CHAPTER 3- ANAPHY

Cell Structure and Their Functions

Cell structure

Organelles:
• specialized structures in cells that perform
• specific functions
• Example: nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes
Cytoplasm:
• jelly-like substance that holds organelles
• not an organelle
Functions of the Cell
➢ Smallest units of life
➢ Cell membrane and energy use
➢ Cell metabolism and energy use Synthesis of molecules Communication
-various proteins and chemi that are vital for the development and functioning of the cell
➢ Reproduction and inheritance

Cell membrane:
• also termed the plasma membrane
• a structure that encloses the cytoplasm
• is the outermost component of a cell.
• It forms a boundary between material in inside the cell and the outside.
• Materials inside the cell are intracellular and those outside are extracellular.
• It acts as a selective barrier.
Cell Membrane Structure
- Fluid-mosaic model is the model used to describe the cell membrane structure.
- The membrane contains phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins, and carbohydrates.
Phospholipids
- Form a bilayer
2 Regions of Phospholipids ( Phospholipid Structure)
- Polar ( Hydrophilic) The polar region is exposed to water around the membrane.
- Non-polar (Hydrophobic) The non-polar region is facing the interior of the membrane
Movement through the Cell Membrane
- The cell membrane has selective permeability, which allows only certain substances to pass in
and out of the cell.
- Substances such as enzymes, glycogen, and potassium are found in higher concentrations
inside the cell.
- Substances such as sodium, calcium, and chloride are found in higher concentrations outside
the cell
Cell Membrane Passage
- Some substances, like O2 and CO2, can pass
directly through the cell membrane’s phospholipid bilayer.
- Some substances must pass through transmembrane protein channels, such as Na+ through its
channels.
- The route of transport through the membrane depends on the size, shape, and charge of the
substance.

Active Transport and Passive Transport

Passive membrane
- transport does not require the cell to expend energy.
- include diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion.
Active membrane
- transport does require the cell to expend energy, usually in the form of ATP.
- include active transport, secondary active transport, endocytosis, and exocytosis.

Diffusion
- Diffusion generally involves movement of substances in a solution down a concentration
gradient.
- A solution is generally composed of two major parts, solutes and the solvent.
- Solutes are substances dissolved in a predominant liquid or gas, which is called the solvent.
- Solutes, such as ions or molecules, tend to move from an area of higher concentration of a
solute to an area of lower concentration of that same solute in solution.
- This movement from high concentration to a low concentration is diffusion
2 Types of Diffusion
- Direct diffusion
 - Facilitated Diffusion

Concentration Gradient
• A concentration gradient is the difference in the concentration of a solute in a solvent between
two points divided by the distance between the two points.
• The concentration gradient is said to be steeper when the concentration difference is large
and/or the distance is small.

Osmosis
• Osmosis is the diffusion of water (a solvent) across a selectively permeable membrane from a
region of higher water concentration to one of lower water concentration.
Osmotic Pressure
• which is the force required to prevent movement of water across cell membrane
• Osmotic pressure depends on the difference of solution concentrations inside a cell relative to
outside the cell.
• A cell may be placed in solutions that are either hypotonic, isotonic, or hypertonic compared
to the cell cytoplasm.
Hypotonic
- INSIDE
- A hypotonic solution has a lower concentration of solutes and a higher concentration of water
relative to the cytoplasm of the cell.
- The solution has less tone, or osmotic pressure, than the cell.
- Water moves by osmosis into the cell, causing it to swell.
- If the cell swells enough, it can rupture, a process called lysis.
Isotonic
- INSIDE AND OUTSIDE
- “Balance”
- A cell immersed in an isotonic solution has the same solute concentrations inside and outside
the cell.
- The cell will neither shrink nor swell.
Hypertonic
- OUTSIDE
- The cytoplasm of a cell in a hypertonic solution has a lower solute concentration and higher
water concentration than the surrounding solution.
- Water moves by osmosis from the cell into the hypertonic solution, resulting in cell shrinkage, or
crenation.
Carrier-Mediated Transport
- Some water-soluble, electrically charged or large sized particles cannot enter or leave through
the cell membrane by diffusion.
- These substances include amino acids, glucose, and some polar molecules produced by the
cell.
- Carrier molecules are proteins within the cell membrane involved in carrier-mediated transport.
- Carrier-mediated transport mechanisms include facilitated diffusion and Active transport.
Facilitated diffusion
-does not require ATP for energy.
- that moves substances across the cell membrane from an area of higher concentration to
an area of lower concentration of that substance.
Active transport
-does require ATP for transport
- that moves substances across the cell membrane from regions of lower concentration to
those of higher concentration against a concentration gradient.

Sodium-Potassium Pump
➢ Pumps out the protein
➢ The sodium-potassium pump moves Na+ out of cells and K+ into cells.
➢ The result is a higher concentration of Na+ outside cells and a higher concentration of K+ inside
cells.
Secondary Active Transport
➢ Secondary active transport uses the energy provided by a concentration gradient established
by the active transport of one substance, such as Na+ to transport other substances.
➢ No additional energy is required above the energy provided by the initial active transport pump.
➢ In cotransport, the diffusing substance moves in the same direction as the initial active
transported substance.
➢ In countertransport, the diffusing substance moves in a direction opposite to that of the initial
active transported substance
Endocytosis
➢ Endocytosis is a process that that brings materials into cell using vesicles.
Receptor
- mediated endocytosis occurs when a specific substance binds to the receptor molecule and is
transported into the cell.
Phagocytosis
- is often used for endocytosis when solid particles are ingested.
Pinocytosis
- has much smaller vesicles formed, and they contain liquid rather than solid particles.
Exocytosis
➢ Exocytosis involves the use of membrane-bound sacs called secretory vesicles that
accumulate materials for release from the cell.
➢ The vesicles move to the cell membrane and fuse, ultimately releasing the material by
exocytosis.
➢ Examples of exocytosis are the secretion of digestive enzymes.

General Cell Structure

The interior of a cell is composed of the cytoplasm, which a jelly-like fluid that surrounds
the organelles.
• Organelles are specialized structures that perform certain functions.
Organelles
• nucleus
• ribosomes
• endoplasmic reticulum
• Golgi apparatus
• lysosomes
• peroxisomes
• mitochondria
• cytoskeleton
• centrioles
• cilia
• flagella
• microvilli

NUCLEUS
• The nucleus is a large organelle usually located near the center of the cell.
• The nucleus is bounded by a nuclear envelope, which consists of outer and inner
membranes with a narrow space between them.
• The nuclear membrane contains nuclear pores, through which materials can pass into
or out of the nucleus.
• The nuclei of human cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes which consist of DNA and
proteins.

RIBOSOMES
• Ribosome components are produced in the nucleolus.
• Ribosomes are the organelles where proteins are produced.
• Ribosomes may be attached to other organelles, such as the endoplasmic reticulum
called bound ribosomes
• Ribosomes that are not attached to any other organelle are called free ribosomes.

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
• The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a series of membranes forming sacs and tubules
that extends from the outer nuclear membrane into the cytoplasm.
Rough ER
is involved in protein synthesis and is rough due to attached ribosomes
Smooth ER
has no attached ribosomes and is a site for lipid synthesis, cellular detoxification, and it
stores calcium ions in skeletal muscle cells.

GOLGI APPARATUS
• The Golgi apparatus, also called the Golgi complex, consists of closely packed stacks
of curved, membrane-bound sacs.
 • It collects, modifies, packages, and distributes proteins and lipids manufactured by the
ER.
• The Golgi apparatus forms vesicles, some of which are secretory vesicles, lysosomes,
and other vesicles.

LYSOSOMES
• Lysosomes are membrane-bound vesicles formed from the Golgi apparatus.
• They contain a variety of enzymes that function as intracellular digestive systems.
• Vesicles formed by endocytosis may fuse with lysosomes in order to breakdown
materials in the endocytotic vesicles.
• One example is white blood cells phagocytizing bacteria.

PEROXISOMES
• Peroxisomes are small, membrane-bound vesicles containing enzymes that break down
fatty acids, amino acids, and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2).
• Hydrogen peroxide is a by-product of fatty acid and amino acid breakdown and can be
toxic to a cell.
• The enzymes in peroxisomes break down hydrogen.

MITOCHONDRIA
• Mitochondria (singular mitochondrion) are small organelles responsible for producing
considerable amounts of ATP by aerobic (with O2) metabolism.
• They have inner and outer membranes separated by a space.
• The outer membranes have a smooth contour, but the inner membranes have
numerous folds, called cristae, which project into the interior of the mitochondria.

CYTOSKELETON
• The cytoskeleton gives internal framework to the cell.
• It consists of protein structures that support the cell, hold organelles in place, and
enable the cell to change shape.
• These protein structures are microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments.
Microtubules
• Microtubules are hollow structures formed from protein subunits.
• The microtubules perform a variety of roles, including helping to support the cytoplasm
of cells, assisting in cell division, and forming essential components of certain
organelles, such as cilia and flagella.
Microfilaments
• Microfilaments are small fibrils formed from protein subunits that structurally support the
cytoplasm, determining cell shape.
• Some microfilaments are involved with cell movement.
• Microfilaments in muscle cells enable the cells to shorten, or contract.
Intermediate Filaments
• Intermediate filaments are fibrils formed from protein subunits that are smaller in
diameter than microtubules but larger in diameter than microfilaments.
• They provide mechanical support to the cell.
• A specific type of intermediate filament is keratin, a protein associated with skin cells

CENTRIOLES
• The centrosome is a specialized area of cytoplasm close to the nucleus where
microtubule formation occurs.
• It contains two centrioles, which are normally oriented perpendicular to each other.
• Each centriole is a small, cylindrical organelle composed of microtubules.
• The centriole is involved in the process of mitosis.

CILIA
•Cilia project from the surface of certain cells.
•They are responsible for the movement of materials over the top of cells, such as
mucus.
• Cilia are cylindrical structures that extend from the cell and are composed of
microtubules.
FLAGELLA
 • Flagella have a structure similar to that of cilia but are much longer, and they usually
occur only one per cell.
• Sperm cells each have one flagellum, which propels the sperm cell.
MICROVILLI
• Microvilli are specialized extensions of the cell membrane that are supported by
microfilaments.
• They do not actively move as cilia and flagella do.
• Microvilli are numerous on cells that have them and they increase the surface area of
those cells.
• They are abundant on the surface of cells that line the intestine, kidney, and other areas
in which absorption is an important function.

WHOLE CELL ACTIVITY

• A cell’s characteristics are determine by the type of proteins produced.
• The proteins produced are in turn determined by the genetic information in the nucleus.
• Information in DNA provides the cell with a code for its cellular processes.
DNA
• DNA contains the information that directs protein synthesis; a process called gene
expression.
• A DNA molecule consists of nucleotides joined together to form two nucleotide strands.
• The two strands are connected and resemble a ladder that is twisted around its long axis.
• Each nucleotide consists of a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.
• Each nucleotide on one DNA strand has a specific bonding pattern to another nucleotide on
the opposite strand.
• A gene is a sequence of nucleotides that provides a chemical set of instructions for making
a specific protein.
GENE EXPRESSION
• Gene expression, which is protein synthesis, involves transcription and translation.
Transcription
• inlvoves copying DNA into messenger RNA
• Transcription takes place in the nucleus of the cell.
• DNA determines the structure of mRNA through transcription.
• During transcription, the double strands of a DNA segment separate, and DNA nucleotides
of the gene pair with RNA nucleotides that form the mRNA.
• DNA contains one of the following organic bases: thymine, adenine, cytosine, or guanine.
• Messenger RNA (mRNA) contains uracil, adenine, cytosine, or guanine.
Translation
• inlvoves messenger RNA being used to produce protein
• Translation occurs in the cell cytoplasm after mRNA has exited the nucleus through the
nuclear pores.
• The mRNA attaches to a ribosome.
• Codons (3 nucleotide bases) on the mRNA are read by anticodons (3 nucleotide bases) on
transfer RNA (tRNA).
• Transfer RNA transports specific amino acids from the cytoplasm to the ribosome-mRNA
complex and initiates formation of the polypeptide chain.
• The process continues until the entire polypeptide is completely formed

The Cell Cycle

• During growth and development, cell division occurs to increase the number of cells or
replace damaged or dying ones.
• This cell division involves a cell cycle.
• The cell cycle includes two major phases: a nondividing phase, called interphase, and a cell
dividing phase, termed mitosis.
• A cell spends most of its life cycle in interphase performing its normal functions.
• During interphase, the DNA (located in chromosomes in the cell’s nucleus) is replicated.
• The two strands of DNA separate from each other, and each strand serves as a template for
the production of a new strand of DNA.
• Nucleotides in the DNA of each template strand pair with new nucleotides that are
subsequently joined by enzymes to form a new strand of DNA.
 • The sequence of nucleotides in the DNA template determines the sequence of nucleotides
in the new strand of DNA.
• Replication of DNA gives two identical chromatids joined at a centromere; both form one
chromosome.

Cell Genetic Content

• Each human cell (except sperm and egg) contains 23 pairs of chromosomes, a total of 46.
• The sperm and egg contain 23 chromosomes total.
• One pair of chromosomes are the sex chromosomes, which consist of two X chromosomes if
the person is a female or an X and Y chromosome if the person is a male.
Mitosis
• Mitosis involves formation of 2 daughter cells from a single parent cell.
• Mitosis is divided into four phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.

Prophase
• During prophase the chromatin condenses to form visible chromosomes.
• Microtubules, termed spindle fibers, form to assist in breaking the centromere between the
chromatids and move the chromosomes to opposite sides of the cell.
• The nuclear membrane dissolves.

Metaphase
• During metaphase, the chromosomes align near the center of the cell.
• The movement of the chromosomes is regulated by the attached spindle fibers.

Anaphase
• At the beginning of anaphase, the chromatids separate and each chromatid is called a
chromosome.
• Each of the two sets of 46 chromosomes is moved by the spindle fibers toward the centriole
at one of the poles of the cell.
• At the end of anaphase, each set of chromosomes has reached an opposite pole of the cell,
and the cytoplasm begins to divide.

Telophase
• During telophase, the chromosomes in each of the daughter cells become organized to form
two separate nuclei, one in each newly formed daughter cell.
• The chromosomes begin to unravel and resemble the genetic material during interphase.
• Following telophase, cytoplasm division is completed, and two separate daughter cells are
produced.

Differentiation
• A sperm cell and an oocyte unite to form a single cell, then a great number of mitotic
divisions occur to give the trillions of cells of the body.
• The process by which cells develop with specialized structures and functions is called
differentiation.
• During differentiation of a cell, some portions of DNA are active, but others are inactive.

Apoptosis
• Apoptosis, termed programmed cell death, is a normal process by which cell numbers
within various tissues are adjusted and controlled.
• In the developing fetus, apoptosis removes extra tissue, such as cells between the
developing fingers and toes.
• In some adult tissues, apoptosis eliminates excess cells to maintain a constant number of
cells within the tissue.

Cellular Aspects of Aging

There are various causes for cellular aging.
 • Existence of a cellular clock
• Presence of death genes
• DNA damage
• Formation of free radicals
• Mitochondrial damage

Tumors
• Tumors are abnormal proliferations of cells.
• They are due to problems occurring in the cell cycle.
• Some tumors are benign and some are malignant (cancer).
• Malignant tumors can spread by a process, termed metastasis