BASICS

INSULATION CLASSES
Class Temperature (ᴼC) Examples
Y 90 Cotton, silk, wood, cellulose and paper without
impregnation
A 105 Cotton. Silk and impregnated paper, varnished paper
E 120 Synthetic resins enamels,
B 130 Mica-glass fiber, asbestos etc. with suitable bonding
F 155 Same as Class B with bonding materials
H 180 Combined materials with bonding, e.g. mica, glass
C Above 180 Mica, ceramics, porcelain, glass with suitable bonding

 Color Coding of Resistors

BB ROY G BV G White
Black, Brown, Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Violet, Grey, White.
Gold (± 5 %), Silver (± 10 %) and No Colour (± 20 %)
 If no: of electrons is less than 4, it is conductor, if more than 4, it is insulator and if equals
4, it is semiconductor.
 Drift velocity of electrons is of order of 10−3 m/s and thermal speed is about 106 m/s
 Liquids obeys Ohm’s law.
 KCL is the “Law of Conservation of Charge” while KVL is the “Law of conservation of
Energy”.
 1 kWh = 36×105 J = 860 kCalories
1 calorie = 4.186 J
1 Weber = 108 lines or Maxwell
2
−12 F C
ε 0=8.854 × 10 ∨
m N m2
−7 H
u0 =4 π ×10
m
 Electric Field or Electric Field Strength or Electric Field Intensity is vector quantity
having unit of N/C or V/m. Electric Field Lines originates from positive charge and
terminates at negative charge. Inside a conductor, electric field intensity is zero.
 If an electron is entered magnetic field (B) perpendicular to the field, it will have a
motion of circular path having radius r as mv=qrB
 If an electron is entered magnetic field (B) with an angle Ө to the field, it will have a
motion of helical path having radius r as mvsinθ=qrB
 Torque experienced by a coil in a magnetic field density (B) is given as T =BINAsinθ
where N is no: of turns, I is current, A is area of coil and B is field density.
 The magnetic material used in permanent magnets is Hardened Steel and in temporary
magnets is Soft Iron. Iron is ferromagnetic below 770 ° C
 Mostly substances present are paramagnetic (nonmagnetic).
 The unit of Pole Strength is Am.
 If a magnetic needle is kept in uniform magnetic field, it will experience torque only, but
if kept in non-uniform magnetic field, it will experience force as well as torque.
 Reluctance (1/permeance): opposition to the flux in magnetic circuit. Its unit is AT/Wb.
l
Reluctance, R=
aμoμr
 Reluctance (resistance), Permeance (conductance), MMF/AT (EMF), Flux (Current).
MMF
 flux= ,∨∅=AT / S
Reluctance
 For non-magnetic materials, BH Curve is linear. For air, BH Curve will be straight line.
 Saturation B for most magnetic materials is about 2Wb/m2
 SI Unit of u0 is Wb/AT-m
 An Electromagnet uses soft iron core.
 Primary cells are Voltaic cells, Dry cells, Daniel Cells and Leclanche Cells.
 Secondary Cells are Lead-Acid Cells (2.1 V) and Alkali/Edison Cells (1.2 V)
 Lead-Acid Cells: Lead per oxide is positive plate or anode having chocolate brown color.
Lead is negative plate or cathode having grey color. Both electrodes are immersed in
sulphuric acid. Ah efficiency is about 90% and Wh efficiency is about 75%.

1) Electric current is due to flow of

a. Electrons b. positive charges c. positive as well as negative charges d. none
2) Eureka has almost ………. temperature co-efficient of resistance.
a. Positive b. negative c. almost zero d. none
3) The source of magnetic field is
a. An isolated magnetic pole b. static electric charge
b. Magnetic substances d. current loop
4) The value of leakage co-efficient for electrical machines is about
a. 0.4 to 1 b. 4 to 10 c. above 10 d. 1.15 to 1.25
5) Magnetic Shields uses materials having
a. Low permeability b. high permeability c. zero permeability d. none

1. Pole shoes of DC machine fastened to pole core by

a) welding b) soldering c) steal clamp d) counter sunk
2. Which coupling is used in Stoneman Transmission Bridge?
a) Resistive b) Capacitive c) Inductive d) Combination of all
3. The ladder network used in a D/A converter is
a) R-L ladder b) R-C ladder c) R-2R ladder d) R- 2C ladder
4. If F (jw) is the Fourier transform of f (t), then
a) £ f(-t)=F (jw) b) £ f(-t)=F *(jw) c) £ f(-t)=F (-jw) d) £ f(-t)=F
*(- jw)
5. memory unit using only gate
a) RAM b) ROM c) Core d) Disc
6. One can provide two or more voice circuit on the same carrier by using
a) SSB-SC b) ISB c) SSB with pilot carrier d) DSB-SC
7. ----------- cells make concentration layer of lens.
a) Strong b) weak c) fibrous d) optical
8. Plasma frequency of copper is
a) 2.6 x 10^15 b) 2.6 x 10^12 c)
2.6 x 10^6
d) 2.6 x 10^3 e) 2.6 x 10

8. Instrument for measuring ocular focus or refraction of eyes ____

A. Drum meter B. Durometer C. Ellipsigraphy
D. Dioptometer E. Electroretinography

9. For multiple video channel digital modulation and ____ diodes are necessary
A. Zener B. Schottky C. Laser D. Light emitting

10. Time shifting and scaling

A. Time shifting is applied first and then scaling
B. Scaling is applied first and then time shifting
C. Anyone can be applied irrespective of order D. Only one operation can be performed

11. Pseudo noise sequence, the autocorrelation

A. Random atmospheric generator B. White noise
C. Ground clutter D. Audio
distortion

12. Which devices are specifically being used for converting serial to parallel and from
parallel to serial respectively?
a. Timers b. Counters c. Registers d. Serial communication

13. What is the order decided by a processor or the CPU of a controller to execute an
instruction?
a. decodes, fetch, execute b. execute, fetch, decode
c. fetch, execute, decode d. fetch, decode, execute

14. Which of the following signal control the flow of data?

a. RTS b. DTR c. RTS & DTR
d. None

15. In piston, maximum temperature is at

a. Ring Set b. Dudgeon point c. topsides d. top centre

16. The parabolic antenna is used in satellite tracking because it has

a) good manoeuvrability b) good front to back ratio c) high bandwidth

17. Heterodyne frequency shifter is also called: mixer

18. When signal is first compressed before modulation and decompressed after
demodulation in order to achieve same quantization level is called
a) Companding b) Pre-emphasis c) De-emphasis d) Quantization

19. The helical antenna is used in satellite tracking because it has

a) manoeuvrability b) circular polarization c) bandwidth d) Gain

20. The auto correlation function is

a) An odd function in to b) An even function in to
c) An exponential function in to d) None

21. Probability density function of thermal noise (white noise) is

a) Binomial b) Gaussian c) Poisson d) None

22. Top loading is used with antenna to? (Increase effective height)
a. beam-width b. input capacitance c. effective capacitance d. all

23. Rhombic antenna is a?

24. Radiation pattern of parabolic antenna is

a. figure or height b) highly directional c. omni directional d. None

25. PCM quantization noise depends on

a. Number of quantization levels b. Sampling rate
c. Index number d. none

26. Technique used to enable multiple broadband signals to be transmitted over single
mode fiber
a. Subscriber b. wavelength division multiplexing
c. time division multiplexing d. frequency division multiplexing

27. PWM is generated by

a. a mono stable multi vibrator b. a stable multi vibrator
c. Integration of PPM signal d. derivative the PPM signal

28. AGC voltage is applied to the stages which are

a. Before the detector stage b. After the detector stage
c. at detector stage d. both a & c

29. In three phase half wave diode rectification, average output voltage to per phase
maximum AC voltage is
a. 1 b. 1.169 c. 0.827 d. 1.57

 Steady state response of a system does not depend upon initial conditions.

BL THERAJA
POWER SYSTEM
1. Booster TF is located at
a. Receiving end b. sending end c. intermediate location on TX line

2. Top most wire in distribution is

a. Earth wire b. phase wire c. neutral wire d. none

3. Sheaths are provided in cables to

a. Provide adequate insulation b. increase strength of cable
 b. Prevent moisture from entering into cable d. None
4. For same power, if voltage increases by n then size of conductor will be
a. 1/n2 b. n2 c. n d. 1/n
5. Design tests of insulators are
a. Puncture test, mechanical test, porosity test b. dry and wet flashover test
b. HV and proof load test d. none
6. Performance tests of power insulators are
a. Puncture test, mechanical test, porosity test b. dry and wet Flashover test
c. Temperature cycle and electromechanical test d. both A and C
7. Self GMD method is used to evaluate
a. Inductance b. Capacitance c. Resistance d. All
8. To limit current chopping in Vacuum CB, contact material used should have
a. High vapor pressure and low conductivity
b. Low Vapor pressure and high conductivity
c. low vapor pressure and low conductivity
d. High vapor pressure and high conductivity.
9. In power system, rate of rise restriking voltage depends upon
a. switching condition only b. circuit power factor only
c. both A and B d. none

10. Minimum faults occur in

a. Alternators b. Transformers c. Tx lines d. PT, CT e. switchgear
11. Capacitor switching is easily done with
a. AB CB b. Oil CB c. Vacuum CB d. Any of the above
12. The drawback of diminishing value method is that depreciation charges are
a. Small in early years b. High in later years
c. independent of rate of interest d. None
13. The depreciation of equipment is
a. more in early years b. less in early years c. same every year
14. Annual deposit is ……….in Sinking fund Method that to straight line method.
a. smaller b. larger c. same d. None
15. The most fundamental method for calculating depreciation of equipment is
a. straight line methodb. sinking fund method c. diminishing value method.

1. SF6 CB takes minimum time for installation.

2. High speed CB takes 3 to 8 cycles.
3. Buchholz Relays are used up to 500KV.
4. Plug-setting of relays can be varied by changing Ampere-Turns.
5. Problem of stability occurs only in AC transmission lines.
6. Tidal energy mainly makes use of potential energy of water.
7. Insulation of modern EHV lines is designed based on switching Voltages.
8. A system is said to be effectively grounded if ratio of X0/X1 < 3.
9. String Chart is useful for “finding the sag in a conductor”.
10. Mho relay is used for long Tx line. It is “voltage restrained directional relay”.
11. A reactance relay is used for short Tx line. It is directional restrained over-current relay.
12. Principle type of failure in Wind turbine is “Aerodynamic failure”.
13. In straight line method of depreciation, the money deposited carries “compound interest”.
14. The ground should not be smaller than No. 10 Copper.
15. Inter-sheaths are provided in power cables to provide uniform stress distribution.
16. A series compensated Tx line has better short circuit capacity.
17. Condition for maximum steady-state power transmission is X =√ 3 R .
18. Impedance relay can be used for both phase and earth fault.
19. Fault diverters are basically fast switches.
20. Air Break CB is used in railways.
21. ABCB are preferred for repeated duty.
22. Basic quantity measured in distance relay is impedance.
23. Drop-out to cut-off ratio for most relay is 0.6 to 1.
24. Induction Disc Type is not instantaneous relay while PMMC Type relay is.
25. Impulse ratio of rod gap is between 1.2 and 1.5.
26. Most economic load on UG cable will be less than surge loading.
27. Standard impulse testing of a power TF requires two applications of chopped wave
followed by one application of full wave.
28. Phase modifiers are normally installed in case of long length of line.
29. Co-efficient of reflection for current for open ended line is -1.0.
30. For a synchronous phase modifier, load angle is 0ᴼ.
31. Percent bias for generator protection lies between 5 to 40.
32. Carrier current protection scheme is normally used for HV lines only.
33. If δ is loss angle of the cable, then its PF will be sinδ.
34. Load flow study is carried out for system planning.
35. The use of high-speed CB decreases system stability.
36. In thermal power plants, pressure in working fluids is developed by “superheater”.
37. Shunt resistor is connected across CB in order to damp out restriking transient voltages.
38. Compressor used in Gas Turbine Power Plant is of ROTATORY type.
39. Static Capacitors are usually installed near the load for PF improvement. Capacitor bank
is connected in Delta. In star it will need 3C per phase.
40. In three phase system, line losses are inversely proportional to the PF2.
41. In transmission line, major cost is due to “Conductors”.

BUS TYPE CONSTANT VARIABLE

PV (Voltage Controlled) P, V Q, δ
PQ (Load) P, Q V, δ
Slack (Swing) V, δ P, Q

INSTRUMENTATION
1. Threshold of sensitivity with respect to measuring instrument is
a. The maximum signal which can be measured
b. The value of sensitivity on highest scale
c. The value of scale on lowest scale
d. The smallest signal which results in detectable output

2. Piezo-electric quartz crystal can be used to measure

a. Temperature b. velocity c. acceleration d. flow
3. Which of the following term is not associated with sample-and-hold circuit?
a. Conversion time b. acquisition time c. aperture time d. sample mode
4. For capacitance measurement, ballistic galvanometer should have
a. A high critical resistance and a low period of oscillation
b. A high critical resistance and a high period of oscillation
c. A low critical resistance and a low period of oscillation
d. A low critical resistance and a high period of oscillation

5. In eddy current damping, disc or former is made up of material that is

a. Conductor but non-magnetic b. conductor and magnetic
b. Non-conductor but magnetic d. non-conductor and non-magnetic
6. Indicating instruments are assumed to be most accurate at
a. Beginning b. half part of scale c. finishing d. none
7. Most accurate reading of resistance will be by
a. Potentiometer b. ohmmeter c. ammeter and voltmeter d. Wheatstone bridge
8.

1. Indicated value – true value = static error

2. In moving coil instrument, scale is linear.
3. Ohmmeter has non-linear scale.
4. In dynamo type wattmeter, moving coil is potential coil.
5. The function of swamping resistor put in series with the moving coil of moving coil meter
is to “compensate for transportive variations”.
6. Frequency compensation in moving iron meter is achieved by connecting a capacitor
across a fixed coil.
7. Electrostatic voltmeter has scale reading of rms value of peak value.
8. Electrostatic instrument consumes lowest power measurement while hot wire instrument
consumes maximum power during measurement.
9. All the meters used for the measurement of current, voltage and resistance are basically
current meters.
10. Phenomenon of creeping occurs in Energy meters.
11. Anderson bridge is used for precise measurement of inductance over a wide range of
values. It is measured with known capacitance and resistance.
12. Hay’s bridge is used to measure inductance having high Q while Maxwell bridge is for
inductance having low Q.
13. Wien bridge is used to measure frequency (also measure audio frequency).
14. Kelvin double-bridge method is commonly used to measure low resistance.
15. LVDT converts linear motion into electrical signal.
16. Moving iron meter can be used to measure up to frequency of 1500 Hz.
17. Fixed coil in electro dynamo meter (moving coil meter) is used as current coil.
18. Electro dynamo meter has same calibration for DC as well as AC.
19. Precision measurement of resistance is carried out in CRO method.
20. in an energy meter, steady state speed of disc is achieved when braking torque is equal to
the operating torque.
21. Self-balancing instruments are used for industrial instruments.
22. Ratio error in CT is due to exciting current. Ratio error of instrument transformer is
defined as (nominal ratio – actual ratio)/actual ratio.
23. Bellows converts pressure difference into displacement.
24. An electric pyrometer is used to measure high temperatures.
25. Voltmeter, Ammeter and Wattmeter are indicating instruments. Ampere-hour meter and
watt-hour meter are integrating instruments. Recording Voltmeters and recording
Ammeters are recording instruments.
26. Electrostatic Voltmeters: These are used as voltmeters only and cannot be used as
ammeters. For voltage, these are not applicable for small voltages because of low
operating torque (usually above 30V). These instruments have fixed plate (positive) and
moving plate (negative). These instruments have negligible power loss, can be used for
DC as well as AC, no eddy current and hysteresis loss, free from errors of frequency and
waveform and are unaffected form stray field errors. Drawbacks are; large size,
expensive, nonlinear scale, frictional errors and only suitable for high voltages.
These are of three types.
a. Attracted Disc type: 500V to 500kV. These has non-uniform scale.
b. Quadrant Type: 250V to 10kV. Non-uniform scale.
c. Multicellular Type: 30V to 300V. Usually non-uniform scale.
27. Dead-beat is term in instrument when pointer reaches correct value quickly without
passing or oscillating about it. It is done by correct damping, i.e. critically damped.
28. PMMC and Dynamo meter type wattmeter have linear scale only. Rest of the
instrument obeys square law (Nonlinear Scale).
29. When pointer is at rest, both controlling and operating torques act. When it is moving, all
three torques act.
30. Fluid friction damping is only used in Kelvin electrostatic voltmeter.
31. In induction type ammeter eddy current damping is used.
32.

SINGLE-PHASE MOTORS

1. Split-phase induction motor has high resistance in “starting winding”. Overall phase angle
is about 25ᴼ-30ᴼ. They are used for 60W to 250W (1/12 HP to 1/3 HP). Examples are:
Washing machines
2. Capacitor-start induction motor has phase angle of approximately 80ᴼ. It has high starting
torque than split-phase. It is used where high starting torque is required and where motor
takes long time to accelerate. Applications are: Compressors, large fans, pumps and high-
inertia loads.
3. Shaded-pole motor has extremely simple construction and used below 40W (0.05 HP). It
produces small starting torque and has large power loss in shading coils. It is least
expensive fractional HP motor.
4. Stepper motor finds applications in X-Y plotters, numerically controlled machining
equipment and printers.
5. Capacitor Run IM is used to run small fan (1/4 HP) in hospital ward and ¾ HP air
compressor.
6. Resistance Split Phase IM is used for washing machines.
7. Shaded pole has as slow speed as one revolution per month.
8. The ratio of starting torque to the full-load torque is least in case of shunt motor.
9. In two phase AC Servomotor, torque-speed curve will be linear when X/R <<1.

THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

 Running torque is directly proportional to slip (s) and square of supply voltage (V2).
 1
 Maximum running torque is achieved when Rr=sXr or Tm ∝
2 Xr
 Torque-slip characteristics are rectangular hyperbola.
 Torque characteristics of 3-phase IM is similar to DC Shunt Motor.
 Rotor current in 3-phase IM (as well as stator current) is directly proportional to slip.
 No-load IM (TF with open secondary), standstill rotor that of short-circuited secondary of
TF.


DC MOTOS/GENERATORS

 Carbon brushes are used in DC machines because

a. Carbon lubricates and polishes the commutator
b. Contact resistance is decreased
c. Carbon is cheap d. none
 Copper loss is constant for ………… generator.
a. Series b. shunt c. compound d. both shunt and compound
 A DC Generator having poorest voltage is
a. Shunt b. compounded c. series d. flat compounded
 Current versus time graph for ideal commutation is
a. Straight Line b. parabola c. hyperbola d. none

10. Differentially Compound motors finds application where low starting torque. These
motors have got maximum self-loading property. For same HP and speed rating, these
motors have got poor starting torque as compared to other DC motors.
11. Cumulative Compound motor is used for Shears and Punches. In case of CCM, the
variation in mechanical load causes fluctuations. For that, a Flywheel is used to reduce
the peak demand by the motor.
12. If shunt field of Differential Compound DC motor suddenly opens, the motor will first
stop and then will run in opposite direction.
13. If series field of Differential Compound DC motor suddenly opens, then speed of motor
will reduce because net flux will increase. Recall that
net flux=shunt flux−series flux
1. If series field of Cumulative Compound DC motor suddenly shorts, speed will increase.
2. Fleming’s Right Hand Rule: Fore finger Field, Thumb direction of motion, then Middle
finger will give the direction of emf induced.
3. In DC machines, Laminations (0.4-0.6 mm thick),
4. Wave Winding: It is for High Voltage and Low Current, having Z/2 conductors in series
and only two parallel paths. In wave winding, commutator pitch is twice of pole pitch. In
small machines, Wave Winding is used.
5. Lap Winding: It is for High Currents and Low Voltage, having as many parallel paths as
no: of poles and thus no: of brushes is equal to number of poles. Each parallel path has
Z/P conductors. In Lap winding, commutator pitch (Yc) is 1. Lap Winding is for Large
machines.
6. Due to armature reaction, in Generators, trailing pole tip has increased flux density
while at leading pole tip has reduced flux density.
7. To overcome armature reaction, interpoles or Commuting poles are used. They are
placed ahead of main pole in G and behind in M. These are connected in series with
armature winding and creates flux opposite to the armature flux.
8. In rapid duty operation of large motors (i.e. in steel mills and rolling mills), to overcome
armature reaction, compensating windings are placed along with main poles and
connected in series with armature winding.
9. Open Circuit Characteristics (OCC): between E0 and If. Also known as Magnetic
characteristics or No-Load Saturation Curve.
10. 4-pole DC Machines are common. 4-pole DC machine has 4 magnetic circuits.
11. In DC Machines, no: of commutator segments is equal to no: of coils.
12. Yoke of DC machines carry ½ of pole flux.
13. A DC generator having no-load and full-load voltages equal is flat-compounded.
14. In DC Machines, Hysteresis loss is directly proportional to speed.
15. In SHUNT MOTOR, Ta and Ia graph is straight line passing through origin. Thus,
armature torque is directly proportional to armature current. However, torque versus
armature current and torque versus speed graphs are almost horizontal lines.
16. In DC SERIES MOTOR, speed is inversely related to armature current, thus graph is
hyperbola. Same is true for speed versus torque developed.
17. In DC COMPOUND MOTORS, shunt field is always stronger than the series field.
SPEED CONTROL:
1. SHUNT MOTOR:
A. Flux Control: (Flux Control) can be varied above normal rated speed by ratio of 3:1
by connecting a rheostat in series with shunt field.
B. Armature control method: (EMF Control) speed can be varied below rated speed by
connecting a controller resistance in series with armature.
2. SERIES MOTOR:
A. Flux Control: can be done in two ways. In first, field diverters can be connected in
parallel with series field, thus speed can be varied above rated speed (used in
traction). In second method, armature diverters are connected in parallel with
armature and speed can be varied below rated speed. In third method, tapped field coil
is used, and speed can be varied above rated.
B. Armature control method: variable resistance is connected in series with armature and
thus speed can be varied below rated speed.
C.

Type of DC Motor Applications

Shunt Motor Lathes, Drills, Boring Mills, shapers, spinning and weaving
machines
Series Motor Electric traction, cranes, elevators, air compressor, vacuum
cleaners, hair dryers, sewing machines etc.
Cumulative Presses, shears, reciprocating machines.
Compound
Differential
Compound
 CONTROL SYSTEM
Bode magnitude plot is drawn between dB magnitude and log ω
In minimum phase system, all zeroes lie in the left Half Plane.
Primary function of lag comparator is to provide sufficient phase margin

ELECTRONICS
I. If base supply voltage increases in BJT, Q-point will go down.
II. JFET (in equivalent circuit) is VCCS (voltage-controlled current-source).
III. In CB amplifier maximum efficiency will be 25%.
IV. In PN junction diode, the magnitude of electric filed under reverse bias will be maximum
at PN Junction.
V. The cascade amplifier is a multistage configuration of CE-CB.
VI. Commonly used amplifier in sample & hold circuit is A Unity Gain Inverting
Amplifier.
VII. In a CE, unbypassed resister provides -ve voltage feedback.
VIII. The current gain of BJT is g mrπ .
IX. The current gain of BJT drops at high frequencies because of transistor capacitances.
X. Voltage series (feedback also called series-shunt feedback) results in increase in input
impedance and decrease in output impedance.
XI. The MOSFET can be used as voltage-controlled capacitor. The MOSFET switch in its
ON-state may be considered equivalent to Capacitor.
XII. Most of linear ICs are based on the two-transistor differential because if its High
CMMR.
XIII. A change in the value of emitter resistance in a differential amplifier affects common
mode gain.
XIV. The BW of an RF tuned amplifier is dependent on Q-factor of the o/p circuit.
XV. Introducing a resister in the emitter of common amplifier stabilizes the DC operating
point against variations in temperature as well as β.
XVI. The horizontal intercept of DC load line is the same as ideal cut off point.
XVII. The early effect in a BJT is caused by large collector-base reverse bias.
XVIII. Input characteristics of BJT are between IB and VBE and output characteristics are
between IC and VCE. Do remember that BJT is current controlled, Bipolar device having
current of both holes and electrons. BJT has more base current requirement and lower
input impedance than MOSFET. BJT has negative temperature co-efficient.
XIX. MOSFET is voltage-controlled and unipolar device. Current flowing is due to majority
carriers only. Transfer characteristics are between ID and VGS while output
characteristics are between ID and VDS. MOSFET has positive temperature co-efficient.
XX. PUT (Programmable Unijunction Transistor) is like SCR but having gate at N layer
near anode. It turns ON when anode voltage is above 0.7V and turns OFF when voltage
falls below 0.7V. It is used as time-delay in logic and SCR triggering.
XXI. SUS (Silicon Unilateral Switch) is like PUT but an inbuilt diode connected between G
and K.
XXII. SCS (Silicon Controlled Switch) having 4 terminals (tetrode); Anode (A), cathode (K),
anode gate (AG) like PUT and cathode gate (KG) like SCR. It can be turned On and OFF
 by any gate. Negative pulse at AG turns ON and positive turns OFF. A positive pulse at
KG turns it ON and negative turns it OFF. It is used as triggering circuit, timing and logic
circuit, pulse generator, voltage sensor and oscillator.
XXIII. SITH (Static Induction Thyristor) operates like a SCR but can be turned OFF by
applying a short negative pulse of large current like GTO.
XXIV. ASCR (Asymmetrical Thyristor or SCR) is same as SCR but a diode connected across
it to allow the negative voltage.
XXV. Silicon is preferred over germanium because; less leakage current due to minority
carriers, current sensitivity of silicon due to temperature is less and silicon has higher
tolerance to temperature.
XXVI. PIN Diode has an intrinsic layer of semiconductor between P and N layers.
XXVII.

SINGLE PHASE UNCONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

Half Wave Full Wave

V0 / VDC Vm/п 2Vm/п
Vrms Vm/2 0.707Vm
Ripple Factor 1.21 0.482
Form Factor 1.57 1.11
Peak Factor 2 1.414
Transformer Utilisation Factor (TUF) 0.287 Centre tapped = 0.693
Bridge type = 0.812
Efficiency 40.6% 81.2%

THREE PHASE UNCONTROLLED RECTIFIER

Average DC Voltage Remarks
Half Wave 3 √6 Each diode conducts for 120ᴼ
2п
Full Wave 3 √2 Each diode conducts for 60ᴼ while diode in
п pair conducts for 120ᴼ

SINGLE PHASE CONTROLLED RECTIFERS

R Load RL Load
Half Wave Vm Vm
Vo= (1+ cosα) Vo= ( cosα−sinβ )
(1Ø) 2п 2п
Full Wave 2 Vm
Vo= cosα
(1Ø) п
Where, α = firing angle β = extinction angle γ=(α −β ) = conduction angle

THREE PHASE CONTROLLED RECTIFERS

AVG/DC Voltage
Semi converter 3 Vml
Vo= (1+cosα )
2п
 Full Converter 3 Vml
Vo= cosα
п

1. Fermi level of an atom lies between valence and conduction band. Which means it is at
middle of forbidden gap.
2. Oscillator converts DC power into AC power.
3. Varactor (Varicap, voltacap or voltage-dependent capacitor), Zener diode and photo diode
work in a revere bias.
4. LED, LASER diode and all other diode works in forward bias.
5. Darlington is double CC (Common Collector) multistage transistor having current gain of
β=β1β2, high input impedance, and unity voltage gain.
6. Due to negative feedback, gain, distortion, noise decrease while bandwidth increase.
7. In voltage series feedback, input impedance increases while output decrease.
8. In voltage shunt feedback, both input and output impedances decrease.
9. In current series feedback, both input and output impedances increase.
10. In current shunt feedback, input impedance decreases while output increase.
11. In noninverting Op-Amp with negative feedback, input resistance increases and output
resistance decreases.
12. In inverting Op-Amp, both impedances are same as without feedback.
13. In Small Scale Integration (SSI) IC, number of circuits are less than 12 (less than 50
components).
14. In medium Scale Integration (MSI) IC, number of circuits are circuits are between 13
and 99 (number of components is between 50 and 5000).
15. In Large Scale Integration (LSI) IC, number of circuits are circuits are between 100
and 9999 (number of components is between 5000 and 100,000).
16. In Very Large-Scale Integration (VLSI) IC, number of circuits are circuits are between
10000 and 99,999 (number of components is between 100,000 and 1,000,000).
17. In Ultra Large-Scale Integration (ULSI) IC, number of circuits are circuits are between
100000 and 999,999 (number of components is between 1,000,000 and 10,000,000).
18.
19.

SWITCHGEAR
 Arc in CB has temperature of about 6000 ᴼC.
 Arcing contacts in CB are made of Copper-Tungsten alloy.
 Fault diverters are basically fast switches.
 Overload relays can be induction, electromagnetic, thermal or solid state.
 AB CB is used for intermittent duty.
 ECONOMICS OF POWER GENERATION
Fixed cost: it is independent of maximum demand and energy generated. It includes cost of
central organization, interest on capital cost of land and salaries of high officials.
Semifixed cost: it only depends upon maximum demand but independent of units generated.
It includes annual interest and depreciation on the capital investment and equipment, taxes
and salaries of management staff and clerical officials.
Running cost: it depends upon units generated only. It includes annual cost of fuel,
lubricating oil, maintenance and repair and salaries of operating staff.
TYPES OF TARIFF
Three-part tariff: fixed cost + semifixed + running. Generally used for big consumers.
Total cost = Rs. (a + bKW + cKWh)
Two-part tariff: fixed sum depending upon maximum demand and running charges.
Generally used for industrial consumers with appreciable maximum demand.
total cost=Rs .(aKW +bKWh)
Simple Tariff: it is simplest type of tariff and known as uniform rate tariff. In this method,
cost is charged on units consumed. It is generally used for Tube Wells.
Flat Rate Tariff: in this method, consumers are grouped into blocks and each block is
charged differently depending upon the type of load. Generally used for Domestic
Consumers.
Block Rate Tariff: In this method, units are grouped into blocks. Tariff is charged depending
upon succeeding blocks. As blocks increases, cost reduces. Generally used for domestic
consumers and small commercial loads.
Maximum Demand Tariff: Tariff is charged based on maximum demand only. Generally
used for large industrial consumers.
Power Factor Tariff: It depends upon PF of load. Further depends upon;
a. KVA Maximum Demand Tariff: It depends upon KVA maximum demand only.
b. KW and KVAr Demand Tariff: KW and KVAr measured separately and charged so.
c. Sliding Scale Tariff: PF is taken as reference (0.8 lagging).

CALCULATION OF DEPRECIATION
Purchase Value−Residual Cost
1. Straight Line Method:
life of equipment
2. Unit of Production Method:
This is two steps method. Here depreciation is calculated on per units generated. First step
is same as Straight Line method. In second step, cost of depreciation is multiplied with
units produced.
3. Double Declining Method: This is accelerated depreciation method.
 Nuclear Power Plant has highest initial cost
 Fuel power (Thermal) Plant has highest running cost
 Hydro Power is cleanest while Fuel Power is least clean
 Hydro Power Plant is simplest to design while Nuclear is most complex to design