Arch 153: Ergonomics

Part B

Course Teacher: Murchana Madhury

 CHAPTER A:
Heat, cold and the design of the physical
environment
 Human Thermoregulation
Thermal Balance
Core temperature
Basic Equation of Human Thermal Balance
Thermoregulatory Mechanisms
Human Thermoregulation

Thermoregulation is the process that allows the human body

to maintain its core internal temperature, even when the
surrounding temperature is very different.
Humans have a remarkably well-adapted ability to tolerate heat compared with
other primates. This applies equally to ‘Eskimos’ as to tropical rainforest dwellers,
despite small differences. This is because humans are hairless and have a large
proportion of high-capacity sweat glands – known as eccrine glands – in their skin.

Thermal Balance
Thermoregulation is achieved by balancing the two main
factors that determine body temperature – the metabolic heat
produced and the rate of heat loss.
The thermoregulatory goal is to maintain the core temperature at approximately
36– 37°C.
 Core temperature
• Operating temperature of an organism, specifically in deep structures of the body

• The temperature at which vital organs (liver, brain, heart) are maintained.

• The core temperature of the human body is usually between 36–37 °c , with
daily variation (lowest in the early hours of the morning) and monthly variation.

• Hypothermia <35.0 °C
• Hyperthermia >37.5 or 38.3 °C
 Core temperature
The temperature of the peripheral body tissues, particularly the skin, can safely
vary over a much wider range. From a thermal point of view, the body can be
considered to have a warm core where much of its heat is produced. This is
surrounded by a shell of cooler, insulating tissues, particularly subcutaneous fat.
 Thermoregulation
Thermal balance
Thermoregulation is achieved by balancing the two main factors that determine
body temperature – the metabolic heat produced and the rate of heat loss.

Heat gain = Heat loss

• The hypothalamus is the temperature-regulating centre of the brain. It contains
receptors which are sensitive to the temperature of the blood flowing through
the brain.
• Temperature sensitive receptors in the skin also feed back information to the
hypothalamus about the temperature of the skin surface.
• Changes in core body temperature cause the hypothalamus to send nerve
impulses to the sweat glands, muscles and blood vessels to raise or lower the
temperature.
Body Heat Gains
 Radiation
 Convection
 Conduction
 Physiological processes that take place within the body (for example, the
conversion of food into energy).

Sources of Heat production

• Liver
• Brain
• Heart
• Muscles
Body Heat Losses
• Radiation,
• Convection
• Conduction.
• Evaporation or Sweat production.

Heat may also gained from the environment or lost to the environment by
convection (C) or radiation (R). If the skin of a resting person is warmer than the
surrounding air, the air at the skin surface is warmed by the conduction of heat from
the skin. Since warm air rises, a flow of air around the person is established and heat
is convected away from the person’s body. Cool air moves closer to the skin to
replace the rising warm air. This air flow is known as a convection current.

Sweat production and evaporation (E) is a mechanism by which heat is lost to the
environment. Since the body tissues are composed largely of water, it is unsurprising
that water is lost to the environment by diffusion from the skin, from the lungs and
from the sweat glands. If the temperature of the surroundings is greater than that of
the body, no heat can be lost by convection or radiation and evaporative heat loss by
sweating is essential to maintain thermal balance.
 Basic Equation of Human Thermal Balance

S = M - E ± R ± C± K-W
Where,
S=Heat gain or lost by the body
(0 when the body is in thermal balance with the environment)

M= Metabolic energy production

E= Heat dissipated through Evaporation
R= Radient heat to or from the environment
C= Convection to or from the environment
K= Conduction to or from the environment
W= work accomplished by the worker
Thermoregulatory Mechanisms

A number of physiological mechanisms exist for maintaining heat

balance.

1. Perepheral vasomotor tone

2. Countercurrent heat exchange
3. Sweating
4. Shevering
1. Perepheral vasomotor tone

Vasomotor refers to actions upon a blood vessel which

alter its diameter.
Heat production and heat loss can be balanced within a fairly narrow range of
skin temperatures by adjustment of peripheral vasomotor tone.

• vasodilator action _widening of blood vessels.

In hot environments, peripheral vasodilation occurs – the arterioles dilate and
capillaries at the skin surface open, blood flow increases and heat is
conducted to the skin over a small distance from where it is dissipated to the
environment.
• vasoconstrictor action_ narrowing of blood vessels.
In the cold, vasoconstriction of occurs, reducing blood flow in the cutaneous
circulation. This increases the conductive distance and the insulation of
deeper body tissues. Less heat is lost at the skin surface.
2. Countercurrent heat exchange

• Exchange of heat between arteries and veins

• Arterial blood is pre-cooled before it reaches the

extremities and venous blood is warmed before it
returns to the vital organs.
3. Sweating

• Sweat is a dilute solution of various electrolytes, principally sodium, potassium and

chloride.

• Sweat cools the body when it evaporates .

• Passive diffusion of water through the skin occurs most of the time, as does ‘non-
thermal’ or ‘non-sensible’ sweating, so called because people are not aware that
they are sweating.

• Sweating becomes sensible when the rate of sweat production exceeds about 100
grams per hour.

• Humans can lose about 500 grams of sweat per square metre of skin per hour.

• In humid environments is a kind of reverse sweating in which atmospheric water

vapour condenses onto the skin, releasing its latent heat of condensation and
warming the skin.

Profuse sweating has two important disadvantages:

• Dehydration may occur if more water is lost than is replaced.
• Salt may be lost.
4. Shivering

• Groups of motor units act out of phase with one

another and muscles act against their antagonists.
Almost no movement occurs and the result is a high
level of heat production.
Measuring the thermal environment

1. Dry-bulb temperature (DBT)

2. Relative humidity and wet-bulb temperature (WBT)
3. Globe temperature (GT)
4. Air movement and wind chill
1. Dry-bulb temperature (DBT)

The temperature of air measured by a thermometer freely

exposed to the air but shielded from radiation and moisture.
Relative humidity
The amount of water vapor present in air expressed as a percentage of the
amount needed for saturation at the same temperature.

Relative humidity is normally expressed as a percentage; a higher percentage

means that the air–water mixture is more humid.

RH 20%
Dew point
The dew point temperature is the temperature at which the air can no longer
"hold" all of the water vapor which is mixed with it, and some of the water vapor
must condense into liquid water.
2. Relative humidity and wet-bulb temperature (WBT)

• WBT depends on the DBT and on the relative humidity of the air.
Evaporation of water from the sock cools the theodometer bulb. The
rate of cooling depends on the humidity of the surrounding air. The
evaporation of the moisture reduces the temperature reading on the
thermometer, that is the wet bulb temp.

At 100% relative humidity, the wet-bulb temperature equals the dry-bulb

temperature.
3. Globe Temperature

• GT accounts for the effects of radiant heat.

4. Air movement and wind chill

Air movement moderates the effects of high temperatures

and exacerbates the problems of low temperatures (causing
‘wind chill’).

• Anemometer
Work in hot climate Heat illness

Heat exhaustion- When thermoregulatory strain combines with cardiovascular strain, heat
exhaustion can occur. Dehydration contributes to heat exhaustion.

Precursor of heatstroke; the symptoms include heavy sweating, rapid breathing and a fast, weak
pulse.

 Heat stroke -Thermoregulation fails, core temperature exceeds 41°C.

 Heat syncope - Fainting or dizziness due to inadequate venous return.

 Heat hyperventilation-Rapid reduction in carbon dioxide in the body by breathing very fast.

 Prickly heat or heat rash.

 Heat acclimatisation

 Heat acclimatisation is a physiological process of adaptation in a hot

environment.

 It involves an increase in the capacity to produce sweat and a decrease

in the core temperature.

 Acclimatisation reduces the skin’s blood flow requirements, which

reduces the cardiovascular load during work in the heat.

 Acclimatisation is best achieved by exercising in the heat and drinking

plenty of fluid.

 Heat acclimatisation occurs naturally but it may also be induced

artificially.

Acclimatisation chambers- High and stable degree of humidity

• Quite stable temperature
• Protection against wind, sun, rain, diseases and insects.
Personal Factors Affecting Heat Tolerance

Age
Young children have less sweating capacity than adults. Older men are less able to
tolerate high heat stress. The increased mortality of the elderly during heat waves is
thought to be due to increased cardiovascular load rather than heat stress.

Gender
There is some evidence that women begin sweating at a higher skin temperature and
sweat less than men. Women have a higher proportion of body fat than men, which
may also play a role.

Physical fitness
Physical fitness improves heat tolerance because both characteristics rely on
cardiovascular function and sweat production. Physically fit workers are less stressed
by hot conditions even if they are accustomed to a temperate climate.

Body fat
Excess body fat reduces heat tolerance .Thus, the same heat load will
cause a greater temperature increase in obese compared to lean individuals.
Factors influencing the ability to work in the heat.

1. The characteristics of the worker

• Physiological heat tolerance
• Age
• Aerobic capacity
• Degree of acclimatisation

2. The thermal environment

• Relative humidity
• GT/radiant heat/shade
• Wind speed

3. The requirements of the task

• Work rate
• Provision of rest pauses
• Provision of protective clothing
Basic steps in Heat stress management

1. Reducing high relative humidity by using dehumidifier

2. Increase air movement by using fans or air conditioner

3. Remove heavy clothing ,issue loose fitting overalls

4. Reduce the work rate
5. Include frequent rest pauses
6. Introduce job rotation
7. Carry out outdoor works at cooler times of the day (early morning)
8. Allow 2 weeks for acclimatization
9. Enforce rest breaks and provide drinking water or other fluids
10. Provide shades to reduce radiant heat load (plant trees , build awnings, use
white brimmed hats
• EXPLAIN SWEATING.

• WHAT ARE PERSONAL FACTORS AFFECTING HEAT TOLERANCE?

• DISCUSS BASIC STEPS IN HEAT STRESS MANAGEMENT.

Dehumidifier
Work in cold climates
• Increasing the rate of metabolic heat production.
• Reducing heat loss by convection or radiation.
• Clothing.
 Acclimatization to cold

• vasoconstrictor action_ narrowing of blood vessels.

• Peripheral vasoconstriction takes place in most areas of the body

except the head, where up to 25% of all heat loss can take place
when it is cold, so the head should be considered as an extremity
and protected in a similar way to the hands and feet.

• Increase of daily food intake, which would increase metabolic

rate and the thickness of the subcutaneous fat layer resulting in a
higher rate of heat production and better insulation of the core
tissues.

• Clothing
 Cold injury

Cold exposure causes injuries to the fingers, toes, nose, cheeks and ears.

• Freezing cold injury

Frostbite

• Non-freezing cold injury

These injuries occur as a result of longer-term exposure to less severe temperatures.

Itching, redness and burning of the skin of the upper part of the fingers and
Toes, following exposure to damp cold.
Protection against climatic extremes
When the work environment cannot be improved nor the task redesigned, methods
of protecting the worker are needed.

 Specify safe work rest cycle:

measured pulse rate, skin temperature, sweat loss and rectal temperature of subjects
working in hot, humid conditions specifies safe work- rest cycle.

 Design “cool sports”

Thermal comfort can sometimes be improved by designing a ‘thermal refuge’ for
operators. Window coverings and screens can be installed to provide radiant heat
‘shade’.
In very hot conditions, a screen made of vertically hanging chains can be
effective at blocking radiant heat, while allowing access for those with portable
protection. the ‘hot-cool condition using the air-conditioned rest
room. The hot-cool condition reduced physiological stress and discomfort
significantly.
Protection against climatic extremes
 Issue protective clothing
Protective clothing can provide an acceptable microclimate.
Liquid-cooled and air-cooled suits have been designed for pilots. Air or a special
cooling liquid is circulated. around the suit to maintain thermal balance. In gold
mining, special cooling jackets have been designed to enable selected workers to
acclimatise in the work environment itself

 Cool the extremities-

A simple method of reducing heat stress in hyper thermic individuals is to immerse
the hands and forearms in cold water. Hand immersion produced reductions in core
temperature in all three conditions within 20 minutes. Water at 10°C produced the
fastest reductions in core temperature in the first 10 minutes. This simple method
appears to be effective in treating mildly hyperthermic individuals in hot
environments.

 Cold climate protection-

provide a sufficient amount of insulation while allowing moisture, from sweating,
to evaporate..
Comfort and the indoor climate
The climatic conditions inside a building depend primarily on the
conditions prevailing
• Outdoor climate.
• People and processes housed within a building.
many additional factors can mediate the effects of the exterior conditions
on those indoors.

• Building design
Building design determines the amount of solar penetration into the
building and the radiant heat gain. The amount of insulation, particularly
of the roof, has a large influence on the heat exchange between the
building and the environment. The construction materials influence a
building’s thermal performance via a mechanism known as the ‘flywheel
effect’
• Roof and wall insulation

 Roof, has a large influence on the heat exchange between the building and the
environment.

 Parts of the building that are exposed to direct sunlight can be painted in
bright colours to reflect solar energy. It has been estimated that reductions in
external roof and wall temperatures of almost 20°C are obtained by whitewashing
building exteriors.

 Awnings or covered walkways can be built around buildings to provide shade

both for people and for the walls.

 If plentiful, water can be sprayed onto the roof and walls and adjoining
courtyards and sidewalks.
• Roof and wall insulation

 In developing countries, people sometimes pour water onto a nearby floor before
sleeping to lower the air temperature in a room.

 Screens placed over doorways or windows may be wetted to cool the incoming air.

 Steel roofs in factories can be shaded with tiles, preferably with an air space
between the roof and the tiles.

 Rectangular-shaped buildings can be constructed with their long walls facing

north/south.

• Orientation of windows

 Special glazing, louvers or shades can be retrofitted to reduce solar penetration.

Special glazing, louvres or shades can be retrofitted to reduce solar penetration.
• Building materials
 The heat transfer properties of building materials vary considerably depending on
their mass.

 Lightweight materials store very little heat themselves. Heat transfer

through them depends on their thermal conductivities and the temperature differential
across them.

 Heavyweight materials have greater ability to store heat – heat gained during the
day warms the material itself before being transferred to the air inside the building.

 Similarly, at night, heat is lost from the building materials themselves and the
interior of the building remains warmer for a longer period.

 The building material itself can be thought of as a buffer or heat store that lies
between the internal and external thermal environments.

 Money saved on construction materials and construction time in building a more

lightweight structure may have to be spent later on additional air-conditioning
Lightweight materials store very little heat themselves. Heavyweight
materials have greater ability to store heat – heat gained during the day
warms the material itself before being transferred to the air inside the
building. Similarly, at night, heat is lost from the building materials
themselves and the interior of the building remains warmer for a longer
period.

Thus, heavy materials act like a ‘flywheel’ to smooth out the effects on
the indoor climate of daily oscillations in external temperature.

Thermal comfort in buildings

The thermal comfort of a factory or office worker depends on there being an
average skin temperature of approximately 33°C. Large disparities in skin temperature
may lead to complaints of discomfort even if the average skin temperature is close to
33°C. Draughts, sunlight falling on an arm or the face and sitting next to a cold wall
are all causes of thermal discomfort due to uneven skin temperature distribution.
ISO 9241 recommends winter temperatures of 20–24°C and summer temperatures of
23–26°C. Maximum values of relative humidity are 60–80% at 20°C, 50–70% at 22°C,
45–65% at 24°C and 40–60% at 26°C.
 Building Sickness Syndrome & air quality

• Deterioration of air quality

Air quality can be degraded by several classes of contaminants. Carbon dioxide,

carbon monoxide and ozone are examples of inorganic contaminants. Organic
contaminants include formaldehyde and other hydrocarbons. Living organisms such
as bacteria, fungal spores and mites can also contaminate the air.

If the concentrations of these substances increase beyond threshold levels, either

locally or globally, the health of occupants will be at risk.

• Lack of daylight
 Ventilation

• The main purpose of ventilation is to provide fresh air

• Remove accumulated noxious gases and contaminants.
• Ventilation helps to remove heat generated in a working area by convection and
cools the body.

Building design and indoor climate

• Amount of solar penetration into the building.

• Solar heat gain through uninsulated roofs and walls
• The construction materials.
Office buildings contain hundreds of tonnes of human beings, several tonnes
of glue and many kilograms of potentially poisonous or carcinogenic
compounds such as ammonia, carbon monoxide, asbestos and glass fibre.
 CHAPTER B:
Hearing, sound, noise and vibration
 Sound is a form of energy that is transmitted by pressure variations which the
human ear can detect. When one plays a musical instrument, say a guitar, the vibrating
chords set air particles into vibration and generate pressure waves in the air. A person
nearby may then hear the sound of the guitar when the pressure waves are perceived by
the ear. Sound can also travel through other media, such as water or steel.
Sound
Acoustic waves can be defined as pressure fluctuations in an elastic medium.
Sound is the auditory sensation produced by these oscillations.

Noise
Noise is unwanted sound.
Noise perception is subjective. Factors such as the magnitude, characteristics,
duration, and time of occurrence may affect one's subjective impression of the
noise.
Safe exposure level _ 90 dB(maximum)
Effects of noise
Supplementary information for noise measurement

1. A description of the space in which the measurements were made, its dimensions,
background noise and the presence of other noise sources

2. A description of the source itself.

3. Calibration, weighting network and response mode of the sound level meter
4. Background noise level
5. Number and location of personnel in the area
6. Position of microphone with respect to the source
7. Extent of fluctuation of noise levels
8. Measurements at operator’s ear level and at positions of other personnel
9. Time spent at machine by operator each day
10. Results of any previous audiometric testing of workers
11. Previous attempts at noise control
12. Whether ear protection is available
Some basic steps in the management of industrial noise exposure

Short-term measures
Issue ear plugs/ear muffs.

Medium-term measures
Reposition noisy machines.
Demarcate noisy areas with warning signs.
Rotate workers between ‘noisy’ and ‘quiet’ jobs.

Long-term measures
Comprehensive noise reduction programme:
Soundproof machines.
Replace with less noisy machines.
Change the process.
Build ‘acoustic refuges’.
Conduct audiometric testing.
Implement rules and procedures for the wearing of ear protection.
Reverberation

Reverberation is the inter-reflection of sound waves inside a room. The more

reflection, the longer the reverberation time.
Vibration

Vibration is a mechanical phenomenon defined as the oscillation of a body about a

reference position or an equilibrium point.

Vibration is measured using accelerometers.

Vibration can be measured in translational axes (backwards and forwards, up and

down) and rotational axes.
 Noise insulation

1. An acoustic enclosure built with sound absorbing materials to increase attenuation as

the noise inter-reflects off the enclosure walls. The inter-reflection increases the noise
level in the enclosure by up to 10 dB without absorbent lining.

2. Upholstered screens, carpets and acoustic ceiling tiles can be installed to Absorb noise
and block its transmission from one place to another.

3. Rubber seals can be used on windows and door frames to prevent leakage of sound into
the refuge.

4. Pleated curtains (‘drapes’) can be placed over bare walls or over windows to reduce
noise transmission and can be very effective because the pleating increases the surface
area of material in contact with the air and hence the scope for absorption of sound and
the inter-reflection of sound from curtain to curtain rather than curtain to air.
Sound-absorbing materials

1. Porous and lightweight. As the sound waves travel back and forth within the tiny
interstices of the material, their energy is converted to heat by friction.

2. absorption coefficient – the ratio of the energy absorbed to the energy striking the
material.

3. A perfect absorber has a coefficient of 1, whereas a perfect reflector has a

coefficient of 0.

4. Fibreglass has a coefficient of 0.48 to 0.99 and is a good noise absorber.

5. Concrete, which has absorption coefficients of 0.01 to 0.02 at is a good reflector.

 Acoustic Ceiling Tiles

Upholstered screen

curtains
 Industrial noise control

1. Eliminate the threat to hearing by redesigning the machine or using a less noisy machine.

2. Remove personnel from the noisy environment.

3. Protect personnel by issuing ear plugs or muffs or build an acoustic refuge.

Non-auditory effects of noise on health

Noise and blood pressure

Noise and stress
Noise and satisfaction