Unit 1

Contextual Reading Approaches

Lesson 1
Literary Reading through a Biographical Context

There are reasons to read literature through the biographical context (Gioia and
Kennedy 2007):
● Understanding the author’s life can help you understand his or her work
thoroughly.
● Reading the author’s biography or autobiography helps you see how much his
experiences shape his or her work directly and indirectly.

Here are biographical strategies that you may use:

● Research on what the author believes in and also what he or she does not.
● Analyze how the author’s belief system is reflected in his or her work.
● Look at the author’s other works and analyze if there is a pattern with regard to
the theme that is indicative of his or her life and beliefs.

When you are reading literature through a biographical context:

● In what year was the text written and published?
● Is there anything significant that happened in the author’s life during this time?
What were the circumstances that happened to the author before the writing of the
text?
● Were there several drafts of the text? What can you say about the changes that
the author made? What aspects do you think the author struggled with during the
revision? What is the effect of the revisions to the published text?
● Are there characters and situations in the text that could be representative of or
are similar to the ones in the author’s life?
● How will knowing about the author amplify your appreciation of the work?
Take note of the following before reading a text through a biographical context:
● You should not assume that all works are confessional, biographical, or even
“true to life.”
● A literary text is according to the author’s perspective and will be heavily
influenced by him or her, but it is not the only way of studying literature.
Vocabulary
● biography - comes from the greek words bios, which means life, and
graphia, which means writing: a detailed account or a narrative of a person
written by someone else
● autobiography - also a narrative of a person, but written by the person
himself or herself

Reading a text in the biographical context entails the examination of an author's

life to better understand his or her work.

Strategies in reading in the biographical context:

● Research about the author's beliefs and non-beliefs.
● Analyze how the author's belief system is reflected in his or her work.
● Read the author's other works and analyze if there is a pattern indicative of
his or her life and beliefs.

Lesson 2
Literary Reading through a Sociocultural Context

According to the critic Wilbur Scott, “Art is not created in a vacuum; it is the work
not simply of a person, but of an author fixed in time and space, answering a
community of which he is an important, articulate part.” In reading using the
sociocultural context, you will examine the factors that affect the writing of the
literary text and how the work was received by the readers during the time it was
written.

Zeitgeist
the prevalent moral, ideological, or intellectual climate of an era

The following are reasons to read literature through sociocultural context (Gioia
and Kennedy 2007):
● Reading using the sociocultural context helps you understand the social,
economic, political, and cultural forces affecting the work that you are reading.
● Analyzing the sociocultural context of the text makes you examine the role of the
audience (readers) in shaping literature.

How can we analyze a text through a sociocultural context? Here are guide
questions that you may answer when you are reading literature through the
sociocultural context:
● What is the relationship between the characters or the speakers in the text and
their society?
● Does the text explicitly address issues of gender, race, or class? How does the
text resolve these issues?
● Who has the power? Who does not? What is the reason for this setup?
● How does this story reflect the nation? What does this say about the country and
its inhabitants?
● Who has the economic or social power? Is there oppression or class struggle?
How do the characters overcome this? Does money or finances play a large role in
the narrative?
● What is the prevailing social order? Does the story or poem accept or challenge
it? Take note of the following before reading a text through the sociocultural
context:

You may use several sociological, economic, and cultural perspectives when
reading using the sociocultural context. Marxism is one of the famous perspectives
used for this reading. Feminism, queer theory, historicism, postcolonialism, and
New Historicism are also perspectives or literary theories that you may use.

Perspective Explanation

Marxism According to the Marxist perspective, literature shows

class struggle and materialism. Thus, it looks into the
social classes portrayed in the work. It also looks into
how the text serves as a propaganda material. It also
examines oppression, social conflicts, and solution to
these struggles as shown in the literary work.

Marxism The feminist perspective examines the role of the women

in the literature. It looks into how the female character
may be empowered or discriminated against.

Queer Theory The queer perspective is concerned with the queer or

the third gender. The perspective itself was named in
1991. Under this perspective, the third gender, meaning
the gay, lesbians, and other characters or persona in
literature that may fall under queer are being examined.

Historicism Historicism or traditional historical criticism is a

perspective dealing with the history that influenced the
writing of literature.

Postcolonialism Postcolonialism is a literary perspective that looks into

 the changes in the attitude of the post colonies after the
colonial period. Through this perspective, the
dependence or independence of decolonized countries
or people are being examined.

New Historicism New Historicism is another perspective in the

sociocultural context. It focuses not only on the history
when the literary text was written, but also how the
history happened. In New Historicism, the
abovementioned perspectives can be integrated with
each other.

When reading a text or writing a critique through the sociocultural context, set
aside your personal political ideologies. Say for example, if you greatly believe
that boys should only like girls and vice versa, it should not hinder you from
analyzing a text using the queer theory in an objective way. Your personal
ideologies may lead you to overread the text according to what you believe in
even if the text is not related to your political inclinations. Do your best to be
unbiased in reading.

Vocabulary
● Literary theory - refers to different schools of thought and body of ideas
that can be used as a tool in understanding literary context
● sociocultural - of relating to, or involving a combination of cultural and
social factors

Lesson 3
Literary Reading through a Linguistic Context

According to David Richter, “Practically everything we do that is specifically

human is expressed in language.” This is why literary texts can be read through
the context of the language used to write the text as well as the way language is
used in the text. This literary reading adheres to Roland Barthes’s famous maxim,
“The author is dead.” Reading through a linguistic context focuses on the
language used in the literary work and how it is used to convey meaning.

Here are some reasons to read literature through the linguistic context:
● Reading the text on its own, regardless of the author’s biography and
sociocultural context, may help you understand the literary text through analyzing
the words, sentences, patterns, imagery, etc. of the text.
● Analyzing the literary text’s grammar, syntax, or phonemic pattern may help you
find the meaning of the text within its form and help you interpret it by simply
analyzing the content of the literary work.
Use this textbox.
The following are some strategies you may use to read a text through the
linguistic context:

● Analyze the diction or choice of words in the text.

● Examine the texts’ syntax or use of sentences, clauses, phrases, line cuts, etc.
● Observe the use of figurative language.
● Analyze the mood and tone of the text.
● Observe the text’s overall structure.
● Analyze the content of the text.

Here are guide questions that may help you when you read literature through the
linguistic context:

● What were the striking words in the text? What words were unfamiliar to you?
Which words attracted your attention? What words were dramatic?
● What nouns are the most prominent? Are these concrete or abstract nouns? What
about verbs? Does the author use common words or lofty diction? Are the words
short or long? Is there any word that has two or more meanings?
● Are the sentences in the usual order of subject-predicate? What are the
dependent clauses? What are the independent clauses? If you restructure a
sentence or a phrase, would it make a difference? Is the voice active or passive?
Is there a rhythm in the sentence structure in relation to the length of the
sentences or lines?
● What literary devices are used? Are there images? Do those images stand for
anything aside from their literal meaning?
● What is the tone? Is the speaker happy about the subject? Is the tone negative
or positive?
● What is the structure of the text? Is it a narrative? Is it linear or nonlinear? What
is the point of view of the text? Is it a poem? What type of poem is it?
● Does the language help in delivering and understanding its content? Is there a
theme? What is it saying about its subject matter? How do the literary elements
contribute to the effectiveness of the text?
● What is the text saying about the world in general?

Take note of the following before reading a text through the linguistic context:
● Even if literature uses language, it does not mean that the structure of literature
and the language are the same. Some writers may not follow grammatical rules,
and this kind of deviation may be used in your analysis. You may ask, “Why is the
text not following standard grammar?” and other similar questions.
● The characteristics of the language in which the text was written may help in
analyzing the text. You may also ask, “Why is the text written in this language?”,
“Is this considered a weak language or a strong language?” and other similar
questions.
● You may consult literary approaches that focus on language. Structuralism,
poststructuralism, and formalism have linguistic aspects. These approaches may
lead you in your view of reading through the linguistic context.

Steps in Analyzing Literary Language

1. Analyze the diction or choice of words in the text.
2. Examine the text's syntax or use of sentences, clauses, phrases, line cuts, etc.
3. Observe the use of figurative language.
4. Analyze the mood and tone of the text.
5. Observe the text's overall structure.
6. Analyze the content of the text.

Linguistic literary approach

formalist approach
● a literary theory stating that meaning is created through the harmonious
blending of the text's various elements

structuralist approach
● claims that language is a closed system
● states that meanings are inherent in language

poststructuralism
● a literary theory that is both a response to and a rejection of structuralism
● pointed out the instability of written language

Perspective Explanation

Structuralism Structuralism relays the texts being examined to a larger

structure. The structure may be a particular genre, a
range of intertextual connections, a model of a universal
narrative structure, or a system of recurrent patterns or
motifs.
Formalism (or New Formalism is a school of literary criticism and literary
Criticism) theory that focuses on the structure of a particular text. It
examines a text without taking into account any outside
influence.

Poststructuralism Poststructuralism is the reaction to structuralism. In the

linguistic context, there may be underlying structures that
may have different interpretations based on how the
words or phrases were used in the text.

literature
any piece of text that can be described as belles lettres, or "beautiful writing"

close reading
careful examination of a text's linguistic features

Vocabulary
● Linguistic - of or relating to language or the study of language
● Syntax - the study of how linguistic elements form phrases, clauses, or
sentences

Lesson 4
Critical Reading Strategies in Literature

To help you in your critical reading, listed below are the steps or modes of analysis
that are reflected in three types of reading and discussion as presented by Daniel
J. Kurland (2000):

● What a text says is the restatement. At first, you simply talk about the same
topic as what is written in the original text.
● What a text does is the description. Next, you discuss and examine the aspects of
the discussion or the content of the text.
● What a text means is the interpretation. As you read critically, you should
analyze the text and assert a meaning for the text as a whole.

restatement
● focuses on the comprehension of a text may be in summarizing and
paraphrasing form
● used to better understand definitions, concepts, facts, and objectives

description
 ● identifies the structure of the discussion

interpretation
● examines the selection and connects it to your worldview

inferring
● drawing ideas or conclusions based on a set of facts, evidence, or reasoning

Here are the three main goals of critical reading that require inference from
reading within the text (Kurland 2000):
● First is to recognize the author’s purpose, which involves inferring a basis for
choices of content and language.
● Second is to understand the tone and persuasive elements of the text, which
involves classifying the nature of language choices used by the author.
● Third is to recognize bias, which involves classifying the nature of patterns of
choice and language used in the text.

The following critical reading strategies will help you cope with different reading
texts:

● Previewing. Before you begin reading the text, preview it by gathering important
information about it. Previewing helps prepare your mind for the barrage of
information that is to come when you do the actual reading. When you preview a
text, you skim it to get the big picture or an overview of the entire text. Consider
the following:
❏ Who wrote the text? What are the author’s other works?
❏ Where and when was the text published? What were the major events
around the time the text was written or published?
❏ What can you infer about the text based on the title?
❏ What seems to be the general progression or organization of ideas based
on the chapter titles or section headings and subheadings?
❏ What is your purpose for reading the text?

● Annotating. Annotating involves highlighting or making notes of important ideas

in the text. This can be done by doing the following:
❏ With a pencil or a pen in hand, underline important ideas such as the
thesis, topic sentences, and key concepts. Also, highlight unfamiliar words so
you can look them up later.
❏ Make notes such as questions and comments or responses on the margins
as you read.
 ❏ Develop a symbol system. You may draw symbols to mark important
words or sentences so that the text will not appear cluttered.

● Contextualizing. When you contextualize, you consider the historical, cultural, or

biographical context of the text. Identify the context(s) in which the text was
written and determine how this context differs from your own. Keep in mind that
your understanding of a particular concept is influenced by these contexts, in the
same way that they influence an author’s.

● Outlining and Summarizing. Outlining and summarizing the text help you
identify the main ideas in the text and express them again in your own words. In
outlining the text, you identify the basic structure of the text (i.e., the main ideas
and the supporting ideas) and make connections between those ideas. Outlining
helps you understand how the author developed the text through the ideas
presented. After making an outline, you can now summarize the text. Summarizing
the text allows you to present your understanding of the text by reviewing and
synthesizing important ideas, and then restating them in your own words.

● Analyzing. Analyzing a text deals with examining the information presented to

support the author’s argument(s). In analyzing a text, you look at the evidence,
sources, and author’s bias(es). Consider the following questions:
❏ Is there enough evidence to support the author’s argument? Does the
evidence relate to and support the thesis or the main point the author is
trying to convey?
❏ Are the pieces of evidence relevant, credible, and up-to-date?
❏ Are the sources of information credible?
❏ Why did the author take that particular position? What is the author’s
background that may have led to or influenced his or her position?

● Rereading. Rereading requires a repeated examination of the text to enable you

to improve your comprehension of the text and to identify ideas that you may not
have noticed in initial reading. Critical readers read the text more than once to
fully grasp the meaning of the text and what the author is conveying.
● Responding. After you have developed a clear understanding of the text, you are
now ready to respond to the text. Responding to the text means drawing meaning
from what you have read and presenting it in writing or talking about it to others.
When you respond to a text, you express your thoughts, feelings, and questions
about the text. You can write why you agree or disagree with the text or the
author’s arguments, or you can interpret the text. You can also respond to a text
by discussing it with others. Sharing the information that you gained from a text
with others who have read the same text is a good way to check your
understanding.

In reading Jonathan Swift's A Modest Proposal, one may critically identify the
satiric tone used by Swift to criticize the individuals and society of 17th century
Ireland.

Critical reading means interpreting, analyzing, and evaluating a text.

Unit 2
Lesson 1
Sound devices

Sound devices help form visual images and highlight the mood and tone of a text.

● Alliteration is the repetition of similar sounds at the beginning of closely

spaced words.
● Assonance is the repetition of vowel sounds that form internal rhymes in a
line.
● Consonance is the repetition of consonant(b,l,m,n,p,...) sounds, usually at the
end of words.
● Cacophony is the use of jarring sounds, meant to convey disorder.
● Euphony is the use of sound devices meant to create a pleasant experience
to the ear.
● Onomatopoeia is the use of words that mimic the natural sound of what is
being described.
● Repetition is the repetition of words or phrases to form rhythm or to
emphasize an idea.
● Rhyme is the repetition of identical (or similar) sounds in two or more words,
most often at the end of lines in a poem.

Lesson 2
Figurative language
● Analogy - a comparison that presents the similarities between two concepts
or ideas.
 ● Cliché - a word, a phrase, a sentence, or a whole text that used to be
perceived as clever but has become démodé.
● Connotation - the secondary or suggestive meaning of the word, one that is
not its literal or primary meaning in the dictionary.
● Euphemism - used to substitute for a description that is considered harsh or
blunt.
● Hyperbole - a gross exaggeration to achieve an effect, usually for humor or
emphasis.
● Metaphor - compares two seemingly unlike objects that have similar or
common characteristics without the use of like or as.
● Metonymy - a word or phrase that is substituted for another that is closely
associated to it.
● Oxymoron - a combination of two ideas that appear to be opposite or
contradictory.
● Paradox - an assertion that seems to be contradictory or silly but actually
reveals some truth.
● Personification - a statement wherein an animal, object, or abstract idea is
given human attributes or characteristics.
● Simile - compares two seemingly unlike objects by using the words like or
as.
● Synecdoche - used when a part of something is used to represent the whole
or vice versa.

Lesson 3
Other Literary Techniques
● An allusion is a passing reference, without explicit identification, to a
literary or historical person, place, or event, or to another literary work or
passage.
● An allegory is a narrative in which the characters and their actions, and
sometimes the setting, are contrived by the author to represent a currently
significant event/issue.
● A dichotomy divides a concept, idea, story, or plot into two equal and
contradictory parts; or between two opposing groups.
● Juxtaposition is a technique wherein two or more ideas, places, characters,
and their actions are placed side by side to develop comparisons and
contrasts.
Lesson 4
Literary Elements in Prose

● The plot is the sequence of events that make up the story, told in either a
chronological or a nonchronological order.

● The atmosphere in prose refers to the creation of a mood or feeling by the

use of descriptions and setting.
● Characterization in prose refers to how the author describes the character,
either directly or indirectly through action, using details or nuances to add
depth.
● The problem or challenge faced by the character or characters in the story
is called the conflict.
➢ Man vs. Man
➢ Man vs. Nature
➢ Man vs. Himself
● The perspective or vantage point of the speaker or the narrator is called the
point of view.
➢ First person
➢ Second person
➢ Third-person objective
➢ Third-person omniscient
● The setting is the time and place where the story is set.
● Theme is the central idea of the story, and to an extent, the purpose for its
utterance.
All of the following elements must be present in the story:
➢ Plot
➢ Atmosphere
➢ Characterization
➢ Setting
➢ Theme
➢ Point of View
➢ Conflict (one or more types)

They make use of at least one of the following:

➢ Flashback
➢ Foreshadowing

Unit 3
Lesson 1
Poetry

According to Robert Frost, a prominent American poet, “Poetry is when an emotion

has found its thought and the thought has found words.” It is through poetry that
people get to express their emotions and ideas in a creative way.

Genre
a category of artistic, musical, or literary composition marked by a particular
style, form, or content

Poetry is the most compact form of literature. The ideas, feelings, rhythm, and
sound are packed into carefully chosen words, working to convey meaning to the
readers. A poem has a tone (e.g., ecstatic, melancholic, satiric), follows a form, and
uses figurative language (e.g., simile, metaphor, personification) to create an
impression.

There are three types of poetry:

● Narrative Poetry
These are poems that tell a story. Historically, narrative poems began as oral
traditions.
Examples of these are epics and ballads. Homeric epics such as The Iliad and The
Odyssey are both narrative poems. Beowulf is the oldest known English epic poem.
The Philippines’s Biag ni Lam-ang from the Ilocos region is also an epic.

● Lyric Poetry
These are poems that are supposedly sung with musical accompaniment. They
express the poet’s or the persona’s feelings and emotions. Examples of lyric poetry
are sonnets, psalms, elegies, songs, and odes. William Shakespeare is known for
having written over a hundred sonnets.

● Dramatic Poetry
These are poems that are usually performed onstage, and they can be sung or
spoken. The classic plays Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare and Oedipus
the King by Sophocles are some examples of dramatic poetry.

The common elements of poetry are the following:

● Persona
A persona is a dramatic character who is the speaker in the poem. A persona is not
always the poet. Persona means mask.

● Form
Poetry is written in lines, and oftentimes the lines are divided into groups called
stanzas.

● Imagery
Imagery is the use of language that appeals to the five senses: visual (sight),
auditory (hearing), gustatory (taste), tactile (touch), and olfactory (smell). The
second and third stanzas of Percy Bysshe Shelley’s “Ode to the West Wind” contain
words and phrases that spark mental pictures in the reader’s mind:

● Sound Patterns
Sound patterns include rhyme, rhythm, and other literary devices that pertain to
sounds, such as onomatopoeia (using words that imitate the sound of what they
refer to), alliteration (repetition of initial sounds), and assonance (repetition of
vowel sounds within neighboring words).

● Rhyme
It is the repetition of similar or identical sounds at the end of poetic lines. The
rhyme scheme is the pattern of the rhyme placed at the end of each line or stanza
in a poem.
Aside from rhymes, a poem’s musicality is also achieved through its rhythm. Each
line can be measured in foot. One foot is equivalent to two or more stressed
and/or unstressed syllables. The measurement of syllables in a line is called meter.

Type of foot Pattern Example

iambic 1 unstressed syllable followed by 1 complete (com-PLETE)

stressed syllable

Trochaic 1 stressed syllable followed by 1 garland (GAR-land)

unstressed syllable

Anapestic 2 unstressed syllables followed by on the road interrupt

1 stressed syllable (in-ter-RUPT)

Dactylic 1 stressed syllable followed by 2 happiness

unstressed syllables (HAP-pi-ness)

Spondaic All syllables have equal stress. heartbreak

A stressed syllable has a longer, louder, and higher sound than the other syllables
in the word. Syllables with the schwa sound in them are rarely the stressed
syllable.

Type of Meter Pattern

Monometer one foot

Dimeter two feet

Trimeter three feet

Tetrameter four feet

Pentameter five feet

Hexameter six feet

Heptameter seven feet

Octameter eight feet

Shakespeare’s “Sonnet XVIII” is a perfect model for iambic pentameter, as it has
five feet of one stressed and one unstressed syllable per line: Shall I com-pare thee
to a sum-mer’s day?

● Figurative Language
Poets use words or phrases that are put together to help readers picture ordinary
things in new ways. These words and phrases are called figures of speech. Please
refer to Unit 2 Chapter 2 for some of the most commonly used figures of speech.

● Theme
The theme is the central idea of a poem. It is usually stated as a philosophical
truth in life.

Lesson 2
Prose

Some emotions or ideas are better expressed directly and at length in prose and
not necessarily in poetry.

Prose is any writing that does not have a metrical structure and rhythmical
pattern like poetry. It is composed of sentences and paragraphs instead of lines
and stanzas.

Prose is divided into two: fiction and nonfiction. For this chapter, we will be
discussing fiction. Fiction is a story that is made up or invented by an author. This
means that the events in the story are not real; they are products of the author’s
imagination. Examples of fiction are
novels and short stories.

According to Edgar Allan Poe, short stories should be read in one sitting and
should strive for unity and effect. It has to begin with the first sentence and it
must have nothing in it that detracts from the writer’s design. It should also aim
for the truth and stress imagination, invention, creation, and originality.

A novel is longer and more complex than a short story. It has over than 40,000
words (the shorter version is called a novella, which has 17,500–39,999 words, or a
novelette, which has7,500–17,499 words). A novel’s characters, setting, plot, and
theme are usually more developed and detailed than a short story’s.
The five basic elements of fiction are plot (and conflict), characters, setting, point
of view, and theme. Please see Unit 2 Chapter 4 for the definitions and examples of
these elements. This chapter will focus on the types of plot.

The basic and most common plot structure of a story follows a linear format:
beginning, middle, and end. The linear format produces a climactic plot, which
contains the exposition, rising action, climax, and falling action leading to the
resolution of the story.

However, some stories follow a nonlinear format. It means that some stories start
in the middle or at the end.

Other Types of Plot Definition Examples

Episodic plot It features distinct Don Quixote de la

episodes that are related Mancha by
to one another but that Miguel de Cervantes
also can be read Huckleberry Finn by
individually, almost as Mark Twain
stories by themselves.

Cumulative plot It contains repetition of “The Gingerbread Man”

phrases, sentences, or
events with one new “The Great, Big,
aspect added with each Enormous
repetition. These are Turnip”
common among
children’s stories.

Frame narrative It is a story in which The Canterbury Tales by

(embedded plot) another story or other Geoffrey Chaucer
multiple stories is/are
embedded. It can also be Wuthering Heights by
that the main story is Emily
relayed second hand to a Bronte
character in the
narrative.
Lesson 3
Creative Nonfiction

Perhaps more than learning about facts, people are interested about learning
about people’s life stories and the valuable insights about life that they want to
share with others. These cannot always be recounted or shared through poetry due
to its compact nature and are better shared in a different genre: nonfiction.

The other type of prose is nonfiction. Nonfiction deals with real people, places, and
events. There are two broad categories of nonfiction:

1. Informative nonfiction are texts that provide factual information. Some

examples are science and history books, encyclopedias, dictionaries, and
periodicals.
2. Literary nonfiction is written like fiction, but people, events, and places involved
remain factual. Some examples of nonfiction narratives are autobiographies,
biographies, and personal essays.
● Autobiography – the story of a person’s life told by the same person.
Usually it is written in the first-person point of view and covers a long
period of the author’s life. Shorter types of this writing are journals, diaries,
and memoirs. The Diary of Anne Frank and Eat, Pray, Love by Elizabeth
Gilbert are examples of autobiographical writing.
● Biography – the story of a person’s life told by another person. An
example is A Beautiful Mind by Sylvia Nasar. Both autobiographies and
biographies share similar elements to that of fiction such as character,
setting, and plot.
● Essay – a piece of writing that centers on one topic or subject matter. The
purpose of an essay may be to inform, to describe, to entertain, or to
persuade the readers. An essay can be informal or personal and formal. The
essay only became popular in the West in the 1550s. The two writers who
were attributed with the “invention” of the form are Michel de Montaigne
and Francis Bacon.

Lesson 4
Drama

Many people are hooked on watching movies, plays, and television series because
these forms of literature mirror the lives of people. Thus, people can easily relate
themselves with the characters of these forms of entertainment as they succeed
and fail, cry and laugh, love and hate.

Dramas are stories in verse or prose form that are meant to be performed onstage
in front of an audience. Authors who write dramas are called dramatists or
playwrights. The elements of drama are similar to those of fiction except that
drama is written in a form called script, in which the lines are written in dialogues
with stage directions. Also, instead of chapters, dramas are divided into acts and
scenes.

Types of Drama
● Tragedy
The central character in a tragedy has a tragic flaw, making this character a
tragic hero. It means that he or she possesses a characteristic that can lead to his
or her downfall. Examples are Hamlet and Macbeth by William Shakespeare and
the tragedies written by Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides.

● Comedy
Comedic plays aim to make the audience laugh. Comedic stories are lighthearted.
They often take place in unusual circumstances, and it is typical for characters in
these plays to utter witty remarks. Examples are The Taming of the Shrew and
Merchant of Venice by William Shakespeare. Note, however, that Shakespearean
comedy is different from contemporary comedy.

● Musical drama
The characters in musical drama dance and sing. Various themes are presented,
from serious to comedic.

● Farce
A farce is a nonsensical drama that employs slapstick humor. It is mainly comedic
and is characterized by absurd conditions or situations and ardent actions. An
example is The Flying Doctor by Molière.

● Melodrama
A melodrama is characterized by the characters’ exaggerated emotions in various
situations.

Dialogue refers to the characters’ speech and is considered the lifeblood of drama.
The members of the audience get to understand the story, not only by the
characters’ actions but also by their speech. Dialogue may take the following
forms:
● Dialogue – These are the conversations of two or more characters onstage.
● Monologue – This is a long speech given by one character that can be heard by
or directed to other characters who are also onstage.
● Soliloquy – This is the speech of a character who is alone onstage. It is
portrayed as though the character is talking to himself or herself, or to the
audience, and the words cannot be heard by the other characters.
● Aside – This is a remark that a character makes that is meant only for the
audience to hear. The other characters onstage do not hear asides.

Since it is meant to be performed, there are additional elements in drama that

deal with bringing the story to life such as set, lighting, costume, and props.

Unit 4
Lesson 1
Genre Fiction

The dictionary meaning of genre is that it is a category of artistic composition, as

in music or literature, characterized by similarities in form, style, or subject matter.

Genre fiction (or popular, category, or formula fiction in different references)

focuses more on emotions. Its main purpose is to evoke the readers’ feelings since
the writer’s main goal is to entertain the reader.

Genre fiction is typically characterized by lengthy dialogues, identifiable

characters, and fast-paced plots. A book does not necessarily have to belong to
one specific genre; it can belong to different genres (multi-genre).

Different Genres of Popular Fiction

A. Adventure
This genre focuses on action and adventure as its main themes. Most of the time,
the conflict for this genre is the man vs. nature conflict.

B. Fantasy
In this genre, the plot, setting, and theme showcase magic, and characters may
include mythological and neo-mythological beings.
C. Historical
This genre is set in a significant or a recognizable point in history. Some
characters may even be historical figures; however, the dialogues, setting, plot, etc.
are fictional. Most historical fiction has political undertones.

D. Horror
This genre triggers the reader’s fear. Often, the writer creates an atmosphere of
dread throughout the whole or most of the story. The strategy of the author ranges
from the supernatural to psychological. Some horror stories have monsters. Some
involve blood and gore to instill fear among the readers.

E. Mystery or Detective
This genre involves elements, such as a crime, which remain unsolved until the end
of the narration. Mystery or detective fiction also involves elements such as a
character who struggles to solve the mystery, good characterization, and
motivation to solve a mystery or crime.

F. Romance
This genre focuses on the love between a man and a woman. It has two main
elements: a central love story and an emotionally satisfying optimistic ending.
Most works of romance fiction are told in the point of view of the female
protagonist. The plot of this genre focuses on the conflict that hinders the
relationship of the characters and how this conflict is resolved.

G. Science Fiction
This genre involves science and technology as the basis of its conflict, setting, or
plot. Most science fiction takes place in the future and features robots, chemicals,
or evolution. Science fiction mostly showcases what may happen in the future
should there be an abuse of nature or overuse of technology. At times, science
fiction is a critique of human attitude in the present time and how this may affect
the future.

H. Young Adult
This genre is specifically written for readers from twelve to seventeen years old.
Most of the books in this genre involve characters who are in the said age range.
Lesson 2
New and Emerging Literary Genres

New and emerging literary genres are works written by authors that deviate from
traditional writing methods. Often, these works are related to other genres.

New and Emerging Literary Genres

A. Fan Fiction
Also called fanfic, this is an emerging literary genre that is popular on social
media, especially for people who follow television shows and movies.
The genre got its name from its creators, the fans. Most works of fan fiction are
free and can be read through blogs, social networks, or fan fiction websites. In the
Philippines, the most popular website that features fan fiction is Wattpad. Other
websites that contain fanfic are FanFiction, Quotev, Kindle Worlds, and Archive of
Our Own.

One of the issues of fan fiction is copyright infringement because writers tend to
use the same settings and characters of an original book, which may lead to
copyright infringement. Another issue is the use of real-life celebrities since some
fan fiction may start rumors about celebrities.

Works of fan fiction are mostly written under pseudonyms.

B. Flash Fiction
This is the collective term for stories or narratives that have approximately 1,000
words or fewer. Flash fiction has a minimal or complete lack of exposition, and it
uses deliberate, purposeful, and inventive language and rhythm to create
experience. Abdon Balde Jr. is a famous flash fiction writer who won the 31st
National Book Awards for his collection of flash fiction entitled Kislap.

C. Metafiction
This is a “fiction about a fiction.” In this type of fiction, the author, the narrator, or
the main character directly speaks to the reader. The reader also plays a part in
the story.

D. Slipstream
Also considered as “the fiction of strangeness,” slipstream is a nonrealistic fiction
that crosses science fiction and fantasy or mainstream literary fiction. However,
not all slipstream stories do. Slipstream stories often employ elements of the
surreal and anti reality.
Lesson 3
Electronic Literature

Electronic literature, or simply e-lit, as defined by the Electronic Literature

Organization, is the collective term for literary works with important literary
aspects that take advantage of the capabilities and contexts provided by the
stand-alone or networked computer.

E-lit emerged from the use of technology and the capabilities of electronic media
to create literature. Most works are not for printing formats as they are designed
to be fully experienced digitally, such as graphics, animations, games or quests,
and sounds. However, electronic literature is different from e-books as e-books are
digital versions of paperbacks.

Kinds of Electronic Literature

A. Digital Fiction
Digital fictions are read from a computer, tablet, or smartphone, and thus, can be
app-based or web-based. These fictions contain hyperlinks, sound effects, mini
games, or moving images. Readers may take an active role in digital fictions. They
direct the course of the story or narrative by choosing a hyperlink or controlling a
character’s adventure or quest.

There are two types of digital fiction:

1. Hypertext fiction
This type of digital fiction is nonlinear and reader-centered. The readers are
provided with different links in the story, thereby deciding on what order to read
the pages of the story and choosing how a story will pan out. In some hypertext
works, the readers can even add their own version of the story, which allows for
different plots.

2. Interactive fiction
An interactive fiction is an adventure story in a software-simulated environment,
usually a video game (role-playing game or RPG), where the reader or the player
controls how the story will develop. It has multiple story lines and endings may
vary. An example of this is 80 Days, an adventure game based on Jules Verne’s
Around the World in Eighty Days.
B. Digital Poetry
Digital poetry is another form of electronic literature that can be accessed through
a computer, tablet, or smartphone. This type of literature is available on the
Internet and sometimes recorded as digital video or films.

There are five types of digital poetry:

1. Hypertext poetry
This type of digital poetry is characterized by links wherein a word, a phrase, or a
line is linked to another page, which describes or elaborates on the idea conveyed
in the poem. Some hypertext poems link sounds, visual images, and other poems
to help in the reader’s interpretation.

2. Interactive poetry
Interactive poetry allows readers to contribute to the content or form of a poem.
Readers can collaborate or work together to create a poem or interact with it.

3. Code poetry
This digital poetry is written in programming language format (C++, Java, HTML)
that is not, in reality, executable. For example, Kenny Brown’s “Creation?” mimics
the start of our solar system by using rule sets and variables found in coding.

4. Visual or concrete poetry

This type of digital poetry uses visual presentation to enhance the meaning of the
poem. Simply put, the layout or how the words/lines/verses are placed or shown is
as important as the content.

5. Kinetic poetry
Kinetic poetry uses kinesthesia, a literary device that describes the action or
movement of a person or an object. In modern times, writers use technology for a
more visual expression of their works. They employ the use of kinetic typography
or moving text for an elaborate expression of an emotion or thought. Kinetic
poetry is often produced in videos. A current example of this type of poetry is by
an Australian group called 313RGB, one stands in front of the screen and “moves”
words with the use of one’s hands.
Lesson 4
Graphic Literature

Graphic literature, also called sequential storytelling, is literature in the form of

comics. The term “graphic literature” has come to encompass not just works of
fiction but also autobiographical narratives, nonfiction, and even poetry.

Graphic literature also comes in different genres, like horror, historical fiction,
romance, science fiction, etc.

Kinds of Graphic Literature

1. Japanese manga
Japanese manga is an example of graphic literature that has many followers. This
type of graphic literature is created in Japan and/or written in Japanese.

A famous manga is the historical fiction Rurouni Kenshin, written and illustrated
by Nobuhiro Watsuki. The said manga focuses on the life of a former swordsman
who has changed his ways.

2. Graphic novels
Graphic novels are famous examples of graphic literature. Among the most
popular graphic novelists are Alan Moore, who wrote V for Vendetta and
Watchmen, and Neil Gaiman, who is famous for The Sandman series. Both Moore
and Gaiman’s works have a political undertone and critique on the nature of
humans in society.

Filipinos have ventured into writing graphic novels. Examples of these are Filipino
Heroes League by Pablo Fabregas and Ang Subersibo (an adaptation of Jose
Rizal’s Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo), which is adapted by Adam David
and illustrated by Mervin Malonzo.

The distinction between graphic novels and comic books is still contentious. A
general view, though, is that a graphic novel is read like a book, as it tells one
story from the beginning to the end, whereas comic books are periodicals. As such,
graphic novels are often longer and have a more complex storyline.

3. Comic strips
In the Philippines, comics is a widespread graphic literature. Being periodicals,
comics are released in serial format and are often short humorous or adventure
stories. A comic book may also contain several stories.
One of the famous cartoonists in the Philippines is Apolonio “Pol” Medina Jr., who
created Pugad Baboy. Jess Abrera is also famous for his creations A. Lipin and
Pinoy Nga!, both of which regularly appear on the Philippine Daily Inquirer. His
son, Manix Abrera, is also famous for the comic strip compilation Kikomachine
Komix, which has different volumes of books. Kikomachine Komix has attracted
many college students as its comic strips depict their lives and struggles.

Unit 5
Lesson 1
The Precolonial Period

Most literary works during the precolonial period were passed down by word of
mouth. This form of transmission is called oral tradition. But in some cases, our
ancestors were able to make use of a writing system to pen down some works of
literature.

The following are the conventions of oral literature:

1. Common experiences of the community as subject matter
2. Communal authorship
3. Formulaic repetitions
4. Stereotyping of characters
5. Regular rhythmic and musical devices

However, the early literary written forms of precolonial Filipinos were destroyed by
the Spanish friars. The literary forms we know now that survived to this day were
restored because of resistance and geographical isolation.

E. Arsenio Manuel, a literary scholar notable for his studies on Philippine folk
literature, divided Philippine precolonial literature into three, namely the
Mythological Age, Heroic Age, and Folktales from all ages.

Mythological Age
This is the period when our ancestors told stories about the creation of human
beings and the world, natural phenomena, and deities and spirits.
Heroic Age
In this period, the characters in stories evolved. Ordinary mortals and cultural
heroes became the chief subject matter in this period. Epics became a popular
genre. They were chanted during important events in the community to inspire
people. These were also performed to remind the community of their ideals and
values.

Folktales
Philippine folktales are traditional stories that had humans, animals, and even
plants as characters. These are fictional tales that have been modified through
successive retellings before they were finally recorded and written down.

The writing system used by Filipinos during the precolonial period is the baybayin.
This was derived from Kavi, a Javanese (Indonesian) script.

To write, the early Filipinos used palm leaves or bamboo, which they wrote on
using knives as pens and sap from plants and trees as ink. The ancient Filipino
script had seventeen basic syllables composed of three vowels and fourteen
consonants. The vowels were a, e/i, and o/u. The consonants were ba, ka, da/ra,
ga, ha, la, ma, na, nga, pa, sa, ta, wa, and ya.

The symbols used could be modified to present different vowel sounds. This could
be done with the use of the kudlit, which may be a short line, a dot, or even an
arrowhead placed at the top or the bottom of the symbol being modified.

Lesson 2
Philippine Folk Narratives

Narratives such as folktales and legends were created to explain natural

phenomena and the origin of things long before science came to be known.

Myths
These are stories that make use of gods, goddesses, and other fantastical
creatures as characters. These became a means for our ancestors to explain the
occurrence of supernatural events, the beginning of cultural traditions, and the
existence of mysteries. A myth may also attempt to explain the origin of the world
and of the people.
Legends
Believed to be historical but cannot be verified as true, legends are stories handed
down through generations. These stories are often about famous persons or
events. These may tell of an encounter with marvelous creatures, which the folks
still believe in: fairies, ghosts, water spirits, the devil, and the like.

Folktales
Folktales are prose narratives usually told to amuse or entertain. These are also
instructional in nature, dealing with events set in an indefinite time and space.

Epics
An epic is a long narrative poem that describes the adventures of a hero, warrior,
god, or king. It is influenced by the traditions, culture, beliefs, moral code, and
attitudes of the people who created it. The characteristics of a classical epic
include the following:
● The main character or protagonist of the story is considered a hero.
● The hero’s actions are presented without bias; the epic presents both the
character’s faults and virtues.
● Epics often involve battles, which reveal the extraordinary strength of the
protagonist as he engages in acts of bravery.
● The setting may span several countries, involve the whole world, or even be set
in the universe.
● Gods and other divine beings are portrayed as having a role in the outcome of
events.

1. Hinilawod
This is considered as the oldest and longest among the epics of Panay. It narrates
the adventures of three brothers: Humadapnon, Dumalapdap, and Labaw
Denggan.

2. Ibalon
Somehow similar to Hinilawod, this epic is about three brothers: Baltog, Bantiong,
and Handiong. This epic originated from the Bicol region.

3. Hudhud
This epic tells about the lives of native Ifugao heroes, the most notable of which is
Aliguyon of the village Gonhandan. Aliguyon was endowed with supernatural
powers and boundless energy. He has the ability to travel long distances without
needing food and rest. Upon arriving at his destination, he still has the same
energy as he did when he started his journey. Aliguyon was invincible in battle; he
could catch spears in mid-flight and could fight against many combatants.
4. Darangan
This epic is about the sentimental and romantic adventures of noble Maranao
warriors; the most famous is about a warrior or prince named Bantugan. Prince
Bantugan was the brother of the chieftain of a village called Bumbaran. Bantugan
owned a magic shield, was protected by divine spirits, and was capable of rising
from the dead.

5. Biag ni Lam-Ang
This is an epic that tells the story of Lam-Ang, who exhibits extraordinary abilities
even in his early years. This epic originated from the Ilocos region.

Fable
Famous in filipinos

Fairytales
Known for the magical elements included in them.

Humorous tales
Ridiculous stories about tricksters characters who cheat on people.

Religous tales
Religous legends they are about goodness and evil

Novelistic tales
Hero who uses his or her wit and common sense to solve problems and overcome
obstacles.

A folk narrative is a story constructed by precolonial Filipinos.

● A myth is a story about how things came to be.

● A legend also tells origins, but are believed to be partly factual.
● A folktale is mainly told for amusement or entertainment.
● An epic is a story about the exploits of a hero.
Lesson 3
Philippine Mythology and Philippine Folk Lyric and Speech

The base form of Philippine folk lyric and speech is poetry.

Poetry is a form of literature that emphasizes rhythm, metrical structure, and the
use of imagery and sound patterns.

This literary form is organized in stanzas, which are groups of consecutive lines in
a poem, with each stanza forming a single unit.

Ancient Tagalog Deities

Filipinos practiced worshipping gods and goddesses during the precolonial period.
This practice is known as animism, which is a belief that souls or spirits exist in
plants, animals, or objects.

Animism comes from the Latin word anima, which, according to psychologist Carl
Jung, means a person’s inner self or soul.

In the Philippines, deities vary in different regions.

Kaluwalhatian is the term used to refer to the home of ancient Philippine gods and
goddesses.
● Bathala or Bathalang Maykapal is the king of the gods in Tagalog myths. He
married a mortal, with which he had three children: Apolaki (god of war and
guardian of the sun), Mayari (goddess of the moon), and Tala (goddess of the
stars).
● Apolaki and Mayari (or Adlaw and Bulan in Visayan) ruled the earth at different
times. This is because of a conflict between them when Bathala died and he did not
pass the title to any of his children.
● Tala is the goddess who tells Mayari that the sun god is gone and that it is safe
for her to come out along with the stars.
● Amihan is believed to be a bird, which is said to be the first creature that
inhabited the earth. It is linked to the story of creation of the Tagalogs.
● Bakunawa, or the “moon eater,” is the god of the underworld. Believed to have
an image of a serpent or dragon, he is the one responsible for eclipses.

Folk Songs
Folk songs are repetitive and sonorous and have a playful melody. They may be
about love and courtship, a long day’s work, or may be songs sung at a funeral.
“Doon Po Sa Amin” is a song about struggle or hardship, while “Leron Leron Sinta”
is a popular Tagalog folk song about courtship.

folk song
● a precolonial literature that is in poetry form
● meant to be sung, either solo or with a musical instrument's accompaniment

Proverbs
Proverbs or salawikain are short sayings enveloped in rhymed verse that are
meant to give advice to the young, offering words of wisdom or stating how one
should live.

Riddles
Riddles, locally called bugtong, are perplexing questions meant to be guessed or
solved. These are used for entertainment, and they require one to observe,
analyze, and imagine to provide the right answer.

novelistic tale or novella

tells of a protagonist who uses his or her common sense or wit to get out of a
difficult situation, usually by unraveling words said to him or her by another
character

Lesson 4
Reading Selections and Analyses

Decoding Riddles
Analyzing or answering riddles requires one to decode images from it.

Analyzing Myths
In reading a myth, it is important to understand it in the context of its place of
origin while discussing elements of fiction.

Here are guide questions that you may use in analyzing the myth
1. What is the subject matter of the myth?
2. Who are the main characters in the myth? Characterize them using a Venn
Diagram to note similarities and differences.
3. Compare this myth with another that has the same subject. How are these myths
similar and different?
4. How does this myth reflect the culture of the people in *location*?
5. What is the theme of this myth?

Analyzing Epics
Philippine “ethnoepics” can be understood through their common features as
described by E. Arsenio Manuel.

These features are:

1. narratives of sustained length
2. based on oral tradition;
3. revolving around supernatural events or heroic deeds;
4. in the form of verse;
5. which is either chanted or sung;
6. with a certain seriousness of purpose, embodying or validating beliefs, customs,
ideals or life values of the people.

In analyzing folktales, like epics, you may use Vladimir Propp’s Morphology of the
Folktale.

Propp’s 31 Dramatic Situations

1st Sphere: 2nd Sphere: 3rd Sphere: 4th Sphere:
Introduction The Body of the The Donor The Hero’s Return
Story Sequence

1. Absentation: 8. Villainy and 12. Testing: Hero 20. Return: Hero

Someone goes Lack: The need is challenged to sets out for home
missing is identified prove heroic
qualities

2. Interdiction: 13. Reaction: Hero 21. Pursuit: Hero is

Hero is warned responds to test chased

3. Violation of 9. Mediation: 14. Acquisition: 22. Rescue: Pursuit

Interdiction Hero discovers the Hero gains ends
lack magical item
23. Arrival: Hero
15.Guidance: Hero arrives
reaches unrecognized
destination

4. Reconnaissance 10. Counteraction 16. Struggle: Hero 24. Claim: False

: Villain seeks : Hero chooses and villain do hero makes
something positive action battle unfounded
 claims

25. Task: Difficult

task proposed to
the hero

5. Delivery: The 11. Departure: 17. Branding: Hero 26. Solution: Task
villain gains Hero leaves on is branded is resolved
information mission
27. Recognition:
Hero is recognized

6. Trickery: The 18. Victory: Villain 28. Exposure: False

villain attempts is defeated hero is exposed
to deceive the
victim 29.
Transfiguration:
Hero is given a
new appearance

7. Complicity: 19. Resolution: 30. Punishment:

Unwitting Initial Villain is punished
helping of the misfortune or
enemy lack is resolved 31. Wedding: Hero
marries and
ascends the throne
Few narratives contain all these dramatic situations, and the sequence of events
may change or repeat.

Unit 6
Lesson 1
The Spanish Colonial Period

Historical Background
On March 16, 1521, the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan arrived in the
Philippine soil. He landed in Homonhon, an island in Eastern Samar. He also went
to Limasawa, which was where the first Catholic mass in the country was
celebrated.
On April 14, 1521, after reaching the island of Cebu, Fr. Pedro Valderrama baptized
more than 500 natives along with Rajah Humabon.

Ruy López de Villalobos named the archipelago Las Islas Filipinas in honor of
Prince Philip of Asturias, who reigned as the King of Spain from 1556 to 1598.

In 1565, King Philip II of Spain officially colonized the country and assigned the
new expedition to the first Governor-General Miguel López de Legazpi. Six years
later, he established his capital in Manila, a location that offered the harbor of
Manila Bay, a large population, and proximity to the ample food supplies of the
Central Luzon rice lands.

Spain had two motives in colonizing the Philippines:

1. Spice trade
More valuable than gold, spices were the leading component of ancient commerce
even before the 15th century. Spain, along with other European countries, funded
expeditions in search of cinnamon, clove, ginger, turmeric, and other priced
commodities.
2. Converting Filipinos to Christianity
The Spaniards used a policy called reduccion, which is a means of relocation of
scattered settlements to a large town. This way, Spanish friars were able to
convert natives into Christianity.

Spanish priests believed that stories about mythical creatures, spirits, deities, and
rituals contained works of the devil. Because of this, they instructed the natives to
destroy them. They also told them to undergo baptism and embrace Christianity.
Spanish colonized rule was supposed to derive its authority from the union of
Church and State. The parish priest, however, was practically the only Spaniard
who had direct contact with Filipinos. As such, he became the embodiment of
Spanish power and culture among the colonized populace. Through their contact
with him and beliefs he carried with him, religion exerted a pervasive influence
among the minds of the Christianized Filipinos.

The Spanish culture became highly noticeable in literature because of the use of
characters similar to kings and queens, and princes and princesses. For example,
in Ibong Adarna, characters were addressed as Don and Donya. Even the setting is
influenced by European culture.

The 333-year Spanish colonization ended with outbreaks of revolution and the rise
of independence. The Propaganda Movement, led by the Ilustrados, who are elite
Filipinos who went to Europe to study, along with Andres Bonifacio and Emilio
Aguinaldo, demanded independence from Spain.

Members of Reform Movement led by the ilustrados namely Jose Rizal

(Dimasalang/Laong Laan), Marcelo H. del Pilar (Plaridel), and Mariano Ponce
(Tikbalang/Kalipulako) wrote for La Solidaridad, whereas revolutionaries Andres
Bonifacio (May Pag-asa) and Emilio Jacinto (Dimasilaw) wrote for Kalayaan.
These newspapers contributed to secular writings during the period and ignited
the desire of the Filipinos to be free from Spain.

On June 12, 1898, General Emilio Aguinaldo proclaimed the independence of the
Philippines from the Spanish colonial rule in his home in Kawit, Cavite. This
freedom, however, was short-lived because of the arrival of the Americans in the
land.

Spanish Influences on Philippine Literature

There are many ways that Spaniards influenced our literature. Since Ferdinand
Magellan’s arrival in the Philippines, the Spaniards have continuously propagated
their own culture and traditions for the next 333 years. Among their influences are
the following:

1. The first Filipino alphabet called Alibata was replaced by the Roman alphabet.
2. Religious practices became based on teachings of Christian doctrine.
3. The Spanish language, which became the literary language during this time, lent
many of its words to our language.
4. European legends and traditions brought here became assimilated in our songs,
corridos, and moro-moros.
5. Ancient literature was collected and translated to Tagalog and other dialects.
6. Our periodicals during the Spanish colonization gained a religious tone.
Lesson 2
Poetry during the Spanish Colonial Period
When Satanas (Satan) was introduced into Tagalog poetry, the Christian themes of
guilt, sin, and retribution eventually became primary concerns of the native
population.

The Development of Poetry

Philippine poems during the precolonial period highlighted epics, riddles, folk
songs, and proverbs that depicted the spiritual beliefs and everyday lives of
natives, while poetry under the Spanish colonial period focused on religion and
values, which became instruments in spreading Christianity and Spanish-oriented
culture.

A ladino poem is a bilingual poem with religious themes. It is characterized by

alternating lines or verses in Tagalog and Spanish. The term ladino also refers to
Filipinos who were fluent in both Spanish and Filipino.

In Spain, complimentary verses, usually a poem in sonnet form, appeared in

books to encourage people to read them. In the Philippines, a book entitled
Memorial de la vida Cristiana en lengua Tagala (Guidelines for the Christian Life in
the Tagalog Language) by Fr. Francisco Blancas de San Jose included a ladino or
bilingual complimentary poem written by Francisco Bagongbanta known by its
first line “Salamat nang walang hanggan” (Unending Thanks).

Types of Poems during the Spanish Colonial Period

Poetic forms that emerged during the Spanish colonial period include:

1. Pasyon *quintains*
This is a narrative poem about the passion, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ.
It has replaced the precolonial oral tradition that the Filipino had since pasyon is
recited in churches. It consists of five-line stanzas with eight syllables per line. The
earliest known pasyon is the Ang Mahal na Pasión ni Jesu Christong Panginoon
natin na Tola in 1704.

2. Awit *secular poem*

This is a narrative poem that consists of 12 syllables per line and four lines per
stanza. The rhythm is slow and is usually accompanied by the use of a guitar or
bandurya. It expresses adoration of the Blessed Virgin Mary as well as platonic
and courtly love. A famous example of an awit is Francisco Balagtas’s Florante at
Laura.
3. Korido *quatrains*
A korido is another narrative poem that consists of eight syllables per line and
four lines per stanza. The rhythm is faster compared with that of an awit. An
example of a korido is Ibong Adarna, which contains 1,722 stanzas and has five
parts.

4. Dalit
This is a religious poem in honor of the Blessed Virgin Mary. One of the famous
poets of the Spanish colonial period is Francisco Baltazar (1788-1862) who wrote
the awit Florante at Laura. Baltazar was considered the master of traditional
Tagalog poetry. His work Florante at Laura was a metaphor for the tyranny of the
Spanish colonizers.

Secular poems
Poems that are not religious
● Awit
● Kundiman

Lesson 3
Prose during the Spanish Colonial Period

Our stories tell much about our culture, belief system, and way of life. The
colonization of the Spaniards for more than 300 years shaped our cultural
heritage. Most of the prose written during this period were prayers, novenas,
stories about the lives of saints, and those taken from the bible to teach values.

The Development of Prose

During the precolonial period, natives created stories about the supernatural,
creatures, spirits, deities, and even the origin of things. However, during the
Spanish colonization Spanish friars attempted to eliminate these stories and
replaced them with religious ones to convert natives to Christianity. Spanish
missionaries published meditations, translations, and studies on the Philippine
languages.

In 1593, a prayer book called the Doctrina Christiana en lengua Española y tagala
(Christian Doctrine in the Spanish and Tagalog Languages) was one of the first
books printed in the Philippines.
Spanish friars also made an attempt to learn the different languages in the
Philippines to communicate with the natives. The first book explaining the
principles of the Tagalog language was Arte y reglas de la lengua tagala (The
Art and Rules of the Tagalog Language).

Tomas Pinpin’s Librong Pagaaralan nang manga Tagalog nang uicang Castilla (A
Book for the Tagalog to Study the Spanish Language) was the first published work
by a Filipino and contains a preface that is probably the first essay written by a
Filipino.

Types of Prose during the Spanish Colonial Period

Prose forms that emerged during the Spanish colonial rule include:

1. Anecdotes
These are short and amusing stories that contain lessons in life. Priests often use
anecdotes as part of their sermons. An example of an anecdote is the Tagalog
translation and adaptation of Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe entitled Ang Bagong
Robinson, Historiang Nagtuturo nang Mabuting Caugalian, na Guinauang
Tanungan (The New Robinson, a Story That Teaches Good Conduct, Done in Primer
Form) by Joaquin Tuason.

2. Pláticas (Sermons)
These are lectures presented by Spanish priests that dealt with religious, biblical,
and moral topics. In 1864, Padre Modesto de Castro compiled 25 of his sermons in
Pláticas Doctrinales (Sermons on Doctrines).

3. Novenas
These are a series of prayers repeated for nine consecutive days and are usually
prayers for petition and thanksgiving.
● Pasiyam
-parted souls

4. Novels
Novels are long narrative stories, usually with fictional characters and with a
sequence of events divided into chapters. Examples of novels during the Spanish
colonial period include Pedro Paterno’s Ninay (considered the first Filipino novel),
Padre Modesto de Castro’s Urbana at Feliza, Padre Miguel Lucio y Bustamante’s Si
Tandang Basio Macunat, and Jose Rizal’s Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo.
5. Essays
These are personal pieces of writing that use the point of view of the writer. One of
the most important essays during this period is “Ang Dapat Mabatid ng mga
Tagalog” by Andres Bonifacio. It was published in the newspaper Kalayaan.

Lesson 4
Drama during the Spanish Colonial Period
Drama is one form of literature that many people love and enjoy. Thus, the
depiction of significant human issues and experiences on stage makes drama an
engaging and an interesting form of artistic expression.

The Development of Drama

Before the Spanish colonizers came, performances in the Philippines were in the
form of rituals. However, during the Spanish regime, these rituals were replaced by
drama.

Dramas were performed to spread Christianity; thus, most dramas during the
period were focused on the life of Jesus Christ. These dramas exist until today and
are performed mostly during the Holy Week.

Types of Drama during the Spanish Colonial Period

Types of drama that emerged during the Spanish colonial period include:

1. Karagatan *poetic contest*

It is a form of poetic contest usually played as part of the rites held in connection
with the death of a person. It is based on a legend about a lady’s ring that fell in
the middle of the sea. The lady’s hand is offered in marriage as a reward to any
young man who could retrieve the ring.

2. Duplo *poetic contest*

It is another poetic contest held when a person dies or during the wake. Duplo
consists of puns, jokes, and riddles in the vernacular to relieve sadness.

3. Senakulo
It is a play that portrays the life, passion, and crucifixion of Jesus Christ.
4. Tibag
It tells how Saint Helena, also called Santa Elena or Reyna Elena, searched for
Jesus’s cross on Mount Calvary.

5. Moriones
It is a festival in celebration of the life of Saint Longinus. Saint Longinus was a
blind Roman soldier tasked to drive a spear through Jesus to make sure he was
dead. A miracle happened when Jesus’s blood touched him. He regained his
eyesight and converted to Christianity. Because of this change of faith, Saint
Longinus was beheaded as ordered by Pontius Pilate.

6. Moro-moro
It is a play written about the victory of a Christian Filipino army over Muslim
forces. In 1637, Gran Comedia de la Toma del Pueblo de Corralat y Conquista del
Cerro, written by Padre Geronimo Perez, was the first moro-moro
performed in Manila.

7. Sarsuwela
It is a play with songs and dances with up to five acts, portraying the whimsies of
romantic love.

8. Lagaylay
This is a special occasion participated in by women in some parts of Bicol region.
It is a song-and-dance performance that aims to make a vow, make a petition, or
offer praise and love toward religious icons such as the Blessed Cross that St.
Helen found.

9. Panunuluyan
This is presented before 12:00 on Christmas Eve. This is a presentation of the
search of the Virgin Mary and St. Joseph for an inn where Mary can give birth to
Jesus.

10.Salubong (or Panubong)

The salubong depicts the moment when the risen Christ met his mother. This play
is shown during Easter morning.

11.Carillo (Shadow Play)

This is a form of dramatic entertainment performed on a moonless night during a
town fiesta or on dark nights after a harvest. This shadow play is made by
projecting cardboard figures before a lamp against a white sheet. The figures are
moved like marionettes whose dialogues are voiced by the puppeteers themselves.
12. Sainete
This was a short musical comedy popular during the 18th century. They were
exaggerated comedies shown between acts of long plays and were mostly
performed by characters from the lower classes. Themes were taken from
everyday life scenarios.

Unit 7
Lesson 1
Philippine Literature during the American Colonial Period

The American colonial period in the Philippines was also the time when knowledge
and information became increasingly accessible to more Filipinos. The use of the
English language as a mode of instruction in schools paved the way for more
Filipinos to learn and utilize the language in various forms of communication,
especially in writing. Many literary writers in English emerged during this era: Paz
Marquez Benitez, Juan F. Salazar, and many others whose literary pieces are still
being published and read after so many decades.

A nation’s history can be recalled through political decrees, constitutions, laws,

and reforms. However, to learn about its core values and spirit as a nation, one
must read its literature. Literature reflects the practices, cultures, and reactions of
its people to the events around them. Each form, such as essay and poetry, will tell
you the various emotions and thoughts about these events that led to shaping the
citizens and the nation.

On April 11, 1899, the Treaty of Paris came into effect. It was an agreement signed
by John Hay, the US Secretary of State, after the Spanish-American War. In this
agreement, Spain surrendered the remaining colonies of the Spanish
empire—Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines—to the United States, which
also involved a payment of 20 million dollars to Spain.

Education was first headed by American soldiers. This changed in 1901, when
around 600 teachers arrived onboard the ship USS Thomas to replace the soldiers.
These teachers were called the Thomasites. Public education was made free, and
the medium of instruction used was English. This created a new educated middle
class in the country. Alongside the use of English in education, Filipinos learned
American models of thought, culture, and ways of life.

Since the Filipinos were colonized for more than 300 years prior to the American
colonial period, the Spanish language was widely used during the American rule.
Thus, a great portion of literature written by Filipinos using the Spanish language
emerged during this era. For example, newspapers like El Tiempo, El Pueblo de
Iloilo, La Vanguardia, La Democracia, and El Renacimiento were published in
Spanish. On the other hand, other newspapers and magazines helped boost the
use of the English language in the Philippines. Some of these were the Manila
Times, the Manila Daily Bulletin, Cable News, the Independent, Philippines Free
Press, the Philippine Review, the Philippines Herald, the Manila Tribune, and
Graphic, among others. School publications also emerged during this period, such
as the Filipino Students’ Magazine, UP College Folio, the Coconut of the Manila
High School, and the Torch of the Philippine Normal School.

Comics also started appearing in magazines as a series, like “Si Kiko at Si Angge”
in Telembang. Others were satirical editorial cartoons like in Lipang Kalabaw, a
Tagalog magazine owned by Lope K. Santos. “Album ng mga Kabalbalan ni
Kenkoy” also appeared in the entertainment section of the magazine Liwayway.

Tagalog drama also transformed from merely a form of entertainment to an

expression of revolt against the Americans. Famous playwrights were Juan Abad,
who wrote Tanikalang Guinto; Juan Matapang Cruz for Hindi Aco Patay; Aurelio
Tolentino, writer of Kahapon, Ngayon, at Bukas; Severino Reyes for Walang Sugat;
Julian Cruz Balmaceda for Sa Bunganga ng Pating; and Precioso Palma for
Paglipas ng Dilim.

Sarsuwela, a form of musical theater famous in the 1920s to 1930s, was later
written in English by Filipino playwrights Wilfrido Ma. Guerrero, who wrote Three
Rats, and Alberto Florentino, writer of The World Is an Apple. However, even in the
midst of the American period, the Spanish language was used by these famous
writers and poets: Claro M. Recto for his piece Bajo los Cocoteros, Antonio M. Abad
for his El Ultimo Romantico, and Jesus Balmori, popular for his Mi Casa de Nipa,
among many others.

During this period, many writers were apprentices in English literature; they
imitated the style of popular American fictionists. It was as if learning the
language was also learning to write in English. However, as years went by, these
writers found their own styles in writing. Famous short stories in English emerged,
like “Dead Stars” by Paz Marquez-Benitez and “Footnote to Youth” by Jose Garcia
Villa. These short stories showcased the writers’ distinct styles that were different
from the styles of American writers.

Alongside short stories, essays became a popular form of expression. Some were
light or humorous, while some writers dealt with more serious subjects such as
politics and social problems. Most of these essays were published as newspaper
columns. In 1921, the first-ever anthology for essays was published by Zoilo M.
Galang with the title Life and Success. In the same year, the first collection of
poems in book form, the Reminiscence, was published by Lorenzo Paredes.
Meanwhile, Justo Juliano’s poem “Sursum Corda” is the first known Filipino poem
in English and was published in the Philippines Free Press in 1907.

During the American colonial period, Filipino writers in English started from being
“apprentices” of American writers and developed to being writers with their own
voices and styles. Their further development in using the English language in
writing helped pave the way for younger Filipino writers to confidently write their
own stories and add more to the ever-growing list of literary works in the country.

Lesson 2
Filipino Author during the American Colonization: Aurelio Tolentino

Many prominent writers emerged during the American colonial period. While most
of them started as apprentices, many developed and owned their voices and
writing styles in English, Filipino, and other Philippine languages. Indeed, through
their brilliance and perseverance, Philippine literature flourished and became
richer not just in form but also in themes that were discussed in each literary text.
One of these writers is Aurelio Tolentino, who remained true to his militant
nationalism and made it part of his literary writings.

One of the prolific writers during the American colonial period was Aurelio
Tolentino. He was born on October 3, 1867 in Guagua, Pampanga. He obtained a
bachelor of arts degree at Colegio de San Juan de Letran and took law at the
University of Santo Tomas. However, his father’s passing forced him to stop his
schooling.

He helped in printing and distributing La Solidaridad, the newspaper founded by

the Ilustrados Graciano Lopez-Jaena, Marcelo H. del Pilar, and Jose Rizal, who
were all in Spain during that time. He also became acquainted with Andres
Bonifacio and was imprisoned during the 1896 revolution. He was again sent to
prison by Americans during the American colonial era. In addition to his political
and revolutionary involvements, he was also one of the witnesses who signed the
Declaration of Philippine Independence in Kawit, Cavite on June 12, 1898.

Due to his play Kahapon, Ngayon, at Bukas (Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow), he
became known as the Father of Tagalog Drama. He was an advocate of using
Tagalog as a language that unifies Filipinos from different regions. Because of
this, he founded the El Parnaso Filipino, a school that promotes Tagalog literature.

Lesson 3
Philippine Literature during the Japanese Occupation

The Japanese occupation lasted for only three years. However, despite their brief
rule in the country, they made lasting marks, most especially to our elders who
lived through the war. Our literary development paused for a while since there was
great censorship in all forms of media.

During World War II, the Philippines was occupied by the Japanese from 1941 to
1945. The occupation of the Philippines began on December 8, 1941, 10 hours after
Japan bombed Pearl Harbor in Hawaii."

During the war between Japan and the United States, President Manuel L. Quezon
and General Douglas MacArthur fled to the US. But before leaving, MacArthur
made a promise to the Filipino people: “I shall return.” The saying is popular up
to this day. He came back to Leyte in 1944.

The Fall of Bataan and the Death March, which killed thousands of Filipinos and
Americans, were results of the final major battles of the Japanese invasion.
Japanese rule in the Philippines began after they subdued all Philippine and
American military forces in the country.

Victory over Japan Day (V-J Day, 1945) was declared after Japan surrendered to
the United States on August 15, 1945. After this was the inauguration of the First
Philippine Republic on July 4, 1946. During the Japanese occupation, there was
only a limited number of Filipino literature in English that was written and
published. However, Philippine literature in general flourished in this period,
especially those that were written in Tagalog and other Philippine languages.
English plays during this period were translated into Filipino or the vernacular.
Plays were also one of the more popular forms of entertainment because the
Japanese banned American films.

A number of original dramas in Filipino were written during this period. For
example, Francisco Soc Rodrigo wrote Sa Pula, sa Puti, which is being read in
schools until now. Jose Ma. Fernandez wrote Panday Pira, while Julian Cruz
Balmaceda wrote Sino Ba Kayo? and Dahil sa Anak. Meanwhile, Filipino writers of
other literary forms such as short stories, essays, and poetry were given distinct
honors. Pulitzer Prize recipient Carlos P. Romulo had his bestsellers

I Saw the Fall of the Philippines, I See the Philippines Rise, and Mother America,
and My Brother Americans. Notable short story writers in this era were Macario
Pineda, N.V.M. Gonzalez, Ligaya Reyes, and Gloria Guzman, to name a few. In
poetry, Fred Ruiz Castro and Francisco Icasiano were only two of the prominent
poets of that time.

Without Seeing the Dawn, a novel written by Stevan Javellana, was published in
the United States in 1947. It depicts the experiences of Filipinos during the war
between the Americans and the Japanese. This novel was later on adapted into a
movie entitled Santiago!, which was directed by Lino Brocka and starred Fernando
Poe, Jr. and Hilda Coronel.

Among the most gruesome stories during the war were those about comfort
women, and among them was Maria Rosa Henson or Nana Rosa as she was fondly
known. She wrote an autobiography, Comfort Woman: Slave of Destiny, which was
published in 1996.

Some famous Filipino writers who lived during this period were Bienvenido Santos,
Manuel Arguilla, Marcelo Agana Jr., and Nick Joaquin.

Lesson 4
Filipino Author during the Japanese Occupation: Manuel Arguilla

Many writers went underground during the Japanese period. As Victoria Abelardo
described this era of Filipino writing, the Japanese occupation was pessimistic and
bitter. However, despite these dark times, more Filipino writers proved that their
nationalism and spirit as a writer never faltered. One of these writers was Manuel
Arguilla, whose work is continually included in school discussions.
One of the famous Filipino writers in English during the Commonwealth period and
the Japanese occupation was Manuel Arguilla. He was born in Bauang, La Union
on June 17, 1911. In high school, he was the editor-in-chief of their school
newsletter La Union Tab. He earned an education degree in 1933 at the University
of the Philippines and was a member and eventually president of the UP Writers
Club, as well as the editor of the Literary Apprentice. In addition, he was also the
editor of Welfare Advocate, the publication of Bureau of Public Welfare where he
worked after teaching in the University of Manila.

His literary works were compiled in a book with the title How My Brother Leon
Brought Home a Wife (and Other Stories). This collection of short stories won first
prize in the first Commonwealth Literary Contest in 1940.
Most of his stories depict events in his hometown as evidenced in “How My Brother
Leon Brought Home a Wife.” Similar to other Filipino writers, he used a lot of local
color in his literary pieces.

He became a teacher, writer, and fighter when he joined the freedom forces of the
country and fought against the Japanese army in 1941. He was captured in 1944
along with his family, and he was sentenced to death. He was executed on October
1944 at the age of 33.

Unit 8
Lesson 1
Overview of Philippine Literature from the Regions

The Philippines is home to different ethnic groups from Luzon, Visayas, and
Mindanao. Each group has its own culture, beliefs, and practices, which are
embodied in the kinds of literature the writers in each region produce.

The following are some literary genres common in the regions:

a. Etiological legends explain how things came to be or why things are as they are.
However, the source of these legends cannot be verified because they are handed
from one generation to another through word of mouth. Good examples of these
are “The Origin of the Hundred Islands” and “Ang Alamat ng Batangas.”
 ● “The Origin of the Hundred Islands” is about the brave Rajah Masubeg who
ruled over the people of Alaminos. His kingdom was guarded by several
hundred warriors led by his son. They enjoyed peace and prosperity until
they got invaded by forces across the sea. One hundred brave soldiers were
summoned to fight the enemy. This is where the story started.
● “Ang Alamat ng Batangas” tells the origin of the province. It was said that
the province of Batangas was very beautiful, making it attractive to
Spaniards. Every time they needed to leave the place, mishaps kept on
occurring. They would pray and sing praises until the sea calmed down. One
day, even though they prayed and sang praises, the waves would not stop.
The strong wind wrecked their ships, and many of them died. Until one day,
near the province of Batangas, the people saw a batangan or a log carrying
a Sto. Niño. The people retrieved the log or batangan from the sea. From
then on, they called the province Batangas, from the word batangan.

b. Epics narrate the adventures of tribal heroes who embody the ideals and values
of the tribe. Some of the many epics in Luzon are Biag ni Lam-ang and Ibalon.
● Biag ni Lam-ang (The Life of Lam-ang) is an epic poem from the Ilocos
region. It is about the adventures and bravery of Lam-ang, who could speak
from a very young age. His adventures started when he searched for his
father who got killed by the Igorot of the Cordillera Mountains.
● Ibalon is an epic that originated in Bicol. It is a tale that talks about three
heroes, namely Baltog, Handiong, and Bantong.

c. Folktales/Folklore are narrative prose. These mirror the early forms of our
culture, and they are traditional stories passed on from generation to generation
by word of mouth. They often include fables, riddles, proverbs, folk songs, and
sometimes superstitious beliefs. “Juan Tamad” is one of the most popular folktales
in the country.

● “Juan Tamad” is a story about a man named Juan who was extremely lazy.
In one of the story’s versions, Juan was instructed by his mother to buy
crabs from the market. On his way home, he heard his friends playing near
the riverbank. Juan wanted to join them. So he released the crabs on the
shore as he believed that the crabs can reach their house. Noon came and
Juan hurried home. His mother was so angry and asked where the crabs
were. Juan was so scared of his mother that after saying what he did to the
crabs, he immediately hid in their backyard.
d. Myths are stories that involve gods and goddesses with divine powers. These
explain a belief, custom, or strange natural phenomenon. An example of this is
“Why the Sky Is High.”

● “Why the Sky Is High” is about the brothers Ingat and Daskol. Ingat was
more favored by his parents than Daskol. Ingat, as his name implies, was
careful, whereas Daskol performed his duties clumsily. One day, he was
angrily pounding a huge amount of palay. Eager to finish his work quickly,
Daskol would raise the pestle so high that it hit the sky. His anger added to
his strength so that every time he would raise the pestle, the sky would rise
higher. When he was done, he looked up and noticed how far the sky already
was.

Lesson 2
Literature from Luzon

Luzon is the largest island group in the Philippines. It is divided into eight regions:
Ilocos Region, Cagayan Valley Region, Cordillera Administrative Region (CAR),
National Capital Region (NCR), Bicol Region, Central Luzon, MIMAROPA (Mindoro,
Marinduque, Romblon, and Palawan), and CALABARZON (Cavite, Laguna,
Batangas, Rizal, and Quezon).

The major regional languages in Luzon are Bikolano, Ilokano, Kapampangan,

Pangasinense, and Tagalog.

Some ethnic groups that can be found in Luzon are Aetas, Igorots, Ibalois,
Mangyans, Apayaos, Kalingas, and Itnegs.

Precolonial literature from Luzon are mostly oral literature that is passed from
generation to generation through word of mouth.

“Hudhud hi Aliguyon” is an Ifugao epic about a brave warrior named Aliguyon

who strove to resolve a tribal feud through combat and friendship.

Below are some of the major literary works from Luzon:

a. Biag ni Lam-ang (Ilocos Region) – This is an epic about Lam-ang, a man with
extraordinary strength, who sets out to find his missing father Don Juan.
b. ”The Legend of Magat River” (Cagayan Valley, first version) – This is a legend
about Magat, a handsome and strong-willed youth, who saved a lovely maiden in
a stream from the clutches of a python.
c. Aliguyon (CAR) – An epic from the region of CAR, Aliguyon is about a series of
mortal combats between Aliguyon and Pumbakhayon to settle a tribal feud.
d. “Footnote to Youth” (NCR) – This is a short story about Dodong, who wanted to
marry Teang. Both were young, so when Dodong asked his father, he was met with
silence. The two ended up getting married, but later on, they both start to think
about and even regret doing so.
e. Ibalon or Ibalong (Bicol Region) – This is an epic about three heroes—Baltog,
Handiong, and Bantong—who all defeated their adversaries.
f. “Atin Cu Pung Singsing” (Central Luzon) – This is a children’s folk song about a
child who lost the ring given to her by her mother.
g. Tagbanua Myth (MIMAROPA) – This is a myth about the first man, named Adan,
who was like a stone, for he could not speak.
h. “The Legend of Maria Makiling” (CALABARZON) – This is a story about a
mountain in Laguna called Makiling that was guarded by a fairy named Maria.
The townsfolk fondly called her Mariang Makiling. A legend.

● hudhud (noun) - Ifugao word for “song”

Sentence: Because it is the harvest season, the Ifugaos gathered to to hear the
elders chant a hudhud.

● frugal (adjective) - thrifty, economical

Sentence: Antonio became rich because he is frugal with his expenses.

● chant (verb) - singing a simple tune or religious song

Sentence: The nuns usually chant hymns every morning.

● archenemy (noun) - sworn enemy

Sentence: The election is interesting this year because the candidates have been
archenemies since freshman year in high school.

● folklore (noun) - customs, sayings, tales, and other art forms from a group
of people or culture
Sentence: It is interesting to hear folklore from our grandparents.
Lesson 3
Literature from Visayas

The Visayas is the smallest island group in the Philippines. It is divided into three
regions: Western Visayas, Central Visayas, and Eastern Visayas.

The major regional languages in the Visayas are Cebuano, Hiligaynon or Ilonggo,
Kinaray-a, and Waray.

The seven main islands in the Visayas are Bohol, Cebu, Panay, Samar, Negros,
Leyte, and Masbate.

Below are just some of the literary forms produced in the Visayas:
A. Poems are called binalaybay.
B. Stories are called asoy or sugilanon.
C. Riddles are called paktakon.
D. Proverbs are translated to hurubaton. These are usually in two lines and
rhymed.
E. Lullabies are called ili-ili.
F. Ambahan is long song alternately sung by a soloist and a chorus.
G. Siday is a long poetic battle between two paid poets representing the two
families in the pursuit of marriage.
H. Balitaw is a love song sung by a man and a woman in a debating manner.

Below are some of the major literary works from Western Visayas:
a. Hinilawod is the oldest and perhaps most well-known epic of Panay. It
narrates the story of the goddess of the eastern sky named Alunsina who
reached the age of maidenhood. Every god from different places tried to win
her heart. Soon, the goddess decided to marry a mortal from Halawod, Datu
Paubari.
b. The Fall of Polobulac is a tale from Panay about the seven deadly sins.

Here are some of the major literary works from Eastern Visayas:
a. “ Bowaon and Totoon” is a Waray folktale with the English translation
“Falsehood and Truth.” It is about two friends named Bowaon and Totoon
who could not find work, so they decided to go away from their place to
look for their fortune elsewhere.
b. “Si Amomongo at Si Iput-iput” is a fable about a gorilla and a firefly. The
lesson it conveys is that one should never belittle those who are small
because they could do big things that big people cannot do.
Below are some of the major literary works from Central Visayas:

a. ”Sicalac and Sicavay” is a Visayan creation myth about Captan and

Maguayan who are both gods who created earth and all living things.
Captan planted a bamboo in the garden. One day it broke into two sections
and out stepped a man and woman who were respectively named as Sicalac
and Sicavay.
b. ”Catalina of Dumaguete” is a legend about a 16-year-old girl named
Catalina who was very beautiful and industrious but with many strange
ways. She was said to have mysterious powers and was said to have saved
Dumaguete from the Moros.

Lesson 4
Literature from Mindanao

Mindanao is the second largest island group in the Philippines. It is divided into
six regions: Davao Region, Zamboanga Peninsula, Northern Mindanao,
Soccsksargen (South Cotabato, Cotabato, Sultan Kudarat, Sarangani and General
Santos), ARMM (Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao), and Caraga Region.

The major regional languages in Mindanao are Cebuano, Chavacano,

Maguindanao, Maranao, Hiligaynon, Surigaonon, and Tausug.

The region is generally inhabited by Roman Catholics. However, although Muslims

are no longer a majority in the region, Islamic culture is still evident.

Unlike Luzon and Visayas, Mindanao was not entirely colonized by the Spaniards;
only a few port cities were under the Spanish rule.
Large groups of ethnic minorities can be found in Mindanao, such as Maranao,
Magindanao, Ilanun, and Sangil. These groups are also referred to as Moro.

Meanwhile, the following groups are found in the uplands: the Bagobo, Bukidnon,
Manadaya, Manobo, and Subanon.

In general, the folk literature of Mindanao may be in prose or verse. These are of
collective authorship instead of individual authorship.
Every ethnic minority has a number of raconteurs or narrators who deliver a story
in a creative way, bearing two or three or more folktales. The stories they tell have
been conveyed to them by older members of their respective families, friends, and
acquaintances, some of whom have already died. Raconteurs can be young or old,
men or women.

Below are the major literary works from Mindanao:

a. The Origin of Davao (Davao Region) – This is an account of the beginning
of Davao. It is about the natives of Davao called Kalagans.
b. Ag Tobig Nog Keboklagan (Zamboanga Peninsula) – This is an epic story
translated as The Kingdom of Keboklagan. It is considered as one of the
oldest epics in Zamboanga. It is chanted or performed during their
week-long buklog festival, and it tells the life and adventures of an
extraordinary hero named Taake.
c. How Cagayan de Oro Got Its Name (Northern Mindanao) – This is a
legend explaining the origin of the name of the province, which means
“shameful peace.”
d. Ulahingan (SOCCSKSARGEN) – This is an epic about the adventures of
Agyu and his relatives who had a conflict with their rulers. As they flee from
their place, they were guided by a diwata.
e. The Maguindanao Tale of the Faithful Wife (ARMM) – This folktale is about
an aged man’s last words to his son, telling him that he should never marry
a widow and only choose a young lady.
f. Tulalang (Caraga Region) – This folktale is about Tulalang, the firstborn of
a poor couple. One day, he went into the forest to gather some food. When
he was collecting crops, an old lady approached him and pitied their poor
life. She said that they will never be hungry, and they can get anything they
want. Soon after, they had a prosperous life.