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Chapter I: Defining the Self: Personal and Developmental Perspectives on Self

LESSON 1: The Self from the Various Philosophical Perspectives

WHAT IS PHILOSOPYH?
 It is came from the Greek Words “Philos” and “Sophia” means “Love for Wisdom”
 It is the study of acquiring knowledge through rational thinking and inquires that involves in answering
questions regarding the nature of existence of man and the world we live in.
 Pythagoras was the first person who used the term Philosophy.

WHAT WILL YOU GET OUT OF PHILOSOPHY?

The skills are: Which allow you to:

o Critical Thinking o Justify your opinions.
o Communication skills o Spot bad argument, no matter what
o Reasoning the topic.
o Argument skills o Explain to people why you are wrong
o Analysis and you are right.
o Problem Solving o Philosophy will teach you think.

Philosophical Perspective on Self Philosophers

Socrates
 Greek Philosopher
 Concerned with the problem of the self.
 He reminds us to “know thyself”
 Believes in dualism, that every man is composed of body and soul
Body: Imperfect and Perfect
Soul: Perfect and Permanent

Socrates’ Two Dichotomous Realms

Physical Realms Ideal Realms

- Changeable, transient, and imperfect - Unchanging, eternal, and immortal

- The body belongs to the realm - The soul belongs to the realm

Plato
 An ancient Greek philosopher, was a student of Socrates.
 The soul is immortal
 He believed in the existence of the mind and soul.
 Mind and soul are given in perfection with God.
 Also believes in dualism but the soul is divided into three parts.
 He believes that the genuine happiness can only achieved who consistently
make sure that their reason is in control of their spirit and appetites.

Plato’s Three arts of Soul

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Appetitive Spirited Rational

- Basic needs
- Driven by the desire and
satisfy oneself
- Includes hunger, thirst,
and sexual desire.
- Emotional and Passion - Reason and intellect.
- Can be attributed to the - Seek truth and is swayed by
courageous of the person. facts and arguments

St. Augustine
 A Saint and a Philosopher of a church. He integrated the idea of Plato
and Christianity.
 He fallows the idea that God encompasses us all, that everything will
be better if we were with God.
 He believed in humankind is created in the image and likeness of God.
 “Knowledge can only come seeing the truth that dwells within us.”

Rene Descartes
 French Philosopher known to be the father of modern philosophy.
 He knows for the statement “Cognito Ergo Sum” which means “I
think, therefore I am”
 A person is comprised of mind and body, the body that perceives from
the different senses and the mind that thinks and question or doubt what
the body has experienced.

Rene Descartes Two distinct entities:

1. Cognito- the things that think “mind”
2. Extenza- the extension “body”

John Locke
 Was an English philosopher and Physician.
 Considered to be the father of classical liberalism.
 He concluded that the personal identity is not in the brain but in one’s
consciousness.
 The human mind at birth is “TabuaRasa” which means a blank state.

David Hume
 He was a Scottish philosopher
 Focused his work in the field of Empiricism, Skepticism, and
naturalism.
 According to him, “there is no permanent self”
 Self is only the accumulation of different impressions.
 According to him, “what we called mind is nothing but a heap or
collection of different perceptions.”
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Immanuel Kant
 A German philosopher that is known for his works on Empiricism and
Rationalism.
 Theorized that consciousness is formed by one’s inner and outer
senses.
 “Apparatus of the mind”
 The self organizes different that one gets in relation to his own
existence.
 He argued that sense called “Transcendental Appreciation”

Sigmund Freud
 The father of psychoanalysis and his known for his work on human
nature and the unconscious.
 Self is multi-layered. Composed of three structures of the human
mind: id, ego, and superego

ASPECT OF PERSONALITY
Id- satisfaction, needs, and self-gratification. Driven by the pleasure
principle.
Superego- Notion of right or wrong that is imparted to us.
Ego- Known as the mediator between Id and superego.

Gilbert Ryle
 British philosopher.
 The self is way people behave.
 Behavioristic approach to self, he said that self is the behavior
presented by the person.
 His notion of dualism is that the behavior that we show, emotions, and
actions are the reflection of our mind and such is the manifestation of
who we are.

Paul Churchland
 He was a Canadian philosopher
 He has the idea that, “self is defined by the movements of our brain.”
 He believed that all that exist is ultimately physical.
 Self is nothing but else but brain and self is contained entirely within
the physical brain.
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Maurice Merleau-Ponty
 He was a French philosopher that is known for his works on existentialism and
phenomenology.
 He distinguished the body into two types: subjective body and objective body.
 The use of mind is inseparable from our bodily, situated, and physical nature.
 The body cannot be viewed solely as an object, or material entity of the
world.

Aristotle
 He was a student of Plato.
 The soul is the essence of the self.
 The body and soul are not two separate elements but are one
thing.
 The soul is simply the form of the body, and is not capable of
existing without both.

THE SELF FROM THE SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

THE SELF AS PRODUCT OF SOCIAL INTERACTION

• The self is not present at birth.
• It develops only with social experience within language, gestures, and objects are used to communicate
meaningfully.
• The sociological perspective of the self assumes that human behavior is influenced by group life.
• A particular view of oneself is formed through interactions with other people, groups, or social
institutions.

CHARLES HARTOON COOLEY

• He is perhaps best known for his looking glass self, which is the concept that a person’s self grows out
of society’s interpersonal interactions and the perceptions of others.
• The concept of “looking glass self” is undoubtedly most famous, is known and accepted by most
psychologists and sociologists today.
• The term “looking glass self” was first used by Cooley in his work, Human Nature and the Social Order
in 1902

STEPS IN LOOKING GLASS

• You imagine how you appear to the other person.
• You imagine the judgement of the other person.
• You feel some sense of pride, happiness, guilt or shame.
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GORGE HERBERT MEAD

• Mead’s theory of the self is completely social. Yourself develops through interacting with other, through
reflecting on that interaction, to thinking how others are perceiving you, and that helps you generate an
image of yourself.
• Mead also established the “I” and “Me” theory
• Mead theorized that the self has two parts: Self-awareness and Self-image.

DEVELOPMENT OF SELF:
PREPARATORY STAGE: Language develops self by allowing individuals to responds to each other
through symbols, gestures, words, and sounds.
PLAY STAGE: Play develop self by allowing individuals to take into different roles. It develops one’s self-
consciousness.
GAME STAGE: Games develop self by allowing individuals understands and adhere to the rules of activity.

ERVING GOFFMAN
• We used “impression management” to present ourselves to others as we hope to be perceived.
(DRAMATURGY)
• Each situation is a new scene and we perform different roles depending on who is present.
• In his theory of dramaturgical analysis, he argued that people live their lives much like actors
performing on stage.

AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION
FAMILY- Families introduce children to the expectations of society.
Socialization is different based on race, gender, and class.
SCHOOL- in school, teachers and other students are the source of expectations that encourage children to
think and behave in particular ways.
PEERS- peer culture is an important source of identity. Through interaction with peers, children learn
concepts of self, gain social skills, and form values and attitudes.
MEDIA- The average young person (age 8-19) spends almost 7 hours per day immersed in media in various
forms, often using multiple media forms simultaneously.
RELIGION- Children tend to develop the same religious beliefs as their parents.

THE SELF AS A PRODUCT OF POSTMODERN SOCIETY

• Gerry Lanuza is one of the postmodern sociologists, he said that in modern societies, the attainment and
stability of self-identity is freely chosen. It is no longer restricted by customs and traditions.
• In postmodern societies, self-identity continuously changes due to the demands of multitude of social
contexts, new information, technologies, and globalization.
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• These freedom and changes offer opportunities for self-cultivation but problems may also arise. (e.g.,
alienation and dehumanization).
• For instance, it limits the face-to-face, close relationships with others, especially among family
members.

POST MODERN SELF

• Jean Baudrillard said that individuals achieve self-identity through prestige symbol that they consume.
• The cultural practices of advertising and mass media greatly influence individuals to consume goods not
for their primary value and utility but to give them a feeling of goodness and power when compared
with other.
• The postmodern person has become an insatiable consumer and may never be satisfied in his life.
• Thus, the self maybe a never-ending search for prestige in the postmodern society.

THE SELF FROM THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

THE SELF FROM THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
• Anthropology holds a holistic view of human nature. It is concerned with how cultural and biological
processes interact to shape the self.
• Anthropology considers human experiences as an interplay of “nature” referring to genetic inheritance
which sets the individual’s potentials and “nature” which refers to sociocultural environment.
• Both biological and cultural factors have significant influence in the development of self.

CONCEPT OF SELF IN ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

• Culture influences the development of the self through enculturation. It guides the way we think, feel,
and act. Through this process, we learn to develop unique characteristics as an individual.

ANTHROPOLOGY AND ITS SUBDISCIPLINES

ANTHROPOLOGY AND ITS SUBDISCIPLINES
1. Cultural Anthropology- the study of human society and culture which describes, analyzes, interprets, and
explains social and cultural similarities and differences.
2. Biological or Physical Anthropology- focuses on human evolution revealed by the fossil, human genetics,
human growth, and development, and human biological plasticity and biology.
3. Archeological Anthropology- reconstruct, describes, and interprets human behavior and cultural patterns
through material remains.
4. Linguistic Anthropology- studies language in its social and cultural contest across space and over time.
Universal features of language are analyzed and association between language and culture are evaluated.

THE SELF EMBEDDED IN THE CULTURE

• Culture refers to customary behavior and beliefs that are passed on through enculturation.
• Enculturation is the social process which culture is learned and transmitted.
• Geertz define culture as a system of inherited conceptions expressed in symbolic forms by means of
which men communicate, perpetuate, and develop their knowledge and attitudes towards life.

THE SELF FROM THE PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?
Psychology is the study of the mind and behavior. It encompasses the biological influences, social pressure, and
environmental factors that affect how people think, act, and feel.
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PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE OF THE SELF

Sigmund Freud- the importance of unconscious.

• He was considered as the “Father of Psychoanalysis”

• He postulated that there were three layers of self within us all:
Id, ego, and superego.

Id- “makahayop” Ego- “Makatao” Super-Ego

• The first part of the self • The part of us the • referred as the voice
to develop. function in reality of God
• Drives from our desires • Able to discern what is • It strives for
and wants right or wrong based on perfection
• It is the pleasure context
principles • It is the reality
• It doesn’t care about principle.
morals and societal
norms.

William James- Concept of Self

• He theorized the components of the self, which he divided

into two categories: “Me” and “I”
• The “me” is a separate individual, a person refers to when
talking about their personal experience.
• The “I” is the part of the self that knows who they are and
what they have accomplished in life.

3 sub-categories of ME: a material, social, and spiritual self.

• The material self-consist of what belongs to a person, such as body, family, clothes, and money.
• The social self-marks who you are I a specific social situation.
• The spiritual self is who we are at our core, including our personality, values, and conscience.

The Ideal Self Versus Real Self

● The real self is who we actually are. It is how we think, how we feel, look and act.
● The ideal self is how we want to be. It is an idealized image that we have developed over time, based on
what we have learned and experienced,
THE IMPORTANCE OF ALIGNMENT
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 If the way that I am (real self) is aligned with the way that I want to be (ideal self), then I will feel a
sense of mental well-being, or peace of mind. If the way that I am not aligned with how I want to be, the
incongruence, or lack of alignment, will result mental distress or anxiety.

DAVID LESTER- MULTIPLE VERSUS UNIFIED

What does self-consist of? The human self is consisting of three related, but
separable domains.
1. Experimental Self- “the theater of consciousness” and the first person felt
experience of being.
2. Private self-consciousness system- well as the “narrator” because it’s the
portion of your being that verbally narrate what is happening and tries to
make sense of what is going on.
3. Public self or persona- refers to the public image that you attempt to
project to others which in turn interacts with how people actually see you.

DONALD WINNICOTT- THE TRUE SELF VERSUS

FALSE SELF
What does self-consist of? The human self is consisting of three related,
but separable domains.
1. Experimental Self- “the theater of consciousness” and the first person
felt experience of being.
2. Private self-consciousness system- well as the “narrator” because it’s
the portion of your being that verbally narrate what is happening and tries
to make sense of what is going on.
3. Public self or persona- refers to the public image that you attempt to
project to others which in turn interacts with how people actually see you.

Why it is important to know yourself?

● Happiness
● Less inner conflict
● Better decision-making
● Self-control
● Resistance to social pressure
● Tolerance and understanding of others
● Vitality and pleasure

LESSON 2: THE SELF, SOCIETY, AND CULTURE

WHAT IS THE SELF?
 Self is commonly defined as separate, self-contained, independent, consistent, unitary, and private.
 The self has always unique and has its own identity. Once cannot be another person. Even twins are
distinct from each other.
 Self is capable of morphing and fitting itself into any circumstances it finds itself in.

THE SELF AND CULTURE

• According to Marcel Mauss, every self has two faces: personne and moi.
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• Moi refers to a person’s sense of who he is, his body and his basic identity, his biological
givenness. It is the persons’ basic identity.
• Personne, on the other hand, is composed of the social concepts of what it means to be
who he is.

THE SELF AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SOCIAL WORLD

 Men and women in their growth and development engage actively in the shaping of the self. The
unending terrain of metamorphosis of self is mediated by language.
 “Language as both publicly shared and privately utilized symbol system is the site where the individual
and the social make and remake each other” (Schwartz et al 1993)

MEAD AND VYGOTSKY

• For Mead and Vygotsky, the way that human persons develop is with the use of language acquisition
and interaction with others.
• Both of them treat the human mind as something that is made, constituted through language as
experienced in the external world and as encountered dialogs with others.
• For Mead, child assumes the “other” through language and role-play. On the other hand, Vygotsky, a
child internalizes real-life dialogs that he has had with others, with his family.

SELF IN FAMILIES
 The kind of family that we are born in, the resources available to us (human, spiritual, economic), and
the kind of development that we will have will certainly affect us as we go through life.
 Human persons learn the ways of living and therefore their selfhood by being in a family.
 Without a family, biologically and sociologically, a person may not even survive or become a human
person.

GENDER AND THE SELF

• Gender is one of the most important aspects of self.
• Gender is one of those loci of the self that is subject to alteration, change, and development.
• The gendered self is then shaped within a particular context of time and space. The sense of self that is
being thought make sure the individual fits in particular environment.
• Gender has to be personally discovered and asserted, and not dictated by culture and society.

Lesson 3: The Self as Cognitive Construct

William James’ Self Theory
 There are two aspects of the self—the “I” and the “me” (William James, 1890)

 The “I” is the thinking, acting, and feeling self, it is also the one who acts and decides. The “me” on
the other hand, is what you think or feel about yourself as an object, it is the physical characteristics as
well as the psychological capabilities that makes who you are (Gleitman, Gross, and Reisberg 2011;
Hogg and Vaugh 2010)

Carl Rogers’ Self Theory

 Real self and Ideal self. The real self is who an individual actually is, intrinsically. It is how one thinks,
feels, looks, and acts. The ideal self, on the 0other hand, is the perception of what a person would like to
be or thinks he or she would be. It is an idealized image that has developed over time based on the
environment and the people one interacts with.

Self-concept
 Defined as the totality of complex, organized and dynamic system of learned beliefs, attitudes, and
opinions, that each person holds to be true about his or her personal existence.
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Aspect of Self-concept
Existential self- begins with an individual recognizes his or her existence as a separate entity from others and
realizes that he or she will continue to exist over a period of time and space. Usually starts from infancy to early
childhood.
Categorical Self- starts after a child recognizes his or her existence as a separate entity and become aware that
he or she is an object in the world. Like objects with physical properties, one begins to categorize himself or
herself in terms of sex, age, height, weight. Afterwards. An individual engages in self-description and other’s
perceptions about him or her.

Self-awareness
 Carver and Scheier (1981) identified two types of self that we can be aware of: (1) the private self (your
internal standards, private thoughts, and feelings), and (2) the public self (your public image)
 Self-awareness also presents us with at least three other self-schema: the actual, ideal, and ought self.
The “actual” self is who you are at the moment, the “ideal” self is who you like to be, and the “ought”
self is who you think you should be.
 Self-awareness has a great impact on our self-esteem through social comparison. According to the social
comparison theory, we learn about ourselves, the appropriateness of our behaviors, as well as our social
status by comparing aspects of ourselves with other people.

Global vs. Differential Models

Global models look into a human being in his or her totality as an indivisible entity that cannot be broken
down into parts. the two prominent schools of thought supporting this idea are Gestalt psychology and
humanistic psychology. Gestalt psychology is guided by the principle that “the whole is greater than the
sum of all its parts.” it was asserted by Max Wertheimer as response to Wilhelm Wundt’s structuralist
view of the self.

The Differential models look into a human being through examining its parts for it is divisible or can be
broken into components. Psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung studied the human psyche and its
structure that is essential in understanding personality and identity. For Freud, the psyche is composed of
three parts—the id, ego, and superego.

Albert Bandura’s Agentic Theory of the Self

 The social cognitive theory. The theory makes use of the agentic theory of the self to make sense of the
self. To be an agent means to be capable of intentionally influencing one’s own functionality and life
circumstances. Albert Bandura, who advanced the agentic theory of the self, asserted that people are not
merely passive entities molded by environment forces or driven by inner influences.

Lesson 4: The Self in Western and Eastern Thoughts

Eastern Concept of Self Western Concept of Self

Sees the other person as Sees the other person as

The two concepts
part of yourself. part of yourself.
of the self-
believing that all
humans are
essentially the
same, and they
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Culture is an individualistic
Culture is called collectivistic culture since their focus is
culture as the group. on the person.
The cultivated self if subdued. Looks at the world in dualities.
social relations are given more Individual needs and wants are
importance than individual given more importance than
needs and wants social relations.

Religious Beliefs and Political Philosophies that Greatly Influenced the Mindset of Each
Nation
• Confucianism- code of ethical conduct, of how one should properly act according to their relationship
with other people, thus, it is also focused on having a harmonious social life.

• Taoism- living in the way of the Tao or the universe. However, Taoism rejects having one definition of
what the Tao is, and one can only state clues of what it is as they adopt a free-flowing, relative, unitary,
as well as paradoxical view of almost everything. Taoism rejects the hierarchy and strictness brought by
Confucianism and would prefer a simply lifestyle and its teachings thus aim to describe how to attain
that life.

• Buddhism- the self in this philosophy is seen as an illusion, born out of ignorance, of trying to hold and
control things, or human-centered needs; thus, the self is also the source of all these sufferings.

LESSON 1: THE PHYSICAL AND SEXUAL SELF

The Biological Imprint

● Physical Self is shaped by biological and environmental factors; however, it is also surrounded
by issues associated with health, hygiene, nutrition, and the standards of beauty.
● Body structure, height, weight, skin and hair color, and other physical characteristics are
triggered by genetic transformations and biological development through heredity.
● Heredity is the transmission of traits from parents to offspring.
● Gene is the basic unit of heredity and traits that are made up of specific information are
embedded in it.
● Each individual has 23 chromosomes, and the sex chromosome is the 23rd pair. XX indicates a
male while XY indicates a female.
● Within each chromosome is the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
● We are controlled by our genetic makeup which influences the way we treat ourselves and
others.
● Maturation is the completion of the growth of a genetic character within an organism.
● Society or the external environment also helps shape us.

Environmental Conditioning
● Environmental influence shape the physical self.
● Family plays a crucial role and foundation of our development.
● As time passes by, we are conscious of our height, weight, and the way we look. As a result,
we began engaging in activities that would make us attractive and acceptable to others.
For example: for girls, choosing the right outfit, and acting more feminine
for boys, they begin to have facial hair and go to the gym
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Impact of culture on beauty and body image
● The appearance of a person can be an asset or liability.
● Present culture prescribed that being beautiful is a necessity, an obligation in order to be liked
and loved.
● Contemporary media portrayed slim and muscular bodies are the standard.
● It is important to remember that physical beauty is only skin-deep; that what matters is feeling
good about oneself and embracing a healthy perception of one's physical worth.

Achieving Physical Well-Being

To achieve and maintain good and balanced physical well-being, consider the following tips:
1. Eat healthy foods.
2. Maintain a healthy lifestyle.
3. Follow proper hygiene.
4. Engage in daily exercise.
5. Take vitamins and drink fruit juices.
6. Avoid stress.
7. Spend less time on computers and gadgets.

Sexual Aspect of Self

● Talking about sex should be deemed normal for there is a need for people to learn more about
their sexuality.
● Human’s need for sex is not the same level as the need for oxygen, but without it, humankind
would perish.
● Sex is a source of pleasure which is an important part of the sexual self.
● According to Sigmund Freud; human behavior is motivated by the desire to feel pleasure;
sexual aggression is driven by libido; and human instinct continuously seeks pleasure.

Male Reproductive System

Female Reproductive System

Sexual Identity and Gender Orientation

● One's sexuality depends on his or her physical features and genitals.
● Biological sex is one's assignment upon birth and is dependent on physical features.
● Gender is the identity that is learned and embraced by the individual which goes beyond the
biological domain. It is anchored on societal beliefs and norms.
● It is important to highlight one's self-expression and moreover, become responsible by doing
so.
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Erogenous Zones
● Refers to the parts of the body that are primarily receptive and increase sexual arousal when
touched in a sexual manner. e.g., mouth, ears, lips, neck
● Knowing these zones or “hot spots” is important for every couple as it would boost sexual
satisfaction.
Human sexual behavior
● an activity—solitary or in a group—that induces sexual arousal.

Two major factors determine human sexual behavior:

a.) inherited sexual response pattern
b.) degree of restraint or other types of influence

Types of Behaviors
1. Solitary Behavior - involves only one person.
2. Sociosexual Behavior - generally divided into heterosexual and homosexual behavior.

Physiology of the human sexual response

● Excitement Phase - caused by increased pulse and blood pressure.
● Plateau Phase - generally of brief duration.
● Sexual Climax - marked by a feeling of abrupt, intense pleasure.
● Resolution Phase - the last stage refers to the return to a normal or subnormal physiological
state.

The diversity of human sexual behavior

Sexual behavior and/or activities may come in the form of the following:
● Masturbation - the act of stimulating one's own genitalia.
● Premarital Sex - sexual activities people engage in outside of marriage.
● Marital Sex - these are activities that happen within the bond of marriage.
● Extramarital Sex - activities that married people engage in with the people they are not
married to.
● Heterosexuality - sexual behavior that happens between persons of the opposite sex.
● Homosexuality - sexual behavior, attraction, and sexual activities that happen between two
people of the same sex.
● Bisexuality - sexual behavior of one who engaged in sexual activity with someone from the
opposite or same sex.

Understanding the chemistry of lust, attraction, and love

There are three (3) stages of love.
1. Lust - characterized by the desire for sexual gratification.
2. Attraction (passionate love or obsessive love, infatuation) - characterized by the intense attention
given to a desired partner. This stage is driven by the following:
● Adrenaline - released by the body for ‘fight’ and ‘flight’.
● Dopamine - ignites an intense rush of pleasure when released.
● Serotonin - “falling in love” hormone
3. Attachment (companionate love) - is characterized by the desire of couples to stay together. This
stage is driven by two major hormones:
● Oxytocin (cuddle hormone)- released during orgasm.
● Vasopressin (anti-diuretic hormone) - released after sexual intercourse.

Sexually transmitted diseases

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1. HIV/AIDS (Human Immunodeficiency Virus/ Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) -
spectrum of conditions caused by being infected by HIV.
2. Gonorrhea - a bacterial infection of the mucous membrane.
3. Syphilis - caused by Treponema Pallidum that is transmitted through direct contact.
4. Genital Herpes - a viral infection that causes blisters on the genitals.
5. Genital Warts - warts caused by human papillomavirus (HPV)
6. Chancroid - a bacterial infection that causes pores or ulcers on the genitalia.
7. Pubic Lice (crabs) - small parasites that infect the genital area.
8. Scabies - a skin condition that is caused by an infestation of tiny mites called Sacroples
Scabiei.
9. Trichomoniasis - infection caused by a parasite called trichomonas vaginalis.
10. Molluscum Contagiousum - infection caused by molluscum contagiousum.
11. Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID) - complication resulting from STIs.
12. Chlamydia - caused by a bacteria called chlamydia trachomatis.

Methods of contraception
Factors in choosing a particular method of contraception:
1. It should be safe enough. There should be no unwanted side effects for every individual using
the contraceptive.
2. It should be efficient in averting unwanted pregnancies.
3. It should be simple and easy to use.
4. It should be available at any time.

Some of the recognized methods in family planning are:

1. Folk Method
a. Postcoital Douche or Douching - Douching is a method used by women to flush out the
vagina with a medicinal solution to remove or destroy the sperm.
b. Prolonged Lactation - This technique used by women is done by breastfeeding their baby for a
longer period.

2. Behavioral Contraceptives - Behavioral contraceptives do not need any artificial devices.

a. Rhythm method - The rhythm method is a natural method supported by the Catholic Church.
Couples are enjoined to abstain for a certain period while the woman is fertile.
b. Ovulation method - This practice makes use of the observed mucous discharge from the vagina
at the beginning of a woman's fertile period.
c. Withdrawal or Coitus interruptus - This is a process wherein the man, during sexual intercourse,
withdraws the penis out of the vagina before orgasm.
d. Coitus reservatus - This is a practice in which the man withholds ejaculation and lets the erection
subside inside the vagina.

3. Mechanical Contraceptives - there are mechanical contraceptives of different forms that act as
barriers to prevent the sperm from entering the uterus, thereby preventing pregnancy.
a. Condom - The condom is a thin material made of rubber used during sexual activity.
b. Diaphragm - This is a shallow rubber cup inserted into the vagina. The diaphragm is coated with
spermicidal cream or jelly to prevent the entry of sperm into the uterus.
c. Cervical caps - These are fitted over the cervix by a doctor.

4. Chemical Contraceptives - Chemical contraceptives, better known as spermicides, are used to

prevent pregnancy by stopping the sperm from entering the uterus.
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a. Vaginal suppositories and tablets - A suppository is a small, bullet-shaped dosage form

containing chemicals used in destroying sperm cells.
b. Contraceptive jellies, creams, and vaginal foams- These are applied to the vagina shortly
before sexual intercourse.
5. Intrauterine Devices - An intrauterine device (IUD) is a small device of polyethylene plastic or thin
copper wire inserted into the uterus by a physician.
6. Pills - Taking the pill is completely dissociated from the sexual act. The pill renders the woman
infertile. She does not need to think about pregnancy. When taken exactly as prescribed, the pill is
almost 100 percent effective.
7. Sterilization - Sterilization or surgery is done with comparative ease and is virtually 100 percent
effective. Sterilization of the male is achieved through vasectomy and sterilization of the female is
through tubal ligation.
8. Injectables - Injectables are one of the latest forms of contraception. This contraceptive is injected
into a woman to inhibit ovulation. An injection usually lasts for three months.

LESSON 2: MATERIAL ASPECT OF SELF

The concept of being fixated on acquiring material things as a way to identify oneself is related to
the concept of the material self introduced by William James, (1890)

William James defined the material self consists of

● Body- the primary component of his or her material self. We strive hard to make sure that this
body functions well and good.
● Clothes- clothing is a form of self-expression. We choose and wear clothes that reflect
ourselves (Watson, 2014).
● Family- an extension of one’s identity because the members affect one’s actions and
disposition in the environment.
● Home- a space that one considers as his/her own.

Needs Vs. Wants

Needs- something a person must have in order to live. e.g., food, shelter, medicine
Wants- things that are luxuries. e.g., car, designer clothes, jewelry

LESSON 3: SPIRITUAL ASPECT OF SELF

● Most intimate, inner subjective part of the self.
● This is quite difficult to discover as it is impossible for every human being to know the real will
of God.
● Seeking the meaning of life is the journey that the spiritual self is on.

The Practice of Religion

● Religion introduces the concept of supreme beings—God, God, and goddesses.
● All agree that the supreme being is omnipotent (all-powerful), omniscient (all present), and
omnipresent (everywhere at once).
● God is also the beginning and the end and the lawgiver. He is regarded as the most merciful,
most just, most patient, and cannot be represented in any worldly form.
● Religion is a set of rituals made to coordinate with the goal of either obtaining or hindering
changes in the human condition and nature's state.
● Religion has many functions such as providing a sense of the world, strengthening norms and
identity, setting sanctions for individual behavior, and giving serenity in facing life challenges

The Concept of Soul

● Monism - a view that there is only one substance and one being.
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● Dualism - a view that the mind and the body are two independent substances.
● Soul is superior to the body and can exist independently without the body.
● The soul is a life force of the body, the source of motion, as well the intelligence of mind of a
person that pre-exists bodily existence.
● The Filipino term for soul or spirit is kaluluwa.
● More than 80% of Filipino are to man Catholics. We believe the immortality of the soul and life
after death (or eternal life).
● A Catholic who failed to live a moral life is believed to be thrown to hell or impyerno, a place for
sinners, and a lake of fire of eternal punishment.
● Dungan is the Ilonggo term (by people of Panay and Negros) for the soul. It lacks material
substance and is extremely light so it travels with the wind. It is believed that dungan dwelled
above the surface of the earth before inhabiting the human body.

Religious Rituals
● Rituals are patterns of behavior or practices that are related to the sacred (Tischler, 2011).
● In Catholicism, rituals are called sacraments. There are seven sacraments, namely, baptism,
Holy Eucharist, confirmation, reconciliation, anointing of the sick, marriage, and holy order.
● Religion establishes norms that mold or shape human behaviors (Schaefer, 2013).
● Rites of passage are rituals that mark important stages in an individual's life cycle.

❖ Buddhism
● believes that life is not a bed of roses. Instead, there are suffering, pain, and frustration.
● some practices of Buddhism is samatha and vipassana. Samatha is practiced as mindfulness
of breathing and the development of loving-kindness (Metta Bhavana). Vipassana practices
aim at developing insight into reality.
● Some of the major Buddhist celebrations are Parinirvana Day in February; Buddha Day
(Wesak) in May, Dharma Day in July: Padmasambhava Day in October; and Sangha Day in
November.
❖ Christianity
● Christians believe in Trinitarian God. One God in three personas: God the Father (Creator),
God the Son (Savior), and God the Holy Spirit (Sustainer). Eternal life after death will be
achieved through faith in Jesus Christ.
● Christian churches practice the sacrament of Baptism and the Sacrament of Communion.
● Christmas and Resurrection (Easter) are the two major celebrations in Christianity. Christmas,
usually on December 25, commemorates the birth of Jesus Christ while Resurrection Sunday
(depending on the lunar calendar, sometime in March or April) celebrates the resurrection of
Jesus Christ from death.

❖ Hinduism
● Hinduism covers a wide range of traditional beliefs and religious groups; thus, there is no
single founder or leader. Hindus believe that existence is a cycle of birth, death , and rebirth,
governed by Karma. Karma is a concept where the reincarnated life will depend on how the
past life was spent.
● Vedas are sacred scriptures of Hindus. Mahabharata and Ramayana are two other important
texts of the Hindus.
● Diwali and Navrati are the most celebrated festivals of the Hindus. Diwali is the Festival of
Lights while Navrati is the festival of nine nights, which celebrates the triumph of good over
evil. Hindus have set dates to honor particular manifestations of God.

❖ Islam
● Muslims believe in Allah, who is their "One God." They believe in the unity and universality of
God. Muslims also have a strong sense of community or "ummah"
● The Holy Book of Islam is called the Quran,
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● Muslims believe in the five pillars of Islam, which are the foundation of Muslim life: shahadah,
salat, zakat, haji, sawm.
● Two of the major festivals in Islam are Eldul-Fitr and Eidul-Adha. Eidul-Fitr is the celebration at
the end of Ramadan, while Eidul-Adha is celebrated within the completion of the Pilgrimage,
the Hajj.

❖ Judaism
● The Jews believe in the God of Abraham, the same God that liberated the Hebrew slaves
from Egypt to Canaan, the Promised Land through the leadership of Moses and later, Joshua.
The Jews believe in the coming of Messiah, the Savior. The sacred scripture of the Jews is
called the Torah or the Law.
● Customs and Practices There are five major festivals observed by the Jews: rosh Hashanah,
Yom Kippur, pesach-Passover, Shavuot Pentecost and Sukkot.
Spirituality
● Spirituality is the aspect of the self that is associated with an individual's process of seeking
and expressing meaning and how he or she is connected to the self, to others, to the moment,
and to everything else that composes his or her environment, including the sacred and
significant.
● It is also viewed as "personal and private beliefs that transcend the material aspects of life and
give a deep sense of wholeness, connectedness, and openness to the infinite."
Religiosity
● Religiosity is defined as the adherence to a belief system and practices associated with a
tradition in which there is agreement about what is believed and practiced.

Finding and Creating Meaning of Life

● Another extensive study of self can be found in the works of Dr. Viktor E. Frankl.
● Dr. Viktor E. Frankl was born on March 26, 1905, in Vienna, Austria, where famous
psychiatrists Sigmund Freud and Alfred Adler lived.
● Logotherapy is a psychotherapy introduced by Dr. Viktor Frankl, who is considered the Father
of Logotherapy. The main belief of logotherapy is that "man's primary motivational force is
search for meaning.”
● Logotherapy, meaning can be discovered by creating a work or doing a deed, experiencing
something or encountering someone, and the attitude toward unavoidable suffering.
● Franklin's Psychology has basic concepts. These are the following:
1. Life has meaning under all circumstances.
2. The main motivation for living is our will to find meaning in life.
3. Freedom to find meaning.

LESSON 4: THE POLITICAL SELF AND BEING FILIPINO

Ideal Citizen
● Citizenship denotes the status of being a legal member of a nation-state. Anyone can easily
claim that he or she is a citizen of a nation.
● In most constitutions, citizenship is acquired through blood relations.
● An ideal citizen can be a person who follows the laws, protects and takes care of the
environment, and contributes to the welfare of other people.
● Article XIV, Section 3, Paragraph 2 of the Philippine Constitution states that an ideal citizen
is patriotic and nationalistic, fosters a love of humanity, has respect for human rights,
appreciates the role of national heroes, knows the rights and duties of citizenship, has strong
ethical and spiritual values, and has good moral character and personal discipline.

How to be a Good Citizen

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● The following are a few ways how to be a good Filipino:

1. Be an active Filipino citizen. A good Filipino citizen is aware of current events and
participates in government programs that aim for the country's progression and
development.
2. Study Philippine history. The road of Philippine history is long and bloody, and by
learning and fully understanding the events of Philippine history, you will learn so much
as to why it is so important for you to love your country with your life, and extend help to
your fellow. Filipinos in need, and recognize abuse of political power.
3. Support local products. When you buy local products, you not only support local
manufacturers and businessmen, but you also help strengthen the local economy.
4. Speak the Filipino language. The history of the Filipino language was as long and
hard as the Philippine history. Jose Rizal highlighted the importance of speaking a
national language as a way of displaying love for one's country.
5. Do not spread fake news and be democratic in engaging with dissent. This period
in the history of the Philippines has seen how the Internet has spawned tons of
possibilities for people, both good and bad. For instance, it is easier for Filipinos working
abroad to communicate with their loved ones left in the Philippines through the Internet.

Politics, Citizenship, and the Self

● Politics refers to the actions or activities concerned with achieving and using power in a nation
or society.
● Politics is concerned with power.
● Politics functions based on a particular social economic and cultural context.
● The political self is anchored on the inclination to participate in political activities that should
serve the interests of all sectors of society

Active Citizenship
● Active Citizenship refers to the structured forms of engagement with political processes and
everyday forms of participation in society.
● Active citizenship is anchored on one's cognitive and behavioral engagement to participate in
formal and informal political activities.
● Active citizenship is also associated with the "sense of community.”
● The political self is anchored on the inclination to participate in political activities that should
serve the interests of all sectors of society.

Political Culture

● Political culture is the pattern of individual attitudes and orientations toward politics among
members of a political system (Almond & Verba, 1965).
● Filipino political culture includes beliefs, feelings, group-accepted practices, language, and
paraphernalia shared by groups of Filipinos in their production, allocation, and usage of
political powers alongside.

Characteristics of Political Culture

1. The dominance of family ties or kinship system
2. Euphemism
3. Utang na loob
4. Sense of overdependency
5. The belief that the majority of politicians are corrupt
6. Lack of political maturity

Establishing a Democratic Culture

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● Culture is defined as the way of life followed by a people and which consists of learned and
shared values, behavior, and traditions,
● Culture has two major elements—material and non-material
● Democratic culture has become a way of life for Filipinos and it has been inculcated by the
nation's heroes before the arrival of the Americans.
● In keeping the nation's democracy, it is important that the Filipino people continue to cherish
the basic features of democracy.

Governance
● Governance is defined as the traditions and institutions that determine how authority is
exercised in a particular country.
● The seven Nolan Principles or seven principles of public life are selflessness, objectivity,
integrity, honesty, accountability, openness, and leadership.

Who is a Filipino?
● Filipinos are often referred to as globally renowned personalities like Manny Pacquiao, Lea
Salonga, and Michael Cinco who have made Filipinos recognized around the world through
their expertise.
● Culture and history have greatly influenced the manner Filipinos learn, live, and behave.
● The Philippines is a lush island paradise famous for its grandiose mountain views, pristine
beaches, and rich and diverse culture changing from province to province.

Filipino Values
There are inherent traits that make Filipinos different from other nationalities. These traits form
part of the socio-anthropological self of Filipinos.

Positive Filipino Values

1. Bayanihan - As a practice of the spirit of kinship and camaraderie, the custom of bayanihan is
observed whenever a helping hand is extended to accomplish a task as a group.

2. Damayan - Filipinos always extend sympathy for people, especially those who lost their loved
ones or who were victims of calamities.

3. Familism or Close Family Ties - Filipinos are known to prioritize the welfare of family
members above other things.

4. Optimism -Filipinos have the attitude of looking at all ways to be happy and to maintain a
positive outlook

5. Hospitality - Filipinos are identified to be warm, friendly, generous, and accommodating to

other people, fellow Filipino or not.

6. Regionalism - Outside the "significant others," Filipinos have this attitude of giving more
priority to their province mate. One example of this is the so-called "Solid North”

7. Flexibility - Filipinos have the ability to adapt or conform to the expectations or will of other
people to achieve smooth and harmonious relationships.

8. Religious - This is characterized by strong faith and submission to the will of a supreme being.
9. Respect for Elders - Filipinos are thought to show courtesy towards the elderly at all times.
This is manifested in the act of pagmamano (kissing the hands of elders) and saying po and
opo when talking to someone older as a sign of respect.
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10. Remedyo Attitude - Filipinos are known for being creative and resourceful. This is
characterized by their ability to find usefulness in things that may already be considered as
junk by others.

11. Matiyaga - Filipinos are known for their grit and strong determination in every undertaking.

12. Utang na Loob- This is a feeling of gratitude, recognition of one's indebtedness, and
obligation to repay someone who has extended assistance to another.

Negative Filipino Values

1. Bahala na Attitude - This is a Filipino trait of leaving to fate and luck the outcome of a certain
undertaking, hence the expression bahala na.

2. Colonial Mentality or Blue-seal Mentality - It is a Filipino value of giving high regard to

foreign products and treating the locals as inferior and low in quality.

3. Crab Mentality - It is a Filipino attitude born out of jealousy and insecurity characterized by an
attempt to pull down those who are ahead of them in life. Instead of admiring and emulating
the person, they end up in character assassination.

4. Euphemistic - This is a Filipino attitude of not being frank and straightforward so as not to
offend or hurt another person.

5. Filipino Time - This manifests among Filipinos through lack of punctuality.

6. Gaya-gaya Attitude - This is a Filipino trait of copying or imitating others' work, product, type
of business, fashion, and the like.

7. Jackpot Mentality - This is characterized by an "instant millionaire" mentality of some Filipinos

who would rather engage in fast ways of acquiring money by betting in the lottery, participating
in a contest, and sending entries in raffle draws rather than working hard to have a better life.

8. Belief in Kapalaran - It is a Filipino trait of believing and accepting that one's fate is already
written in the stars. This is manifested in the practice of going to fortune-tellers a palm readers
just to earn affirmation of their beliefs rather than planning and pursuing their goals in life.

9. Mañana Habit - Mañana, from the phrase mamaya na means "I'll do it later," is an attitude of
Filipinos characterized by stalling on doing tasks instead of doing them immediately. The delay
in the performance of certain tasks affects one's productivity.

10. Ningas Kugon-This is characterized by the attitude of being enthusiastic only at the beginning
of an endeavor. This is usually observed in some politicians who are only good at the start of
their term but gradually disappear when public concerns start to pile up.

11. Oversensitivity - It is the inability of some Filipinos to withstand and accept criticism or
negative comments. When they hear criticisms, they are easily hurt as they take these
personally and negatively instead of constructively.

12. Pakikisama - It is a Filipino attitude of always adhering or submitting to the will of the group
they are part of.

13. Lack of Sportsmanship - It is an attitude of Filipinos manifested in how they cannot seem to
accept defeat. They would rather believe that they were cheated on than accept that they were
defeated.
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14. Tsamba lang Attitude -It is an attitude characterized by the refusal to take the credit for one's
own instead of owing it to charm and luck.

Filipino Markers
The following are constant reminders of our nationality.
● Proverbs or Salawikain
- Filipino proverbs, just like any other proverbs, are sayings that convey lessons and
reflections on Filipino practices, beliefs, and traditions.
- An example of a Filipino proverb is "Kung may tiyaga, may nilaga," which means that
hard work will be rewarded if one is persistent.
- Damiana Eugenio, regarded as the Mother of Philippine Folklore, classified proverbs
into six categories (Eugenio, 2000):
a. proverbs expressing a general attitude toward life and the laws that govern life;
b. ethical proverbs recommending certain virtues and condemning certain vices;
c. proverbs expressing a system of values;
d. proverbs expressing general truths and observations about life and human nature;
e. humorous proverbs; and
f. miscellaneous proverbs..

● Superstitions
- Filipinos also subscribe to their own set of superstitions passed down from generation to
generation. Some of these may be influenced by beliefs from other cultures, but
Filipinos have retold these superstitions according to their own experiences and they
sometimes end up even more interesting. According to a Filipino superstition, a woman
singing while cooking will end up a spinster so parents remind their daughters to avoid
singing while preparing their meals. Filipinos also avoid taking pictures in threes as the
one in the center is said to die, according to another superstition.

● Myths and Legends

- Due to the Philippines' rich culture and history, numerous myths and legends have
sprung about things that are beyond one's imagination.

● Heroes and Icons - Heroes serve as a reminder of true patriotism and nationalism as
they have sacrificed their lives for the sake of their country's freedom and progress.
Famous Filipino icons such as Lea Salonga, Manny Pacquiao, and our very own
national hero, Jose Rizal, also serve as important Filipino markers as they have made
the Filipino name more pronounced worldwide through their own expertise.

LESSON 6: DIGITAL ASPECT OF SELF

● Online Identity - the sum of all our characteristics and our interactions.
● Partial identity, on the other hand, is a subset of characteristics that make up our identity. And
persona is the partial identity we create that represents ourselves in a specific situation.

Front and Back Stages of Self

● In Goffman’s dramaturgical theory, he claimed that life is a series of interactions and
performances where people enact the presentation of self on a daily basis.
- In a theater, for instance, there are front and back stages. An individual’s performance
on the front stage is what can openly be seen by the audience, while what happens
backstage can be linked to what an individual would like to be kept hidden.
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● Humans, as social beings, are conscious of how they present themselves to others and what
they choose to keep for themselves.
- For example, on social media, one may upload a picture or a video showing his or her
happy marriage or that he or she is financially successful when in reality, he or she is
not.

What NOT To Post Online

1. Sexy or revealing pictures

2. Pictures or videos showing private moments with loved ones
3. Pictures or videos showing bad habits
4. Negative comments on another person’s attitudes.
5. Posts announcing conflicts with other people
6. Posts of the results of a particular competition with the names of defeated participants
7. Comments showing strong opposition to certain issues
8. Comments with foul, vulgar, indecent, and offensive words
9. Pictures or videos revealing one’s financial status
10. Pictures or videos showing family trips
11. Pictures or videos displaying one doing good deeds
12. Pictures or videos in hospitals
13. Every single thing you do

LESSON 1: Learning To Be a Better Learner

Definition of Learning
● Learning is referred as the cognitive process of acquiring skill or knowledge. It involves changes in the present
knowledge, skills, habits, behaviors, or tendencies through experience, practice, or formal education.

Characteristics of Learning 1. Learning is Purposeful.

Every human action is motivated or inspired by one’s aims, goals, or intention. Learning occurs because it is planned,
desired or even forced.
2. Learning is a Result of Experience. Learning is often associated with a change in behavior as a result of
experience.
3. Learning is Multifaceted. The focus of learning is not on the course alone.
4. Learning is an Active Process. Learning is not rote memorization. The principle of teaching states that
the students should be the center of the learning process.

What Happens during Learning?

● Brain Changes
When a person learns something new, the brain undergoes changes. The changes in the brain during learning
are: 1. New nerve cells may grow and new neutral networks will then be formed; 2. The strength
of existing synaptic connection changes, thus functionally changing the connectivity within the existing
neutral networks in response to a sensory stimuli; and
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3. New synapses are formed between neurons that were not connected before, thus effectively
creating new networks of neurons that, when active, represent a new memory.

● Behavioral Changes
Learning has been defines as permanent change in behavior as a result of experience. Behaviors that can be
changed includes: 1. Stage fright

2. False reasoning
3. Dishonesty
Becoming a Self-regulated Learner

Self-regulated learning refers to the learner’s ability to regulate or control one’s own learning and behavior. An effective
learner regulates one’s own learning by:

1. Planning and setting goals;

2. Using strategies and monitoring performance; and
3. Reflecting on one’s own performance and adapting strategies to achieve the goals (Sage 2YC, 2018).

Good Study Habits

Study habits refers to the attitudes and behaviors of students when preparing for any learning assessment. Some ways
to develop good study habits include:

1. Get organized.
2. Prepare your review materials.
3. Ask help.
4. Test yourself or ask someone to test you.
5. Allot time to take a break and eliminate stress.
6. Create or join a study group.
7. Teach what you have learned.
8. Study to understand, not to remember.

Meaningful Learning

Some ways to ensure meaningful learning after the lesson includes:

1. Asking the students about the practical application of their learning, particularly what they can do for their
family, school, government, and community;
2. Allowing students to demonstrate a new skill acquired from the lesson;
3. Requiring students to write an essay or a reflective journal of what they have learned.
4. Asking students to relate the lesson to other sciences or fields of knowledge; or
5. Helping students find the relevance of the lesson to their lives. Through these ways, the students can reinforce
their learning, empower themselves, express their thoughts, and make sense of those lessons to their lives and
to their worldand these exemplify meaningful learning.

LESSON 2: Do Not Just Dream, Make It Happen

Albert E. Bandura’s Self-efficacy

The concept of self-efficacy was introduced by Albert E. Bandura in an article entitled “Selfefficacy: Toward a Unifying
Theory of Behavioral Change” published in Psychological Review in 1977. The article also became an instant classic in
psychology (Kendra 2017).
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In Albert Bandura’s social cognitive theory, selfefficacy refers to one’s belief in one’s ability to succeed in specific
situations or accomplish a task. More often than not, one’s sense of selfefficacy can play a major role in how one
approaches goals, tasks, and challenges.

Dr. Bandura enumerated ways to strengthen self-efficacy. These include:

1. Mastery experiences. First-hand or direct experiences that a person acquires.

2. Vicarious experiences. Emanate from observing people, especially those that one regards as his or her role
model.
3. Verbal persuasion. Motivation coming from influential people such as parents, teachers, and superiors.
4. Emotional and Physiological States. The emotional and physiological conditions that a person is in.

In contrast, people “who doubt their capabilities”:

1. Shy away from tasks they view as personal threats;
2. Have low aspirations and weak commitment to goals they shoes to pursue;
3. Dwell on personal deficiencies, obstacles they will encounter, and all kinds of adverse outcomes, rather than
concentrating on how to perform
successfully;

4. Slacken their efforts and give up quickly in the face of difficulties;

5. Are slow to recover their sense of efficacy following failure or setbacks; and 6. Fall easy victim to stress and
depression.

Dr. Bandura described four main sources of influence by which a person’s self-efficacy is developed and maintained.
These are:

1. Performance accomplishments or mastery experiences;

2. Vicarious experiences;
3. Verbal or social persuasion; and
4. Physiological (somatic and emotional) states.

Carol Dweck’s Growth Mindset Theory

Carol Dweck is one of the world most- renowned researchers in the area of motivation. She introduced the idea of
mindset which she defined as the implicit theories that individuals hold regarding the nature of intelligent behavior.

Fixed mindset
In the “fixed” theory of intelligence, the basic qualities such as intelligence and talents are fixed traits.

Growth mindset
In the “growth” theory of intelligence, talent and intelligence are developed through learning, effort, training, and
practice.

Edwin Locke’s Goal-setting Theory

In the late 1960s, Dr. Edwin Locke conducted the first ever research on goal setting and motivation. He stressed that
setting a goal provides a significant source of motivation which, in turn, improves people’s performance.

In Locke’s goal-setting theory, a goal has two sides:

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1. Mastery Goals. It is where the desire to gain knowledge and skills are reflected; and
2. Performance Goals. It is where the desire to look competent in other people’s eyes is manifested.

In 1990. Edwin Locke and Gary Latham published a book entitled A Theory of Goal Setting and Task Performance. In this
book, they enumerated the five principles of goal setting, namely:

1. Clarity. Simply being clear and not vague.

2. Challenge. A goal should require extra effort for its attainment.
3. Commitment. Attaining a goal requires sincerity and focus.
4. Feedback. Everyone’s actions should be aligned with the set goals.
5. Task Complexity. Pushes people to take the extra mile and work hard.

Julian Rotter’s Expectancy Theory

Julian Rotter’s Expectancy Theory is focused mainly on the expectations that shape a particular behavior in a particular
situation. Learning creates cognitions, known as expectancies that guide behavior.

Rotter classified people’s locus of control into two:

1. Internal.

The person believes that events are controlled by his or her own efforts, These individuals “make things
happen”. 2. External.

The person believes that events are controlled by external forces over which he or she has no control. These
individuals attribute their success to chance and luck.

LESSON 3: Less Stress, More Care

Definition of Stress
Stress refers to the reaction of our physiological and psychological self to any kind of demand or threat.

Types of Stress
• Eustress. It is a beneficial stress that can be in the form of physical, psychological and biological stimuli. The
Greek prefix eu means good stress, hence the word “eustress” means “good stress”.
• Distress. It is also known as bad stress. It occurs when there is a tension buildup which becomes unbearable
and difficult to cope with.
• Acute stress. It is the body’s immediate reaction to a new and challenging situation.
• Episodic acute stress. It is when you have frequent episodes of acute stress. It can affect your physical
health and mental well-being.
• Chronic stress. When you have highstress levels for an extended period of time, you have chronic stress.
Long-term stress like this can have a negative impact on your health. It can lead to frequent ailments such as
headaches, an upset stomach, and sleep difficulties.
A Stressor is any event that compels a person to adjust or change.

The common stressors that are unpleasant and life-threatening as follows:

• Catastrophic event and lifethreatening experiences

• Life changes and strains
• Chronic Problems
• Everyday hassles
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Nature
It refers largely to our genetics. It includes the genes we are born with and other hereditary factors that can impact
how our personality is formed and influence the way that we develop from childhood through adulthood.

Nurture
It encompasses the environmental factors that impact who we are. This includes our early childhood experiences, the
way we were raised, our social relationships, and the surrounding culture.

Self-care
Self-care refers to all the activities that a person does to maintain and improve his or her physical, psychological,
emotional, social, and spiritual well-being.

Self-care has five dimensions:

● Physical self-care includes all the activities that one does to maintain and improve his or her physical well-being.
● Psychological self-care includes all the activities one does to deal or resolve mental health issues.
● Emotional self-care includes all the activities that one does to cope with stress and deal with grief.
● Social self-care includes all the activities one does to connect with people valuable to her or him.
● Spiritual self-care includes all the activities one does to strengthen one’s relationship with his or her beliefs.

Benefits of self-care:

1. Enhanced productivity.
2. Improved vitality.
CHAPTER 3
MANAGING AND CARING
FOR THE SELF
3. Enhanced self-esteem. For example, self-control, distancing, 4. Increased self-knowledge. and wishful
thinking.
5. Mindfulness and compassion.

Self-compassion

Self-compassion is defined as showing compassion to

oneself. It involves being open to and moved by one’s own
suffering, expressing care and kindness towards oneself,
taking an understanding and nonjudgmental attitude
toward one’s inadequacies and failures, and recognizing
that one’s own experience is part of the common human
experience (Neff, 2018).

Three Components of Self-compassion:

● Self-kindness. Not being physically and verbally harsh to
oneself.
● Common humanity. The acceptance that one is an
imperfect being.
● Mindfulness. The practice of being fully present in the
moment.

Signs and Symptoms of Poorly Managed Stress

● Physical Symptoms – inability to sleep, fatigue,

headache, cramps, unpleasant aura, aging, and
malignant diseases like cancer.

● Emotional and Behavioral Symptoms –

lack of concentration, irritation,
nervousness, panic, lack of appetite in food or too
much intake of food, and mood swings.

Coping with Stress

The effects of stressors can be limited through the use of
effective coping methods. These methods include:

● Problem-focused coping method. It involves an

attempt to change or eliminate the source of stress. For
example, confrontation, seeking social support, and
undertaking careful and deliberate problem solving.

● Emotion-focused coping method.

Aimed at controlling the negative
emotional consequences of stressors.