CPE 104 - Final Module

LESSON 1 1
METACOGNITION
Overview:
Metacognition is such a long word. What does it mean? You will find this
out in this module.
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this lesson, students can:
a. explain metacognition in your own words; and

b. apply metacognitive strategies in your own quest for learning as a novice
or an expert learner.
Materials Needed:
 Module (printed/softcopy)
 Internet connections
 Moddle, FB Group page, Google Meet, Google form and YouTube videos
Duration: 3 hours
Learning Content
Metacognition
“Thinking about Thinking”
Metacognition Metacognition Learners who do

Application of
And Knowledge not use
Metacognition
Development Variables metacognition
leads one to be
an expert learner Remain to be
novice learners
Person
Teaching Variables
Strategies to
Task
Develop
Variables Characteristics Characteristics of
Metacognition
of Expert Novice Learners
Strategy Learners
Variables
A Course Module for Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

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The most important goal of education is to teach students how to learn on
their own. The quotation on the side margin stresses this. It is vital that students
acquire the skills of how to learn; and that these skills enable them to learn not
just while they are in school but for a lifetime. This entails a deeper awareness of
how one processes information, the ability to evaluate his own thinking and to
think of ways to make his own learning process more effective. All these involve
metacognition.
What is metacognition? This appears to be such a high-sounding word
that some people are confused about even before they actually spend time to
find out what it really means. It is not at all that complicated. In fact, we do
metacognitive activities so often in our daily lives. When you sense that you are
experiencing some difficulty with a topic you are studying, and you try out
different strategies to learn better, you are practicing metacognition. The word
maybe long, seems to be so intangible but it is worth focusing on because it can
help you to be a more successful learner. When you become a teacher, it can
also help your students to learn more efficiently and effectively.
The term “metacognition” was coined by John Flavell. According to Flavell
(1979,1987), metacognition consists of both metacognitive knowledge and
metacognitive experiences or regulation. Metacognition, simply put, is “thinking
about thinking” or “learning how to learn”. It refers to higher order thinking which
involves active awareness and control over the cognitive processes engaged in
learning. Metacognitive knowledge refers to acquired knowledge about cognitive
processes, knowledge that can be used to control cognitive processes. Flavell
further divides metacognitive knowledge into three categories: knowledge of
person variables, task variables and strategy variables.
Person Variables. This includes how one views himself as a learner and
thinker. Knowledge of person variables refers to knowledge about how human
beings learn and process information, as well as individual knowledge of one’s
own learning processes. For example, you may be aware that you study more
effectively if you study very early in the morning than late in the evening, and that
you work better in a quiet library rather than at home where there are a lot of
things that make it hard for you to focus and concentrate.
Task Variables. Knowledge of task variables includes knowledge about
the nature of the task as well as the type of processing demands that it will place
upon the individual. It is about knowing what exactly needs to be accomplished,
gauging its difficulty and knowing the kind of effort it will demand from you. For
example, you may be aware that it takes more time for you to read and

comprehend a book in educational philosophy than it is for you to read and
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comprehend novel.
Strategy Variables. Knowledge of strategy variables involves awareness
of the strategy you are using to learn a topic and evaluating whether this strategy
is effective. If you think your strategy is not working, then you may think of
various strategies and try out one to see if it will help you learn better. Terms like
meta-attention and meta-memory are related to strategy variables. Meta-
attention is the awareness of specific strategies so that you can keep your
attention focused on the topic or task at hand. Meta-memory is your awareness
of memory strategies that work best for you.
These three variables all interact as you learn and apply metacognition.
Omrod includes the following in the practice of metacognition:
 Knowing the limits of one’s own learning and memory capacities
 Knowing what learning tasks one can realistically accomplish within
a certain amount of time
 Knowing which learning strategies are effective and which are not
 Planning an approach to a learning task that is likely to be
successful
 Using effective learning strategies to process and learn new
material
 Monitoring one’s own knowledge and comprehension. In other
words knowing when information has been successfully learned
and when it’s not
 Using effective strategies for retrieval of previously stored
information.
 Knowledge is said to be metacognitive if it is keenly used in a
purposeful manner to ensure that a goal is met. For example, a
student may use knowledge in planning how to do homework: “I
know that I (person variable) have more difficulty with my science
assignments than English and find Araling Panlipunan easier (task
variable), so I will do my homework in science first, then Language
Arts, then Araling Panlipunan. (strategy variable).” If one is only
aware about one’s cognitive strengths or weaknesses and the
nature of the task but does not use this to guide or oversee his/her
own learning, then no metacognition has been applied.
Huitt believes that metacognition includes the ability to ask
and answer the following types of question:
 What do I know about this subject, topic, issue?

 Do I know what I need to know?
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 Do I know where I can go to get some information,
knowledge?
 How much time will I need to learn this?
 What are some strategies and tactics that I can use
to learn this?
 Did I understand what I just heard, read or saw?
 How will I know if I am learning at an appropriate
rate?
 How can I spot an error if I make one?
 How should I revise my plan if it is not working to my
expectations/satisfaction?
Metacognitive Strategies to Facilitate Learning
Researches such as that of Fang and Cox showed that metacognitive
awareness was evident in preschoolers and in students as young as eight years
old. Children already have the capacity to be more aware and reflective of their
own learning. However, not many have been taught and encouraged to apply
metacognition.
The challenge then to future teachers like you is to integrate more
activities that would build your students’ capacity to reflect on their own
characteristics as learners (self-knowledge), the tasks they are to do (task
knowledge) and the strategies that they can use to learn (strategic knowledge).
Remember, metacognition is like any other thing you will teach. Metacognition
involves knowledge and skills which you and your students can learn and
master.
Here are some examples of teaching strategies to develop
metacognition: (Work hard on applying these strategies now in your role as a
student. It will surely be a rewarding learning experience for you.)
1. Have students monitor their own learning and thinking. (Example: have a
student monitor a peer’s learning/thinking/behaving in dyad)
2. Teach students study or learning strategies.
TQLR – This can be taught to younger student (primary grades).
It is a metacognitive strategy before listening to a story or
presentation.
T is for True in. It is first important for the learner himself to be
aware that he is paying attention, and that he is ready to
learn.

Q is for Question. The learner is given questions or he thinks of
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questions about what he will soon learn.
L is for Listen. The learner then intentionally exerts effort to listen.
He becomes aware if he is momentarily detracted and goes
back to listen again.
R is for Remember. The learner uses ways or strategies to
remember what was learned.
PQ4R – This is usually for older students in the intermediate
levels and onwards. This strategy is used to study a unit or
chapter.
P – Preview. Scan the whole chapter before delving on each
paragraph. Check out the objectives. Look for outlines or
advance organizers that will give you an idea about the
important topics and ideas in the chapter. Read the
summary of the chapter first. (But please don’t stop at the
summary alone. No. No. No. This is not a good idea at all.
Read the whole chapter!)
Q – Question. Read the guide questions provided, or think of your
own questions about the topic.
R – Read. Check out sub headings as you read. Pay attention on
words that are printed in bold or italicized. Find out the
meaning of words that are not clear to you. Use a marker or
colored pencil to highlight important words or phrases. (Do
not highlight the whole paragraph!)
R – Recite. Work on answering the questions you had earlier.
R – Review. Pinpoint topics you may need to go back to and read
in order to understand better.
R – Reflect. Think about what you read. Is everything clear to you?
What are the main points you learned? How is this relevant
or useful to you?
3. Have students make predictions about information to be presented next
based on what they have read.
4. Have students relate ideas to existing knowledge structures. (It is
important to have relevant knowledge structures well learned.)
5. Have students develop questions; ask questions of themselves, about
what’s going on around them (Have you asked a good question today?)

6. Help students to know when to ask for help. (He/she must be able to
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self-monitor; require students to show how they have attempted to deal
with the problem of their own.)
7. Show students how to transfer knowledge, attitudes, values, skills to
other situations or tasks.
Novice and Expert Learners

In the last twenty years, cognitive psychologists have studied the
distinctions among learner in the manner they absorb or process information.
They are able to differentiate expert learners from novice learners. A very
important factor that separates these two types of learners mentioned is
metacognition. Expert learners employ metacognitive strategies in learning. They
are more aware of their learning process as they read, study and do problem
solving. Expert learners monitor their learning and consequently adjust their
strategies to make learning more effective.
The Table below shows the difference between a novice learner and an
expert learner.
Difference Between Novice and Expert Learners
Aspect of Novice Learners Expert Learners

Learning
Knowledge in  Have limited  Have deeper knowledge
different subject knowledge in the in different subject areas
areas different subject because they look for
areas interrelationships in the
things they learn
Problem solving  Satisfied at just  First try to understand
scratching the the problem, look for
surface; hurriedly boundaries, and create
gives a solution to a mental picture of the
the problem problem
Learning/thinking  Employ rigid  Design new strategies
Strategies strategies that may that would be
not be appropriate appropriate to the task
to the task at hand at hand
Selectivity in  Attempt to process  Select important
Processing all information they information to process;
receive able to breakdown
information to
manageable chunks
Production of  Do not examine  Check their errors and
output the quality of their redirect their efforts to
work, nor stop to maintain quality output

make revisions
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Stop and pause a while. Are you a novice learner? Or an expert one?
Strive to apply the concepts of metacognition in your world of learning, and for
sure you will be on your way to be an expert learner, probably an expert teacher,
too!
Learning Activity:
Directions: Answer the following questionnaire. Put a check in the column
that best describes what is true to you.
PART 1
Alway Sometime Neve Your
s (10) s (5) r (0) Scor
e
1 I exert effort to find out why I need to
do a particular task.
2 I reward myself when I work.
3 I see to it that I give myself regular
breaks from work.
4 I am able to keep my concentration
and does not let my mind “drift
away.”
5 I have ways of dealing with
distractions.
6 I am willing to do the work I do not
enjoy because I see it as important.
7 I seek clarification from the teacher
about her expectations and
standards.
8 I go to tutorials to improve my school
work.
PART 2
s (10) s (5) r (0) Scor
e
1 I make a weekly timetable for the
school work I need to accomplish.
2 I make a review schedule for
Examinations.
3 I plan to get the necessary
resources and equipment prior to
starting work.
4 I submit all my assignment on time.
5 I have a place to work where I
won’t be disturbed.
6 I have time for family commitments
and relaxation as well as studying.
7 I prioritize tasks which should be
done first, second and so on.
8 I make lists of things to do.
9 I make a list of valuable references

with bibliographic details, page
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numbers of quotes and so on.
10 I review my work before submitting
it.
PART 3
s (10) s (5) r (0) Scor
e
1 I discuss work assignments with
other students.
2 I share resources with other
students.
3 I keep cuttings from newspapers
and magazines which may be of
help to me.
4 I make sure I see TV programs
which may be useful.
5 I read to topic assigned before a
session.
6 I ask questions and generally take
part in group discussions.
7 I listen out for key ideas when
someone is talking.
8 When I am listening to someone, I
try to anticipate what they will say
next.
PART 4
s (10) s (5) r (0) Scor
e
1 I get so worried about assignments
that they make me feel it.
2 This worry about assignments
makes me feel depressed.
3 I feel miserable about doing
assignments.
4 I let these concerns about the work
get on top of me.
5 When I need to work, others always
succeed in persuading me to go out.
6 I have difficulty in talking to others
about my worries.
7 I ignore my personal fitness through
worrying about assignments.
8 The stress of assignments causes
me to get behind and I never seem

to catch up.
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PART 5
s (10) s (5) r (0) Scor
e
1 My notes indicate the main ideas,
rather than merely repeat what has
been said.
2 I listen for key ideas when listening
to a speaker.
3 I approach tutors for help.
4 I organize or file my notes regularly.
5 I re-write my notes under key ideas,
headings, using numbering or
lettering schemes.
6 I have a shorthand technique of my
own.
7 I underline or highlight key ideas so
they stand out.
8 I decide before reading a book
whether it is vital or background
reading.
9 I go over a book before diving into
chapter one.
10 I check the contents page for
relevance before reading a book.
11 I look for summaries at the end of
chapters.
PART 6
s (10) s (5) r (0) Scor
e
1 I see to it that I understand what is
really being asked for in the
assignment/project.
2 I read other references and read
about the topic.
3 I make an outline/plan before doing
my assignment/project.
4 I check for spelling mistakes.
5 My essays have clear introductions.
6 My essays have a conclusion.
7 I frequently check back to the title
during the writing of an essay.
8 My essay/research paper has a full
set of references and a
bibliography.
9 I review project/assignment before
submitting it.
10 I request someone else to look
at/read my project/assignment

before submitting it.
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Scoring:
The six parts of the questionnaire pertain to the following aspects of study
habits:
Part 1 Motivation
Part 2 Organizing and planning your work
Part 3 Working with others; Utilizing resources and feedback
Part 4 Managing school work stress
Part 5 Note-taking and reading
Part 6 Preparing an assignment/project
Use the scoring guide below
Scoring for Part 1 Motivation.

Score: 10 for always
5 for Sometimes
0 for Never
Feedback:
 Scores from 55 to 80 mean that you do not appear to have many
problems in getting down to work and keeping to it.
 Scores from 31 to 50 mean that you sometimes get down to work
but you can be distracted, you might not always be certain why you
have to work. You probably could benefit from learning some
techniques that help you get down to work more consistently and
keep at it.
 Scores of 30 and below signify that you really do have problems in
getting down to work. Unless you develop skills in this area you are
likely to have many unsatisfactory experiences as a student
throughout your life. You need to take action.
Scoring for Part 2 Organizing and planning your work.

5 for Sometimes
0 for Never
Feedback:
 Scores from 70 100 mean you are well-organized and plan ahead
for your work.
 Scores from 40 to 65 mean you are not as well-organized as you
can be. Your time management may benefit from a closer analysis.
 Scores of 35 and below mean you have little organization, probably
deal with things as they happen, constantly doing things at the last
minute, often not getting work completed.
Scoring for Part 3 Working with others; Utilizing resources and feedback.
5 for Sometimes
0 for Never
Feedback:

 Scores from 55 to 80 mean you make full use of resources
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available, listen well and take an active part in seminars.
 Scores from 35 to 50 mean you probably collect resources, but you
need to ask yourself how to use them more effectively.
 Score of 30 and below mean there are important resources around
you that you are ignoring. You may not be hearing much of what is
being said. You need to know what resources are available, and
you need to find out where they are and what they have to offer.
You need to take action.
Scoring for Part 4 Managing school work stress.

5 for Sometimes
0 for Never
Feedback:
 Scores from 65 to 80 mean that although you sometimes get
stressed are worried you have the skills of knowing how to
minimize problems and look after yourself.
 Scores from 40 to 65 mean that you handle your anxieties and
concerns moderately well but could develop skills to manage them
more effectively.
 Scores of 35 and under mean that you are likely to get
overwhelmed with your problems with will make you much less
effective as a student. You need to acquire the skills of managing
stress more effectively. You need to take action.
Scoring for Part 5 Note-taking and reading.

5 for Sometimes
0 for Never
Feedback:
 Scores from 75 to 110 mean you prepare well and read efficiently,
learning as you go. You waste little time reading irrelevant
materials.
 Scores 45 to 70 mean your reading and note taking skills are
adequate, but could be improved.
 Scores of 40 and below mean your notes are likely to be of little
use to you, if they exist at all. You spend a lot of time reading or
sitting in but come home with very little. You need to become more
selective in what you read or write down. You need to take action.
Scoring for Part 6 Preparing an assignment/project.

5 for Sometimes
0 for Never
Feedback:
 Scores from 70 to 100 mean that your essays are well thought out,
researched and clearly written.
 Scores 40 to 65 mean that there is room for improvement although
you do demonstrate some skills.

 Scores of 35 below mean that you probably wonder why you
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essays always get such low marks. Resources and support are
available to help you improve your essay writing skills. Take action
now.
Learning Evaluation:
Directions: Maximize your answers in five (5) sentence paragraph.
1. Based on the principles of metacognition, prepare your own metacognitive

game plan on how you can apply metacognition to improve your study
skills. Consider being an expert and a novice learner.
References:
Facilitating Learning: A Metacognitive Process, Lucas, Maria Rita D. et.al,
LORIMAR Publishing Inc.
APA Work Group of the Board of Educational Affairs (1997), November).
Learner-centered psychological principles: Guidelines for school reform and
design. Washington, D.: American Psychological Association.
Bloom, Benjamin S. (1956) Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Cognitive
Domain. New York: David McKay and Company.
Sternberg, Robert J. 2009 Teaching for Wisdom, Intelligence, Creativity and
Success. Part 1 and 2. Retrieved from: http://www.
Sagepub.com/upmdata/27532_090319_Sternberg__Part_1.pdf.

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LESSON 2
LEARNER-CENTERED PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES (LCP)
Overview:
You, the learner, are the center of instruction. The world of instruction
revolves around you. This module is focused on the fourteen (14) principles.
Learning Outcomes:
a. explain the 14 principles; and

b. advocate the use of the 14 principles in the teaching-learning process.
Materials Needed:
Duration: 3 hours
Learning Content
Cognitive and Motivational and

Metacognitive Factor Affective Factor (3
(6 principles) principles)
14 Learner-Centered
principles

14
Developmental and Individual

Social Factor Differences Factor
(2 principles) (3 principles)
LEARNER-CENTERED PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES
The Learner-Centered Psychological Principles were put together by the

American Psychological Association. The following 14 psychological
principles pertain to the learner and the learning process. 14 principles have
the following aspects:
 They focus on psychological factors that are primarily internal to and

under the control of the learner rather than conditioned habits or
psychological factors. However, the principles also attempt to
acknowledge external environment or contextual factors that interact
with these internal factors.
 The principles are intended to deal holistically with learners in the
context of real-world learning situations. Thus, they are best
understood as an organized set of principles; no principle should be
viewed in isolation.
 The 14 principles are divided into those referring to (1) cognitive and
metacognitive, (2) motivational and effective, (3) developmental
and social, and (4) individual differences factors influencing
learners and learning.
 Finally, the principles are intended to apply to all learner – from
children, to teachers, to administrators, to parents, and to community
members involved in our educational system.
Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors
1. Nature of the learning process

The learning of a complex subject matter is most effective
when it is an intentional process of constructing meaning from
information and experience.

 There are different types of learning processes: for example,
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habit formation in motor learning and learning that involves
the generation of knowledge or cognitive skills and learning
strategies.
 Learning in school emphasizes the use of intentional
processes that students can use to construct meaning from
information, experiences and their own thoughts and beliefs.
 Successful learners are active, goal-directed, self-regulating
and assume personal responsibility for contributing to their
own learning.
2. Goals of the learning process

The successful learner, over time and with support and
instructional guidance, can create meaningful, coherent
representations of knowledge.
 The strategic nature of learning requires students to be goal-
directed.
 To construct useful representations of knowledge and to
acquire the thinking and learning strategies necessary for
continued learning success across the life span, students
must generate and pursue personally-relevant goals. Initially,
students’ short-team goals and leaning may be sketchy in an
area, but over time their understanding can be refined by
filling gaps, resolving inconsistencies and deepening their
understanding of the subject matter so that they can reach
longer-term goals.
 Educators can assist learners in creating meaningful
learning goals that are consistent with both personal and
educational aspirations and interests.
3. Construction of knowledge
The successful learner can link new information with existing
knowledge in meaningful ways.
 Knowledge widens and deepens as students continue to
build links between new information and experiences and
their existing knowledge base. The nature of these links can
take a variety of forms, such as adding to modifying, or
reorganizing existing knowledge or skills. How these links

are made or developed may vary in different subject areas,
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and among students with varying talents, interests and
abilities. However, unless new knowledge becomes
integrated with the learner’s prior knowledge and
understanding, this new knowledge remains isolated, cannot
be used most effectively in new tasks, and does not
transfers readily to new situations.
 Educators can assist learner in acquiring and integrating
knowledge by a number of strategies that have been shown
to be effective with learners of varying abilities, such as
concept mapping and thematic organization or categorizing.
4. Strategic thinking
The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of
thinking and reasoning strategies to achieve complex learning goals.
 Successful learners use strategic thinking in their approach
to learning reasoning, problem solving and concept learning.
 They understand and can use a variety of strategies to help
them reach learning and performance goals, and to apply
their knowledge in novel situations.
 They also continue to expand their repertoire of strategies by
reflecting on the methods they use to see which work well for
them, by receiving guided instruction and feedback, and by
observing or interacting with appropriate models.
 Learning outcomes can be enhanced if educators assist
learners in developing, applying and assessing their
strategic learning skills.
5. Thinking about thinking

Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental
operations facilitate creative and critical thinking.
 Successful learners can reflect on how they think and learn,
set reasonable learning or performance goals, select
potentially appropriate learning strategies or methods, and
monitor their progress toward these goals.
 In addition, successful learners know what to do if a problem
occurs or if they are not making sufficient or timely progress
toward a goal. They can generate alternative methods to

reach their goal (or reassess the appropriateness and utility
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of the goal).
 Instructional methods that focus on helping learners develop
these higher order (metacognitive) strategies can enhance
student learning and personal responsibility for learning.
6. Context of learning
Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including
culture, technology and instructional practices.
 Learning does not occur in a vacuum. Teachers play a major
interactive role with both the learner and the learning
environment.
 Cultural or group influences on students can impact many
educationally relevant variables, such as motivation,
orientation toward learning and ways of thinking.
 Technologies and instructional practices must be appropriate
for learners’ level of prior knowledge, cognitive abilities and
their learning and thinking strategies.
 The classroom environment, particularly the degree to which
it is nurturing or not, can also have significant impact on
student learning.
Motivational and Affective Factors
7. Motivational and emotional influences on learning

What and how much is learned in influenced by the learner’s
motivation. Motivation to learn, in turn, is influenced by the
individual’s emotional states, beliefs, interests and goals, and habits
of thinking.
 The rich internal world of thoughts, beliefs, goals and
expectations for success or failure can enhance or interfere
with the learner’s quality of thinking and information
processing.
 Student’s beliefs about themselves as learners and the
nature of learning have a marked influence on motivation.
Motivational and emotional factors also influence both the

quality of thinking and information processing as well as an
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individual’s motivation to learn.
 Positive emotions, such as curiosity, generally enhance
motivation and facilitate learning and performance. Mild
anxiety can also enhance learning and performance by
focusing the learner’s attention on a particular task.
However, intense negative emotions (e.g., anxiety, panic,
rage, insecurity) and related thoughts (e.g., worrying about
competence, ruminating about failure, fearing punishment,
ridicule, or stigmatizing labels) generally detract from
motivation, interfere with learning \, and contribute to low
performance.
8. Intrinsic motivation to learn

The learner’s creativity, higher order thinking, and natural
curiosity all contribute to motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation is
stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant to
personal interests, and providing for personal choice and control.
 Curiosity, flexible and insightful thinking, and creativity are
major indicators of the learners’ intrinsic motivation to learn,
which is in large part a function of meeting basic needs to be
competent and to exercise personal control.
 Intrinsic motivation is facilitated on tasks that learners
perceive as interesting and personally relevant and
meaningful, appropriate in complexity and difficulty to the
learners’ abilities, and on which they believe they can
succeed.
 Intrinsic motivation is also facilitated on tasks that are
comparable to real-world situations and meet needs for
choice and control.
 Educators can encourage and support learners’ natural
curiosity and motivation to learn by attending to individual
differences in learners’ perceptions of optimal novelty and
difficulty, relevance, and personal choice and control.
9. Effects of motivation on effort

Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires
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extended learner effort and guided practice. Without learners’
motivation to learn, the willingness to exert this effort is unlikely
without coercion.
 Effort is another major indicator of motivation to learn. The
acquisition of complex knowledge and skills demands the
investment of considerable learner energy and strategic
effort, along with persistence over time.
 Educators needs to be concerned with facilitating motivation
by strategies that enhance learner effort and commitment to
learning and to achieving high standards of comprehension
and understanding.
 Effective strategies include purposeful learning activities,
guided by practices that enhance positive emotions and
intrinsic motivation to learn, and methods that increase
learners’ perceptions that a task is interesting and personally
relevant.
Developmental and Social Factors
10. Developmental influences on learning

As individuals develop, there are different opportunities and
constraints for learning. Learning is most effective when differential
development within and across physical, intellectual, emotional and
social domains is taken into account.
 Individuals learn best when materials is appropriate to their
developmental level and is presented in an enjoyable and
interesting way.
 Because individual development varies across intellectual,
social, emotional and physical domains, achievement in
different instructional domains may also vary.
 Overemphasis on one type of developmental readiness –
such as reading readiness – may preclude learners from
demonstrating that they are more capable in other areas of
performance.
 The cognitive, emotional and social development of
individual learners and how they interpret life experiences
are effected by prior schooling, home, culture and
community factors.

 Early and continuing parental involvement in schooling, and
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the quality of language interactions and two-way
communications between adults and children can influence
these developmental areas.
 Awareness and understanding of developmental differences
among children with and without emotional, physical on
intellectual disabilities, can facilitate the creation of optimal
learning contexts.
11. Social influences on learning

Learning is influenced by social interaction, interpersonal
relations and communication with others.
 Learning can be enhanced with the learner has an
opportunity to interact and to collaborate with other on
instructional tasks.
 Learning settings that allow for social interactions and that
respect diversity encourage flexible thinking and social
competence.
 In interactive and collaborative instructional contexts,
individuals have an opportunity for perspective taking and
reflective thinking that may lead to higher levels of cognitive,
social and moral development, as well as self-esteem.
 Quality personal relationship that provided stability, trust and
caring can increase learners’ sense of belonging, self-
respect and self-acceptance, and provide a positive climate
for learning.
 Family influences, positive interpersonal support and
instruction in self-motivation strategies can offset factors that
interfere with optimal learning such as negative beliefs about
competence in a particular subject, high levels of test
anxiety, negative sex role expectations, and undue pressure
to perform well.
 Positive learning climates can also help to establish the
context for healthier levels of thinking, feeling and behaving.
Such contexts help learners feel safe to share ideas, actively
participate in the learning process, and create a learning
community.

Individual Differences Factors
21
12. Individual Differences in Learning
Learners have different strategies, approaches and
capabilities for learning that are a function of prior experience and
heredity.
 Individuals are born with and develop their own capabilities
and talents.
 In addition, through learning and social acculturations, they
have acquired their own preferences for how they like to
learn and the pace at which they learn. However, these
preferences are not always useful in helping learners reach
their learning goals.
 Educators needs to help students examine their learning
preferences and expand or modify them, if necessary.
 The interaction between learner differences and curricular
and environmental conditions is another key factor effecting
learning outcomes.
 Educators needs to be sensitive to individual differences, in

general. They also need to attend to learner perceptions of
the degree to which these differences are accepted and
adapted to by varying instructional methods and materials.
13. Learning and diversity

Learning is most effective when differences in learners’
linguistic, cultural and social backgrounds are taken into account.
 The same basic principles of learning, motivation and
effective instruction apply to all learners. However, language,
ethnicity, race, beliefs and socioeconomic status all can
influence learning. Careful attention to these factors in the
instructional setting enhances the possibilities for designing
and implementing appropriate learning environments.
 When learners perceive that their individual differences in
abilities, backgrounds, cultures and experiences are valued,
respected and accommodated in learning tasks and
contexts, levels of motivations and achievement ate
enhanced.

14. Standards and assessment
22
Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and
assessing the learner as well as leaning progress – including
diagnostic process and outcome assessment – are integral parts of
the learning process.
 Assessment provides important information to both the
learner and teacher at all stages of the learning process.
 Effective learning takes place when learner feel challenged
to work towards appropriately high goals; therefore,
appraisal of the learner’s cognitive strengths and
weaknesses, as well as current knowledge and skills, is
important for the selection of instructional materials of an
optimal degree of difficulty.
 Ongoing assessment of the learner’s understanding of the
curricular material can provide valuable feedback to both
learners and teachers about progress toward the learning
goals.
 Standardized assessment of learner progress and outcomes
assessment provide one type of information about
achievement levels both within and across individuals that
can inform various types of programmatic decisions.
 Performance assessment can provide other sources of
information about the attainment of learning outcomes.
 Self-assessments of learning progress can also improve
students’ self-appraisal skills and enhance motivation and
self-directed learning.
Alexander and Murphy gave a summary of the 14

principles and distilled them into five areas:
1. The knowledge base. One’s existing knowledge serves as the
foundation of all future learning. The learner’s previous knowledge
will influence new learning specifically on how he represents new
information, makes associations and filters new experiences.
2. Strategic processing and control. Learners can develop skills
to reflect and regulate their thoughts and behaviors in order to
learn more effectively (metacognition).

3. Motivation and affect. Factors such as intrinsic motivation (from
23
within), reasons for wanting to learn, personal goals and
enjoyment of learning tasks all have a crucial role in the learning
process.
4. Development and Individual Differences. Learning is a unique
journey for each person because each learner has his own unique
combination of genetic and environmental factors that influence
him.
5. Situation or context. Learning happens in the context of a
society as well an individual.
Learning Activity:
Directions: Do this activity before you read about the Learner-Centered
Psychological Principles.
1. Examine the title, “Learner-Centered Psychological Principles”. Quickly

jot down at least 10 words that come to your mind.
2. Go back to each word and write phrases about why you think the word
can be associated with LCP.
Direction: Maximize your answers in five (5) sentence paragraph each.
1. Describe what you can do to advocate the use of the 14 Learning-

Centered Psychological Principles.
2. Advocate the use of the 14 learning principles by means of any of the
following:
a. PowerPoint presentation consisting of 5 slides or less
a 3-minute speech.
References:

Success. Part 1 and 2. Retrieved from:
http://www.Sagepub.com/upmdata/27532_090319_Sternberg__Part_1.pdf.

24
LESSON 3
REVIEW OF THEORIES RELATED OF THE LEARNERS’

DEVELOPMENT
Overview
The educational trend brought put by a number of ground-breaking
researches tells that one can be an effective facilitator of learning if one has a
good working knowledge of the learners’ development. Previously in your Child
and Adolescent Development course, the foundational theories related to the
learners’ development were discussed. This Module aims to help you think about
and review these theories that you have taken up and connects them to learning.
Learning Outcomes:
a. explain the salient concepts and principles of the major development

theories; and
b. apply these theories to teaching-learning situations.
Materials Needed:
Duration: 3 hours
Learning Content
Freud 3 Components of
Personality 5 Erikson 8 Psycho-social Piaget4 Stages of
Psychosexual Stages of
Stages of Development Cognitive Development
Development

25
Theories
Related To the
Learners’
Development
Kohlberg 3 Levels and 6

Vygotsky
Sub stages of Moral
Development  On Language Bronfenbrener Bio-
 Zone of Proximal Ecological Systems
Development
The ideas of the theorists, Freud, Erikson, Piaget, Vygostsky and

Bronfenbrenner remain to be foundational in the teacher’s understanding of the
learners’ development. Let us recall highlights of their theories. Freud said, “The
mind is like an iceberg, it floats with one-seventh of its bulk above water.” This is
of course the very famous analogy that Freud referred to when he explained the
subconscious mind. He believed that much of what the person is really about is
not what we see in the outside and what is conscious, but what is there hidden in
the subconscious mind. As teachers, it is important that we remember not be too
quick in making conclusions about our students’ intentions for their actions.
Always consider that there are many factors that may influence one’s behavior.
Freud also emphasized the three components that make up one’s

personality, the id, ego and the superego. The id is pleasure-centered; the ego,
reality-centered and the superego, which is related to the ego ideal or
conscience.
Freud believed that an individual goes through five psychosexual stages of

development. This includes the oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital stages.
Each stage demands satisfaction of needs, and failure to do so results in
fixations.
Erikson said,” Healthy children will not fear life if their elders have integrity
enough not to fear death.” He believed in the impact of the significant others in
the development of one’s view of himself, life and of the world. He presented a
very comprehensive framework of eight psycho-social stages of development. It
is Erikson who described the crisis (expressed in opposite polarities) that a
person goes through; the maladaptation and malignancies that results from
failure to effectively resolve the crisis; and the virtue that emerges when balance
and resolution of the crisis is attained.

Piaget said, “The principle goal of education in the schools should be
26
creating men and women who are capable of doing new things, not simply
repeating what other generations have done.”
Piaget’s theory centered on the stages of cognitive development. He

described four stages of cognitive development, namely the sensory-motor,
pre-operational, concrete-operational and formal operational stages. Each
has characteristic ways of thinking and perceiving that shows how one’s
cognitive abilities develop.
Kohlberg said, “Right action tends to be defined in terms of general

individual rights and standards that have been critically examined and agreed
upon by the whole society.” Kohlberg proposed three levels of moral
development (pre-conventional and post-conventional) which are further
subdivided into the stages. Influenced by Piaget, Kohlberg believed that one’s
cognitive development influenced the development of one’s moral reasoning.
Vygotsky said, “The teacher must orient his work not on yesterday’s
development in the child but on tomorrow’s.” Vygotsky emphasized the role of
social interaction in learning and development. Scaffolding is the systematic
manner of providing assistance to the learner that helps the learner to effectively
acquire a skill. He believed that guidance from a more knowledgeable other
(MKO) would lead a learner to a higher level of performance than if he were
alone. This higher level of performance then eventually becomes the learner’s
actual performance when he works independently in the future. His concept of
zone of proximal development (ZPD) illustrates this.
Bronfenbrenner’s model also known as the Bioecological Systems

Theory presents child development within the context of relationship systems
that comprise the child’s environment. The model is composed of microsystem,
mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and the chronosystem. Each layer
is further made up of different structures. The term “bioecological” points out that
a child’s own biological make-up impacts on his/her development. The child’s
growing and developing body and the interplay between his/her immediate
family/community environment, and the societal landscape fuel and steer his/her
development. Changes or conflict in any one layer will ripple throughout other
layers. To study a child’s development then, we must look not only at the child
and his/her immediate environment, but also at the larger environment with which
the child interacts.

What follow are graphic organizers that will help you review the principles
27
of these important theories. You may refer to any Child and Adolescent
Development book or other resources to complete them.
Learning Activity:
Directions: Match Column A with Column B. A. Sigmund Freud

B. Urie
_______1. “The teacher must orient his work not
Bronfenbrenne
on yesterday’s development in the C. Jean Piaget
child but on tomorrows.” D. Lev Vygotsky
E. Lawrence
_______2. “Healthy children will not fear life if
Kohlberg
their elders have integrity enough not to fear F. Erik Erikson
death.” G. Robert
Havighurst
________3. “Right action tends to be defined in terms of general individual rights

and Standards that have been critically Examined and
agreed upon by the whole society.”
________4. “The principal goal of education in the school should be creating

men and women who are capable of doing new things, not
simply repeating what other generations have done.”
________5. “The mind is like an iceberg; it floats with one-seventh of its bulk
above water.”
________6. “We as a nation need to be reeducated about the necessary and

sufficient conditions for making human beings human. We
need to be reeducated not as parents-but as workers, neighbors,
and friend; and as members of the organizations, committees, boards-
and, especially, the informal networks that control our social institutions
and thereby determine the conditions of life for our families and their
children.”
1. Identify at least three concepts from the theories reviewed, give one
sentence explanation and describe how this can be applied in teaching
and learning.
Theory / Concept Application

28
References:

LESSON 4
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
Overview
You’ve probably heard someone say, “Everyone is unique.” Though it
sounds really like a cliché, one cannot ignore the truth in it. As a facilitator of
learning, the teacher is tasked to consider the individual differences among the
students in planning for effective instruction.
Learning Outcomes:
a. identify the different factors that bring about diversity in the classroom;
b. demonstrates a positive attitude towards diversity as an enriching element
in the learning environment; and
c. come up with teaching strategies that consider student diversity.
Materials Needed:
Duration: 3 hours
Learning Content

29
Individual Differences
(Student Diversity)
Individual Differences Benefits of Diversity in Classroom Strategies

Factors the Classroom for Student Diversity
Factors that Bring about Student Diversity
In all learning environments, individuals interact with others who are in

some ways different from them. Recall how those differences were shown in your
class tally-gender and racial, ethnic or cultural background (nationality, province,
language). This diversity also comes from other factors like the following:
1. Socioeconomic status- The millionaires’ lifestyle differs from that of the

middle income or lower income group.
2. Thinking/ learning style- Some of you learn better by seeing something;
others by just listening; and still others by manipulating something.
3. Exceptionalities- In class there maybe one who has difficulty in spoken
language comprehension or in seeing, hearing, etc.
How Student Diversity Enriches the Learning Environment
A teacher may be “challenged” to handle a class with students so diverse.

There may be students having different cultural background, different language
abilities, different attitudes and aptitude and behaviors. Some teachers might see
this diversity as a difficult predicament, really a hassle! Yet a more reflective
teacher may see a diverse classroom as an exciting place to learn not just for her
students, but for herself, as well. A wise teacher may choose to respect and
celebrate diversity! Read on to discover the benefits and learning opportunities
that student diversity can bring to your classroom.
a. Students’ self-awareness is enhanced by diversity- Exposing students

to others with diverse backgrounds and experiences also serves to help

students focus on their awareness of themselves. When they see how
30
others are different, students are given reference points or comparative
perspectives which sharpen assessment of their own attitudes, values and
behaviors.
b. Student diversity contributes to cognitive development. The
opportunity to gain access to the perspectives of peers and to learn from
other students, rather than the instructor only, may be especially important
for promoting the cognitive development of learners. Supreme Court
Justice, William J. Brennan said: “The classroom is peculiarly the
‘marketplace of ideas.’ The depth and breadth of student learning are
enhanced by exposure to others from diverse backgrounds. Student
diversity in the classroom brings about different points of view and varied
approaches to the learning process.
As the German philosopher, Nietzsche, said over 100 years
ago: “The more effects we allow to speak about one thing, the more eyes,
different eyes we can use to observe one thing, the more complete will our
concept of this thing, our objectivity, be,”
c. Student diversity prepares learners for their role as responsible

members of society. Suzanne Morse stresses one competency that has
strong implications for instructional strategies that capitalize on diversity:
“The capacity to imagine situations or problems from all perspectives and
to appreciate all aspects of diversity”. Furthermore, she argues: “The
classroom can provide more than just theory given by the teacher in a
lecture. With student diversity, the classroom becomes a ‘public place’
where community can be practiced.
d. Student diversity can promote harmony. When student diversity is
integrated into the classroom teaching and learning process, it can
become a vehicle for promoting harmonious race relations. Through
student-centered teaching strategies, diverse students can be encouraged
to interact and collaborate with one another on learning tasks that
emphasize unity of effort while capitalizing on their diversity of
backgrounds.
Some Tips on Student Diversity
1. Encourage learners to share their personal history and experiences.

Students will be made to realize that they have something in common with
the rest. They also differ in several ways.

31
2. Integrate learning experiences and activities which promote students’
multicultural and cross-cultural awareness.
 You can encourage or even initiate co-curricular experiences that
are aimed at promoting diversity awareness. These activities could
be held to coincide with already-scheduled national weeks or
months which are designated for appreciation of diverse groups:
disability Awareness Weeks, Linggo ng Wika, Indigenous People’s
Week, etc.
 Let students interview other students on campus who are from
diverse backgrounds (foreign students or students from other
ethnic/racial groups). These students of different racial and ethnic
origin serve as source of first-hand information on topics related to
their culture. This can also provide opportunity for interaction
among students who may otherwise never come in contact with
each other.
 Invite students to Internet discussion groups or e-mail; have
students “visit” foreign countries and “talk” to natives of those
countries.
 Ask students if they have ever been the personal target of prejudice
or discrimination, and have them share these experiences with
other members of the class.
3. Aside from highlighting diversity, identify patterns of unity that

transcend group differences. Clyde Kluckholn, an early American
anthropologist who spent a lifetime studying human diversity across
different cultures, concluded from his extensive research that, “Every
human is, at the same time, like all other humans like some humans, and
like no other human” (cited in Wong, 1991). His observation suggests a
paradox in the human experience, namely: We are all the same in
different ways. It may be important to point out to students the biological
reality that we, human beings, share approximately 95% of our genes in
common, and that less than 5% of our genes account for the physical
differences that exist among us. When focusing on human differences,
these commonalities should not be overlooked; otherwise, our repeated
attempts to promote student diversity may inadvertently promote student
divisiveness. One way to minimize this risk, and promote unity along with
diversity, is to stress the universality” of the learning experience by raising

students’ consciousness of common themes that bind all groups of
32
people-in addition to highlighting the variations on those themes.
 Periodically place students in homogeneous groups on the basis of
shared demographic characteristics (e.g., same-gender groups or
same-race/ethnicity groups), and have them share their personal
views or experiences with respect to course issues. Then form a
panel comprised of representatives from each group who will report
their group’s ideas. You can serve as moderator and identify the
key differences and recurrent themes that emerge across different
groups, or students who are not on the panel can be assigned this
task.
 Try to form groups of students who are different with respect to one
demographic characteristic but similar with respect to another (e.g.,
similar gender but different with respect to race/ethnicity, or similar
in age but different gender). This practice can serve to increase
students’ awareness that humans who are members of different
groups can, at the same time, be members of the same group-and
share similar experiences, needs or concerns.
 After students have completed self-assessment instruments (e.g.,
learning style inventories or personality profiles), have them line up
or move to a corner of the room according to their individual scores
or overall profile. This practice can visibly demonstrate to students
how members of different student populations can be quite similar
with respect to their learning style or personality profiles, i.e.,
students can see how individual similarities can often overshadow
group differences.
4. Communicate high expectations to students from all subgroups.

 Make a conscious attempt to call on, or draw in students from
diverse groups by using effective questioning techniques that
reliably elicit student involvement. In addition to consciously calling
on them in class, other strategies for “drawing in” and involving
students include: (a) assigning them the role of reporter in small-
group discussions, i.e., the one who reports back the group’s ideas
to the class, and (b) having them engaged in paired discussions
with another classmate with the stipulation that each partner must
take turns assuming the role of both listener and speaker, and (c)

scheduling instructor-student conferences with them outside the
33
classroom.
 Learn the names of your students, especially the foreign names
that you may have difficulty pronouncing. This will enable you to
establish early personal rapport with them which can later serve as
a social emotional foundation or springboard for encouraging them
to participate.
5. Use varied instructional methods to accommodate student diversity

in learning styles.
 Diversity the sensory/perceptual modalities through which you
deliver and present information (e.g., orally, in print, diagrammatic
and pictorial representations, or “hands on” experiences).
 Diversity the instructional formats or procedures you use in class:
o Use formats that are student-centered (e.g., class
discussions, small group work) and teacher-centered (e.g.,
lectures, demonstrations).
o Use formats that are unstructured (e.g., trial-error discovery
learning) and structured (e.g., step-by-step instructions).
o Use procedures that involve both independent learning (e.g.,
independently completed projects, individual presentations)
and interdependent learning (e.g., collaborative learning in
pairs or small groups).
6. Vary the examples you use to illustrate concepts in order to provide

multiple contexts that are relevant to students from diverse
backgrounds.
Specific strategies for providing multiple examples and varied
contexts that are relevant to their varied backgrounds include the
following:
 Have students’ complete personal information cards during the first
week of class and use this information to select examples or
illustrations that are relevant to their personal interests and life
experiences.
 Use ideas, comments and questions that students raise in class, or
which they choose to write about to help you think of examples and
illustrations to use.

 Ask student to provide their own examples of concepts based on
34
experiences drawn from their personal lives.
 Have students apply concepts by placing them in a situation or
context that is relevant to their lives (e.g., “How would you show
respect to all persons in your home?”).
7. Adapt to the students’ diverse backgrounds and learning styles by
allowing them personal choice and decision-making opportunities
concerning what they will learn and how they will learn it.
Giving the learner more decision-making opportunity with
respect to learning tasks: (a) promotes positive student attitudes toward
the subject matter, (b) fosters more positive interactions among students,
and (c) results in students working more consistently with lesser teacher
intervention. Also, when individuals are allowed to exert some control over
a task, they tend to experience less anxiety or stress while performing that
task.
8. Diverse your methods of assessing and evaluating student learning.
You can accommodate student diversity not only by varying
what you do with your teaching, but also by varying what you ask students
to do to demonstrate learning. In addition to the traditional paper-and-
pencil tests and written assignment, students can demonstrate their
learning in a variety of performance formats, such as: (a) individually-
delivered oral reports, (b) panel presentations, (c) group projects, (d)
visual presentations (e.g., concept maps, slide presentations, Power Point
presentations, collages, exhibits), or (d) dramatic vignettes-presented live
or on videotape. One potential benefit of allowing students to choose how
they demonstrate their learning is that the variety of options exercised may
be a powerful way to promote students’ awareness of the diversity of
human learning styles. You will have more of assessment in your courses
on Assessment of Learning.
9. Purposely, form small-discussion groups of students from diverse

backgrounds. You can form groups of students with different
learning styles, different cultural backgrounds, etc.
Small peer-learning groups may be effective for promoting
student progress to a more advanced stage of cognitive development.
Peer-learning groups may promote this cognitive advancement because:
(a) the instructor is removed from center stage, thereby reducing the
likelihood that the teacher is perceived as the ultimate or absolute

authority; and (b) students are exposed to the perspectives of other
35
students, thus increasing their appreciation of multiple viewpoints and
different approaches to learning.
Learning Activity:
Directions: Read carefully and understand the following:
1. Examine the class where you belong.
2. Each of you will provide information about your
3. Tally all of your responses to come up with a class profile
Name:
Age:
Gender:
Nationality:
Province:
Language/dialects
spoken:
Hobbies/Interests:
Favorite Subjects:
Subject you are best in:
Subject you find
difficult:
Ambition:
Analysis
1. In what ways are you and your classmates similar?
2. In what ways are you and your classmates different?
3. How does a girl differ from a boy in behavior? In what ways does an
American differ from a Filipino?
4. How does life in the province differ from that in the city
5. Are you glad you have similarities? Differences? Explain your answer.
6. How can the teacher utilize these similarities and differences in teaching
you?
1. By means of a graphic organizer, identify the factors that bring about diversity
in the classroom.
2.Think of a slogan that celebrates diversity in the classroom.
3.Cite teaching strategies and explain how these teaching strategies consider
student diversity.
References:


36
LESSON 5
LEARNING/THINKING STYLES AND MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
Overview
One factor that brings about student diversity is thinking/learning styles.

Individuals think and learn in distinct ways. In any group of learners there will
always be different learning characteristics, particularly in the learners’ manner of
processing information. Some would absorb the lesson better when they work
with their hands than when they just listen. Others would prefer to watch a video
about a topic. Students, likewise, have preferred ways of expressing their
thoughts, feelings and ideas. Some would prefer to write; others would draw or
even dance and sing. These preferences involve thinking/learning styles and
multiple intelligences.
Learning Outcomes:
a. describe the different learning/thinking styles and multiple intelligences.

b. identify your own learning/thinking style/s and multiple intelligences.
37
c. plan learning activities that match learners’ learning/thinking styles and
Materials Needed:
Duration: 3 hours
Learning Content
Student Diversity
Learning/Thinking Multiple Intelligences

Styles
Visual/Spatial (Picture
Smart)
Verbal/Linguistic (Word
Sensory Brain Smart)
Preferences Hemispheres
Logico-Mathematical
Iconic Left Brain
Visual (Number/Logic Smart)
Learners (Analytic)
Symbolic
Bodily/Kinesthetic
Right Brain (Body Smart)
Auditory Talkers (Global)
Learners Musical (music Smart)
Listeners
Interpersonal (People
A Course Module for Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching Smart)
38
Tactile/
Kinesthetic
Learners
Intrapersonal (Self-
Smart)
Leaning/Thinking Styles
Leaning/Thinking Styles refer to the preferred way an individual
processes information. They describe a person’s typical mode of thinking,
remembering or problem solving. Furthermore, styles are usually considered to
be bipolar dimensions. For instance, your particular learning/thinking style would
lie at a point in a continuum. Having a particular learning/thinking style simply
denotes a tendency to behave in a certain manner. Your styles is usually
described as a personality dimension which influences your attitudes, values and
social interaction.
There are several perspectives about learning-thinking styles. We

shall focus on sensory preferences and the global-analytic continuum.
Sensory Preferences. Individuals tend to gravitate toward one or two

types of sensory input and maintain a dominance in one of the following types:
Visual Learners. These learners must see their teacher’s actions and facial
expressions to fully understand the content of a lesson. They tend to prefer
sitting in front so no one would block their view. They may think in pictures and
learn best from visual aids including: diagrams, illustrated text books, overhead
transparencies, videos, flipcharts and hand-outs. During a lecture of classroom
discussion, visual learners often prefer to take detailed notes to absorb the
information.
Ri Charde further breaks down visual learner into:
Visual-iconic. Those who prefer this form of input are more

interested in visual imagery such as film, graphic displays, or pictures in order to
solidify learning. They usually have good “picture memory,” a.k.a. iconic imagery

and attend to pictorial detail. They would like to read a map better than to read a
39
book.
Visual-symbolic. Those who prefer this form of input feel

comfortable with abstract symbolism such as mathematical formulae or the
written word. They would prefer to read a book than a map and would like to read
about things than hear about them. They tend to be good abstract thinkers who
do not require practical means for learning.
Auditory Learners. They learn best through verbal lectures, discussions, talking
things through and listening to what others have to say. Auditory learners
interpret the underlying meanings of speech through listening to tone of voice,
pitch, speed and other nuances. Written information may have little meaning until
it is heard. These learners often benefit from reading text aloud and using a tape
recorder. They recorder. They can attend aurally to details, translate the spoken
word easily into the written word, and are not easily distracted in their listening
ability.
Auditory learners also fall into two categories:
The “Listeners”. This is the more common type. ‘Listeners’ most

likely do well in school. Out of school too, they remember things said to them and
make the information their own. They may even carry no mental conversations
and figure out how to extend what they learned by reviewing in their heads what
they heard others say.
The “Talkers”. They are the ones who prefer to talk and discuss.
They often find themselves talking to those around them. In a class setting when
the instructor is not asking questions, auditory-verbal processors (talkers) tend to
whisper comment to themselves. They are not trying to be disruptive and may
not even realize that they need to talk.
Tactile/Kinesthetic Learners. Tactile/Kinesthetic persons benefit much from a

hands-on approach, actively exploring the physical world around them. They may
find it hard to sit still for long periods. They may not benefit so much from the
discussion or the written materials, and may become distracted by their need for
activity and exploration. Those preferring this form of input move toward active
sensorimotor learning. They tend to prefer “learning by doing,” preferring the use
of psychomotor skills to, say, abstract thinking skills. They tend to have good
motor memory and motor coordination.
Global – Analytic Continuum

Analytic. Analytic thinkers tend toward the linear, step-by-step
40
processes of learning. They tend to see finite elements of patterns rather than
the whole; they are the “tree seers.” They are more comfortable in a world of
details and hierarchies of information.
Global. Global thinkers lean toward the non-linear thought and tend
to see the whole pattern rather than particle elements. They are the “forest seers”
who give attention only to the overall structure and sometimes ignore details.
Several theories have tied the global-analytic continuum to the left-

brain/right-brain continuum. In accord with Roger Sperry’s models, the left-
brained dominant individual is portrayed as the linear (analytic), verbal,
mathematical thinker while the right-brained person is one who is viewed as
global, non-linear and holistic in thought preferences.
Both sides of the brain can reason but through different strategies in
an individual, one side may be more dominant than the other. The left brain is
regarded as analytic in approach while the right is described as holistic or global.
A successive processor (left brain) prefers to learn in a step-by-step sequential
format, beginning with details leading to a conceptual understanding of a skill. A
simultaneous processor (right brain) prefers to learn beginning with the general
concept and then going on to specifics. See the comparison below:
LEFT BRAIN (Analytic) RIGHT BRAIN (Global)

Successive Hemispheric Style Simultaneous Hemispheric Style
1. Verbal 1. Visual
2. Responds to word meaning 2. Responds to tone of voice
3. Sequential 3. Random
4. Processes information 4. Processes information in varied order
linearly
5. Responds to logic 5. Responds to emotion
6. Plans ahead 6. Impulsive
7. Recalls people’s names 7. Recalls people’s faces
8. Speaks with few gestures 8. Gestures when speaking
9. Punctual 9. Less punctual
10. Prefers formal study design 10. Prefers sound/music background while
studying

11. Prefers bright lights while 11. Prefers frequent mobility while studying
41
studying
Multiple Intelligences
The theory of multiple intelligences (MI) was first described by

Howard Gardner in Frames of Mind (1983). Gardner defines intelligence as “an
ability or set of abilities that allows a person to solve a problem or fashion a
product that is valued in one or more cultures”. Gardner believes that different
intelligences may be independent abilities – a person can be low in one domain
area but high in another. All of us possess the intelligences but in varying
degrees of strength.
His most current research indicates that there are nine distinct forms
of intelligences. In order to facilitate learning effectively, teachers should use
strategies that match these kinds of intelligences. The nine kinds are:
Visual/Spatial Intelligence (Picture Smart) – learning visually and organizing

ideas spatially. Seeing concepts in action in order to understand them. The ability
to “see” things is one’s mind in planning to create a product or solve a problem.
Visual/Linguistic (Word Smart) – learning through the spoken and written word.
This intelligence is always valued in the traditional classroom and in traditional
assessments of intelligence and achievement.
Mathematical/Logical (Number Smart/logic Smart) – learning through

reasoning and problem solving. Also highly valued in the traditional classroom
where students are asked to adapt to logically sequenced delivery of instruction.
Bodily/Kinesthetic (Body Smart) – learning through interaction with one’s

environment. This intelligence is the domain of “overly active” learners. It
promotes understanding through concrete experience.
Musical (Music Smart) – learning through patterns, rhythms and music. This
includes not only auditory learning but also the identification of patterns through
all the senses.
Intrapersonal (Self Smart) – learning through feelings, values and attitudes.

This is decidedly component of learning through which students place value on
what they learn and take ownership for their learning.

Interpersonal (People Smart) – learning through interaction with others. Not the
42
domain of children who are simply “talkative” or “over social.” This intelligence
promotes collaboration and working cooperatively with others.
Naturalist (Nature Smart) – learning through classification, categories and

hierarchies. The naturalist intelligence picks up on subtle differences in meaning.
It is not simply the study of nature; it can be used in all areas of study.
Existential (Spirit Smart) – leaning by seeing the “big picture”: “Why are we
here?” “What is my role in the world?” “What is my place in my family, school and
community?” This intelligence seeks connections to real world understanding and
application of new learning.
It is important for teachers to use their knowledge about

thinking/learning style and multiple intelligences in planning activities to help their
students learn effectively.
While researches on these typologies continue, it is clear that the

teachers can no longer just teach the text book. It is a sensible practice to tech
each child according to his/her thinking/learning styles and multiple intelligence.
Teaching Strategies guided by Thinking/Learning Styles and Multiple

Intelligence.
1. Use questions of all types to stimulate various levels of thinking from

recalling factual information to drawing implications and making value
judgments.
2. Provide a general overview of material to be learned, i.e., structured
overviews, advance organizers, etc., so that students’ past experiences
will be associated with the new ideas.
3. Allow sufficient time for information to be processed and then integrate
using both the right-and left-brain hemispheres.
4. Set clear purposes before any listening, viewing or reading experience.
5. Warm up before the lesson development by using brainstorming, set
inductions, etc.
6. Use multisensory means for both processing and retrieving information.
(Write directions on the board and give them orally.)
7. Use a variety of review and reflection strategies to bring closure to
learning (writing summaries, creating opinion surveys, etc.).
8. Use descriptive feedback rather than simply praising (“The example
you’ve provided is an excellent one to point to the concept of …”). (From

Cornett, C.E. (1983). What you should know about teaching and learning
43
styles. Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation).
Learning Activity:
Directions: Identify what type of learner and learning style you belong.
Answer the Learning Style Inventory below, and find out.
1. If I have to learn how to do something, I learn best when I:
(V) Watch someone show me how.
(A) Hear someone tell me how.
(K) Try to do it myself.
2. When I read, I often find that I:

(V) Visualize what I am reading in my mind’s eye.
(A) Read out loud or hear the words inside my head.
(K) Fidget and try to “feel” the content.
3. When asked to give directions, I:

(V) See the actual places in my mind as I say them or I prefer to draw
them.
(A) Have no difficulty in giving them verbally.
(K) Have to point or more my body as I give them.
4. If I am unsure how to spell a word, I:

(V) Write it in order to determine if it looks right.
(A) Spell it out loud in order to determine if it sounds right.
(K) Write it in order to determine if it feels rights.
5. When I write, I:
(V) Am concerned how neat and well-spaced my letters and words
appear.
(A) Often say the letters and words to myself.
(K) Push hard on my pen or pencil and can feel the flow of the words or
letters as I form them.
6. If I had to remember a list of items, I would remember it best if I:

(V) Wrote them down.
(A) Said them over and over to myself.
(K) Moved around and used my fingers to name each item.
7. I prefer teachers who:

(V) Use the board or overhead projector while they lecture.
(A) Talk with a lot of expression.
(K) Use hand-on activities.
8. When trying to concentrate, I have a difficult time when:

(V) There is a lot of clutter or movement .in the room.
(A) There is a lot of noise in the room.
(K) I have to sit still for any length of time.
9. When solving a problem, I:

(V) Write or draw diagrams to see it.

(A) Talk myself through it.
44
(K) Use my entire body or move objects to help me think.
10. When given written instructions on how to build something, I:

(V) Read them silently and try to visualize how the parts will fit together.
(A) Read them out loud and talk to myself as I put the parts together.
(K) Try to put the parts together first and read later.
11. To keep occupied while writing, I:

(V) Look around, stare or read.
(A) Talk or listen to others.
(K) Walk around, manipulate things with my hands, or move/shake my feet
as I sit.
12. If I had to verbally describe something to another person, I would:

(V) Be brief because I do not like to talk at length.
(A) Go into great detail because I like to talk.
(K) Gesture and move around while talking.
13. If someone were verbally describing something to me, I would:

(V) Try to visualize what she was saying.
(A) Enjoy listening but want to interrupt and talk myself.
(K) Become bored if her description gets too long and detailed.
14. When trying to recall names, I remember:

(V) Faces but forget names.
(A) Names, but forget faces.
(K) The situation that I met the person other than the person’s name or
face.
Scoring Instructions: Add the number of responses for each letter and
enter the total below. The area with the highest number of responses is your
primary mode of learning.
Visual Auditory
Kinesthetic
V= V= V=
(Retrieved from: http:/www.gigglepotz.com/learnstyles.pdf)
Analysis
Share your answers with your group:
1. What do your scores tell you about your learning and thinking styles?
2. Do you agree with your scores?
3. Is it possible for one to score equally on the three styles?

1. In your own words, describe the different learning/thinking styles and
45
2. What is/are your thinking/learning style/s? What are your dominant
multiple intelligences?
3. Choose a particular learning style and intelligence of students. Plan
learning activities that match with the particular learning styles and
multiple intelligences of students.
References:
LESSON 6
LEARNERS WITH EXCEPTIONALITIES

Overview
One significant factor that highlights individual differences and diversity in
learning is the presence of exceptionalities. We commonly refer to learners with
exceptionalities as persons who are different in some way from the “normal” or
“average”. The term “exceptional learners” includes those with special needs
related to cognitive abilities, behavior, social functioning, physical and sensory

impairments, emotional disturbances, and giftedness. Most of these learners
46
require a lot of understanding and patience as well as special education and
related services if they are to reach their full potential of development.
Learning Outcomes:
a. describe the basic categories of exceptional learners;

b. define and distinguish the terms disability and handicap, and
c. demonstrate “people first” language when referring to exceptional learners and
advocate for its use.
Materials Needed:
Duration: 3 hours
Learning Content
Learning
Disabilities
Mental Retardation

47
Emotional and Sensory

Behavioral Exceptionalities Impairments
Disorders
Physical
Autism Disabilities and
health Impairments
Disability. Disbaility is a measurable impairment or limitation that “interferes with

a person’s ability, for example, to walk, lift, hear, or learn. It may refer to a
physical, sensory, or mental condition” (Schiefelbusch Institute, 1996). The word
disability has become the more accepted term, having replaced the word
handicap in federal laws in the US, one of which is the Individuals with
Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). IDEA is the law that provided
comprehensive service and support for XIV, Sec. 2, uses the word “disabled” in
paragraph (5) “Provide adult citizens, the disabled, and out-of-school youth with
training…
Handicap. The word handicap does not have the same meaning as
disability. A handicap is a disadvantage that occurs as a result of a disability or
impairment. The degree of disadvantage (or the extent of the handicap) is often
dependent on the adjustment made by both the person and his environment.
Therefore, the extent to which a disability handicaps an individual can vary
greatly. Two persons may have the same disability but not the same degree of
being handicapped. For example, they both have a hearing impairment, one
knows sign language and can read lips while the other cannot. The first individual
would not have as much handicap as the second one. Another example, two
persons who move around on a wheel chair, the one studying in a school
campus with wheelchair accessibility in all areas would be less handicapped than
one in a school without wheel chair accessibility.
Categories of Exceptionalities
There are different ways of presenting categories of exceptionalities.

Special education practitioners would have varying terms and categories. For this

short introduction of categories, we are basing it on the categories found in
48
Omrod’s Educational Psychology (2000).
Specific Cognitive or Academic Difficulties
Learning Disabilities. Learning disabilities involve difficulties in

specific cognitive processes like perception, language, memory or metacognition
that are not due to other disabilities like mental retardation, emotional or
behavioral disorders, or sensory impairments. Examples of learning disabilities
include dyslexia (reading), dyscalculia (number operations) and dysgraphia
(writing).
Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. ADHD is manifested in

either or both of these: (1) difficulty in focusing and maintaining attention and (2)
recurrent hyperactive and impulsive behavior.
Speech and Communication Disorders. There is difficulty in

spoken language including voice disorders, inability to produce the sounds…
correctly, stuttering, difficulty in spoken language comprehension that
significantly hamper classroom performance.
Social/Emotional and Behavioral Difficulties.
Autism. Autism is a condition manifested by different levels of

impaired social interaction and communication, repetitive behaviors and limited
interests. Individuals with autism usually have in intense need for routine and a
predictable environment.
Mental Retardation. Mental retardation refers to significant sub-

average intelligence and deficits in adaptive behavior. There is difficulty in
managing activities of daily living and in conducting themselves appropriately in
social situations.
Emotional/Conduct Disorders. This involves the presence of

emotional states like depression and aggression over a considerable amount of
time that they notably disturb learning and performance in school.
Physical Disabilities and Health Impairments
Physical disabilities and health impairments. This involves

physical or medical conditions (usually long-term) including one or more of these:
(1) limited energy and strength, (2) reduced mental alertness, and/or (3) little
muscle control.

Severe and Multiple Disabilities. This refers to the presence of two
49
or more different types of disability, at times at a profound level. The combination
of disabilities makes it necessary to make specific adaptations and have more
specialized educational programs.
Sensory Impairments
Visual Impairments. These are conditions when their malfunction of

the eyes or optic nerves that prevent normal vision even with corrective lenses.
Hearing Impairments. These involve malfunction of the ear or

auditory nerves that hinders perception of sounds within the frequency range of
normal speech.
Giftedness
Giftedness. This involves a significantly high level of cognitive

development. There is unusually high ability or aptitude in one or more of these
aspects: intellectual ability, aptitude in academic subjects, creativity, visual or
performing arts or leadership.
People-First Language
What is People-First Language? Just as the term would imply, this

language trend involves putting the person first, not the disability (e.g., a person
with a disability, not a disabled person). Thus, people-first language tell us what
condition people have, not what they are (Schiefelbusch Institute, 1996). This is
similar to saying “person with AIDS, rather than “AIDS victim”. Other suggestions
for referring to those with disabilities include:
 Avoiding generic labels (people with mental retardation is preferable to

the mentally retarded);
 Emphasizing abilities, not limitations (for instance, uses a wheelchair
is preferable to confined to a wheelchair);
 Avoiding euphemisms (such as physically-challenged) which are
regarded as condescending and avoid the real issues that result from a
disability; and
 Avoiding implying illness or suffering (had polio is preferable to is a
polio victim, and has multiple sclerosis is preferable to suffers from
multiple sclerosis) (Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation,
2000; Schiefelbusch Institute, 1996).
Using people-first language and applying the guidelines above will
remind you to have a more respectful and accepting attitude toward learners with

exceptionalities. The presence of impairments requires them to exert more effort
50
to do things that others like us find quite easy to do. They are learners who may
turn to you for assistance. Beginning with the right attitude, one of compassion
(not of pity nor ridicule), will make you a more effective teacher, one with the
hand and the heart who can facilitate their learning and adjustment.
Learning Activity
Directions: Watch any of the following films:
The Rain Man

I am Sam
Son-rise a Miracle of Love
The Life of Helen Keller
Analysis
1. Describe the main character in the movie you watched.

2. What was his/her exceptionality? Describe
3. What problems/difficulties did the main character experience?
4. Who provided support? What support did he/she get from his/her
environment?

1. By means of a graphic organizer present the basic categories of
exceptional learners and describe each category briefly.
2. How do handicap and disability differ?
3. Revise the following sentences to adhere to the people-first language and
the other guidelines given in this module.
a. I attended a seminar about teaching disabled children.
b. That classroom was designed for the deaf and blind.
c. I like to read books about the handicapped.
d. When she was suffering from a spinal cord injury, in a car accident,
she became a paraplegic and was confined to a wheelchair.
e. He is behaving like that because he is abnormal.
References:


51
LESSON 7
BEHAVIORISM: PAVLOV, THORNDIKE, WATSON, SKINNER

Overview
The theory of behaviorism focuses on the study of observable and
measurable behavior. It emphasizes that behavior is mostly learned through
conditioning and reinforcement (rewards and punishment). It does not give much
attention to the mind and the possibility of thought processes occurring in the

mind. Contributions in the development of the behaviorist theory largely came
52
from Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike and Skinner.
Learning Outcomes:
a. explain the basic principles of behaviorisms;

b. make a simple plan applying the primary laws of learning; and
c. determine how to use rewards in the learning process more effectively.
Materials Needed:
Duration: 3 hours
Learning Content
Behaviorism
Classical Conditioning Connectionism Operant Conditioning

(Pavlov/Watson) (Thorndike) (Skinner)
Primary Laws Reinforcement
Shaping of
Laws of Effect Behavior
Laws of Exercise
Laws of
Readiness
Behaviorism
Ivan Pavlov Ivan Pavlov, a Russian Physiologist, is well known for
his work in classical conditioning or stimulus substitution. Pavlov’s most
renowned experiment involved meat, a dog and a bell. Initially, Pavlov was
measuring the dog’s salivation in order to study digestion. This is when he
stumbled upon classical conditioning.

Pavlov’s Experiment. Before conditioning, ringing the bell (neutral
53
stimulus) caused no response from the dog. Placing food (unconditioned
stimulus) in front of the dog-initiated salivation (unconditioned response). During
conditioning, the bell was rung a few seconds before the dog was presented with
food. After conditioning, the ringing of the bell (conditioned stimulus) alone
produced salivation (conditioned response). This is classical conditioning. See
illustration ON THE NEXT PAGE.
Stage 1 – Before conditioning
Bell (neutral stimulus) No response
Stage 2 – During conditioning
Bell (neutral stimulus)
Paired
with
Meat (unconditioned Salivation (unconditioned

stimulus) response)
Stage 3 – After conditioning
Meat (unconditioned Salivation (unconditioned

stimulus) response)
Classical Conditioning
Somehow you were conditioned to associate particular objects with

your teacher. So at present, when you encounter the objects, you are also
reminded of your teacher. This is an example of classical conditioning.
Pavlov also had the following:

Stimulus Generalization. Once the dog has learned to salivate at the sound of
54
the bell, it will salivate at other sounds.
Extinction. If you stop pairing the bell with the food, salivation will eventually
cease in response to the bell.
Spontaneous Recovery. Extinguished responses can be “recovered” an

elapsed time, but will soon extinguish again if the dog is presented with food.
Discrimination. The dog could learn to discriminate between similar (stimuli)

and discern which bell would result in the presentation of food and which would
not.
Higher-Order Conditioning. Once the dog has been conditioned to associate

the bell with food, another unconditioned stimulus, such as a light may be flashed
at the same time that the bell is rung. Eventually, the dog will salivate at the flash
of the light without the sound of the bell.
Edward L. Thorndike. Edward Thorndikes’s Connectionism theory gave us the

original S-R framework of ehavioral psychology. More than a hundred years ago
he wrote a text book entitled, Educational Psychology. He was the first one to
use this term. He explained that the learning is the result of associations forming
between stimuli (S) and response (R). Such associations or “habits” become
strengthened or weakened by the nature and frequency of the S-R pairings. The
model for S-R theory was trial and error learning in which certain responses
came to be repeated more than others because of reward. The main principle of
connectionism (like all behavioral theory) was that learning could be adequately
explained without considering any unobservable internal states.
Thorndike’s theory on connectionism, states that learning has taken place

when a strong connection or bond between stimulus and response is
formed. He came up with three primary laws:
Law of Effect. The Law of effect states that a connection between a stimulus
and response is strengthened when the consequence is positive (reward) and
the connection between the stimulus and the response is weakened when the
consequence is negative. Thorndike later on, revised this “law” when he found
that negative rewards (punishment) do not necessarily weaken bonds, and that
some seemingly pleasurable consequences do not necessarily motivate
performance.
Law of Exercise. This tell us that the more an S-R (stimulus-response) bond is
practiced the stronger it will become. “Practice makes perfect” seem to be

associated with this. However, like the law of effect, the law of exercise also had
55
to be revised when Thorndike found that practice without feedback does not
necessarily enhance performance.
Law of Readiness. This states that the more readiness the learner has to
respond to the stimulus and is not made to respond, it becomes annoying to the
person. For example, if the teacher says, “Okay we will now watch the movie
(stimulus) you’ve been waiting for.” And suddenly the power goes off. The
students will feel frustrated because they were ready to respond to the stimulus
but was prevented from doing so. Likewise, if the person is not at all ready to
respond to a stimuli and is asked to respond, that also becomes annoying. For
instance, the teacher calls a student to stand up and recite, and then the teacher
asks the question and expects the student to respond right away when he is still
not ready. This will be annoying to the student. That is why teachers should
remember to say the question first, and wait for a few seconds before calling on
anyone to answer.
Principles Derived from Thorndike’s Connectionism:
1. Learning requires both practice and reward (laws of effect/exercise)
2. A series of S-R connections can be chained together if they belong to the

same action sequence (law of readiness)
3. Transfer of learning occurs because of previously encountered situations.
4. Intelligence is function of the number of connections learned.
John Watson. John B. Watson was the first American psychologist to work with
Pavlov’s idea. He too was initially involved in animal studies, then later became
involved in human behavior research. He considered that humans are born with
a flexes and the emotional reactions of love and rage. All other behavior is
learned through stimulus-response associations through conditioning. He
believed in the power of conditioning so much that he said that if he is given a
dozen healthy infants he can make them into anything you want them to be,
basically through making stimulus-response connections through conditioning.
Experiment un-Albert. Watson applied classical conditioning in his experiment

concerning Albert, a young child and a white rat. In the beginning, Albert was not
afraid of the rat; but Watson made a sudden loud noise each time Albert touched
the rat. Because Albert was frightened by the loud noise, he soon became
conditioned to fear and avoid the rat. Later, the child’s response was generalized
to other small animals. Now, he was also afraid of small animals. Watson then

“extinguished’ or made the child “unlearn” fear by showing the rat without the
56
loud noise. Surely, Watson’s research methods would be questioned today;
nevertheless, his work did clearly show the role of conditioning in the
development of emotional responses to certain stimuli. This may help us
understand the fears, phobia and prejudices that people develop.
Burrhus Frederick Skinner. Like Pavlov, Watson and Thorndike, Skinner

believed in the stimulus-response pattern of conditioned behavior. His theory
zeroed in only on changes in observable behavior, excluding any likelihood for
any processes taking place in the mind. Skinner‘s 1948 book, Walden Two, is
about a utopian society based on operant conditioning. He also wrote, Science
and Human Behavior, (1953) in which he pointed out how the principle of operant
conditioning function in social institutions such as government, law, religion,
economics and education.
Skinner’s work differ from that of the three behaviorists before him in
that he studied operant behavior (voluntary behaviors used operating on the
environment). Thus, his theory came to be known as Operant Conditioning.
Operant Conditioning is based upon the notion that learning is a result

of change in overt behavior. Changes in behavior are the result of an individual’s
response to events (stimuli) that occur in the environment. A response produces
a consequence such as defining a word, hitting a ball, or solving a math problem.
When a particular Stimulus-Response (S-R) pattern is reinforced (rewarded), the
individual is conditioned to respond.
Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner’s S-R theory. A

reinforce is anything that strengthens the desired response. There is a positive
reinforce and a negative reinforcer.
A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that is given or added to

increase the response. An example of positive reinforcement is when a teacher
promises extra time in the play area to children who behave well during the
lesson. Another is a mother who promises a new cellphone for her son who gets
good grades. Still, other examples include verbal praises, star stamps and
stickers.
A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that results in the increased

frequency of a response when it is withdrawn or removed. A negative reinforcer
is not a punishment, in fact it is a reward. For instance, a teacher announces that
a student who gets an average grade of 1.5 for the two grading periods will no
longer take the final examination. The negative reinforce is “removing” the final

exam, which we realize is a form of reward for working hard and getting an
57
average grade of 1.5.
A negative reinforce is different from punishment because a

punishment is a consequence intended to result in reduced responses. An
example would be a student who always comes late not allowed to join a group
work that has already began (punishment) and, therefore, losses points for that
activity. The punishment was done to reduce the response of repeatedly coming
to class late.
Skinner also looked into extinction or non-reinforcement:

Responses that are not reinforced are not likely to be repeated. For example,
ignoring a student’s misbehavior may extinguish that behavior.
Shaping of Behavior. An animal on a cage may take a very long

time to figure out that pressing a lever will produce food. To accomplish such
behavior, successive approximations of the behavior are rewarded until the
animal learns the association between the lever and the food reward. To begin
shaping, the animal may be rewarded for simply turning in the direction of the
lever, then for moving toward the lever, for brushing against the lever, and finally
for pressing the lever.
Behavior chaining comes about when a series of steps are needed

to be learned. The animal would master each step in sequence until the entire
sequence learned. This can be applied to a child being thought to tie a shoelace.
The child can be given reinforcement(reward) until the entire process of tying the
shoelace is learned.
Reinforcement Schedules. Once the desired behavioral response is

accomplished, reinforcement does not have to be 100%; in fact, it can be
maintained more successfully through what Skinner referred to as partial
reinforcement schedules. Partial reinforcement schedules include interval
schedules and ratio schedules.
Fixed Interval Schedules. The target response is reinforced after a

fixed amount of time has passed since the last reinforcement. Example, the bird
in a cage is given food (reinforcer) every 10 minutes, regardless of how many
times it presses the bar.
Variable Interval Schedules. This is similar to fixed interval

schedules but the amount of time that must pass between reinforcement varies.

Example, the bird may receive food (reinforcer) different intervals, not every ten
58
minutes.
Fixed Ratio Schedules. A fixed number of correct responses must

occur before reinforcement may recur. Example, the bird will be given food
(reinforcer) everytime it presses the bar 5 times.
Variable Ratio Schedules. The number of correct repetitions of the

correct responses for reinforcement varies. Example, the bird is given food
(reinforcer ) after it presses the bar 3 times, then after 10 times, then 4 times. So
the bird will not be able to predict how many times it needs press the bar before it
gets food again.
Variable interval and especially, variable ratio schedules produce

steadier and more persistent rates of response because the learners cannot
predict when the reinforcement will come although they know that they will
eventually succeed. An example of this is why people continue to buy lotto tickets
even when an almost negligible percentage of people actually win. While it is true
that very rarely there is a big winner, but once in a while somebody hits the
jackpot (reinforcement). People cannot predict when the jackpot can be gotten
(variable interval) so they continue to buy tickets (repetition of response).
Implication of Operant Conditioning. These implications are given

for programmed instruction.
1. Practice should take the form of question (stimulus) - answer (response)

frames which expose the student to the subject in gradual steps.
2. Require that the learner makes a response for every frame and receives
immediate feedback.
3. Try to arrange the difficulty of the question so the response is always correct
and hence, a positive reinforcement.
4. Ensure that good performance in the lesson is paired with secondary

reinforcers such as verbal praise, prizes, and good grades.
Principles Derived from Skinner’s Operant Conditioning:
1. Behavior that is positively reinforced will reoccur; intermittent reinforcement

particularly effective.
2. Information should be presented in small amounts so that responses can be

reinforced (“shaping”).

3. Reinforcements will generalize across similar stimuli (“stimulus generalization”)
59
producing secondary conditioning.
Learning Activity:
1. Think of a teacher that’s most unforgettable to you in elementary or high

school.
2. Are there things that when you encounter at present (see, hear, touch,
smell) make you “go back to the past” and recall this teacher? What are
these things?
3. What kinds of rewards and punishments did she/he apply in your class?
For what student behaviors were the rewards and punishments for?
Student Behavior Reward/Punishment

1.
2.
3.
4.
Analysis
1. What makes this teacher unforgettable for you?
2. Why do your answers in no. I make you recall this teacher? Describe the
connection these things have on your past teacher.
3. Were the rewards and punishments given effective? Please elaborate.
1. Explain the basic principles of behaviorism.
2. Make a simple plan applying the principles of learning.
3. Explain how to use rewards in the learning process effectively.
References:
LESSON 8
NEO BEHAVIORISM: TOLMAN AND BANDURA

Overview

With new researches, explanations provided by the basic principles of
60
behaviorism appeared not to satisfy all learning scenarios. New theories came
into view which maintained some of the behaviorist concepts. But excluded
others, and added new ideas which later came to be associated with the
cognitive views of learning. The neo-behaviorist, then, were a transitional group,
bridging the gap between behaviorism and cognitive theories of learning.
Learning Outcomes:
a. explain Tolman’s purposive behaviorism;

b. explain Bandura’s social learning theory; and
c. give specific applications of each theory in teaching.
Materials Needed:
Duration: 3 hours
Learning Content
Neo Behaviorism
Tolman’s Purposive Bandura Social-Learning

Behaviorism Theory
Goal-Directedness Principles
Cognitive Maps Modeling
Latent Learning Four Conditions

for Effective
Modeling
Intervening
Variables
Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism

Purposive behaviorism has also been referred to as Sign Learning
Theory and is often seen as the link between behaviorism and cognitive theory.

Tolman’s theory was founded on two psychological views: those of the Gestalt
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psychologists and those of John Watson, the behaviorist.
Tolman believed the learning is a cognitive process. Learning

involves forming beliefs and obtaining knowledge about the environment and
then revealing that knowledge through purposeful and goal-directed behavior.
Stated in his sign theory that an organism learns by pursuing signs to a goal, i.e.,
learning is acquired through meaningful behavior. He stressed the organized
aspect of learning. “The stimuli which are allowed in are not connected by just
simple one-to-one switches to the outgoing responses. Rather the incoming
impulses are usually worked over and elaborated in the central control room into
a tentative cognitive-like map of the environment. And it is this tentative map,
indicating routes and paths and environmental relationships, which finally
determines what responses, if any, the animal will finally make.”
Tolman’s form of behaviorism stressed the relationships between

stimuli rather than stimulus-response. Tolman said that a new stimulus (the sign)
becomes associated with already meaningful stimulus (the significate) through a
series of pairings; there is no need for reinforcement in order to establish
learning. In your maze activity, the new stimulus or “sign” (maze B) became
associated with already meaningful stimuli, the significate (maze A). So you may
have connected the two stimuli, maze A and maze B; and used your knowledge
and experience in maze A to learn to respond to maze B.
Tolman’s Key Concepts
Learning is always purposive and goal-directed. Tolman asserted

that learning is always purposive and goal-directed. He held the notion that an
organism acted or responded for some adaptive purpose. He believed individuals
do more than merely respond to stimuli; they act on beliefs, attitudes, changing
conditions and they strive toward goals. Tolman saw behavior as holistic,
purposive and cognitive.
Cognitive maps in rats. In his most famous experiment, one group

of rats was placed at random starting locations in a maze but the food was
always in the same location. Another group of rats had the food placed in
different locations which always required exactly the same patterns of turns from
their starting location. The group that had the food in the same location
performed much better than the other group, supposedly demonstrating that they
had learns the locations rather than a specific sequence of turns. This is
tendency to “learn location” signified that rat somehow formed cognitive maps

that help them perform well on the maze. He also found out that organisms will
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select the shortest or easiest path to achieve a goal.
Applied in human learning, since a student passes by the same route

going to school every day, he requires a cognitive map of the location of his
school. So when transportation re-routing is done, he can still figure out what
turns to make to get to school the shortest or easiest way.
Latent Learning. Latent learning is a kind of learning that remains or

stays with the individual until needed. It is learning that is not outwardly
manifested at once. According to Tolman it can exist even without reinforcement.
He demonstrated this in his rat experiments wherein rats apparently “learned the
maze” by forming cognitive maps of the maze, but manifested this knowledge of
the maze only when they needed to.
Applied in human learning, a two-year old always sees her dad

operate the t.v. remote control and observes how the t.v. is turn on or how
channel is changed, and volume adjusted. After sometime, the parents are
surprised that on the first time that their daughter holds the remote control, she
already knows with buttons to press for what function. Through latent learning,
the child knew the skills beforehand, even though she has never done them
before.
The concept of intervening variable. Intervening variables are

variables that are not readily seen but serve as determinants of behavior. Tolman
believed that learning is mediated or in influenced by expectations, perceptions,
representations, needs and other internal or environmental variables, Example,
in his experiments with rats he found out that hunger was an intervening variable.
Reinforcement not essential for learning. Tolman concluded that

reinforcement is not essential for learning, although it provides as incentive for
performance. In these studies, he observed that a rat was able to acquire
knowledge of the way through a maze, i.e., to develop a cognitive map, even in
the absence of reinforcement.
Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

Social Learning theory focuses on the learning that occurs within a
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social context. It considers that people learn from one another, including such
concepts as observational learning, imitation and modeling. The ten-year old boy
Sergio Pelico did watch Saddam’s execution on TV and then must have imitated
it.
Among others, Albert Bandura is considered the leading proponent

of this theory.
General principles of social learning theory
1. People can learn by observing the behavior of others and the outcomes
of those behaviors.
2. Learning can occur without a change in behavior. Behaviorists say that
learning has to be represented by a permanent change in behavior, in
contrast social learning theorists say that because people can learn
through observation alone, their learning may not necessarily be shown
in their performance. Learning may or may not result in a behavior
change.
3. Cognition plays a role in learning. Over the last 30 years, social learning
theory has become increasingly cognitive in its interpretation of human
learning. Awareness and expectations of future reinforcements or
punishments can have a major effect on the behaviors that people exhibit.
4. Social learning theory can be considered a bridge or a transition between
behaviorist learning theories and cognitive learning theories.
How the environment reinforces and punishes modeling
People are often reinforced for modeling the behavior of others. Bandura
suggested that the environment also reinforces modeling. This is in several
possible ways:
1. The observer in reinforced by the model. For example a student who

changes dress to fit in with a certain group of students has a strong
likelihood of being accepted and thus reinforced by that group.
2. The observer is reinforced by a third person. The observer might be
modeling the actions of someone else, for example, an outstanding class
leader or student. The teacher notices this and compliments and praises
the observer for modeling such behavior thus reinforcing that behavior.
3. The imitated behavior itself leads to reinforcing consequences. Many
behaviors that we learn from others produce satisfying or reinforcing

results. For example, a student in my multimedia class could observe how
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the extra work a classmate does is fun. This student in turn would do the
same extra work and also experience enjoyment.
4. Consequences of the model’s behavior affect the observer’s behavior
vicariously. This is known as vicarious reinforcement. This is where the
model is reinforced for a response and then the observer shows an
increase in that same response. Bandura illustrated this by having
students watch a film of a model hitting an inflated clown doll. One
group of children saw the model being praised for such action. Without
being reinforced, the group of children began to also hit the doll.
Contemporary social learning perspective of reinforcement and

punishment
1. Contemporary theory proposes that both reinforcement and punishment

have indirect effects on learning. They are not the sole or main cause.
2. Reinforcement and punishment influence the extent to which an
individual exhibits a behavior that has been learned.
3. The expectation of reinforcement influences cognitive processes that
promote learning. Therefore, attention pays a critical role in learning, and
attention is influenced by the expectation of reinforcement. An example
would be, when the teacher tells a group of students that what they will
study next is not on the test. Students will not pay attention because they
do not expect to know the information for a test.
Cognitive factors in Social learning
Social learning theory has cognitive factors as well as behaviorist factors

(actually operant factors).
1. Learning without performance: Bandura make a distinction between

learning through observation and the actual imitation of what has been
learned. This is similar to Tolman’s latent learning.
2. Cognitive processing during learning: Social learning theorists’ content
that attention is a critical factor in learning.
3. Expectations: As a result of being reinforced, people form expectations
about the consequences that future behaviors are likely to bring. They
expect certain behaviors to bring reinforcements and others to bring
punishment. The learner needs to be aware, however, of the response

reinforcements and response punishment. Reinforcement increases a
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response only when the learner is aware of that connection.
4. Reciprocal causation: bandura proposed that behavior can influence both
the environment and the person. In fact each of these three variables, the
person, the behavior, and the environment can have an influence on each
other.
5. Modeling: There are different types of models. There is the live model,
an actual person demonstrating the behavior. There can also be a
symbolic model, which can be a person or action portrayed in some
other medium, such as television, videotape, computer programs.
Behaviors that can be learned through modeling
Many behaviors can be learned, at least partly, through modeling.

Examples that can be cited are, students can watch parents read, students can
watch the demonstrations of mathematics problems, or see someone act
bravely in a fearful situation. Aggression can be learned through models.
Research indicates that children become more aggressive when they observed
aggressive or violent models. Moral thinking and moral behavior are
influenced by observation and modeling. This includes moral judgments
regarding right and wrong which can, in part, develop through modeling.
Conditions necessary for effective modeling to occur
Bandura mentions four conditions that are necessary before an

individual can successfully model the behavior of someone else:
1. Attention – The person must first pay attention to the model.

2. Retention – The observer must be able to remember the behavior that
has been observed. One way of increasing this is using the technique of
rehearsal.
3. Motor reproduction – The third condition is the ability to replicate the
behavior that the model has just demonstrated. This means that the
observer has to be able to replicate the action, which could be a problem
with a learner who is not ready developmentally to replicate the action. For
example, little children have difficulty doing complex physical motion.
4. Motivation – The final necessary ingredient for modeling to occur is
motivation. Learners must want to demonstrate what they have learned.
Remember that since these four conditions vary among individuals,
different people will reproduce the same behavior differently.

Effects of modeling on behavior:
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1. Modeling teaches new behaviors.
2. Modeling influences the frequency of previously learned behaviors.
3. Modeling may encourage previously forbidden behaviors.
4. Modeling increases the frequency of similar behaviors. For example, a
student might see a friend excel in basketball and he tries to excel in
football because he is not tall enough for basketball.
Educational implications of social learning theory
Social learning theory has numerous implications for classroom use.
1. Students often learn a great deal simply by observing other people.

2. Describing the consequences of behavior can effectively increase the
appropriate behaviors and decrease inappropriate ones. This can involve
discussing with learners about the rewards and consequences of various
behaviors.
3. Modeling provides an alternative to shaping for teaching new behaviors.
Instead of using shaping, which is operant conditioning, modeling can
provide a faster, more efficient means for teaching new behavior. To
promote effective modeling, a teacher must make sure that the four
essential conditions exist; attention, retention, motor reproduction, and
motivation.
4. Teachers and parents must model appropriate behaviors and take care
that they do not model inappropriate behaviors.
5. Teachers should expose students to a variety of other models. This
technique is especially important to break down traditional stereotypes.

67
Learning Activities:
Activity 1: Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism
Directions: Read and follow the following instructions:

1. Solve maze A. Enter on the left side and exit at the top.
Solve maze B. Enter on the top and exit on the left side.
Maze A Maze B
Analysis
1. How did you solve Maze A? What Strategy did you sure? (Trial and
error, examined the maze before proceeding with your pen etc
2. Was it easier to solve maze B? Why?
Activity 2: BANDURA’S SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

Directions: Read the following news article.
10-Year-Old Boy in Texas Hangs Himself
After Watching Saddam Execution
The Associate Press
HOUSTION Jan 4, 2007 (AP)
Police and family members said a 10-year-old boy who died by
hanging himself from a bunk bed was apparently mimicking the execution of
former Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein.
Sergio Pelico was found dead Sunday in his apartment bedroom in
the Houston-area city of Webster, said Webster police Lt. Tom Claunch. Pelico’s
mother told police he had previously watched a news report no Saddam’s death.
“It appears to be accidental,” Claunch said. “Our gut reaction is that
he was experimenting.”
An autopsy of the fifth-grader’s body was pending.

Julio Gustavo, Sergio’s uncle, said the boy was a happy and curious
68
child.
He said Sergio had watched TV news with another uncle on Saturday
and asked the uncle about Saddam’s death.
“His uncle told him it was because Saddam was real bad.” Gustavo
said. “He (Sergio) said, ‘OK.’ And that was it.”
Sergio’s mother, Sara Pelico Deleon, was at work Sunday while
Sergio and other children were under the care of an uncle, Gustavo said. One of
the children found Sergio’s body in his bedroom.
Police said the boy had tied a slipknot around his neck while on a
bunk bed. Police investigators learned that Sergio had been upset about not
getting a Christmas gift from his father, but they don’t believe the boy
intentionally killed himself.
Clinical psychologist Edward Bischof of California said children of
Sergio’s age mimic risky behaviors they see on TV such as wrestling or extreme
sports without realizing the dangers. He said TV appeared to be the stimulant in
Sergio’s case.
“I would think maybe this kid is trying something that he thinks fun to
act out without having the emotional and psychological maturity to think the thing
through before he acts on it, “Bischof said.
Family members held a memorial for the boy Wednesday in the
apartment complex activity center, Gustavo said the family is trying to put
together enough money to send Sergio’s body to Guatemala for burial.
“I don’t think he thought it was real,” Gustavo said of Saddam’s
hanging. “They showed them putting the noose around his neck and everything.
Why show that on TV?”
(retrieved from www.abcnews.go.com)
Analysis
Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
1. What do authorities say might be the reason why Sergio hanged himself?
What facts made them give this reason
2. Comment on the opinion of the clinical psychologist.
3. What do you think is the effect of television on the behavior of young
people (preschool to college)? Cite specific examples
Directions: Maximize your answers in five (5) sentence paragraph each.
1. In your own words and in not more than 5 sentences each, explain:
a) Tolman’s purposive behaviorism.
b) Bandura’s social learning theory
2. Give at least one teaching application of each theory.
References:

69
LESSON 9
GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY
Overview
Gestalt psychology was at the forefront of the cognitive psychology. It

served as the foundation of the cognitive perspective to learning. It opposed the
external and mechanistic focus of behaviorism. It considered the mental
processes and products of perception.
Learning Outcomes:
a. describe the different gestalt principles;

b. list ways of applying Gestalt psychology in the teaching learning process;
and
c. demonstrate appreciation of the usefulness of gestalt principles in the
teaching-learning process.
Materials Needed:
Duration: 3 hours
Learning Content
Gestalt Psychology
Gestalt Principles
Insight Learning Lifespace (Lewin)
Law of Proximity
Inner Forces
Law of Closure Outer Forces
Law of Good
Continuation
Law of Good
Pragnanz
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Law of
Figure/Ground
Gestalt theory was the initial cognitive response to behaviorism. It emphasized
the importance of sensory wholes and the dynamic nature of visual perception.
The term gestalt means “form’ or “configuration.” Psychology Max Wertheirmer,
Wolfgang Kohler and Kurt Koffka studied perception and concluded that
perceivers (or learners) are not passive, but rather active. They suggested that
learners do not just collect information as is but they actively process and
restructure data in order to understand it. This is the perceptual process. Certain
factors impact on this perceptual process. Factors like past experiences, needs,
attitudes and one’s present situation can affect their perception.
One may have difficulty perceiving both the words “you” and “me” in
the first picture in the activity if one is trying to forget an ex-sweetheart who
caused pain; or simply because he was looking on the foreground and not the
background.
According to the gestalt psychologists, the way we form our

perceptions are guided by certain principles or laws. These principles or laws
determine what we see or make of things or situations we meet.
Gestalt Principles
Law of Proximity. Elements that are

closer together will be perceived as a
coherent object. On the left, there appears
to be three columns, while on the right,
there appears to be three horizontal rows.
When objects we are perceiving are near
each other, we perceive them as belonging
together.
Law of Similarity. Elements that look

similar will be perceived as part of the
same form. There seems to be a triangle in
the square. We link similar elements
together.
Law of Closure. We tend to fill the gaps or

“close” the figures we perceive. We
enclose a space by completing a contour
and ignoring gaps in the figure.

71
Law of Good Continuation. Individuals have

the tendency to continue contours whenever
the elements of the pattern establish an
implied direction. People tend to draw a good
continuous line.
Law of Good Pragnanz. The stimulus will be organized into as

good a figure as possible. In this example, good refers to symmetry,
simplicity and regularity. The figure is perceived as a square
overlapping a triangle, not a combination of several complicated
shapes. Based on our experiences with perception, we “expect”
certain patterns and therefore perceive that expected pattern.
Law of Figure/Ground. We tend to pay attention and perceive things in the

foreground first. A stimulus will be perceived as separate from its ground.
(Figure designed by Jenny Fuiltz of Anderson University.)
Insight Learning
Gestalt psychology adheres to the idea of learning taking place by

discovery or insight. The idea of insight learning was first developed by Wolfgang
Kohler in which he described experiments with apes where the apes could use
boxes and sticks as tools to solve problems. In the box problem, a banana is
attached to the top of a chimpanzee’s cage. The banana is out of reach but can
be reached by climbing on the jumping from a box. Only one of Kohler’s apes
(Sultan) could solve this problem. A much more difficult problem which involved
to stacking of boxes was introduced by Kohler. This problem required the ape to
stack one box on another, and master gravitational problems by building a stable

stack. Kohler also gave the apes sticks which they used to rake food into the
72
cage. Sultan, Kohler’s very intelligent ape, was able to master a two-stick
problem by inserting one stick into the end of the other in order to reach to food.
In each of these problems, the important aspect of learning was not
reinforcement, but the coordination of thinking to create new organizations
(of materials). Kohler referred to this behavior as insight or discovery
learning.
Kohler proposed the view that insight follows from the characteristics
of objects under consideration. His theory suggested that learning could occur
when the individual perceives the relationships of the elements before him and
reorganizes these elements and comes to a greater understanding or insight.
This could occur without reinforcement, and once it occurs, no review, training or
investigation is necessary. Significantly, insight is not necessarily observable by
another person.
Gestalt Principles and the Teaching-Learning Process
The six gestalt principles not only influence perception but they also
impact on learning. Other psychologists like Kurt Lewin expounded on Gestalt
psychology. His theory focusing on “life space” adhered to Gestalt psychology.
He said that an individual has inner and outer forces that affect his perceptions
and also his learning. Inner forces include his own motivation, attitudes and
feeling. Outer forces may include the attitude and behaviors of the person’s
learning. Mario Polito, an Italian psychologist, writes about the relevance of
Gestalt psychology to education.
Gestalt theory is focused on the experience of contact that occurs in

the here and now. It considers with interest the life space of teachers as well as
students. It takes interest in the complexity of experience, without neglecting
anything, but accepting and amplifying all that emerges. It stimulates learning as
experience and the experience as a source of learning. It appreciates the
affections and meaning that we attribute to what we learn. Knowledge is
conceived as a continuous organization and rearrangement of information
according to needs, purposes and meanings. It asserts that learning that learning
is not accumulation but remodeling or insight. Autonomy and freedom of the
student is stimulated by the teacher. The time necessary for assimilation and for
cognitive and existential remodeling is respected. The contact experience
between teachers and students is given value: an authentic meeting based on
sharing ideas and affections.

73
Learning Activity:
Directions: Examine the pictures below.
Is
Do you sense good for

evil?
there the possibility Do you get the “optical” and

of you and me the “illusion”?
together?
These are just some illustrations that “challenge” our perceptual skills.
You can collect other interesting pictures to share to the class.
Analysis
What you looked at the experience in figuring out the pictures? (Easy,
took time, etc.) What helped you perceived the interesting pictures. How did you
go about examining the pictures? (Focus on the background, the foreground, the
shape, etc.)
Directions: Maximize your answers in five (5) sentence paragraph

each.
1. In your own words, describe the different gestalt principles.
2. List at least 5 ways to apply gestalt psychology in the teaching-learning
process.
3. How will you demonstrate appreciation of the usefulness of gestalt
principles in the teaching-learning process?
References:

74
LESSON 10
INFORMATION PROCESSING
Overview
Information processing is a cognitive theoretical framework that focuses

on how knowledge enters and is stored in and is retrieved from our memory. It is
one of the most significant cognitive theories in the last century and it has strong
implications on the teaching-learning process.
Learning Outcomes:
a. describe the processes involved in acquiring, storing and retrieving

knowledge; and
b. cite educational implications of the theory on information processing.
Materials Needed:
Duration: 3 hours
Learning Content
Information Processing Theory
Types of Knowledge Stages Executive Control

Processes
General / Specific Encoding
Declarative
Storage
Procedural
Retrieval
Episodic

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Conditional
Information Processing Theory
Relating how the mind and the computer work is a powerful analogy.
The terms used in the information processing theory (IPT) extend this analogy. In
fact, those who program and design computers aim to make computers solve
problems through processes similar to that of the human mind. Read on to know
more about IPT.
Cognitive psychologists believe that cognitive processes influence the

nature of what is learned. They consider learning as largely an internal process,
not an external behavior change (as behaviorist theorists thought). They look into
how we receive, perceive, store and retrieve information. They believe that how a
person thinks about and interprets what s/he receives shape what he/she will
learn. All these nations comprise what is called the information processing
theory.
IPT describes how the learner receives information (stimuli) from the
environment through the senses and what takes place in between determines
whether the information will continue to pass through the sensory register, then
the short term memory and the long term memory. Certain factors would also
determine whether the information will be retrieved or “remembered” when the
learner needs it. Let us go into the details.
We first consider the types of knowledge that the learner may receive.
“Types” of Knowledge
 General /Specific: This involves whether the knowledge is useful in many

tasks, or only in one.
 Declarative – This refers to factual knowledge. They relate to the nature of
how things are. They may be in the form of a word or an image. Examples
are your name, address, a nursery rhyme, the definition of IPT, or even
the face of your crush.
 Procedural – This includes knowledge on how to do things. Examples
include making a lesson plan, baking a cake, or getting the least common
denominator.

 Episodic – This includes memories of life events, like your high school
76
graduation.
 Conditional – This is about “knowing when and why” to apply declarative
or procedural strategies.
Stages in the Information Processing Theory
The stages of IPT involve the functioning of the senses, sensory

register, short-term memory and the long-term memory. Basically, IPT asserts
three primary stages in the progression of external information becoming
incorporated into the internal cognitive structure of choice (schema, concept,
script, frame, mental model, etc.).
These three primary stages in IPT are:
 Encoding – Information is sensed, perceived and attended to.

 Storage – The information is stored for either a brief or extended period of
time, depending upon the processes following encoding.
 Retrieval – The information is brought back at the appropriate time and
reactivated for use on a current task, the true measure of effective
memory.
What made IPT plausible is the notion that cognitive processes could be
described in a stage-like model. The stages to processing follow a trial along
which information is taken into the memory system, and brought back (recalled)
when needed. Most theories of information processing revolve around the three
main stages in the memory process.
Sensory Register
The first step in the IP model holds all sensory information for a very
brief time.
 Capacity: Our mind receives a great amount of information but it is more

than what our minds can hold or perceive.
 Duration: The sensory register only holds the information for an extremely
brief period – in the order of 1 to 3 seconds.
 There is a difference in duration based on modality: auditory memory is
more persistent than visual.
The Role of Attention

 To bring information into consciousness, it is necessary that we give
77
attention to it. Such that, we can only perceive and remember later those
things that pass through our attention “gate”.
 Getting through this attentional filter is done when the learner is
interested in the material; when there is conscious control over attention,
or when information involves novelty, surprise, salience, and
distinctiveness.
 Before information is perceived, it is known as “precategorical”
information. This means that until that point, the learner has not
established a determination of the categorical membership of the
information. To this point, the information is coming in as uninterpreted
patterns of stimuli. Once it is perceived, we can categorize, judge,
interpret and place meaning to the stimuli. If we fail to perceive, we have
no means by which to recognize that the stimulus was ever encountered.
Short-Term Memory (STM or Working Memory)
 Capacity: The STM can only hold 5 to 9 “chunks” of information,

sometimes described as 7 + /- 2. It is called working memory because it is
where new information is temporarily placed while it is mentally
processed. STM maintains information for a limited time, until the learner
has adequate resources to process the information, or until the information
is forgotten.
 Duration: Around 18 seconds or less.
 To reduce the loss of information in 18 seconds, you need to do
maintenance rehearsal. It is using repetition to keep the information
active in STM, like when you repeat a phone number just given over and
over.
Long-Term Memory (LTM)
The LTM is the final or permanent storing house for memory

information. It holds the stored information until needed again.
 Capacity: LTM has unlimited capacity.

 Duration: Duration in the LTM is indefinite
Executive Control Processes

The executive control processes involve the executive processor or
78
what is referred to as metacognitive skills. These processes guide the flow of
information through the system, help the learner make informed decisions about
how to categorize, organize or interpret information. Example of processes are
attention, rehearsals and organization.
Forgetting
Forgetting is the inability to retrieve or access information when

needed.
There are two main ways in which forgetting likely occurs:
 Decay – Information is not attended to, and eventually ‘fades’

away. Very prevalent in Working Memory.
 Interference – New or old information ‘blocks’ access to the
information in question.
Methods of Increasing Retrieval of Information
 Rehearsal – This is repeating information verbatim, either

mentally or aloud.
 Meaningful Learning – This is making connections between
new information and prior knowledge.
 Organization – It is making connections among various pieces
of information. Info that is organized efficiently should be
recalled.
 Elaboration – This is adding additional ideas to new
information based on what one already knows. It is connecting
new info with old to gain meaning.
 Visual Imagery – This means forming a “picture” of the
information
 Generation – Things we ‘produce’ are easier to remember
than things we ‘hear’.
 Context – Remembering the situation helps recover
information.
 Personalization – It is making the information relevant to the
individual.
Other Memory Methods

 Serial Position Effect (recency and primacy) – You will
79
remember the beginning and end of a ‘list’ more readily.
 Part Learning – Break up the ‘list’ or “chunk” information to
increase memorization.
 Distributed Practice – Breaking up learning sessions, rather
than cramming all the info in at once (Massed Practice)
 Mnemonic Aids – These are memory techniques that learners
may employ to help them retain and retrieve information more
effectively. This includes the loci technique, acronyms,
sentence construction, peg-word and association techniques,
among others.
The Information Processing Model
Information is received through the senses and goes to the sensory

memory for a very brief amount of time. If not found relevant, information may
decay. It goes to STM and if given attention and is perceived and found to be
relevant, it is sent the LTM. If not properly encoded, forgetting occurs. Different
cognitive processes applied to the information will them determine if information
can be retrieved when needed later.
Learning Activity:
Directions: Form groups of about 3-5 members each.

1. Brainstorm on how you can liken man’s cognitive processes, like
acquiring information, putting them to memory, remembering, etc.,
to that of the functioning of a computer.
Analysis

Discussion Questions:
80
1. In what ways are our cognitive processes like the functioning of a
computer?
2. In what ways do our cognitive processes differ from the functioning
of a computer?
3. Can a computer perform all our cognitive processes? Explain your
answer.
1. Describe the processes involved in acquiring, storing and retrieving
knowledge.
2. Cite educational implications of the theory on information processing.
References:

81
LESSON 11
GAGNE’S CONDITIONS OF LEARNING
Overview
In his theory, Gagne specified several different types or levels of learning. He

stressed that different internal and external conditions are needed for each type
of learning, thus his theory is called conditions of learning. He also provided
nine instruction events that serve as basis for the sequencing of instruction.
Learning Outcomes:
a. explain Gagne’s conditions of learning;

b. make a simple lesson outline (teaching sequence) using Gagne’s
instruction events; and
c. discuss the benefits of using Gagne’s principles in teaching.
Materials Needed:
Duration: 3 hours
Learning Content
Gagne’s Conditions of Learning
Categories of Learning 9 Events of Instruction
Event 1 Gaining Attention
Verbal Information
Event 2 Informing the Learner of
the Objectives

Intellectual Skills
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Event 2 Stimulating Recall of
Prior Learning
Cognitive Strategies
Event 4 Presenting the Stimulus

Attitudes
Event 5 Providing Learner

Motor Skills Guindance
Event 6 Eliciting Performance
Event 7 giving Feedback
Event 8 Assessing Performance
Event 9 Enhancing Retention and

Transfer
Gagne’s theory deals with all aspects of learning. However, the focus of the
theory is on intellectual skills. The theory has been utilized to design instruction in
all domains. In the earlier version of the theory, special attention was given to
military training settings. Later, Gagne also looked into the role of instructional
technology in learning.
Gagne’s Principles
1. Different instruction is required for different learning
outcomes. Gagne’s theory asserts that there are several different
types or levels of learning. Furthermore, the theory implies that
each different type of learning calls for different types of instruction.
Gagne named five categories of learning: verbal information,
intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills and
attitudes. Distinct internal and external conditions are required for
each type of learning. For instance, for cognitive strategies to be
learned, there must be an opportunity for problem solving: to learn
attitudes, the learner must be exposed to credible role model or
arguments that are convincing and moving. Below are the
categories of learning with corresponding learning outcomes and
conditions of learning:
Category of Example of Learning Outcome Conditions of

Learning Learning
Verbal Starting previously learned 1. Draw attention to
Information materials such as facts, distinctive features
concepts, principles and by variations in print
procedures, e.g., listing the 14 of speech.
learner-centered psychological 2. Present
principles information so that it
can be made into
chunks.
3. Provide a
meaningful context
for effective
encoding of
information.

4. Provide cues for
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effective recall and
generalization of
information.
Intellectual Skills: Discriminations: Distinguishing 1. Call attention to
Discriminations objects, features or symbols, e.g., distinctive features.
Concrete distinguishing an even and an 2. Stay within the
Concepts, Defined odd number limits of working
Concepts, Rules, memory.
Higher Order Rules 3. Stimulus the recall
Concrete Concepts: Identifying of previously learned
classes of concrete objects, component skills.
features or events, e.g., picking 4. Present verbal
out all the red beads from a bowl cues to the ordering
of beads or combination of
component skills.
Defined Concepts: classifying 5. Schedule
new examples of events or ideas occasions for
by their definition, e.g., noting practice and spaced
“she sells sea shells” as review.
alliteration 6. Use a variety of
contexts to promote
Rules: Applying a single transfer.
relationship to solve a class of
problems, e.g., computing
average monthly income of a
company
Order Rules: Applying a new

combination of rules to solve a
complex problem, e.g.,
generating a balanced budget for
a school organization
Cognitive Employing personal ways to 1. Describe or
Strategies guide learning, thinking, acting demonstrate the
and feeling, e.g., constructing strategy.
concept maps of topic being 2. Provide a variety
studied of occasions for
practice using the
strategy.
Category of Example of Learning Outcome Conditions of

learning Learning
3. Provide informative
feedback as to the
creativity or originality
of the strategy or
outcome.
Attitudes Choosing personal actions based 1. Establish an
on internal states of expectancy of
understanding and feeling, e.g., success associated
deciding to avoid soft drinks and with the desired
drinking a least 8 glasses of water attitude.
everyday 2. Assure student
identification with an
admired human

model.
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3. Arrange for
communication or
demonstration of
choice of personal
action.
4. Give feedback for
successful
performance; or allow
observation of
feedback in the
human model.
Motor Skills Executing performances involving 1. Present verbal or
the use of muscles, e.g., doing other guidance to cue
the steps of the singkil dance the executive
subroutine.
2. Arrange repeated
practice.
3. Furnish immediate
feedback as to the
accuracy of
performance.
4. Encourage the use
of mental practice.
2. Learning hierarchies define what intellectual skills are to be

learned and a sequence of instruction. Gagne suggests that
learning tasks for intellectual skills can be organized is a hierarchy
according to complexity: stimulus recognition, response generation,
procedure following, use of terminology, discriminations, concept
formation, rule application, and problem solving. The primary
significance of the hierarchy is to identify prerequisites that should
be completed to facilitate learning at each level. Prerequisites are
identified by doing a task analysis of a learning/training task.
Learning hierarchies provide a basis for the sequencing of
instruction.
3. Events of learning operate on the learner in ways that
constitute the conditions of learning. These events should
satisfy or provide the necessary conditions for learning and serve
as the basis for designing instruction and selecting appropriate
media. The theory includes nine instructional events and
corresponding cognitive processes:
(1) Gaining attention (reception)
(2) Information learners of the objective (expectancy)
(3) Stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval)
(4) Presenting the stimulus (selective perception)
(5) Providing learning guidance (semantic encoding)
(6) Eliciting performance (responding)
(7) Providing feedback (reinforcement)
(8) Assessing performance (retrieval)
(9) Enhancing retention and transfer (generalization)
Study the two examples of teaching sequences below. They reflect the events
of instruction.

Example 1 Lesson: Equilateral Triangles
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Objective: For student to create equilateral triangles
Target group: Grade 4 pupils
1. Gain attention – show variety of computer-generated triangles
2. Identify objective – pose question: “What is am equilateral
triangle?”
3. Recall prior learning – review definitions of triangles
4. Present stimulus – give definition of equilateral triangle
5. Guide learning – show example of how to create an equilateral
triangle
6. Elicit performance – ask students to create 5 different
examples
7. Provide feedback – check all examples as correct/incorrect
8. Assess performance – provide score and remediation
9. Enhance retention/transfer – show pictures of objects and ask
students of identify equilaterals
Examples 2 Lesson: Powerful Lessons with PowerPoint

Objective: Students to create presentations using Microsoft
PowerPoint
Target Group: This lesson is geared for education students (pre-
service teachers) with basic computer skills.
Event of Instruction Lesson Rationale

Example/Conditions of
Learning
1. Gaining attention Teacher tells learners Giving background
how she has used information creates
PowerPoint in the validity.
classroom. Shows an The use of multimedia
example of a PowerPoint grabs the audience’s
Asks learners questions attention.
about using PowerPoint. Asking questions in
the beginning creates
an interactive
atmosphere.
2. Informing the Teacher says, “Today we Make learners aware
Learner of the are going to work on of what to expect so
Objective using a multimedia that they are aware
presentation software, and prepared to
Microsoft PowerPoint. receive information.
3. Stimulating Recall For this particular group When learning
of Prior Learning of learners, they have something new,
learned previously about accessing prior
Microsoft Windows, knowledge is a major
particularly Microsoft factor in the process
Word. Teacher of acquiring new
associates this information.
knowledge with lesson at
hand.
4. Presenting the Teacher gives students The goal is

Stimulus hands-on, step-by-step information
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tutorial on using Microsoft acquisition, therefore,
PowerPoint the stimulus employed
is written content and
the actual software
program.
5. Providing Learner Teacher demonstrates Teacher uses
Guidance how to create a “discovery learning”
presentation. Teacher because learners are
moves around and shows adults and it gives
students how to use the them the freedom to
tools to type in text, add explore. Teacher
links, and symbols and facilitates the learning
clip art, insert videos and process by giving
diagrams, use sounds, hints and cues when
etc. Learners are allowed needed. Since the
to try the tools audience are pre-
demonstrated in partners service with some
on their computers. basic level of
technology skills and
the software program
is easy to follow and
understand, guidance
is minimal.
6. Eliciting Teachers asks students Requiring the learner
Performance to demonstrate to produce based on
PowerPoint tools. what has been taught
enables the learner to
confirm his/her
learning.
Regular feedback
enhances learning.
7. Giving Feedback Teacher gives immediate
feedback to learners after
eliciting responses.
8. Assessing Assign a practice activity Independent practice
Performance – Create an electronic forces students to use
story book using what they learned and
Microsoft PowerPoint. apply it. Assessing
Teacher checks work. such gives instructors,
a means of testing
student learning
outcomes.
9. Enhancing Teacher asks learners to Applying learning in
Retention and create activities using real-life situations is a
Transfer PowerPoint presentation step towards Mastery
of 6th grade pupils. Learning.
Teacher also assigns
learner to teach another
learner how to make
PowerPoint presentations
Learning Activity:

Directions: Before reading the entire module, see if you can arrange
87
the nine steps in lesson presentation (instructional events) in their proper order.
Read and arrange the steps by numbering them. Form groups of 5 for this
activity.
1. Guidance of students’ performance

2. Recall prior learning
3. Enhance retention and transfer
4. Gain attention
5. Provide feedback
6. Present stimulus
7. Elicit performance
8. Identify the objective
Analysis
Each group writes its arrangement on the board for comparison and
discussion. Each group explains and justifies the arrangement. For discussion,
the teacher asks the class: “Which of the arrangements presented on the board
is correct? Why?
1. Explain Gagne’s conditions of learning.
2. Make a simple lesson outline (teaching sequence) using Gagne’s
instruction events.
3. Discuss how Gagne’s events of learning can help one to be an
effective teacher.
References:


88
LESSON 12
AUSUBEL’S MEANINGFUL VERBAL LEARNING/ SUBSUMPTION
THEORY
Overview
Many educational psychology theories often criticize the expository or
presentational manner of teaching. They say that teachers assume such a major
role in learning as providers of information, while students remain as passive
receivers of information. David Ausubel, instead of criticizing this manner of
teaching, proposed ways of improving it. He suggested the use of advance
organizers. His ideas are contained in his theory of Meaningful Verbal Learning.
Learning Outcomes:
a. explain Ausubel’s subsumption theory;

b. determine the uses of graphic organizers; and

c. use advance graphic organizers for a topic presentation.
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Materials Needed:
Duration: 3 hours
Learning Content
Ausubel’s Subsumption Theory
Meaningful Reception of Four Processes for

Advance Organizers
Information Meaningful Learning
Learner’s Cognitive Derivative Advance

Structure subsumption Organizers
Correlative
Narrative
subsumption
Use of Advance
Graphic organizer Superordinate
Skimming
Learning
Combinatorial Graphic
Subsumption
The main theme of Ausubel’s theoryLearning Organizer
is that knowledge is hierarchically
organized; that new information is meaningful to the extent that it can be related
(attached, anchored) to what is already known. It is about how individuals learn
large amounts of meaningful material from verbal/textual presentations in a
school setting. He proposed the use of advance organizers as a tool for learning.
Focus of Ausubel’s Theory
1. The most important factor influencing learning is the quantity,

clarity and organization of the learner’s present knowledge.
This present knowledge consists of facts, concepts, propositions,
theories and raw perceptual data that the learner has available to
him/her at any point in time. This comprises his/her cognitive
structure.
2. Meaningful learning takes place when an idea to be learned is
related in some sensible way to ideas that the learner already

possesses. Ausubel believed that before new material can be
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presented effectively, the student’s cognitive structure should be
strengthened. When this is done, acquisition and retention of new
information is facilitated. The way to strengthen the student’s
cognitive structure is by using advance organizers that allow
students to already have a bird’s eye view or to see the “big
picture” of the topic to be learned even going to the details.
Ausubel’s belief of the use of advance organizers is anchored on the
principle of subsumption. He throught that the primary way of learning was
subsumption: a process by which new material is related to relevant ideas in
the existing cognitive structure. Likewise, Ausubel pointed out, that what is
learned is based on what is already known. This signifies that one’s own prior
knowledge and biases limit and effect what is learned. Also retention of new
knowledge is greater because it is based on prior concrete concepts.
Meaningful learning can take place through four processes:
Derivative subsumption. The describes the situation in which the new

information you learn is an example of a concept that you have already learned.
Let’s say you have acquired a basic concept such as “bird”. You know that a bird
has feathers, a beak, lays egg. Now you learn about a kind of bird that you have
never seen before, let’s say a blue jay that conforms to your previous
understanding of bird. Your new knowledge of blue jays is attached to your
concept of bird, without substantially altering that concept in any way. So, an in
Ausubel’s theory, you had learned about blue jays through the process of
derivative subsumption.
Correlative subsumption. Examine the example. Now, let’s say you see
a new kind of bird that has a really big body and long strong legs. It doesn’t fly
but it can run fast. In order to accommodate this new information, you have a
change or expand your concept of bird to include the possibility of being big and
having long legs. You now include your concept of an ostrich to your previous
concept of what a bird is. You have learned about this new kind of bird through
the process of correlative subsumption. In a sense, you might say that this is
more “valuable” learning than that of derivative subsumption, since it enriches the
higher-level concept.
Superordinate learning. Imagine that a child was well acquainted with

banana, mango, dalandan, guava etc., but the child did not know, until she was
taught, that these were all examples of fruits. In this case, the child already knew
a lot of examples of fruits. In this case, the child already knew a lot of examples

of the concept, but did not know the concept itself until it was taught to her. This
91
is superordinate learning.
Combinatorial learning. This is when newly acquired knowledge

combines with prior knowledge to enrich the understanding of both concepts. The
first three learning processes all included new information that relates to a
hierarchy at a level that is either below or above previously acquired knowledge.
Combinatorial learning is different; it describes a process by which the new idea
is derived from another idea that is neither higher nor lower in the hierarchy, but
at the same level (in a different, but related, “branch”). It is a lot like as learning
by analogy. For example, to teach someone about how plants “breathe” you
might relate it to previously acquired knowledge of human respiration where man
inhales oxygen and exhales carbon dioxide.
Advance Organizers
The advance organizers is a major instructional tool proposed by Ausubel.

The advance organizer, gives you two benefits: (1) You will find it easier to
connect new information with what you already know about the topic, and (2) you
can readily see how the concept in a certain topic are related to each other. As
you go about learning about the topic and go through the four learning
processes, the advance organizer helps you link the new learning to your existing
scheme. As such, advance organizers facilitate learning by helping you organize
and strengthen your cognitive structure. Ausubel stressed that advance
organizers are not the same with overviews and summaries which simply
emphasize key ideas and are presented at the same level of abstraction and
generality as the rest of the material. Organizers act as a subsuming bridge
between new learning material and existing related ideas.
Types of advance organizers
1. Expository – describes the new content.

2. Narrative – presents the new information in the form of a story to students.
3. Skimming – is done by looking over the new material to gain a basic
overview.
4. Graphic organizer – visuals to set up or outline the new information. This
may include pictographs, descriptive patterns, concept patterns, concept
maps.
Application of Principles

1. The most general ideas of a subject should be presented first and then
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progressively differentiated in terms of detail and specificity. He called this
progressive differentiation. According to Ausubel, the purpose of
progressive differentiation is to increase the stability and clarity of
anchoring ideas. The basic idea here is that, if you’re teaching three
related topics A, B and C, rather than teaching all of topic A, then going
on to B, etc., you would teach the “big” ideas (i.e., those highest in the
hierarchy) in all three topics, then on successive passes you would begin
to elaborate the details. Along the way you would point out principles that
the three topics had in common, and things that differentiated them.”
2. Instructional materials should attempt to integrate new material with
previously presented information through comparisons and cross-
referencing of new and old ideas.
Learning Activity:
Directions: Read and understand the following instructions:
1. The figure above is an advance organizer.
2. Study it. Read the words found in each box.
3. Examine how the lines connect the boxes.
4. Describe the advance organizer, specifically on how the words are related
to each other.
Analysis
1. Why was the advance organizer presented before the discussion of the
topic?
2. How can the advance organizer help the students?
1. In your own words, explain Ausubel’s subsumption theory.
2. Choose a topic related to your field of specialization. Obtain a material
such as a book chapter about this topic and prepare an advance organizer
about it.
3. Give at least 4 advance graphic organizers and state their use.
References:


93
LESSON 13
BRUNER’S CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORY
Overview
Jerome Bruner was one of the first proponents of constructivism. A major

theme in the theory of Bruner is that learning is an active process in which
learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current/past
knowledge.
Learning Outcomes:
a. describe the development of the child’s ability to present knowledge; and

b. explain how the spiral curriculum works.

Materials Needed:
94
Duration: 3 hours
Learning Content
Bruner’s Constructivist
Spiral Curriculum Discovery Learning
Theory (Main Concepts)
Representation of
Theory of Instruction Categorization
Knowledge
Enactive Predisposition to
Learn
Iconic Structure of
Knowledge
Symbolic Effective
Sequencing
Reinforcement
Bruner’s Main Concepts

Representations
Bruner suggested the ability to represent knowledge in three stages. These three
stages also become the three ways to represent knowledge.
1. Enactive representation – At the earliest ages, children learn about the

world through actions on physical objects and the outcomes of these
actions. Children represent objects in terms of their immediate sensation
of them. They are represented in the muscles and involve motor
responses, or ways to manipulate the environment (i.e. riding a bicycle
and tying a knot, tasting the apple).

2. Iconic representation – This second stage is when learning can be
95
obtained through using models and pictures. The learner can now use
mental images to stand for certain objects or events. Iconic
representations allow one to recognize when they are changed in minor
ways (e.g. mountains with and without snow at the top).
3. Symbolic representation – In this third stage, the learner has developed
the ability to think in abstract terms. This uses symbol systems to encode
knowledge. The most common symbol system are language and
mathematical notation
Bruner advised that teachers utilized and bring together concrete, pictorial then
symbolic activities to facilitate learning. Before children can comprehend abstract
mathematical operation, teachers can first have the numbers represented
inactively (with blocks) and then, iconically (in pictures). Children can later on
handle number concepts without concrete objects and only with numbers and
number sign (symbolic).
Spiral curriculum
Bruner stressed that teaching utilize should always lead to boosting

cognitive development. Students will not understand the concept if teachers plan
to teach it using only the teacher’s level of understanding. Instruction needs to be
anchored on the learner’s cognitive capabilities. The task of the instructor is to
translate information to be learned into a format appropriate to the learner’s
current state of understanding. Curriculum should be organized in a spiral
manner so that the student continually builds upon what they have already
learned.
In a spiral curriculum, teachers must revisit the curriculum by teaching

the same content in different ways depending on students’ development
levels. This is why certain topics are initially presented in grade school in a
manner appropriate for grade schoolers, and then the same topic is tackled in
high school, but on a much deeper level. Sometimes a topic can be revisited
within the same semester or school year. For instance, the 14 learner-centered
principles were introduced to you in Module 2, and will again be tackled in
Module 26. This time the 14 principles will be taken up as a means to integrate
and summarize all you’re learning in this course/subject. Many other concepts
and principles discussed in this book are also taken up in your other subject like

child and Adolescent Development and Principles of Teaching to name a few.
96
This is part of spiral learning. It helps you get a clearer understanding, thus more
effective learning.
In the K to 12 curriculum, the spiral progression is a mandate. Section 5

(g), Curriculum Development of RA. 10533, states “The curriculum shall use the
spiral progression approach to ensure mastery of knowledge and skills after each
level.” As applied in Math, this woud mean that the teachers teach Algebra,
Geometry, Statistics and trigonometry concepts from kinder to Grade 10. In the
science class, Biology, Chemistry, and Physics concepts are taught from Grade
3 (Where Science as a subject starts) to Grade 10 considering the
developmental stages of students. In the spiral progression approach, the
teaching of concepts increases in depth and breadth across the Grade levels.
Statistics concepts in Kindergarten are much simpler compared to the Statistics
concepts in Grade 10. Geometry concepts in Kindergarten are much simpler than
those taught in Grade 10. This is in contrast to the disciplinal approach of Math
and Science teaching in the 2002 Basic Education Curriculum (BEC). This
means that in the 2002 BEC, Algebra is taught in the First and Second Year;
Geometry in the Third Year; Statistics and Probability, and Trigonometry in the
Fourth Year. In the sciences, Integrated Science is taught in the First Year;
Biology in the Second Year; Chemistry in the Third Year and physics in the
Fourth Year. In the spiral progression approach, concepts are revisited again and
again as you go up the Grades. This supports mastery of concepts.
Geometry 2
G-1

97
K Geometry
Figure 2.
Below are the principles of instruction stated by Bruner:
1. Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that

make the student willing and able to learn (readiness).
2. Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by the
student (spiral organization).
3. Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or fill in the
gaps (going beyond the information given).
Discovery learning
Discovery learning refers to obtaining knowledge for oneself. The teacher

plans and arranges activities in such a way that student search, manipulate,
explore and investigate. Student learn new knowledge relevant to the domain
and such general problem-solving skills as formulating rules, testing and
gathering information. Most discovery does not happen by chance. Students
require background preparation. Once students possess prerequisite knowledge,
careful structuring of material allows them to discover important principles.
Classroom Example:
Learning becomes more meaningful when students explore their learning environment
rather than listen passively to teachers.
 In elementary school – Teachers might use guided discovery to help children learn
animal groups (e.g. mammals, birds, reptiles). Rather than provide students with the
basic animals groups and examples for each, the teacher could ask students to provide
the names of types of animals. Then the students and teacher could classify the animals
by examining their similarities and differences. Category labels can be assigned once
classifications are made. This approach is guided by the teacher to ensure that
classifications are proper, but students are active contributors as they discover the
similarities and differences among animals.
 In high school – A Chemistry teacher might use “mystery” liquids and have students
discover the elements in each. The students could proceed through a series of
experiments designed to determine if certain substances are present in a sample. By
using the experimental process, students learn about the reactions of various substances
to certain chemicals and also how to determine the contents of their mystery substance.
(Retrieved from http://www.lifecircles-inc.com/Bruner.htm)
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Bruner (1966) states that a theory of instruction should address four major
aspects:
1. Predisposition to learn. He introduced the ideas of “readiness for

learning”. Bruner believed that any subject could be taught at any
stage of development in a way that fits the child’s cognitive
abilities. This feature specifically states the experiences which
move the learner toward a love of learning in general, or of learning
something in particular. Motivational, cultural and personal factors
contribute to this. Bruner emphasized social factors and early
teacher’s and parent’s influence on this. He believed that learning
and problem solving emerged out of exploration. Part of the task of
a teachto maintain and direct a child’s spontaneous explorations.
2. Structure of Knowledge. This refers to the ways in which a body
of knowledge can be structured so that it can be most readily
grasped by the learner. Bruner emphasized the role of structure in
learning and how it may be made central in teaching. Structure
refers to relationships among factual elements and techniques.
This will depend on different factors, and there will be many ways
to structure a body of knowledge and many preferences among
learners. Bruner offered considerable detail about structuring
knowledge.
1. Understanding the fundamental structure of a subject makes it

more comprehensible. Bruner viewed categorization as a
fundamental process in the structuring of knowledge. Details are
better retained when placed within the context of an ordered and
structured pattern.
2. To generate knowledge which is transferable to other contexts,
fundamental principles or patterns are best suited.
3. The discrepancy between beginning and advanced knowledge
in a subject area is diminished when instruction centers on a
structure and principles of orientation. This means that a body of
knowledge must be in a form simple enough for the learner to
understand and it must be in a form recognizable to the
student’s
A Course experience.
Module for Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching
99
3. Effective sequencing. No one sequencing will fit every learner,

but in general, the lesson can be presented in increasing difficulty.
Sequencing, or lack of it, can make learning easier or more
difficult. Spiral curriculum refers to the idea of revisiting basic ideas
over and over, building upon them and elaborating to the level of
full understanding and mastery.
4. Reinforcement. Rewards and punishments should be selected
and paced appropriately. He investigated motivation for learning.
He felt that ideally, interest in the subject matter is the best
stimulus for learning. Bruner did not like external competitive goals
such us grades or class ranking.
Categorization
Bruner gave much attention to categorization of information in the

construction of internal cognitive maps. He believed that perception,
conceptualization, learning, decision making and making inferences all involved
categorization. Categories arte “rules” that specify four thing about objects. The
four things are given below:
1. Criterial attributes – required characteristics for inclusion of an object in a

category. (Example, for an object to be include in the category “car” it
must have an engine, 4 wheels, and be a possible means of
transportation,
2. The second rule prescribes how the criteral attributes are combined.
3. The third rule assigns weight to various properties. (Example, it could be a
car even if a tire was missing, and if it was used for hauling cargo it would
be shifted to a different category of “truck” or perhaps “van”.)
4. The fourth rule sets acceptance limits on attributes. Some attributes can
vary widely, such as color. Others are fixed. For example a vehicle without
an engine is not a car. Likewise, a vehicle with only two wheels would not
be included in “car”.
There are several kinds of categories:

1. Identity categories – categories include objects based on their attributes
100
or features.
2. Equivalent categories (provide rules for combining categories).
Equivalence can be determined by affective criteria, which render objects
equivalent by emotional reactions, functional criteria, based on related
functions (for example, “car”, “truck”, “van” could all be combined in an
inclusive category called “motor vehicle”), or by formal criteria, for
example by science, law or cultural agreement. For example, an apple is
still an apple whether is it green, ripe, dried, etc (identity). It is food
(functional), and it is a member of a botanical classification group (formal).
3. Coding systems are categories that serve to recognize sensory input.
They are major organizational variables in higher cognitive functioning.
Going beyond immediate sensory data involves making inferences on the
basis of related categories. Related categories form a “coding system.”
These are hierarchical arrangements of related categories.
The principles of Bruner launched the notion that people interpret the world
mostly in terms of similarities and differences. This is a valuable contribution to
how individuals construct their own models or view of the world.
Learning Activity:
Directions: Think of a topic that you studied when you were in your
preschool or elementary years, and then you studied it again in high school, and
probably you had that same topic again in collage.
a. What was the topic
b. Try to recall how the topic was discussed/tackled in class (use of visual
aids by teacher, experiment, field trip, etc.).
c. Describe what and how you learned about the topic during
preschool/elementary.
d. Describe what and how you learned about the topic during high school.
e. Describe what and how you learned about the topic in college.
Analysis
Compare and contract how the topic was taught to you in the different
levels (Try to recall the activities, materials, details given, etc.)
Why do you think the same topic was taught in the three different levels in
school? Cite three or more reasons in bulleted form.
●
●
●

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1. Describe the development of the child’s ability to represent knowledge.
2. Explain how the spiral curriculum works.
References:

LESSON 14
CONSTRUCTIVISM: KNOWLEDGE CONSTRUCTION/CONCEPT
LEARNING
Overview
This Module discusses constructivism which was mentioned in the

previous modules of Piaget and Bruner. It is the distillation of most of the
principles of cognitive psychologists.
Learning Outcomes:

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a. explain the role of constructivism in facilitating learning;
b. describe strategies to promote knowledge construction; and
c. describe strategies to facilitate concept learning.
Materials Needed:
Duration: 3 hours
Learning Content
Constructivism
Characteristics of
View of Constructivism Organizing Knowledge
Constructivism
Individual
Constructivism
Social
Constructivism
Two Views of Constructivism
Individual Constructivism – this is also called cognitive constructivism. It

emphasizes individual, internal construction of knowledge. It is largely
based on Piaget’s theory. Proponents of this type choose child-centered and
discovery learning. They believe the learners should be allowed to discover
principles through their own exploration rather than direct instruction by the
teacher.
Social Constructivism. This view emphasizes that “knowledge exists

in a social context and is initially shared with others instead of being
represented solely in the mind of an individual.” It is based on Vygotsky’s

theory. Here, construction of knowledge is shared by two or more people.
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According to social constructivists, the opportunity to interact and share among
learners help to shape and refine their ideas. Knowledge construction becomes
social, not individual.
Characteristics of Constructivism
Whether one takes the individual or social view of constructivism, there

are four characteristics that these two views have in common. According to
Eggen and Kauchak, these are:
1. Learners construct understanding. As discussed earlier, constructivists

do not view learners as just empty vessels waiting to be filled up. They
see learners as active thinkers who interpret new information based on
what they already know. They construct knowledge in a way that makes
sense to them.
2. New learning depends on current understanding. Background
information is very important. It is through the present views or scheme
that the learner has that new information will be interpreted.
3. Learning is facilitated by social interaction. Constructivists believe in
creating a “community of learners” within classrooms. Learning
communities help learners take responsibility for their own learning.
Learners have a lot of opportunities to cooperate and collaborate to solve
problems and discover things. Teachers play the role of a facilitator rather
than an expert who has all the knowledge.
4. Meaningful learning occurs within authentic learning tasks. An
authentic task is one that involves a learning activity that involves
constructing knowledge and understanding that is so akin to the
knowledge and understanding needed when applied in the real world.
Example, a writing activity where six-years olds prepare a checklist of
things they need to do in school is a more an authentic activity than for
them to be working only on tracing worksheets with dotted lines.
Organizing Knowledge
Concepts. A concept is a way of grouping or categorizing objects or

events in our mind. A concept of “teach” includes a group of tasks such as
model, discuss, illustrate, explain, assist, etc. In your life as a student you would
learn thousands of concepts, some simple ones, others more complicated that

may take you to learn them more gradually. The concepts you learn are also
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revised as you learn more and experience more.
Concepts as Feature Lists. Learning a concept involves learning specific

features that characterize positive instance of the concept. Included here are
defining features and correlational feature. A defining feature is a characteristic
present in ALL instances. Example, a triangle has three sides. Having three sides
is a defining feature of a triangle because ALL triangles should have three sides.
If one doesn’t then it is not a triangle. A correlational feature is one that is
present in many positive instances but not essential for concept membership. For
example, a mother is loving. Being loving is a feature commonly present is the
concept mother. But a mother may not be loving. So “being loving” is only a
correlational feature, not a defining one.
Concepts as Prototypes. A prototype is an idea or a visual image of a

“typical” example. It is usually formed based on the positive instances that
learners encounter most often. Example, close your eyes now and for a moment
think of a cat. Picture in mind what it looks like. You probably thought of the an
image of the common cat we see, rather than some rare breed or species. Once
learners have their own concept prototypes, the new examples that they see are
checked against this existing prototype.
Concepts as Examples. Exemplars represent a variety of examples. It

allows learners to know that an example under a concept may have variability.
Example, a learner’s concept of vegetable may include a wide variety of different
examples like cauliflower, kangkong, cabbage, string beans, squash, corn,
potatoes. When he encounters a new type of vegetable like “bitsuelas”, he would
search from the exemplars he knows and looks for one that is most similar, like
string beans.
Making Concept-learning Effective. As a future teacher, you can help students

learn concepts by doing the following:
 Provide a clear definition of the concept

 Make the defining features very concrete and prominent
 Give a variety of positive instances
 Give negative instances
 Cite a “best example” or a prototype
 Provide opportunity for learners to identify positive and negative
instances
 Ask learners to think of their own example of the concept

 Point out how concepts can be related to each other
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Schemas and script. A schema is an organized body of knowledge about

something. It is like a file of information you hold in your mind about something.
Like a schema of what a teacher is. A script is a schema that includes a series
of predictable events about a specific activity. Examples would include knowing
the series of steps done when we visit a doctor, or what transpires at the
beginning of the class when the teacher arrives.
Your role as a teacher is to bring learners to construct their own

knowledge such that they have a well-organized set of concepts. Aim to make
clear those concepts that are still vague for them, and to pave the way for them
to overcome misconceptions. It is important that you acquire skills on how to
facilitate concept formation and development. Constructivism can be an excellent
guide for you.
Applying Constructivism in Facilitating Learning
 Aim to make learners understand a few key ideas in an in-depth

manner, rather than making up so many topics superficially.
 Give varied examples.
 Provide opportunities for experimentation.
 Provide lots of opportunities for quality interaction.
 Have lots of hands-on activities.
 Relate your topic to real life situations
 Do not depend on the explanation method all the time.
Learning Activity:
Directions: Read the quotation below:
“Teaching is not about filling up the pail;

it is about lighting a fire.”
-Williams Butler Yeats Treats
1. What concept/ideas/images came to your mind when you read “Teaching

as filling up the pail”? Elaborate.

2. What concept/ideas/images came to your mind when you read
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“Teaching is about lighting of fire”? Elaborate
Analysis
1. What do you think the quotation meant? What two kinds of teaching
are being referred to?

1. Explain the role of constructivism in facilitating learning.
2. Describe strategies to promote knowledge construction.
3. Describe strategies to facilitate concept learning.
References:
LESSON 15
TRANSFER OF LEARNING
Overview
Teachers want their students to apply the knowledge and skills they learn
in class to other situations. When one recognizes a situation as something similar
in a way to what he has experienced before, his tendency is to use the
knowledge and skills he has learned to this new situation. This is what transfer of
learning is about.

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Learning Outcomes:
a. explain how transfer of learning occurs;

b. identify the factors that affect transfer of learning; and
c. apply principles of transfer in facilitating transfer of learning.
Materials Needed:
Duration: 3 hours
Learning Content
Transfer of Learning
Conditions and
Types of Transfer
Principles of Transfer
Transfer of learning happens when learning in one context or with one

set of materials affects performance in another context or with other related
materials. Simply put, it is applying to another situation what was previously
learned. For example, learning to use roller skates later helps a person to learn
more quickly to ice skate. Learning to get along with classmates in preschool
helps the child adjust and relate well with classmates in the “big” school, or even
playing highly competitive on-line computer games might even make one a better
strategic thinker in politics or business. Transfer is a very significant concept in
education and learning theory because most of those concerned in education
aim to achieve transfer.
Frequently, the circumstance of learning (Classrooms, workbooks, tests, drills)

differs significantly from the situations when what is learned is to be applied (in
the home, on the job, within complex tasks). As a result, the educational goals

are not met until transfer occurs. This makes transfer a very important aspect of
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instruction. It may be true that in most cases the goal of transfer of learning from
classroom to real life situations is not achieved. So it is vital that as a future
teacher you have a clear understanding of how best to teach your learners so
that transfer of learning is facilitated. After all, what good is there in providing
your learners with tons of knowledge and a multitude of skills if they cannot apply
them when they need to.
Types of Transfer
Positive transfer. Positive transfer occurs when learning in one context

improves performance in some other context. For instance, a speaker of Spanish
would find it easier to learn Mexican language than Japanese.
Negative transfer. Negative transfer occurs when learning in one context

impacts negatively on performance in another. For example, learners commonly
assimilate a new language’s phonetics to crude approximations in their native
tongue and use word orders carried over from their native tongue. Example,
there may be a tendency for a Visayan-speaking child to frequently interchange
the /e/ and /i/ sound when speaking in English. With experience however,
learners correct the effects of negative transfer.
Near transfer. Near transfer refers to transfer between very similar

contexts. This is also referred to as specific transfer; for example, when
students answer types of algebra word problems in an exam which are similar to
what they had in their seatwork. Or when a student is learning to use a new
cellphone that is somehow similar to the one she had before.
Far transfer. Far transfer refers to transfer between contexts that, on

appearance, seem remote and alien to one another. This this is also called
general transfer. For example Stephen Covey applied the lesson of the Aesop’s
fable of “The Goose That Lays the Golden Eggs” to managing corporations. He
said we should take care of the goose rather than kill it. To be successful in
business we should take care of our workers not burden them.
Conditions and Principles of transfer
These principles are based on the factors that affect transfer of learning.
These factors are similar to what Perkins termed as “conditions of transfer”.
Below you will find the factors with the consequent principles and educational
implications.

Conditions/Factors Principle of transfer implication
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affecting transfer of
learning
Similarity between two The more similar the Involve students in
learning situations two situations are, the learning situations and
greater the chances tasks that are similar as
that learning from one possible to the
situation will be situations where they
transferred to the other would apply the tasks.
situation.
Degree of Meaningful learning Remember to provide
meaningfulness/relevance leads to greater transfer opportunities for
of learning than rote learning. learners to link new
material to what they
learned in the past
Length of instructional time The longer the time To ensure transfer,
spent in instruction, the teach a few topics in
greater the probability depth rather than many
of transfer topics tackled in a
shallow manner.
Variety of learning Exposure to many and Illustrate new concepts
experiences varied examples and and principles with a
opportunities for variety of examples.
practice encourages Plan activities that allow
transfer your learners to
practice their newly
learned skills
Context for learner’s Transfer of learning is Relate a topic in one
experiences most likely to happen subject to topics in
when learners discover other subjects or
that what they learned disciplines. Relate it
is applicable to various also to real life
contexts situations
Focus on principles rather Principles transfer Zero in on principles
than tasks easier than facts related to each topic
together with strategies
based on those
principles

Emphasis on Student reflection Encourage students to
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metacognition improves transfer of take responsibility for
learning their own learning, and
to reflect on what they
learned
Directions: Read carefully and follow the given instructions.
Discuss this:
 Will a skilled typist find it difficult to use the computer keyboard when s/he
encodes?
Do this:
 Let your teacher/a classmate, whose cellphone features differ from yours,
use your cellphone. Was s/he able to use your cellphone without your
help. Or did s/he need help?
Reflect on his:
 A thesis writer once remarked: “Buti na lang, we were required to do
action research in the undergraduate. It helped me a lot in my thesis.”
Read this:
 A preacher used this analogy of the Dead Sea and the Sea of Galilee and
life. The Dead See is dead. Only a few living things can thrive there
because of its high salinity. All that the Dead Sea does is receive and
receive water. It does not give away. It is dead. This is likened to a person
who is psychologically dead because all the does is receive. He never
gives away.
In contrast, the Sea of Galilee is full of life. It receives water from
the River Jordan and readily gives away. It is genenous and teems
with life. It is like a person who receives but gives away and shared
what he receives with others.
Analysis
Find out:
 Why the skilled typist didn’t find any difficulty in using the computer
keyboard.
 Why your teacher/classmate couldn’t use a cellphone different from
his/her without assistance.
 Why the thesis writer found thesis writing much easier because of the
action research s/he went through.
 How your understanding of a true and happy life was made concrete by
the use of the analogy of the Dead Sea and the Sea of Galilee.

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1. In your own words, explain how transfer of learning occurs.
2. Identify the factors that affect transfer of learning.
3. How will you apply principles of transfer in facilitating transfer of learning?
References:

LESSON 16
THE REVISED BLOOM’S TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL
OBJECTIVES
Overview
Imagine that you are already working as a teacher. How would you feel if
you enter your classroom without specific learning outcomes? How would you
proceed without clear and specific targets? Being sure about your learning
outcomes will help you to facilitate learning effectively. With appropriate, clear
and specific learning outcomes, you do not need to guess nor grope in the dark
on what to accomplish.
This Module will present the original and the revised Bloom’s Taxonomy of
Educational Objectives. Although the revised taxonomy came out years ago, it is

important to still present both the old and the revised to have a complete
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understanding and batter appreciation of the taxonomy’s use in education.
Learning Outcomes:
a. formulate learning outcomes reflecting the different levels of the revised

taxonomy; and
b. explore the use of technology apps in applying the revised taxonomy.
Materials Needed:
Duration: 3 hours
Learning Content
The Original Bloom’s Taxonomy
 Six Levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy
The Revised Taxonomy
 Two Dimensions of the Revised Taxonomy
Practical Guide to the Revised Taxonomy
Apps and the Revised Taxonomy (Synapse Strengtheners)
Old Taxonomy
In 1956, the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: the Classification of

Educational Goals Handbook 1: Cognitive Domain was published. Initially, the
purpose was simply to have a framework to classify test questions that faculty
membered shared. Eventually, it became so relevant and useful in education.
Since then, it has been used in planning the curriculum, planning learning
activities and assessment. Bloom and his colleagues published Handbook II, The
Affective Domain in 1964. Eventually, other experts published a taxonomy for the
psychomotor domain in 1966, 1970 and 1972.

This Module will focus more on the cognitive domain.
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Bloom’s taxonomy was a model that described the different levels of
learning outcomes that target what skills and competencies the teachers aim to
develop in the learners. The taxonomy in the cognitive domain contains the
levels form knowledge to evaluation. The six levels progress from simple to
more complex levels of thinking, the last three being referred to as “higher-order
thinking skills” or HOTS! So you’ve got to have the “hots” to teach well. We
always hear seasoned teachers reminding us to focus on the HOTS and not just
to stop at the usual memorizing and enumerating.
To facilitate learning. We begin teaching with facts, stating memorized

rules, principles or definitions (Knowledge), which must lead to understanding
concepts, rules and principles (comprehension). But we should not end here.
A proof of the comprehension of the concepts and principles is using them

in real-life situations (application). For an in-depth understanding and mastery of
these applied concepts, rules and principles, these are broken down into parts
(analysis). Students may compare, contrast, classify, further investigate, etc.
These actions now reflect a higher level of thinking.
A still higher level of thinking is when students put together elements of

what has been learned in a new way (synthesis). They come up with a wholistic,
complete, more integrated, or even a new view or perspective of what was
learned.
With a full grasp of what was learned, the students can now assess or
judge, based on a set of standards, on what they have learned (evaluation).
The cognitive domain levels or thinking levels also have subcategories

except for that of application. The next Table shows the original taxonomy with its
levels, subcategories and sample verbs.
Here are some examples of learning outcomes using the taxonomy:
The Original Bloom’s Taxonomy:
Cognitive Domain Levels and their Subcategories
Sample Verbs
1. Knowledge define, describe, draw,

1.1 Knowledge of specifics indentify, label, locate,
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1.1.1 terminology Memorize, Name,
1.1.2 specifics facts Recite, Recognize, Select, State,
1.2 Knowledge of ways and means of Write
dealing with the specifics
1.2.1 conventions
1.2.2 trends and sequences
1.2.3 classifications and categories
1.2.4 criteria
1.2.5 methodology
1.3 Knowledge of universals and
abstractions in the field
1.3.1 principles and generalizations
1.3.2 theories and structures
paraphrase,
2. Comprehension summarize, restate,
2.1 translation retell, illustrate
2.2 interpretation
2.3 extrapolation
3. Application apply, change,
prepare, produce,
4. Analysis analyze, subdivide, take apart,
4.1 elements investigate, compare, contrast,
4.2 relationships infer
4.3 organizational principles
5. Synthesis combine, organize, design,
5.1 production of unique formulate
communication
5.2 production of a plan, or proposed
set of operations
5.3 derivation of a set of abstract
relations
6. Evaluation
6.1 in terms of internal evidence Asses, appraise, critique, judge,
6.2 in terms of external evidence Recommend
At the end of the unit, the students will be able to:
 Enumerate the characters in “The World is an Apple” (knowledge)

 Summarize the story (comprehension)
 Apply the rules of subject-verb agreement when writing a summary of the
story (application)
 Compare and contrast the qualities of the character in the story

(analysis)
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 Write a song expressing the message or lesson of the story
(synthesis)
 Write a critique of the author’s writing style (evaluation)
Revised Taxonomy
After 45 years since the publication of Bloom’s taxonomy, Lorin Anderson

(Bloom’s former student) and David Krathwohl led a new group of experts to
work together. The result was what is now called the revised taxonomy.
Below are the salient differences between the old and the revised
taxonomies (You may refer to Figure 1 on page 174 while you are reading this.):
1. Levels or categories of thinking in the old taxonomy were nouns, while in

the revised taxonomy they are verbs. The use of action words instead of
nouns was done to highlight that thinking is an active process. For
example, evaluate instead of evaluation, or analyze instead of analysis.
2. While the revised taxonomy remains to be in hierarchical levels of
increasing complexity, it is intended to be more flexible, in that it allows
the categories to overlap. For example some action words in understand
level, like explain, may appear to be more complex than the action word,
show in the apply level. However, when we look into the six levels from
remember to create, we will still find that, over-all, the taxonomy
proceeds in a hierarchical order.
3. The knowledge level was changed to remember. The change was made
because knowledge does not refer to a cognitive or thinking level.
Knowledge is the object of the thinking. Remember is a more appropriate
word for the first thinking level which involve recalling and retrieving
knowledge.
4. The comprehension level was changed to understand. Teachers are
likely to use word
understand when referring to their work rather than comprehension.
5. Synthesis was changed to create and was placed as the highest level.
6. The cognitive domain now includes two dimensions: the cognitive
dimension and the knowledge dimension. The knowledge dimensions of
the revised taxonomy was based on the subcategories of knowledge in
the old taxonomy.
Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives

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Bloom’s Taxonomy
Cognitive Domain
Old Taxonomy Revised Taxonomy

(one dimensions) (two dimensions)
Cognitive Knowledge
Dimension Dimension
1. Knowledge
1. Remember
Factual
2. Comprehension 2. Understand
Conceptual
3. Application 3. Apply
Procedural
4. Analysis 4. Analyze
Metacognitive
5. Synthesis 5. Evaluate
6. Evaluation 6. Create
The Revised Taxonomy with

Two Dimensions of the Cognitive Domain (Krathwohl, 2002)
The Cognitive Dimension

1. Remember The Knowledge Dimension
Retrieving relevant knowledge from A. Factual
long-term memory The basic elements that students must
1.1 recognizing know.
1.2 recalling Knowledge of:
2. Understand a. Terminology
Determining the meaning of instructional b. Specific details and elements
messages, including oral, written and B. Conceptual
graphic communication The interrelationships among the basic
2.1 interpreting 2.5 inferring elements within a larger structure that
2.2 exemplifying 2.6 comparing enable them to function together.
2.3 classifying 2.7 explaining Knowledge for:
2.4 summarizing a. Classifications and categories
3. Apply A Course Module for Facilitating Learner-Centered
b. Principles andTeaching
generalization
Carrying out or using a procedure in a c. Theories, models and structures
given situation. C. Procedural Knowledge
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The revised taxonomy highlights two dimensions: the cognitive and the
knowledge dimensions. The cognitive dimension includes the hierarchical or
ordered levels of thinking. The thinking levels are remember, understand,
apply, analyze, evaluate and create.
The knowledge dimension includes four knowledge categories: factual,

conceptual, procedural, metacognitive. The knowledge that teachers aim to
teach and students aim to learn can be about facts, concepts, procedures and
metacognitive knowledge.
When you formulate learning objectives, your consider what level of

thinking (cognitive) you want your students to achieve, and also what type of
knowledge it is you want to teach.
When we write a learning objectives, the level of thinking is represented

by the verb, while the knowledge dimensions is represented by the noun. In the
example, “at the end of the lesson, the learner will be able to: explain the
photosynthesis process,” explain is the action word which will fall under the

second cognitive dimension level, understand, and photosynthesis is the noun
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that will fall under Procedural knowledge.
Below is a table that shows how the cognitive and knowledge dimensions
pair to form various kinds of learning objectives and activities. An example for
each pairing is given. Study each one to learn more.
Knowledge Dimension
Cognitive Factual Conceptual Procedura Metacognitiv
Dimension l e
Terminology Classifications, Subject- Strategic
, specific categories, specific knowledge,
details, principles and skills, cognitive
elements generalizations algorithms, tasks-
, theories, techniques contextual
models, and and
structures methods, conditional
criteria for knowledge,
determinin sefl-
g when to knowledge
use the
procedures
1. Remember Remember- Remember- Remember Remember-
Recognize recall Facts Concepts - Metacognitiv
Procedures e Knowledge
Ex. List the Ex. Describe Ex. Review

ingredients kare-kare as a Ex. Recall tasks
of kare-kare Filipino dish the steps in accomplished
cooking in cooking
kare-kare kare-kare
2. Understand Understand- Understand- Understan Understand-
Interpret, exemplify, Facts Concepts d- Metacognitiv
classify, summarize, Procedures e Knowledge
infer, compare,
explain Ex. Ex. Classify Ex. Choose
Summarize smartphones Ex. best
the features according to Describe strategies to
of the latest operating the adjust quickly
smart system procedure in using a
phone of sending different
model group smartphone
messages
using cell
phones
3. Apply Apply- Facts Apply- Apply- Apply-

Execute, implement Concepts Procedures Metacognitiv
e Knowledge
Ex. Use Ex. Ex. Follow Ex. Use the

facts in Demonstrate the PQ4R best study
answering coherence in steps in strategy to

questions. answering reading a overcome
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questions chapter one’s
weakness
4. Analyze Analyze- Analyze- Analyze- Analyze-
Differentiate, Facts Concepts Procedures Metacognitiv
organize, attribute e Knowledge
Ex. Identify Ex. Identify Ex. Ex. Reflect

the key triggers of Examine on one’s
words in the anger among the ability to
definition of teenagers different manage
anger steps anger
family
members
take to
manage
anger
5. Evaluate Evaluate- Evaluate- Evaluate- Evaluate-
Check, critique Facts Concepts Procedures Metacognitiv
e Knowledge
Ex. Select Ex. Critique Ex. Ex. Assess

the most the different Choose the one’s
complete list views about best ways financial
of financial to invest literacy
investment literacy money
banks
6. Create Create- Create- Create- Create-
Generate, plan, Facts Concepts Procedures Metacognitiv
produce e Knowledge
Ex. Write an Ex. Create Ex. Make a

Ex. Produce informal essay new recipe project about
a about what for cooking adobo as a
presentation authentic adobo Filipino dish
showing adobo is based on
award- one’s talents
winning
adobo
recipes
Practical Guide is Using the Revised Taxonomy
When you are ready to plan your units, lessons or activities, Bloom’s
taxonomy will be very useful in helping you formulate your learning objectives.
Below is a collection of action words are possible activities or work which you can
use for your plan.
Cognitive Dimension Sample Action Words Suggested Activities,

Levels Outputs or Outcomes
Remember Recall Describe Recitations, worksheets,
(recalling information) Name Locate definitions, fact charts,

List Write lists
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State Find
Tell Underline
Reproduce Define
Understand Explain Describe Story problems, drawing
(explaining information Translate Define show and tell, summary,
and concepts Interpret Report paraphrasing
Discuss Predict
Apply Use Practice Presentation, role-
(using information in a Solve Execute playing, simulation,
new way) Implement collection, model,
Demonstrate scrapbook, product
Construct Dramatize
Analyze Compare Contrast Chart, plan,
(distinguishing different Distinguish Separate questionnaire,
parts of a whole Investigate spreadsheets, summary,
Differentiate survey
Infer
Sequence
Evaluate Assess Appraise Opinion, judgment,
(defending a concept or Debate Check recommendation, report,
idea) Defend Decide self-evaluation, position
Dispute Justify paper, critique
Judge Rate
Create Change Invent Framework, model, story,
(creating something Design Devise multimedia presentation,
new) Formulate Generate poem, haiku, song, essay
Improve Compose
Plan Combine
Propose
Uses of the Revised Taxonomy
The revised taxonomy provides a framework that helps educators in the

following ways:
1. It provides educators with a common set of terms and levels about

learning outcomes that help in planning across subject matter and grade
levels.
2. It helps in the drafting of learning standards across levels.
3. It serves as a guide in evaluating the school’s curriculum objectives,
activities and assessment.
4. It guides the teacher in formulating learning outcomes that tap higher
order thinking skills.
Learning Activity:
Directions: Arrange the following jumbled letters.
Let’s play word scramble!
Group A

Scrambled Word answer Clues
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inevaltauo judge, criticize, assess
hssyniset combine, formulate,
design
yianalss take apart, examine,
compare
inplapactio use, work with, utilize
precomniosh describe, retell, explain
en
ledwnokeg enumerate, list, define
Group B
Scrambled Word answer Clues
etcrea design, invent, imagine
eevaltan assess, judge, appraise
yanaelz separate, compare,
organize
yaplp practice, implement,
show
sundeadnrt explain, discuss, define
emreremb recall, name, list
We hope the clues helped you get them all right!

Analysis
1. Are the answers in Group A nouns or verbs?
2. Are the answers in Group B nouns or verbs?
3. Read the answers again. What do you notice about the order by which the
words in Group A and B were presented? Write the answers here again:
Group A Group B
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
4. Compare and contrast the words in Group A and B.
1. Formulate learning outcomes reflecting the different levels of the revised
taxonomy.
2. Surf the internet and explore one app for each category or level of
thinking. Explain how you can use each in the teaching-learning process.
References:

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LESSON 17
STERNBERG’S SUCCESSFUL INTELLIGENCE THEORY AND
WICS MODEL
Overview
Robert Sternberg did extensive work in the field of intelligence. As a

youngster, he had difficulty with intelligence tests. He did not perform well on
such tests. This might have fueled his interest in the field that led him to come up
with the Triarchic Theory of Intelligence in the 1980’s. Over the years, his theory

evolved from the more complicated, componential Triarchic Theory to the
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simpler, successful Intelligence Theory. More recently, in collaboration with other
prominent psychologists, he proposed the WICS (Wisdom, Intelligence,
Creativity, and Synthesized) Model. It is an alternative paradigm to deliver more
relevant admission, instruction and assessment in education. This Module will
introduce you to the theory and the model. It is hoped that it will spawn your
interest and make you want to explore more.
Learning Outcomes:
a. explain Sternberg’s Successful Intelligence Theory and WICS Model;

b. demonstrate enjoyment of working on WICS-based tasks and activities; and
c. prepare a lesson guide that is based on the WICS model
Materials Needed:
Duration: 3 hours
Learning Content
Applying the
Successful WICS
Intelligence Model
Sternberg’s WICS Model
Successful -Memory -Teaching
-Analytical -Wisdom Analytically
Intelligence
Intelligence -Intelligence -Teaching
Theory and
-Creative -Creativity Creatively
WICS
Intelligence -Synthesized -Teaching
Model
-Practical Practically
Intelligence -Teaching
for Wisdom
Successful Intelligence Theory
The four skills included in the theory are described below:
1. Memory Skills help us recall facts and pieces of information. It helps us

retain the knowledge we acquire
2. Analytical Skills help the person determine if a certain idea is good.
3. Creative Skills allow a person to come up with a new idea, usually to
answer a need or solve a problem. It makes one flexible and able to
adjust to changes in one’s situation.

4. Practical Skills enable a person to apply what one has learned. It also
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allows one to carry through or implement a plan.
Sternberg believed that traditional view of intelligence focused heavily on

memory and analytical skills. This traditional view led to teaching strategies that
focused mainly on memory and analytical skills as well. It naturally followed that
assessment of learning likewise concentrated heavily on these two skills.
Memory and analytical skills are very much necessary. Being able to recall
information or have knowledge is needed to begin thinking creatively. One
cannot apply knowledge which he cannot remember. Analysis is important before
one can think of new and better ideas. However, memory and analytical skills
should not be the only focus of education.
Sternberg also emphasized creative and practical intelligence. Creatively is

what moves people forward. Creatively gives birth to new and better solutions to
problems. Without creativity we will get trapped in things and ways that don’t
work anymore. Practical intelligence, on the other hand, makes us apply what we
have learned. It gets us to actually do what needs to be done.
According to Sternberg, successful intelligence is “the ability to succeed in

life, given one’s own goals, within one’s environmental contexts.” It is maximizing
one’s own Strengths not only to adapt to one’s environment, but to also
contribute significantly to society.
Each person may have his/her own unique way of practicing the four skills
because each has different strengths. The idea is to further develop one’s unique
strengths in the context of the four skills rather than simply making it the goal of
the school to just develop memory and analytical skills. The theory of successful
intelligence points “that some students who do not do well in conventional
courses may, in fact, have the ability to succeed, if they are taught in a way that
better fits their patterns of abilities.”
The balanced combination of the four skills of memory, analytical, creative

and practical skills is what leads to successful intelligence. It is vital that we
remember what we learn (memory); use critical thinking to evaluate the things we
learn (analytical); be innovative in finding better ways of doing things and solving
problems (creative); and apply and put to action what we learn (practical).
The WICS Model

In the WICS model, intelligence is viewed as a set of fluid abilities to learn
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from experience and to adapt to one’s surroundings. Individuals possess
abilities that can be nurtured into competencies and further cultivated into
expertise. The WICS is a more recent model of how humans think and reason
that can help us understand how students will learn most effectively. It aims to
develop basic abilities to true expertise.
WICS stands for Wisdom, Intelligence, Creatively, Synthesized

Sternterg (2010) described the WICS Model as follows:
“The basic idea is that citizens of the world need creatively to form a
vision of where they want to go and to cope with changes in the environment,
analytical intelligence to ascertain whether their creative ideas are good ones,
practical intelligence to implement their ideas and to persuade others of the
value of their ideas, and wisdom in order to ensure that the ideas will help
achieve some ethically-based common good, over the long and short terms,
rather than just what is good for them and their families and friends.”
Sternberg presents a model for education that is relevant to the need of

the times. Time and again the world has seen leaders in countries, corporations,
religious groups and other institutions who have been considered intelligent.
They were capable of serious analysis of issues and problems. They were good
at coming up with new ideas. However, some of these leaders lacked the moral
and ethical “muscles” to really act for the good of their people and not just for
their own. Your role as a teacher is not to educate the mind alone, but to
educate the soul as well. Accept this not just as a job but embrace it as
mission.
Sternberg proposed that while education develop analytical and practical

intelligence as well as creativity, wisdom should be an integral part of the whole
process. Whatever topic you will be teaching, it is important to integrate
questions, tasks or activities that target the development of wisdom. You should
also come up with creative ways for your learners to put together or synthesize
intelligence, creativity and wisdom.
Applying the WICS Model
The uses of the WICS model include admission, instruction and

assessment. However, for this Module, we shall focus only on the model’s
instructional and assessment uses.

One way that you can apply the WICS model in instruction is when you
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reflect and make choices on the tasks and activities that you will give to teach
and assess your students. You may choose to teach analytically, creatively,
practically as well as teach for wisdom. Your choice can be based on the
preferences and strengths of your learners. This is useful for any level, from
preschool to higher education. Sternberg described each of these. Some
examples relevant to education in the Philippines are also provided below.
How do you teach analytically? Make your students use critical thinking.
Design tasks and activities that provide opportunity for your learners to
1. Analyze
2. Critique
3. Judge
4. Compare and contrast
5. Evaluate
6. Assess
Here are some examples for analytical intelligence:
a. Analyze the development of the character of Ibarra in Noli Me Tangere

b. Critique the design and features of the latest smart phone
c. Judge the artistic merits of Filipino cartoonist, Larry Alcala’s “Slice of Life.”
d. Compare and contrast the Italian approaches of Montessori and Reggio
Emilia in early childhood education
e. Evaluate the validity the theory of evolution. Write a term paper on this.
f. Assess the strategy of the Manila city government to improve the traffic
situation around the city.
How do you teach creatively? It is important for you to encourage and sustain
your students’ creative ideas. Think out of the box. Design tasks and activities
that help students to:
1. Create
2. Invent
3. Discover
4. Imagine if
5. Suppose that…
6. Predict
Here are some examples for creative intelligence:
a. Create an alternative ending to Florante at Laura (Literature)

b. Invent a dialogue that would transpire if Jose Rizal and Ninoy Aquino met
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(Araling Panlipunan)
c. Discover a way to explain why heavy ships float at sea. (Science)
d. Imagine if the EDSA Revolution did not happen in 1986. What do you
think our country will be like at present and 10 years later? (Araling
Panlipunan)
e. Suppose that you were to design a computer game to help children learn
about love and sacrifice. Describe the game you will create. (Computer
Education, Edukasyon sa Pagpapakatao)
f. Predict changes that will happen if humans had a third eye at the back of
their heads. Choose an appliance or gadget that would need to be
changed in order to be useful. Propose a new functional design (HELE)
How to do you teach practically? Have in mind real life situations where
students can use what they learn to meet their own and also others’ practical
needs. Design tasks and activities that allow your students to:
1. Apply
2. Use
3. Put into practice
4. Implement
5. Employ
6. Render practical what they know
Here are some examples for practical intelligence:
a. Apply addition concept in determining number of boys and girls in the

classroom (Mathematics)
b. Use the knowledge of Excel to keep track of daily household expenses
(Computer Education, Mathematics)
c. Put into practice what you learn about classroom rules in making your own
classroom rules poster (Classroom Management)
d. Implement a lesson plan that one has made (Principles of Teaching)
e. Employ the formula of computing the area of one’s living room to
determine the number of 12”x12” tiles needed to cover the floor.
f. Render practical a proposed assembly design for a computer PC
How do you teach for wisdom? One of the goals is for learners to learn to
see and understand the point of view of others. It is important for your learners to
balance one’s own needs with the needs of other people and also that of the

world or the environment. It is developing your learners to consistently act based
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on positive ethical values. You teach for wisdom when you are able to move your
students to:
1. Try to find a common good

2. See things from others’ points of view
3. Balance your own interests with those of others and of institutions.
4. Look at the long term as well as the short term
5. Reflect about how can base his every decision on positive ethical
values
6. Appreciate that in life what is seen as true and effective may vary
over time and place.
Here are some examples for wisdom:
a. What might be a solution for the common good in the Philippines and
China claim on Spratly Islands (Araling Panlipunan, Political Science)
b. Think of a person you had a conflict or fight with. Put yourself in the
person’s place. Write down her point of view and concerns as detailed as
possible. What can you do or say to express that you understand the
person now? (Edukasyon sa Pagpapakatao, General Psychology)
c. Should parents expect their children to take care of them when they are
old? Why? (Edukasyon sa Pagpapakatao)
d. How is global warming going to affect the world, and the Philippines in
particular? What can you do? (Science, Geology, Edukasyon sa
Pagpapapkatao)
e. Is it ever ethical to shoot down a plane with civilians and terrorists on
board if the terrorists plan to slam the plane to a building with thousands of
people? (Edukasyon sa Pagpapakatao)
f. How does parenting change over time? What would you say are different
now than before? What are the constant things that should be present to
make the parent-child relationship work? (Edukasyon sa Pagpapakatao)
The WICS Model has been used not only for instruction but also for admission
and assessment. Sternberg and his colleagues proposed, tried out and studied
creative ways of doing student admission as well as assessing students’
learning. Based on their students, the WICS model was successful for teachers
and their because it (1) celebrated the differences of learners through a
supportive learning environment, (2) made students remember better what they

learned, (3) build on the strengths of the learners, and (4) strengthened the
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motivations of the learners.
Learning Activity:
Directions: Read and understand the given instructions.
Let’s say that in your Child and Adolescent class you finished a lesson
about the causes and effects of bullying. Your teacher will now test what you
learned from the lesson.
Your teacher said you may choose to answer one of the tasks below.
Which of the following evaluation tasks will you prefer or like to answer? Please
check one.
Task # 1. Answer a set of fill-in-the-blanks items about bullying.
Task # 2. Read a true story about bullying and analyze the case.
Task # 3. Create a poster/write a song or poem to stand up against
bullying.
Task # 4. Make a plan for a teacher to implement or do to address or
handle bullying in the classroom.
Analysis
1. Explain why this was your choice:
2. What skills are needed for one to accomplish:
Task # 1
Task # 2
Task # 3
Task # 4
1. Explain Sternberg’s Successful Intelligence Theory and WICS Model.
2. How will you demonstrate enjoyment of working on WICS-based tasks
and activities?
3. Prepare a lesson guide that is based on the WICS model.
References:

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LESSON 18
PROBLEM SOLVING AND CREATIVITY
Overview

Problem solving and creativity go hand in hand. You need to be creative in
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order to solve a problem. It is unfortunate that these are not adequately
taught in the classroom.
Learning Outcomes:
a. explain the four criteria of creativity by Torrance;

b. practice creative thinking; and
c. apply problem-solving skills.
Materials Needed:
Duration: 3 hours
Learning Content
Problem
Solving/Creativity
Torrance’s Creativity Creative Problem

Framework Solving (CPS)
Fluency Six Stages of CPS
Flexibility
Elaboration
Originality
Torrance Framework for Creative Thinking
A common framework for creative thinking processes is described by

Torrance (1979). Each aspect is defined below, along with ways to facilitate the
respective aspect by using key words and application activities.

Fluency
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Definition
Fluency refers to the production of a great number of ideas or alternate solutions

to a problem. Fluency implies understanding, not just remembering information
that is learned.
Key words
Compare, convert, count, define, describe, explain, identify, label, list, match,
name, outline, paraphrase, predict, summarize.
Application activities
Trace a picture and label the parts.
Outline an article you find on your topic.
How many uses can you think of for a clothes hanger?
List 15 things that are commonly red or contain red.
Examples: Apple, blood, brick, caboose, cherry, Christmas stocking, exit sign,
fire alarm, flag, heart, red nose reindeer, rose, tomato, wagon.
Flexibility
Definition
Flexibility refers to the production of ideas that show a variety of possibilities or

realms of thought. It involves the ability to see things from different points of view,
to use many different approaches or strategies.
Key words
Change, demonstrate, distinguish, employ, extrapolate, interpolate, interpret,

predict.
Application ideas
What would happen if … there were no automobiles?
How would a … dog look to a flea?

How is like ?
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How would you feel if … you were invisible for a day?
How would you group the ideas about “red” into categories?
Example: Fruit, safety features, vehicles.
Once categories are identified, fluency may be further demonstrate by generating

more ideas about the idea red within categories. Even a modest attempt could
result in the following lists, recognizing that the creative thinking process may
shift the mind in a spiral way between all four aspects of creativity.
Red vehicles
Red safety features Caboose
Red fruit Exit sign Fire truck
Apple Fire alarm Tricycle
Cherry Stop sign Wagon
Raspberry Tail lights
Tomato
Elaboration
Definition
Elaboration is the process of enhancing ideas by providing more details.

Additional detail and clarity improve interest in, and understanding of, the topic.
Key words
Appraise, critique, determine, evaluate, grade, judge, measure, select, test.
Application ideas
Tell your neighbor about your last family trip using as many details as possible.
What can you add to to improve its quality or performance?
Describe all the possible characteristics of the red quality in a wagon.
Example: Shade, finish, texture, uniformity.
Originality

Definition
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Originality involves the production of ideas that are unique or unusual. It involves
synthesis or putting information about a topic back together in a new way.
Key words
Compose, create, design, generate, integrate, modify, rearrange, reconstruct,

reorganize revise.
Application ideas
Find an original use for .
What would be the strangest way to get out of bed?
Design a new that is better than the one you have.
Write an unusual title for the ideas about red.
Example: revolutionary “Red” Representation.
An overview of the four aspects of creativity appears in a PowerPoint

presentation that may be downloaded from the following link: Creativity.ppt
An adaptation of the creativity aspects to the construct “jumping” appears in a

Word document that may be downloaded from the following link: Jumping.doc
Torrance, P. (1979). The Search for Satori and Creativity

© Steven A. Henkel, 12/02
REPRIEVED FROM
(http://www.bethel.edu/~shenkel/PhysicalActivities/CreativeMovement/
CreativeThinking/Torrance.html
Creative Problem Solving – CPS
Creative Problem Solving (CPS) is an intentional process for solving

problems and discovering opportunities. It espouses the use of creativity in
coming up with solutions which are not only novel but practical as well. In the
1950’s Alex Osborn described this process in his book, applied Imagination.
Osborn opened the process in the public domain which meant anyone can use it.
Over the years countless people have utilized the CPS in various fields and
endeavors.
Osborn’s Checklist, the origin of Classical Brainstorming is the root of

creative problem solving (CPS). There are a variety of general structures: ‘define

problem, generate possible solutions, select and implement the best’ which can
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be found extensively, in several different academic traditions.
In its most extended and formalized form it has the six stages shown
below, each with a divergent and a convergent phase. However, more recent
publications seem more interested in focusing on procedure and technique
issues, with less weight on the full elaboration of this structure.
The following, based on Van Gundy (1988’s) description, is a very brief

skeleton of a very rich process, showing it in its full ‘6 x 2 stages’ form:
1. Stage 1: Mess finding: Sensitise yourself (scan, search) for issues

(concerns, challenges, opportunities, etc.) that need to be tackled.
 Divergent techniques include ‘Wouldn’t It Be Nice If …’
(WIBNI) and ‘Wouldn’t It Be Awful If…’ (WIBAI) –
brainstorming to identify desirable outcomes and obstacles
to be overcome.
 Convergent techniques include the identification of hotspots
(Highlighting), expressed as a list of IWWMs (‘In What Ways
Might…’), and selection in items of ownership criteria (e.g.
problem owner’s motivation and ability to influence it) and
outlook criteria (e.g. urgency, familiarity, stability).
2. Stage 2: Data finding: Gather information about the problem.
 Divergent techniques include Five Ws and H (Who, Why,
What, When, Where and How) and listing of wants, sources
and data: List all your information ‘wants’ as a series of
question; for each, list possible sources of answers; the
follow these up and for each source, list what you found.
 Convergent techniques again include: identifying hotspots
(Highlighting); Mind-mapping to sort and classify the
information gathered; and also restating the problem in the
light of your richer understanding of it.
3. Stage 3: Problem finding: convert a fuzzy statement of the problem
in to a broad statement more suitable for idea finding.
 Divergent techniques include asking ‘Why?’ etc. – the
repeatable questions and Five W’s and H.
 Convergent techniques include highlighting again,
reformulation of problem-statements to meet the criteria, and
selection of the most promising statement (but NB that the

mental ‘stretching’ that the activity gives to the participants
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can be as important as the actual statement chosen).
4. Stage 4: Idea Finding: generate as many ideas as possible
 Divergent using any of a very wide range of idea-generating
techniques. The general rules of Classic Brainstorming (such
as deferring judgment) are likely to underpin all of these.
 Convergent can again involve hotspots or mind-mapping, the
combining of different ideas, and the shortlisting of the most
promising handful, perhaps with some thought for the more
obvious evaluation criteria, but not over-restrictively.
5. Stage 5: Solution Finding: Generate and select obvious evaluation
criteria (using an expansion/contraction cycle) and develop (which
may include combining) the short-listed ideas from Idea Finding as
Much as you can in the light of these criteria. Then opt for the best
of these improved ideas (e.g. using Comparison tables).
6. Stage 6: Acceptance Finding: How can the suggestion you have
just selected be made up to standard and put into practice? Shun
negativity, and continue to apply deferred judgment – problems are
exposed to be solved, not to dishearten progress. Action plans are
better developed in small groups of 2 -3 rather than in a large group
(unless you particularly want commitment by the whole group).
Particularly for ‘people’ problems it is often worth developing
several alternative action plans. Possible techniques include – Five
W’s and H, Implementation Checklists, Consensus Mapping,
Potential-Problem Analysis (PPA) Retrieved from
http://www.mycoted.com/Creative_Problem_Solving-CPS
Other Model for Problem Solving
Bransford’s IDEAL Model
1. Identify the problem.

2. Define the problem through thinking about it and sorting out the relevant
information.
3. Explore solutions through looking at alternatives, brainstorming, and
checking out different points of view.
4. Act on the strategies.
5. Look back and evaluate the effects of your activity.
Learning Activity:

Directions:
137
1. Answer this match puzzle.
+
Remove 8 matches to leave just two squares, which should not touch. (retrieved
from http://www.mycoted.com/Matches_Puzzle_1 )
2. What would happen if humans had one more eye at the back of
their head?
Write as many answers then indicate why.
Your Answers Why
Directions: Answer what is being asked.
1. Explain in your own words Torrance’s 4 criteria of creativity.
2. Practice creative thinking. Do the following.
a. In two minutes, think of as many uses as possible for a spoon.

The test measures divergent thinking across four sub-categories:
 Fluency – how many uses you can come up with
 Originality – how uncommon those uses are (e.g. for a paper clip
“router restarter” is more uncommon than “holding papers together”)
 Flexibility – how many areas your answers cover (e.g. for a paper) clip,
cufflinks and earrings are both accessories, aka one area)
 Elaboration – level of detail in responses; (for a clip, “keeping
headphones form getting tangled up” would be would be worth more
than “bookmark”)
b. Incomplete Figures

Complete the images below.
138
References:

LESSON 19 139
MOTIVATION
Overview
Studying is a hard task. However, it ceases to be a task if you have the

right kind and the amount of motivation.
Learning Outcomes:
a. make an outline of this module and give a lecturette on motivation by

following your outline;
b. distinguish between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation; and
c. justify the role of extrinsic motivation in view of the development of intrinsic
motivation.
Materials Needed:
Duration: 3 hours
Learning Content
MOTIVATION
Student Diversity in
Types of Motivation Theories on Motivation
Motivation
Attribution Theory
Extrinsic
Self-Efficacy Theory
Choice Theory
Intrinsic
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Goal Theory

140
Meaning of Motivation
Motivation is an inner drive that causes you to do something and

persevere at something. It energizes you to do something. It is the strength of the
drive toward an action. While ability refers to what children can do, motivation
refers to what these children will do. Motivation refers to the initiation, direction,
intensity and persistence of behavior. When we get motivated to do something, it
is not enough that we start working at that thing but that we get attracted to it.
Our attraction to wards it becomes so intense that we persist working on it
through thick and thin until its completion. Learner’s motivation is the primary
factor influencing both performance and success in school (Ryan, et al, 2007)
Indicators of a High Level of Motivation
Your student’s level of motivation is shown in his/her choice of action

intensity and persistence of effort. If you have a highly motivated student, you
have a student who is excited about learning and accomplishing things. S/he
takes the initiative to undertake learning tasks, assignments and projects without
being pushed by his/her teachers and parents. S/he has goals to accomplishing
and dreams to realize. S/he is convinced that accomplishing the things s/he is
asked to accomplish is class helps her/him realize the goals s/he has set for
herself/himself and his/her dreams in life. S/he is willing to give up the
satisfaction of immediate goals for the sake of more important remote goals. An
example is her willingness to give up joining his/her barkada to watch a movie in
order to prepare thoroughly for final examinations.
A student who is highly motivated to learn enjoys learning and learns

much more than the one who is not as motivated. S/he persists and perseveres
in her/his studies even when things turn out to be difficult. S/he does not give up
easily. As a result, his/her performance is satisfactory. In contract, a student who
is not motivated to learn does not enjoy learning, does not study unless “pushed”.
When s/he feels the difficulty of study, s/he readily gives up. S/he lacks
perseverance.
In summary, motivated students have the following characteristic traits:
 Have positive attitudes toward school and describe school as satisfying.

 Persists on difficult tasks and cause few management problems.
 Process information in depth and excel in classroom learning expertise.
(Stipek, 1996, 2002 cited by Wooltok, 2013).

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Types of Motivation
Motivation is classified as either intrinsic or extrinsic. It is intrinsic when

the source of motivation is from within the person himself/herself or the activity
itself. It is motivation to engage in an activity for its own sake (Schunk et al,
2008). An example is when a student reads pocketbooks because s/he
herself/himself wants to read them or because reading them is in itself worthwhile
and enjoyable. Motivation is extrinsic when that which motivates a person is
someone or something outside him/her. When a student studies because s/he
was told by her/his teacher or because s/he is afraid to fail and his/her parents
will make her/him stop schooling or because it will lead to a good grade, we can
say that s/he is extrinsically motivated. Extrinsic motivation is motivation to
engage in an activity as a means to an end. In our examples, the student studies
to please her/his teacher, parents or to get a good grade. He does not study for
the joy of studying.
Obviously, intrinsic motivation is more beneficial than extrinsic

motivation because intrinsic motivations comes from within the person
himself/herself. If that which motivates a person is something or someone
outside, the moment that person or that something is gone, the person’s
motivation is also gone. Intrinsic motivation is evident when people engage in
an activity for its own sake, without some obvious external incentive present.
Reading for no reason other than joy of reading illustrates intrinsic motivation.
Research indicates that intrinsic motivation is preferable because of its

focus on learning and understanding (Brophy, 2004).
The Role of Extrinsic Motivation
Initially, extrinsic motivation is necessary to develop the love for learning

among poorly motivated students. If good grades, rewards, praises or words of
encouragement or fear of failing grade can motivate unmotivated students to
study, why not? For as long as students are hardly motivated, external motivation
in the form of rewards, incentives or punishment play a significant role in the
development of motivated students. It is expected, however, that these extrinsic
motivational factors be gradually replaced by internal motivation. In the concrete,
this means that after motivating the students to study by way of reward, praise,
encouragement, punishment, hopefully the students develop the genuine love for
learning and becomes intrinsically motivated in the process. In short, we may

begin employing extrinsic motivation at the start but this should fade away as the
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students get intrinsically motivated themselves.
Learning Activity:
Directions: Determine the factors that may affect your motivation level.
How motivated are you? Here is a test. Score yourself by checking the
appropriate column.
Legend:
1 – Never
2 – Seldom
3 – Sometimes
4 – Often
5 – Always
Behavior 1 2 3 4 5
1. I study even when there is no quiz/test
2. I enjoy working on homework
3. I look ward to school days.
4. I read for learning, not only for grades.
5. In every school task I do, I always do my best.
6. I give/do more than what is required.
7. I listen intently to my teacher’s lecture and
instructions.
8. I participate actively in class.
9. I like homework.
10. When something is not clear, I ask questions to
clarity.
11. I do not allows myself to be discouraged by my
classmates’ unfavorable remarks.
12. My teacher’s unfavorable remarks do not turn me
off, rather they challenge me to do my best.
13. I believe that success can be reached by anyone
who works hard.
14. I always feel excited about learning.
15. I submit course requirements not only for the sake of
compliance.
16. I study not only for grades but more for learning.
17. I believe that nothing is difficult if we spend hours
learning it.
18. I believe that how much I learn from class depends
ultimately on me.
19. I believe I can cope with my teacher’s expectations.
20. I am always eager to learn new things.
21. I am very much interested to improve myself.
22. I read outside my assignments and lessons because

it helps me improve myself.
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23. I love to be in the company of people who inspire me
to keep on growing.
24. I void people who have no desire to improve
themselves.
25. I see relevance of my lessons to the realization of
my dream in life.
26. I am willing to give up the satisfaction of an
immediate goal for the sake of a more important
remote goal. E.G. give up watching tv in order to
study.
Total per column
Grand TOTAL
Interpret your scores:
 One hundred thirty (130) is the perfect score. If you got 65, that means
you are midway but not highly or very motivated. The closer you are to
130, the letter motivated you are.
 Share with your small group your discovery about yourself. Do you agree
with your score? In what items did you score comparatively lower? What
message do you get from those items where you’re scored low?
 When you can say that a student is highly motivated to learn? What are
indicators of a student’s level of motivation?
 When a person is intrinsically motivated, his motivation comes from
within him/her or from the activity or task itself. When a person is
extrinsically motivated s/he is motivated by something or someone
outside herself/himself.
Identify examples of extrinsic motivation and intrinsic motivation based on the
items of the questionnaire checklist.
 Which type of motivation is more beneficial? Why?
 Should we do away with extrinsic motivation? Or is it necessary? Justify.
1. Make an outline of this Module on motivation and following your outline,

give a lecturette.
2. Distinguish between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. Give an example for
each.
3. Justify the role that extrinsic motivation plays in the development of
intrinsic motivation.

144
References:


LESSON 20 145
THEORIES ON FACTORS AFFECTING MOTIVATION
Overview
In Lesson 19, you learned that intrinsic motivation is far better than
extrinsic motivation. By all means then, let us help develop intrinsic motivation in
our students. What are the sources of intrinsic motivation?
Learning Outcomes:
a. explain to a learning partner the following theories on the sources of

intrinsic motivation; and
b. together with a learning partner, cite the implications of these theories to
the facilitation of learning.
Materials Needed:
Duration: 3 hours
Learning Content
Attribution theory
What is the attribution theory? This theory explains that we attribute our
successes of failures or other events to several factors. For instance, you
attribute your popularity to your popular parents or to your own sterling academic
performance. Or you attribute the poor economic condition you are in to the Land
Reform of the Philippine government (your lands were subjected to land reform)
or to the vices of your father. These attributions differ from one another in three
ways-locus, stability and controllability (Ormrod, 2004)
1. Locus (place): Internal versus external. If your student traces his good
grade to his ability and to his hard work, he attributes his good grade to
internal factors. If your student, however, claims that his good grade is due
to the effective teaching of his teacher or to the adequate library facilities,
he attributes his good grades to factors external to himself.
2. Stability” Stable versus unstable. If you attribute your poor performance to
what you have inherited from your parents, then you are attributing the
cause of your performance to something stable, something that cannot
change because it is in your genes. If you attribute it to excessive

watching of tv, then you are claiming that your poor eyesight is caused by
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an unstable factor, something that can change. (You can prolong or
shorten your period of watching tv.)
3. Controllability: Controllable versus uncontrollable. If your student claims
his poor academic performance is due to his teacher’s effective teaching
strategy, he attributes his poor performance to a factor beyond his control.
If, however, your student admits that his poor class performance is due to
his poor study habits and low motivation, he attributes the event to factors
which are very much within his control.
How does attribution affect motivation?
If your student attributes his/her success or failure to something within him

him/her and therefore is within his/her control or to something unstable and,
therefore can be changed s/he is more likely to be motivated. If, however, your
student traces his/her success to something outside him/her and therefore
beyond his/her control, s/he is likely to be less motivated.
Motivation tends to increase when students attribute failure to lack of effort

because effort can be controlled. It tends to decrease when students attribute
failure to uncontrollable causes (e.g. luck, or ability if viewed as stable
(Weinstock, 2007).
This is something interesting. “People tend to attribute their successes to

internal causes (e.g. high ability, hard work) and their failures to external causes
(e.g. luck, behaviors of others. March, 1990). When students do poorly, for
example, they commonly attribute their failure to poor teaching, boring topic, poor
tests.
Table 1 Relationships Among the Dimensions of Attributions

Attributions Locus (location Stability (of Control (of learning
of cause) cause) situation)
Ability Inside the learner Stable (cannot Learner out of control
change)
Effort Inside the learner Unstable (can Learner in control
change)
Luck Outside the Unstable (can Learner out of control
learner change)
Task Outside the Stable (cannot Learner out of control
difficulty learner change)
Source: Eggen Paul and Don Kauchak. 2008 Educationan Psychlogy. Windows
on Classrooms. 8th ed. OH Pearson Co.

Self-efficacy theory
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A sense of high self-efficacy means a high sense of competence. Self-
efficacy is the belief that one has the necessary capabilities to perform a task,
fulfill role expectations, or meet a challenging situation successfully. When your
students believe that they have the ability to perform learning activities
successfully, they are more likely to be intrinsically motivated to do such learning
activities. The secret, to enhancing intrinsic motivation is enhancing our students’
sense of self-efficacy. Social cognitive theorists identified several self-efficacy-
enhancing strategies:
 Make sure students master the basic skills. Mastery of the basic skills like
reading, writing, rithmetic will enable the child to tackle higher level
activities. Imagine how miserable it is for a student who has not mastered
the basic skills! Unable to perform higher-level learning tasks that require
display and use of basic skills, your student will feel he is a failure in his
school life.
 Help them make noticeable progress on difficult tasks. You like to give up
climbing a mountain when you feel that you are not making progress at all.
When you have spent hours and hours on a difficult task and you seem
not to be progressing, you are made to think that your efforts are leading
you nowhere and you want to give up. That’s why, it is good that you are
helped to see progress while you are working on your difficult task. The
knowledge that you are progressing inspires you to keep on.
 Communicate confidence in students’ abilities through words and actions.
Express confidence that your students, with all their abilities, can easily
tackle the learning task. Words like, “if you were able to do a more difficult
task yesterday, what you are asked to do today is much easier than that of
yesterday.” Needless to say that your body language and your words
expressing your belief in their abilities must match.
 Expose them to successful peers. Being with successful peers, your
students will inhale success and get energized to succeed as well.
Success is infectious in the same way that failure is also contagious.
(Ormrod, 2004).
Other recommendations from motivation theorists are:
 Provide competence-promoting feedback. Communicate to your students

that they can do the job. They have the ability to succeed.
 Promote mastery on challenging tasks. Don’t give your students extremely
difficult nor extremely easy task. If the task you give is extremely easy,

they do not get challenged and you do not draw the best from them; if it is
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extremely difficult, they get frustrated. Then it is best to strike the golden
mean between the two extremes. A challenging task is one that
encourages your students to stretch themselves to their limits.
 Promote self-comparison rather than comparison with others. Desiderata
says: if you compare yourself with others, you will become vain and bitter.
For always there will be greater and lesser persons than yourself.” After
encouraging your students to set their personal goals, ask them to
evaluate their progress against their own goals.
 Be sure errors occur within an overall context of success. (Ormrod, 2004)
there will always be errors or mistakes as we learn, as we go through life.
But they cease to be mistakes once we learn from them. But if it is all
errors that come one after another without a taste of success, chances are
your students will feel so down that they are robbed of the courage to
proceed. “The learning process requires the challenge of new and
different experiences, the trying of the unknown, and therefore,
necessarily must involve the making of mistakes. In order for people to
learn, they need the opportunity to explore new situations and ideas
without being penalized or punished for mistakes which are integral to the
activity of learning.” (Ortigas, 1990).
Table 2 The Influence of Self-Efficacy on Motivation

High Self-Efficacy Learners Low Self-Efficacy Learners
Task Accept challenging tasks Avoid challenging tasks
Orientation
Effort Expend high effort when Expand low effort when faced
faced with challenging with challenging tasks
tasks
Persistence Persist when goals aren’t Give up when goals aren’t initially
initially reached reached
Beliefs Believe they will succeed. Focus on feelings of
Control stress and anxiety incompetence.
when goals aren’t met. Experience anxiety and
Believe they’re in control of depression when goals aren’t
their environment. met.
Believe they’re not I control of
their environment.
Strategy use Discard unproductive Persist with unproductive
strategies strategies
performance Perform higher than low- Perform lower than high-efficacy
efficacy student of equal students of equal ability.
ability

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Choice theory
Bob Sullo (2007) writes:
The choice theory is a biological theory that suggests that we are born
with specific needs that we are genetically instructed to satisfy. All of our
behavior represent our best attempt at any moment to satisfy our basic needs or
genetic instructions. In addition to the physical need for survival, we have four
basic psychological needs that must be satisfied to be emotionally healthy.
 Belonging or connecting
 Power or competence
 Freedom
 Fun
The need for belonging or connecting motivates us to develop relationships
and cooperate with others. Without the need for belonging and cooperating, we
would only strive to be independent.
The need for power is more than just a drive to dominate. Power is gained
through competence, achievement and mastery. Our genetic instruction is to
achieve, master new skills and to be recognized for our accomplishments…
As humans, we are also motivated to be free, to choose. Having choices is

part of what it means to be human and is one reason our species has been able
to evolve, adapt and thrive….
Each time we learn something new, we are having fun, another universal
human motivator. It is our playfulness and our sense of discovery that allow us to
learn as much as we do.
What do these imply to our task to facilitate learning? We have to come up

with a need-satisfying environment. To motivate our students for learning, we
should satisfy their need to belong, their need to have power by being
competent, the need to have a free choice, and the need to enjoy learning and
have fun.
How can these be done? If we create a sense of community in the classroom

and make every student feel s/he belongs to that classroom community, s/he will
more likely love to go to school. If we make use of cooperative learning
structures, we strengthen the spirit of cooperation and collaboration and reduce,
if not eliminate, the spirit of cut-throat competition. (For examples of cooperative

learning structures, please refer to Principles of Teaching 1 written by Brenda B.
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Corpuz and Gloria G. Salandanan.) In a non-threatening atmosphere, students
are more likely to perform.
To satisfy out students’ need for power, let us help them acquire it by making
them achieve, by making them master their lessons and end up very competent.
As a result of their competence and excellent achievement, they get recognized
and experience genuine power.
Let us teach our students that the source of authentic power is competence,
not bullying and other irresponsible behaviors. This way, they will learn the true
road to real power.
To motivate our students for learning, let us give them ample freedom to
choose within parameters that are safe and responsible, developmentally
appropriate, and supportive of learning for that is the ultimate purpose of
freedom: to help our students learn and grow into the responsible persons they
are called to be. When our students are made to feel that they have a lot of free
choices, they are driven to satisfy this need for freedom. On the other hand,
when our students perceive themselves to be so suffocated by our impositions
and limits, they are most likely to behave in ways, even irresponsible ways, to get
them the freedom they believe is not satisfied.
Fun is a universal human motivator. If our students’ need for fun is satisfied,
they are most likely to learn much. Glasser (1990) claims “fun is the genetic
payoff for learning.” A joyless classroom does not motivate students to perform.
Let’s have fun while we teach. Without our knowing, our students are learning
and mastering what we are teaching while we are having fun.
“What happens outside of us has a lot to do with what we choose to do but

the outside event does not cause our behavior. What we get, and all we ever get
from the outside is information; how we choose to act on that information is up to
us. (William Glasser, 1990qouted by Bob Sullo, p. 6)
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
A student’s lower-order needs must first be met before s/he works for the
satisfaction of his/her higher-order needs. The lower-order needs include first-
level needs and second-level needs the first-level needs are basic survival and
physiological needs for food, air, water and sleep. The second-level needs are
bodily safety and economic security.

There are three (3) levels in the higher-order needs. The first (which is
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now the third level in Maslow’s need hierarchy) is the need for love and
belonging. The needs at the fourth level include those for esteem and status,
including one’s feelings of self-worth and of competence. The fifth level need is
self-actualization, which means becoming all that one is capable of becoming,
using one’s skills to the fullest, and stretching talents to the maximum.
Based on Maslow’s theory, a satisfied need is not a strong motivator but

an unsatisfied need is. Research proves that “unless the two lower-order needs
(physiological and security) are basically satisfied, employees (in our teaching-
learning context) or our students will not be greatly concerned with higher-order
needs. (Newstrom. 1997)
For us teachers, this means that we cannot teach students with hungry
stomachs. We cannot teach students when they feel afraid and insecure. While it
is not our obligation to feed them, working with parents, the school nurse and all
others who can help can address the problem of students’ hunger, lack of sleep
and the like.
Our students’ need for love and belonging is satisfied in a class where
they feel they belong and are accepted regardless of their academic standing in
class, economic status or ethnic background. Their need for self-esteem is
satisfied when we help them succeed, recognize their effort and contribution no
matter how insignificant and praise their achievement. Doing so actually propels
them to self-actualization.
Goal theory
Learning goals versus performance goals. The goals we set for

ourselves affect our level information. There are several types of goals. In
relation to learning we can speak of learning goals and performance goals. How
do they differ?
A learning goal is a “desire to acquire additional knowledge or master new

skills” while a performance goal is a “desire to look good and receive favorable
judgments from others or else look bad and receive unfavorable judgments.”
(Ormrod, 2004) Between these two goals, with which type of goal is the
intrinsically-motivated student occupied? Obviously, the ideal student is the
student with a learning goals. The student with a learning goal is mastery-
focused while the student with a performance goal performance-focused.

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Table 3 shows a comparison of learning mastery-focused and performance-

focused classrooms.
Table 3 Comparison of Mastery-Focused and Performance-
focused Classrooms
Mastery-Focused Performance-Focused
Success defines Mastery, improvement High grades, doing better
as … than others
Value placed on Effort, improvement High grades, demonstration
… of high ability
Reasons for Meeting challenges, hard Doing better than others,
satisfaction … word success with minimum effort
Teacher oriented Student learning Student performance
towards …
View of errors … A normal part of learning A basis for concern and
anxiety
Reasons for effort Increased understanding High grades, doing better
… than others
Ability viewed as Incremental, alterable An entity, fixed
…
Reasons for Measure progress toward Determine grades, compare
assessment … preset criteria, provide students to one another
feedback
Source: Eggen Paul and Don Kauchak. 2008 Educationan Psychlogy. Windows
on Pearson Co.
Self-determined goals. Personally-relevant and self-determined goals
enhance a student’s motivation. When lesson objectives are relevant to the life of
students, then they turn out to be more motivated to learn. When the lesson
objectives are owned by the students because they find them relevant to their
life, most likely they become highly motivated for learning. This departs from de-
contextualized teaching that happens when all we do is deposit information into
the minds of our students, students memorize, and we withdraw what we taught
every periodic examination.
Goal setting. As a motivational tool, goal setting is effective when the

following major elements are present: 1) goal acceptance, 2) specificity, 3)
challenge, 4) performance monitoring, and 5) performance feedback. Thus it is
necessary that our students accept and own our lesson objectives (see self-
determined goals is the following paragraph) and that our lesson objectives must
be SMART (specific, measurable, attainable, result-oriented and time-bound) and
challenging. It is equally important that we monitor our students’ learning.

However, simply monitoring results is not enough. We have to give our students
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feedback about their performance.
Activity 1
Directions: Here are some quotations. Read and explain each of them.
Do you agree or disagree?
“Quality does not come by accident. It is a product of intention.”

“Success comes only to people who work for it.”
“Happy are those who dream dreams and are willing to pay the price for
their dreams to come true.”
“Success is that old ABC-ability, breaks and courage.”
Charles Luckman
“Sweat plus sacrifice equals Success”.
Charles O. Finley
Activity 2
Directions: Discuss your answers to the following:
For Activity 1
To which are quality, success and happiness attributed? Do
you agree? Why or why not?
 Based on the quotalions, are success and quality traced to
factors within or outside a person’s control?
 What is the effect on one’s motivation if success or quality is
attributed to something within a person’s control? To
something outside a person’s control?
 Does a goal or dream have something to do with a person’s
motivation? Explain your answer.
For Activity 2
Go over the comments one by one to be able to do the following:
 Based on the comments, to which is poor/good performance
attributed? What are factors within and without the control of
the student?
 What is the effect on one’s motivation if success or quality is
attributed to something within a person’s control? To
something outside a person’s control?

 Do you agree with the comments? Explain your answer.
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 Is there an instance where performance is traced to feelings
of self-competence? Point it out.
1. Develop a game to test if each one in the class can explain the 6 theories
on the sources of motivation and cite at least one learning application of
each.
References:


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LESSON 21
STUDENTS’ DIVERSITY IN MOTIVATION
Overview
Students who, by themselves are already are already as diverse, also

differ in motivation. This diversity in motivation may be traced to differences in
age, developmental stage, gender, socio-economic and cultural background.
How these factors influence student’s motivation is concern of this Module.
Learning Outcomes:
a. reflects on their own experiences as they read through situations given in

this module,
b. presents the social and cultural influences on the cognitive, and
motivational processes of learning by means of a graphic organizer.
c. state and explain two principles on the social and cultural influence on
motivation.
Materials Needed:
Duration: 3 hours
Learning Content
Our students’ motivation may vary on account of age, gender, cultural,

socioeconomic background and special education needs. Our class is a
conglomerate of students with varying ages and gender and most especially
cultural background and socioeconomic status. Our students’ motivational drives
reflect the elements of the culture in which they grow up – their family, their
friends, and school, church and books, to motivate all of them for learning, it is
best to employ differentiated approaches. “Different folks, different strokes.” What
is medicine for one may be poison for another.

Two principles to consider regarding social and cultural influences on
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motivation are:
1. Students are most likely to model the behaviors they believe are relevant
to their situation.
2. Students develop greater efficacy for a task when they see others like
themselves performing the task successfully. (Ormrod, 2004) What
conclusion can be derived from the two principles? “Students need
models who are similar to themselves in terms of race, cultural
background, socioeconomic status, gender, and (if applicable) disability.
(Oemrod, 2004.)
Then it must be good to expose our students to models of their age and to
models who come from similar cultural, socioeconomic backgrounds.
Do we have to limit ourselves to live models? Not necessarily. We can make our
students read biographies and autobiographies of successful individuals who
were in situations similar to them.
Learning Activity:
Directions: Read the following research findings then reflect on your very
own experiences.
A.
 Young children often want to gain teachers’ approval to be motivated

while the older ones are typically more interested in gaining the approval
of pears. (Juvonen and Weiner, 1993 quoted by Ormrod, 2004).
 …Students often become less intrinsically motivated as they progress
through the school years. (Harter, 1992 quoted by Ormrod, p. 507)
Learning goals may go by the wayside as performance goals become
more prevalent and as a result, students will begin to exhibit preference
for easy rather than challenging tasks. (Harter, 1992; Igoe and Sullivan,
1991 quoted by Ormrod, 2004).
 Increasingly, students will value activities that will have usefulness for
them in their personal and professional lives, and subjects that are not
directly applicable will decrease in popularity. (Wigfield, 1994 quoted by
Ormrod, 2004).
B.
 Elementary students tend to attribute their successes to effort and hard

work.

 … By adolescence, however, students attribute success and failure more
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to an ability that is fairly stable and uncontrollable. Effort becomes a sign
of low ability … (Nicholls, 1990; Paris & Cunningham 1996 quoted by
Ormrod, 2004).
C.
 There are different motivational patterns for students belonging to ethnic

communities. Students from Asian-American families may feel more
pressured to perform well in school…
 … Students’ cultural background can influence their attributions… For
instance, students of Asian background are more likely to attribute
academic achievement to unstable factors like effort and attribute
appropriate or inappropriate behaviors to temporary situational factors
than students brought up in mainstream Western culture. (Lillard, 1997;
Peak, 1993 quoted by Ormrod, 2004).
D.
 … Females are more likely than males to have a high need for affiliation.
(Block, 1983 quoted by Ormrod, p.508).
 Females are also more concerned about doing well in school. They work
harder on assignments, earn higher grades and are more likely to
graduate from high school. (Halpen, 1992; McCall, 1994 quoted by
Ormrod, 2004)
 We typically find more boys than girls among our “underachieving”
students.
E.
 Students from low-income families are among those most likely to be at

risk of failing and dropping out of school. A pattern of failure may start
quite early for many lower-income students especially if they have not had
the early experiences upon which school learning often builds.
F.
 Students with special educational needs shows the greatest diversity in

motivation. Some students who are gifted may have high intrinsic
motivation to learn classroom subject matter, yet they may become easily
bored if class activities don’t challenge their abilities. (Friedel, 1993;
Turnbull et al, 1999 quoted by Ormrod, 2004).

 Students with specific or general academic difficulties (e.g. those with
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learning disabilities, those with mental retardation) may show signs of
learned helplessness with regard to classroom tasks, especially if their
past efforts have been repeatedly met with failure. (Deshler & Schumaker,
1988; Jacobsen, Lowery, & DuCette, 1968; Seligman, 1975)
 Students who have difficulty getting along with their classmates (e.g.
those with emotional and behavioral disorders) may inappropriately
attribute their social failures to factors beyond their control. (Hewrad, 1996
quoted buy Ormrod, 2004).
1. In not more than 100 words write your reflections on your very own
experiences in relation to Activity A, B, C, D, E and F.
2. By means of a graphic organizer, present the social and cultural
influences on the cognitive and motivational processes of learning.
3. State and explain in not more than 3 sentences each the two principles on
the social and cultural influence on motivation.
References:


159
LESSON 22
HUMAN ENVIRONMENT FACTORS AFFECTING MOTIVATION
Overview
If environment is defined as the sum total of one’s surrounding then

environmental factors that affect students’ motivation include human as well as
non-human factors. The immediate human factors that surround the learner are
the teachers, the other students and his/her parents.
(For notes on managing the learning environment, refer to the textbook on

Principles of Teaching 1 by Brenda B. Corpuz and Gloria G. Salandanan)
Learning Outcomes:
a. compose a poem/song describing teachers’ behavioral traits that are

facilitative of learning;
b. dramatize the de-motivating function of bullying in schools; and
c. mimic the behavioral traits of parents who are supportive of learning.
Materials Needed:
Duration: 1.5 hours

Learning Content
Motivation in the Classroom
Human Environment Assessment Strategies

Factors Affecting that can Increase
Motivation in
Motivation Motivation
the Climate

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Teacher’s Affective Traits
The Physical
Classmates Learning
Environment
Bullying
Parents
Teacher’s Affective Traits
Studies suggest that management and instructional processes are key to

facilitating learning but many interview responses, like the letter at the beginning
of this module, emphasize the teacher’s affective characteristics or social or
emotional behaviors, more than pedagogical practice. Some of your teachers
were motivating and inspiring. Others were not.
You are grateful to those who motivated and inspired you. You must also
be grateful to those who were not as motivating and inspiring. In a way, they also
helped you become better persons in the sense that you strived to become better
than them.
Researches cite the following affective characteristics of effective teachers

(James H. Stronge, 2002)
 Caring – Specific attributes that show caring are:

- sympathetic listening to students not only about life inside
the classroom but more about students’ lives in general
- understanding of students’ questions and concerns
- knowing students individually, their likes and dislikes, and
personal situations affecting behavior and performance
 Fairness and respect – These are shown in specific
behaviors like;
- treating students as people
- avoiding the use of ridicule and preventing situations in
which students lose respect in front of their peers
- practicing gender, racial and ethnic fairness
- providing students with opportunities for them to
participate and to succeed
 Social interactions with students – The specific behavior of a
facilitative social interaction are:

- consistently behaving in a friendly, personal manner
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while maintaining professional distance with students
- working with students not for the students
- interacting productively by giving students responsibility
and respect
- allowing students to participate in decision-making
- willing to participate in class activities and demonstrating
a sense of fun
- having a sense of humor and is willing to share jokes
 Enthusiasm and motivation for learning shown in:
- encouraging students to be responsible for their own
learning
- maintaining an organized classroom environment
- setting high standard
- assigning appropriate challenges
- providing reinforcement and encouragement during tasks
 Attitude toward the teaching profession
- having dual commitment to personal learning and to
students’ learning anchored on the belief that all students
can learn
- helping students succeed by using differentiated
instruction
- working collaboratively with colleagues and other staff
- serving as an example of a lifelong learner to his/her
students and colleagues
 Positive expectations of students manifested in:
- striving to make all students feel competent
- communicating positive expectations to students, i.e.
they will be successful
- Having high personal teaching efficacy shown in their
belief that they can cause all students to learn.
 Reflective Practice
- reviewing and thinking on his/her teaching process
- eliciting feedback from others in the interest of teaching
and learning
Classmates – Bullying and the Need to Belong

Students form part of the human environment of the learner. In fact, they
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far outnumber the teachers in the learning environment.
The need to belong is a basic human need. Students who are accepted by
teachers and classmates feel they belong to the class. Students who feel that
they are part of the class look forward to attending and participating in class. The
sense of belongingness enhances their learning and performance. The
prevalence of bullying, however, obstructs the creation of a learning community
where everyone feel that they belong. With bullying in schools, the learning
environment cannot be safe. Then by all means, bullying should be eliminated in
schools. Bullying takes on several forms. It can be mild, it can be intense or
deeply-seated and highly violent. Today, safety in schools is being raised all over
the world.
Parents as Part of the Learners’ Human Learning Environment
The learner spends at least six hours in school. The rest, s/he spends at home.
Parents, therefore, are supposed to have more opportunity to be with their
children than teachers. How many of our parents use this opportunity to support
their children in their studies?
What parents’ behavioral traits are supportive of their children’s learning?

Parents who are supportive of their children’s learning are observed to do the
following:
 Follow up status of their children’s performance

 Supervise their children in their homework/project
 Check their children’s notebooks
 Review their children’s corrected seat works and test papers
 Attend conferences for Parents, Teachers and Community
Association
 Are willing to spend on children’s projects and to get
involved in school activities.
 Participate actively in school-community projects
 Confer with their children’s teachers necessary
 Are aware of their children’s activities in school
 Meet the friends of their children’
 Invite their children’s friends at home
Unsupportive parent behaviors are the opposite of all listed above.

The interaction between the learner and the teachers, among the learners,
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and among the learner, teachers and parents affect the learner’s motivation.
Weather the climate that comes as a by-product of the interactions nurtures or
obstructs learning depends on the quality of these interactions.
Activity 1
Directions: Read this student letter to a middle school science teacher

with four years of teaching experience. Feel the words. Right after reading it,
proceed to Analysis for Activity 1.
I just wanted to write you a little thank you note for everything that you
have done for me over the past two years. I have learned a lot and had a whole
lotta fun doing it. I loved the labs and basically everything we did in your class
because you made it fun. You made it fun so we learned without even realizing
that we were learning but when it was time to show that we knew it, we were like,
“Whoa! I guess I really did learn something!” Not only did you teach us about
science, you put us in real case scenarios and helped prepare us for high school
and even college. But even further than that, you were like a friend to me. That
might scare you a little, but you really remind me of myself, and I hope I grow up
to be at least a little like you. I feel like you genuinely care about your students
and sincerely enjoy your job. …Thank you for being such a great teacher and
friend. You sincerely contributed to the “awesomeness” of these years. Thanks
1000 times. (Stronge, 2002)
ANALYSIS
1. The student considers her teacher great. List down the teacher’s
behavioral traits that made learning fun.
2. In a survey that was conducted in 1996, almost 1000 students between
the ages of 13 and 17 were asked to identify characteristics of best and

worst teachers. The students responded that the number one
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characteristic of good teachers is their sense of humor. The others are
“make class interesting, have knowledge of their subjects, explain things
clearly, and spend time helping students.” The number one characteristics
of their worst teachers was that they are “dull and boring”. The next four
are: “do not explain things clearly, show favoritism toward students; have
poor attitude and expect too much from students.” (National Association of
Secondary School Principals.1997 Students Say: What makes a Good
Teacher? Publication Information: NASSP Bulletin, May/June 1997, 15-
17.)
Do you find any similarities with your list in # 1?
Activity 2
 Recall an experience where, because of a classmate, you

were:
- Motivated or encouraged to come to class.
- Turned off/afraid to come to class.
 Share your experiences with your small group.
ANALYSIS 2
1. Is there any experience on bullying that was shared? If yes what are the
various forms of bullying?
2. How does bullying affect the student’s need to belong to a learning
community?
3. Is calling a classmate promdi and barriotic a form of bullying?
Activity 3
Directions: Read carefully the given instructions.
Divide the class into small discussion groups. Some groups will be asked
to jot down behavioral traits of parents who are supportive of their children’s
studies. The other groups will be asked to list down behavioral traits of parents
who are not very supportive.
Those groups who worked on supportive parents come together to make a

tally of the behavioral traits and compare. Collate the output the present it to the

whole class. The same thing is expected of those groups who worked on
165
unsupportive parents.
ANALYSIS 3
1. In your tally of behavioral traits, which traits (both positive and negative)
are on top? Study your top positive and negative behavioral traits. Are the
results consistent?
2. As a teacher and as a future parent, what message can you read from
your list of behavioral traits?
1. Compose a song or a poem about a highly motivating teacher. Present

your output in class.
2. Complete this statement. A caring teacher
Concrete behavior
3. Dramatize some forms of bullying in school.

 Ask those who took part in the dramatization – How did you feel?
Were you happy about it? Any action to take from here?
 Ask those watched the dramatization – How did you feel while the
dramatization was going on? In real life, would you do as the bully
did. Why or why not?
 Compose a song that is anti-bullying. Highlight the basic human
need to belong.
4. Some students will be asked to pantomime learning-supportive and
learning-unsupportive behaviors of parents. The rest of the class will be
asked to identify the behavior that was pantomimed.
 Discuss the effects of these behaviors on children’s motivation to
study and achieve.
 Share lessons learned.

References:
166
LESSON 23
THE CLASSROOM CLIMATE
Overview
The classroom climate is more a product of the interaction between and

among teacher and students than that of the physical condition of the classroom.
The physical condition of the classroom may exert an influence on the social
interaction among the personalities in class but in may not contribute as much as
the classroom social interaction does.
What is a classroom climate that facilitates learning? It is something

business-like and yet non-threatening. What takes place in a classroom where a
business-like and a non-threatening atmosphere prevail? This is the concern of
the lesson.
Learning Outcomes:
a. describe the classroom climate that is conducive for learning by the use of
simile or metaphor; and
b. create a conducive classroom climate in a simulation.
Materials Needed:

167
Duration: 1.5 hours

Learning Content
The classroom climate that is conducive for learning is one that is nan-
threatening yet business-like.
It is a classroom where:
 Specific classroom rules and procedures are clear.

 These classroom rules and procedures are discussed on the first days
of class.
 Students are involved in the design of rules and procedures.
 Techniques to knowledge and reinforce acceptable behavior and
provide negative consequences are employed
 Clear limits for unacceptable behavior are established
 There is a healthy balance between dominance and cooperation
 The teacher is aware of the needs of different types of students
 The teacher is fully aware of the happenings in class
 Students’ responsibility for their own behavior is enhanced.
(Marzano, et ai, 2003)
(For additional notes, you may refer to Principles to Teaching 1 written by
Corpuz, Brenda and Gloria G. Salandanan.)
Learning Activity:
Directions: Read the poem below and answer the given questions.
Read this poem:
Bring your papers, pencils and books,

Unless you want my dirty looks.
Class will start – I know I’m pushy –
When in your seat, I see your “tushy”.
You need to know that it’s expected

That you respect and feel respected
Watch your words and be polite,
Avoid aggression, please don’t bite.

168
Sometimes you’ll sit, sometimes you’ll walk,
Sometimes you’ll listen, sometimes you’ll talk.
Please do each of these on cue.
Listen to me, I’ll listen to you.
These rules exist so we can learn.
Obey them and rewards you’ll earn.
I also feel compelled to mention.
Breaking rules will mean detention.
If these rules seem strict and terse,
Please make suggestions but only in verse,
(Source: Robert J. Marzano, et al. (2003), p. 19.)
ANALYSIS
 Do you like the poem? Why or why not?

 When do you think was this poem introduced by the teacher? Beginning,
middle or end of the school year?
 In your opinion, what was the purpose of the poem? Will it make a
difference if the teacher simply announced her class rules? Why did the
teacher make use of a poem as a strategy?
 Based on the poem, what kind of classroom atmosphere does the teacher
want to establish?
 What conditions must be present in order to establish such atmosphere?
 What class rules did the teacher want to introduce?
1. Describe an ideal classroom atmosphere by means of simile or
metaphoe.
2. Simulate a classroom setting. Let 2 students introduce their classroom
rules in a creative way in class. Evaluate the process as group.
References:

169
LESSON 24
THE PHYSICAL LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
Overview
We get affected not only by the psychological climate in the classroom.

We are also affected by the physical condition of the learning place. The learner
is put at a disadvantage when the classroom is overcrowded, dark and damp.
We hear of teachers saying “It gets into my nerve” when students are
unnecessarily noisy and unruly in a classroom that is topsy turvy. The physical
learning environment matters, too, in facilitating learning.
Learning Outcomes:
a. design a favorable physical learning environment.
Materials Needed:
Duration: 1.5 hours

Learning Content
170
The physical learning environment has something to do with the condition
of the classroom, the immediate environment of the learner. A conducive
physical learning environment is one that:
allows maximum interaction between teacher and student and among

students;
allows student movement without unnecessary distraction
allows teacher to survey the whole class;
is safe, clean, and orderly;
is well-ventilated, spacious, and adequately lighted and makes possible
re-arrangement of chairs as the need arises.
Let us not forget the fact that while the physical condition of the classroom
and the persons that the students interact with constitute their immediate
environment, our students are also influenced by factors outside their immediate
environment. Our students bring to the classroom many attitudes as a result of
their being conditioned by their families, their ethnic groups, their communities:
these attitudes influence their class performance.
Learning Activity:
Observe 2 classes with focus on the physical arrangement of the room.

Find out how the physical arrangement affects traffic flow, distractions and
teacher-student and/or student-student interactions. Rate the fallowing aspects of
physical arrangement by the use of this checklist:
Aspect Ye No Remark
s s
1. Are the chairs arranged in such a way that
teacher-student interaction is facilitated?
2. Can every student view and read what is written
on the board?
3. Can the teacher see all students while
presenting?
4. Are the chairs arranged in such a way that
students can easily move without unnecessary
disruptions?
5. Is there a picture or any other fixture that distracts
students’ attention for learning?
6. Is the classroom safe, clean and orderly?

7. Is the classroom well-ventilated?
171
8. Does the classroom have adequate lighting?
9. Is the classroom wide enough to allow student
movement and activities?
10. Does every student have a chair/desk?
11. If there is noise, is it academic noise that indicates
students’ engagement in learning?
12. Is the classroom attractive to enhance learning?
13. In the seat arrangement flexible?
14.
ANALYSIS
1. Review your checklist. Which items were answered NO? YES?

2. Are the items answered NO within the capacity of the teacher to remedy?
How?
3. Are items answered YES, truly YES? Is there still room for improvement?
Explain your answer.
4. What is academic noise? Is that something you must frown upon?
5. Between the 2 classrooms, which is better? Why?
Learning Evaluation
1. Design a classroom that is conducive for learning. Indicate color of paint,

arrangement of desks, teacher’s table, and other fixtures.
References:


172
LESSON 25
ASSESSMENT STRATEGIES THAT CAN INCREASE
MOTIVATION
Overview
An indispensable part of the teaching-learning process is assessment. It is

usually at the end of a lesson plan termed “evaluation”. A lesson plan is not
complete without as assessment. The instructional cycle indeed is not complete
without assessment.
Assessment is at the service of learning, thus the phrase assessment for
learning. Assessment is meant to ensure that learning takes place. This is
possible only when the assessment process does not motivate, instead
threatens. How can we make assessment a motivating and a facilitating
experience is the concern of this lesson.
Learning Outcomes:
a. cite ways to make assessment more motivating for students; and

b. demonstrate appreciation of assessment as a process to evaluate and
facilitate learning.
Materials Needed:

173
Duration: 3 hours
Learning Content
Tests challenging; not Focus progress rather

too easy, not too “Growth mindset”
than on failure
difficult
Sensitive and Assessment Strategies

Clear objectives as
constructive that can Increase
basis of assessment
assessment Motivation
True purpose of Self-assessment

Criterion referenced
assessment
Assessment Strategies that can Increase Motivation
How can we make assessment a palatable menu for our students?

Experience in classroom assessment and principles of assessment tell us the
following:
1. Make clear learner’s objectives every time. It is good if students are

clarified on the objectives they are working on and the criteria that will be
used in evaluating their learning.
2. Make your students own the lesson objective. Allow them to set their
own personal learning targets based on the lesson objective. Initially their
personal target may be lower than the learning target set for the class but
with the expectation that they will gradually bring them up according to
their pace until their personal targets coincide with the class target. This
will make them feel unthreatened and comfortable.
3. Engage your students in self-assessment. They have established their
own target against clearly set lesson objectives. They are in the best
position to determine if they have met their own targets and the class
target or objective.

When learners are given the opportunity to evaluate their own performance, they
174
bring to mind the personal task and strategy variables applicable to them. They
reflect on their personal characteristics that affect their learning, the tasks they
need to work on and the strategies that can help them. In this way, assessment
empowers the students to take a more active role in their own learning process.
4. Practice criterion-referenced assessment rather than norm-
referenced assessment. Make your students compare their performance
against established criterion, i.e., the learning objective or target and not
against other students’ performance. Comparing a student’s performance
with the letter makes assessment threatening.
5. If you are indeed criterion-referenced, then your assessment is certainly
based on established criterion, you’re learning target or objective. It
has been observed, however, that a number of teachers set learning
objectives but assess another. This leads to students’ confusion and
discouragement.
6. Inspire your students to have mastery-focus rather than
performance-focus. Set their hearts on lesson mastery for the love
learning rather than on scores, grades and performance. If they fail to get
an item or items in a test, tell them not to worry and assure them that they
will be taught again until mastery.
7. Have a “growth mindset”. Believe that your students can improve.
Failure or wrong answer is welcome. Assure your students that they are
not made less of themselves by a wrong answer or a mistake. What is
most important is that they learn from their mistakes and continuously
grow and improve.
8. Your assessment practice must be sensitive and constructive
because assessment has an emotional impact. Bear in mind that your
comments, marks and grades, as well as the manner you communicate
them to students, can affect their self-confidence. Assessment should be
constructive as much as possible. Judging students harshly to the point
that they feel belittled or insulted will kill their spirit and may lead them to
have a negative view both of themselves and the subject.
9. Inspire your students to have mastery-focused rather than
performance-focus. Set their hearts on lesson mastery for the love of
learning rather than on scores, grades and performance. If they fail to get
an item or items in a test, tell them not to worry and assure them that they
will be taught again until mastery.

10. Have a “great mindset”. Believe that your students can improve. Failure
175
or wrong answer is welcome. Assure your students that they are not made
less of themselves by a wrong answer or a mistake. What is most
important is that they learn from their mistakes and continuously grow and
improve.
11. Your assessment practice must be sensitive and constructive
because assessment has an emotional impact. Bear in mind that your
comments, marks and grades, as well as the manner you communicate
them to students, can affect their self-confidence. Assessment should be
constructive as much as possible. Judging students harshly to the point
that they feel belittled or insulted will kill their spirit and may lead them to
have a negative view both of themselves and the subject.
12. Don’t make the test too difficult to discourage students nor too easy
to make them complacent. An extremely easy test is not challenging
while an extremely difficult test is discouraging.
13. Communicate results/feedback. A teacher facilitates learning by
providing students with important feedback on their learning areas….
(Bloom, Madaus and Hastings, Stiggins as cited in Guskey, 2003, p.7)
Learning Activity:
Do this True-False Pretest on the professional teacher based on the Cade

of Ethics for Professional Teachers. If you are not sure of your answer, DON’T
WORRY! You may guess. What is important is that you give an answer.
Directions: Write TRUE it the statement is correct and FALSE if it is wrong. You
may write your answer on the blank provided before the number.
In the Code of Ethics for Professional teachers:
1. The professional teacher may be licensed or not licensed.

2. Pre-school teachers are excluded in the term teacher.
3. Only those who teach in the elementary and secondary schools are
referred to as teachers.
4. The teachers in the private schools are not part of the term “teacher”.
5. The college instructor/professor is not classified as teacher.

6. The principles is included in the word “teacher”.
176
7. The word (teacher” also includes the District Supervisor and the School
Superintendent.
8. “teacher” refers also to industrial art or vocational teachers
9. Inly the public school teachers in all levels, including tertiary, are
classified, are classified as teachers.
10. A professional teacher is required only of technical and professional
competence.
11. “Teacher” refers only to full-time teachers.
NOR, CHECK YOUR OWN ANSWERS. FOR THE ANSWER KEY, PLEASE
REFER TO PAGE 270.
What is your score? If you got 6 and above, you are on or above the
midpoint. If you got a score below 6, don’t despair! The next time you will take
this test, you will get perfect.
Find out why you did not get some items correctly. Read this excerpt from
the Code of Ethics for Professional Teachers. Then make your own list of those
who are included in the word “teacher”. Take note, too, of who teachers are,
according to the Preamble.
Code of Ethics for Professional Teachers
PREAMBLE
Teachers are duly-licensed professionals who possess dignity and

reputation with high moral values as well as technical and professional
competence. In the practice of their noble profession, they strictly adhere to,
observe, and practice this set of ethical and moral principles. Standard, and
values.
ARTICLE I
Scope and Limitations
Section 2. This Code covers all public and private school teachers in all
educational institutions at the preschool, primary, elementary, and secondary
levels whether academic, vocational, special technical or nan-formal. The term
“teacher” shall include industrial art or vocational teachers and all other persons
performing supervisory and/or administrative functions in all school at the
aforesaid levels, whether on full-time or part-time basis.

177
AFTER READING THE EXCERPT OF THE CODE, DO THE POSTTEST.
Direction. This is Posttest. Write TRUE if the statement is correct and FALSE if it
is wrong. You may write your answer on the blank provided before the number.
In the code of Ethics Professional Teachers:
1. The teachers in the private schools are not part of the term “teacher”.
2. Pre-school teachers are excluded in the term teacher.
4. “Teacher” refers also to industrial art or vocational teachers.
5. The college instructor/professor is not classified as teacher.
6. A professional teacher is required only of technical and professional
competence.
7. “Teacher” refers only to full-time teachers.
8. The professional teacher may be licensed or not licensed.
10. The principles is included in the word “teacher”.
11. The word (teacher” also includes the District Supervisor and the School
Superintendent.
What is your score? Did you improve? Perhaps considerably! That’s good!
Congratulations! Now, let’s analyze the activity you just went through.
ANALYSIS
Discussion Questions:
 How do you compare your scores in the pretest and in the posttest?
 What may have contributed to the improved scores?
 Did the exercise on the pretest and posted help you improve your
scores? How?
 Did you like the idea of checking your own answers? Why?
 Did checking your own paper help you improve your score? How?
 Did your errors help you improve your score? How?
ANSWER KEY
Pre-test Post test
1. False 1. False

2. False 2. False
178
3. False 3. False
4. False 4. True
5. True 5. True
6. True 6. False
7. True 7. False
8. True 8. False
9. False 9. False
10. False 10. True
11. False 11. True
1. List 3 things I should do to make assessment increase student’s
motivation.
2. List 3 things I should do to make assessment increase student’s
motivation.
3. Show that you are no longer anti-assessment in sentiment. Prove that
you now appreciate assessment (after this Module) as a process to
evaluate and facilitate learning by sharing your realizations.
References:


179
LESSON 26
REVISITING THE 14 LEARNER-CENTERED PSYCHOLOGICAL
PRINCIPLES
Overview
This last lesson is intended for you to summarize and integrate your most
valuable learnings and insights gained in this subject.
Learning Outcomes:
a. describe how the 14 principles are connected to each of the modules that
you have studied;
b. align your learning/insights gained to the 14 principles; and
c. demonstrate appreciation of the 14 principles as a sound framework for
effective facilitating of learning.
Materials Needed:

180
Duration: 3 hours
Learning Content
Facilitating learning should be firmly anchored on the 14-learner centered

psychological principles. The 14 principles espouse that everyone in the learning
community is a learner, not just the student. The clip art above expresses this
view that to teach allows you to learn and that when you have learned well, you
can teach well. There is mutuality in learning. Students learn from teachers.
Students learn from one another. And more important for you to remember,
teachers learn from students
Learner-Centered Instruction
Applying the 14 principles, Eggen and Chauchak give us three

characteristics of learner-centered instruction:
1. Learners are at the center of the learning process . The criticisms of

direst instruction have led educators to put more emphasis on the
role of the student in the learning process. Many opted for a more
student-centered environment as opposed to the traditional
teacher-centered set-up. Learners are given more choices.
Learning activities are designed with the needs, interests and
developmental levels of the learners in foremost consideration.
2. Teacher guides students’ construction of understanding . The 14
principles were put together because of the growing implications of
research in cognitive psychology. Teachers in learner-centered
classrooms provide a lot of opportunity for the learners to actively
think, figure out things and learn on their own. The teacher serves
more as a facilitator, a “guide on the side” rather than a “sage on
stage.”
3. Teachers teach for understanding . Students are placed at the
center of the learning process. The teachers help them to take
responsibility for their learning. As a result, students, through their
own active search and experimentation, experience a movement
from confusion to searching for answers, to discovery, and finally to
understanding.
Learning Activity:

Directions: Examine the clip art below and answer the given questions.
181
1. What two words do you see?

2. What relationship does the clip art show about these two words?
3. What message do you get from this clip art? Relate it to your own role
as a future teacher?
Directions: Fill out the matrix below to summarize and synthesize your
learnings and insights. Column 1 contains the 14 principles clustered together.
Column 2 indicates the modules and topics that are related to each cluster. In
column 3, write your learnings/insights, especially on how you plan to apply what
you learned when you teach.
Topics/ My
The 14 Principles specific learning/insights
concepts from on how I will
modules 1-25 apply what I
learned
Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors
1. Nature of the learning
process. The learning of
complex subject matter is
most effective when it is an
intentional process of

constructing meaning from
182
information and
experience.
2. Goals of the learning

process. The successful
learner, over time and with
support and instructional
guidance, can create
meaningful, coherent
representations of
knowledge.
3. Construction of
knowledge. The successful
learner can link new
information with existing
knowledge in meaningful
ways.
4. Strategic thinking. The

successful learner can
create and use a repertoire
of thinking and reasoning
strategies to achieve
complex leaning goals.
5. Thinking about thinking.

Higher-order strategies for
selecting and monitoring
mental operations facilitate
creative and critical
thinking.
6. Context of learning.
Learning is influenced by
environmental factors,
including culture,
technology, and
instructional practices.
Motivational and Affective Factors
7. Motivational and emotional
influences on learning.
What and how much is
learned is influenced by
the learner’s motivation.
Motivation to learn, in turn,
is influenced by the
individual’s emotional
states, beliefs, interests
and goals, and habits of
thinking.
8. Intrinsic motivation to

learn. The learner’s
183
creativity, higher order
thinking, and natural
curiosity all contribute to
motivation to learn.
Intrinsic motivation is
stimulated by tasks of
optimal novelty and
difficulty, relevant to
personal interests, and
providing for personal
choice and control.
9. Effects of motivation on
effort. Acquisition of
complex knowledge and
skills requires extended
learners’ effort and guided
practice. Without learners’
to exert this effort is
unlikely without coercion.
Development and Social Factors
10. Developmental influences
on learning. As individuals
develop, there are different
opportunities and
constraints for learning.
Learning is most effective
when differential
development within and
across physical,
intellectual, emotional, and
social domains is taken
into account.
11. Social influences on

learning. Learning is
influenced by social
interactions, interpersonal
relations, and
communication with
others.
Individual Differences Factors
12. Individual differences in
learning. Learners have
different strategies,
approaches, and
capabilities for learning
that are a function of prior
experience and heredity.
13. Learning and diversity.

Learning is most effective
when differences in

learners’ linguistic, cultural,
184
and social backgrounds
are taken into account.
14. Standards and

assessment. Setting
appropriately high and
challenging standards and
assessing the learner as
well as learning progress –
including diagnostic,
process, and outcome
assessment – are integral
parts of the learning
process.
References:


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LESSON 1 1

At the end of this lesson, students can:

a. explain metacognition in your own words; and

Metacognition Metacognition Learners who do

A Course Module for Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

A Course Module for Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

A Course Module for Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

A Course Module for Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

A Course Module for Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

Novice and Expert Learners

Difference Between Novice and Expert Learners

Aspect of Novice Learners Expert Learners

A Course Module for Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

A Course Module for Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

A Course Module for Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

A Course Module for Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

Use the scoring guide below

Scoring for Part 1 Motivation.

Scoring for Part 2 Organizing and planning your work.

A Course Module for Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

Scoring for Part 4 Managing school work stress.

Scoring for Part 5 Note-taking and reading.

Scoring for Part 6 Preparing an assignment/project.

A Course Module for Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

Directions: Maximize your answers in five (5) sentence paragraph.

1. Based on the principles of metacognition, prepare your own metacognitive

A Course Module for Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

LEARNER-CENTERED PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES (LCP)

At the end of this lesson, students can:

a. explain the 14 principles; and

Cognitive and Motivational and

A Course Module for Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

Developmental and Individual

LEARNER-CENTERED PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES

The Learner-Centered Psychological Principles were put together by the

 They focus on psychological factors that are primarily internal to and

Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors

1. Nature of the learning process

A Course Module for Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

2. Goals of the learning process

A Course Module for Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

5. Thinking about thinking

A Course Module for Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

Motivational and Affective Factors

7. Motivational and emotional influences on learning

A Course Module for Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

8. Intrinsic motivation to learn

9. Effects of motivation on effort

A Course Module for Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

10. Developmental influences on learning

A Course Module for Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

11. Social influences on learning

A Course Module for Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

 Educators needs to be sensitive to individual differences, in

13. Learning and diversity

A Course Module for Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

Alexander and Murphy gave a summary of the 14

A Course Module for Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching