A Level Biology Transition project

Summer 2022
Taking a closer look at cells and cell structure.
Learning objectives
• To develop an understanding of the ultrastructure of cells to including identification and explanation of the role of cell
organelles.
• To have an understanding of the importance of cell structure in providing indirect evidence for evolution.
• To recognise the relative size and scale of cells and organelles and to convert between the different units used in
biological measurement.
• To explain the principles of magnification and resolution.
• To explain how light, transmission electron microscopes and scanning electron microscopes work and the key
differences between them and their limitations.
• To be able to reference sources of information using the Harvard method.
• To introduce applying knowledge to A level past paper questions and understand how to read mark schemes
accurately.

Name: Pass Borderline Fail

What went well:

To further develop your understanding:

Task one: GCSE Review
You will have studied the humble cell at GCSE. To ensure you are confident with the subject matter review the following list to audit your knowledge. Where
you feel less familiar, use the CGP revision guide or BBC Bitesize web site to re visit the topic before you develop your understanding in this transition unit.
The LRC also has numerous A level textbooks that will help you with this project.

What you should know GCSE review. CGP pg. Subject knowledge
reference reviewed.
Most human and animal cells have a nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane, mitochondria and ribosomes. 44 & 46
Plant and algal cells also have a cell wall made of cellulose which strengthens the cells. Plant cells often 44 & 46
have chloroplast sand permanent vacuole filled with cell sap.
A bacterial cell consists of cytoplasm and a membrane surrounded by a cell wall; the genes are not in a 44
distinct nucleus.

Task two: Referencing sources using the Harvard method.

While you are completing this project if you use any text books or web sites they need to be acknowledged in a reference list at the end of the
write up. The Harvard is a referencing style which is used widely across a range of disciplines; it could arguably be deemed the "most
commonly used" style.

1. How to reference books

Last name, first initial. (Year). Title. Edition (if not the first edition of the book). City of publication: Publisher.
Example– our A level Text book
Toole, G. and Toole, S. (2015). AQA Biology. 2nd edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press

2. How to reference online sources

Citations for websites:

When citing a website, it is important to determine authorship of the website – if it's an article on website which is not a newspaper/magazine site
or online journal, there may be an individual author; if not, the organisation or website name would be credited with authorship.

Author/Source if no specific author (Year). Title of web document/page. [online]. (Last updated: if this information is available). Available at: URL
[Accessed date: Day/Month/Year].

For example:
HealthTips (2015). Superfoods and where to find them. [online]. (Last updated 20 May 2015). Available at:
www.healthtipsarticles.com/superfoodsandwheretofindthem [Accessed 20 June 2016].
Task three: Cell similarities and differences, an introduction to pro and eukaryotic cells.
Your body's composed of trillions of cells; lots of different types of cells that make up different organs and other parts of your body. All cells share some
common characteristics that make them living things. All organisms whether they be bacteria, fungi, plant, protist or animal are composed of cells - the basic
fundamental unit of life. All cells contain DNA as a heritable genetic material, and they can reproduce. They transcribe DNA into RNA and translate RNA into
proteins on ribosomes. They can also regulate transport across a cell membrane and require chemical energy for some cellular processes. This provides in-
direct evidence for the theory of evolution.
The number one biggest difference between the bacteria in your body and the cells making up your body are these tiny cellular components called organelles.
Organelles are simply membrane-bound compartments within a cell, such as the nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts, Golgi, and endoplasmic reticulum. You
are a eukaryote. Your cells are eukaryotic. Eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bound organelles, including a nucleus. Eukaryotes can be single-celled or
multicellular, such as you, me, plants, fungi, and insects. Bacteria are an example of prokaryotes. Prokaryotic cells do not contain a nucleus or any other
membrane-bound organelle. Prokaryotes include two groups: bacteria and another group called archaea.
Having organelles is a big deal for a cell. A bacteria cell gets along just fine without organelles, but bacteria are tiny. That's why we're able to have so many of
them on our body without really noticing them. Our cells, though - they're still small to the naked eye, but they're huge in comparison to bacteria. Our
eukaryotic cells are bigger in size, with much more DNA. More DNA means more transcription, and more transcription means more translation, and more
translation means more proteins. Bigger cells create the need for organelles. Organelles are an efficient way to organize everything that's going on in the cell
- to compartmentalize cellular functions. That's exactly what a eukaryotic cell is doing - separating cellular processes and organizing its space. But don't be
fooled by the 'simplicity' of prokaryotes. In this project you will learn about the ultrastructure of the cell types. This means examining the cells at a level of detail
smaller than could be viewed with a light microscope. You will learn the importance of the structures in creating a fully functional cell and begin to recognise
why certain structures may be more developed in certain groups of cells.

To help you complete the activities which follow you need to develop your subject knowledge.
a) Go to the link below and take a Tour of the cell with Bozeman Science to build your knowledge. If it helps pause the video and make your
own notes to help you with the learning the key facts.
A tour of the cell – Bozeman Science:
http://tinyurl.com/p784phe
b) Take a look at the notes section about eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells on the Biology mad site (link below). You could print out these
key notes and highlight them rather than copying notes down if you find it more useful or you could make a revision flash card on each
organelle.
Biology mad:
http://www.biologymad.com/master.html?http://www.biologymad.com/cells/cells.htm

Other useful resources for learning about cell structure:http://tinyurl.com/l8mp5te

Task four: Applying knowledge of cell ultrastructure – Eukaryotic cells
(i) Add labels to the following diagrams show the ultra-structure of a plant and animal cell which demonstrates the typical features of a eukaryotic
cell.

Nucleus Smooth endoplasmic Golgi body/apparatus Cell surface membrane Vacuole membrane
reticulum (Tonoplast)
Rough Endoplasmic Chloroplast Cell sap Centrioles Nucleolus
reticulum
Mitochondrion (singular) Lysosome Ribosomes 80S Cell wall

A
B

20 μm

E H
G
K F

(ii) label each of the cells above plant or animal cell.

Task five: Developing knowledge of cell ultra structure. Using the knowledge you have gained in tasks two three and four, match up each
organelle with the correct description of its structure and its function. You should then use the internet to research the sizes of each.
Approx size
Organelle (Including Description of structure Description of function
units)

Plasma a. Provides strength. Stops the cell bursting under the pressure of water entering by osmosis. Allows water
1. Found on surface of animals cells and beneath the cell wall of plant and prokaryotic cells.
membrane to pass through it contributing to the movement of water through a plant.
Also forms a membrane around organelles. Made of lipid and protein

Nucleus 2. A round organelle with no clear structure, surrounded by a membrane. Formed from the b. Synthesis stores and transports lipids and carbohydrates
vesicles produced by the Golgi. Contain enzymes such as protease, lipase and lysozymes
c. Provides a large surface area for the synthesis of proteins and glycoproteins. Folds and processes the
Lysosome proteins that have been made at the ribosomes. Provides a pathway for the transport of proteins
3. System of membranes enclosing a fluid filled spaces. Forms a tubular like structure.
throughout the cell.

4. Surrounded by a double membrane called the nuclear envelope which contains many
d. The site of protein synthesis. ‘Reads mRNA instruction, which determines the sequence of amino acids
Ribosome pores. The outer membrane is continuous with the ER. It contains the genetic material
in a protein chain.
(DNA) and often a nucleolus, suspended in nucleoplasm. Nucleoplasm is a jelly like
substance which makes up most of the structure

Rough
e. Selectively permeable, regulating the movement of substances into and out of the cell. Also have
Endoplasmic NA 5. System of membranes enclosing a fluid filled space, forms a tubular like structure. Covered
receptors which allow it to respond to chemical like hormones. Forms the structure of some organelles.
Reticulum (RER) in ribosomes.

Smooth f. Their enzymes are involved in digesting worn out organelles or bacteria which have been engulfed by
Endoplasmic NA 6. Can float free in the cytoplasm or be attached to RER. There are two types 80S and 70S. phagocytes. Also release enzymes out of the cell by exocytosis to material around the cell can be
reticulum Made of two subunits each of which contains ribosomal RNA and protein. digested.

7. Found in plants, algae and fungi. In plants they are made of micro fibrils of cellulose, in g. DNA (the genetic material of the cell.) is transcribed to mRNA which exits the pores of the nucleus to the
Golgi apparatus NA algae from cellulose or glycoprotein and fungi it is made of a substance called chitin. ribosomes where the mRNA instruction will be translated to protein. DNA is retained in the nucleus in the
Between the cells walls of two adjacent cells there is a middle lamellae cementing the cells form of chromosomes. The nucleolus makes the ribosomes.
together.
8. Usually oval shaped, they have a double membrane forming their outer structure. The
h. Modifies, processes (by adding new groups such as adding a carbohydrate to a protein) and packages
external membrane is smooth; the inner membrane is folded to form structures called
Cell wall new lipids and proteins which were made in the ER. It then sorts them and sends them to their correct
cristae. This provides a large surface area on to which the enzymes involved in respiration
destination. Also makes lysosomes.
can attach. Inside the organelle is a fluid filled matrix that contains the enzymes for part of
respiration.
i. This organelle is the site of aerobic respiration. They are found in large numbers in cells that are very
Mitochondrion 9. A group of fluid filled, flattened sacs of membrane called cisternae with small, round hollow
metabolically active. These are ones that require lots of energy.
structures called vesicles.

10. Organelle found in plants. Surrounded by a chloroplast envelope to control entry and exit. j. The reactions involved in photosynthesis occur here. (light absorption in the grana and synthesis of
Chloroplast
Inside there are stacks of thylakoids forming grana. Extensions between thylakoids join sugar in the stroma.)
grana together. A fluid filled matrix surrounds these structures. This is called stroma.
k. Provide support to parts of plants by making the cell turgid. Provide a temporary food store. The pigment
Vacuoles NA 11. Fluid filled sac bound by a single membrane called a tonoplast. The solution inside
colours may help to attract insects.
contains mineral salts, amino acids, sugars and pigments

i. Which of the organelles listed above are not bound by a membrane.

ii. Which of the organelles contains nucleic acid?

Task six: Developing maths skills in Biology – Size and scale of cells and cellular structures.
Thinking about cells and organelles can be tricky to get your head around. Follow through the slides in the presentation on the link below which
will help you make relative comparisons of the sizes of each part. Remember here everything has been scaled up 1000 000 times.
http://tinyurl.com/6hx4z8
As you can appreciate from this presentation when we are studying scales we are thinking about very small structures so using units such and
metres and centimetres is not going to be appropriate. Click on the link below and use the sliding bar on the animation to view the relative sizes
of objects, cells, organelles, biological molecules and even atoms!
http://tinyurl.com/komwg
You will notice that some units, that you were less familiar with, were used for viewing some structures. Look at resource 1 to help you get head
around how these units relate to a metre and the terms used to describe the units.
You need to be able to convert between the units used when measuring cells and parts of cells. eg mm to μm. This will be a very important skill
when we do some practical microscopy and calculations on cell size and magnification so it is important to get your head around it now.

Complete the gaps in the table to show the sizes of different organelles when expressed as different units.

Structure metres millimetres micrometres nanometres

Divide by 1000 for each step to convert in this direction →
Human egg cell 130 nano micro milli whole kilo
length of an E.Coli bacterium 3000 unit
e.g nm e.gμm e.g mm e.g m eg km
Diameter of a lysosome 0.001
Width of a mitochondrion 0.8 ←Multiply by 1000 for each step to convert in this direction
Diameter of the measles virus 220
Ribosome 0.00003
Antibody 12

Resource 1 Measurement of size in biology –

Unit prefixes and their standard form.

Name Number Symbol Standard form Getting it in perspective

Centimetre 0.01m cm 10-2 One hundredth of a metre

Millimetre 0.001m mm 10-3 Thousandth of a metre
Micrometre 0.000001m μm 10-6 Millionth of a metre
Nanometre 0.000000001m nm 10-9 Billionth of a metre
Task seven: working out calculations needed when using microscopes.

When looking at magnified images of cells and organelles taken from microscopes it is useful to know the actual size of structures. You can
work out the image size (I), actual size(A) of the specimen and the magnification (M) using the following equation.

Write down the three equations you will need to work out
1. Image size

2. Actual size of specimen

3. Magnification
Worked example………What is the actual diameter of the capillary (A to B) below? State your answer in μm.

Measured length of scale bar = 27mm

Magnification = 27 ÷ 0.01 = x2700

Diameter of capillary (measured using black line) = 63mm

Actual diameter of capillary = 63 ÷ 2700 = 0.023mm

A B
To convert to μm x 1000

0.023 x 1000 = 23.3μm

Question. What is the diameter of the organelle (A to B) below? Measure the organelle at the point marked with the black line. State your
answer in μm.

Measured length of scale bar =

Magnification =
Please note…. You will
need to convert units in Diameter of organelle (measured using black line) =
B this example as the bar
A is 2μm NOT mm. Actual diameter of organelle =

To convert to μm x 1000
Task eight: Examining cells, researching the use of microscopes.
All living organisms are made up of cells that can only come from pre-existing like-cells. Therefore, to understand behaviour, genetics or disease
we must study cells. Our knowledge of cell structure has come through a variety of approaches, however, the traditional microscope has to have
been the single most important tool in examining these all important ‘work-houses’.
Your task is to produce an A4 information sheet about light and electron microscopy. You may use the following resource listed below or any
other resources, however all resources must be appropriately referenced. It is vital that all work is in your own words, you will not demonstrate
your understanding of a topic by simply cutting and pasting. It is very important that you get your head around ideas and then write about them.
Your fact sheet must include the following points:

• Why we need to use microscopes to study cells.

• A brief summary of the types of microscope available and a simple description of how each one works (limited to optical, transmission
electron microscopes and scanning electron microscopes) You may wish to use diagrams in this section.
• What we mean by the terms magnification and resolution and how and why these vary in the different types of microscope.
• Why increasing magnification does not always increase the detail you can view of a specimen or image.
• Reference to the different cellular components, tissues, organs, systems and organisms that can be viewed with each type of microscopy.
• The main limitations of each of the three types of microscope.
• The key terminology which should appear in your information sheet is listed in the table below. For your own learning you may benefit
from producing a glossary for each of the terms shown in bold.

microscopy resolution magnification specimen image

transmission electron scanning electron Optical microscope wavelength of light wavelength of a beam of
microscope (TEM) microscope (SEM) electrons
resolving power eye piece lens objective lens condenser lens photomicrograph

electron gun artefacts 2D image 3D image scattered electrons.

Resources:

http://tinyurl.com/caht4s