EE4243 - POWER QUALITY

OVER VOLTAGES
Eng. H.M.A.I.HERATH
BSc Eng(Hons),MSc,CEng,MIE(SL)
 Sources of Over Voltages
• There are two main sources of transient over voltages;
- Capacitor Switching
- Lightning
• Other switching phenomena within end user facilities
- Power electronic devices generate significant transients when they switch

• Transient over voltages can be generated at high frequency (load switching and
lightning), medium frequency (capacitor energizing) or low frequency.

Although voltage transients originating on the utility’s electrical system can impact a
facility’s operation. Transient voltage sources within the facility are more common.
The normal daily operation of loads within the facility—such as electric furnaces, ovens,
induction heaters, welders, or motors—can produce voltage transients that affect adjacent
equipment.
 What is a Transient Over Voltage?
• High amplitude, short duration over
voltage
• Any voltage level that is short in duration
and is also 10% greater than the systems
normal operating rms(AC) or DC voltage
level.
• A voltage surge is also known as a voltage
transient.
 Voltage Swell
• A swell is a increase of voltage above
1.1pu at the power frequency for duration
less than 1 minute.

Causes:
- System faults
- Switch off heavy loads
- Energizing large capacitor banks
 Effect of Transient Over Voltages
• Transients can cause;
- Premature ageing of equipment
- Destruction of components and material
❖Many integrated circuit and component failures result from voltage transients such as shown in
Figure 1.
❖Large equipment such as the induction motor shown in Figure 2 are also susceptible to costly
voltage transient damage.

Figure 1 Figure 2
 Effect of Transient Over Voltages
• Transients may damage equipment through several means;
- Dielectric breakdown
(transient voltage magnitudes and rates of change cause insulators to become electrically conductive).
- Electrical flashover
(When the dielectric is air such as the physical separation of two conductive mediums at two different
voltage potentials, the dielectric breakdown of the air is generally referred to as electrical flashover or arc
flash).
- Fracture
(Electrical stresses associated with voltage transients may be converted into mechanical energy, resulting
in fracturing of component materials).
- Thermal and instantaneous peak power overloads
(Energy from voltage transients may also be converted into thermal energy, adversely altering the
insulative material at a molecular level).
- Surpassing dV/dt and dI/dt limits
(The rate of voltage and current changes associated with transients can produce stresses in exposed
materials and components).
 Effect of Transient Over Voltages
• The influence of voltage transients on electronic equipment generally falls into
one of four categories:
1. Intermittent interruption
2. Chronic degradation
3. Latent failure
4. Catastrophic failure
❑ Intermittent interruption
Intermittent interruptions may occur when a transient event is injected into a data or
control network, resulting in lost or corrupted data.

This may result in a load or device locking up, tripping off, or operating improperly.

Factors that influence a transient’s ability to disturb a load include design and
operating speed of semiconductors, system filters, grounding configuration,
susceptibility to electromagnetic interference (EMI) and radio frequency
interference (RFI), and the configuration of the data or control cable.
❑ Chronic degradation
Chronic degradation may occur when repetitive transient events diminish the
integrity of an exposed component (or components).
Over time–generally days, weeks, or even months–the cumulative effect of transient
voltages results in the eventual inoperability of the vulnerable component.

❑ Latent failure
Latent failures are similar to chronic degradation, except that they are precipitated
by a significant transient event that damages components.
Over a period of time–again, days, weeks, or even months–the ordinary stresses due
to normal operation will ultimately result in the component’s inoperability.
❑ Catastrophic failure
Catastrophic failures due to transient voltages are somewhat obvious, as the affected
component will immediately cease to operate, and damage may be visible.
In this case, the transient’s voltage peak magnitude or rate of rise exceeds the rated
threshold of the component in such a manner as to create a permanent open circuit
or short circuit within the component.
 Classification of Transient Over Voltages
• Transient voltages are generally classified into two different types depending on
where they occur on a power system:
Normal mode or Common mode
• Normal-mode transient voltage appears between any two power or signal
conductors.
• Common-mode transient voltage generally appears from each power or signal
conductor to ground.
 Classification of Transient Over Voltages
• Sudden non power frequency change in the steady state
condition are called as Transients.
• Its duration is in the range of microseconds to
milliseconds.
• Two types
❑ Oscillatory Transients
Described as a sudden non-power frequency change in
the voltage, current, or both that is bidirectional in
polarity. [E.g. Capacitor bank energizing]
❑ Impulsive Transients
Described as a sudden, non-power frequency changes
in the voltage, current, or both that is unidirectional in
polarity. [E.g. Lightning transient or electrostatic
discharge]
 Oscillatory Transients

Figure 3: Low Frequency Oscillatory Transient

Caused by Capacitor Bank Energization Switching Transients

Figure 4:
a) Voltage waveforms of a capacitor-switching transient
b) RMS magnitude calculation
Impulsive Transients

(a) Example of an impulsive transient overvoltage

occurring on a voltage waveform
(b) characteristics of impulsive transients

Figure 5: Impulsive transients waveforms

 Capacitor Switching
• One of the most common switching events on
utility system.
• Capacitors are used to provide reactive power
to correct the power factor, which reduces
losses and supports to boost the voltage level
on the system.
• They are economical and trouble-free
operation compared with other alternative
methods such as rotating machines and
Figure 6: Capacitor switching waveform
electronic var compensators.
• One drawback – yields oscillatory transients
when switched.
• Some capacitors are energized at all the times
(a fixed bank), while others are switched
according to load levels.
 Lightning
• Lightning is a powerful source of impulsive transients.
• Different lightning current conduction paths from the power system in to loads.
• The most obvious conduction path occurs during a direct strike to a phase wire,
either on the primary or secondary side of the transformer.
• This can generate very high over voltages.
• Similar transient over voltages can
be generated by lightning currents
flowing along ground conductor
paths.

Figure 7: Lightning strike locations where lightning

impulses will be conducted into load facilities
• There can be numerous paths for lightning currents to enter the grounding system.
- Primary ground, Secondary ground, Structure of the load facilities
• Strikes to the primary phase are conducted to the ground circuits through the
arresters on the transformer.
• Most of the surge current may eventually be dissipated in to the ground
connection closest to the strike, so substantial surge currents flowing in other
connected ground conductors in the first few microseconds of the strike.
• A direct strike to a phase conductor generally causes line flashover near the strike
point.
• Not only this generates an impulsive transient, but it causes a fault with the
accompanying voltage sags and interruptions.
• The lightning surge can be conducted a considerable distance along utility lines
and cause multiple flashovers at pole and tower structures as it passes.
 Electrostatic Induction
When thunderclouds located above a power
cable or communication cable contain negative
charges at their bottom parts.
High level positive charges are induced
electrostatically within the cable.
Then high voltage is developed by electrostatic
induction from thunderclouds as shown in the
Figure 8. Figure 8

At that instance, the negative charge at the

bottom of the thundercloud disappears by
discharging between the clouds or between the
clouds and the ground.
Then, the positive charge which is trapped by
the cable are freed and led to both directions on
the cable as a surge voltage (Figure 9). Figure 9
 Electromagnetic Induction
A discharge between the clouds and the ground occurring near from a power cable or
communication cable generates a magnetic field due to its surge current.
When the magnetic waves propagated within the field reach the cable, a lighting surge is
induced (Figure 10).

Figure 10
 Increased Ground Potential
When lightning strikes a building or a lightning rod, high current flows to the ground and
the ground potential rises.
This causes a potential difference between the equipment No. 1 located close to the
lightning rod (high potential) and the equipment No. 2 located far away from it (low
potential), and as a result the lightning surge is directed from the ground to the cable
between these locations (Figure 11)

Figure 11
 Coupling Methods
I. Direct Coupling
Direct coupling is associated with
lightning energies on the incoming
conductors.
Ground paths become saturated, and
the transient energy seeks other direct
paths to ground.
Unfortunately, this is usually through
unprotected electronic equipment
such as measurement instrumentation.
Figure 12: Direct coupling results from lightning energies
on the incoming lines
 Coupling Methods
II. Inductive Coupling
Inductive coupling is produced by the
magnetic flux lines generated during a
lightning strike. As much as 70V/meter of
cable can be induced by lightning strikes.
In other words, lightning does not have to
strike the ground to inductively couple
transients.
Electronic equipment and measurement
devices can experience inductive coupling
from a cloud to cloud lightning event. Figure 13: Inductive coupling is produced by the magnetic
flux lines generated during a lightning strike
 Coupling Methods
III. Capacitive Coupling
Capacitive coupling is derived from
positive or negative charge ions passing
over conductors.

Figure 14: Capacitive coupling is derived from positive

and negative charge ions passing over conductors
• Many investigators has identified that lightning
surges enter loads from the utility system
through the interwinding capacitance of the
service transformer as shown in Figure 15.
• Concept is that the lightning impulse is so fast
that the inductance of the transformer windings
blocks the first part of the wave from passing
through by the turns ratio.
• However interwinding capacitance may offer a
ready path for the high frequency surge.
Figure 15: Coupling of impulses through the inter
• This can permit the existence of a voltage on winding capacitance of transformers
the secondary terminals that is much higher
than what the turn ratio of the windings would
suggest.
• The degree to which capacitive coupling occurs
is greatly dependent on the design of the
transformer.
The main power quality problems with lightning stroke currents entering the ground
system are,
❖ They raise the potential of the local ground above other grounds in the vicinity by
several kilovolts. Sensitive electronic equipment that is connected between two ground
references, such as a computer connected to the telephone system through a modem, can
fail when subjected to the lightning surge voltages.

❖ They induce high voltages in phase conductors as they pass through cables on the way
to a better ground.
 Mitigation of Voltage Swells/Over voltages
i. Surge Arrestors and Transient Voltage Surge Suppressors
These devices protect equipment from transient over voltages by limiting the maximum
voltage.

TVSS – Sometimes have more surge-limiting elements than arrester.

Arrester – May have more energy handling-capacity.

Elements that make up these devices can be classified by two different modes of
operation: Crowbar and Clamping
Crowbar Devices
Normally open devices that conduct current during overvoltage transients.
Once the device conducts, the line voltage will drop to nearly zero due to the short circuit
imposed across the air or a special gas.
once triggered, essentially short out the protected line, redirecting the excess energy away
from the protected circuit.
Once the overvoltage event has stopped, crowbar devices will “delatch” and allow the
circuit to resume normal operation. Because they short out the protected line when
activated.
Crowbar devices are used only in applications where the available power is limited – such
as telephone circuits, data lines and signaling systems.
Figure 17: Waveforms at Clamping and Crowbar Figure 16: Clamping and Crowbar Operation
Operation
Clamping Devices
Clamping devices for AC circuits are commonly non-linear resistors (Varistors) that
conduct very low amount of current until an overvoltage occurs.
Then they start to conduct heavily and their impedance drops rapidly with increasing
voltage.
These devices effectively conduct increasing amount of current (or energy) to limit the
voltage rise of a surge.
Clamping devices limit the voltage to a fixed level.
In doing so, they absorb the excess energy of the overvoltage event as long as the event is
present.
TVS diodes are an example of clamping devices.
Figure 18: Waveform at TVS Operation Figure 19: TVS Operation

Transient Voltage Suppressor either attenuates or filter a voltage spike

(overvoltage), thus protecting the circuit.
Another type of TVS diverts a voltage spike away from the circuit (also known as
shunting, clamping, or bypassing.)
 Mitigation of Voltage Swells/ Over voltages
ii. Isolation Transformers
An isolation transformer is used to attenuate high-frequency
noise and transients as they attempt to pass from one side to
the other.
However, some common-mode and normal-mode noise can
still reach the load.
An electrostatic shield is effective in eliminating common-
mode noise.
However, some normal-mode noise can still reach the load
due to magnetic and capacitive coupling.
Figure 20: Isolation transformer
The chief characteristics of isolation transformer for
electrically isolating the load from the system for transients
is their leakage inductance.
Ex:
• Voltage notching due to power electronic switching can be
limited to the load side.
• Capacitive-switching and lightning transients coming from
the utility system can be attenuated, thereby preventing
nuisance tripping of adjustable speed drives.
 Mitigation of Voltage Swells / Over voltages
iii. Low-Pass Filters
Low-pass filters are composed of series
inductors and parallel capacitors.
This LC combination provides a low
impedance path to ground for selected
resonant frequencies.
In some designs, there are no
capacitors.

Figure 21: Low-pass filter application

 Mitigation of Voltage Swells / Over voltages
iv. Low Impedance Power Conditioners
LIPCs are primarily used to interface with the
switched mode power supplies found in electronic
equipment.
LIPCs are differ from isolation transformers as
these conditioners have much lower impedance and
a filter as part of the design.
The filter is on the output side and protects against
high frequency source side common-mode and
normal-mode disturbances. Figure 22: Low-impedance power conditioner
 Mitigation of Voltage Swells / Over voltages
v. Utility Surge Arresters
Three most common surge arrester
technologies as shown in Figure 23.
Most arresters use a MOV (Metal Oxide
Varistor) as the main voltage limiting
element.
The main ingredient of a MOV is Zinc
Oxide (ZnO), which is combined with
several proprietary ingredients to achieve
the necessary characteristics and durability.

Figure 23: Three common utility surge arrester technologies