASPED

Introduction of the Module …….………………………………...……………………... 3

Lesson 7: Nerve Cell Membrane Potentials ……………..………………………….. 102

Lesson 8: Neurologic Functions ………………………………………………………… 122

References ………………………………………………………...…………………..…. 161

Course Code PTGNPH1

Course Title General Physiology with Neurophysiology

Here are the requirements of the course:

15th Edition. Wiley and Sons, Inc.

4. You are expected to diligently accomplish each activity in this module.

course, or group chat regularly for updates.

completion. Your respective activity completion scores will be credited to your

RUBRIC FOR ACTIVITY COMPLETION

Excellent Very Satisfactory Needs

Excellent Very Satisfactory Needs

knowledge knowledge on content information

has very has clear and has limited has very

CATEGORY Excellent Very Satisfactory Needs Score

relationships subordinate subordinate

Hierarchical Concepts Concepts Limited Concepts

a hierarchical in a structure displayed in

CATEGORY Excellent Very Satisfactory Needs Score

details to and support and details, but

topic in an details to inaccurate,

topic the topic

(10) topic through concludes concludes provide a

closing and/ or may

grammar and n, grammar capitalizatio and usage

repetitive, that distract interfere with

interfere readability readability of

1. apply knowledge of physical sciences, social sciences, health sciences and

Week No. Lesson and Topics Topic Learning Activities

1 Orientation to the At the end of the Engage:

Read assigned topics

body’s external activities on critical

environment. Evaluate: Summative

2-3 Lesson 2: Body’s Tiniest At the end the learning Engage:

4-5 Lesson 3: Body’s Tiniest At the end the learning Engage:

different through recall and use

cellular activities. Explain: Lecture-

Create a storyboard for

6 First Grading Exam Online Exams

Genetic Control of from Meiosis

accurately the discussion; Outline

genetic control assessments; Feedback;

Biochemical Activity clearly the indicated

9-10 Lesson 5: The Mighty At the end of the Engage:

transport discussion; Outline

4. differentiate assessments; Feedback;

active transport indicated

6. discuss properly Evaluate: Summative

along a nerve cell,

cell and stomach

12 Midterms Online Exams

Synapses 6. discuss properly Assessments

Junction ending transmits

Formation, Secretion 7. describe

Function Tests cranial nerves presentation; Self-

Testing of reflex arc

testing, and thinking

16-17 Lesson 9: Muscular At the end of the Engage: