CHAPTER 4

TISSUE

Tissue
• A tissue is a group of cells with similar structure and function, plus the extracellular
substance surrounding them.
• Histology is the study of tissues.

Types of Tissues
There are four tissue types in the human body:
1. Epithelial – a covering or lining tissue
2. Connective – a diverse primary tissue type that makes up part of every organ in the
body
3. Muscle – a tissue that contracts or shortens, making movement possible
4. Nervous – responsible for coordinating and controlling many body activities

Epithelial Tissues
• Epithelium, or epithelial tissue, covers and protects surfaces, both outside and
inside the body.
Included under the classification of epithelial tissue are the exocrine and endocrine glands.
• exocrine
• secret sweat, tears, saliva, milk, digestive juice
• endocrine
• releases hormones into the bloodstream

Epithelial Tissue Characteristics

1. Mostly composed of cells
2. Covers body surfaces
3. Distinct cell surfaces
4. Cell and matrix connections
5. Nonvascular
6. Capable of regeneration
Functions of Epithelial Tissues
1. Protects underlying structures
2. Acts as a barrier
3. Permits passage of substances
4. Secretes substances
5. Absorption of substances

Classification of Epithelia
• Epithelial tissues are classified primarily according to the number of cell layers and
the shape of the superficial cells.
• The cell layers can be simple, stratified, or pseudostratified.
• The cell shapes can be squamous, cuboidal, columnar, or a special transitional
shape, that varies with the degree of stretch.
- Simple
epithelium consists of a single layer of cells, with each cell extending from the basement
membrane to the free surface.
- Stratified
epithelium consists of more than one layer of cells, but only the basal layer attaches the
deepest layer to the basement membrane.
- Pseudostratified
columnar epithelium is a special type of simple epithelium, that appears to be falsely
stratified.
It consists of one layer of cells, with all the cells attached to the basement membrane.
Due to variations in the shape of the cells, the epithelia appears stratified.

There are three types of epithelium based on idealized shapes of the epithelial cells:
1. Squamous cells
are flat or scalelike.
2. Cuboidal cells
are cube-shaped—about as
wide as they are tall.
3. Columnar cells
tend to be taller than they are wide

Simple Squamous Epithelium

• Simple squamous epithelium is a single layer of thin, flat cells.
• Some substances easily pass through this thin layer of cells, but other substances do
not.
• The lungs, simple squamous epithelium, allows for gas exchange.
• The kidneys, simple squamous epithelium, helps filter wastes from the blood while
keeping blood cells inside the blood vessels.

Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

• Simple cuboidal epithelium is a single layer of cube-like cells that carry out active
transport, facilitated diffusion, or secretion.
• They have a greater secretory capacity than simple squamous epithelial cells.

Simple Columnar Epithelium

• Simple columnar epithelium is a single layer of tall, thin cells.
• The large size of these cells enables them to perform complex functions, such as
secretion.
• The simple columnar epithelium of the small intestine produces and secretes mucus
and digestive enzymes.

Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium

• Pseudostratified columnar epithelium secretes mucus, which covers its free surface.
• Cilia in the airways move the mucus and accumulated debris toward the throat,
where it is swallowed.

Stratified Squamous Epithelium

• Stratified squamous epithelium forms a thick epithelium because it consists of
several layers of cells.
• Though the deepest cells are cuboidal or columnar and are capable of dividing and
producing new cells, the naming is based on the shape of the surface cells.
• There are two types of stratified squamous epithelia: keratinized stratified
squamous and nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelia.

Keratinized Stratified Squamous Epithelium

• The outer layer of the skin is comprised of a keratinized squamous epithelium.
• The keratin reduces the loss of water from the body.

Nonkeratinized Stratified Squamous Epithelium

• Stratified squamous epithelium of the mouth is a moist nonkeratinized stratified
squamous epithelium.
• This nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium provides protection against
abrasion and acts as a mechanical barrier.
• Water, however, can move across it more readily than across the skin (keratinized
stratified squamous).

Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium

• Stratified cuboidal epithelium consists of more than one layer of cuboidal epithelial
cells.
• This epithelial type is relatively rare and is found in sweat gland ducts, ovarian
follicular cells, and the salivary glands.
• It functions in absorption, secretion, and protection.

Stratified Columnar Epithelium

• Stratified columnar epithelium consists of more than one layer of epithelial cells; the
surface cells are columnar but the deeper cells are irregular or cuboidal in shape.
 • Like stratified cuboidal epithelium, stratified columnar epithelium is relatively rare,
found in the mammary gland ducts, the larynx, and a portion of the male urethra.
• This epithelium carries out secretion, protection, and some absorption.

Transitional Epithelium
• Transitional epithelium is a special type of stratified epithelium that can be greatly
stretched.
• The shape of the cells change as the epithelium is stretched.
• Transitional epithelium lines cavities that can expand greatly, such as the urinary
bladder.
• It also protects underlying structures, like the urinary bladder, from the caustic
effects of urine.

Free Cell Surfaces

• Most epithelia have a free surface that is not in contact with other cells and faces
away from underlying tissues.
• The characteristics of the free surface reflect its functions.
• The free surface can be smooth or lined with microvilli or cilia.
• Cilia move materials over the top of the cell. Microvilli increase surface area.

Cell Connections
• Cells have several structures that hold one cell to one another or to the basement
membrane.
• These structures do three things: mechanically bind the cells together, help form a
permeability barrier, and provide a mechanism for intercellular communication.
Desmosomes
• are mechanical links that bind cells together.
Hemidesmosomes
• are half desmosomes that anchor cells to the basement membrane.
Tight junctions
• prevent the passage of materials between epithelial cells because they completely
surround each cell, similar to the way a belt surrounds the waist.
• Materials that pass through the epithelial layer must pass through the cells, so those
cells regulate what materials can cross.
• Tight junctions are found in the lining of the intestines.
Gap junctions
• are small channels that allow small molecules and ions to pass from one epithelial
cell to an adjacent one.
• Most epithelial cells are connected to one another by gap junctions, and researchers
believe that molecules or ions moving through the gap junctions act as
communication signals to coordinate the activities of the cells.

Glands
• Glands are secretory organs that secrete substances onto a surface, into a cavity, or
into the bloodstream.
• Glands are composed primarily of epithelium, with a supporting network of
connective tissue.
• Glands with ducts are called exocrine glands.
• Both the gland and its ducts is lined with epithelium.
• Endocrine glands are ductless glands; they secrete their products (termed
hormones) into the bloodstream
• Most exocrine glands are multicellular, comprised of many cells.
• Some exocrine glands are composed of a single cell, like goblet cells, that secrete
mucus.
• Multicellular exocrine glands can be classified according to the structure of their
ducts and secretory regions.
Simple
glands have a single, non-branched duct, some have branched ducts.
Compound
exocrine glands have multiple, branched ducts.
 • Glands with secretory regions shaped as tubules (small tubes) are called tubular,
whereas those shaped in saclike structures are called acinar or alveolar.
• Tubular glands can be straight or coiled.
Glands with a combination of the two are called tubuloacinar or tubuloalveolar.

Exocrine glands can also be classified according to how products leave the cell.
Merocrine
• secretion involves the release of secretory products by exocytosis.
Apocrine
• secretion involves the release of secretory products as pinched-off fragments of the
gland cells.
Holocrine
• secretion involves the shedding of entire cells.

Connective Tissue
• Connective tissue is a diverse primary tissue type that makes up part of every organ
in the body.
• Connective tissue differs from the other three tissue types in that it consists of cells
separated from each other by abundant extracellular matrix.
• Connective tissue is diverse in both structure and function.
• Connective tissue is comprised of cells, protein fibers, and an extracellular matrix.

Functions of Connective Tissue

1. Enclose and separate other tissues
2. Connecting tissues to one another
3. Supporting and moving parts of the body
4. Storing compounds
5. Cushioning and insulating
6. Transporting
7. Protecting

The specialized cells of the various connective tissues produce the extracellular matrix.
The name of the cell identifies the cell functions.

Osteoblasts
• form bone, osteocytes maintain it, and osteoclasts break it down.
Fibroblasts
• are cells that form fibrous connective tissue, and fibrocytes maintain it.
Chondroblasts
• form cartilage and chondrocytes maintain it.

Found in connective tissue are cells associated with the immune system, such as white
blood cells.

Macrophages
• are large cells that are capable of moving about and ingesting foreign substances,
including microorganisms in the connective tissue.
Mast cells
• are nonmotile cells that release chemicals, such as histamine, that promote
inflammation.

Extracellular Matrix
• The extracellular matrix of connective tissue has three major components: protein
fibers, ground substance, and fluid.
Ground substance
• consists of non-fibrous protein and other molecules.

The structure of the matrix is responsible for the functional characteristics of connective
tissues— for example, they enable bones and cartilage to bear weight.

Matrix Protein Fibers

 • Three types of protein fibers—collagen, reticular, and elastic—help form most
connective tissues.
Collagen fibers
• which resemble microscopic ropes, are very flexible but resist stretching.
Reticular fibers
• are very fine, short collagen fibers that branch to form a supporting network.
Elastic fibers
• have the ability to return to their original shape after being stretched or
compressed, giving tissue an elastic quality.

Matrix Ground Substance

• The ground substance consists of non-fibrous molecules and is shapeless. .
• It consists of proteoglycans, which are large molecules that consist of a protein core
attached to many long polysaccharides.
Proteoglycans
• trap large quantities of water between the polysaccharides, which allows them to
return to their original shape when compressed or deformed.

Types of Connective Tissues

• The two main types of connective tissue are embryonic and adult connective
tissue.
• By eight weeks of development, most of the embryonic connective tissue has
become specialized to form the types of connective tissue seen in adults.
• Loose connective tissue consists of relatively few protein fibers that form a lacy
network, with numerous spaces filled with ground substance and fluid.
• Three subdivisions of loose connective tissue are areolar, adipose, and reticular.
• Areolar connective tissue primarily consists of collagen fibers and a few elastic
fibers.
• The most common cells in loose connective tissue are the fibroblasts.

Adipose
• tissue consists of adipocytes, or fat cells, which contain large amounts of lipid for
energy storage.
• Adipose tissue pads and protects parts of the body and acts as a thermal insulator.
Reticular
• tissue forms the framework of lymphatic tissue, such as in the spleen and lymph
nodes, as well as in bone marrow and the liver.