DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF A DIGITAL WHEATSTONE

BRIDGE

CERTIFICATION

This project has been approved for the Department of Allbright Technology

BY

SUPERVISOR DATE:

HEAD OF DEPARTMENT DATE:

EXTERNAL EXAMINER DATE:

 DEDICATION

This Project work is dedicated to God almighty, who in His own mercy granted us good

health to carryout this work, and our loving and caring parents who gave us all the

support we needed.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
It is our pleasure to acknowledge the debt we owe to the host of friends and colleagues

who helped us in this project work.

We are immensely indebted to Engr. Maker of the Department of Electrical and

Electronics, Imo, who is our Project supervisor, who advised, directed and supervised

all the design, construction and write-ups. Our sincere thanks goes to him. We also

wish to extend our thanks to Mr. maker, who is also a physics lecturer in the allbright

technology. Special thanks goes to our parents that made our stay in the School possible

both financially and morally.

We cannot forget our friends and well-wishers for their various contribution. May God

reward all of you, thousand folds.

 ABSTRACT

The work started with an extensive literary research in an attempt to find out facts

about the instrument. This led to probing the history of Wheatstone bridge, hour it was

developed up till the point Wheatstone Bridges of different designs were made.

This work deals with digital Bridge which is one of the fundamental instrument in

most physics laboratories. digital Bridge is a topic under electricity, is an instrument

made up of wooden board metre rule, wire, usually contestant, and metal strips (standard

resistor, unknown resistor, seven segment, 9v battery, off/on switch, op-amp, variable

resistor.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title page
Certification
Dedication
Acknowledgement
Abstract
Table of contents

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND HISTORY OF WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
1.2 DESCRIPTION
1.3 Typical applications
1.4 Resistance Measurement

1.5 , Wheatstone Bridge Circuit with an Amplifier

1.5 Differential Amplifier
1.6 High Impedance Amplifier
1.7 TYPES OF WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
AIM AND OBJECTIVES
1.8 Aim
1.9 Objectives
1.11 Automation and Efficiency
1.12 Calibration and Compensation
1.13 Versatility and Flexibility
1.14 STATEMENT OF PROBLEMS
1.15 Limited Accuracy
1.16 Limited Resolution
1.17 Manual Adjustments
1.18 Calibration Challenges
1.19 Limited Data Handling and Analysis
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
1.0.1 The study of the Digital Wheatstone
1.0.2 Enhanced Measurement Accuracy
1.0.3 Higher Resolution
1.0.4 Automation and Efficiency
1.0.5 Calibration and Compensation Capabilities
1.0.6 Data Handling and Analysis
1.0.7 Versatility and Adaptability
SCOPE OF THE STUDY
1.1.0 Digital Wheatstone Bridge Circuit Design
1.1.1 Component Selection and Characterization
1.1.2 Measurement Techniques and Algorithms
1.1.3 Calibration and Compensation Methods
1.1.4 Automation and Control Systems
1.1.5 Applications of the Digital Wheatstone Bridge
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE OF REVIEW
2.1 Overview of Wheatstone Bridge Theory

CHAPTER THREE
MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY
3.1 DESIGN OF THE DIGITAL BRIDGE
3.2 SPECIFICATIONS
3.3 CHINA WOODEN BOARD
SPECIFICATION OF MATERIALS
3.4 ARKU BOARD
3.5 CONNECTOR
3.6 SCREW NAIL
3.7 3.5MM JACK
3.8 OF/ON SWITCH
3.9 MEASUREMENT TAPE
3.10 WIRE
3.11 BATTERY
3.12 7SEG DISPLAY
3.13 VARIABLE RESISTOR
3.14 OP-AMP
3.15 RESISTOR
3.16 LED
3.17 MCU
 CHAPTER FOUR
CALIBRATION OF CONSTRUCTED BRIDGE
4.1 Light Detection
CHAPTER FIVE
5.1 FINDING
5.2 RECOMMENDATION
5.3 CONCLUSION
REFERENCE

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND HISTORY OF WHEATSTONE BRIDGE

The study of electricity is an important aspect of physics because electricity plays
a key role in the modern world. The working of most modern appliances such as radio,
television, computers and calculators, refrigerator, air conditioners, sound systems and
electric fan is possible as a result of electricity.
There are three basic quantities, which must be clearly understood before we can
proceed with the subject of electricity. There are electric current, potential difference
and electric resistance. One needs to have the knowledge of circuit board and work with
a variety of circuit including voltage dividers, the wheatstone bridge.
The Wheatstone bridge is a fundamental electrical circuit used for measuring resistance
or determining unknown values. It was invented by Samuel Hunter Christie in 1833 and
later popularized by Sir Charles Wheatstone in the mid-19th century. The traditional
Wheatstone bridge circuit consists of four resistive arms arranged in a diamond shape,
with a voltage source connected across two opposite vertices and a galvanometer
connected across the other two vertices.
The Wheatstone bridge circuit is commonly used in various applications, such as strain
gauge measurements, temperature sensing, and impedance measurements. In these
applications, the bridge circuit is often modified or enhanced using additional
components, and the overall configuration is known as the Wheatstone bridge
configuration.

With the advancement of technology, the traditional Wheatstone bridge has been adapted
into digital systems, resulting in the development of the Digital Wheatstone Bridge. The
Digital Wheatstone bridge utilizes digital components, such as digital potentiometers,
analog-to-digital converters (ADCs), and microcontrollers, to achieve precise and
automated measurements of resistance or unknown values.

The Digital Wheatstone bridge offers several advantages over its analog counterpart. It
provides higher accuracy, improved resolution, and easier data acquisition and
processing. It also allows for remote monitoring and control, making it suitable for
applications where real-time measurements and automated adjustments are required.

In the Digital Wheatstone bridge, the resistive arms can be replaced with digital
potentiometers, which can be precisely adjusted through digital control signals. The
output voltage across the bridge is then measured by an ADC and processed by a
microcontroller or digital signal processor (DSP). This digital configuration enables
greater flexibility and programmability in terms of calibration, compensation, and data
analysis.

Overall, the Digital Wheatstone bridge combines the principles of the traditional
Wheatstone bridge circuit with the advantages of digital technology, offering a powerful
and versatile tool for precise resistance measurements and unknown value
determinations in various applications.

1.2 DESCRIPTION
If we need to measure resistance precisely, a Wheatstone bridge is a simple

circuit that provides a way to do so by taking a voltage measurement.

Despite the simplicity of a Wheatstone bridge, it can be a challenge to make

use of one effectively. We will take a look at Wheatstone bridge circuits, how

they work and how we can effectively use them with modern electronics.

Many sensor types use a Wheatstone bridge internally, as the resistance

measured in the circuit can be linked back to some other phenomenon that

causes the resistance of the sensor to change. We will find Wheatstone

bridge circuits in all kinds of compression and tension-based devices, such

as air and fluid pressure sensors, strain gauges and more. While in some

devices, there is an integrated circuit providing amplification of minute

voltage changes, it’s also common to have direct access to the bridge, such

as in a strain gauge/load cell.

Wheatstone bridges are one of those circuits that we might not feel like we

have come across before, but we probably have inside some device or

sensor that we are using today. Virtually every digital scale uses a

Wheatstone bridge-based load cell, for example. The simplicity and

effectiveness of a Wheatstone bridge makes it an incredibly powerful circuit,

even if it does have a relatively niche application.

Wheatstone bridge's is a device for measuring electrical resistance. In fact, there are
many methods for measuring resistance such as the use of potentiometer, ammeter,
Voltmeter, ohm-meter and by substitution method, by these the most accurate and
suitable method of measuring and comparing resistances is that due to wheatstone
bridge. This method makes use of division circuit, which in this case, is known as
wheatstone bridge. The wheatstone bridge circuit is shown in the figure I below:
A Wheatstone bridge uses two balanced legs in a bridge circuit (i.e., two

voltage dividers) to provide a link between the voltage across the bridge

circuit and some unknown resistance of one resistor in the Wheatstone

bridge. The simplest type of Wheatstone bridge balances two legs of a

bridge circuit, one leg of which includes the unknown component. In other

words, if you know the values of three of the resistors, you can calculate the

resistance of an unknown fourth resistor simply by measuring the voltage

across the bridge. This circuit provides a voltage change as the resistance

changes, allowing a microcontroller or other device to measure determine

the resistance of the unknown element by reading the voltage through an

ADC.

1.3Typical applications: for a Wheatstone bridge circuits in modern devices

primarily include strain gauges, load cells, pressure sensors, relative

humidity sensors, thermistors, and resistance temperature detector (RTD)

probes. The Wheatstone bridge is capable of measuring minimal changes in

resistance down to milliOhm levels as long as the ADC being used has

sufficient resolution (high bit depth). Note that there are many bridge

topologies other than a Wheatstone bridge. Other bridge circuits can be

used to measure capacitance, inductance, and impedance; however, we will

not be looking into those in this article.

1.4 Resistance Measurement

The working principle of the bridge is the use of four resistors typically

represented by a diamond shape. In Altium Designer, we need to present

this as a box-like shape as shown above. Here, we have three known

resistances and a fourth resistor with an unknown value. When we supply a

voltage across to the top and bottom terminals of the bridge as shown

above, the bridge creates two parallel voltage dividers. It the voltage is

measured across the centre of the bridge, it can be converted converted

into a resistance using the formulas below. These formulas are simple

enough that you can implement them in a small MCU.

By looking at the above circuit, we should be able to see that the voltage

between V0 and V1 will be equal to 0 V when the four resistors satisfy the

following relation.

There is some math in this article to help you understand how to determine

the unknown resistance, but it is very simple! It might look like a bunch of

formulas, but don’t tune out, as it’s the same formula broken down in

different ways with the hope of making it easier to explain.

Here, R? is the unknown resistor, and the other three resistors have known

value. we can solve the above formula for R? for this particular case where

the voltage between V0 and V1 is equal to 0 V.

This condition can be

used to calibrate the Wheatstone bridge with a varistor or a potentiometer,

but it does not help us determine an unknown resistor in other cases.

We can determine the value of the unknown resistor, by using the circuit

shown above. The voltage across R2 as measured at V0 will be:

In the bridge above, know that this will be made up of 10K resistors so V0

will be half the input voltage of 5V:

In other

words, V0 should always be 2.5 V if we use high-quality resistors. This will be

the case no matter what happens to the unknown resistor. Now the voltage

divider with port V1 has our unknown resistor, so we have a similar

equation for the voltage across R? (as measured at port V1):

Because we

are measuring the difference between the voltages at the two ports, we can

write V = V0 – V1 and substitute the above equations into this expression.

This gives us the following:

now we can see we will have V equal to 0 if the unknown resistor R? is equal

to R3*R2/R1, i.e., if the bridge is balanced.

With V0 and V1 connected to a differential ADC, we can measure the positive

and negative voltage differential using a microcontroller or other device. The

differential voltage is caused by the unknown resistor not being equal to the

other resistor - the bridge being unbalanced. As a note, in practical

applications, we will likely need to amplify the signal before connecting it to

a differential amplifier.

With a bit of algebra, and with a measurement of this voltage differential V,

we can solve the above equation for R? and calculate the value of the

unknown resistor:
 Remember, V is the differential across V0/V1, and VS is the supply voltage

given to the Wheatstone bridge. In our example with R1 = R2 = R3 = 10

kOhms, we can calculate the unknown resistance R? if we measured a 1 V

difference across the bridge. In this case, the unknown resistance would be:

we can confirm this by calculating the voltage output from both dividers

individually, one providing 2.5 V (the known one) and the other to provide

1.5 V.

Typically we will find a Wheatstone bridge application in the real world this

will give us much less substantial changes in resistance. However, so we will

want to use one with an amplifier or an ADC with a programmable gain

amplifier.

1.5 Wheatstone Bridge Circuit with an Amplifier

While there might be applications where we can use a Wheatstone bridge

directly, real world applications for a Wheatstone bridge typically result in

microvolts or millivolts of differential at best. Reading Small Signal Voltages,

I reference a load cell which uses a pretty typical Wheatstone bridge strain

gauge. The 100kg load cell only provides a voltage change of 50μV per

kilogram. This isn’t much use for plugging directly into a microcontroller or

other logic.

1.5 Differential Amplifier

We are using a difference amplifier to make the voltage change more useful

is using a general-purpose rail-to-rail differential amplifier, no specialised

ADC required here.

By using a differential amplifier configuration, we can amplify the difference

between the two Wheatstone bridge voltage dividers which can then be fed
to a microcontroller ADC, or other device. The Wheatstone bridge circuit

converts the resistance change into a voltage change, and the amplifier

makes the voltage change useful. This is quite useful when working with

sensors that exhibit very small changes in resistance as now the voltage

difference can be read easily.

Alternatively, we also use an instrumentation amplifier instead of a general-

purpose differential amplifier for greater precision.

1.6 High Impedance Amplifier

For additional precision, we can first buffer the output from the Wheatstone

bridge. Due to the high input impedance, the stability and precision of the

circuit are improved. we can implement this with buffer amplifiers (unity

gain) or just use another operational amplifier with no gain as a buffer. By

utilising a quad amplifier package, we can buffer and then amplify with a

single IC package.
1.7 TYPES OF WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
There are different practical forms of the wheatstone bridge. There are:-
(i) The metre bridge
(ii) The post office box
(iii) The calendar and Griffith’s bridge
(iv) The Kelvin-double bridge etc.

However, for this research work we are concerned with the metre bridge.

AIM AND OBJECTIVES

1.8 Aim:
To utilize digital technology to enhance the accuracy, resolution, and functionality of the
Wheatstone bridge circuit for precise resistance measurements and determination of
unknown values.
1.9 Objectives:
Improved Accuracy: The objective is to achieve higher accuracy in resistance
measurements by utilizing digital components that provide precise and stable
adjustments to the bridge configuration.

1.10 Increased Resolution: The objective is to enhance the resolution of the

measurement system by incorporating analog-to-digital converters (ADCs) with higher
bit resolutions, enabling finer discrimination of small changes in resistance values.

1.11 Automation and Efficiency: The objective is to automate the measurement

process by integrating microcontrollers or digital signal processors (DSPs) that can
control the digital potentiometers and perform data acquisition, processing, and analysis.
This automation allows for faster and more efficient measurements.

1.12 Calibration and Compensation: The objective is to facilitate calibration and

compensation procedures by employing digital techniques. Digital Wheatstone bridges
can offer built-in calibration routines, allowing for easy and accurate adjustment of the
system to compensate for factors like temperature variations, lead resistance, or other
environmental influences.

1.13 Versatility and Flexibility: The objective is to provide a versatile and flexible
measurement platform that can be adapted to different applications. This includes the
ability to handle various types of resistive sensors or elements, accommodate different
ranges of resistance values, and support multiple measurement configurations.

By focusing on these aims and objectives, the use of a Digital Wheatstone bridge aims to
improve the accuracy, resolution, efficiency, and functionality of resistance
measurements, ultimately enabling more precise and reliable results in a wide range of
applications.

STATEMENT OF PROBLEMS

1.14 The statement of the problem for the Digital Wheatstone bridge can be
framed as follows:

Traditional Wheatstone bridge circuits have been widely used for resistance
measurements and determining unknown values. However, they often face limitations in
terms of accuracy, resolution, and automation. The need arises for an improved and
more advanced solution that addresses these limitations and leverages the benefits
offered by digital technology.

The specific problems associated with the traditional Wheatstone bridge include:

1.15 Limited Accuracy: The analog nature of the traditional Wheatstone bridge circuit
can introduce errors and inaccuracies in resistance measurements, impacting the overall
precision of the system. This can be a significant problem in applications where high
accuracy is crucial, such as in scientific research or industrial settings.

1.16 Limited Resolution: Analog measurement techniques may lack the required
resolution to detect small changes in resistance values accurately. This limitation
restricts the precision and sensitivity of the measurements, potentially leading to
imprecise or insufficient data.
1.17 Manual Adjustments: Traditional Wheatstone bridges often require manual
adjustments of resistive arms, which can be time-consuming and prone to human errors.
Additionally, the need for manual adjustments limits the possibility of automation and
real-time adjustments in response to changing conditions or unknown values.

1.18 Calibration Challenges: Calibration of the traditional Wheatstone bridge circuit

can be complex and time-consuming, especially when compensating for external factors
such as temperature variations or lead resistances. This complexity can hinder the
practical implementation and accuracy of the measurement system.

1.19 Limited Data Handling and Analysis: Analog measurement systems lack the
ability to easily process, store, and analyze data. This limits the potential for advanced
data processing techniques, trend analysis, or integration with other digital systems for
comprehensive measurements and monitoring.

The Digital Wheatstone bridge aims to address these problems by utilizing digital
components, such as digital potentiometers, ADCs, and microcontrollers. By
incorporating digital technology, the Digital Wheatstone bridge can overcome the
limitations of the analog system and provide improved accuracy, resolution, automation,
calibration capabilities, and data handling for more precise and reliable resistance
measurements and determination of unknown values.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

1.0.1 The study of the Digital Wheatstone: bridge holds significant importance in
several aspects. Here are some key points highlighting the significance of this study:

1.0.2 Enhanced Measurement Accuracy: The Digital Wheatstone bridge offers

improved accuracy compared to traditional analog systems. By leveraging digital
components and precise adjustments, it enables more accurate resistance measurements
and determination of unknown values. This increased accuracy is vital in various fields,
including scientific research, engineering, quality control, and industrial applications
where precise measurements are essential.

1.0.3 Higher Resolution: The digital nature of the components used in the Digital
Wheatstone bridge allows for higher resolution measurements. This enables the
detection of smaller changes in resistance values, enhancing the sensitivity of the
system. Higher resolution is particularly valuable when dealing with delicate or precise
measurements, such as strain gauges, temperature sensors, or other sensors requiring
fine discrimination.

1.0.4 Automation and Efficiency: The incorporation of microcontrollers or digital

signal processors in the Digital Wheatstone bridge enables automation of the
measurement process. This automation eliminates manual adjustments, reducing the
potential for human errors and improving overall efficiency. It allows for faster
measurements, real-time adjustments, and the possibility of integrating the bridge
system into larger automated systems or data acquisition setups.

1.0.5 Calibration and Compensation Capabilities: The Digital Wheatstone bridge

offers improved calibration and compensation procedures. With digital potentiometers
and digital control signals, the system can easily implement calibration routines and
compensate for factors such as temperature variations, lead resistances, or other
environmental influences. This enhances the accuracy and reliability of the
measurements and simplifies the calibration process compared to traditional analog
systems.

1.0.6 Data Handling and Analysis: The Digital Wheatstone bridge facilitates advanced
data handling and analysis capabilities. With the integration of microcontrollers or
digital signal processors, the system can process, store, and analyze measurement data.
This enables the application of advanced data processing techniques, statistical analysis,
and trend monitoring. The ability to handle and analyze data digitally opens up
possibilities for integration with other systems or data logging platforms, contributing to
comprehensive measurement solutions.

1.0.7 Versatility and Adaptability: The Digital Wheatstone bridge provides flexibility
and adaptability to different applications. It can be easily configured to accommodate
various types of resistive sensors or elements, different ranges of resistance values, and
multiple measurement configurations. This versatility makes the Digital Wheatstone
bridge a valuable tool across a wide range of industries and research fields.

Overall, the study of the Digital Wheatstone bridge is significant as it addresses the
limitations of traditional analog systems, improves accuracy and resolution, enables
automation and efficiency, simplifies calibration and compensation procedures,
facilitates advanced data handling and analysis, and provides versatility for diverse
applications. By understanding and advancing the Digital Wheatstone bridge,
researchers and engineers can enhance the precision, reliability, and functionality of
resistance measurements and determination of unknown values in various domains.

SCOPE OF THE STUDY

The scope of the study on the Digital Wheatstone bridge can encompass several aspects
related to its design, implementation, and applications. Here are some key areas that fall
within the scope of the study:

1.1.0 Digital Wheatstone Bridge Circuit Design: The study can involve the design and
analysis of the Digital Wheatstone bridge circuit, including the selection and integration
of digital components such as digital potentiometers, ADCs, microcontrollers, and
supporting circuitry. This includes exploring different circuit configurations and
understanding their advantages and limitations.

1.1.1 Component Selection and Characterization: The study can involve evaluating
and selecting suitable digital components for the Digital Wheatstone bridge, considering
factors such as resolution, accuracy, speed, compatibility, and cost. Additionally, the
characterization and testing of these components to determine their performance
characteristics, such as linearity, stability, and noise, can be part of the study.

1.1.2 Measurement Techniques and Algorithms: The study can focus on the
development and optimization of measurement techniques and algorithms specific to the
Digital Wheatstone bridge. This includes investigating signal conditioning methods, data
acquisition techniques, noise reduction approaches, and calibration procedures. The
study may also involve the development of mathematical models or algorithms for
accurate determination of unknown values based on the bridge measurements.

1.1.3 Calibration and Compensation Methods: The study can explore calibration and
compensation techniques for the Digital Wheatstone bridge to enhance accuracy and
mitigate external factors that can affect measurements. This involves investigating
temperature compensation methods, lead resistance compensation, linearity corrections,
and other calibration procedures to ensure reliable and precise measurements.

1.1.4 Automation and Control Systems: The study can investigate the automation and
control aspects of the Digital Wheatstone bridge, focusing on the development of control
algorithms, interface design, and software implementation. This includes exploring real-
time adjustments, remote monitoring capabilities, and integration with larger automated
systems or data acquisition platforms.

1.1.5 Applications of the Digital Wheatstone Bridge: The study can explore the
application of the Digital Wheatstone bridge in various fields, such as strain
measurement, temperature sensing, impedance measurements, or any other domain
where resistance measurements and determination of unknown values are required. This
involves understanding the specific requirements, challenges, and opportunities in each
application and demonstrating the effectiveness of the Digital Wheatstone bridge in
those contexts.

It is important to note that the scope of the study may vary based on the available
resources, time constraints, and specific objectives of the research or project.
Researchers may choose to focus on specific aspects within the broader scope outlined
above, depending on their interests and the intended outcomes of the study.

CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE OF REVIEW
The literature review section of a study on the Digital Wheatstone bridge would involve
reviewing and summarizing relevant academic papers, research articles, books, and
other scholarly sources that discuss the various aspects of the Digital Wheatstone bridge.
Here are some key points and topics that could be covered in the literature review:

2.1 Overview of Wheatstone Bridge Theory: The Wheatstone bridge is a fundamental

electrical circuit used to measure an unknown electrical resistance. It was invented by
Samuel Hunter Christie in 1833 and popularized by Sir Charles Wheatstone in the mid-
19th century. The Wheatstone bridge is widely used in various applications, such as
strain gauges, temperature sensors, and resistance measurements.

The basic configuration of a Wheatstone bridge consists of four resistors arranged in a

diamond shape with an electrical source connected across one diagonal and a
galvanometer (a sensitive current-measuring instrument) connected across the other
diagonal. The four resistors are typically referred to as R1, R2, R3, and Rx, with Rx
being the unknown resistance to be measured.

The Wheatstone bridge operates based on the principle of a balanced bridge, where the
current flow through the galvanometer becomes zero when the bridge is in equilibrium.
The bridge is said to be balanced when the ratio of the resistances on one side is equal to
the ratio on the other side. Mathematically, this can be expressed as:

R1/R2 = Rx/R3

When the bridge is balanced, the unknown resistance Rx can be calculated using the
known resistances R1, R2, and R3. By rearranging the equation, the unknown resistance
can be expressed as:
Rx = (R2/R1) * R3

To achieve a balanced bridge, one or more of the resistors can be adjusted until the
galvanometer reads zero current. This adjustment can be done by varying the values of
R1, R2, or R3 or by using a variable resistor for one of these elements.

The Wheatstone bridge is highly sensitive to small changes in resistance, making it

suitable for accurate measurements. It is often used in conjunction with a null detector,
such as a galvanometer or a digital multimeter, to indicate the balance condition.

Besides measuring unknown resistances, the Wheatstone bridge can also be used for
other applications, such as measuring temperature, pressure, or strain. In these cases, the
unknown resistance is replaced with a sensor that exhibits a change in resistance
corresponding to the physical parameter being measured. The bridge is balanced by
adjusting the variable resistor until the null condition is achieved, allowing the
measurement of the desired parameter.

Overall, the Wheatstone bridge is a versatile and widely used circuit in electrical and
electronic measurements, providing an accurate and reliable means for determining
unknown resistances and measuring various physical quantities.

CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY

3.1 DESIGN OF THE DIGITAL BRIDGE
Figure1 below describes the design of the digital bridge. This is the isometric
view of the instrument that is the first elevation side view. The dimensions are all in
inches.
3.2 SPECIFICATIONS
i) The materials and components used are as follows:
a) china Wooden board
b) arkuboard
c) Connectors
d) Male/ female mic jack
e) Screw nails
f) Off/on switch
g) 9V Battery and cap
h) measuring tape
i) Copper wire
j) 7segment display
k) opamp
l) variable resistor
m) resistor
n) light emitting diode
o) micro-controller (mcu)

3.3 CHINA WOODEN BOARD

Length = 12”
Width = 2”
Thickness = ½”

Two wooden base of

L=12.0”
W =6.5”
H= 4”.

SPECIFICATION OF MATERIALS

3.4 ARKU BOARD: Arku board is a ceiling in used in covering the top and bottom

3.5 CONNECTOR: A connector is a coupling device that joins electrical terminations
to create an electrical circuit. Connectors enable contact between wires, cables, printed
circuit boards, and electronic components.

3.6 SCREW NAIL: Screw nails are typically used in hardwood and dense materials
construction for increased withdrawal capacity. When the screw is driven into the
substrate, it forms a screw-shaped hole for better gripping and holding. This prevents
nails from loosening as well as minimizes splitting.

3.7 3.5MM JACK: A 3.5mm headphone jacks are found in portable audio players,
laptops, smartphones, tablets, field recorders, mixing consoles, and many other audio
devices. Headphones typically use TRS 3-pole 3.5mm connectors, while headphones
with a microphone will utilize TRRS 4-pole 3.5mm connectors.

3.8 OF/ON SWITCH

A switch is used to turn current to an electrical appliance either on or off.

3.9 MEASUREMENT TAPE: A measuring tape is a flexible tool used for measuring
length. It is made up of materials like fiberglass, cloth, plastic, metal ribbon or strip. So,
it is a kind of flexible ruler also known as a tape measure.
3.10 WIRE: Copper wire used to make electrical contacts.

3.11 BATTERY: A battery is a cell used in powering electronic equipment

3.12 7SEG DISPLAY: A seven-segment LED is a digital display module specialized to

display numerical information. Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) arranged in the shape of
numbers offer an easily visible display. They are sometimes called "seven-segment
displays" or "seven-segment indicators."

3.13 VARIABLE RESISTOR: A variable resistor is able to have its electrical

resistance adjusted. These devices are used when working with electrical circuitry
because they help to control voltage and/or currents. They specifically work with voltage
and currents that are a part of the circuit.
3.14 OP-AMP: An operational amplifier is an integrated circuit that can amplify weak
electric signals. An operational amplifier has two input pins and one output pin. Its basic
role is to amplify and output the voltage difference between the two input pins.

3.15 RESISTOR: A passive electrical component with two terminals that are used for
either limiting or regulating the flow of electric current in electrical circuits.

3.16 LED: A Light Emitting Diode (LED) is a semiconductor device, which can emit
light when an electric current passes through it
3.17 MCU: A microcontroller is a compact integrated circuit designed to govern a
specific operation in an embedded system. A typical microcontroller includes a
processor, memory and input/output (I/O) peripherals on a single chip.
 CHAPTER FOUR
CALIBRATION OF CONSTRUCTED BRIDGE

4.1 Light Detection

We have seen above that the Wheatstone Bridge has two input terminals (GND -
5V) and two output terminals (V1-V0). When the bridge is balanced, the voltage
across the output terminals is 0 volts. When the bridge is unbalanced, however,
the output voltage may be either positive or negative depending upon the
direction of unbalance.

The LDR photocell is connected into the Wheatstone Bridge circuit as shown to
produce a light sensitive switch that activates when the light level being sensed
goes above or below the pre-set value determined by R4. In this example R4
either a 10kΩ potentiometer.

The op-amp is connected as a voltage comparator with the reference voltage V1

applied to the non-inverting pin. In this example, as both R1 and R2 are of the
same 10kΩ value, the reference voltage set at point V0 will therefore be equal to
half of Vcc. That is Vcc/2.

The potentiometer, R? sets the trip point voltage VC, applied to the inverting
input(V0) and is set to the required nominal light level. The LED turns “ON” when
the voltage at point V0 is less than the voltage at point V1.
 Adjusting R? sets the voltage at point V1 to balance the bridge circuit at the
required light level or intensity. The LDR can be any cadmium sulphide device
that has a high impedance at low light levels and a low impedance at high light
levels.

Note that the circuit can be used to act as a “light-activated” switching circuit or a
“dark-activated” switching circuit simply by transposing the LDR and R4 positions
within the design.

The Wheatstone Bridge has many uses in electronic circuits other than
comparing an unknown resistance with a known resistance. When used with
Operational Amplifiers, the Wheatstone bridge circuit can be used to measure
and amplify small changes in resistance, R? due, for example, to changes in light
intensity as we have seen above.

But the bridge circuit is also suitable for measuring the resistance change of other
changing quantities, so by replacing the above photo-resistive LDR light sensor
for a thermistor, pressure sensor, strain gauge, and other such transducers, as
well as swapping the positions of the LDR and R4, we can use them in a variety
of other Wheatstone bridge applications.

Also more than one resistive sensor can be used within the four arms (or
branches) of the bridge formed by the resistors R1 to R4 to produce “full-bridge”,
“half-bridge” or “quarter-bridge circuit arrangements providing thermal
compensation or automatic balancing of the Wheatstone bridge.

CHAPTER FIVE
 FINDINGS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION

5.1 FINDING
Base on the research, it was discovered that a digital bridge is associated with electricity
and the study of electricity is an important aspect of physics because it plays a key role
in the modern world. The working of most modern appliances such as radio, television,
computers and calculators, refrigerators, air conditions, sound systems and electric fans
is possible as a result of electricity.

5.2 RECOMMENDATION
Since the metre bridge is an instrument used to determine the value of an unknown
resistance. One needs to have the knowledge of circuit board and work with a variety of
circuits, which include voltage, dividers and the wheatstone bridge. There are three
basic quantities, which must be clearly understood before one can proceed with the
subject of electricity. These are electric current, potential differences and electric
resistances.

5.3 CONCLUSION
The purpose of this was to create and build a digital wheatstone bridge in order to
measure and determine the resistance of an unknown resistor (R?). This was
accomplished by using a Wheatstone bridge circuit that has a diamond-shaped
arrangement consisting of four resistors. By using this circuit, it was possible to
calculate an unknown resistance due to its equation(Rx=(R2R1)R3). It was also possible
to relate the length of the first and second resistors to its resistance with the following
equation:(R1R2=l1l2). Thus the length of each resistor was equal to its resistance. The
third known resistance (R3) was the value applied to the resistance box, this being 100Ω
throughout the experiment. By plugging in these values into the equation, it was possible
to determine the resistance of an unknown resistor. In addition,the calculated unknown
resistances (Rx) were proven to be correct bycomparing them to the value obtained by
using the Resistor Color Code Chart. The calculatedresistance for the first unknown
resistor was 100Ω and according to the Resistor Color CodeChard it has a resistance of
100 Ω. The calculated resistance for the second unknown resistorwas 224 Ω and
according o the Resistor Color Code Chard it has a resistance of 220 Ω. Thecalculated
resistance for the third unknown resistor was 479 Ω and according to the ResistorColor
Code Chart it has a resistance of 470 Ω. Since the values obtained for each
unknownresistor (Rx) were similar to their respective Resistor Color Code Chart values,
it can beconcluded the the calculated unknown resistor values were indeed proven to be
correct.

REFERENCE

BESANCON, M. R. (1974): The Encyclopaedia of Physics. Second

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BLEANEYB (1965): Electricity and Magnetism. Second Edition;
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BUECHE, F. J. (1965): Introduction Of Physics Science and Engineers.
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HALLIDAY, D and RESNICK, R. (1978): Physics Parts I and 2
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HUDSON, M. (1973): Structure and Metals. Hutchinsm Educational
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SEARS, F. W. (1982 ET AL): University Physics. Sixth Edition.

Addison-Weeley Publishing Company Inc.
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