Chapter III

Morality

Morals refer to human behavior where morality is the practical activity and, ethics
describes the theoretical, systematic, and rational reflection upon that human behavior
(Churchill, 1982). (or it is a person's standards of behavior or beliefs concerning what is and is
not acceptable for them to do).

Moral experience begins with moral consciousness or moral sense. In fact moral
consciousness and moral experience are used as synonyms by many. But it is good to
distinguish between the two. Experience is a generic term in the sense that whatever affects
a person can be called an ‗experience‘. It can be an emotion like love or hatred. It can be
active or passive like love for a friend or love of a friend. One can speak of one‘s progress in
studies as ‗knowledge experience.‘ Any experience leaves behind an impression or
memory. Such impressions or memories cumulatively or added to one‘s experience. The
totality of such experiences contributes to the formation of a human personality.

(Moral experience encompasses a person's sense that values that he or she

deems important are being realised or thwarted in everyday life. This includes a
person's interpretations of a lived encounter, or a set of lived encounters, that fall on
spectrums of right-wrong, good-bad or just-unjust.)

General Objectives:

1. Explain morality and the importance of rules

2. Differentiate moral and non-moral standards
3. Discuss the different levels of dilemma
4. Explain the role of freedom in making moral decisions

Lesson I. Nature of Morality and the Importance of Rules

Ethics is the study of right and wrong. Everyone makes decisions each day that are
essentially choices. For some, choices are considered strictly personal and no one else‘s
business: Should I have a strip of bacon with my eggs? But for some, even that simple
choice has ethical ramifications: Should I eat meat? Is it anyone else‘s concern that I eat
meat? Other choices confront us as the day progresses: Should I call in sick? Should I obey
the speed laws as I drive to work? Should I answer a friend‘s question honestly or lie and
potentially hurt her feelings? Should I be faithful to my spouse? How does one find answers
to these questions? For some, laws and religion provide the answers. But for most, those
two sources are insufficient.
Specific Objectives:

1. Explain kinds of morality

2. Explain the importance of rules
Lesson Outline

Ethics in your profession

In life our behavior is governed by different norm systems. The word NORM comes from
Latin ―NORMA‖= yardstick. Norms dictate what we ―ought‖ or ―ought not‖ to do. The
norm systems governing the behavior of a professional are:

Individual morality

This refers to individual values of a specific person and what they believe to be right.
Individual morality is influenced by how a person was raised. It is their personal value
system. The sanction for disobeying one‘s individual morality is a guilty conscience.

Positive morality

This set of norms represents what is considered ―right‖ in society at a particular

time. The sanction for failure to obey positive morality is social sanction.

• Law (Legal Norms) laws protect society and prevent anarchy/or state of disorder due to the
absence of authority or non-recognition of the laws by regulating behavior.

• Public Law – also referred to as criminal law: between the state and individual. (Public
laws are laws intended for general application, such as those that apply to the nation as a
whole or a class of individuals.)

• Public law handles the law between the government and individuals. Examples of
public law include constitutional law, criminal law, and international law. The main purpose
of constitutional laws is to safeguard people's rights as defined in the Constitution

Private Law – also referred to as contractual law and focuses on the relationship between
persons. (Are enacted for the benefit of a particular individual or small group, such as claims
against the government or individual immigration or naturalization matters).

 Private law handles legal issues of the relationships between individuals.

Examples of private law include contract law, property law, and tort law. Contract law
is the body of laws that governs the rights and responsibilities of people who enter
into contracts.
Formal Law and Common Law find expression in the reported judgments of courts.

• Professional Ethics- Professionals are a group of people who earn a living by undertaking
a common activity and who regulate most of these themselves.

• Professional ethics are principles that govern the behavior of a person or group in a
business environment. Like values, professional ethics provide rules on how a person
should act towards other people and institutions in such an environment.

However, there are some universal ethical principles that apply across all
professions, including:

 honesty

 trustworthiness

 loyalty

 respect for others

 adherence to the law

 doing good and avoiding harm to others

 accountability.

The Role of Rules and Social Beings

To define a rule, it is a set of guidelines which has been established in all countries and
communities and has been accepted by all.

A rule is a set of guidelines which has been established in all countries and
communities to be followed by its members of members of society. Rules differ from one
country to another. The differences are affected by factors like beliefs, social interactions,
policies, and the type of government.
 The definition of a rule is an official regulation, code of regulations or set
practice. An example of a rule is that a red light means stop. An example of a rule is
an employer demanding their employees arrive at 8am. 
 A rule is a statement telling people what they should do in order
to achieve success or a benefit of some kind.
 Violators are dealt with according to the penalties that come with the violation of the
rules. Therefore, rules are a beneficial tool to guide and monitor the interactions between the
members of the society.

Assessment

Share to your class your own personal experience and understanding.

1. Differentiate individual morality and positive morality

2. What school rules can remember that has a different moral sense than that of your
friend? Do it affect your relationship?
3. Give examples of rules in your community that you have followed. What particular
right you have that makes you follow the rules and how does it affect your
community. Share your experience.

Lesson II. Moral Vs. Non-Moral Standards

In our daily life we encounter moral questions at every step. In our everyday experience, we
face different situations, some of which we straightaway designate as moral or as immoral
and in some other cases we may face difficulty to put the instance in any of these two
specific categories. For example – my grandfather used to give food to birds every morning
and before he died he advised me to continue this practice. But owing to my other
preoccupations I failed to follow his advice. Can we designate this failure to follow his advice
as immoral?

Specific Objectives:

1. Explain the characteristics of moral standards

2. Discern moral standards from non-moral standards

Lesson Outline

Characteristics of Moral Standards:

Moral standards are bases for moral behavior and bases for determining whether a
certain act is moral or immoral and for someone to be responsible or not. These are the
guides of human behavior and decision making. These standards are not only applied to
individual persons but also to a group or corporation. Something is unethical if it does not
conform (follow) to a particular standard of morality. They may not be written but
observed and they are assumed norms of moral conduct (Articulo, 2005).
 Understanding this context, it is very clear that individuals must be guided to act in good
manner in dealing with fellow humans, society and his environment.
These standards should encourage individuals to take actions and courage.

There are certain elements differentiating moral standards to non-moral standards:

a. Moral standards involve serious wrongs or significant benefits.

Moral standards deal with matters which can seriously impact, that is, injure or benefit
human beings. It is not the case with many non-moral standards. For instance, following or
violating some basketball rules may matter in basketball games but does not necessarily
affect one‘s life or wellbeing.

b. Moral standards ought to be preferred to other values.

Moral standards have overriding character or hegemonic/ruling or dominant authority.

If a moral standard states that a person has the moral obligation to do something, then
he/she is supposed to do that even if it conflicts with other non-moral standards, and even
with self-interest.

Moral standards are not the only rules or principles in society, but they take
precedence/order to be observed over other considerations, including aesthetic/or sets of
principles guiding the work, prudential/wise or sober and avoiding risk, and even legal ones.
A person may be aesthetically justified in leaving behind his family in order to devote his life
to painting, but morally, all things considered, he/she probably was not justified. It may be
prudent to lie to save one‘s dignity, but it probably is morally wrong to do so. When a
particular law becomes seriously immoral, it may be people‘s moral duty to exercise civil
disobedience.

There is a general moral duty to obey the law, but there may come a time when the
injustice of an evil law is unbearable and thus calls for illegal but moral noncooperation (such
as the antebellum laws calling for citizens to return slaves to their owners).

c. Moral standards are not established by authority figures.

Moral standards are not invented, formed, or generated by authoritative bodies or

persons such as nations ‘legislative bodies/law-makers/ it is made up of the Congress and
several Government agencies. Ideally instead, these values ought to be considered in the
process of making laws. In principle therefore, moral standards cannot be changed nor
nullified by the decisions of particular authoritative body. One thing about these standards,
nonetheless, is that its validity lies on the soundness or adequacy of the reasons that are
considered to support and justify them.

d. Moral standards have the trait of universalizability.

Simply put, it means that everyone should live up to moral standards. To be more
accurate, however, it entails that moral principles must apply to all who are in the relevantly
similar situation. If one judges that act A is morally right for a certain person P, then it is
morally right for anybody relevantly similar to P.

(An action is socially acceptable if it can be universalized (i.e., everyone could do it).

If applicable sa isa pwedi din sa lahat..true to all.)
This characteristic is exemplified in the Gold Rule, ―Do unto others what you would
them do unto you (if you were in their shoes)‖ and in the formal Principle of
Justice, ―It cannot be right for A to treat B in a manner in which it would be wrong for B to
treat A, merely on the ground that they are two different individuals, and without there being
any difference between the natures or circumstances of the two which can be stated as a
reasonable ground for difference of treatment.‖ Universalizability is an extension of the
principle of consistency, that is, one ought to be consistent about one‘s value judgments.

e. Moral standards are based on impartial considerations. (equal treatment/fairness.)

Moral standard does not evaluate standards on the basis of the interests of a certain person
or group, but one that goes beyond personal interests to a universal standpoint in which
each person‘s interests are impartially counted as equal.

Impartiality is usually depicted as being free of bias or prejudice. Impartiality in

morality requires that we give equal and/or adequate consideration to the interests of all
concerned parties.

f. Moral standards are associated with special emotions and vocabulary.

Perspectivity indicates the practical or action-guiding nature of moral standards.

These moral standards are generally put forth as injunction or imperatives (such as, ‗Do not
kill,‘ ‗Do no unnecessary harm,‘ and ‗Love your neighbor‘). These principles are proposed
for use, to advise, and to influence to action. Retroactively, this feature is used to evaluate
behavior, to assign praise and blame, and to produce feelings of satisfaction or of guilt.
 If a person violates a moral standard by telling a lie even to fulfill a special purpose, it
is not surprising if he/she starts feeling guilty or being ashamed of his behavior afterwards.
On the contrary, no much guilt is felt if one goes against the current fashion trend (e.g.
refusing to wear tattered jeans). (Copyright 2013 by Jensen DG.

Moral Standards versus Other Rules in Life

A person‘s moral values constitute society‘s rules, and moral rules are very significant and
subjective to each person‘s moral values. Individually, we feel differently from the
perspective of stealing for example. Some of us may feel bad about getting one‘s
belongings, some may not. We do not know how exactly one feels about stealing. On the
other hand, we do not know how people will react seriously about stealing or if they were
stolen. Our expectation and social exercise will reflect on our belief within our social
standards, i.e., the collective values of other people‘s morality. We sometimes generalized
people‘s morality by their actions against our expectations. We will react severely about
stealing if our principle against stealing is strong. If a certain social standard does not
condemn stealing our behavior is based on such. Such experiences reshape our belief about
social standard and thus may affect our behavior in which stealing is toward us in the future
experiences.

Etiquette, Policy, Law, and Commandment

Etiquette is a set of rules on how an individual should responsibly behave in the society
(Taylor and Williams, 2017). The table manners such as the proper use of utensils and the
proper manner of eating are examples of etiquette. Meanwhile, a policy is a clear, simple
statement on how an organization plans to handle its services, actions or business. Policies
are guiding rules to help with decision making (The University of Sydney, ©2002-2017).
When schools require their students to wear the proper school uniform and school ID before
they will be allowed inside the campus (or the NO Uniform No ID, No Entry rule posted in the
school‘s entrance) is an example of a policy. On the other hand, a law is a rule created and
enforced by the government and its agencies to maintain order, resolve disputes/arguments
or disagreements, and protect a person‘s liberty and rights(Robertson,2008; Brickley and
Gottesman, © 2017). Can you give an example of a law in the Philippines?
Finally, a commandment is a rule that is to be strictly observed because it was said to be
set by a divine entity, such as those in the Ten Commandments (Stahl, 2009).
EXAMPLES:
  For example, lying and cheating are ethical choices as well as violations of
appropriate etiquette. These behaviors are of a moral nature, but when practiced,
show a lack of respect for those persons lied to or cheated.

50 Etiquette Rules to Live By

 Hold the door for the person behind you.
 Never lick your knife.
 Keep a supply of thank-you notes on hand for those times when someone
gives you a gift.
 Never take a roll from the breadbasket without offering it to your neighbor first.
 Be punctual.
 Let someone go in front of you in line.
What Are Etiquette And Manners?

Both etiquette and manners play a significant role in social interactions. The two
concepts revolve around human behavior and are often used interchangeably.
However, the two are different at their core and shouldn’t be confused with each
other.

Etiquette is a code of conduct and a set of societal rules that acts as a catalyst for
positive human interactions. On the other hand, manners are behaviors that reflect a
person’s attitude. A key difference between etiquette and manners is that the former
changes with a change in societal customs and norms, while the latter remains
largely unchanged across communities.

Practicing Etiquette And Manners

The process of learning etiquette is more difficult than learning good manners. The
former requires conscious effort and dedication. Moreover, etiquette changes
according to customs and norms. The etiquette you display at a dinner party will be
different from the way you present yourself at an office party.

12 kinds of Philippine Laws

 POLITICAL & INTERNATIONAL LAW.
 LABOR LAW.
 CIVIL LAW.
 TAXATION LAW.
 MERCANTILE/ COMMERCIAL LAW.
 CRIMINAL LAW.
 LEGAL ETHICS & PRACTICAL EXERCISES.
 REMEDIAL LAW.

Common Laws / The Philippine Legal Codes

Laws Also known as Date

Republic Act No. 8293 Intellectual Property Code June 6, 1997

Presidential Decree No. 442 Labor Code May 1, 1974

Republic Act No. 4136 Land Transportation and Traffic Code June 20, 1964

Republic Act No. 7160 Local Government Code October 10, 1991

Legal systems around the world vary greatly, but they usually follow civil
law or common law. In common law, past legal precedents or judicial
rulings are used to decide cases at hand.

Under civil law, codified statutes and ordinances rule the land. Some

countries like South Africa use a combination of civil and common law.

Common law and statutory laws are followed by most nations in the

world. A combination of both is necessary for justice to be served.

The 10 Commandments List, Short Form

1. You shall have no other gods before Me.

2. You shall not make idols.
3. You shall not take the name of the LORD your God in vain.
4. Remember the Sabbath day, to keep it holy.
5. Honor your father and your mother.
6. You shall not murder.
7. You shall not commit adultery.
8. You shall not steal.
9. You shall not bear false witness against your neighbor.
10. “You shall not covet your neighbor’s house . . . your neighbor’s wife . . . nor anything
that is your neighbor’s”
What is the advantage of owning moral standards over merely abiding by moral standards?

For most people, the fundamental moral question is, ―What should I do?‖ or ―How should
I act?‖ Ethics are presumed as moralities on how a person should act. For example, ―every
person is obligated to do the greatest good for the most number of people.‖ There is also the
philosophy that ―everyone is obligated to act in ways that upholds the human dignity for all
people.‖ Moral principles like these guide the practice of various professions (professional
ethics).

But is all there is to ethics? Is ethics just about following rules of do‘s and don‘ts? This
obsession with rules somehow reflects the more important aspect of being a human person
and that becoming what you should be. In other words, the more important question for
ethics is not ―What should I do?‖ but ―What kind of person should I be?‖

Assessment

Based on the topics discussed, explain:

1. How are the moral standards different from non-moral standards?

2. How moral standards differ from etiquette, policy, law and commandment?

Lesson III. Moral Dilemma (predicament/difficult situation)

The essence of studying ethics is morality. Ethics is the science of good/bad, just/unjust,
moral/immoral behavior (Rossouw&VanVuuren, 2006; Weiss, 2009; Desjardins, 2009). So
when we talk of ethics we are also talking about morality. Moral dilemmas are associated
with ethical dilemmas. So the conflict in morality can be in these areas, personal,
organizational and structural.

Specific Objectives:

1. Define dilemma and moral dilemma

2. Explain the three levels of moral dilemma
3. Decide in morally conflicting situations

Lesson Outline

What is Dilemma?

Dilemma is in which two well-known cases is conflicting. In each case, an individual regards
as to having moral reasons to do each of the two actions, but doing both actions is not
possible. The most crucial characteristic of moral dilemma is that, a person has to do two or
more actions; the moral dilemma is that the person can possibly do the two actions however;
he cannot possibly do two or more actions, because everyone has to make a choice.

Three Levels of Moral Dilemma

1. Personal Moral Dilemma is when your decision in a particular situation has a

conflict with your own and another individual. Your actions will become harmful to
group of individuals. (No matter what choice you make in these situations, you
always end up compromising some moral value. An example of a moral dilemma
is having to choose between saving a dog from a fire or saving your sister.)
2. Organizational Dilemma is when a member or members of the organization is in
situation where there is moral conflicts and the decision will potentially harm either
 some members of the group or the entire organization itself. (Example: Whether to
promote a qualified person from within the workplace or hire from outside?
Another example: Whether to lay-off workers in an economic downturn, jeopardizing
the security of the worker and their families, in order to save money and keep
shareholders happy. In this difficult situation employer should make a choice for the
benefit of the many.
3. Structural Moral Dilemma is when a person or group of persons who holds high-
level positions in the society faces a morally conflicting situation wherein the entire
social system is affected. These structural moral dilemmas pertain to cases involving
network of institutions and operative theoretical paradigms. As they usually
encompass multi-sectoral institutions and organizations, they may be larger in scope
and extent than organizational dilemmas.

Example: Is the prices of medicine in the Philippines which are higher compared to
other countries in Asia and in countries of similar economic status. Factors affecting
medicine prices include the cost of research, presence of competition in the market,
government regulations, and patent protection.

Assessment

1. Define dilemma and moral dilemma.

2. Explain the three levels of dilemma and give one example in each level.
3. Cite a specific morally conflicting situation you encountered or might encounter and
make a sound decision.

Lesson IV. Freedom

The personal aspect of the morality is about developing virtue so that thinking morally,
performing moral acts, and choosing to do what is good becomes a habit. The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2016) explained that virtue is your thought or behavior guided
by, and displays, high moral standards. Virtues are habits developed through learning and
practice.

An efficiently run ship is like a virtuous person: both have internalized the practices that
make them weather storms. However, a ship is under the control of captain while virtuous
person free to cultivate his or her values. Freedom, then, is the foundation of moral acts. For
a person to be virtuous, he or she must also be free.
Meanwhile, when talking about interpersonal aspects of morality, the discussion turns to
following rules. It is important to note that even in following of the rules freedom is essential.
 Finally, there is a question of the ultimate end. ―Why are you here?‖ ―What is your
purpose?‖ The human person‘s final end is always debatable topic because it often goes
hand in hand with specific religious views. However, the debate does not negate the fact that
freedom remains essential with one‘s view of his or her ultimate purpose.

Specific Objectives:

1. Discuss the philosophical insights on freedom

2. Justify that freedom is important in making moral decision

Lesson Outline

The Human Person as a Free Being

What does ―human person‖ mean? In Philosophy, a human being is more than its
biological components. The human being is a person endowed with characteristics that are
material, spiritual, rational, and free. A Human Person is a being (the Aristotelian idea of
being connotes actuality; existence; an actual condition or circumstance) with inborn
properties that he or she uses to direct his or her own development toward self-fulfillment.
One of the inborn properties of the human person is freedom.

Philosophical Insights on Freedom

We have mentioned freedom numerous times. What is your understanding of freedom?

Philosophers talked about this concept extensively. Here are some philosophical insights on
freedom.

(a) Freedom is a Gift

According to Gabriel Marcel, freedom is the ability to act significantly. Free acts are
significant because they help to make us who we are as human beings. Freedom is
not merely the ability to make arbitrary choices because we are not free if everything
that we can choose to do the significant in the first place. Freedom is the ability to
make significant choices and according to Marcel, it is a gift given to us by God.
(Hernandez, 2009)

(b) Freedom is Complimentary to Reasoning /given or supplied to reasoning.

 One of Aristotle‘s ethical doctrines asserted that freedom and reason are
complementary. In Aristotle‘s view, the human person as a moral agent must
exercise practical rationality in order to determine how to pursue his or her ultimate
end (telos). Self-direction, rather than bare spontaneity or ( the condition of being
spontaneous; spontaneous behavior or action) , is the crucial characteristic of the free
person. Aristotle considered freedom and reason as necessary faculties or element
for consciously making sense of things (events, occurrences, phenomena,
situations). (Walsh, 1997)

(c) Freedom is Absolute

Existentialist philosopher Jean Paul Sartre‘s concept of freedom is not that freedom
to do something or anything. In Sartre‘s view, the human person is ―absolutely
free‖. Freedom sets the human person apart from the other creatures. You might say
―But what about animal freedom? Animals – unless caged – are also free. Animals
just roam around, eat when they need to, and sleep where they want. Animals are
not tied down with responsibilities like humans.‖ Yes, it is true that animals are –
unless caged – free. In farm animals also have a notion of freedom. When they are
caged, animals will try to escape from their cages. This kind of freedom is called
freedom from restrictions. It is a primitive kind of freedom. It is freedom for mere
survival. Humans, on the other hand, have a higher kind of freedom. The freedom of
the human person is beyond freedom from restriction. In fact, a person in jail is still
free. He is free to think, to change, and to become a better person. A prisoner is free
to redefine himself. As human persons, we are free to make choices. We are free to
decide. And we are free to use this freedom to attain goals higher than satisfying
basic needs.

(d) Freedom Demands Responsibility

Jean-Paul Sartre said ―You are Free‖ because he believed a person always has a
choice. Thus, according to Sartre, you must choose. His idea was that freedom is the
capacity to choose, that even not choosing is a choice (Gallinero, 2014). It is
important to note however, that he also added the concept of responsibility to
freedom. According to Sartre, even though individuals must make their own choices
because they are free, these choices (though freely made) also have consequences
to it. These consequences to freedom are something that the person must endure.
 Therefore, it can be said that in Sartre‘s concept, responsibility follows freedom
(Gallinero, 2014)

Chinese philosopher Lao Tzu also discussed freedom and responsibility. Lao Tzu
advocated that a person can and should choose act, but his or her actions should
be that which would result in harmony. Lao Tzu‘s idea was that in any society, the
exercise of one‘s freedom is not absolute. The person is free to do anything; but it is
not without consequence of one‘s action (Gallinero, 2014). Responsibility, as a moral
quality serves as a voluntary check and balance of one‘s freedom. Without proper
balance limitless freedom is a dangerous as an extremely controlling social group.
Great social injustices have resulted from such radical mindsets.

Supplemental Reading
“A Clockwork Orange” synopsis: Anthony
Burgess

Alex was someone utterly asked conscience. Along with his gang, he committed all kinds of
heinous crimes. What makes him truly evil was that Alex was actually fully aware that his
actions were morally wrong; yet he did it anyway. He enjoyed doing crime and hurting other
people. His acceptance that his actions were immoral meant Alex freely chose to do evil
acts.

In one of their killing spree, Alex was captured. He was convicted for murder and sentence
to fourteen years in prison. While serving out his sentence, Alex was recommended by the
prison officials to participate in ―Ludovico Technique‖. The author described the Ludovico
Technique as an ―experimental treatment designed to eliminate criminal impulses‖. The
―treatment‖ was about conditioning Alex‘s mind so that his desire to commit crime will
disappear. Prison doctors injected Alex with nausea-inducing drugs, strapped him in a chair,
and kept his eyes open with metal clips (so that he can‘t even blink, and made to watch all
kinds of violent films. After several sessions, the conditioning was successful in Alex, that
whenever he was confronted with violence he suddenly became weak, nauseated, and
totally unable to inflict pain on others – even in self-defense.

Due to supposed success, Alex was released from prison early. Once he returned to
society, he was pitifully helpless against those who did him harm. Alex was brutalized by his
former victims and was beaten half to death by two of his former gang members (who
became police officers while Alex was imprisoned). In utter despair, Alex attempted suicide,
by some twist of fate, he lived. While he was recuperating in the hospital, Alex realized the
―treatment‖ had worn off and he was back to his ―ultraviolent‖ self once again.

In the last chapter of the book, Alex (though still violent) was actually less and less happy
with his situation; unlike in his past where he enjoyed crime and violence. He then came
across Pete – the last member of his old gang. Pete had changed. He was living a happy,
productive, comfortable life with his wife. Alex realized he wanted to be like Pete. In the end,
Alex decided (on his own) to turn his life around and actually became responsible, peace-
loving person.

Assessment
1. Discuss what is freedom based on the different philosophical insights.
2. Which of the two makes you human? (Defend your answer considering the synopsis
of “A Clockwork Orange” by Anthony Burgess and the essence of
―freedom‖)
a. Free to decide and do evil acts: or
b. Forced to become a moral person and not hurt others.

Chapter Summary

• Morals refer to human behavior where morality is the practical activity and, ethics
describes the theoretical, systematic, and rational reflection upon that human
behavior (Churchill, 1982).

• Kinds of Morality are: individual morality and positive morality.

• Positive morality has something to do with laws such as, public, private formal and
common laws
• The sanction for failure to obey positive morality is social sanction.
• Rules are a beneficial tool to guide and monitor the interactions between the
members of the society. They differ from place to place or country to country.

• Moral standards are bases for moral behavior and bases for determining whether a
certain act is moral or immoral and for someone to be responsible or not.
• Moral standards involve serious wrongs or significant benefits.
• Moral standards ought to be preferred to other values.
• Moral standards are not established by authority figures.
• Moral standards have the trait of universalizability.
• Moral standards are based on impartial considerations.
• Moral standards are associated with special emotions and vocabulary.
• A person‘s moral values constitute society‘s rules, and moral rules are very
significant and subjective to each person‘s moral values.
• Dilemma is in which two well-known cases is conflicting.
• Moral dilemma is that the person can possibly do the two actions however; he cannot
possibly do so because everyone has to make a choice.

• The three levels of moral dilemma are: personal, organizational and structural.
• Freedom is one of the inborn properties of human person.
• The Philosophical insights on freedom are: freedom is a gift; freedom is
complimentary to reasoning; freedom is absolute; and freedom demands
responsibility.