Lesson 1 Properties of Matter and Intermolecular

Forces of Attraction
Phase
A homogeneous part of a system in interacting with other parts of the system but separated
from these other parts by well-defined boundaries.
Condensed phases
Liquids and solids
Intramolecular forces and intermolecular forces
Intermolecular forces are attractive forces between molecules. Intramolecular forces hold
atoms together in a molecule.
A. Kinetic Molecular Model of Liquids and Solids
The experimental findings about the behavior of gases can be explained with a simple
theoretical model known as the kinetic molecular theory. This theory is based on the
following assumptions:
1. All matter is made of tiny particles.
2. These particles are in constant motion.
3. The speed of particles is proportional to temperature. Increased temperature means
greater speed.
4. Solids, liquids, and gases differ in distances between particles, in the freedom of motion
of particles, and in the extent to which the particles interact.

Liquids and solids differ from gases in that their particles are much closer together. They are
collectively called as condensed phases because their particles are in virtual contact.

B. Intermolecular Forces of Attraction

Intermolecular forces are attractive forces that act between molecules or particles in the liquid
or solid states. These attractive forces are generally much weaker than bonding forces.
 The strength of intermolecular forces operating in solids and liquids can be indicated
by their melting and boiling points. Particles move away from each other when a solid melts,
or a liquid boils. As particles move away, intermolecular forces of attraction are broken. Larger
amount of energy is needed when the intermolecular forces to be broken are stronger, hence,
the higher the melting and boiling points.
Types of Intermolecular Force
Weakest to strongest forces:
Ø dispersion forces (or London dispersion forces)
Ø dipole–dipole forces
Ø hydrogen bonding (a special dipole–dipole force)
Ø ion–dipole forces
o Note: The first two types are also referred to collectively as van der Waals forces.
Dispersion forces
The weakest of intermolecular forces that can exist between two molecules, but the larger
the atoms present, the stronger are the dispersion forces.
• The tendency of an electron cloud to distort is called its polarizability.
Factors Which Affect Amount of Dispersion Force in a Molecule
• number of electrons in an atom (more electrons, more dispersion force)
• size of atom or molecule/molecular weight
• shape of molecules with similar masses (more compact, less dispersion force)
Polarizability & Boiling Point
• If something is easier to polarize, it has a lower boiling point.
• Remember: This means less intermolecular force (smaller molecule: lower molecular
weight, fewer electrons).
Dipole–Dipole forces
• Polar molecules have a more positive and a more negative end–a dipole (two poles, δ+
and δ−).
• The oppositely charged ends attract each other.
Hydrogen bond
is a generally strong force of attraction. It is a special type of dipole- dipole interaction between
the hydrogen atom in a polar bond, such as N‒H, O‒H, or F‒H, and an electronegative O, N,
or F atom. Hydrogen bonds between water molecules are particularly strong.
Ion–Dipole forces
• Ion–dipole interactions are found in solutions of ions.
• The strength of these forces is what makes it possible for ionic substances to dissolve
in polar solvents.
Lesson 2 properties of liquids
Surface Tension
• The inward force, or pull, that tends to minimize the surface area of a liquid is called
surface tension.
• All liquids have a surface tension, but water’s surface tension is higher than most.
• Surface tension makes it possible for this water strider to walk on water.
• A surfactant is any substance that interferes with the hydrogen bonding between water
molecules and thereby reduces surface tension.
Vapor Pressure
• Hydrogen bonding between water molecules also explains water’s unusually low vapor
pressure.
• Hydrogen bonds hold water molecules to one another so the tendency of these
molecules to escape is low, and evaporation is slow.
Boiling Point
• A liquid's boiling point is the temperature at which its vapor pressure, acting on the
liquid surface, equals the external pressure.
• The thermal energy of the molecules at this temperature is high enough for the
molecules within the liquid to break free from their neighbors and enter the gas phase.
As a consequence, bubbles of vapor form inside the liquid.
Molar heat of Vaporization
• defined as the energy (usually in kilojoules) required to vaporize 1 mole of a liquid.
• The molar heat of vaporization has a direct relationship to the strength of intermolecular
forces that exist in the liquid.
Molar heat of Vaporization
• Rubbing ethyl alcohol on your hands is a realistic way to illustrate variations in the
molar heat of vaporization.
• Compare what is felt while using water. Ethyl alcohol has a lower ΔHvap than water
so that heat from our hands is enough to increase the kinetic energy of these molecules
and provide additional heat to vaporize them.
• As a consequence of the loss of heat from the skin, our hands feel cool.

Lesson 3 nature of crystals

Crystal Structure
Solids can be divided into two categories: crystalline and amorphous.
crystalline solid, which possesses rigid and long-range order; its atoms, molecules, or ions
occupy specific positions
Amorphous solids such as glass lack a well-defined arrangement and long-range molecular
order.

A unit cell is the basic repeating structural unit of a crystalline solid.

Packing Spheres

• Arrangement of spheres to form an ordered three-dimensional structure

• The kind of unit cell we have is defined by the way the spheres are organized in
layers.
Three types of cubic cells

Simple Cubic Cell

1. simple cubic cell is called the fundamental, repeating unit in the array of spheres.

2. body-centered cubic arrangement differs from a simple cube in that the second layer of
spheres fits into the depressions of the first layer and the third layer into the depressions of
the second layer

3. face- centered cubic cell, there are spheres at the center of each of the six faces of the
cube, in addition to the eight corner spheres.

Closest Packing
the most tightly packed or space-efficient composition of crystal structures (lattices).

Amorphous Solids
Lack a well-defined arrangement and long-range molecular order

Glass
Commonly refers to an optically transparent fusion product of inorganic materials
that has cooled to a rigid state without crystallizing.