English Grammar, Week 6

Tense, aspect and voice

Definition of TENSE:
“The grammatical category, expressed in forms of the VERB, that locates a situation in time. In
English, tense must be expressed in all finite verb phrases. It is marked by the choice of the first or
only verb in the verb phrase.” (The Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language)
EXPECTED RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TENSE AND TIME REFERENCE:
Present tense Present time We are in the auditorium.
Past tense Past time We were in the auditorium.
PRESENT TENSE WITH PAST TIME REFERENCE (historic present) – adds vividness:
I wake to see a scrap of sunlight pushing at the curtains. The room fills with beige light as we lie
listening to the house coming to life.
PAST TENSE WITH PRESENT TIME REFERENCE – adds tentativeness:
Did you want to see me? I was wondering if you could help me.
Meanings of the Present Tense
TRUE/VALID AT THE The application form asks if you require adaptations.
MOMENT OF Mary is still on the committee.
UTTERANCE Curry fails to connect, and the ball runs through to Aston.
GENERAL VALIDITY / Canberra is the capital of Australia.
HABITUAL We speak on the phone every day.
He never remembers to feed the cat.

Meanings of the Past Tense

DISTANCE IN TIME He passed all his exams last year.
Spring came early that year.
DISTANCE IN REALITY I wish I had a fortune to spend.
If you had a fortune, you’d probably waste it in less than a week.
TENTATIVENESS Did you want to come with us?

Other past-time-referring expressions

Present/past perfect (discussed below). ‘Habitual past’ expressed by would, used to + main verb.
• From time to time, he would get up and glance critically over his work.
• People used to believe that the earth was flat.
Tense in hypothetical constructions
REAL CONDITION: If I drop this, it will explode. (present tense in subclause  will-future in matrix
clause). Alternatively present + present: If I drop this, it explodes.
HYPOTHETICAL CONDITION: If I dropped this, it would explode. (past tense in subclause  would +
infinitive in matrix clause)
REJECTED CONDITION: If I had dropped this, it would have exploded. (past perfect in subclause 
would + perfect aspect in matrix clause)

Tense shift in indirect (reported) speech

No tense shift if the reporting verb is in the present:
John says: “I am broke.” →John says that he is broke.
Back-shift if the reporting verb is in the past:
John said: “I am broke.” → John said that he was broke. (present → past)
John said: “I have lost my wallet.” →John said that he had lost his wallet. (present perfect → past perfect)
John said: “I will report it stolen.” →John said that he would report it stolen. (unmarked → remote)
John said: “I was frantic.” → John said that he had been frantic. (past → past perfect)
Back-shift may not happen if the quoted utterance is considered to be still valid.

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What is the difference in meaning between a) and b) in each pair?

1. John said: “I am broke.” → a) John said that he was broke.
b) John said that he is broke.
2. John said: “I have lost my wallet.” → a) John said that he had lost his wallet.
b) John said that he has lost his wallet.
3. John said: “I will report it stolen.” → a) John said that he would report it stolen.
b) John said that he will report it stolen.

Definition of ASPECT:
“The grammatical category (expressed in verb forms) that refers to a way of looking at the time of a
situation: for example, its duration, repetition, completion. Aspect contrasts with TENSE, the
category that refers to the time of the situation with respect to some other time: for example, the
moment of speaking or writing.” (the Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language)
The progressive aspect: BE + -ing form (e.g. They are/were studying the verb phrase.)
The perfect aspect: HAVE + past participle (e.g. They have/had studied the verb phrase.)

General meanings of the progressive

• process/activity
• (limited) duration These meanings interact with the lexical meaning of the verb
• possible incompletion
Combinations of tense and progressive aspect:
Simple The neighbours love dogs. Two and two equals four.
Base form / -s
present I don’t know. / Do you know?
They asked a number of questions.
Simple past -ed / irregular form We went to France last year.
I didn’t enjoy it. / Did you enjoy it?
You are taking notes.
Present Present form of BE
She is always arguing with me.
progressive + -ing form
Why are they looking so sad?
We were having lunch in the refectory.
Past Past form of BE +
She was watching a scary movie.
progressive -ing form
Were they walking the dog?

STATIVE VERBS → a (fairly) stable situation which does not involve any action on the part of the
Subject referent (e.g. be, have, resemble, contain, hate, know, understand, see, hear)
DYNAMIC VERBS → action, activity, change
Some subtypes: Activities (e.g. talk, move, swim, walk)
Momentary action verbs (e.g. knock, sneeze, flash)
Transitions verbs (e.g. stop, die, discover)
The progressive with different types of verb:
➢ ACTIVITIES → ONGOING AT THE MOMENT OF UTTERANCE (AND WITH LIMITED DURATION)
The lecturer is talking about the present progressive. The students are taking notes.
➢ MOMENTARY ACTION VERBS → REPEATED ACTION
Someone is knocking at the door. The lights are flashing.
➢ TRANSITION VERBS → APPROACH TO A NEW STATE OF AFFAIRS
The train is stopping. He's dying.
➢ STATIVE VERBS → EITHER INCOMPATIBLE OR TEMPORARY STATE
The book contains six chapters. (* is containing)
The poem describes the dawn of a wedding-day. (* is describing)
Peter owns/has (owned/had) three houses. (* is/was owning)

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The wine tastes nice. (* The wine is tasting nice; cp. They were
tasting the wine.)
Tom is rude. Tom was being rude to his neighbour.
I live in Oslo. I am living in Oslo.
I love it. I’m loving it.

Simple present vs. present progressive

1. Peter works very hard in the library. (habitual) vs. Peter is working very hard in the library. (now)
2. Do you speak English? (do you know the language?) vs. Are you speaking English? (right now)
3. My wife criticises my clothes and is always going on at me to dress better. (emotional)
4. I sentence you to four years in prison. (* I am sentencing you ...) (verb used to perform action)

Simple past vs. past progressive

I watched the news last night. (presented as a complete whole) vs. I was watching the news last
night. (presented as ongoing in the past)
They closed the windows. vs. They were closing the windows.
John walked to work (every morning). vs. John was walking to work (one morning).
They had a party when Grandma arrived. (sequence) vs. They were having a party when Grandma
arrived. (framing)

What is the difference in form and meaning?

1. a) Laura left when she spotted her boss.
b) Laura was leaving when she spotted her boss.
2. a) The deer is enjoying the carrots.
b) The deer enjoys carrots.

The meaning of the perfect

Completion before a reference point and relevance at that point:
Present perfect (has/have + past participle): before ‘now’, but with present relevance. I have washed
the car.
Past perfect (had + past participle: before ‘then’, but relevant to a reference point in the past. I had
washed the car.
Future perfect (will have + past participle): will happen before a point in the future and will be
relevant then. I will have washed the car.

Tense and aspect combinations:

Present Present form of HAVE + He has finished the book. I have never been to
perfect past participle China. Have you seen that film?
Past perfect Past form of HAVE + John had done the dishes. I had never been to
past participle China. Had you tidied the house?

Present Present form of HAVE + Harry has been sleeping all afternoon.
perfect past participle of BE + - We have been walking for an hour.
progressive ing form Have you been running?
Past perfect Past form of HAVE + They had been searching for a clue all day.
progressive past participle of BE + The lion had been lying in wait for him.
-ing form Had they been sorting out their options?

The past tense and the present perfect contrasted

Both refer to situations in the past. The simple past portrays a situation as disconnected from the
present, whereas the present perfect portrays it as relevant for the present.

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What is the difference in meaning?

1. a) I read the grammar book last night. vs. b) I have read the grammar book.
2. a) Did you meet my sister? vs. b) Have you met my sister?

NB: Informal/spoken AmE sometimes has the simple past in contexts where BrE would have the
present perfect, especially together with adverbs such as already, never, ever, just and yet.
1. Why is he so excited? – He just saw a wolf. (AmE) vs. He has just seen a wolf. (BrE)
2. Would you like some lunch? – No, thanks. I already ate. (AmE) vs. I’ve already eaten. (BrE)

Differences between English and Norwegian tense/aspect usage

PRESENT VS. PAST TENSE
Han er født i 1978. He was born in 1978.
Hamlet er skrevet av Shakespeare. Hamlet was written by Shakespeare.
Dette smakte nydelig! This tastes wonderful
Den nye jakken din var fin! Your new jacket is nice!
PRESENT PERFECT IN NORWEGIAN – PAST TENSE IN ENGLISH
Har du sovet godt? Did you sleep well?
Grieg har komponert dette stykket. Grieg composed this piece.

The perfect progressive

Combines the meaning of the perfect (relevance at a reference point) with the meaning of the
progressive (ongoingness):
1. Have you been sleeping over your books?
2. Henry Ford, who had been building motor cars since the 1890s, led the field.

What is the difference in form and meaning?

a) Grandma has knitted a thick sweater.
b) Grandma has been knitting a thick sweater.

Definition of VOICE: (A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language)

“Voice is a grammatical category which makes it possible to view the action of a sentence in either
of two ways, without change in the facts reported.”
The active voice: The teacher changed the syllabus.
The passive voice: The syllabus was changed (by the teacher).
• The passive is marked in the verb phrase with BE + past participle
• The syntactic subject of a passive clause corresponds to the dO or iO in a similar active clause.
• The ‘doer of the action’ either appears as an adverbial (by …) or is omitted.
• The active and the passive versions present the message from different perspectives.
SVdO: Peter mowed the lawn. → The lawn was mowed (by Peter). (SV)
SVdOA: I put the skeleton in the closet. → The skeleton was put in the closet. (SVA)
SViOdO: He gave me an apple. → The apple was given to me. / I was given an apple. (SVA/SVdO)
SVdOoP: He painted her nails red. → Her nails were painted red. (SVsP)
SV: The train arrived. → * (it??) was arrived.
voice is generally not relevant for
SVsP: That view looks nice. → *Nice was looked.
intransitive and copular verbs.
SVA: He is in the garden. → *The garden is been in.

Determine the tense, aspect and voice of the following verb phrases:
1. is going 4. have been discovered
2. had returned 5. is being discussed
3. was destroyed 6. should have been growing