Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Engineering Reference
Engineering Reference
0 Documentation
Engineering Reference
Build: ed759b17ee
COPYRIGHT (c) 1996-2022 THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS,
THE REGENTS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA THROUGH THE ERNEST ORLANDO
LAWRENCE BERKELEY NATIONAL LABORATORY, OAK RIDGE NATIONAL LABORATORY,
MANAGED BY UT-BATTELLE, ALLIANCE FOR SUSTAINABLE ENERGY, LLC, AND OTHER
CONTRIBUTORS. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. NO PART OF THIS MATERIAL MAY BE REPRO-
DUCED OR TRANSMITTED IN ANY FORM OR BY ANY MEANS WITHOUT THE PRIOR WRIT-
TEN PERMISSION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS OR THE ERNEST ORLANDO LAWRENCE
BERKELEY NATIONAL LABORATORY. ENERGYPLUS IS A TRADEMARK OF THE US DEPART-
MENT OF ENERGY.
Contents
1 Overview 21
1.1 Document Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.2 General Modeling Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.3 Building Surfaces, Spaces, Zones, and Enclosures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.4 Simulation Manager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.5 Warmup Convergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2
CONTENTS 3
Overview
21
22 CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW
Enclosure - A continuous volume connecting Surfaces for radiant, solar, and daylighting exchange.
BeginSimulationFlag EndSimulationFlag
BeginEnvironmentFlag EndEnvironmentFlag (one to many days)
BeginDayFlag EndDayFlag
BeginHourFlag EndHourFlag
BeginTimeStepFlag EndTimeStepFlag
There is also a WarmupFlag to signal that the program is in warmup state. The operation of
these flags can be seen in the following subroutine. This code is actually simplified, old EnergyPlus
24 CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW
FORTRAN code but it concisely demonstrates the use of these flags in the code. The advantage of
using the flag system is that any subroutine throughout the code can determine the exact state of
the simulation by checking the status of the flags.
SUBROUTINE ManageSimulation ! Main driver routine for this module
BeginSimFlag = .TRUE.
EndSimFlag = .FALSE.
CALL OpenOutputFiles
CALL GetProjectData
CALL GetEnvironmentInfo ! Get the number and type of Environments
DO Envrn = 1, NumOfEnvrn ! Begin environment loop ...
BeginEnvrnFlag = .TRUE.
EndEnvrnFlag = .FALSE.
WarmupFlag = .TRUE.
DayOfSim = 0
DO WHILE (( DayOfSim.LT.NumOfDayInEnvrn).OR.( WarmupFlag)) ! Begin day loop ...
DayOfSim = DayOfSim + 1
BeginDayFlag = .TRUE.
EndDayFlag = .FALSE.
DO HourOfDay = 1, 24 ! Begin hour loop ...
BeginHourFlag = .TRUE.
EndHourFlag = .FALSE.
DO TimeStep = 1, NumOfTimeStepInHour ! Begin time step (TINC) loop ...
BeginTimeStepFlag = .TRUE.
EndTimeStepFlag = .FALSE.
! Set the End_Flag variables to true if necessary. Note that each flag builds on
! the previous level. EndDayFlag cannot be .true. unless EndHourFlag is also .true.,
! etc.
! Note that the EndEnvrnFlag and the EndSimFlag cannot be set during warmup.
! Note also that BeginTimeStepFlag , EndTimeStepFlag , and the
! SubTimeStepFlags can/will be set/reset in the HVAC Manager.
IF (( TimeStep.EQ.NumOfTimeStepInHour )) THEN
EndHourFlag = .TRUE.
IF (HourOfDay.EQ .24) THEN
EndDayFlag = .TRUE.
IF ((. NOT.WarmupFlag).AND.( DayOfSim.EQ. NumOfDayInEnvrn )) THEN
EndEnvrnFlag = .TRUE.
IF (Envrn.EQ.NumOfEnvrn) THEN
EndSimFlag = .TRUE.
END IF
END IF
END IF
END IF
CALL ManageWeather
CALL ManageHeatBalance
BeginHourFlag = .FALSE.
BeginDayFlag = .FALSE.
BeginEnvrnFlag = .FALSE.
BeginSimFlag = .FALSE.
END DO ! ... End time step (TINC) loop.
END DO ! ... End hour loop.
END DO ! ... End day loop.
END DO ! ... End environment loop.
CALL CloseOutputFiles
RETURN
END SUBROUTINE ManageSimulation
Since everything in EnergyPlus is based on the foundation of the loads simulation, it stands to
reason that any inaccuracies in the loads calculation will result in inaccuracies of similar or larger
magnitude in the HVAC calculations. In the presumably limited cases where convergence was not
truly achieved before the actual simulation began, it is unknown how much error would be intro-
duced into the results. While simulations that last longer (annual vs. design day) will hopefully
have any initial condition problems balanced by the shear number of days in the simulation, shorter
simulations—particularly those used for sizing—could result in relatively large errors. The simula-
tion results could be unreliable and inaccurate when steady periodic conditions are not achieved.
Therefore, it is important to properly determine when there is enough temperature and flux history
terms to start an EnergyPlus simulation since this has a potential economic and energy impact on
buildings that use EnergyPlus in design.
EnergyPlus determines warmup convergence in the following manner as shown in the Figure 1.2
below. The process of the convergence checks begins by tracking four parameters such including the
maximum zone air temperature, the minimum zone air temperature, the maximum heating load,
and the maximum cooling load for individual zone. It is note that these convergence checks are only
in effective in simulations with at least one zone since the criteria is solely based on the maximum
and minimum values obtained from an individual zone. Differences in these parameters between
two consecutive days are then compared with the convergence tolerance values at the end of the
day during the warmup period. For example, the maximum and minimum air temperature and the
percentage difference of zone load for each zone at 9:00AM during the second to last warmup is
compared to the values at 9:00AM last warmup day as follows:
qh − qh,prev
< qtol (1.3)
qh
qc − qc,prev
< qtol (1.4)
qc
where Tmax,prev is the maximum zone temperature of previous day, Tmax is the maximum zone
temperature of current day, Ttol is the value of temperature tolerance, qh,prev is the maximum
heating load of previous day, qh, is the maximum heating load of current day, qtol is the value
of load tolerance, qc,prev is the maximum cooling load of previous day, and qc, is the maximum
cooling load of current day.
Note that a minimum load of 100W is used to establish a fraction for the maximum loads when
they are less than the minimum. This is done to avoid a false negative indication for the percentage
load difference that may appear when zonal loads are very small. The convergence checks are
repeated until passed for all zones. EnergyPlus assumes that the warmup period has been reached
steady-periodic when these four parameters are within tolerance. Finally, temperature and load
differences between the last two warmup days for individual zone at each time step in the last
warmup day are reported so that users can easily track whether or not the warmup period has
converged. The input parameters and output related to the warmup period are discussed in the
Input-Output Reference.
26 CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW
EnergyPlus is an integrated simulation. This means that all three of the major parts, building,
system, and plant, must be solved simultaneously. In programs with sequential simulation, such
as BLAST or DOE-2, the building zones, air handling systems, and central plant equipment are
simulated sequentially with no feedback from one to the other. The sequential solution begins with
a zone heat balance that updates the zone conditions and determines the heating/cooling loads
at all time steps. This information is fed to the air handling simulation to determine the system
response; but that response does not affect zone conditions. Similarly, the system information is
passed to the plant simulation without feedback. This simulation technique works well when the
system response is a well-defined function of the air temperature of the conditioned space. For a
cooling situation, a typical supply and demand situation is shown schematically in the Figure 2.1.
Here, the operating point is at the intersection of the supply and demand curves.
However, in most situations the system capacity is dependent on outside conditions and/or other
parameters of the conditioned space. The simple supply and demand situation above becomes a
more complex relationship and the system curve is not fixed. The solution should move up and
down the demand curve. This doesn’t happen in sequential simulation methods and the lack of
feedback from the system to the building can lead to nonphysical results. For example, if the
system provides too much cooling to a conditioned space the excess is reported by the program as
“overcooling”. Other categories of unmatched loads exist and are similarly reported by the program.
27
28 CHAPTER 2. INTEGRATED SOLUTION MANAGER
While this kind of reporting enables the affected system or plant components to be properly sized,
the system designer would, in most cases, prefer to see the actual change in zone temperature. The
same mismatches can occur between the system and plant simulations when they are simulated
sequentially.
To obtain a simulation that is physically realistic, the elements have to be linked in a simulta-
neous solution scheme. The entire integrated program can be represented as a series of functional
elements connected by fluid loops as shown in Figure 2.2. In EnergyPlus all the elements are in-
tegrated and controlled by the Integrated Solution Manager. The loops are divided into supply
and demand sides, and the solution scheme generally relies on successive substitution iteration to
reconcile supply and demand using the Gauss-Seidell philosophy of continuous updating.
In the sections which follow, the various individual functions of the integrated solution will be
described.
dTz X X
sl N Nsurf aces NX
zones
where:
P
Nsl
Q̇i = sum of the convective internal loads
i=1
Paces
Nsurf
hi Ai (Tsi − Tz ) = convective heat transfer from the zone surfaces
i=1
2.1. BASIS FOR THE ZONE AND AIR SYSTEM INTEGRATION 29
X
Nsl X
Nsurf aces NX
zones
Air systems provide hot or cold air to the zones to meet heating or cooling loads. The system
energy provided to the zone, Qsys, can thus be formulated from the difference between the supply
air enthalpy and the enthalpy of the air leaving the zone as shown in Equation 2.3:
P
Nsl Paces
Nsurf P
Nzones
Cz dT z
= Q̇i + hi Ai (Tsi − Tz ) + ṁi Cp (Tzi − Tz )
dt
i=1 i=1 i=1 (2.4)
+ṁinf Cp (T∞ − Tz ) + ṁsys Cp (Tsup − Tz )
The sum of zone loads and air system output now equals the change in energy stored in the
zone. Typically, the capacitance Cz would be that of the zone air only. However, thermal masses
assumed to be in equilibrium with the zone air could be included in this term.
EnergyPlus provides three different solution algorithms to solve the zone air energy and moisture
balance equations. These are defined in the Algorithm field in the ZoneAirHeatBalanceAlgorithm
object: 3rdOrderBackwardDifference, EulerMethod and AnalyticalSolution. The first two methods
to solve Equation 2.4 use the finite difference approximation while the third uses an analytical
solution. A short description is given below.
In order to calculate the derivative term with respect to time, a finite difference approximation
may be used, such as:
dT
= (δt)−1 Tz t − Tz t−δt + O (δt) (2.5)
dt
The use of numerical integration in a long time simulation is a cause for some concern due to
the potential build-up of truncation error over many time steps. In this case, the finite difference
approximation is of low order that further aggravates the problem. However, the cyclic nature of
building energy simulations should cause truncation errors to cancel over each daily cycle so that
no net accumulation of error occurs, even over many days of simulation (Walton, 1990). The Euler
30 CHAPTER 2. INTEGRATED SOLUTION MANAGER
formula, Equation 2.5, was employed in Equation 2.4 to replace the derivative term. All the terms
containing the zone mean air temperature were then grouped on the left hand side of the equation.
Since the remaining terms are not known at the current time, they were lagged by one time step
and collected on the right hand side. This manipulation resulted in Equation 2.6, the formula for
updating the zone mean air temperature:
!
Tzt −Tzt−δt Paces
Nsurf P
Nzones
Cz dt
+ Tzt hi Ai + ṁi Cp + ṁinf Cp + ṁsys Cp =
i=1 i=1
!t−δt (2.6)
P
Nsl Paces
Nsurf P
Nzones
Q̇ti + ṁsys Cp Tsupply
t
+ hi Ai Tsi + ṁi Cp Tzi + ṁinf Cp T∞
i=1 i=1 i=1
One final rearrangement was to move the lagged temperature in the derivative approximation
to the right side of the equation. The explicit appearance of the zone air temperature was thus
eliminated from one side of the equation. An energy balance equation that includes the effects of
zone capacitance was then obtained by dividing both sides by the coefficient of Tz:
!t−δt
P
Nsl Paces
Nsurf P
Nzones
t
Q̇ti + ṁsys Cp Tsupply + Cz Tδtz + hi Ai Tsi + ṁi Cp Tzi + ṁinf Cp T∞
i=1 i=1 i=1
Tzt = ! (2.7)
Cz
Paces
Nsurf P
Nzones
δt
+ hi Ai + ṁi Cp + ṁinf Cp + ṁsys Cp
i=1 i=1
Equation 2.7 could be used to estimate zone air temperatures and is defined as the EulerMethod,
one of the three solution algorithms provided in the ZoneAirHeatBalanceAlgorithm object. How-
ever, it can severely limit the time step size under some conditions. To improve on this, higher
order expressions for the first derivative, with corresponding higher-order truncation errors, were
developed. The goal of this approach was to allow for the use of larger time steps in the simulation
than would be possible using the first order Euler form, without experiencing instabilities. Approx-
imations from second through fifth order were tried as reported by Taylor, et al. (1990) with the
conclusion that the third order finite difference approximation, shown below, gave the best results:
dTz −1 11 t 3 t−2δt 1 t−3δt
≈ (δt) Tz − 3Tz + Tz
t−δt
− Tz + O δt3 (2.8)
dt t 6 2 3
When this form for the derivative is used, Equation 2.6 changes to:
NPsl Paces
Nsurf
Cz (δt)−1 11 t
T
6 z
− 3Tzt−δt + 32 Tzt−2δt − 31 Tzt−3δt = Q̇i + hi Ai (Tsi − Tz )
i=1 i=1 (2.9)
P
Nzones
+ ṁi Cp (Tzi − Tz ) + ṁinf Cp (T∞ − Tz ) + ṁsys Cp (Tsup − Tz )
i=1
P
Nsl Paces
Nsurf NP
zones
Q̇i+ hiAiTsi+ ṁiCpTzi+ṁinfCpT∞+ṁsysCpTsupply− Cz
δt
−3Tzt−δt+23Tzt−2δt−13Tzt−3δt
Tzt=i=1 i=1 i=1
11 Cz
Paces
Nsurf NP
zones
6 δt
+ hi A+ ṁiCp+ṁinfCp+ṁsysC
i=1 i=1
(2.10)
This is the form historically used in EnergyPlus and is the current default referred to as 3rdOrder-
BackwardDifference in the ZoneAirHeatBalanceAlgorithm object. This algorithm requires zone air
temperatures at three previous time steps and uses constant temperature coefficients. The assump-
tion is that three previous time steps lengths are the same.
The AnalyticalSolution algorithm is an integration approach. While the 3rd order finite difference
approximation provides stability without requiring a prohibitively small time step, the method still
has truncation errors and requires a fixed time step length for the previous three simulation time
steps. Therefore, different time step lengths for the previous three simulation time steps may make
the temperature coefficients invalid.
The AnalyticalSolution algorithm provides a possible way to obtain solutions without truncation
errors and independent of time step length. In addition, the algorithm only requires the zone air
temperature for one previous time step, instead of three previous time steps as required by the
3rdOrderBackwardDifference algorithm. The integrated (analytical) solution for Equation 2.10
may be expressed as follows:
N
∑
N sl ∑aces
surf ∑
Nzones
Nsurf aces
∑
N sl ∑ ∑
Nzones
Q̇i + hi Ai Tsi + ṁi Cp Tzi +ṁinf Cp T∞ +ṁsys Cp Tsup
+ i=1 i=1
Nsurf aces
i=1
∑ ∑
Nzones
hi Ai + ṁi Cp +ṁinf Cp +ṁsys Cp
i=1 i=1
Since the load on the zone drives the entire process, that load is used as a starting point to
give a demand to the air system. Then a simulation of the air system provides the actual supply
capability and the zone temperature is adjusted if necessary. This process in EnergyPlus is referred
to as a Predictor/Corrector process. It is summarized below.
Code Reference: the ZoneTempPredictorCorrector module performs the calculations.
deviations at the time step level. Or it can be increased to try and account for the additional
capacitance in the air loop not specified in the zone, i.e. dampers, diffusers, duct work, etc., to
see the effect on the dynamics of the simulation. See the Input/Output Reference for additional
information (Object: ZoneCapacitanceMultiplier:ResearchSpecial).
In the source code below we see how the ZoneVolCapMultpSens increases the zone volume used
for the air ratio at the time step in the air system. This multiplier is constant throughout the
simulation.
AIRRAT(ZoneNum) = Zone(ZoneNum)%Volume \*** ZoneVolCapMultpSens **\* &
PsyRhoAirFnPbTdbW (OutBaroPress ,MAT(ZoneNum),ZoneAirHumRat(ZoneNum))\* &
PsyCpAirFnW(ZoneAirHumRat(ZoneNum))/( TimeStepSys \* SecInHour)
• Using Equation 2.2, an estimate is made of the air system energy required to balance the
equation with the zone air temperature equal to the setpoint temperature.
• With that quantity as a demand, the air system is simulated to determine its actual supply
capability at the time of the simulation. This will include a plant simulation if necessary.
• The actual air system capability is used in Equation 2.10 to calculate the resulting zone
temperature.
the characteristic times of the air system and zones, except in the case of small air system capacity
in relation to zone capacitance. This situation has the potential for unstable feedback between the
zone and air system, resulting in an oscillatory or diverging solution.
Prior to implementing the new heat balance method (3rdOrderBackwardDifference) in IBLAST,
several air system control strategies were considered. The primary objective was selection of a
control method that would be numerically stable over a reasonable range of conditions, realistic
from the standpoint of looking and operating like an actual air system controller, and flexible
enough to be applied to all current and projected systems. The method actually implemented in
IBLAST, and later EnergyPlus, took advantage of the computational model’s “knowledge” of how
much energy enters or leaves the zone as a function of zone air temperature i.e., the zone load. The
real controller, on the other hand, does not have this information. The net zone load is given by
Equation 2.12:
X
Nsl X
Nsurf aces NX
zones
This is Equation 2.2 without the term due to the air system. In addition, Tz is now the desired
zone temperature as defined by the control system setpoints that must be specified for each zone.
An assumption was made that if the air system has sufficient capacity (based on the desired zone
air temperature) to meet the zone conditioning requirements (i.e. Qsys = Qload) at the desired
zone air temperature then those requirements will be met. On the other hand, if the air system
cannot provide enough conditioning to the zone to maintain the desired temperature, then the air
system provides its maximum output to the zone and the zone air temperature is allowed to “float.”
Equation 2.12 was used to calculate the air system output required to maintain the desired zone
air temperature; the actual zone temperature update was accomplished using Equation 2.7. This
method was called predictive system energy balance. It has many characteristics of a predictor-
corrector method since the air system response is first approximated based on a predicted zone
temperature and then the actual change in zone temperature is determined from that air system
response. The predictive air system energy balance method required that the system controls on air
mass flow rate, supply air temperature, etc., be formulated as a function of the zone air temperature.
However, this was not a serious drawback. The first example considered was a single zone draw
through air system. Typically, such systems have a cooling coil and heating coil in series, and
constant air volume flow rate. Single zone draw through systems run at maximum capacity when
turned on; so the only way to regulate net air system output and keep the zone air temperature
within the desired range is to turn the air system on and off. A simplified schematic of this system
type is shown in Figure 2.3. Simplified Single Zone Draw Through Air System.
The amount of heating or cooling provided by the air system in relation to the desired zone air
temperature is given by:
temperature, as well as the supply air volume, are continuous functions of zone air temperature. As
shown in Figure 2.5. Idealized Variable Volume System Operation., when the zone air temperature
is between Tcl and Tcu , cooling is required and the air system varies the supply air flow rate while
maintaining a constant supply air temperature. When the zone air temperature is between Thl and
Thu , heating is required and air is supplied at a constant minimum flow rate while the supply air
temperature is varied.
The next figure (Idealized variable volume system operation) shows idealized behavior of a VAV
system; in practice, the air flow rate and temperature are not exact linear functions of zone air
temperature.
As long as a VAV system has sufficient capacity, the zone air temperatures can be expected
to vary within the limits defining the range of operation of the air damper, when cooling, or the
throttling range of the reheat coil, when the air system is heating. This means that the desired
2.3. AIR SYSTEM CONTROL 35
zone air temperature, used to predict the air system response, is variable and must be calculated
in order to determine the air system output. For the purposes of this calculation, the following
definitions were found useful:
X
Nsl X
Nsurf aces NX
zones
X
Nsurf aces NX
zones
Equations 2.14 and 2.15 are derived, respectively, from the numerator and denominator of
Equation 2.10 but with the system related terms omitted. Also excluded from these expressions are
the effects of zone capacitance.
When a zone requires cooling, the VAV system is designed to provide air to that zone at a
constant supply air temperature. The amount of cooling is matched to the load by dampers in the
supply air duct that vary the air volume flow rate of being supplied to the zone. Assuming that
the volume flow rate varies linearly with zone air temperature, the volume flow rate of supply air
normalized to the maximum flow rate, or supply air fraction, is given by:
Tz − Tc, lower
ηc = ηc, min + (1 − ηc, min ) ; ηc, min ≤ ηc ≤ 1.0 (2.16)
Tc, upper − Tc, lower
Normally, the minimum supply air fraction η c,min must be greater than zero to ensure a supply
of fresh air sufficient to eliminate contaminants from the zone.
Conversely, when heating is required in a zone, the VAV system becomes a constant volume
flow rate system with a variable supply air temperature. The dampers are set to provide air to
36 CHAPTER 2. INTEGRATED SOLUTION MANAGER
the zone at the minimum supply air fraction. Throttling the hot water supply to the reheat coil,
which effectively alters the coil’s heating capacity, modulates the supply air temperature. Again,
assuming the heat energy output varies linearly with zone air temperature and normalizing with
respect to the maximum coil output gives the following result:
Th, upper − Tz
ηh = ; 0 ≤ ηh ≤ 1.0 (2.17)
Th, upper − Th, lower
Observe that when η h is equal to zero, the zone is supplied with air at the cooling coil outlet
temperature at the minimum air fraction. Because the control strategies of the VAV system are
different whether the air system is heating or cooling, two equations are necessary to describe the
air system output in terms of η h and η c . These expressions are as shown in Equations 2.18 and 2.19:
Q̇sys,h = ηh Q̇h/c, max + Cp ρV̇min Tc/c − Tz,pred,heat (2.18)
Q̇sys,c = Cp ρ ηc V̇max Tc/c − Tz,pred,cool (2.19)
Equation 2.18 is valid for zone air temperatures below Th,upper , while Equation 2.19 is valid
for all temperatures above this value. Equating the system output to the zone load, as given by
Equation 2.12, the definitions of η c and η h were then used to develop expressions for the predicted
zone air temperature in the cases of heating and cooling:
Q̇slope
C2 = (2.25)
Cp ρV̇max
Q̇0
C3 = (2.26)
Cp ρV̇max
Once the predicted zone air temperature has been calculated from Equations 2.20 and 2.21,
the air system response may be determined. When a zone requires cooling, the system supply air
temperature is constant at the cooling coil outlet temperature and the volume flow rate is given by:
2.4. MOISTURE PREDICTOR-CORRECTOR 37
where the supply air fraction η c is computed from Equation 2.16. When heating is required by
the zone, the air system provides air at the minimum volume flow rate and at a temperature given
by:
ηh Q̇h/c,max
Tsupply = Tc/c + (2.28)
Cp ρV̇min
The reheat coil capacity fraction η h is determined by using Equation 2.17. Once Equation 2.27
or 2.28 has been used, the supply air flow rate and temperature are known. These values are then
used in Equation 2.7 to calculate the updated zone air temperature. The equations describing VAV
system operation may be solved without iteration if the cooling coil outlet temperature is constant,
i.e. if the coil has infinite capacity, and if the reheat coil capacity varies linearly with zone air
temperature. This is not the case, either in practice or in simulations, when realistic coil models
are used. Therefore, an iteration scheme was developed that solved these equations simultaneously
with the coil performance models.
P
Nsl Paces
Nsurf P
Nzones
ρair Vz CW dW
dt
z
= kgmasssched load + Ai hmi ρairz (Wsurf si − Wzt ) + ṁi (Wzi − Wzt )
i=1 i=1 i=1
+ṁinf (W∞ − Wzt ) + ṁsys (Wsup − Wzt )
(2.29)
where
CW = humidity capacity multiplier (See the InputOutput Reference for additional information
on the object ZoneCapacitanceMultiplier:ResearchSpecial)
In the same manner as described above for zone air temperature (ref. Basis for the Zone and Air
System Integration), the solution algorithms provided in the ZoneAirHeatBalanceAlgorithm object
are also applied to zone air moisture calculations.
In order to calculate the derivative term with respect to time, the first order backward finite
difference method, defined as the EulerMethod in the ZoneAirHeatBalanceAlgorithm object, may
be used:
dW
= (δt)−1 (Wzt − Wzt−δt ) + O(δt) (2.30)
dt
The zone air humidity ratio update at the current time step using the EulerMethod may be
expressed as follows:
38 CHAPTER 2. INTEGRATED SOLUTION MANAGER
−1 P
N sl Paces
Nsurf
ρair V CW (δt) Wzt − Wzt−δt = kgmasssched load + Ai hmi ρairz (Wsurf si − Wzt )
i=1 i=1 (2.31)
P
Nzones
+ ṁi (Wzi − Wzt ) + ṁinf (W∞ − Wzt ) + ṁsys (Wsup − Wzt )
i=1
To preserve the stability of the calculation of the zone humidity ratio, the third order differential
approximation, derived by a Taylor Series and used in the calculation of the next time step’s zone
air temperature, is also applied to the zone air humidity ratio calculations. This algorithm is the
default choice and is defined as 3rdOrderBackwardDifference in the ZoneAirHeatBalanceAlgorithm
object.
The third order derivative derived from a Taylor Series expansion is defined as:
dWz 11
Wzt − 3Wzt−δt + 32 Wzt−2δt − 31 Wzt−3δt
≈ 6
+ O δt 3
. (2.32)
dt t δt
The coefficients of the approximated derivative are very close to the coefficients of the analogous
Adams-Bashforth algorithm. Then the approximated derivative is substituted into the mass balance
and the terms with the humidity ratio at past time steps are all put on the right hand side of the
equation. This third order derivative zone humidity ratio update increases the number of previous
time steps that are used in calculating the new zone humidity ratio, and decreases the dependence
on the most recent. The higher order derivative approximations have the potential to allow the use
of larger time steps by smoothing transitions through sudden changes in zone operating conditions.
ρair Vz CW 11
Paces
Nsurf P
Nzones P
Nsl
δt 6
Wzt + Ai hmi ρairz Wzt + ṁi Wzt + ṁinf Wzt + ṁsys Wzt = kgmasssched load
i=1 i=1 i=1
Paces
Nsurf P
Nzones
+ Ai hmi ρairz Wsurf si + ṁi Wzi + ṁinf W∞ + ṁsys Wsup
i=1 i=1
− ρair Vδtz CW −3Wzt−δt + 32 Wzt−2δt − 12 Wzt−3δt
(2.33)
This gives us the basic air mass balance equation that will be solved two different ways, one
way for the predict step and one way for the correct step.
Since the third choice of solution algorithms uses an integration approach, defined as Analyt-
icalSolution in the ZoneAirHeatBalanceAlgorithm object, it does not require any approximations
and has no truncation errors. The solutions in both prediction and correction are provided below
in detail.
Since the program provides three solution algorithms, the moisture prediction from each solution
algorithm is given below.
2.4. MOISTURE PREDICTOR-CORRECTOR 39
2.4.1.1 EulerMethod
For this solution algorithm, the air mass balance for the predicted air system load or response is:
( )
PredictedSystemLoad[kgW ater/sec]=ρairVzCW (δt)−1 Wsetpoint
t −Wzt−δt
[ ]
∑
N sl ∑
Nsurf aces ( ) Nzones
∑ ( ) ( )
− kgmassschedload+ Aihmiρairz Wsurf si−Wsetpoint +
t ṁi Wzi−Wsetpoint +ṁinf W∞−Wsetpoint
t t (2.35)
i=1 i=1 i=1
2.4.1.2 ThirdOrderBackwardDifference
For this solution algorithm, the air mass balance for the predicted system load or response is given
below:
( )
( ) Nsurf ∑aces ∑
Nzones
PredictedSystemLoad[kgW ater/sec]= ρairV z CW 11
δt 6
+ A i hmiρ airz + ṁ i+ ṁinf Wzt−
[ i=1 i=1
] (2.36)
∑
N sl ∑
Nsurf aces
∑
Nzones ( )
kgmassschedload+ AihmiρairzWsurf si+ ṁiWzi+ṁinfW∞+ρairV z CW
δt
3W z
t−δt 3
− 2
Wz
t−2δt 1
+3
W t−3δt
z
i=1 i=1 i=1
Then, using the following substitutions, the air mass balance equation becomes:
X
Nsurf aces NX
zones
X
Nsl X
Nsurf aces NX
zones
ρair Vz CW
C= (2.39)
δt
PredictedSystemLoad [kgW ater / sec] = 11 ∗ C + A ∗ WSetP oint −
6 (2.40)
B + C ∗ 3Wz − 2 Wz
t−δt 3 t−2δt 1
+ 3 Wz t−3δt
2.4.1.3 AnalyticalSolution
For this solution algorithm, the air mass balance for the predicted air system load or response is
given below:
40 CHAPTER 2. INTEGRATED SOLUTION MANAGER
" #
Paces
Nsurf P
Nzones
PredictedSystemLoad [kgW ater / sec] = Ai hmi ρairz + ṁi Wzi + ṁinf ∗
N i=1 i=1
∑aces
surf ∑
Nzones
Nsurf aces
−1 (2.41)
∑ ∑
Nzones
At the prediction point in the simulation, the system air mass flows are not known; therefore,
the system response is approximated. The predicted air system moisture load is then used in the
system simulation to achieve the best results possible. The system simulation components that have
moisture control will try to meet this predicted moisture load. For example, humidifiers will look
for positive moisture loads and add moisture at the specified rate to achieve the relative humidity
setpoint. Likewise, dehumidification processes will try to remove moisture at the specified negative
predicted moisture load to meet the relative humidity setpoint.
After the system simulation is completed the actual response from the air system is used in the
moisture correction of step, which is shown next.
2.4.2.1 EulerMethod
P
Nsl Paces
Nsurf NP
zones t−δt
kgmassschedload+ AihmiρairzWsurf si+ ṁiWzi+ṁinfW∞+ṁsysWsup+ρairVzCW Wzδt
Wzt=i=1 i=1 i=1
ρairVzCW Paces
Nsurf NP
zones
δt
+ Aihmiρairz+ ṁi+ṁinf+ṁsys
i=1 i=1
(2.42)
2.4. MOISTURE PREDICTOR-CORRECTOR 41
2.4.2.2 ThirdOrderBackwardDifference
∑
N sl ∑
Nsurf aces
∑
Nzones
kgmassschedload+ AihmiρairzWsurf si+ ṁiWzi+ṁinfW∞+ṁsysWsup+ρairVz CW
δt
(3Wzt−δt−32Wzt−2δt+13Wzt−3δt)
i=1 i=1 i=1
Wzt=
ρairVz CW (11) ∑ ∑
Nsurf aces Nzones
δt 6
+ Aihmiρairz+ ṁi+ṁinf+ṁsys
i=1 i=1
(2.43)
Using the same A, B, and C parameters from the prediction step modified with actual zone
mass flows with the air system ON and OFF result in:
If (ZoneSupplyAirMassFlowRate > 0.0) Then
X
Nsurf aces NX
zones
X
Nsl X
Nsurf aces NX
zones
B= kgmasssched load + Ai hmi ρairz Wsurf si + ṁi Wzi + ṁinf W∞ + ṁsys Wsup (2.45)
i=1 i=1 i=1
ρair Vz CW
C= (2.46)
δt
X
Nsurf aces NX
zones
X
Nsl X
Nsurf aces NX
zones
B= kgmasssched load + Ai hmi ρairz Wsurf si + ṁi Wzi + ṁinf W∞ + ṁExhaust W∞ (2.48)
i=1 i=1 i=1
ρair Vz CW
C= (2.49)
δt
End If
Inserting in the parameters A, B and C above in the air mass balance equation, it simplifies to:
" #
B + C ∗ 3Wzt−δt − 32 Wzt−2δt + 13 Wzt−3δt
t
Wz = (2.50)
11
6
∗C +A
42 CHAPTER 2. INTEGRATED SOLUTION MANAGER
2.4.2.3 AnalyticalSolution
Nsurf aces
∑
N sl ∑ ∑
Nzones
kgmasssched load + Ai hmi ρairz Wsurf si + ṁi Wzi +ṁinf W∞ +ṁsys Wsup
Wzt = Wzt−δt − i=1 i=1
Nsurf aces
i=1
∗
∑ ∑
Nzones
Ai hmi ρairz + ṁi +ṁinf +ṁsys
Nsurf aces
i=1 i=1
∑ ∑
Nzones
Nsurf aces
∑
N sl ∑ ∑
Nzones
kgmasssched load + Ai hmi ρairz Wsurf si + ṁi Wzi +ṁinf W∞ +ṁsys Wsup
i=1 i=1 i=1
Nsurf aces
∑ ∑
Nzones
Ai hmi ρairz + ṁi +ṁinf +ṁsys
i=1 i=1
(2.51)
The above solutions are implemented in the Correct Zone Air Humidity Ratio step in Ener-
gyPlus. This moisture update equation is used for the Conduction Transfer Function (CTF) heat
balance algorithm, in addition to the effective moisture penetration depth (EMPD) with conduction
transfer function heat balance algorithm. The equations are identical except that the convection
to the zone surfaces is non-zero for the moisture penetration depth case. This moisture update
allows both methods to be updated in the same way, with the only difference being the additional
moisture capacitance of the zone surfaces for the Effective Moisture Penetration Depth (EMPD)
solution approach.
When the HAMT (Combined Heat And Moisture Finite Element) defined in the HeatBalanceAl-
gorithm object is applied, the moisture update equations are also the same as the equations used
in the effective moisture penetration depth (EMPD) with conduction transfer function solution
algorithm.
The effective moisture penetration depth (EMPD) model will address the first two concerns
above: it can accurately predict indoor humidity, and can accurately predict energy use associated
with controlling humidity. The EMPD model requires more user input than the effective capacitance
model, specifically some of the moisture properties of the materials in the building. For more
information, see the Effective Moisture Penetration Depth Model section in this document.
2.5. CARBON DIOXIDE PREDICTOR-CORRECTOR 43
Like the EMPD model, the combined heat, air, and moisture transfer (HAMT) model addresses
the first two issues discussed above for the effective capacitance model. It also addresses the third,
by providing temperature and moisture profiles through composite building walls, and helping to
identify surfaces with high surface humidity. The HAMT model requires a few more user inputs on
moisture properties of materials than the EMPD model, and this model also increases the required
simulation time by an order of magnitude. For more information on this model, see the Combined
Heat and Moisture Transfer (HAMT) Model section in this document.
Note that the EMPD and HAMT models above ensure accurate calculations of the effect of
moisture buffering, but it will only be accurate relative to reality when given appropriate inputs for
the material properties.
Woods, J., J. Winkler, D. Christensen, Moisture modeling: Effective moisture penetration depth
versus effective capacitance, in Thermal Performance of the Exterior Envelopes of Whole Buildings
XII International Conference. 2013a: Clearwater, FL.
Woods, J., Winkler, J, and Christensen, D. Evaluation of the Effective Moisture Penetration
Depth Model for Estimating Moisture Buffering in Buildings, NREL/TP-5500-57441, 2013b.
t P
Nsl P
Nzones
ρair Vz CCO2 dC z
= kgmasssched load ∗ 1.06 + ṁi (Czi − Czt ) + ṁinf (C∞ − Czt )
dt
i=1 i=1 (2.52)
+ṁsys (Csup − Czt )
where:
P
Nsl
kgmasssched load = sum of scheduled internal carbon dioxide loads. The zone air density is used
i=1
to convert the volumetric rate of carbon dioxide generation from user input into mass generation
rate [kg/s].The coefficient of 106 is used to make the units of carbon dioxide as ppm.
PNzones
i=1 ṁi (Czi − Czt ) = carbon dioxide transfer due to interzone air mixing [ppm-kg/s]
Czi = carbon dioxide concentration in the zone air being transferred into this zone [ppm]
ṁinf (C∞ − Czt ) = carbon dioxide transfer due to infiltration and ventilation of outdoor air [ppm-
kg/s]
C∞ = carbon dioxide concentration in outdoor air [ppm]
ṁsys (Csup − Czt ) = carbon dioxide transfer due to system supply [ppm-kg/s]
Csup = carbon dioxide concentration in the system supply airstream [ppm]
ṁsys = air system supply mass flow rate [kg/s]
t
ρair Vz dC
dt
z
= carbon dioxide storage term in zone air [kg/s]
t
Cz = zone air carbon dioxide concentration at the current time step [ppm]
ρair = zone air density [kg/m3 ]
Vz = zone volume [m3 ]
CCO2 = carbon dioxide capacity multiplier [dimensionless] (See the InputOutput Reference for
additional information on the object ZoneCapacitanceMultiplier:ResearchSpecial)
44 CHAPTER 2. INTEGRATED SOLUTION MANAGER
In the same manner as described above for zone air temperature (ref. Basis for the Zone and Air
System Integration), the solution algorithms provided in the ZoneAirHeatBalanceAlgorithm object
are also applied to the zone air carbon dioxide calculations.
In order to calculate the derivative term with respect to time, the first order backward finite
difference method, defined as the EulerMethod in the ZoneAirHeatBalanceAlgorithm object, may
be used:
dCzt
= (δt)−1 (Czt − Czt−δt ) + O(δt) (2.53)
dt
The zone air carbon dioxide concentration update at the current time step using the Euler-
Method may be expressed as follows:
NPsl P
Nzones
ρair VZ CCO2 (δt)−1 Czt − Czt−δt = kgmasssched load ∗ 106 + ṁi (Czi − Czt )
i=1 i=1 (2.54)
+ṁinf (C∞ − Czt ) + ṁsys (Csup − Czt )
To preserve the stability of the calculation of the zone carbon dioxide concentration, the third
order differential approximation, derived by a Taylor Series and used in the calculation of the next
time step’s zone air temperature, is also applied to the zone air carbon dioxide calculations. This
algorithm is the default choice and is defined as ThirdOrderBackwardDifference in the ZoneAirHeat-
BalanceAlgorithm object.
The third order derivative derived from a Taylor Series expansion is defined as:
P
Nzones P
Nsl
ρair Vz CCO2
δt
11
6
Czt + ṁi Czt + ṁinf Czt + ṁsys Czt = kgmasssched load ∗ 106
i=1 i=1
(2.56)
P
Nzones
+ ṁi Czi + ṁinf C∞ + ṁsys Csup − ρair Vz CCO2
δt
(−3Czt−δt + 3 t−2δt
C
2 z
− 1 t−3δt
C
3 z
)
i=1
This gives us the basic air mass balance equation that will be solved two different ways, one
way for the predict step and one way for the correct step.
Since the third choice of solution algorithms uses an integration approach, defined as Analyt-
icalSolution in the ZoneAirHeatBalanceAlgorithm object, it does not require any approximations
and has no truncation errors. The solutions in both prediction and correction are provided below
in detail.
2.5. CARBON DIOXIDE PREDICTOR-CORRECTOR 45
2.5.1.1 EulerMethod
For this solution algorithm, the air mass balance for the predicted air system load or response is:
PredictedSystemLoad [kg/ sec] = ρair VZ CCO2 (δt)−1 Csetpoint
t
− Czt−δt
N
Psl P
Nzones
− kgmasssched load ∗ 10 +
6
ṁi Czi − Csetpoint + ṁinf C∞ − Csetpoint
t t (2.58)
i=1 i=1
2.5.1.2 ThirdOrderBackwardDifference
For this solution algorithm, the air mass balance for the predicted system load or response is given
below:
P
Nzones
PredictedSystemLoad [kg/ sec] = + δt
ṁi + ṁinf ∗ Csetpoint
ρair Vz CCO2 11
6
t
N i=1
Psl P
Nzones
− kgmasssched load ∗ 10 +
6
ṁi Czi + ṁinf C∞ + ρair Vz CCO2
δt
3Cz − 2 Cz
t−δt 3 t−2δt 1 t−3δt
+ 3 Cz
i=1 i=1
(2.59)
2.5.1.3 AnalyticalSolution
For this solution algorithm, the air mass balance for the predicted air system load or response is
given below:
N ∑
Nzones
Pzones ṁi+ṁinf
PredictedSystemLoad[kg/sec]= ṁi+ṁinf ∗Csetpoint
t
−Czt−δt∗exp− i=1
ρairVZ CCO2
δt∗
i=1
−1
∑
Nzones N
ṁi+ṁinf Psl NP
zones
1−exp− i=1
δt − kgmassschedload∗10 + 6
ṁiCzi+ṁinfC∞
ρairVZ CCO2
i=1 i=1
(2.60)
At the prediction point in the simulation, the system air mass flows are not known; therefore,
the system response is approximated. The predicted air system carbon dioxide load is then used in
the system simulation to achieve the best results possible. If a central HVAC system provides the
46 CHAPTER 2. INTEGRATED SOLUTION MANAGER
outdoor flow rate from a Controller:MechanicalVentilation object, the outdoor airflow rate may be
approximated as:
PredictedSystemLoad = ṁsys Csup − Czt ≈ ṁOA,z C∞ − Csetpoint
t
(2.61)
where:
ṁOA,z = supply outdoor airflow rate into the controlled zone [kg/s]
The above approximation is based on the assumption that the carbon dioxide concentration at
the outdoor air (OA) mixer inlet is equal to the zone air outlet concentration level, and the carbon
dioxide level at the zone supply air inlet is equal to the level at the outlet node of the OA mixer.
After the system simulation is completed the actual response from the air system is used in the
carbon dioxide correction step, which is shown next.
2.5.2.1 EulerMethod
P
Nsl P
Nzones t−δt
kgmasssched load ∗ 106 + ṁi Czi + ṁinf C∞ + ṁsys Csup + ρair VZ CCO2 Czδt
i=1 i=1
Czt = (2.62)
ρair VZ CCO2 P
Nzones
δt
+ ṁi + ṁinf + ṁsys
i=1
2.5.2.2 ThirdOrderBackwardDifference
P
Nsl NP
zones
kgmassschedload∗106+ ṁiCzi+ṁinfC∞+ṁsysCsup+ρairVδt
Z CCO2
(3Czt−δt−32Czt−2δt+31Czt−3δt)
Czt =i=1 i=1
ρairVZ CCO2 11
NP
zones
δt 6
+ ṁi+ṁinf+ṁsys
i=1
(2.63)
2.5.2.3 AnalyticalSolution
∑
N sl ∑
Nzones ∑
Nzones
kgmasssched load ∗106 + ṁi Czi +ṁinf C∞ +ṁsys Csys ṁi +ṁinf +ṁsys
Czt = Czt−δt − i=1
∑
Nzones
i=1 ∗ exp − i=1
ρair VZ CCO2
δt
ṁi +ṁinf +ṁsys
i=1
∑
N sl ∑
Nzones
kgmasssched load ∗106 + ṁi Czi +ṁinf C∞ +ṁsys Csys
+ i=1 ∑
Nzones
i=1
t
dCf,z P
Nsource NP
sink P
Nzones
ρair Vz Mf or dt
= ρair Gf,i ∗ 106 −ρair Rf,i Cf,z + ṁi Cf,z,i − Cf,z
t
i=1 i P i=1
C
(2.65)
+ṁinf Cf,∞ − Cf,z
t
+ ṁsys Cf,sup − Cf,z t
+ hj ρAj ( ks,j j
− Cf,z ) + Sf (Cf,z
t−δt
)
j
where:
P
Nsource
ρair Gf,i = Sum of internal generic contaminant loads from sources in a zone or interior
i=1
surfaces.
The zone air density is used to convert the volumetric rate of generic contaminant generation
from user input into mass generation rate [kg/s].The coefficient of 106 is used to make the units of
generic contaminant as ppm.
NPsink
ρair Rf,i Cf,z = Sum of removal rate from sinks in a zone or interior surfaces [ppm-kg/s]
PNzones i
i=1 ṁi Cf,z,i − Cf,z
t
= Generic contaminant transfer due to interzone air mixing [ppm-kg/s]
Cf,z,i = Generic contaminant
concentration in the zone air being transferred into this zone [ppm]
ṁinf Cf,∞ − Cf,z = Generic contaminant transfer due to infiltration and ventilation of outdoor
t
air [ppm-kg/s]
Cf,∞ = Generic contaminant
concentration in outdoor air [ppm]
ṁsys Cf,sup − Cf,z = Generic contaminant transfer due to system supply [ppm-kg/s]
t
The zone air generic contaminant concentration update at the current time step using the
EulerMethod may be expressed as follows:
Nsource
P NP
sink NP
zones
ρairVzMf or(δt)−1 Cf,z
t
−Cf,z
t−δt
= ρairGf,i∗1.06−ρair Rf,iCf,z+ ṁi Cf,z,i−Cf,z
t
i=1
P C
i i=1 (2.67)
+ṁinf Cf,∞−Cf,zt
+ṁsys Cf,sup−Cf,z
t
+ hj ρAj ( ks,j
j
−C f,z )+S f
j
To preserve the stability of the calculation of the zone generic contaminant concentration, the
third order differential approximation, derived by a Taylor Series and used in the calculation of
the next time step’s zone air temperature, is also applied to the zone air carbon dioxide calcula-
tions. This algorithm is the default choice and is defined as ThirdOrderBackwardDifference in the
ZoneAirHeatBalanceAlgorithm object.
The third order derivative resulting from a Taylor Series expansion is defined as:
t
dCf,z C − 3Cf,z
11 t
6 f,z
t−δt t−2δt
+ 32 Cf,z − 13 Cf,z
t−3δt
≈ + O(δt3 ) (2.68)
dt δt
The coefficients of the approximated derivative are very close to the coefficients of the analogous
Adams-Bashforth algorithm. Then the approximated derivative is substituted into the mass balance,
and the terms with the carbon dioxide concentration at past time steps are all put on the right-hand
side of the equation. This third order derivative zone carbon dioxide update increases the number
of previous time steps that are used in calculating the new zone generic contaminant concentration
and decreases the dependence on the most recent. The higher order derivative approximations have
the potential to allow the use of larger time steps by smoothing transitions through sudden changes
in zone operating conditions.
ρair Vz Mf or 11
t
NP
sink
t
P
Nzones
t t t
P t
δt 6
Cf,z + ρair Rf,i Cf,z + ṁi Cf,z + ṁinf Cf,z + ṁsys Cf,z + hj ρAj Cf,z
i i=1 j
P
Nsource P
Nzones P Cs,j
= ρair Gf,i ∗ 1.06 + ṁi Cf,z,i + ṁinf Cf,∞ + ṁsys Cf,sup + hj ρAj kj
+ Sf
i=1
ρ V M
i=1
j
− air δtz f or −3Cf,z
t−δt t−2δt
+ 23 Cf,z − 13 Cf,z
t−3δt
(2.69)
This gives us the basic air mass balance equation that will be solved in two different ways, one
way for the predict step and one way for the correct step.
Since the third choice of solution algorithms uses an integration approach, defined as Analyt-
icalSolution in the ZoneAirHeatBalanceAlgorithm object, it does not require any approximations
and has no truncation errors. The solutions in both prediction and correction are provided below
in detail.
Since the program provides three solution algorithms, the generic contaminant prediction from
each solution algorithm is given below.
2.6.1.1 EulerMethod
For this solution algorithm, the air mass balance for the predicted air system load or response is:
PredictedSystemLoad [kg/ sec] = ρair Vz Mf or (δt)−1 Csetpoint − Cf,z t−δt
N
P
source NP
sink P
Nzones
− ρair Gf,i ∗ 1.0 −ρair
6
Rf,i Csetpoint + ṁi (Cf,z,i − Csetpoint ) + Sf
" i=1 i i=1 #
(2.71)
P C
− ṁinf (Cf,∞ − Csetpoint ) + hj ρAj ( ks,j j
− Csetpoint )
j
2.6.1.2 ThirdOrderBackwardDifference
For this solution algorithm, the air mass balance for the predicted system load or response is given
below:
[ ]
ρ Vz Mf or(11) N∑
sink ∑
Nzones
PredictedSystemLoad[kg/sec]= air δt 6
C setpoint − ρ air R C
f,i setpoint + ṁ C
i setpoint+ ṁ C
inf setpoint
[ i i=1
]
∑ N ∑
source N ∑
zones ∑ C (2.72)
− hj ρAj Csetpoint+ ρairGf,i∗1.06+ ṁiCf,z,i+ṁinfCf,∞+ hj ρAj ks,j +Sf
j
j
ρairVz Mf or
( i=1
) i=1 j
t−δt 3 t−2δt 1 t−3δt
+ δt
−3Cf,z +2Cf,z −3Cf,z
2.6.1.3 AnalyticalSolution
For this solution algorithm, the air mass balance for the predicted air system load or response is
given below:
" #
P
Nzones NP
sink P
PredictedSystemLoad [kg/ sec] = ṁi + ṁinf + ρair Rf,i + hj ρAj ∗
i=1 i
j
∑
Nzones ∑
Nsink
∑
ṁi +ṁinf +ρair Rf,i + hj ρAj
t
Csetpoint − Czt−δt ∗ exp − δt ∗
i=1 i j
ρair VZ MF OR
−1 (2.73)
∑
Nzones ∑
Nsink
∑
ṁi +ṁinf +ρair Rf,i + hj ρAj
1 − exp − δt −
i=1 i j
ρair VZ MF OR
!
P
Nsource P
Nzones P Cs,j
ρair Gf,i ∗ 1.06 + ṁi Cf,z,i + ṁinf Cf,∞ + hj ρAj kj
+ Sf
i=1 i=1 j
At the prediction point in the simulation, the system air mass flows are not known; therefore, the
system response is approximated. The predicted air system generic contaminant load is then used
50 CHAPTER 2. INTEGRATED SOLUTION MANAGER
in the system simulation to achieve the best results possible. If a central HVAC system provides
the outdoor flow rate from a Controller:MechanicalVentilation object, the outdoor airflow rate may
be approximated as:
PredictedSystemLoad = ṁsys Cf,sup − Cf,z
t
≈ ṁOA,z Cf,∞ − Csetpoint
t
(2.74)
where:
ṁOA,z = Supply outdoor airflow rate into the controlled zone [kg/s]
The above approximation is based on the assumption that the generic contaminant concentration
at the outdoor air (OA) mixer inlet is equal to the zone air outlet concentration level, and the generic
contaminant level at the zone supply air inlet is equal to the level at the outlet node of the OA
mixer.
After the system simulation is completed, the actual response from the air system is used in the
generic contaminant correction step, which is shown next.
2.6.2.1 EulerMethod
∑
Nsource ∑
Nzones ∑ Cs,j C t−δt
f,z
ρair Gf,i ∗1.06 + ṁi Cf,z,i +ṁinf Cf,∞ +ṁsys Cf,sup + hj ρAj kj
+ρair VZ MF OR δt
+Sf
t
Cf,z = i=1 i=1
N∑
sink ∑
Nzones
j
∑
(2.75)
−1
ρair Vz Mf or (δt) +ρair Rf,i + ṁi +ṁinf +ṁsys + hj ρAj
i i=1 j
2.6.2.2 ThirdOrderBackwardDifference
P
Nsource P
Nzones
ρair Gf,i ∗ 1.06 + ṁi Cf,z,i + ṁinf Cf,∞ + ṁsys Cf,sup
P
i=1
C
i=1
+ hj ρAj ks,j j
+ ρair VZδtMF OR (3Cf,z t−δt
− 32 Cf,zt−2δt t−3δt
+ 13 Cf,z ) + Sf (2.76)
t j
Cf,z = N∑
sink ∑
Nzones ∑
ρair Vz Mf or (δt)−1 ( 11
6 )
+ρair Rf,i + ṁi +ṁinf +ṁsys + hj ρAj
i i=1 j
2.6.2.3 AnalyticalSolution
∑
Nsource ∑
Nzones ∑ C
ρair Gf,i ∗1.06 + ṁi Cf,z,i +ṁinf Cf,∞ +ṁsys Cf,sys + hj ρAj ks,j
t−δt j
t
Cf,z = Cf,z − i=1
∑
Nzones
i=1
∑
Nsink
∑
j
∗
ṁi +ṁinf +ṁsys +ρair Rf,i + hj ρAj
i=1 i
j
∑
Nzones ∑
Nsink
∑
ṁi +ṁinf +ṁsys +ρair Rf,i + hj ρAj
exp − i=1
ρair VZ MF OR
i j
δt + (2.77)
∑
Nsource ∑
Nzones ∑ Cs,j
ρair Gf,i ∗1.06 + ṁi Cf,z,i +ṁinf Cf,∞ +ṁsys Cf,sys + hj ρAj kj
+Sf
i=1 i=1 j
∑
Nzones ∑
Nsink
∑
ṁi +ṁinf +ṁsys +ρair Rf,i + hj ρAj
i=1 i j
2.7. ZONE AIR MASS FLOW CONSERVATION 51
The above solutions are implemented in the Correct Zone Air Generic Contaminant step in the
Zone Contaminant Predictor Corrector module of EnergyPlus.
• If there are no zone mixing flows to adjacent zones, then the zone air mass flow is balanced
by setting the Zone Mixing objects mass flow rate to zero.
• If there are no zone exhaust fans defined and there are no zone mixing objects specified, then
a zone in an air loop is always balanced.
• Infiltration mass flow is included in the zone air mass flow balance depending upon one of
three options: none (all infiltration is assumed to be self-balanced), all zones, or only zones
that serve as a source zone for zone mixing objects.
• The base infiltration mass flow rate (calculated based on user inputs) may be controlled one
of two ways for zone air mass flow balance purposes: adjust the base infiltration up or down as
needed to balance the zone air mass flow, or assume the base infiltration rate is self-balanced
and add infiltration if needed to balance the zone air mass flow.
• Optional user inputs can override the default return air flow rate.
The zone air mass flow conservation equation always includes: supply air flow rates, return air
flow rates, and zone exhaust fan flow rates. Zone mixing and infiltration object flow rates may be
included depending upon the selected options. A particular zone can be a source zone, receiving
zone, or both depending on the number of ZoneMixing objects specified for that zone.
Note that the exhaust fan balanced flow component is not required to enforce the zone air flow
balance when ZoneAirMassFlowConservation is active.
Return nodes without an outdoor air inlet are not adjusted. The remaining return node flow
rates are reduced if necessary to balance the zone air mass flow:
!
ṁR,surplus
ṁR,i, = ṁR,i ∗ 1 − P (2.89)
i,withOA ṁR,i
ṁAdjReturn,i
ṁR,i = ṁR,i ∗ (2.92)
ṁOrigReturn,i
where,
ṁR = total zone return air mass flow rate, (kg/s)
ṁR,i = return air node i mass flow rate, (kg/s)
ṁS = total zone supply air mass flow rate, (kg/s)
ṁS,i = zone supply air node i mass flow rate, (kg/s)
ṁBasisN ode,j = return air flow basis node j mass flow rate, (kg/s)
ṁEX,tot = total zone exhaust air mass flow rate from all zone exhaust air nodes, (kg/s)
ṁEXF,bal = balanced zone exhaust fan air mass flow rate, (kg/s)
ṁEXF,tot = total (balanced+unbalanced) zone exhaust fan air mass flow rate, (kg/s)
ṁXR = zone mixing mass flow rate as a receiving zone, (kg/s)
ṁXS = zone mixing mass flow rate as a source zone, (kg/s)
ReturnF lowSchedule = optional Zone Return Air Node 1 Flow Rate Fraction Schedule value
54 CHAPTER 2. INTEGRATED SOLUTION MANAGER
DesignReturnF raci = air loop Design Return Air Flow Fraction of Supply Air Flow for air
loop i
ṁExcessExh,j = excess exhaust flow for zone j
ṁExcessExh,i = total excess exhaust flow for air loop i
ṁM axOA,i = current max available outdoor air flow for air loop i
ṁT otOA,j = total max available outdoor air flow for air loops serving zone j
ṁOrigReturn,i = total original return flow for air loop i
ṁAdjReturn,i = total adjusted return flow for air loop i
ṁDesSupply,i = air loop design supply air flow for air loop i
An individual zone may be a source zone for multiple receiving zones, and the same source zone
may receive mixing flows from multiple adjacent zones in an air loop. The source and receiving
mass flow rates of ZoneMixing objects are calculated from user defined mixing flow rates at the first
HVAC iteration for each time step and adjusted in subsequent iterations to balance the zone air
mass flow. The source zone mixing mass flow rate is calculated by tracking the mass flow rates of
ZoneMixing objects connected to a zone and is given by:
X
ṁXS = ṁXS,j (2.93)
j
Similarly, the receiving zone mixing mass flow rate is calculated by tracking the mass flow rates
of ZoneMixing objects connected to a receiving zone and is given by:
X
ṁXR = ṁXR,j (2.94)
j
Zone air mass flow balance can be enforced using four options: AdjustMixingOnly, AdjustRe-
turnOnly, AdjustMixingThenReturn, or AdjustReturnThenMixing. These options involve either ad-
justing zone mixing objects flows, adjusting the zone total return air flows, or a combination of
both. The zone air mass flow balance equation formulation for each of the four options is described
next.
AdjustMixingOnly: adjusts the zone mixing object flows only to enforce zone air mass flow
balance and the adjusted zone mixing mass flow rates are used to determine the zone total return
air mass flow rate. Infiltration air flow can also adjusted if required depending on user preference
as specified in Section Infiltration Flow rates Adjustments.
Determine the zone total return air mass flow rate as shown above, then adjust the zone mixing
mass flow rates based on the zone total return air mass flow rate:
Also checks that the zone total return air mass flow rate does not exceed the airloop design
supply flow rate as follows:
ṁR = M IN (ṁR , ṁDesSupply,i ) (2.100)
AdjustMixingThenReturn: first adjusts the zone mixing air mass flow rates, then adjusts the
zone total return air mass flow rate to enforce zone air mass flow balance. Infiltration air flow can
also adjusted if required depending on user preference as specified in section Infiltration Flow rates
Adjustments. For adjusting the mixing mass flow rates the set of equations for AdjustMixingOnly
method described above are used and for adjusting the zone total return air mass flow rate the
equation for AdjustReturnOnly method is used.
AdjustReturnThenMixing: first adjusts the zone total return air mass flow rate, then ad-
justs the zone mixing mass flow rates to enforce zone air mass flow balance. Infiltration air flow
can also adjusted if required depending on user preference as specified in section Infiltration Flow
rates Adjustments. For adjusting the zone total return air mass flow rate the equation for Adjus-
tReturnOnly method described above is used and for adjusting the zone mixing mass flow rates the
set of equations defined for AdjustMixingOnly method are used.
ṁInf −required = M AX (0.0, ṁXS + ṁEX + ṁR − ṁS − ṁXR, new ) (2.101)
This infiltration air mass flow rate calculated is either added to the base infiltration air flow,
which is calculated from user inputs, or overrides the base infiltration air flow depending on user
choice. For AddInfiltrationFlow, the zoneinfiltration flow rate is:
zone are updated by Equation 2.7, which uses previously calculated values of the zone conditions.
This means that EnergyPlus does not have to iterate to find a self-consistent solution of the updated
zone conditions. However, because heat transfer through each zone’s surfaces and interzone mixing
of air still occur, the new space temperatures must be computed at the same simulation time and
on the same time step in all zones, even though conditions in one zone may be changing much
more rapidly than conditions in the other zones. We have previously documented the method used
to update the zone temperature at each time step. This method, called the predictor corrector
method, has proved to be satisfactory over a wide range of conditions.
M aximum Zone T emperature Change
+ 1.0 (2.104)
M aximum Zone T emperature Dif f erence {.3C}
The limit for the number of system time steps is:
Zone T ime Step
(2.105)
M inimum System T ime Step
EnergyPlus takes the smallest of these two, truncates them to a whole number and calculates a
system time step as:
Zone T ime Step
System T ime Step = (2.106)
N umber of System T ime Steps
The same length of time is used for all the system time steps within a particular zone time step,
but the system time step length can vary between different zone time steps. Report variables that
use the “detailed” frequency show results at the system time step time scale.
This approach can be justified because the internal loads and surface temperatures vary on a
different and longer time scale than the system response and the zone air temperature.
When the simulation down-steps from using the zone time step to the system time step, linear
interpolation is used to generate zone condition history terms:
Tzt−δt
Tzt−2δt (2.107)
Tzt−3δt
for the system time steps using the history data for the zone time step. If two consecutive zone
time steps both down-step to have the same number of system time steps, then the system time step
history is preserved and used directly rather than being interpolated from zone time step history.
The zone temperature update is made for each system time step using the same equation as for the
zone time step except that the zone temperature history and time difference (δt) terms are for the
system time step instead of for the zone time step.
2.8.5 References
Ceylan, H. T., and G. E. Myers. 1980. Long-time Solutions to Heat Conduction Transients with
Time-Dependent Inputs. ASME Journal of Heat Transfer, Volume 102, No. 1, pp. 115-120.
Hittle, D. C. 1979. Calculating Building Heating and Cooling Loads Using the Frequency
Response of Multilayered Slabs, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL.
Hittle, D. C., and R. Bishop. 1983. An Improved Root-Finding Procedure for Use in Calculating
Transient Heat Flow Through Multilayered Slabs. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer,
Vol. 26, No. 11, pp. 1685-1693.
Ouyang, K., and F. Haghighat. 1991. A Procedure for Calculating Thermal Response Factors of
Multi-layered Walls–State Space Method. Building and Environment, Vol. 26, No. 2, pp. 173-177.
Seem, J. E. 1987. Modeling of Heat Transfer in Buildings, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Wisconsin,
Madison, WI.
Strand, R. K. 1995. Heat Source Transfer Functions and Their Application to Low Temperature
Radiant Heating Systems, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL.
Taylor, R. D., C.O. Pedersen, L.K. Lawrie. 1990. Simultaneous Simulation of Buildings and
Mechanical Systems in Heat Balance Based Energy Analysis Programs, Proceedings of the 3rd
International Conference on System Simulation in Buildings, Liege, Belgium, December 3-5, 1990.
Taylor, R.D., C.O. Pedersen, D.E. Fisher, R. J. Liesen, L.K. Lawrie. 1991. Impact of Simul-
taneous Simulation of Buildings and Mechanical Systems in Heat Balance Based Energy Analysis
Programs on System Response and Control, Conference Proceedings IBPSA Building Simulation
’91, Nice, France, August 20-22, 1991.
Chapter 3
X
∞ X
∞
′′
qko (t) = Xj To,t−jδ − Yj Ti,t−jδ (3.1)
j=0 j=0
where q” is heat flux, T is temperature, i signifies the inside of the building element, o signifies
the outside of the building element, t represents the current time step, and X and Y are the response
factors.
While in most cases the terms in the series decay fairly rapidly, the infinite number of terms
needed for an exact response factor solution makes it less than desirable. Fortunately, the similarity
of higher order terms can be used to replace them with flux history terms. The new solution contains
elements that are called conduction transfer functions (CTFs). The basic form of a conduction
transfer function solution is shown by the following equation:
X
nz X
nz X
nq
′′
qki (t) = −Zo Ti,t − Zj Ti,t−jδ + Yo To,t + Yj To,t−jδ + Φj q ′′ ki,t−jδ (3.2)
j=1 j=1 j=1
X
nz X
nz X
nq
′′
qko (t) = −Yo Ti,t − Yj Ti,t−jδ + Xo To,t + Xj To,t−jδ + Φj q ′′ ko,t−jδ (3.3)
j=1 j=1 j=1
62
3.1. CONDUCTION THROUGH THE WALLS 63
d [x]
= [A] [x] + [B] [u] (3.4)
dt
where x is a vector of state variables, u is a vector of inputs, y is the output vector, t is time,
and A, B, C, and D are coefficient matrices. Through the use of matrix algebra, the vector of
state variables (x) can be eliminated from the system of equations, and the output vector (y) can
be related directly to the input vector (u) and time histories of the input and output vectors.
Seem (1987) summarizes the steps required to obtain the output vector (y) from the A, B,
C, and D matrices. Briefly, the solution for the first order differential system of equations with
constant coefficients shown above is:
Zt+δ
Aδ
xt+δ = e xt + eA(t+δ−τ ) Bu(τ )dτ (3.6)
t
where t is a particular point in time, δ is the time step, and eAδ is the exponential matrix which
is calculated using a power series:
64 CHAPTER 3. SURFACE HEAT BALANCE MANAGER / PROCESSES
A2 δ 2 A3 δ 3 AL δ L
eAδ = I + Aδ + + + ... + + ... (3.7)
2! 3! L!
where L is the term in the sequence that defines an adequate representation of the exponential
matrix. In other words, terms beyond L are not needed because they will not supply any significant
additional value to the overall exponential matrix. So, the calculation of the exponential matrix
can be terminated after the Lth term. Seem (1987) also defines what L should be in Appendix A
of his dissertation. It is based on an equation that relates L to the matrix row norm:
dT1 T2 − T1
C = hA (To − T1 ) + (3.11)
dt R
dT2 T1 − T2
C = hA (Ti − T2 ) + (3.12)
dt R
demonstrated the effectiveness of the State Space method in handling these situations that can have
important applications in buildings.
for only a few specific times before the current time, the temperature and flux histories are, actually,
continuous functions between those discrete points. However, there is no way to calculate informa-
tion at these intermediate times once a series has been initialized. The terms in the temperature
and flux histories are out of phase with these points. However, they can be calculated by shifting
the phase of the temperature and flux histories by only a fraction of a time step. This procedure
would allow a CTF series computed for a time step Dt, to be used to compute information at times
t+Dt/2, t+Dt/3, t+Dt/4, or any other arbitrary fraction of the time step, so long as the surface
temperatures and flux values were still Dt apart. Several ways of doing this are described below.
The method shown in the Figure 3.2 maintains two sets of histories out of phase with each
other. The figure shows how this would work for two sets of histories out of phase by one half of
a time step. More sets of temperature and flux histories could be used, allowing the simulation
time step to take on values: 1/3, 1/4, 1/5, etc., of the minimum time step allowed for the CTF
calculations. The time step between inputs to the CTF series would be the smallest convenient
interval at which the CTF series is stable. This scenario is illustrated in this figure for two separate
sets of temperature and flux histories. Cycling through each history, in order, allowed calculations
of the zone energy balance to be performed with updated surface information at a shorter time
step than one CTF history series would otherwise allow. This method required no interpolation
between the series once each set of histories was initialized. However, if the smallest time step
for a stable CTF series was large compared to the zone temperature update time step, significant
memory was required to store all the sets of histories.
Another method is shown in Figure 3.3. Sequential interpolation of new histories that uses
successive interpolations to determine the next set of temperature and flux histories. The current
history is interpolated directly from the previous history set using the required time phase shift
between the two. This method required permanent storage for only one set of temperature and
flux histories at a time, but smoothed out temperature and flux data as more interpolations were
performed. As a result, at concurrent simulation times current values of history terms were different
form previous “in phase” history terms. This was unacceptable from, a physical point of view,
because it allowed current information to change data from a previous time.
A final method, shown in Figure 3.4. Master history with interpolation, was something of a
hybrid of the previous two methods. One “master” history set was maintained and updated for all
3.1. CONDUCTION THROUGH THE WALLS 69
time; this solved the problem of current events propagating information backwards in time. When
surface fluxes needed to be calculated at times out of phase with this master history a new, tem-
porary history was interpolated from the master values. This method proved to be the best of
the three options described because it eliminated propagation of information backwards in time
and only required concurrent storage of two sets of temperature and flux histories. This method
was subsequently incorporated into the IBLAST program in conjunction with Seem’s procedure for
calculating the coefficients of the CTF series.
In some cases, either due to a lack of information or a desire to simplify input, a user may choose
to enter a material layer as a “no mass” or “R-Value only” material. This assumption essentially
says that these layers add nothing to the thermal mass of the overall construction and only add to
the overall resistance or R-Value of the construction as a whole. While this is not recommended,
it is allowed and in some cases is not a poor assumption for extremely lightweight materials such
as some types of insulation.
In the past, when a user enters such a “no mass” material into EnergyPlus, internally the
properties of this layer are converted to approximate the properties of air (density, specific heat,
and conductivity) with the thickness adjusted to maintain the user’s desired R-Value. This allowed
such layers to be handled internally in the same way as other layers without any additional changes
to the code. This solution was deemed accurate enough as air has very little thermal mass and it
made the coding of the state space method simpler.
It is possible to account for layers that have no thermal mass in the state space solution without
resorting to the assignment of fictitious material properties. The EnergyPlus internal equations for
assigning values to portions of the A, B, C, and D matrices as shown in the previous subsections
have been altered to account for the potential presence of R-Value only (or no mass) layers without
resorting to assigning these materials the properties of air. This is handled by assuming that the
“no mass” layer is a single node layer. As nodes are defined that the interface between material
layers, the “no mass” layer is essentially two “half nodes” that are shared with the surrounding
layers. This allows the surrounding material layers to provide thermal capacitance for each of the
nodes at the material interfaces.
In EnergyPlus, there are two possible cases for the existence of “no mass” layers: either between
two other solid, thermally massive layers (multiple “no mass” layers next to each other are simply
combined in this approach) or at the inner or outer most layers of a construction. There are
potential issues with having a resistance-only layer at either the inner or outer most layers of a
construction. A little or no mass layer there could receive intense thermal radiation from internal
sources or the sun causing the temperature at the inner or outer surface to achieve very high
levels. This is undesirable from a simulation standpoint as there are limits to temperature levels in
EnergyPlus that could be exceeded causing the simulation to terminate and is likely unrealistic from
a real-world perspective. Thus, for such potentially problematic calculational scenarios, EnergyPlus
will continue to convert a “no mass” layer at either the inner or outer most layer of a construction
into a thermal mass layer using the properties of air as has been done in the past.
The case where a resistance-only layer is defined anywhere except the inner or outer layer of a
construction is handled by treating the “no mass” layer as a single node layer. This will result in
a node at each interface as in the standard material layer cases. When a “no mass” material is
present, the R-Value only layer will not add any thermal capacitance to the nodes at the interfaces
at either side of the material. It will simply add resistance between the two nodes.
From the EnergyPlus code, the A matrix (AMat) is assigned with values at the interface using
the following equations (taken from the actual code):
cap = ( rho(Layer)\*cp(Layer)\*dx(Layer) + rho(Layer +1)\*cp(Layer +1)\*dx(Layer +1) ) \* 0.5D0
AMat(Node ,Node -1) = rk(Layer)/dx(Layer)/cap ! Assign matrix values for the current node
AMat(Node ,Node) = -1.0D0 \* ( rk(Layer)/dx(Layer)+rk(Layer +1)/dx(Layer +1) ) / cap
AMat(Node ,Node +1) = rk(Layer +1)/dx(Layer +1)/cap ! node.
Note that these equations do not change. For “no mass” layers, the density (rho) and the
specific heat (cp) variables will be assigned zero values. In addition, the thickness (dx) will be
equated with the user-defined R-Value and conductivity (rk) will be assigned a value of unity. In
3.1. CONDUCTION THROUGH THE WALLS 71
addition, the number of nodes for the “no mass” layer will be set to 1.
This handles resistive layers correctly without resorting to assigning the properties of air to the
“no mass” layer. The only potential problem with this is if two resistive layers are placed next
to each other. In that case, the interface between the two resistive layers would have no mass
(variable “cap” would equal zero) and a divide by zero would result. To avoid this, adjacent “no
mass” layers are combined internally so that the user does not have to do this and also to avoid
any divide by zero errors.
While from a results standpoint, the difference in output between assigning air properties for
specific heat, density, etc. and handling the no mass materials explicitly is negligible, handling the
no mass layers properly does provide better code efficiency from a calculation speed standpoint.
3.1.5 References
Ceylan, H. T., and G. E. Myers. 1980. Long-time Solutions to Heat Conduction Transients with
Time-Dependent Inputs. ASME Journal of Heat Transfer, Volume 102, No. 1, pp. 115-120.
Hittle, D. C. 1979. Calculating Building Heating and Cooling Loads Using the Frequency
Response of Multilayered Slabs, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL.
Hittle, D. C., and R. Bishop. 1983. An Improved Root-Finding Procedure for Use in Calculating
Transient Heat Flow Through Multilayered Slabs. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer,
Vol. 26, No. 11, pp. 1685-1693.
Ouyang, K., and F. Haghighat. 1991. A Procedure for Calculating Thermal Response Factors of
Multi-layered Walls–State Space Method. Building and Environment, Vol. 26, No. 2, pp. 173-177.
Seem, J. E. 1987. Modeling of Heat Transfer in Buildings, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Wisconsin,
Madison, WI.
Strand, R. K. 1995. Heat Source Transfer Functions and Their Application to Low Temperature
Radiant Heating Systems, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL.
72 CHAPTER 3. SURFACE HEAT BALANCE MANAGER / PROCESSES
Taylor, R. D., C.O. Pedersen, D.E. Fisher, R. J. Liesen, L.K. Lawrie. 1990. Simultaneous
Simulation of Buildings and Mechanical Systems in Heat Balance Based Energy Analysis Programs,
Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on System Simulation in Buildings, Liege, Belgium,
December 3-5, 1990.
Taylor, R.D., C.O. Pedersen, D.E. Fisher, R. J. Liesen, L.K. Lawrie. 1991. Impact of Simul-
taneous Simulation of Buildings and Mechanical Systems in Heat Balance Based Energy Analysis
Programs on System Response and Control, Conference Proceedings IBPSA Building Simulation
’91, Nice, France, August 20-22, 1991.
!
T j+1 − Tij 1 T j+1 − Tij+1 T j+1 − Tij+1 T j − Tij T j − Tij
Cp ρ∆x i = kW i+1 + kE i−1 + kW i+1 + kE i−1
∆t 2 ∆x ∆x ∆x ∆x
(3.17)
where:
T = node temperature
∆t = calculation time step
3.2. CONDUCTION FINITE DIFFERENCE SOLUTION ALGORITHM 73
∆x = finite difference layer thickness (always less than construction layer thickness)
Cp = specific heat of material
kW = thermal conductivity for interface between node i and node i + 1
kE = thermal conductivity for interface between node i and node i − 1
ρ = density of material
Then, this equation is accompanied by a second equation that relates enthalpy and temperature.
In the CondFD model, surface discretization depends on the thermal diffusivity of the material
(α) and time step (∆t) selected, as shown in the equation below. The default value of 3 for the
space discretization constant, C, is the inverse of a grid Fourier Number:
74 CHAPTER 3. SURFACE HEAT BALANCE MANAGER / PROCESSES
α∆t
Fo = (3.20)
∆x2
and is based on the stability requirement for the explicit mode that requires values higher than
2, or a Fourier number lower than 0.5. However, CondFD uses implicit schemes that do not have
the same stability requirements as the explicit mode. Thus, the default 3 was originally set rather
arbitrary. As of version 7, the value of this constant can be controlled by the user with the input
field called Space Discretization Constant in the HeatBalanceSettings:ConductionFiniteDifference
input object. The discretization method allows CondFD to assign different node spacing or grid
size to different material layers in a wall or roof, as building walls and roofs typically consist of
several layers of different materials having different thermal properties.
√
∆x = Cα∆t (3.21)
The actual integer number of nodes for each layer is then calculated by rounding off the result
from dividing the length of the material layer by the result of the equation above. After this, ∆x is
recalculated by dividing the length of the material by the number of nodes. A full node is equal to
two half nodes. Lower values for the Space Discretization Constant yield more nodes, with higher
values yield fewer nodes.
Because the solution is implicit, a Gauss-Seidel iteration scheme is used to update to the new
node temperatures in the construction and under-relaxation is used for increased stability. The
Gauss-Seidel iteration loop is the inner-most solver and is called for each surface. It is limited to 30
iterations but will exit early when the sum of all the node temperatures changes between the last call
and the current call, normalized by the sum of the temperature values, is below ∼0.000001C. This
convergence criteria is typically met after 3 iterations, except when PCMs are simulated as it takes
an average of 2-3 more iterations when PCM are changing phase. If the number if iterations needed
to met convergence criteria start to increase, an automatic internal relaxation factor stabilities the
solution and in most cases keep the number of iterations less than 10.
EnergyPlus also uses a separate, outer iteration loop across all the different inside surface heat
balances so that internal long-wave radiation exchange can be properly solved. For CTF formu-
lations, this iteration is controlled by a maximum allowable temperature difference of 0.002 ◦C
for inside face surface temperatures from one iteration to the next (or a limit of 100 iterations).
CondFD uses the same default value for allowable temperature difference as CTF. However, this
parameter was found to often need to be smaller for stability and so the inside surface heat bal-
ance manager uses a separate allowable maximum temperature difference when modeling CondFD.
The user can control the value of the relaxation factor by using the input field called Inside Face
Surface Temperature Convergence Criteria in the HeatBalanceSettings:ConductionFiniteDifference
input object. In addition, if the program detects that there is instability by watching for excessive
numbers of iterations in this outer loop and may decrease the relaxation factor. Users can also
output the number of iterations inside of CondFD loop for each surface and the outer internal heat
balance loop for each zone with “CondFD Inner Solver Loop Iterations” and “Heat Balance Inside
Surfaces Calculation Iterations” respectively.
For inputs with MaterialProperty:PhaseChange, the specific heat is calculated from the tabu-
lated input data of temperature/enthalpy pairs:
hi,new − hi,old
Cp = (3.23)
T i,new − T i,old
For inputs with MaterialProperty:PhaseChangeHysteresis, the specific heat is not only depen-
dent on the current state, but also the previous state, as it captures the hysteresis physics present
between the melting and freezing processes.
• All temperature “difference” inputs were set to 1.0 as this is an example only. Using smaller
or larger temperature differences would shrink or expand the freezing or melting regions
accordingly.
• The total latent heat transferred during the phase transition process is set to 25000 J/kg
• The peak freezing temperature is set to 23 ◦C, where the freezing curve transition is centered.
• The peak melting temperature is set to 27 ◦C, where the melting curve transition is centered.
76 CHAPTER 3. SURFACE HEAT BALANCE MANAGER / PROCESSES
The iteration scheme assures that the correct enthalpy, and therefore the correct Cp is used
in each time step, and the enthalpy of the material is accounted for accurately. Of course, if the
material is regular, the user input constant Cp is used.
For non-hysteresis finite difference calculations, the algorithm also has a provision for including
a temperature coefficient to modify the thermal conductivity. The thermal conductivity is obtained
from:
" ! !#
Tij+1 − Tij 1
j+1
Ti+1 − Tij+1 j+1
Ti−1 − Tij+1 j
Ti+1 − Tij j
Ti−1 − Tij
Cp ρ∆x = kW + kE + kW + kE
∆t 2 ∆x ∆x ∆x ∆x
(3.26)
where,
j+1
ki+1 + kij+1
kW = (3.27)
2
and
j+1
ki−1 + kij+1
kE = (3.28)
2
These additional property information values are put into the input file as explained in the In-
put/Output Reference Document, but it consists simply of a value for k1 and set of enthalpy
temperature pairs that describe the enthalpy of the phase change material in straight line segments
with respect to temperature.
A graph showing the effect of a large PCM on the outside surface of a zone is shown below. The
phase change temperature was 30 ◦C, and the flat temperature response during the phase change is
obvious. This example was run with a zone time step of one minute to show that such small time
steps can be done with the finite difference solution technique. It is more efficient to set the zone
time step shorter than those used for the CTF solution algorithm. It should be set to 20 time steps
per hour or greater, and can range up to 60. The finite difference algorithm actually works better
with shorter zone time steps. The computation time has a minimum at a zone time step around
two minutes (30 time steps/hr), and increases for shorter or longer zone time steps.
nodes with the node temperatures representing the inner and outer faces of the layer. All thicker
layers also have two half thickness nodes at their inner and outer faces. These nodes produce layer
interface temperatures.
The ConductionFiniteDifferenceSimplified capability was removed as of Version 7.2.
For nodes which are at the inside or outside face of the surface, there is only one half-node.
After the CondFD node temperatures have been solved for a given timestep, the heat fluxes
(CondFD Surface Heat Flux Node < i > ) are calculated beginning with the inside face of the
surface.
T i + 1,new − T i + 1,old
QDreporti = QDreporti+1 +HeatCap1i+1
∆t (3.31)
T i,new − T i,old
−QSourcei +HeatCap2i
∆t
where:
Note that the variable TotNodes used in the source code is actually N-1. The surface inside face
node is referenced as TotNodes+1.
3.2.6 References
Pedersen C.O., Enthalpy Formulation of conduction heat transfer problems involving latent heat,
Simulation, Vol 18, No. 2, February 1972
Versteeg, H. and Malalasekra, W. 1996. An introduction to computational fluid dynamic: the
finite volume method approach. Prentice Hall.
Tabares-Velasco, P.C. and Griffith, B. 2012. Diagnostic Test Cases for Verifying Surface Heat
Transfer Algorithms and Boundary Conditions in Building Energy Simulation Programs, Journal
of Building Performance Simulation, doi:10.1080/19401493.2011.595501
Tabares-Velasco, P.C., Christensen, C. and Bianchi, M. 2012. Verification and Validation of
EnergyPlus Phase Change Material Model for Opaque Wall Assemblies, Building and Environment
54: 186-196.
storage of heat and moisture in surfaces simultaneously from and to both the internal and external
environments. As well as simulating the effects of moisture buffering, HAMT is also be able to
provide temperature and moisture profiles through composite building walls, and help to identify
surfaces with high surface humidity.
The three terms in Equation 3.32 describe the storage, transport and generation of heat respec-
tively.
∂w ∂ϕ ∂ w ∂w ∂ϕ ∂ δ ∂p
= D + (3.33)
∂ϕ ∂τ ∂x ∂ϕ ∂x ∂x µ ∂x
The three terms in Equation 3.33 describe the storage of moisture, the transport of liquid
moisture and the transport of vapor respectively. The equation to calculate the vapor diffusion
coefficient in air (δ) used in the third term of both equations, is also taken from Künzel,
2 × 10−7 × (T + 273.15)0.81
δ= (3.34)
pambient
∂H
= (cρ + cw w) (3.35)
∂T
The moisture content of the material w and the vapor diffusion resistance factor µ depend on the
relative humidity inside the material. The parameters ∂w
∂ϕ
, k w and Dw are also moisture dependent
parameters.
The following sections describe how the above equations are used within the HAMT model.
3.3. COMBINED HEAT AND MOISTURE TRANSFER (HAMT) MODEL 81
In the one dimensional case there are only two adjacent cells each labeled j. The heat generated
due to vaporization qiv can be calculated separately.
X δij pj p+1
− pp+1
i
qiv = hv Aij (3.37)
j
µij xij
Rearranging Equation 3.32 and including other sources of heat (qiadds ) such as radiation from
other surfaces in the calculation gives the temperature in a cell in the next time step as,
P Tjp+1 Tp
h
j Rij + qiv + qiadds + Cih ∆τi
Tip+1 = Cih P (3.38)
∆τ
+ j R1h
ij
x
where Cih = (ci ρi + cw wi ) ∆Vi is thermal heat capacitance of cell i and Rij
h
= kij Aij
ij
is the
thermal resistance between cells i and j.
This equation can be solved using the Gauss-Seidel iteration technique. The ith cell temperature
is calculated whilst the jth cell temperatures are kept as up to date as possible. The iteration is
stopped when the maximum difference between two consecutive calculations in all cells is less than
a threshold of 0.002°C.
3.3.3.4 Porosity P
The porosity of a material (P) is an input variable and defined as the maximum fraction, by vol-
ume, of a material that can be taken up with moisture. It is used to calculate the maximum
point on the sorption isotherm curve. The porosity is entered for each material via the Materi-
alProperty:HeatAndMoistureTransfer:Settings object, as described in the Input Output Reference
document.
Equation 3.39 can be rearranged to provide the relative humidity of the ith cell in the next time
step.
P ϕp+1 P pp+1 ϕp
j
j Rijw + i
j Rijv + Ciw ∆τi
ϕp+1
i = Ciw P P psat (3.40)
1
∆τ
+ w
j Rij + i
v
j Rij
dw
where Ciw = dϕi
∆Vi is the “Moisture Capacitance” of cell i,
w xij
Rij = w dw
(3.41)
Aij Dij dϕ
v µij xij
is the moisture resistance between cells i and j and Rij = Aij δij
is the vapor resistance between
cells i and j.
3.3. COMBINED HEAT AND MOISTURE TRANSFER (HAMT) MODEL 83
Equation 3.40 can be used together with the heat equation 3.38 in an alternate step by step
fashion to calculate the new temperature and relative humidity profiles for each cell for the next
time step.
Surfaces with Ground exterior boundary condition assumes saturated air (100% relative hu-
midity) condition to calculate the exterior mass transfer coefficient, which is used to model mass
transport through a ground contact surfaces.
∂w
3.3.3.9 Moisture Dependent Moisture Capacity ∂ϕ
This is simply the gradient of moisture sorption isotherm at the RH of the material.
DataSets (MoistureMaterials.idf). The properties were synthesised from the Annex 24 database
[Kumar Kumaran, M. (1996)], supplemented, when required, by data from the database of the
WUFI model [WUFI (1999)] and are therefore not related to any unique, measured material. Users
should consult material property catalogues and other primary sources when the properties of a
specific material are required.
Moisture and heat from the surfaces are used by EnergyPlus to calculate the room air tem-
perature and moisture content. EnergyPlus with HAMT works best with as short a time step as
possible. However the optimum time step which gives a good prediction for a short computing time
will very much depend on the nature of the weather and type of building. Buildings with frequent
and large changes in internal and external temperature will need a small time step, maybe even 60
steps per hour. Slowly evolving temperatures and relative humidity’s will not require such a short
time step and 20, or even 6, steps per hour may be sufficient.
3.3.4 References
Künzel, H.M. (1995) Simultaneous Heat and Moisture Transport in Building Components. One-
and two-dimensional calculation using simple parameters. IRB Verlag 1995
Holman, J.P. (2002) Heat Transfer, Ninth Edition. McGraw-Hill
Winterton, R.H.S. (1997) Heat Transfer. (Oxford Chemistry Primers; 50) Oxford University
Press
Kumar Kumaran, M. (1996) IEA ANNEX 24, Final Report, Volume 3
WUFI (1999) version 2.2 Simultaneous Heat and Moisture Transport in Building components.
Fraunhofer IBP, Holzkirchen, Germany
This is generally a reasonable assumption for buildings, with daily internal latent gains. The
EMPD model uses a thin material layer of constant thickness at each material surface. The moisture
content is assumed constant across this thickness, termed the surface penetration depth. For most
building materials, the equilibrium moisture sorption isotherm can be defined by the following
general equation (Kerestecioglu et al. 1988):
0.622ρair u1
ρv1 = (3.44)
du P
dϕ Psat
− u1
where
du
dϕ
= slope of the moisture sorption curve, kg/kg-RH
Psat = saturated vapor pressure
ρair = dry-air density
The moisture flux between the material and the zone air, jzone , is the difference in vapor densities
divided by the overall mass transfer resistance, which is the sum of the diffusive resistance of the
surface layer, the diffusive resistance of any coating, and the convective resistance of the air boundary
layer:
ρv1 − ρv,zone
jzone = (3.45)
RM T 1 + RM T,coating + RM T,BL
Figure 3.9: Nodal network for effective moisture pentration depth model
dEM P D,1
RM T,1 = (3.46)
2R̄water T δperm
where
dEM P D,1 = depth of surface layer, m
R̄water = universal gas constant for water (461.52 J/kg-K)
T = temperature, K
δperm = water vapor permeability of the material, kg/m-s-Pa
The coating resistance is:
tcoating Pambient
RM T,coating = (3.47)
δperm,coating R̄water T
where
tcoating = coating thickness, m
Pambient = ambient pressure, Pa
δperm,coating = permeability of the coating, kg/m-s-Pa.
Finally, the boundary layer mass-transfer resistance is calculated by converting the heat-transfer
coefficient to mass transfer with the Lewis relation:
ρair Cpair
RM T,BL = (3.48)
hconv
Behind the surface layer is a deep layer (labeled with subscipt 2 below) of thickness dEM P D,2 .
The surface layer accounts for buffering of high-frequency changes in the zone air humidity, while
the deep layer accounts for the material’s response to longer term changes in the zone air humidity.
The model calculates the moisture flux between the surface and deep layers with:
ρv,1 − ρv,2
j2 = (3.49)
RM T,2
where RM T,2 is:
(jzone + j2 ) · T imeStep
ϕ1 (t) = ϕ1 (t − δt) − du
(3.51)
ρmatl dEM P D,1 dϕ
j2 · T imeStep
ϕ2 (t) = ϕ2 (t − δt) + du
(3.52)
ρmatl dEM P D,2 dϕ
where
ρmatl = Material dry density, kg/m3
T imeStep = Simulation timestep, s
du
dϕ
= slope of moisture curve (change in moisture content / change in RH), kg/kg · RH
The equivalent RH and equivalent vapor density are related with:
3.4. EFFECTIVE MOISTURE PENETRATION DEPTH (EMPD) MODEL 87
ϕ1 Psat (T )
ρv,1 = (3.53)
R̄water T
ϕ2 Psat (T )
ρv,2 = (3.54)
R̄water T
The zone flux is used, along with the area of the particular surface, to update the zone humidity
ratio, as discussed in 2.4.
The zone flux is also used to calculate the sensible heat released (during adsorption) or absorbed
(during desorption) at the material surface:
where hf g is the enthalpy of vaporization of water, assumed to be 2500 kJ/kg. This is added to
the heat balance calculations at the interior surface.
For further information on the EMPD model, see References below.
A = surface area m2
d = penetration depth [m]
kg
j = water mass flux
m2 · s
J
R̄water = universal gas constant for water, 461.52
kg · K
RM T = Mass transfer resistance [s/m]
T = temperature [K]
kg
u = moisture content
kg
kg
δ = permeability
m · s · Pa
ϕ = relative humidity
kg
ρ = density
m3
kg
ρv = vapor density
m3
88 CHAPTER 3. SURFACE HEAT BALANCE MANAGER / PROCESSES
3.4.3.2 Subscripts
3.4.4 References
Cunningham, M.J., The moisture performance of framed structures - a mathematical model, Build.
Environ. 23 (1988) 123-35.
Kerestecioglu, A., M. Swami, R. Dabir, N. Razzaq, P. Fairey, Theoretical and Computational
Investigation of Algorithms for Simultaneous Heat and Moisture Transport in Buildings. Florida
Solar Energy Center, DOE/SF/16305-2, 1988.
Cunningham, M.J., Effective penetration depth and effective resistance in moisture transfer,
Build. Environ. 27 (1992) 379-86
Janssen, H. and S. Roels, Qualitative and quantitative assessment of interior moisture buffering
by enclosures, Energ. Buildings. 41 (2009) 382-94.
Abadie, M.O. and K.C. Mendonca, Moisture performance of building materials: From material
characterization to building simulation using the Moisture Buffer Value concept, Build. Environ.
44 (2009) 388-401.
Vereecken, E., S. Roels, H. Janssen, In situ determination of the moisture buffer potential of
room enclosures, J. Build. Phys. 34 (2011) 223-46.
Woods, J., Winkler, J, and Christensen, D. Evaluation of the Effective Moisture Penetration
Depth Model for Estimating Moisture Buffering in Buildings, NREL/TP-5500-57441, 2013.
Woods, J., J. Winkler, D. Christensen, E. Hancock, Using Whole-House Field Tests to Empiri-
cally Derive Moisture Buffering Model Inputs. NREL/TP-5500-62456, 2014.
′′ ′′ ′′ ′′
qαsol + qLW R + qconv − qko = 0 (3.56)
where:
′′
qαsol = Absorbed direct and diffuse solar (short wavelength) radiation heat flux
′′
qLW R = Net long wavelength (thermal) radiation flux exchange with the air and surroundings
′′
qconv = Convective flux exchange with outside air
′′
qko = Conduction heat flux (q/A) into the wall
All terms are positive for net flux to the face except the conduction term, which is traditionally
taken to be positive in the direction from outside to inside of the wall. Simplified procedures
generally combine the first three terms by using the concept of a sol-air temperature. Each of these
heat balance components is introduced briefly below.
3.5. OUTSIDE SURFACE HEAT BALANCE 89
These assumptions are frequently used in all but the most critical engineering applications.
Consider an enclosure consisting of building exterior surface, surrounding ground surface, and
sky. Using the assumptions above, we can determine the longwave radiative heat flux at the building
exterior surface (Walton 1983; McClellan and Pedersen 1997). The total longwave radiative heat
flux is the sum of components due to radiation exchange with the ground, sky, and air.
′′ ′′ ′′ ′′
qLW R = qgnd + qsky + qair (3.57)
Applying the Stefan-Boltzmann Law to each component yields:
′′
R = εσFgnd (Tgnd − Tsurf ) + εσFsky (Tsky − Tsurf ) + εσFair (Tair − Tsurf )
4 4 4 4 4 4
qLW (3.58)
where
ε = long-wave emittance of the surface
σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant
Fgnd = view factor of wall surface to ground surface temperature
Fsky = view factor of wall surface to sky temperature
Fair = view factor of wall surface to air temperature
Tsurf = outside surface temperature
Tgnd = ground surface temperature
Tsky = sky temperature
Tair = air temperature
Linearized radiative heat transfer coefficients are introduced to render the above equation more
compatible with the heat balance formulation,
′′
qLW R = hr,gnd (Tgnd − Tsurf ) + hr,sky (Tsky − Tsurf ) + hr,air (Tair − Tsurf ) (3.59)
where
4
εσFgnd (Tsurf − Tgnd
4
)
hr,gnd = (3.60)
Tsurf − Tgnd
4
εσFsky (Tsurf − Tsky
4
)
hr,sky = (3.61)
Tsurf − Tsky
4
εσFair (Tsurf − Tair
4
)
hr,air = (3.62)
Tsurf − Tair
The longwave view factors to ground and sky are calculated with the following expressions
(Walton 1983):
The ground surface temperature is assumed to be the same as the air temperature. The final
forms of the radiative heat transfer coefficients are shown here.
4
εσFgnd (Tsurf − Tair
4
)
hr,gnd = (3.66)
Tsurf − Tair
4
εσFsky β(Tsurf − Tsky
4
)
hr,sky = (3.67)
Tsurf − Tsky
εσFsky (1 − β) (Tsurf
4
− Tair
4
)
hr,air = (3.68)
Tsurf − Tair
Optionally, however, the long wave radiation from surrounding surfaces to an exterior surface,
can also be considered if explicitly defined. Then the equation above should be modified as:
′′
R = εσ[Fgnd (Tgnd −Tsurf )+Fsky (Tsky −Tsurf )+Fs1 (Ts1 −Tsurf )+...+Fsn (Tsn −Tsurf )+Fair (Tair −Tsurf )]
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
qLW
(3.69)
where
Fsi = View factor of surrounding surface i to the exterior surface.
Tsi = Outside surface temperature of the surrounding surface i.
3.5.3 References
ASHRAE. 1993. 1993 ASHRAE Handbook – Fundamentals. Atlanta: American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
Chapman, A. J. 1984. Heat Transfer, 4th Edition, New York: Macmillan Publishing Company.
Lienhard, J. H. 1981. A Heat Transfer Textbook, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
McClellan, T. M., and C. O. Pedersen. 1997. Investigation of Outside Heat Balance Models
for Use in a Heat Balance Cooling Load Calculation. ASHRAE Transactions, Vol. 103, Part 2,
pp. 469-484.
Walton, G. N. 1983. Thermal Analysis Research Program Reference Manual. NBSSIR 83-2655.
National Bureau of Standards.
Comparing the annual energy usage between 60 discretely modeled floors of a building, it turns
out that the effect due to wind speed change is dominant over the first ten floors. But at floor
25, surprisingly, the effect due to air temperature has caught up and is about equal to the effect
of wind speed. Above floor 25 the effect due to air temperature is now dominant. Clearly it is
desirable to model air temperature variation with altitude for high-rise buildings.
To accommodate atmospheric variation EnergyPlus automatically calculates the local outdoor
air temperature and wind speed separately for each zone and surface that is exposed to the out-
door environment. The zone centroid or surface centroid are used to determine the height above
ground. Only local outdoor air temperature and wind speed are currently calculated because they
are important factors for the exterior convection calculation for surfaces (see Exterior Convection
below) and can also be factors in the zone infiltration and ventilation calculations. Variation in
barometric pressure, however, is considered when using the Airflow Network objects.
Tz = Tb + L (Hz − Hb ) (3.70)
where
Tz = air temperature at altitude z
Tb = air temperature at the base of the layer, i.e., ground level for the troposphere
L = air temperature gradient, equal to –0.0065 K/m in the troposphere
Hb = offset equal to zero for the troposphere
Hz = geopotential altitude.
The variable Hz is defined by:
Ez
Hz = (3.71)
(E + z)
where
E = 6,356 km, the radius of the Earth
z = altitude.
For the purpose of modeling buildings in the troposphere, altitude z refers to the height above
ground level, not the height above sea level. The height above ground is calculated as the height
of the centroid, or area-weighted center point, for each zone and surface.
94 CHAPTER 3. SURFACE HEAT BALANCE MANAGER / PROCESSES
The air temperature at ground level, Tb , is derived from the weather file air temperature by
inverting the equation above:
Ezmet
Tb = Tz,met − L − Hb (3.72)
E + zmet
where
Tz,met = weather file air temperature (measured at the meteorological station)
zmet = height above ground of the air temperature sensor at the meteorological station.
The default value for zmet for air temperature measurement is 1.5 m above ground. This value
can be overridden by using the Site:WeatherStation object.
The terrain types above map to the options in the Terrain field of the Building object. The
Terrain field can be overridden with specific values for α and δ by using the Site:HeightVariation
3.5. OUTSIDE SURFACE HEAT BALANCE 95
object.
The default value for zmet for wind speed measurement is 10 m above ground. The default
values for αmet and δ met are 0.14 and 270 m, respectively, because most meteorological stations are
located in an open field. These values can be overridden by using the Site:WeatherStation object.
• SimpleCombined
• TARP
• MoWiTT
• DOE-2
• AdaptiveConvectionAlgorithm
Note that when the outside environment indicates that it is raining, the exterior surfaces (ex-
posed to wind) are assumed to be wet. The convection coefficient is set to a very high number
(1000) and the outside temperature used for the surface will be the wet-bulb temperature. (If you
choose to report this variable, you will see 1000 as its value.)
When the AdaptiveConvectionAlgorithm is used, there is a second, deeper level of control avail-
able for selecting among a larger variety of hc,ext equations and also defining custom equations using
curve or table objects. These options are described in this section.
In addition to the correlation choices described below, it is also possible to override the convection
coefficients on the outside of any surface by other means:
96 CHAPTER 3. SURFACE HEAT BALANCE MANAGER / PROCESSES
• Use the SurfaceProperty:ConvectionCoefficients object in the input file to set the convection
coefficient value on either side of any surface.
• Use the SurfaceProperty:OtherSideCoefficients object in the input file to set heat transfer
coefficients and temperatures on surfaces.
• Use the EnergyManagementSystem Actuators that are available for overriding hc values.
These options can also use schedules to control values over time. Specific details are given in
the Input Output Reference document.
For exterior simple-glazing windows modeled with the WindowMaterial:SimpleGlazingSystem
object, hc,ext is scaled with an adjustment ratio. This enables the modeling of simple windows with
highly conductive frames (large input U values). The calculation of the adjustment ratio is detailed
in Section 7.7.4.8.
h = D + EVz + F Vz 2 (3.75)
where
h = heat transfer coefficient
Vz = local wind speed calculated at the height above ground of the surface centroid
D, E, F = material roughness coefficients
The roughness correlation is taken from Figure 1, Page 22.4, ASHRAE Handbook of Funda-
mentals (ASHRAE 1989). The roughness coefficients are shown in the following table:
Note that the simple correlation yields a combined convection and radiation heat transfer coef-
ficient. Radiation to sky, ground, and air is included in the exterior convection coefficient for this
algorithm.
All other algorithms yield a convection only heat transfer coefficient. Radiation to sky, ground,
and air is calculated automatically by the program.
3.5. OUTSIDE SURFACE HEAT BALANCE 97
The Detailed, BLAST, and TARP convection models are very similar. In all three models, con-
vection is split into forced and natural components (Walton 1981). The total convection coefficient
is the sum of these components.
98 CHAPTER 3. SURFACE HEAT BALANCE MANAGER / PROCESSES
hc = hf + hn (3.76)
The forced convection component is based on a correlation by Sparrow, Ramsey, and Mass
(1979):
1/2
P Vz
hf = 2.537Wf Rf (3.77)
A
where
Wf = 1.0 for windward surfaces
or
Wf = 0.5 for leeward surfaces
Leeward is defined as greater than 90 degrees from normal incidence (Yazdanian and Klems
1994).
The surface roughness multiplier Rf is based on the ASHRAE graph of surface conductance
(ASHRAE 1981) and may be obtained from the following table:
The natural convection component hn is calculated in the same way as the interior “Detailed”
model. The detailed natural convection model correlates the convective heat transfer coefficient
to the surface orientation and the difference between the surface and zone air temperatures (where
∆T = Air Temperature - Surface Temperature). The algorithm is taken directly from Walton
(1983). Walton derived his algorithm from the ASHRAE Handbook (2001), Table 5 on p. 3.12,
which gives equations for natural convection heat transfer coefficients in the turbulent range for
large, vertical plates and for large, horizontal plates facing upward when heated (or downward
when cooled). A note in the text also gives an approximation for large, horizontal plates facing
downward when heated (or upward when cooled) recommending that it should be half of the facing
upward value. Walton adds a curve fit as a function of the cosine of the tilt angle to provide
intermediate values between vertical and horizontal. The curve fit values at the extremes match
the ASHRAE values very well.
For no temperature difference OR a vertical surface the following correlation is used:
1
hn = 1.31|∆T | 3 (3.78)
For (∆T < 0.0 AND an upward facing surface) OR (∆T > 0.0 AND an downward facing
3.5. OUTSIDE SURFACE HEAT BALANCE 99
The MoWiTT model is based on measurements taken at the Mobile Window Thermal Test
(MoWiTT) facility (Yazdanian and Klems 1994). The correlation applies to very smooth, vertical
surfaces (e.g. window glass) in low-rise buildings and has the form:
rh i
1 2
hc = Ct (∆T ) 3 + [aVzb ]2 (3.81)
Constants a, b and turbulent natural convection constant Ct are given in Table 3.9. The
original MoWiTT model has been modified for use in EnergyPlus so that it is sensitive to the local
suface’s wind speed which varies with the height above ground. The original MoWiTT model was
formulated for use with the air velocity at the location of the weather station. As of Version 7.2,
EnergyPlus uses the “a” model coefficients derived by Booten et al. (2012) rather than the original
values from Yazdanian and Klems (1994).
NOTE: The MoWiTT algorithm may not be appropriate for rough surfaces, high-rise surfaces,
or surfaces that employ movable insulation.
100 CHAPTER 3. SURFACE HEAT BALANCE MANAGER / PROCESSES
Wind Direction Ct a b
(Units) W/(m K ) W/(m2 K(m/s)b
2 4/3
-
Windward 0.84 3.26 0.89
Leeward 0.84 3.55 0.617
The DOE-2 convection model is a combination of the MoWiTT and BLAST Detailed convection
models (LBL 1994). The convection coefficient for very smooth surfaces (e.g. glass) is calculated
as:
q
hc,glass = h2n + [aVzb ]2 (3.82)
hn is calculated using Equation 3.78, 3.79 or 3.80 . Constants a and b are given in Table 3.9.
For less smooth surfaces, the convection coefficient is modified according to the equation
hc = hn + Rf (hc,glass − hn ) (3.83)
One slight difference in the Adaptive Convection Algorithm is the calculation of the perimeter
used in the various components of the model. In the TARP Algorithm, the perimeter is calculated
by making an assumption that the surface is rectangular in shape. However, when the Adaptive
Convection Algorithm is utilized, a slightly more sophisticated perimeter calculation that is better
able to handle non-rectangular surfaces is employed. This slight difference in the perimeter calcula-
tion can result in differences between the TARP Algorithm and the Adaptive Convection Algorithm
even when the options for the surface classifications noted above match the TARP Algorithm details.
1/
P Vz 2
hf = 2.53Rf (3.84)
A
1/
2.53 P Vz 2
hf = Rf (3.85)
2 A
This model equation is for the total film coefficient and includes the natural convection portion.
Therefore it should not be used in conjunction with a second natural convection model equation.
This model equation is for the total film coefficient and includes the natural convection portion.
Therefore it should not be used in conjunction with a second natural convection model equation.
3.5.5.5.6 Blocken
Blocken et al. (2009) developed a set of correlations for windward facing outdoor surfaces using
numerical methods (key: BlockenWindward).
3.5. OUTSIDE SURFACE HEAT BALANCE 103
hf 0.89
= 4.6V10m : θ ≤ 11.25
hf 0.80
= 5.0V10m : 11.25 < θ ≤ 33.75
(3.88)
hf 0.84
= 4.6V10m : 33.75 < θ ≤ 56.25
hf 0.81
= 4.5V10m : 56.25 < θ ≤ 100.0
Where V10m is the air velocity at the location of the weather station and � is the angle of
incidence between the wind and the surface in degrees. This model is only applicable to windward
surfaces and lacks a natural convection component and therefore cannot be used on its own but
only within the adaptive convection algorithm for the outside face.
3.5.5.5.7 Clear
Clear et al. (2003) developed correlations from measurements for horizontal roofs on two com-
mercial buildings. In EnergyPlus the implementation uses the model for natural convection plus
turbulent forced convection (eq. 8A in the reference) and applies it to the center point of each
surface section that makes up the roof.
k 1/ k 4/ 1/3
hc = η 0.15RaLn + Rf 0.0296Rex 5 Pr
3 (3.89)
Ln x
Where
• x is the distance to the surface centroid from where the wind begins to intersect the roof. In
EnergyPlus this is currently simplified to half the square root of the roof surface.
Area
• Ln = P erimeter
of overall roof
convection rates)
gρ2 Ln 3 ∆T
• GrLn = Tf µ2
is the Grashof number
Vz ρx
• Rex = µ
is the Reynolds number at x
This model only claims to be applicable to horizontal roof surfaces so it may not be applicable
to tilted roofs. It combines natural and forced convection and therefore should not be used in
conjunction with yet another natural convection model.
104 CHAPTER 3. SURFACE HEAT BALANCE MANAGER / PROCESSES
3.5.5.5.8 Emmel
Emmel et al. (2007) developed a set of correlations for outdoor surfaces using numerical meth-
ods. The following equations are for vertical surfaces (key: EmmelVertical):
hf 0.81
= 5.15V10m : θ ≤ 22.5
hf 0.84
= 3.34V10m : 22.5 < θ ≤ 67.5
hf 0.71
= 4.78V10m : 67.5 < θ ≤ 112.5 (3.90)
hf 0.77
= 4.05V10m : 112.5 < θ ≤ 157.5
hf 0.76
= 3.54V10m : 157.5 < θ ≤ 180.0
Where V10m is the air velocity at the location of the weather station and θ is the angle of
incidence between the wind and the surface in degrees. The following equations are used for
horizontal (roof) surfaces (key: EmmelRoof):
0.78
hf = 5.11V10m : θ ≤ 22.5
0.79
hf = 4.60V10m : 22.5 < θ ≤ 67.5 (3.91)
hf = 3.67V10m : 67.5 < θ ≤ 90
0.85
Where θ is the angle of incidence between the wind and the longest edge of the roof surface in
degrees.
This model is for all wind directions but lacks a natural convection component. The model
was developed for simple, rectangular low-rise buildings. It is available only within the adaptive
convection algorithm for the outside face
3.5.5.5.10 McAdams
A venerable equation for wind-driven convection was developed by McAdams (1954) which
Palyvos (2008) casts in SI units as:
3.5.5.5.11 Mitchell
A useful geometric scale based on building volume is used in an equation developed by Mitchell
(1976). The wind-driven convection equation is cast by Palyvos as:
8.6 Vz0.6
hf = (3.94)
L0.4
Where Vz is the wind velocity in m/s that has been adjusted for height above ground using the
z axis coordinate of the surface’s centroid and L is the cube root of the building’s total volume.
EnergyPlus interprets this as the sum of the volume of all the zones in the input file.
′′ ′′ ′′ ′′ ′′
qαsol + qLW R + qconv + qadd − qko = 0 (3.95)
′′
where: qadd = Pre-calculated results of the heat flux to the outside face from other heat transfer
processes.
3.5.8 References
ASHRAE. 1981. 1981 ASHRAE Handbook – Fundamentals, Atlanta: American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
ASHRAE. 1989. 1989 ASHRAE Handbook – Fundamentals, Atlanta: American Society of
Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
ASHRAE. 1993. 1993 ASHRAE Handbook – Fundamentals, Chapter 3, Heat Transfer, I-P &
S-I Editions, Atlanta: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers,
Inc.
ASHRAE. 2001. 2001 ASHRAE Handbook – Fundamentals, Atlanta: American Society of
Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
ASHRAE. 2005. 2005 ASHRAE Handbook – Fundamentals, Chapter 16, Air Flow Around
Buildings, Atlanta: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers,
Inc.
Booten, C., N. Kruis, and C. Christensen. 2012. Identifying and Resolving Issues in Ener-
gyPlus and DOE-2 Window Heat Transfer Calculations. National Renewable Energy Laboratory.
NREL/TP-5500-55787. Golden, CO.
106 CHAPTER 3. SURFACE HEAT BALANCE MANAGER / PROCESSES
Cole, R. J., and N. S. Sturrock. 1977. The Convective Heat Exchange at the External Surface
of Buildings. Building and Environment, Vol. 12, p. 207.
Ellis, P.G., and P.A. Torcellini. 2005. “Simulating Tall Buildings Using EnergyPlus”, Proceed-
ings of the Ninth International IBPSA Conference, Building Simulation 2005, Montreal, Canada,
August 15-18, 2005.
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory (LBL). 1994. DOE2.1E-053 source code.
Sparrow, E. M., J. W. Ramsey, and E. A. Mass. 1979. Effect of Finite Width on Heat Transfer
and Fluid Flow about an Inclined Rectangular Plate. Journal of Heat Transfer, Vol. 101, p. 204.
U.S. Standard Atmosphere. 1976. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
Walton, G. N. 1981. Passive Solar Extension of the Building Loads Analysis and System Ther-
modynamics (BLAST) Program, Technical Report, United States Army Construction Engineering
Research Laboratory, Champaign, IL.
Walton, G. N. 1983. Thermal Analysis Research Program Reference Manual. NBSSIR 83-2655.
National Bureau of Standards.
Yazdanian, M. and J. H. Klems. 1994. Measurement of the Exterior Convective Film Coefficient
for Windows in Low-Rise Buildings. ASHRAE Transactions, Vol. 100, Part 1, p. 1087.
′′ ′′ ′′ ′′ ′′ ′′
qLW X + qSW + qLW S + qki + qsol + qconv = 0 (3.96)
where:
′′
qLW X = Net longwave radiant exchange flux between surfaces in a zone or group of zones
(enclosure).
′′
qSW = Net short wave radiation flux to surface from lights.
′′
qLW S = Longwave radiation flux from equipment in a zone or group of zones (enclosure).
′′
qki = Conduction flux through the wall.
′′
qsol = Transmitted solar radiation flux absorbed at surface.
′′
qconv = Convective heat flux to zone air.
Each of these heat balance components is introduced briefly below.
The limiting case of completely absorbing air has been used for load calculations and also in
some energy analysis calculations. This model is attractive because it can be formulated simply
using a combined radiation and convection heat transfer coefficient from each surface to the zone
air. However, it oversimplifies the zone surface exchange problem, and as a result, the heat
balance formulation in EnergyPlus treats air as completely transparent. This means that it does
not participate in the LW radiation exchange among the surfaces in the zone. The model, which
considers room air to be completely transparent, is reasonable physically because of the low water
vapor concentrations and the short mean path lengths. It also permits separating the radiant and
convective parts of the heat transfer at the surface, which is an important attribute of the heat
balance method.
EnergyPlus uses a grey interchange model for the longwave radiation among zone surfaces. En-
ergyPlus offers two algorithms for modeling long wave radiation: The “ScriptF” method, and the
“CarrollMRT” methods. Users can select between these two algorithms using the “Performance-
PrecisionTradeoffs” object.
3.6.1.1.1 ScriptF
The “ScriptF” algorithm was developed by Hottel (Hottel and Sarofim, Radiative Transfer,
Chapter 3, McGraw Hill, 1967). This procedure relies on a matrix of exchange coefficients between
108 CHAPTER 3. SURFACE HEAT BALANCE MANAGER / PROCESSES
pairs of surfaces that include all exchange paths between the surfaces. In other words all reflections,
absorptions and re-emissions from other surfaces in the enclosure are included in the exchange
coefficient, which is called ScriptF. The major assumptions are that all surface radiation properties
are grey and all radiation is diffuse. Both assumptions are reasonable for building zone interchange.
The ScriptF coefficients are developed by starting with the traditional direct radiation view
factors. In the case of building rooms and zones, there are several complicating factors in finding
the direct view factors—the main one being that the location of surfaces such as thermal mass
representing furniture and partitions are not known. The other limitation is that the exact calcu-
lation of direct view factors is computationally very intensive even if the positions of all surfaces
are known. Accordingly, EnergyPlus uses a procedure to approximate the direct view factors. The
procedure has two steps:
1) Determine the total area of other surfaces “seen” by a surface.
2) Approximate the direct view factor from surface 1 to surface 2 as the ratio of the area of
surface 2 to the total area “seen” by surface 1.
The determination of the “seen” area has several constraints:
• No surface facing within 10 degrees of another surface is seen by the other surface.
• All surfaces see roofs, floors and ceilings (subject to the preceding facing direction constraint).
Because the approximate view factors may not satisfy the basic requirements of reciprocity (two
surfaces should exchange equal amounts of heat in each direction), and completeness (every surface
should have a direct view factor sum of 1.0), EnergyPlus does a view factor fix operation before
they are used in the ScriptF determination. Normally both of the requirements are satisfied, but
in some special situations they are not, and special rules are applied.
• If a user includes less than four surfaces in a zone, the enforcement of ”completeness” is not
strictly possible because it is not possible to have a completed enclosure with less than four
surfaces. In this situation, reciprocity is enforced initially and then view factors from each
surface are summed. When dealing with this few surfaces, the result of using approximate
view factors is that once reciprocity is enforced that the largest surface in the zone will end up
having view factors that sum up to greater than unity. This is not physically possible. So, to
correct this and maintain completeness for one surface, the entire view factor matrix is divided
by the largest summation of view factors for any surface in the zone. By dividing the entire
view factor matrix by the same value, the reciprocity established by the standard algorithm is
maintained and completeness for one surface is established. All of the other surfaces will not
have view factors that sum up to unity and thus will not satisfy completeness. However, these
other surfaces will not have view factors that sum up to greater than unity thus avoiding a
physically impossible situation.
• When there are four or more surfaces in a zone but the area of one surface in a zone is greater
than roughly (0.9) the sum of the areas of all other surfaces, reciprocity only is enforced.
Sometimes, for these very large surfaces, that enforcement of completeness without resorting
to the very large surface seeing itself becomes impossible. In these rare cases, the large surface
3.6. INSIDE HEAT BALANCE 109
is allowed to see itself. Once this adjustment has been made, the calculation of the Script
F values can proceed as normal via iteration until both completeness and reciprocity are
satisfied. Note that this adjustment might happen for very ”flat” zones where one or two
surfaces are have a much larger area than the other surfaces like a Trombe Walls, a large
single-story interior areas that are modeled as a single zone, or a space where a very large
internal mass element has been added. Thermal mass surfaces also participate in internal
long-wave radiation exchange and thus must have view factors calculated.
Warning messages are produced for both of these cases, and the results should be examined
very carefully to ascertain that they are reasonable. The suggested action for the second case (the
extra-large surface) is to divide the large surface into several smaller surfaces; then the enclosure
will be treated as normal.
Once the ScriptF coefficients are determined, the longwave radiant exchange is calculated for
each surface using:
qi,j = Ai Fi,j Ti4 − Tj4 (3.97)
where F i,j is the ScriptF between surfaces i and j.
3.6.1.1.2 CarrollMRT
The Carroll method is an approximation of gray-body long-wave radiation exchange within an
enclosure that simplifies the surface-to-surface radiation exchange by using a single, mean radiant
temperature node, T r, that acts as a clearinghouse for the radiation heat exchange between sur-
faces. Instead of solving a dense-matrix, linear algebra problem, the mean radiant temperature
can be calculated using a single equation, and subsequently used to determine the net long-wave
radiation to/from each surface. Unlike the O(n2 ) complexity of the current dense-matrix solution,
this approach has linear complexity.
The mean radiant temperature is calculated using three steps:
1. Calculation of the mean radiant temperature “view factor”, F i. These view factors represent
each surface’s “view” to the mean radiant temperature node as though all surfaces were part
of a spherical enclosure (i.e., they all have equal view of the node regardless of their orientation
to each other). F i is calculated as:
1
Fi = (3.98)
1− ∑A
n
i Fi
1 Aj Fj
Because of the circular reference in this equation, the collection of all “view factors” must be
solved iteratively, but only once per simulation as surface areas do not change throughout.
This converges for realistic enclosures but won’t necessarily converge for “enclosures” having
only two or three surfaces, particularly if there are large area disparities.
2. Calculating the gray-body radiation resistance, F ′ i. This calculation must be computed every
time surface emissivity changes. F ′ i is calculated as:
σεi
Fi′ = (3.99)
εi
Fi
+ 1 − εi
110 CHAPTER 3. SURFACE HEAT BALANCE MANAGER / PROCESSES
Pn
Ai F ′ Ti
Tr = P1 n i ′ (3.100)
1 Ai Fi
Once the mean radiant temperature is known, the net radiation heat transfer for each surface
can be calculated as:
Carroll, J. A., 1980, “An ‘MRT Method’ of Computing Radiant Energy Exchange in Rooms,”
Proceedings of the Second Systems Simulation and Economic Analysis Conference, San Diego, CA.
Carroll, J. A., 1980a, “An MRT method of computing radiant energy exchange in rooms,”
Proceedings of the 2nd Systems Simulation and Economic Analysis Conference, San Diego, CA.
Carroll, J. A., 1981, “A Comparison of Radiant Interchange Algorithms,” Proceedings of the
3rd Annual Systems Simulation and Economics Analysis/Solar Heating and Cooling Operational
Results Conference, Reno. Solar Engineering, Proceedings of the ASME Solar division.
Furniture in a zone has the effect of increasing the amount of surface area that can participate
in the radiation and convection heat exchanges. It also adds participating thermal mass to the
zone. These two changes both affect the response to temperature changes in the zone and also
affect the heat extraction characteristics.
The proper modeling of furniture is an area that needs further research, but the heat balance
formulation allows the effect to be modeled in a realistic manner by including the furniture surface
area and thermal mass in the heat exchange process.
The traditional model for this source is to define a radiative/convective split for the heat introduced
into a zone from equipment. The radiative part is then distributed over the surfaces within the
zone in some prescribed manner. This, of course, is not a completely realistic model, and it departs
from the heat balance principles. However, it is virtually impossible to treat this source in any more
detail since the alternative would require knowledge of the placement and surface temperatures of
all equipment.
The short wavelength radiation from lights is distributed over the surfaces in the zone in some
prescribed manner.
3.6. INSIDE HEAT BALANCE 111
Transmitted solar radiation is also distributed over the surfaces in the zone in a prescribed man-
ner. It would be possible to calculate the actual position of beam solar radiation, but that would
involve partial surface irradiation, which is inconsistent with the rest of the zone model that assumes
uniform conditions over an entire surface. The current procedures incorporate a set of prescribed
distributions. Since the heat balance approach can deal with any distribution function, it is possible
to change the distribution function if it seems appropriate.
The convection flux is calculated using the heat transfer coefficients as follows:
′′
qconv = hc (Ts − Ta ) (3.102)
The inside convection coefficients (hc ) can be calculated using one of many different mod-
els. Currently the implementation uses coefficients based on correlations for natural, mixed, and
forced convection.
• To avoid requiring additional user input on the position of ZoneHVAC-type equipment within
a zone, there is no distinction between zones that have convective zone heater equipment
located underneath the windows and those that have convective heaters located away from the
windows. This applies to the air flow regime associated with convective zone heaters. Using
Beausoleil-Morrison’s terminology, regimes B1 and B2 are combined into just one B regime.
• To avoid requiring additional user input on the position of ZoneHVAC-type equipment within
a zone, there is no distinction between surfaces that are directly blown on the fan and those
that are away from the fan for the air flow regime associated with mechanical circulation from
a zone fan (ZoneHVAC type equipment).
• The correlation for horizontal free jet developed by Fisher (1995) is not used. Ceiling diffuser
models are used for all mechanical circulation from central air system. This decision was
made for two reasons: (1) to avoid requiring additional user input on the position of, and
momentum generated by, air terminal units, and (2) because Fisher (1995) found that the
Coanda effect is so significant that in practice a free horizontal jet is difficult to maintain
and mechanical-driven room airflows generally attach to surfaces and tend to match the flow
regime of a ceiling diffuser much more often than a free jet.
• EnergyPlus supports arbitrary geometry so surfaces can be tilted with respect to vertical or
horizontal. Beausoleil-Morrison’s adaptive convection algorithm was originally structured
to use hc equations that have no functional dependence on surface tilt angle. However,
tilted surfaces do perform differently than vertical or horizontal surface when buoyancy forces
are significant. Therefore, the EnergyPlus implementation expands the structure of the
algorithm to include additional categories for tilted surfaces. The hc equations developed by
Walton (1983) are selected as the defaults for tilted surfaces because they have a functional
dependence on tilt angle.
• Fohanno and Polidari (2006) produced a new hc equation for vertical walls inside buildings
with a simple buoyancy flow regime. They used a theoretical approach based on integral
formalism and uniform heat flux (rather than uniform temperature) that covers both laminar
and turbulent flow situations. In EnergyPlus, this model is selected as the default in place
of the model by Alamdari and Hammond (1983) for vertical walls.
3.6. INSIDE HEAT BALANCE 113
• Karadag (2009) produced a new hc equation for ceiling surfaces that are actively chilled. He
used computation fluid dynamics and various sized rooms and temperature conditions. In
EnergyPlus, this model is selected as the default for surfaces that have active, in-ceiling cooling
(in place of the model by Alamdari and Hammond (1983) for unstable ceilings).
• Goldstein and Novosalec (2010) produced new hc equations for forced air situations with ceiling
slot diffusers along perimeters with significant glazing fractions. They used experiments with
full-sized test room. These new equations are selected as the default for windows, ceilings
and floors when there is an active central air system.
• Interior mass surfaces are assigned the hc equation that would apply (stable or unstable) to a
horizontal, upward facing surface for each flow regime.
• The algorithm switches between forced, mixed, and natural flow regimes by calculating the
Richardson number, Ri = Gr/Re^2, for the zone. Large values of Ri indicate buoyancy
dominates, while small values indicate forced flows dominate. To distinguish between opposing
Zone unit type equipment (with fans) are assumed to force air up walls, and central air type
equipment (with diffusers) are assumed to force air down walls.
The adaptive convection algorithm implemented in EnergyPlus for the inside face has a total of
45 different categories for surfaces and 29 different options for hc equation selections. The following
table summarizes the categories and the default assignments for hc equations. The individual hc
equations are documented below.
Table 3.12: Inside Convection Categories and Assignments
# Zone Air Flow Regime IB- Surface orientation and heat Keywords for Applicable Model Equation Sources
M’s flow direction
#
# Zone Air Flow Regime IB- Surface orientation and heat Keywords for Applicable Model Equation Sources
M’s flow direction
#
29 Walls GoldsteinNovoselacCeilingDiffuserWalls*
FisherPedersenCeilingDiffuserWalls
30 Ceiling FisherPedersenCeilingDiffuserCeiling*
31 Mechanical Central Air C Floor GoldsteinNovoselacCeilingDiffuserFloor*
Diffuser
FisherPedersenCeilingDiffuserFloor
32 Windows GoldsteinNovoselacCeilingDiffuserWindow*
ISO15099Windows
33 Walls KhalifaEq3WallAwayFromHeat *
34 Stable Horizontal AlamdariHammondStableHorizontal*
WaltonStableHorizontalOrTilt
35 Mechanical Zone Fan D Unstable Horizontal KhalifaEq4CeilingAwayFromHeat*
Circulation
WaltonUnstableHorizontalOrTilt
3.6. INSIDE HEAT BALANCE 115
# Zone Air Flow Regime IB- Surface orientation and heat Keywords for Applicable Model Equation Sources
M’s flow direction
#
• Surfaces listed as receiving heat from Zone HVAC equipment with radiative models are con-
sidered “near” the heater.
• Zones are examined for low temperature radiant systems. The surfaces that contain the
active elements are examined and the zone characterized to know if it has in-floor heating,
in-ceiling cooling, or in-wall heating.
• A hydraulic diameter is calculated for horizontal surfaces for the entire zone.
and calculating various parameters needed by hc equations. Selecting flow regime is done in
the following manner. For each surface, we examine the zone on the inside face for the following:
During initial zone and system sizing calculations, HVAC system characteristics are not known
yet, so the flow regime is selected assuming an uncontrolled zone. During simulations, including
HVAC sizing simulations, the HVAC system characteristics are used.
The surfaces are evaluated to determine:
• Tilt angle
The individual hc model equations and their respective references are listed in next by the
keyword used to identify them.
1/
|∆T | 5
h = 0.6 (3.109)
Dh2
where,
Dh = 4AP
, hydraulic diameter of horizontal surface, A is area (m2 ) and P is the perimeter (m)
of the entire zone.
6 1/
6
1
4
/ 6
|∆T | 1/
h = 1.4 + 1.63|∆T | 3 (3.110)
Dh
118 CHAPTER 3. SURFACE HEAT BALANCE MANAGER / PROCESSES
6 1/
6
1
/4 6
|∆T | 1/
h = 1.5 + 1.23|∆T | 3 (3.111)
H
where,
H is the characteristic height for the surface. In EnergyPlus this is the zone’s ceiling height
(which could be larger than the height of an individual surface when wall are subdivided into more
than one surface).
2.175|∆T |0.308
h= (3.117)
Dh0.076
where,
Dh = 4AP
, hydraulic diameter of horizontal surface, A is area (m2 ) and P is the perimeter (m)
of the entire zone (all of the adjacent floor surfaces if more than one in the zone).
1.823|∆T |0.293
h= (3.118)
Dh0.076
where,
Dh = 4AP
, hydraulic diameter of wall surface, A is area (m2 ) and P is the perimeter (m) of the
entire wall (all of the adjacent wall surfaces if more than one along the wall).
1/2 1/3
" #6
|∆T |
1/4
1/6 Tsurf −TSAT 3
h= 1.5 + 1.23|∆T |2 + −0.199+0.190·ACH 0.8
H |∆T |
(3.119)
where,
TSAT is the supply air temperature at the diffuser.
Here the reference temperature is the zone air temperature rather than the diffuser supply air
temperature.
120 CHAPTER 3. SURFACE HEAT BALANCE MANAGER / PROCESSES
3 1/
1 3
|∆T |
/5
− 3
Tsurf T SAT
h = 0.6 · + · 0.159 + 0.116ACH 0.8 (3.121)
DH |∆T |
1/3
6 3/6
1/4 6
|∆T | 1/ T −T 3
h= + 1.63|∆T | 3
surf SAT
1.4 Dh + · 0.159+0.116ACH 0.8
|∆T |
(3.122)
is for ceilings where the flow driving forces include both mechanical forces and thermally Stable
buoyancy.
3 1/
1 3
|∆T |
/5
− 3
Tsurf T SAT
h = 0.6 · + · −0.166 + 0.484ACH 0.8 (3.123)
DH |∆T |
3/6 1/3
" 1/4#6 h 3
|∆T | i Tsurf −TSAT
6
h= 1.4 + 1.63|∆T |1/3 + · −0.166+0.484·ACH 0.8
Dh |∆T |
(3.124)
where,
∗ gβf q ′′ c H 4
RaH = Pr (3.126)
kf νf2 f
λ
hi = N u (3.128)
H
where,
λ is the thermal conductivity of air, and
H is the height of the window.
The Rayleigh number based on height, RaH , is calculated using:
ρ2 H 3 g cp |Tsurf,i − Tair |
RaH = (3.129)
Tm,f µλ
where,
ρ is the density of air
g is the acceleration due to gravity,
cp is the specific heat of air,
µ is the dynamic viscosity of air, and
Tm,f is the mean film temperature in Kelvin given by,
1
Tm,f = Tair +(Tsurf,i − Tair ) (3.130)
4
There are four cases for the Nusselt correlation that vary by the tilt angle in degrees, γ , and
are based on heating conditions. For cooling conditions (where Tsurf,i > Tair ) the tilt angle is
complemented so that γ = 180 − γ
Case A. 0o ≤ γ < 15o
1/
N u = 0.13RaH 3 (3.131)
Case B. 15o ≤ γ ≤ 90o
1/
e0.72γ 5
Racv = 2.5 × 105 (3.132)
sin λ
1
N u = 0.56(RaH sin γ) /4 ; f or RaH ≤ RaCV (3.133)
!
1/ 1/ 1
N u = 0.13 RaH 3 − RaCV3 + 0.56(RaCV sin γ) /4 ; RaH > RaCV (3.134)
Where,
WWR is the window to wall ratio.
L is the length of exterior wall with glazing in the zone.
V̇ is the air system flow rate in m3 /s.
h = 3.076 (3.143)
For a horizontal surface with reduced convection:
h = 0.948 (3.144)
For a horizontal surface with enhanced convection:
h = 4.040 (3.145)
For a tilted surface with reduced convection:
h = 2.281 (3.146)
For a tilted surface with enhanced convection:
h = 3.870 (3.147)
where
k = conductivity of air
L = air gap thickness
Convection coefficient applied to each wall separately and actually used in the zone heat balance
is:
hc = 2hnet (3.155)
and surface orientation. The correlations are in the form of a Nusselt number, Nu, as a function of
a Rayleigh number, Ra, Grashof number, Gr, or a Reynolds number, Re.
N u = hL/k (3.156)
Ra = gβρCp ∆T L3 /νk (3.157)
Gr = Ra/P r (3.158)
P r = ν/α (3.159)
Re = V L/ν (3.160)
h = convection heat transfer coefficient
L = characteristic length of surface
k = thermal conductivity of air
g = acceleration of gravity
β = volume coefficient of expansion of air
ρ = density of air
Cp = specific heat of air
∆T = temperature difference between surface and air
ν = kinematic viscosity of air
Pr = Prandtl number for air
α = thermal diffusivity of air
V = velocity of air stream
The correlations used in the model are as below. (reference: Table 1 of ASTM C1340 standard)
1. Natural Convection:
(a) Horizontal surface, heat flow up
N un = 0.54 Ra1/4 f or Ra < 8 ∗ 106
N un = 0.15 Ra1/3 f or Ra > 8 ∗ 106
(b) Horizontal surface, heat flow down
N un = 0.58 Ra0.2
(c) Vertical surface
N un = 0.59 Ra1/4 f or Ra < 1 ∗ 109
N un = 0.10 Ra1/3 f or Ra > 1 ∗ 109
(d) Nearly horizontal surface (tilt angle less than 2o ), heat flow down
N un = 0.58 Ra0.2
(e) Tilted surfaces (greater than 2o tilt), heat flow down
N un = 0.56 (Ra sin(Φ))1/4 Φ = tilt angle
(f) Tilted surfaces, heat flow up
N un = 0.56 (Ra sin(Φ))1/4 f or Ra/P r < Grc
N un = 0.14 (Ra1/3 − (Grc P r)1/3 )
+ 0.56 (Grc P r sin(Φ))1/4 f or Ra/P r > Grc
Grc = 1 ∗ 106 f or Φ < 15o
Grc = 10(Φ/(1.1870 + 0.0870∗Φ)) f or 15o < Φ < 75o
Grc = 5 ∗ 109 f or Φ > 75o
130 CHAPTER 3. SURFACE HEAT BALANCE MANAGER / PROCESSES
2. Forced Convection:
N uf = 0.664 P r1/3 Re1/2 f or Re < 5 ∗ 105
N uf = P r1/3 (0.037 Re0.8 − 850) f or Re > 5 ∗ 105
Separate coefficients are calculated for natural and forced flow, and a mixed coefficient is calcu-
lated by taking the third root of the sum of the cubes of the two separate coefficients.
hn = N un ∗ k/L (3.161)
hf = N uf ∗ k/L (3.162)
1/3
hc = (h3n + h3f ) (3.163)
More information regarding the implemented equations in the code is provided in detail in
Appendix A, section 7.7 and 7.8 of the reference: Fontanini, A. D., Aguilar, J. L. C., Mitchell,
M. S., Kosny, J., Merket, N., DeGraw, J. W., and Lee, E. (2018). Predicting the performance of
radiant technologies in attics: Reducing the discrepancies between attic specific and whole-building
energy models. Energy and Buildings, 169, 69-83.
′′ ′′ ′′ ′′ ′′ ′′ ′′
qLW X + qSW + qLW S + qki + qsol + qconv + qadd = 0 (3.164)
′′
where: qadd = Pre-calculated results of the heat flux to the inside face from other heat transfer
processes.
3.6.5.1 References
Alamdari, F. and G.P. Hammond. 1983. Improved data correlations for buoyancy-driven convection
in rooms. Building Services Engineering Research & Technology. Vol. 4, No. 3.
ASHRAE. 1985. 1985 ASHRAE Handbook – Fundamentals, Atlanta: American Society of
Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
ASHRAE. 2001. 2001 ASHRAE Handbook – Fundamentals, Atlanta: American Society of
Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
ASTM International. 2015. ASTM C1340 Standard Practice for Estimation of Heat Gain or
Loss Through Ceilings Under Attics Containing Radiant Barriers by Use of a Computer Program
Awbi, H.B. and A. Hatton. 1999. Natural convection from heated room surfaces. Energy and
Buildings 30 (1999) 233-244.
Beausoleil-Morrison, I. 2000. The adaptive coupling of heat and air flow modeling within dy-
namic whole-building simulations. PhD. Thesis. University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK.
Ellis, Peter G. 2003. Development and Validation of the Unvented Trombe Wall Model in
EnergyPlus. Master’s Thesis, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
3.7. ADIABATIC BOUNDARY CONDITIONS 131
Fisher, D.E. and C.O. Pedersen. 1997. “Convective Heat Transfer in Building Energy and
Thermal Load Calculations”, ASHRAE Transactions, Vol. 103, Pt. 2.
Fohanno, S., and G. Polidori. 2006. Modelling of natural convective heat transfer at an internal
surface. Energy and Buildings 38 (2006) 548 - 553
Fontanini, A. D., Aguilar, J. L. C., Mitchell, M. S., Kosny, J., Merket, N., DeGraw, J. W.,
and Lee, E. (2018). Predicting the performance of radiant technologies in attics: Reducing the
discrepancies between attic specific and whole-building energy models. Energy and Buildings, 169,
69-83.
Goldstein, K. and A. Novoselac. 2010. Convective Heat Transfer in Rooms With Ceiling Slot
Diffusers (RP-1416). HVAC&R Research Journal TBD
Karadag, R. 2009. New approach relevant to total heat transfer coefficient including the effect
of radiation and convection at the ceiling in a cooled ceiling room. Applied Thermal Engineering
29 (2009) 1561-1565
Khalifa AJN. 1989. Heat transfer processes in buildings. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Wales
College of Cardiff, Cardiff, UK.
ISO. 2003. ISO 15099:2003. Thermal performance of windows, doors, and shading devices –
Detailed calculations. International Organization for Standardization.
Walton, G. N. 1983. Thermal Analysis Research Program Reference Manual. NBSSIR 83-2655.
National Bureau of Standards (now NIST). This is documentation for “TARP.”
that have different air temperatures still exchange IR radiation with the other surfaces in the zone,
even those in regions having a different air temperature.
Historically, several approaches have been taken to model such situations. They all involve
unrealistically modifying the convective heat transfer characteristics within a single zone to produce
reasonable total heat transfer for the zone while maintaining the zone IR radiation in its basic form.
The IRT model takes a different, more fundamental approach. The space is divided into subzones,
each having the basic well-stirred air model, but surfaces in these subzones are able to exchange IR
radiation with other surfaces throughout the original space. Any convective air exchange between
subzones is handled using the existing flexible capabilities within EnergyPlus. In other words, the
subzones are standard EnergyPlus zones but they have been given the capability of allowing IR
radiation to be exchanged with surfaces in adjacent zones.
The IR radiation exchange is accomplished by introducing special IR Transparent (IRT) surfaces
to link adjacent zones. These surfaces transmit the IR radiation incident on them to the surfaces in
adjacent zone. The special surfaces have no thermal resistance, and they also have zero convective
heat transfer coefficients on both sides. Consider a stratified atrium as an example. The atrium
would be divided into stacked vertical zones, with each zone having the special IRT surface between
it and the next lower zone. All physical surfaces in the two zones exchange radiation with the IRT
surface, but it does not impede the transfer of radiation from one zone to the other. On each side
it interacts as a black body surface and any radiation incident on it is absorbed. Since it has no
other heat transfer mechanisms, it comes to equilibrium with zero net radiation transfer.
Schematic diagrams of the application of the IRT surfaces are shown in Figure 3.15 and Fig-
ure 3.16. The first figure shows it applied between two stacked zones that could be part of an
atrium. All radiation incident on the IRT in the lower and upper zone is completely absorbed
by the surface. It is prevented from participating in the zone air heat balance by fixing the heat
transfer coefficients on either side at zero.
The same arrangement can be used for simulating a underfloor air distribution system (UFAD).
The two zones represent the lower occupied (mixed) zone and the upper stratified zone. Since the
upper zone is being modeled as a mixed EnergyPlus zone, it is not precisely the stratified zone
concept. However, if a user has concern about having the entire upper part of the space at a
single average temperature, the space could be modeled with two stacked upper zones. In that case
the stratified temperature profile would be established by the relative size of the mixing from the
convective plumes. The user would have to supply those estimates from external knowledge of the
behavior of UFAD systems and plumes.
σ
q1−3 = A T14 − T34 (3.167)
2
where:
q is the heat flux in W/m2
σ is the Stephan Boltzman constant
A is the plate area in m2 , and
T is the temperature in K.
Equation 3.167 shows that the presence of a black body surface between a source and a sink
reduces the heat flux by a factor of two.
The Infrared Transparent (IRT) surface is similar to a resistance-only surface. The idd object for
this type of surface is shown below. The fields indicate that the surface will actually participate
in the transfer of visible and solar radiation by doing a wavelength transformation and making all
short wavelength radiation that is incident on the surface into long wavelength radiation and having
it participate in the long wavelength radiant exchange. The Material:InfraredTransparent object
requires only a name. All other parameters are set internally.
The Infrared Transparent surface should not participate in a convective/conductive ex-
change between the zones it separates. In order to minimize this effect, the SurfaceProp-
erty:ConvectionCoefficients object must be used. Outside and Inside values for the surface’s
convection coefficients should be on the order of .1. Further examples are given in the Input
Output Reference document.
3.8. INFRARED RADIATION TRANSFER MATERIAL 137
The single zone model will be compared with a stacked three zone model that has zones separated
by interzone infrared transparent surfaces. This model is shown below.
The two upper zones have south facing windows whose total area is the same as the area of the
single window in the single zone model. The top and the sides are again exposed to sun and wind.
The separating surfaces are modeled as IRT surfaces. All zones in both models are controlled at
the same setpoint temperature using purchased air.
The sensible heating results are shown below. The results show the sum of the sensible cooling
load for the three stacked zones and the single zone. It is clear that the IRT surfaces are very
138 CHAPTER 3. SURFACE HEAT BALANCE MANAGER / PROCESSES
effective in transmitting infrared radiation between the zones. Some small differences, such as those
shown, will occur because of the conversion from short wavelength solar to infrared through the
special IRT dividing surfaces.
addition, transparent insulation materials also have increase thermal resistance due to conduction
in comparison to standard glass.
Transparent Insulation is now used in the housing industry as a passive solar feature. It is
attached to the walls of houses for insulation and solar energy gains are transmitted to the house
during the right ambient conditions. The walls of the house act as a thermal mass, absorbing the
sunlight at the surface and converting it into heat which is slowly transmitted to the inside of the
house.
Figure 3.21: Energy Flows of Opaquely and Transparently Insulated Walls (Wood and Jesch 1993).
While both types of insulation reduce energy losses from the building via conduction through the
building surfaces, transparent insulation allows solar radiation to penetrate deeper into the surface
construction. This increases the construction internal temperature and can result in heat being
conducted into the building under the proper weather conditions. This can be seen in the lower
half of the above figure during a sunny day. The temperature plot shows a maximum between
the transparent insulation and the rest of the surface construction. As a result, the temperature
gradient results in heat transfer from this point into the interior space, causing a heating effect on
the zone. Thus, the advantage of transparent insulation is that, like opaque insulation, it reduces
winter heat transfer losses during low or no solar conditions and has the possibility of providing
3.9. TRANSPARENT INSULATION MATERIAL (TIM) 141
heating during sunny winter days. It should be noted that this same effect in summer could be
detrimental to the cooling loads of a building since the introduction of solar radiation closer to the
space will increase the solar heating within the zone. Most systems counteract this with a shading
device or with sophisticated transparent insulation systems.
Figure 3.22: Geometrical Categories of Classification for Transparent Insulation Material (Wood
and Jesch 1993).
142 CHAPTER 3. SURFACE HEAT BALANCE MANAGER / PROCESSES
Figure 3.23: Cross Section of TIM and wall, showing energy flow
Mathematical model to calculate amount of energy absorbed at the surface of moveable insula-
tion (TIM) and at the Outside surface of the Wall.
Ss
IncidentSolar = (Ib · cos θ · + Is · Fss + Ig · Fsg ) (3.169)
S
Where,
α = solar absorptance of the surface
θ = angle of incidence of the sun’s rays
S = area of the surface
Ss = sunlit area of the surface
Ib = intensity of the beam (direct) radiation
3.9. TRANSPARENT INSULATION MATERIAL (TIM) 143
F irst pass solar absorbed by wall = (τT IM · Incident Solar) · (αwall ) (3.171)
The amount of solar absorbed by the TIM and aggregated at the inside surface of the TIM
(outside wall surface) is:
Amount of back ref lection absorbed by T IM = (τT IM · Incident Solar) · (1 − αwall ) · αT IM (3.172)
The heat absorbed at the interface between the wall and the TIM includes both of these com-
ponents. Thus, QSO is equal to:
EXTWALL80 Con- Conductivity Thickness Sensible Heat- Energy Saved Sensible Heat- Energy Saved
struction ing Energy Winter Clear- ing Energy Winter Clear-
ness = 0 ness = 1
[W/m-K] [m] [J] [J] [J] [J]
3.9.6 References
P.O. Braun, A. Goetzberger, J. Schmid, and W.Stahl. Transparent Insulation of Building Facades-
Steps from Research to Commercial applications, Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems,
Oltmannsstrasse 22, D-7800 Freiburg, Germany.
Thermotropic materials and Systems for Overheating Protection.
Robert Hausner. Arbeitsgemeinschaft Erneuerbare energie, Transparent Insulation- Areas of
Application, Society for Renewable Energy.
Werner J.Platzer. Transparent Insulation materials: a review, Fraunhofer Institute for Solar
146 CHAPTER 3. SURFACE HEAT BALANCE MANAGER / PROCESSES
[KOPt +Y0 · TIt −X0 · TOt ] + [HA · (Ta −TOt ) +HS · (Ts −TOt ) +HG · (Tg −TOt )] +QSO = 0
(3.182)
This can be solved for the outside surface temperature:
KOPt + QSO + Y0 · TIt +HA · Ta +HS · Ts +HG · Tg
TOt = (3.183)
X0 +HA + HS + HG
The third and fourth representations occur when the outside surface has been covered with
movable insulation. The insulation has a conductance of UM. The thermal network in Figure 3.26
represents this case.The insulation must be mass-less because it is not generally possible to perform
a correct thermal balance at the juncture of two surfaces each modeled by CTF.
The equation for the thermal balance between the surface and the insulation is:
recomputing TOt does not significantly change the computed zone loads and temperatures. The
inside surface heat balance is given by:
KIPt + QSI + HC · T Z + HR · T R + Y0 · T O
TIt = (3.188)
Z0 + HC + HR
The surface heat balances can be combined in eight ways according to conditions for calculations
of the outside surface temperature:
Y0
F1 = (3.189)
Z0 + HI + HR
UM
F2 = (3.190)
U M + HO
UM
F3 = (3.191)
U M + HA + HS + HG
KOPt + QSO + HA · Ta + HS · Ts + HG · Tg + F1 · (KIPt +QSI + HI · TZ + HR · TR)
TOt =
X0 +HA + HS + HG−F1 · Y0
(3.195)
152 CHAPTER 3. SURFACE HEAT BALANCE MANAGER / PROCESSES
KOPt + QSO + F2 · (QSM + HO · Ta ) + F1 · (KIPt +QSI + HI · TZ + HR · TR)
TOt = (3.197)
X0 + UM−F2 · UM−F1 · Y0
KOPt + QSO + Y0 · TIt−1 +F3 (QSM + HA · Ta +HS · Ts +HG · Tg )
TOt = (3.198)
X0 +UM−F3 · UM
KOPt+QSO+F1·(KIPt+QSI+HI·TZ+HR·TR)+F3(QSM+HA·Ta+HS·Ts+HG·Tg)
TOt=
X0+UM−F3·UM−F1·Y0
(3.199)
3.10.6 References
Walton, G.N. 1983. “The Thermal Analysis Research Program Reference Manual Program
(TARP)”, National Bureau of Standards (now National Institute of Standards and Technology).
3.11.1 Approach
Within EnergyPlus, Kiva is used to perform two-dimensional finite difference heat transfer calcu-
lations. Each foundation is represented by a single floor and wall in Kiva, meaning that individual
walls in EnergyPlus are mapped to a single representative wall in the two-dimensional context using
an area weighted average for any non-uniform boundary conditions among the walls.
Kiva uses the boundary conditions from EnergyPlus:
• weather data,
• solar position, and
• zone temperatures (from previous timestep),
• zone radiation (solar, IR, etc.)
to calculate the resulting convective heat gains and surface temperatures for the floor and wall
surfaces associated with a single Foundation:Kiva object. Because Kiva performs multi-dimensional
finite difference calculations, the associated surfaces do not use the same HeatBalanceAlgorithm
(e.g., Conduction Transfer Functions) as the rest of the model.
exposed perimeter for each instance will be defined within the context of the overall geometry of
the Foundation surfaces.
The general method is to define the width of the floor (the distance from the symmetry plane
to the wall interior),w in the two-dimensional context as:
A/Pexp (3.200)
where A is the area of the foundation footprint, and Pexp is the exposed perimeter of the
foundation (See SurfaceProperty:ExposedFoundationPerimeter).
Kiva also has the capability to adjust this width to account for concave foundation footprint
shapes (Note: this also relies on detailed input of the exposed foundation perimeter for each segment
of the footprint polygon). This adjustment is based on the boundary layer adjustment method
described by Kruis and Krarti (2017). The approach adjusts the exposed perimeter to account for
interactions in heat flow within concave corners and narrow gaps between two exposed edges.
This approach allows for accurate representation of building foundation heat transfer without
performing three-dimensional calculations. Because the two-dimensional context is symmetric, the
domain can be divided in half to further reduce the number of calculations.
• Long and short wave radiation is passed from EnergyPlus radiant exchange and interior
solar distribution algorithms. Note: Kiva uses area weighted averages to define the radiation
incident on walls in the two-dimensional context.
Exterior Surfaces:
Figure 3.30: Walkout basement surfaces (in gray) all reference the same Foundation:Kiva object
3.11. GROUND HEAT TRANSFER CALCULATIONS USING FOUNDATION:KIVA 161
Figure 3.31: Walkout basement Kiva instances (one for each wall height)
A separate Kiva instance will be run for any walls with different heights associated with the
same Foundation:Kiva object. Figure 3.30 shows how the grouping of walls by height based on the
basement in Figure 3.31, including the portion that is only a slab.
The resulting five two-dimensional contexts will look like Figures 3.32 - 3.36.
Each Kiva instance with a different wall height will calculate different heat fluxes, convective
coefficients and surface temperatures for both the wall and the floor. The heat flux through the
associated floor will be weighted according to the fraction of the total exposed perimeter, Pexp,tot ,
represented by each segment of different height. The total heat flux through the walkout basement
floor is:
X Pexp,i
Nsegs
The weighted average convective coefficient for the walkout basement floor surface is:
X
Nwall,segs
Pexp,i
h̄ = · hi (3.202)
i
Pexp,tot
162 CHAPTER 3. SURFACE HEAT BALANCE MANAGER / PROCESSES
3.11.7 Warm-Up
The traditional “warm-up” period in EnergyPlus (of repeating a single day) presents several chal-
lenges for foundation heat transfer calculations:
• As the ground can have time constants on the order of years, a single day is simply not long
enough to adequately capture the thermal history of the ground.
3.11. GROUND HEAT TRANSFER CALCULATIONS USING FOUNDATION:KIVA 165
• Any repetition of a single day would erase any pre-calculated thermal history and likely take
much longer to converge.
Instead, Kiva instances are initialized independently from the rest of the simulation using the
accelerated initialization method developed by Kruis (2015). This method looks back in the weather
file and simulates long timestep (on the order of weeks or months) calculations using an implicit
numerical scheme. These long timesteps allow Kiva to capture a long term history of the ground
without running the entire building model.
The initialization of the ground relies on assumptions of indoor air temperatures (as they are
not yet calculated by EnergyPlus). When a thermostat is assigned to a zone with Kiva foundation
surfaces, the assumed temperature is equal to the setpoint (or a weighted average of heating and
cooling setpoints depending on outdoor temperature). For zones without thermostats, a constant
22 o C indoor temperature is assumed.
3.11.8 Validation
Kiva has been tested against the BESTEST Ground coupled cases with accuracy within 3% of the
reference solutions (Kruis and Krarti, 2015).
3.11.9 References
[1] N. Kruis and M. Krarti, “KivaTM : A Numerical Framework for Improving Foundation Heat
Transfer Calculations,” Journal of Building Performance Simulation, vol. 8, no. 6, pp. 449-468,
166 CHAPTER 3. SURFACE HEAT BALANCE MANAGER / PROCESSES
2015.
[2] N. Kruis, “Development and Application of a Numerical Framework for Improving Building
Foundation Heat Transfer Calculations,” Ph.D. Dissertation. University of Colorado, 2015.
[3] N. Kruis and M. Krarti, “Three-dimensional accuracy with two-dimensional computation
speed: using the KivaTM numerical framework to improve foundation heat transfer calculations,”
Journal of Building Performance Simulation, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 161?182, 2017.
[4] T. Williams and A. Williamson, “Estimating Water-Table Altitudes for Regional Ground-
Water Flow Modeling, U.S. Gulf Coast,” Ground Water, vol. 27, no. 3, pp. 333-340, 1989.
• Construction:CfactorUndergroundWall
• Construction:FfactorGroundFloor
• Site:GroundTemperature:FCfactorMethod
For slabs-on-grade as shown in the figure above, the exposed perimeter is (2A + C) for the Dining
area, and (2B + C) for the Kitchen area. For underground floors with no exposed perimeter, the
Ref f can be assumed a big value such as 1000 hr·ft2 ·°F/Btu (177 m2 ·K/W).
Underground Walls Defined with C-Factors
The steady state heat transfer through the underground wall is calculated as,
Where,
Q is the heat transfer through the wall in Watt
Area is the area of the wall in m2
Uef f is the effective heat transfer coefficient including the wall construction, the soil, and the
thermal resistance of the interior and exterior air films.
Ref f is the effective thermal resistance in m2 ·K/W, including the soil and the wall construction
Rf ilm,in and Rf ilm,out are the air film resistance of the inside and outside surfaces, respectively.
C-factor is the time rate of steady-state heat flow through unit area of the construction, induced
by a unit temperature difference between the body surfaces. The C-Factor unit is W/m2 ·K. The
C-factor does not include soil or air films.
Rsoil is the effective R-value of the soil. Reference values from Table C6.10.1 of the SI version
of the ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2010 are as follows:
A fairly good linear regression (R2 = 0.9967) for the above data is,
Approximate the thermal mass of the wall construction with a 6-inch (0.15 m) heavy concrete,
and use a fictitious insulation layer with no thermal mass to match the thermal resistance of the
construction. Then we have the thermal resistance of the insulation layer,
Where,
Rf ic is the thermal resistance of the fictitious insulation layer
Rcon is the thermal resistance of the concrete layer in m2 ·K/W.
Properties of the concrete layer are:
Thickness = 0.15 m
Conductivity = 1.95 W/m·K
Density = 2240 kg/m3
Specific heat = 900 J/kg·K
Rcon = 0.15/1.95 = 0.077 m2 ·K/W
3.13.0.1 Approach
This model is generalized to be able to handle a number of different slab and insulation config-
urations. It uses an implicit finite difference formulation to solve for the ground temperatures.
As a result the simulation is stable for all timesteps and grid sizes, but an iteration loop must be
employed to converge the temperatures in the domain for each domain timestep.
Multiple horizontal surfaces can be coupled to each ground domain object. The model deter-
mines which surfaces are coupled to the ground domain and creates a surface of equivalent surface
area within the ground domain as a representation of the horizontal surfaces coupled to the ground
domain. This surface then interacts with the ground providing updated other side conditions model
temperatures to the coupled surfaces for use in their surface heat balance calculations.
Tzone − Tout,i
qout,i = qout,1-D (3.215)
Tzone − Tout,avg
Far-field temperatures are applied as boundary temperature at the GroundDomain sides and
lower surface. The ground temperature profile at the domain sides and lower surface are taken from
Kusuda & Achenbach 1965. The correlation requires annual ground surface temperature data.
Ground surface cells are treated as a heat balance, where long and short wave radiation, conduc-
tion, and convection are considered. Evapotranspiration is also considered. The evapotranspiration
rate is calculated as a moisture loss by using the Allen et al. (2005) model, and translated into a
heat loss by multiplication with the density and latent heat of evaporation of water. The evapotran-
spiration rate is dependent on the type of vegetation at the surface; the user can vary the surface
vegetation from anywhere between a concrete surface and a fairly tall grass (about 7”).
Once the ground model has run, the updated cells with zone surface boundary conditions will
update the OtherSideConditionsModel temperatures which are the used at the next timestep in the
surface heat balance calculations.
the ground domain, whereas for the on-grade situations the slab and horizontal insulation must
be included in the floor construction object. All possible insulation/slab configurations are seen in
Table 3.16.
3.13.0.4 References
Allen, R.G., Walter, I.A., Elliott, R.L., Howell, T.A., Itenfisu, D., Jensen, M.E., Snyder, R.L. 2005.
The ASCE Standardized Reference Evapotranspiration Equation. Reston, VA: American Society
of Civil Engineers.
Kusuda, T. & Achenbach, P. 1965. Earth Temperature and Thermal Diffusivity at Selected
Stations in the United States, ASHRAE Transactions 71(1): 61–75.
Pinel, P & Beausoleil-Morrison, I. 2012. Coupling soil heat and mass transfer models to founda-
tion models in whole-building simulation packages. In Proceedings of eSim 2012, Halifax, Canada.
3.14.0.1 Approach
This model is generalized to be able to handle several basement surface and insulation configurations.
An implicit finite difference formulation is used to solve for the ground temperatures. As a result
the simulation is stable for all timesteps and grid sizes, but an iteration loop must be employed to
converge the temperatures in the domain for each domain timestep.
Multiple basement zones can be coupled to each basement domain object. The model determines
which floor surfaces are coupled to the basement domain and creates a floor surface of equivalent
surface area within the basement domain as a representation of the horizontal surfaces coupled to
the domain. The user defined aspect ratio, which is the ratio of basement width to length, along
with the total surface area of all surfaces connected to this basement floor will define the size and
shape of the basement ground domain.
Vertical basement depth below the ground surface of the domain is user specified. For situations
when the ground surface is lower than the first above ground level a separate surface should be
employed to bridge the space between the ground domain, and the first above-ground level.
Basement wall and floor surfaces are created normally using the BuildingSurface:Detailed ob-
jects, with the outside boundary condition being the OtherSideConditionsModel used for the walls
and floor of the basement domain. The interface between the basement walls and floors occurs
at the outside surface of the walls and floor. Outside underground insulation is simulated by the
ground domain, and therefore should not be included in the basement wall and floor construction
objects.
At the zone interface surfaces, the average surface conduction heat flux from all surfaces con-
nected to the ground domain is imposed as a boundary condition at the Surface/Domain interface
cells. Far-field temperatures are applied as boundary temperature at the domain sides and lower
surface. The ground temperature profile at the domain sides and lower surface are taken from
Kusuda & Achenbach 1965. The correlation requires annual ground surface temperature data.
Ground surface temperature data can be determined by using the CalcSoilSurfTemp preprocessor;
or, if the user has average monthly ground surface temperature data available, they can use the
Site:GroundTemperature:Shallow object to provide the model monthly ground surface tempera-
tures. From that, the model can then determine the ground temperature model parameters for the
Kusuda & Achenbach (1965) ground temperature model.
Ground surface cells are treated as a heat balance, where long and short wave radiation, conduc-
tion, and convection are considered. Evapotranspiration is also considered. The evapotranspiration
rate is calculated as a moisture loss by using the Allen et al. (2005) model, and translated into a
heat loss by multiplication with the density and latent heat of evaporation of water. The evapotran-
spiration rate is dependent on the type of vegetation at the surface; the user can vary the surface
vegetation from anywhere between a concrete surface and a fairly tall grass (about 7”). The model
can be sensitive to variations in this parameter, especially in hot dry climates.
Once the basement model has run, the updated cells with zone surface boundary conditions will
update the OtherSideConditionsModel temperatures which are then used at the next timestep in
the surface heat balance calculations.
3.15. UNDISTURBED GROUND TEMPERATURE MODEL: FINITE DIFFERENCE 173
The ground domain is updated at each zone timestep, or hourly as specified by the user. For situa-
tions when the ground domain is updated at each timestep, the domain is simulated by applying the
surface heat flux boundary conditions from the previous timestep and calculating a new Otherside-
ConditionsModel temperature. At this point, the surface heat balance algorithms can then take the
new outside surface temperatures to update their surface heat fluxes. For situations when the user
has elected to have the domain update on an hourly basis, the surface heat flux for each coupled
surface is aggregated and passed to the domain as an average surface heat flux from the previous
hour, which will then update the outside surface temperatures for the surface heat balance’s next
iteration.
The basement floor and walls are simulated by standard surface heat balance models within
EnergyPlus (CTF, finite difference). The horizontal and vertical insulation are simulated by the
ground domain finite difference solver. This is shown in Figure 3.41 below where the dotted red
line defines the OtherSideConditionsModel interface separating the two solution domains. This
methodology applies to the basement floor and walls.
References
Kusuda, T. & Achenbach, P. 1965. ‘Earth Temperature and Thermal Diffusivity at Selected
Stations in the United States’, ASHRAE Transactions 71(1): 61–75.
Allen, R.G., Walter, I.A., Elliott, R.L., Howell, T.A., Itenfisu, D., Jensen, M.E., Snyder, R.L.
2005. The ASCE standardized reference evapotranspiration equation. Reston, VA: American Soci-
ety of Civil Engineers.
This model uses a 1D implicit finite difference heat transfer model to determine the steady-periodic
annual ground temperature. The model, which uses a daily timestep, is run through an annual
simulation using the user provided weather file to determine daily averages for global horizontal
radiation, air temperature, relative humidity, and wind speed. Once the steady-periodic ground
temperature has been determined, the temperatures are cached for use later in the simulation. The
basis for the model was taken from Xing, 2014, however, the numerical methods were adapted from
those described in Lee, 2013; the latter uses an implicit numerically stable finite difference method,
whereas the former utilized an explicit, conditionally stable method.
Surface heat balance boundary conditions are similar what is described in Herb et al., 2008.
Evapotranspiration is considered as described by Allen et al., 1998. Soil freezing given the assumed
stagnant soil moisture content is also considered.
3.15.0.2 Limitations
The model does not consider the effects of vegitative canopy layers, snow cover, ground water flow,
ground moisture transport, or surface runoff.
174 CHAPTER 3. SURFACE HEAT BALANCE MANAGER / PROCESSES
3.15.0.3 References
Allen, R.G., L.S. Pereira, D. Raes, M. Smith. 1998. Crop Evapotranspiration - Guidelines for
Computing Crop Water Requirements. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
Herb, W.R., B. Janke, O. Mohseni, & H.G. Stefan. 2008. ‘Ground Surface Temperature Simu-
lation for Different Land Covers.’ Journal of Hydrology, 356: pp 327-343.
Lee, E.S. 2013. An Improved Hydronic Loop System Solution Algorithm with a Zone-Coupled
Horizontal Ground Heat Exchanger Model for Whole Building Energy Simulation. Ph.D. Diss.
Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK.
Xing, L. 2014. Estimations of Undisturbed Ground Temperatures using Numerical and Analyt-
ical Modeling. Ph.D. Diss. Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK.
3.16.0.2 References
Kusuda, T. and P.R. Achenbach. 1965. ‘Earth Temperatures and Thermal Diffusivity at Selected
Stations in the United States.’ ASHRAE Transactions. 71(1): 61-74.
which used local weather data for boundary conditions. From the numerical model, the correlation
parameters were determined to provide for this simplified design model.
√ nπ r
X
2
−z· 2πn nπ
T (z, t) = T̄s − ∆T̄s,n · e ατ · cos (t − θn ) − z (3.217)
n=1
τ ατ
T (z, t) is the undisturbed ground temperature as a function of time and depth
T̄s is the average annual soil surface temperature, in deg C
∆T̄s,n is the n-th amplitude of the soil temperature change throughout the year, in deg C
θn is the n-th phase shift, or day of minimum surface temperature
α is the themal diffusivity of the ground
τ is time constant, 365.
3.17.0.2 References
Xing, L. 2014. Estimations of Undisturbed Ground Temperatures using Numerical and Analytical
Modeling. Ph.D. Diss. Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK.
Chapter 4
′′ ′′ ′′ ′′ ′′ ′′
qαsol + qLW R,Env + qconv,Env + qLW R,cav + qconv,cav + qsource = 0 (4.1)
where:
′′
qαsol is absorbed direct and diffuse solar (short wavelength) radiation heat flux.
′′
qLW R,Env is net long wavelength (thermal) radiation flux exchange with the air and surroundings.
177
178 CHAPTER 4. ADVANCED SURFACE CONCEPTS
′′
qconv,Env = surface convection flux exchange with outside air.
′′
qLW R,cav is net long wavelength (thermal) radiation flux exchange with the outside face of the
underlying surface(s).
′′
qconv,cav = surface convection flux exchange with cavity air.
′′
qsource is a source/sink term that accounts for energy exported out of the control volume when
the baffle is a hybrid device such as a photovoltaic panel.
All terms are positive for net flux to the baffle. Each of these heat balance components is
introduced briefly below.
(Is α + hco Tamb + hr,atm Tamb + hr,sky Tsky + hr,gnd Tamb + hr,cav Tso + hc,cav Ta,cav + q ′′ source )
Ts,baf f =
(hco + hr,air + hr,sky + hr,gnd + hr,cav + hc,cav )
(4.2)
where,
Is is the incident solar radiation of all types [W/m2 ],
180 CHAPTER 4. ADVANCED SURFACE CONCEPTS
Q̇vent is the net rate of energy added from natural ventilation – where outdoor ambient air
exchanges with the cavity air.
Q̇co is the net rate of energy added by surface convection heat transfer with the underlying
surface.
Q̇c,baf f is the net rate of energy added by surface convection heat transfer with the collector.
And substituting into Equation 4.3 yields the following equation:
ṁvent = ρ _
– tot
V (4.5)
where,
ρ is the density of air [kg/m3 ], and
–V̇tot = –V̇wind + –V̇thermal is the total volumetric flow rate of air ventilating in and out of the cavity.
–V̇wind = Cv Ain U∞p
_
– thermal = CD Ain p2g∆HN P L (Ta,cav − Tamb ) /Ta,cav (if Ta,cav > Tamb )
V
_
– thermal = CD Ain 2g∆HN P L (Tamb − Ta,cav ) /Tamb (if Tamb > Ta,cav and baffle is vertical)
V
Cv is the effectiveness of the openings that depends on opening geometry and the orientation
with respect to the wind. ASHRAE HoF (2001) indicates values ranging from 0.25 to 0.6. This
value is available for user input.
CD is the discharge coefficient for the opening and depends on opening geometry. This value
is available for user input.
Mass continuity arguments lead to modeling the area of the openings as one half of the total
area of the openings, so we have:
A
Ain = (4.6)
2
g is the gravitational constant taken as 9.81 [m/s2 ].
∆HN P L is the height from midpoint of lower opening to the Neutral Pressure Level. This is
value is available for user input.
If the cavity is horizontal and Tamb > Ta,cav then –_
Vthermal = 0 because this is a stable situation.
values for hr,cav , Ts,baf f , hc,cav , and Ta,cav for use with the heat balance model calculations for the
outside face of the underlying surface (described elsewhere in this manual).
The exterior vented cavity can be defined such that it has multiple underlying heat transfer
surfaces. The centroid heights for each surface are area-weighted to determine the average height
for use in the local wind calculation.
Tair − Tsurf
hc = (4.8)
q ′′ conv
First, hco is the convection coefficient for the baffle surface facing the outdoors. It is modeled
in exactly the same way as elsewhere in EnergyPlus and will depend on the user setting for Outside
Convection Algorithm – Outside Surface Heat Balance entry elsewhere in this document.
Second, hc,cav is the convection coefficient for baffle surfaces facing the cavity. This coefficient is
applied to both the baffle and the underlying surface. The convection coefficient is modeled in the
same way used in EnergyPlus to model air gaps in windows. These correlations vary by Rayleigh
number and surface tilt and are based on the work of various research including Hollands et. al.,
Elsherbiny et. al., Wright, and Arnold. The formulations are documented in ISO (2003) standard
15099. The routines were adapted from Subroutine NusseltNumber in WindowManager.f90 (by F.
Winkelmann), which itself was derived from Window5 subroutine “nusselt”.
where,
all temperatures are converted to Kelvin,
σSB is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant,
ebaf f is the longwave thermal emittance of the baffle, and
eso is the longwave thermal emittance of the underlying heat transfer surface.
The three other coefficients, hr,atm , hr,sky , and hr,gnd are used elsewhere in EnergyPlus for the
outside face surface heat balance and are calculated in the same manner as Equation 4.9. [This
is accomplished by calling subroutine InitExteriorConvectionCoeffs in the file HeatBalanceConvec-
tionCoeffs.f90. ]
4.1.8 References
ASHRAE HOF 2001. 2001 ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook. American Society of Heating
Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineers. Altanta GA.
ISO. 2003. ISO 15099:2003. Thermal performance of windows, doors, and shading devices –
Detailed calculations. International Organization for Standardization.
184 CHAPTER 4. ADVANCED SURFACE CONCEPTS
• long wave and short wave radiative exchange within the plant canopy,
The ability to track moisture-dependent thermal properties is not implemented yet due to sta-
bility issues in the Conduction Transfer Function (CTF) scheme. Finite difference solution scheme
currently is not supported in EnergyPlus Green Roof (EcoRoof) Model.
As implemented in EnergyPlus the green roof module allows the user to specify “ecoroof” as
the outer layer of a rooftop construction using a “Material:RoofVegetation” object. The user can
then specify various aspects of the green roof construction including growing media depth, thermal
properties, plant canopy density, plant height, stomatal conductance (ability to transpire moisture),
and soil moisture conditions (including irrigation).
The model formulation includes the following:
• simplified moisture balance that allows precipitation, irrigation, and moisture transport be-
tween two soil layers (top and root zone).
• soil and plant canopy energy balance based on the Army Corps of Engineers’ FASST vegetation
models (Frankenstein and Koenig), drawing heavily from BATS (Dickenson et al.) and SiB
(Sellers et al.).
• soil surface (Tg ) and foliage (Tf ) temperature equations are solved simultaneously each time
step, inverting the CTF to extract heat flux information for the energy balance calculation.
The detailed energy balance analysis and resulting equations, being rather complicated, are
summarized here. The interested reader is referred to the FASST documentation cited herein for
the complete development. The end result is a set of two simultaneous equations for temperature—
one for the soil surface and the other for the foliage.
4.2. GREEN ROOF MODEL (ECOROOF) 185
The energy budget analysis follows the Fast All Season Soil Strength (FASST) model developed
by Frankenstein and Koenig for the US Army Corps of Engineers. FASST was developed, in part, to
determine the ability of soils to support manned and unmanned vehicles and personnel movement.
In order to accomplish this, however, FASST tracks the energy and moisture balance (including ice
and snow) within a vegetated soil. It is a one-dimensional model that draws heavily from other plant
canopy models including BATS (Dickinson et al.) and SiB (Sellers et al.). We have implemented
FASST here with only a few modifications to adapt it for use with a relatively thin soil layer. The
sign convention used assumes all heat fluxes are positive when energy is absorbed into the layer.
In the following discussion this energy budget is divided into a budget for the foliage layer (Ff )
and a budget for the ground surface (Fg ). The various parameterizations for latent and sensible
heat flux are described in some detail and then the equation set is reduced to the simultaneous
solution of two equations involving the temperatures of the foliage and ground surface.
186 CHAPTER 4. ADVANCED SURFACE CONCEPTS
foliage roughness length scale (m). The formulations for zero displacement height, roughness length
are based on Balick et al.:
Zd = 0.701Zf0.979 (4.17)
Zo = 0.131Zf0.997 (4.18)
Finally, the bulk transfer coefficient as defined by Deardorff is given by:
0.3(m/s)
Cf = 0.01 ∗ 1 + (4.19)
Waf (m/s)
The combined effect of aerodynamic and stomatal resistances to vapor diffusion is integrated
into a foliage surface wetness factor:
ra
r′′ = (4.23)
ra + rs
This surface wetness factor is simply a ratio of the aerodynamic resistance to the total resis-
tance. When the aerodynamic resistance is small the wetness factor approaches zero (leaf surfaces
remain dry as surface moisture is readily evaporated). As the aerodynamic resistance increases
in importance relative to stomatal resistance the wetness factor approaches 1.0 (moisture readily
travels to the leaf surfaces, but is not easily evaporated).
The latent heat flux is then given by:
Here lf , is the latent heat of vaporization (J/kg), qf,sat is the saturation mixing ratio at the
leaf surface temperature, and qaf is the mixing ratio of the air within the canopy. As developed in
Frankenstein and Koenig the mixing ratio within the canopy can be determined from:
(1 − σf ) qa + σf (0.3qa + 0.6qf,sat r′′ + 0.1qf,sat Mg )
qaf = (4.25)
1 − σf [0.6 (1 − r′′ ) + 0.1 (1 − Mg )]
where the factor Mg (ranging from 0 to 1) is the ratio of volumetric moisture content to the
porosity of the soil (Koenig). The latent heat of vaporization (lf ) is the amount of energy required to
convert a unit mass of water to vapor. It is measured in units of J/kg and is inversely proportional
to the temperature. From Henderson-Sellers it is estimated as:
2
Tf
lf = 1.91846 ∗ 10 6
(4.26)
Tf − 33.91
The energy budget at the soil surface is mainly influenced by the soil thermal properties, the amount
of foliage coverage (sf ) and the amount of moisture in the soil. If the soil surface is densely covered
the diurnal range of surface temperature is small. In the soil energy budget the heat released or
gained due to phase changes of soil water, precipitation heat flux and heat flux due to vertical
transport of water in the soil are ignored. Future refinements to this model will incorporate these
phenomena. The sign convention followed here is the same as above (heat flux into the soil is
positive). The overall energy balance at the soil surface (as given in Frankenstein and Koenig) is:
h i σ ε ε σ ∂Tg
Fg = (1 − σf ) Is↓ (1 − αg ) + εg Iir↓ − εg Tg4 −
f g f
Tg4 − Tf4 + Hg + Lg + K ∗ (4.27)
ε1 ∂z
As with the energy equation for the foliage this equation represents sensible heat flux (Hg ),
latent heat flux (Lg ) and the multiple reflections associated with long and short wave radiation.
The final term on the right side gives the conduction of heat into the soil substrate.
4.2. GREEN ROOF MODEL (ECOROOF) 189
whereZog and Zof are the ground and foliage roughness lengths, rch is turbulent Schmidt number
(0.63), and Kv is the von Karman constant (0.4).
The condition of the atmosphere (Gh ) is determined as stable or unstable based on the sign of
the bulk Richardson number:
2gZa (Taf − Tg )
Rib = 2
(4.33)
(Taf + Tg ) Waf
The atmospheric stability factor is then given by Businger and Lumley and Panofsky as:
(
1.0
(1.0−16.0Rib )0.5
for Rib < 0
Γh = 1.0
(4.34)
(1.0−5.0Rib )
for Rib > 0
Here Ceg is the bulk transfer coefficient, lg is the latent heat of vaporization at the ground surface
temperature, qaf is the mixing ratio at the foliage-atmosphere interface, and qf is the mixing ratio
at the ground surface, given by:
4.2.3 Linearization
In order to solve the foliage and soil heat budget equations, the 4th order terms Tf 4 and Tg 4 and
mixing ratio terms qg,sat and qf,sat are linearized as given by Deardorff:
h i4 4 3
(n+1)
Tf = Tfn + 4 Tfn Tfn+1 − Tfn (4.38)
(n+1) 4 n 4 3
Tg = Tg + 4 Tgn Tgn+1 − Tgn (4.39)
Here Tf n+1 and Tg n+1 are the current time step leaf and ground surface temperatures in Kelvin.
Tf n and Tg n are the corresponding temperatures at the previous time step.
The saturation mixing ratio at the ground and leaf surface temperatures are given as:
∂qsat
n+1
qg,sat Tg n
= qsat Tg + ∗ Tgn+1 − Tgn (4.40)
∂T Tgn
∂qsat
n+1
qf,sat Tf n
= qsat Tf + ∗ Tfn+1 − Tfn (4.41)
∂T T n
f
n
where qsat (Tg ) is the saturation mixing ratio at the previous time step and is formulated as
given in Garratt:
0.622e∗ Tgn
n
qsat Tg = (4.42)
P − e∗ Tgn
Here the saturation vapor pressure e* (Pa) is evaluated at the ground temperature from the
previous time step (Tg n ) as:
n
∗
Tg − 273.15
e = 611.2 exp 17.67 (4.43)
Tgn − 29.65
The derivative of saturation mixing ratio at the previous time step is given by:
∗
dq ∗ 0.622 ∗ P de
= (4.44)
dTgn (P − 0.378 ∗ e∗ )2
dTgn
4.2. GREEN ROOF MODEL (ECOROOF) 191
Here, the derivative of the saturation vapor pressure can be calculated from the Clausius-
Clapeyron equation:
de∗ lg ∗ e∗ Tgn
= 2 (4.45)
dTgn R ∗ Tnv g
Where Rv is the gas constant for water vapor and lg is the latent heat of vaporization at the soil
surface temperature.
The corresponding saturation mixing ratio relations for the leaf surfaces can be obtained by
replacing Tg with Tf in the above relations.
↓
Iiγ = total incoming longwave radiation (W/m2 )
Kv = von Karmen constant (0.4)
lf = latent heat of vaporization at foliage temperature (J/kg)
lg = latent heat of vaporization at ground temperature (J/kg)
Lf = foliage latent heat flux (W/m2 )
Lg = ground latent heat flux (W/m2 )
LAI = leaf area index (m2 /m2 )
Mg = moisture saturation factor
qa = mixing ratio for air
qaf = mixing ratio for air within foliage canopy
qf,sat = saturation mixing ratio at foliage temperature
qg,sat = saturation mixing ratio at ground temperature
ra = aerodynamic resistance to transpiration (s/m)
rs = foliage leaf stomatal resistance (s/m)
rs,min = minimal leaf stomatal resistance (s/m)
r” = surface wetness factor
Rib = bulk Richardson number
Rv = gas constant for water vapor (461.53 J/kgK)
Ta = the air temperature at the instrument height (Kelvin)
Taf = air temperature with in the canopy (Kelvin)
Tf = leaf temperature (Kelvin)
Tg = ground surface temperature (Kelvin)
W = wind speed above canopy (m/s)
Waf = wind speed with in the canopy (m/s)
z = height or depth (m)
Za = instrument height (m)
Zd = displacement height (m)
Zo f = foliage roughness length scale (m)
4.2.6 References
ASHRAE. 2005. 2005 ASHRAE Handbook – Fundamentals. Chapter 16, Air flow Around Build-
ings, Atlanta: American Society of Heating Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
Balick, L. R., R. K. Scoggins, and L. E. Link. 1981. Inclusion of a simple vegetation layer
in terrain temperature models for thermal IR signature prediction. IEEE Geoscience and Remote
Sensing GE-19(3), pp.143-152.
Businger, J. A. 1966. In ‘Arctic Heat Budget and Atmospheric Circulation’, Symposium Pro-
ceedings, pp. 305-332. The Rand Corporation.
Deardorff, J.W. 1978. “Efficient Prediction of ground surface temperature and moisture with
inclusion of a layer of vegetation”, Journal Geophysical Research, pp. 1889-1902.
Dickinson, R.E., A. Henderson-Sellers, P.J. Kennedy, and M.F. Wilson. 1986. Biosphere-
Atmosphere Transfer Scheme (BATS) for the NCAR community climate model. NCAR Technical
Note, TN-275+STR.
ECMWF. 2002. European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts, Integrated Forecast
System. Documentation, CY25R1 (Operational implementation 9 April 2002). .
Frankenstein, S., and G. Koenig. 2004.FASST Vegetation Models. U. S. Army Engineer Re-
search and Development Center, Cold regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, ERDC/CR-
REL Technical Report TR-04-25.
Frankenstein, S., and G. Koenig. 2004.Fast All-season Soil Strength (FASST). U.S. Army Engi-
neer Research and Development Center, Cold regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, ERD-
C/CRREL Special Report SR-04-1.
Garratt, J.R. 1992. The Atmospheric Boundary Layer, Cambridge university press.
Gates, D.M. 1980. Biophysical Ecology. New York: Springer-Verlag
Guymon, G.L., R.L. Berg, and T.V. Hromadka. 1993. Mathematical Model of Frost Heave and
Thaw Settlement in Pavements. U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory,
CRREL Report 93-2.
Henderson-Sellers, B. 1984. “A New Formula for Latent Heat of Vaporization of water as
function of temperature”, Quarterly Journal Royal Meteorological Society, 10 pp. 1186-1190.
Hughes, P.A., T.J.L. McComb, A.B. Rimmer, and K.E. Turver. 1993. “A mathematical model
for the prediction of temperature of man-made and natural surfaces”, International Journal of
Remote Sensing 14 (7), pp. 1383-1412.
194 CHAPTER 4. ADVANCED SURFACE CONCEPTS
Koenig, G.G. 1994. Smart Weapons Operability Enhancement (SWOE) Joint Test and Evalua-
tion (JT and E) Program: Final Report. Dr. James P. Welch, Joint Test Director, SWOE JT and
E, SWOE Report 94-10, Annex D.
Lumley, J. L. and Panofsky, H. A. 1964. ‘The structure of Atmospheric Turbulence’. Interscience
Monographs and Texts in Physics and Astronomy, Vol. XII. Wiley, New York.
Oke, T.R. 1987. Boundary Layer Climates, University Press, Cambridge
Sellers, P.J., Y. Mintz, Y.C. Sud, and A. Dalcher. 1986. A simple biosphere model (SiB) for
use within general circulation models. Journal of Atmospheric Science, 43 (6), pp. 505-532.
195
196 CHAPTER 5. CLIMATE, SKY AND SOLAR/SHADING CALCULATIONS
ratio. The designer, engineer, or other user must decide which set(s) of conditions and probability
of occurrence apply to the design situation under consideration.”
The multipliers are taken from the ASHRAE 2009 HOF, Table # 6, p. 14.11.. More explicitly,
EnergyPlus creates an air temperature for each timestep by using the entered maximum dry-bulb
temperature in conjunction with the entered daily range and the above multiplier values. The
actual equation used is shown below:
where
Tcurrent = Air temperature of current Hour of Day
TM ax = User supplied Max Dry-bulb Temperature
Trange = User supplied Daily Temperature Range
TM ultiplier = Range multiplier as shown on the above graph
The range multiplier values represent typical conditions of diurnal temperatures (i.e. the low
temperature for the day occurring about 5:00 AM and the maximum temperature for the day
occurring about 3:00 PM. Note that EnergyPlus does not shift the profile based on the time of
solar noon as is optionally allowed by ASHRAE procedures.
ASHRAE research indicates that dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures typically follow the same
profile, so EnergyPlus can use the default daily temperature profile to generate humidity conditions
based on maximum and range of wet-bulb temperature.
Since this default temperature profile may not be applicable to all locations, the user can give
a different profile as part of the design day definition.
5.1. CLIMATE CALCULATIONS 197
4
IRH = σTsky (5.2)
where:
Over the years authors have proposed a fictitious quantity called the Sky Emissivity (ϵsky ) such
that the following energy balance is satisfied:
Four correlations for ϵsky under clear-sky conditions, proposed by four sets of authors, are
available in EnergyPlus. The default correlation is from Clark & Allen (1978):
Author ϵsky,clear
Martin & Berdahl = 0.758 + 0.521 (Tdp /100) + 0.625 (Tdp /100)2
where:
Tdp = dewpoint temperature, in K for Clark & Allen, in ◦C for Martin & Berdahl
198 CHAPTER 5. CLIMATE, SKY AND SOLAR/SHADING CALCULATIONS
The clear sky emissivity is modified for partially-cloudy conditions using the correlation from
Walton (1983) which uses the opaque cloud cover fraction:
ϵsky = ϵsky,clear 1 + 0.0224N − 0.0035N 2 + 0.00028N 3 (5.4)
where:
Example:
References for these calculations are contained in the references section at the end of this list of
fields. (Walton, 1983) (Clark & Allen, 1978), (Li et al, 2017).
IRH = rate of infrared radiation emitted from the sky falling on a horizontal upward-facing
surface, in W/m2 .
The Sky Temperature can also be set by the user from several options using the Weather-
Property:SkyTemperature object.
where
A = apparent solar irradiation at air mass m = 0 (Table 5.1)
B = atmospheric extinction coefficient Table 5.1)
Values of A and B vary during the year because of seasonal changes in the dust and water vapor
content of the atmosphere and because of the changing earth-sun distance. Equation 5.6 does not
give the maximum value of direct normal irradiation that can occur in each month but yields values
that are representative of conditions on cloudless days for a relatively dry and clear atmosphere. For
very clear atmospheres, direct normal irradiation can be 15% higher than indicated by Equation 5.6,
using values of A and B in Table 5.1 below.
For locations where clear, dry skies predominate (e.g., at high elevations) or, conversely, where
hazy and humid conditions are frequent, values found by using Equation 5.6 and Table 5.1 should
be multiplied by the clearness numbers in Threlkeld and Jordan (1958), reproduced as Figure 5 in
Chapter 33 of the 2007 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Applications.
The Clear Sky model usually over estimates the amount of solar radiation available to the
building.
Ed = Eo · exp −τd · mad (5.9)
where:
Eb = beam normal irradiance, W/m2
Ed = diffuse horizontal irradiance,
Eo = extraterrestrial normal irradiance,
m = relative air mass
τ b and τ d = beam and diffuse optical depths (from ASHRAE climatic design data)
ab and ad = beam and diffuse air mass exponents (see below)
Values of τ b and τ d are location-specific and vary during the year. They embody the dependence
of clear sky solar radiation upon local conditions, such as elevation, precipitable water content, and
aerosols.
The air mass exponents ab and ad were correlated to τ b and τ d through the following empirical
relationships. If solar model indicator selected is ASHRAETau, then the τ b and τ d values and the
empirical equations coefficients should be based on the 2009 ASHRAE HOF as shown below:
The empirical equations coefficients of the 2017 ASHRAE HOF are also valid for the 2013
ASHRAE HOF hence the τ b and τ d values from the 2013 ASHRAE HOF can be used with ASHRAE-
Tau2017 solar model indicator if needed.
Studies done as part of ASHRAE research projects show that the revised tau model produces
more physically plausible irradiance values than does the traditional clear sky model. In particular,
diffuse irradiance values are more realistic.
5.1.8 References
Walton, G. N. 1983. Thermal Analysis Research Program Reference Manual. NBSSIR 83-2655.
National Bureau of Standards, p. 21.
Clark, G. and C. Allen, “The Estimation of Atmospheric Radiation for Clear and Cloudy Skies,”
Proceedings 2nd National Passive Solar Conference (AS/ISES), 1978, pp. 675-678.
Li, M., Jiang, Y. and Coimbra, C. F. M. 2017. On the determination of atmospheric longwave
irradiance under all-sky conditions. Solar Energy 144, 40-48,
Watanabe, T., Urano, Y., and Hayashi, T. 1983. “Procedures for Separating Direct and Diffuse
Insolation on a Horizontal Surface and Prediction of Insolation on Tilted Surfaces” (in Japanese),
Transactions, No. 330, Architectural Institute of Japan, Tokyo, Japan.
Zhang, Q.Y. and Huang, Y.J. 2002. Development of typical year weather files for Chinese
locations, LBNL-51436, ASHRAE Transactions, Vol. 108, Part 2.
Perez R., Ineichen P., Maxwell E., Seals, R. and Zelenka, A. 1992. Dynamic Global-to-Direct
Irradiance Conversion Models. ASHRAE Transactions-Research Series,354-369.
Perez, R., Ineichen, P., Seals, R., Michalsky, J. and Stewart, R. 1990. Modeling daylight avail-
ability and irradiance components from direct and global irradiance. Solar Energy 44, 271-289.
Ellis, P.G., Liesen, R.J. and Pedersen, C.O. 2003. “Energyplus Experimental Data Validation
Work: Development and Validation of the Unvented Trombe Wall Model and Other Heat Balance
Components”, CERL Final Report DACA42-01-D-0004, Task 3.
Figure 5.2: Schematic view of sky showing solar radiance distribution as a superposition of three
components: dome with isotropic radiance, circumsolar brightening represented as a point source
at the sun, and horizon brightening represented as a line source at the horizon.
The proportions of these distributions depend on the sky condition, which is characterized by
two quantities, clearness factor and brightness factor, defined below, which are determined from
sun position and solar quantities from the weather file.
The circumsolar brightening is assumed to be concentrated at a point source at the center of the
sun although this region actually begins at the periphery of the solar disk and falls off in intensity
with increasing angular distance from the periphery.
The horizon brightening is assumed to be a linear source at the horizon and to be independent of
azimuth. In actuality, for clear skies, the horizon brightening is highest at the horizon and decreases
in intensity away from the horizon. For overcast skies the horizon brightening has a negative value
since for such skies the sky radiance increases rather than decreases away from the horizon.
204 CHAPTER 5. CLIMATE, SKY AND SOLAR/SHADING CALCULATIONS
∆ = Ih m/Io (5.19)
where
m = relative optical air mass
Io = extraterrestrial irradiance (taken to have an average annual value of 1353 W/m2 );
and the sky clearness factor is
(Ih + I)/Ih + κZ 3
ε= (5.20)
1 + κZ 3
where
I = direct normal solar irradiance
κ = 1.041 for Z in radians
The factors Fij are shown in the following table. The Fij values in this table were provided by
R. Perez, private communication, 5/21/99. These values have higher precision than those listed in
Table 6 of Perez et al., 1990.
Table 5.3: Fij Factors as a Function of Sky Clearness Range
ε Range 1.000-1.065 1.065-1.230 1.230-1.500 1.500-1.950 1.950-2.800 2.800-4.500 4.500-6.200 > 6.200
P
24
Ii SFi
Irradiance from horizon with obstructions i=1
Rhoriz = = (5.21)
Irradiance from horizon without obstructions P24
Ii
i=1
where Ii is the unobstructed irradiance on the surface from the ith interval, SFi is the sunlit
fraction from radiation coming from the i th interval, and the sums are over intervals whose center
5.3. SKY RADIANCE MODEL 207
lies in front of the surface. SFi is calculated using the beam solar shadowing method as though the
sun were located at the i th horizon point. Here:
P
24 P
6
Iij SFij
Irradiance from dome with obstructions i=1 j=1
Rdome = = (5.23)
Irradiance from dome without obstructions P
24 P
6
Iij
i=1 j=1
where (i,j) is a grid of 144 points (6 in altitude by 24 in azimuth) covering the sky dome, Iij is
the unobstructed irradiance on the surface from the sky element at the ij th point, SFij is the sunlit
fraction for radiation coming from the ij th element, and the sum is over points lying in front of the
surface. Here:
′
Isky = Rhorizon Ihorizon + Rdome Idome + Rcircumsolar Icircumsolar (5.26)
If the Sky Diffuse Modeling Algorithm (ShadowCalculation object) is set to SimpleSkyDiffuse-
Modeling, then Rhorizon and Rdome are calculated once for each surface since they are independent
of sun position, or else if the Sky Diffuse Modeling Algorithm is set to DetailedSkyDiffuseModeling,
then Rhorizon and Rdome are calculated every timestep for each surface.
With shadowing we then have:
AnisoSkyMult = I’sky /DifSolarRad.
208 CHAPTER 5. CLIMATE, SKY AND SOLAR/SHADING CALCULATIONS
HourAngle = (15 · (12 − (T imeV alue + EquationOf T ime)) + (T imeZoneM eridian − Longitude))
(5.28)
TimeZoneMeridian is the standard meridian for the location’s time zone {GMT +/-}.
Solar HourAngle (H ) gives the apparent solar time for the current time period (degrees);
HourAngle is positive before noon, negative after noon. It is common astronomical practice to
express the hour angle in hours, minutes and seconds of time rather than in degrees. You can
convert the hour angle displayed from EnergyPlus to time by dividing by 15. (Note that 1 hour is
equivalent to 15 degrees; 360° of the Earth’s rotation takes place every 24 hours.) The relationship
of angles in degrees to time is shown in the following table:
The Solar Altitude Angle (β) is the angle of the sun above the horizontal (degrees). The Solar
Azimuth Angle (ϕ) is measured from the North (clockwise) and is expressed in degrees. This is
shown more clearly in the following figure.
are recorded in counter-clockwise sequence (as the surface is viewed from outside its zone).
During surface entry, surfaces are checked for convex or non-convex shape. If non-convex and
inappropriate (used as a receiving surface) then a severe error is produced telling the user that
shadowing calculations may be inaccurate.
Similarly collinear points (or as noted below, points within 1 mm distance) are removed unless
removing would make an illegal surface (less than 3 points). But degenerate collinear surfaces should
be removed – they make the shadowing routines do extra work which takes extra time.
Collinear – points that essentially form a “line” rather than a surface shape.
The GlobalGeometryRules object specifies to EnergyPlus how the surface vertices will be pre-
sented in the input file. Of pertinent interest here is that the user may specify the vertices in either
“relative” or “world” coordinates. Regardless of input specifications, when vertices are reported,
they are reported in world coordinates, starting at the upper-left-corner (4-sided surface) and are
listed counter-clockwise.
ψ = ψs + ψz + ψb (5.35)
The surface tilt angle (ϕ) is not changed by these rotations about the Z-axis.
The coordinates of the surface vertices are given in a coordinate system in the plane of the
surface relative to the second vertex as shown for surfaces in Figure 5.5. The X-axis of the surface
coordinate system is a horizontal line through the second vertex. The global coordinates of the
surface vertices are given by:
X ′ = X − Xso (5.39)
Y ′ = Y − Yso (5.40)
Z ′ = Z − Zso (5.41)
2. Pixel Counting: GPU-rendering based calculations based on the method developed by Jones
et al 2011.
3. Scheduled: Pre-calculated sunlit fractions are input through a schedule in the SurfaceProp-
erty:LocalEnvironment object.
This is done by finding, through linear interpolation, the points on the perimeter of the SP,
which intersect the plane of the RP. These points become new vertices of the SP, which together
with the other positive vertices define a clipped SP that casts only a real shadow.
A vertex located at (x, y, z) relative to the RP coordinate system casts a shadow to a point in
the plane of the RP given by
z·a
x′ = x − (5.49)
cos θ
z·b
y′ = y − (5.50)
cos θ
where
216 CHAPTER 5. CLIMATE, SKY AND SOLAR/SHADING CALCULATIONS
and
More explicitly, a casting surface – a shadow casting surface or general casting surface – is one
that casts a shadow on other surfaces. A receiving surface – a shadow receiving surface – is one
that receives shadows from other surfaces (i.e. casting surfaces). A back surface – an inside surface
– is one that may be partially sunlit/receive solar transmission for interior solar distribution.
Note that the resolution on surfaces/shadowing is 1 mm – using resolution beyond that will
result in truncation of the shadowing.
Two-dimensional homogeneous coordinate techniques are used to determine the vertices of shadow
overlaps. In homogeneous coordinates, points and lines are represented by a single form that allows
simple vector operations between those forms [Newman-Sproul]. A point (X, Y) is represented by
a three element vector (x, y, w) where x = w*X, y = w*Y, and w is any real number except zero.
A line is also represented by a three element vector (a, b, c). The directed line (a, b, c) from point
(x1 , y1 , w1 ) to point (x2 , y2 , w2 ) is given by:
The sequence in the cross product is a convention to determine sign. The condition that a point
(x, y, w) lie on a line (a, b, c) is that
the point is to the left of the line. If it is less than zero, the point is to the right of the line.
The intercept (x, y, w) of line (a1 , b1 , c1 ) and line (a2 , b2 , c2 ) is given by:
Note that the use of homogeneous coordinates as outlined above provides a consistent method
and notation for defining points and lines, for determining intercepts, and for determining whether a
point lies to the left, to the right, or on a line. Normalization provides the means for transforming
to and from homogeneous notation and Cartesian coordinates. Thus, if (X, Y) is a Cartesian
coordinate pair, its homogeneous coordinates are (X, Y, 1). Similarly, the homogeneous coordinates
(x, y, w) can be transformed to the Cartesian point with coordinates (x/w, y/w).
5.4. SHADING MODULE 217
• Convex Weiler-Atherton
• Sutherland-Hodgman
The original EnergyPlus method for polygon clipping is a special version of the Weiler-Atherton
model (Weiler, Atherton, 1977). It was developed to be sufficiently general to clip concave polygons
with holes. The implementation in the current version of EnergyPlus, however, does not support
concave shadowing surfaces or holes. The relative computational complexity is preserved – the
algorithm is carried out in four steps. For example, if A and B are polygons (see Figure 5.8).
1) A call to INCLOS determines which vertices of X lie within Y.
2) A second call determines which vertices of Y lie within X.
3) If neither polygon is contained completely within the other, INTCPT is called to collect
points of intersection between X and Y.
4) Since the points are usually gathered out of order, they must then be oriented.
The Sutherland-Hodgman algorithm (Sutherland, Hodgman, 1974) is less complex compared to
the Weiler-Atherton method and is well-suited to clipping convex polygons. In actuality, only convex
shading surfaces are currently supported by EnergyPlus. Let X be a polygon called the “subject
polygon” (SP) and Y be a polygon called the “clipping polygon” (CP). The method performs the
computation by iterating over the edges of the CP and removing points from the SP that fall in
the clipping plane, i.e. points that fall to the left of the edge of the CP. Intersections between the
clip edge and the edges of the SP are added appropriately, and points falling outside of the clipping
plane, i.e. to the right of the edge of the CP, are added the output polygon as well. This resultant
polygon is stored and the process is repeated for the rest of the clip edges in CP. The process is
analogous to cutting off pieces of the SP one-by-one with respect to each edge of the CP. The result
is ordered and identical to the polygon produced by the Weiler-Atherton method.
The Slater-Barsky algorithm (Slater, M., Barsky, B.A., 1994) can also be chosen for clipping
surfaces which are rectangular. The algorithm further saves computational cost. It relies on con-
verting the line segment to be clipped into a parametric equation. Below is the general form for
the x- and y- components of a parametric line:
x = x0 + t∆x (5.57)
y = y0 + t∆y (5.58)
Letting our subject line be starting at (x0 , y0 ) and ending at (x1 , x1 ):
∆x = x1 − x0 (5.59)
∆y = y1 − y0 (5.60)
218 CHAPTER 5. CLIMATE, SKY AND SOLAR/SHADING CALCULATIONS
Distances from the endpoints to the edges of the clipping rectangle that collide with the line
are used to obtain two values of t that parameterize the equation, representing the pair of new
endpoints.
Once we have the two values of t, t1 and t2 , we can calculate the clipped line endpoints (Note
that t2 > t1 ).
x′1 = x0 + t1 ∆x (5.61)
y1′ = y0 + t1 ∆y (5.62)
x′2 = x0 + t2 ∆x (5.63)
y2′ = y0 + t2 ∆y (5.64)
The Slater-Barsky algorithm uses space subdivision to reduce the number of pre-emptive calcu-
lations. We break the plane into 9 parts, where region (4) is the clipping region.
|6|7|8|
|3|4|5|
|0|1|2|
With this method, calculating deltas and plugging in the final parametric equations can be
skipped if the subject line obeys certain conditions. For example, if the line begins in region (0)
and ends in region (6), then no new endpoints need to be calculated.
In Figure 5.8, point a is the result of rule 1, point c is the result of rule 2, and points b and
d result from rule 3. The overlap of A and B is the polygon a-b-c-d. Figure 5.9 shows an overlap
where all of the vertices of B are enclosed by A. Figure 5.10 shows an overlap defined only by the
intercepts of A and B. Figure 5.11 shows a more complex overlap.
Coordinate transformation retains the order of the vertices of a polygon, while a projection
reverses the order. The sequence of vertices of the receiving polygons should be reversed so it and
all shadow polygons will have the same sequence.
A point is enclosed by a clockwise, convex polygon if the point lies to the right of all sides (or
does not lie to the left of any side) of the polygon. The intercept of two sides may not lie beyond
the ends of either side. These are “line segments” rather than “lines”. It is possible to tell if line
segments A and B intercept within their end points by noting that the ends of A must lie on both
sides of B, and the ends of B must lie on both sides of A. This should be done before the intercept
is calculated.
Once the vertices are determined, they must be sorted into clockwise order for the area to be
computed. Given a closed, planar polygon of n sequential vertices (x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 ), …, (xn , yn ),
its area is given:
1X
n
Area = (xi yi+1 − xi+1 yi ) (5.65)
2 i=1
where (xn+1 ,yn+1 ) = (x1 , y1 )
220 CHAPTER 5. CLIMATE, SKY AND SOLAR/SHADING CALCULATIONS
The area is positive if the vertices are counter-clockwise and negative if they are clockwise.
If two shadows overlap the receiving surface, they may also overlap each other as in Figure 5.12.
The vertices of this overlap can be computed. The areas of all overlaps can be computed. The
total sunlit area can be expressed as the sum of all polygon areas given a proper sign on each of
the areas.
The following convention was adopted:
and so on through multiple overlaps where the sign of the overlap area is the product of the
signs of the overlapping areas.
Partially transparent shadowing surfaces can also be modeled by giving a transparency (τ ) to
every shadowing polygon. Let τ of the receiving polygon be one. Then the τ of every overlap of
polygons i and j is the product of τ i and τ j . The shaded area is then computed by summing Ai *(1
- τ i ) for all overlap polygons.
It is easy to determine the sunlit area of a window once all the shadow and overlap vertices
222 CHAPTER 5. CLIMATE, SKY AND SOLAR/SHADING CALCULATIONS
on the wall have been computed. Consider wall 2 of Figure 5.3. First, the wall is considered a
simple rectangle and the window on it is ignored. The shadow overlapping is performed and the
sunlit portion of the gross wall area is computed. Then the window rectangle is overlapped with
the shadow to determine its sunlit area. The sunlit area of the window is subtracted from the gross
wall sunlit area to determine the net wall sunlit area. During this calculation it is not necessary to
recompute the shadows, because they were precisely determined on the wall.
When the SutherlandHodgman option is selected, the overlap is computed using the Sutherland-
Hodgman algorithm for polygon clipping when. Let X be a polygon called the “subject polygon”
(SP) and Y be a polygon called the “clipping polygon” (CP). The method performs the computation
by iterating over the edges of the CP and removing points from the SP that fall in the clipping
plane, i.e. points that fall to the left of the edge of the CP. If it is to the left of any edge, it the
point does not overlap with the CP. Intersections between the clip edge and the edges of the SP are
added appropriately, and points falling outside of the clipping plane, i.e. to the right of the edge of
the CP, are added the output polygon as well. This resultant polygon is stored and the process is
repeated for the rest of the clip edges in CP. The process is analogous to cutting off pieces of the
SP one-by-one with respect to each edge of the CP. Note that the SP may be concave, but the CP
may not. This means that the exterior wall surfaces may be concave, while shading devices may
not be concave.
N · Ap P SSA
As ≈ = (5.66)
cos θ cos θ
Where, As = Sunlit area, N = Number of visible pixels, Ap = the projected area of a single
pixel, θ = solar incidence angle of the surface, and P SSA = Projected Sunlit Surface Area. The
approximation is limited by the resolution of the rendering.
For more information on the Pixel Counting method, refer to Jones et al 2011.
1 + cos ϕ
Fss = (5.68)
2
and
1 − cos ϕ
Fsg = (5.69)
2
If the surface is shaded the program modifies Fss by a correction factor that takes into account
the radiance distribution of the sky (see “Shadowing of Sky Diffuse Solar Radiation”).
Shading of ground diffuse solar radiation is not calculated by the program. It is up to the user
to estimate the effect of this shading and modify the input value of Fsg accordingly.
5.4.8.1 MinimalShadowing
In this case, there is no exterior shadowing except from window and door reveals. All beam solar
radiation entering the zone is assumed to fall on the floor, where it is absorbed according to the
floor’s solar absorptance. Any reflected by the floor is added to the transmitted diffuse radiation,
which is assumed to be uniformly distributed on all interior surfaces. If no floor is present in
the zone, the incident beam solar radiation is absorbed on all interior surfaces according to their
absorptances. The zone heat balance is then applied at each surface and on the zone’s air with the
absorbed radiation being treated as a flux on the surface.
5.4.8.2 FullExterior
In this case, shadow patterns on exterior surfaces caused by detached shading, wings, overhangs,
and exterior surfaces of all zones are computed. As for MinimalShadowing, shadowing by win-
dow and door reveals is also calculated. Beam solar radiation entering the zone is treated as for
MinimalShadowing.
5.4. SHADING MODULE 225
5.4.8.3 FullExteriorWithReflections
This case is the same interior distribution as the preceding option but uses exterior reflections as
well (see the section Solar Radiation Reflected from Exterior Surfaces for further explanation).
5.4.8.4 FullInteriorAndExterior
This is the same as FullExterior except that instead of assuming all transmitted beam solar falls
on the floor the program calculates the amount of beam radiation falling on each surface in the
zone, including floor, walls and windows, by projecting the sun’s rays through the exterior windows,
taking into account the effect of exterior shadowing surfaces and window shading devices.
If this option is used, you should be sure that the surfaces of the zone totally enclose a space.
This can be determined by viewing the eplusout.dxf file with a program like AutoDesk’s Volo
View Express. You should also be sure that the zone is convex. Examples of convex and non-
convex zones are shown in Figure 5.13. The most common non-convex zone is an L-shaped zone.
(A formal definition of convex is that any straight line passing through the zone intercepts at most
two surfaces.) If the zone’s surfaces do not enclose a space or if the zone is not convex you should
use Solar Distribution = FullExterior instead of FullInteriorAndExterior.
If you use FullInteriorAndExterior the program will calculate how much beam radiation
falling on an interior window is absorbed by the window, how much is reflected back into the zone,
and how much is transmitted into the adjacent zone. (Interior windows are assumed to have no
shading device).
If you use FullInteriorAndExterior the program will also calculate how much beam radiation
falling on the inside of an exterior window (from other windows in the zone) is absorbed by the
window, how much is reflected back into the zone, and how much is transmitted to the outside. In
this calculation the effect of an interior or exterior shading device, if present, is accounted for.
5.4.8.5 FulInteriorAndlExteriorWithReflections
This case is the same interior distribution as the preceding option but uses exterior reflections as
well (see Solar Radiation Reflected from Exterior Surfaces for further explanation).
5.4.9.1 Initial Distribution of Diffuse Solar Transmitted through Exterior and Interior
Windows
Diffuse solar (from sky and ground sources) transmitted through exterior windows is first distributed
to the interior heat transfer surfaces in the zone containing the exterior windows. This initial
distribution apportions the transmitted diffuse solar to interior surfaces using the approximate
view factors described above in “LW Radiation Exchange Among Zone Surfaces.” The amount of
this initially distributed diffuse solar absorbed by each interior surface, and each window material
layer, is calculated and later added to the “short-wave radiation absorbed” values described below.
The amount of this initially distributed diffuse solar that is reflected is accumulated for each zone
and redistributed uniformly as part of the QD calculation described below. The amount of this
initially distributed diffuse solar that is transmitted by interior windows to adjacent zones is initially
distributed to the interior heat transfer surfaces in the adjacent zone in the same manner as just
described.
This new treatment of diffuse solar is intended to more accurately account for the initial ab-
sorption, transmittance, and reflection of short-wave radiation prior to the uniform distribution
described below.
where
SurfNum = surface number
ZoneNum =number of zone that surface belongs to
QS(ZoneNum) = short-wave diffuse irradiance in the zone [W/m2 ]
AbsIntSurf(SurfNum) = inside solar absorptance of the surface
AISurf(SurfNum) = inside beam solar irradiance factor for the surface [-]
BeamSolarRad = outside beam normal solar irradiance [W/m2 ]
X
Nsurf
where
i = zone surface number counter
Nsurf = number of heat transfer surfaces in zone
Ai = surface area [m2 ]
αi = inside solar absorptance for an opaque surface, or, for a window, αi = back diffuse trans-
mittance plus back diffuse system absorptance of glass layers and shading device layers (if present)
Solving this equation for QS gives:
where
1
V M U LT (ZoneN um) = NP
[m−2 ] (5.73)
surf
AbsIntSurfi ∗ Ai
i=1
where
BeamSolarRad is the outside beam normal solar irradiance [W/m2 ]
EnclSolDB(ZoneNum) is the diffuse solar radiation originating from beam solar that passes
through the exterior windows in the zone and reflects diffusely from inside zone surfaces plus beam
solar entering the zone as diffuse radiation from windows with shading devices or diffusing glass (all
divided by BeamSolarRad) [m2 ]
InitialDifSolDistReflectedW(ZoneNum) is the diffuse solar radiation originating from sky and
sun related diffuse solar transmitted through the zone’s exterior or interior windows into the zone,
and reflected diffusely from inside zone surfaces.
EnclSolDB(ZoneNum) is calculated as:
where
BTOTZone = total beam solar incident on the zone’s exterior windows that is transmitted as
beam or diffuse.1
BABSZone = total beam solar absorbed inside the zone.
BTOTZone is given by:
P
Nextwin
BT OT Zone = T BmAlli ∗ SunlitF racti ∗ CosInci ∗ Areai ∗ InOutprojSLF racM ulti
i=1
+ Dif f use entering zone f rom beam ref lected by window inside reveal surf aces
+ Dif f use transmitted by windows f rom beam ref lected by outside reveal surf aces
− Beam absorbed by window inside reveal surf aces
(5.77)
For more information on the diffuse entering the zone from beam reflected, see “Beam Solar
Reflection from Window Reveal Surfaces.” In the above equation,
TBmAll = beam-to-beam plus beam-to-diffuse transmittance of window
SunlitFract = fraction of window irradiated by sun
CosInc = cosine of solar incidence angle on window
Area = glazed area of window [m2 ]
InOutProjSLFracMult = shadowing factor due to inside and outside projections of window frame
and/or divider ( = 1.0 if there is no frame or divider).
BABSZone is given by the following sum (see Figure 5.14):
1
For beam incident on an exterior window we have the following: For transparent glass with no shade or blind
there is only beam-to-beam transmission. For diffusing glass, or if a window shade is in place, there is only beam-
to-diffuse transmission. If a window blind is in place there is beam-to-diffuse transmission, and, depending on slat
angle, solar profile angle, etc., there can also be beam-to-beam transmission.
5.4. SHADING MODULE 229
Figure 5.14: Vertical section through a two-zone building showing where transmitted beam solar
falls. Some of the beam solar from exterior window EW is absorbed by the floor, D, interior wall,
B, and interior window, IW. Some is transmitted by IW to the adjacent zone, Z2. Aoverlap is the
irradiated area of a surface projected back onto the plane of EW. Beam reflected by D, B and IW
contributes to the interior short-wave radiation flux in Z1.
If zone ZoneNum shares interior windows with other zones, QS(ZoneNum) is modified to take
into account short-wave radiation received from the other zones through these windows:
The interior short-wave radiation absorbed by layer l (glass, shade or blind) of a window is equal
to:
where
dif
αl,back = the system diffuse solar absorptance of layer l for irradiance from the back side
beam
αl,back = the system beam solar absorptance of layer l for irradiance from the back side
A(SurfNum) = glazing area [m2 ]
Note that as of Version 2.1, the initially distributed diffuse solar absorbed by each surface
(as described above under “Initial Distribution of Diffuse Solar Transmitted through Exterior and
Interior Windows”) is added to this uniformly distributed short-wave radiation.
3
For the purposes of the surface heat balance calculation, any beam solar radiation absorbed by a surface is
assumed to be uniformly distributed over the surface even though in reality it is likely to be concentrated in one or
more discrete patches on the surface.
4
TBmi is zero if the window has diffusing glass or a shade. TBmi can be > 0 if a blind is present and the slat
angle, solar profile angle, etc., are such that some beam passes between the slats.
5.4. SHADING MODULE 231
NX
extwin
BeamSolarRad ∗ τ beam
(Surf N um) T Bmi ∗ Aoverlapi (Surf N um) ∗ CosInci [W] (5.83)
i=1
where τ beam (Surf N um) is the beam-to-beam transmittance of the interior window at the angle
of incidence of beam solar from the exterior window on the interior window. The program does not
track where this radiation falls in the adjacent zone: it is counted as diffuse radiation in that zone.
Therefore,
Daylighting Ground Reflected Solar Modifier is used to modified the basic monthly ground
reflectance when snow is on the ground (from design day input or weather data values). Values can
range from 0.0 to 1.0.
5.4.12 References
ASHRAE. 2005. Handbook of Fundamentals, Chapter 31, Atlanta: ASHRAE.
ASHRAE. 2007. HVAC Applications, Chapter 33, Atlanta, ASHRAE.
Zhang, Qingyuan, Joe Huang, and Siwei Lang. 2002. “Development of Typical Year Weather
Data for Chinese Locations”, American Society of Heating Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning En-
gineers, ASHRAE Transactions, Vol 108, Part 2.
Jones N., Greenberg D., Pratt K. “Fast computer graphics techniques for calculating direct solar
radiation on complex building surfaces”. Journal of Building Performance Simulation. Volume 5,
Issue 5, Pages 300-312. June 26, 2011.
Threlkeld, J.L. and R.C. Jordan. 1958. Direct solar radiation available on clear days. ASHRAE
Transactions 64:45.
Groth, C. C., and Lokmanhekim, M. 1969. “Shadow ‑ A New Technique for the Calculation
of Shadow Shapes and Areas by Digital Computer,” Second Hawaii International Conference on
System Sciences, Honolulu, HI, January 22‑24, 1969.
Walton, G.N. 1983. “The Thermal Analysis Research Program Reference Manual Program
(TARP)”, National Bureau of Standards (now National Institute of Standards and Technology).
Walton, G. N. 1978. “The Application of Homogeneous Coordinates to Shadowing Calculations”,
American Society of Heating Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineers, ASHRAE Transactions,
Vol 84, Part I.
Meeus, Jean. 2000. Astronomical Algorithms, Willmann-Bell.
Newman, M. W., and Sproul, R. F. 1973. Principles of Interactive Computer Graphics, Mc-
Graw‑Hill.
Polygon area derived from Green’s Theorem. Graphic Gems repository.
Weiler, Kevin, Atherton, Peter. “Hidden Surface Removal Using Polygon Area Sorting.” Pro-
gram of Computer Graphics, Cornell University. Ithaca, NY: 1977.
Sutherland, I.E., and Hodgman, G.W. 1974. “Reentrant Polygon Clipping”, Communication of
Association for Computing Machinery (CACM), vol. 17, pp. 32-42.
Slater, M. and Barsky, B.A. 1994, ”2D line and polygon clipping based on space subdivision”.
The Visual Computer, vol.10, pp.407–422.
Maillot,Patrick-Gilles.** “**A New, Fast Method For 2D Polygon Clipping: Analysis and Soft-
ware Implementation.” Sun Microsystems, inc. Mountain View, CA: 1992.
Wisstein, Eric W. “Convex Polygon” From Mathworld- A Wolfram Web Resource.
Chapter 6
EnergyPlus has an option to calculate beam and sky solar radiation that is reflected from exterior
surfaces and then strikes the building. This calculation occurs if “withReflections” is used on the
SolarDistribution option in the Building object. For zones with detailed daylighting, these reflections
are also considered in the daylight illuminance calculations.1
The reflecting surfaces fall into three categories:
• Shadowing surfaces. These are surfaces like overhangs or neighboring buildings entered
with objects Shading:Site:Detailed, Shading:Building:Detailed, or Shading:Zone:Detailed Ex-
amples are shown in Figure 6.1.
These surfaces can have diffuse and/or specular (beam-to-beam) reflectance values that are
specified with the ShadingProperty:Reflectance object.
• Exterior building surfaces. In this case one section of the building reflects solar radiation
onto another section (and vice-versa). See Figure 6.2.
Opaque building surfaces (walls, for example) are assumed to be diffusely reflecting. Windows
and glass doors are assumed to be specularly reflecting. The reflectance values for opaque
surfaces are calculated by the program from the Solar Absorptance and Visible Absorptance
values of the outer material layer of the surface’s construction. The reflectance values for
windows and glass doors are calculated by the program from the reflectance properties of
the individual glass layers that make up surface’s construction assuming no shading device is
present and taking into account inter-reflections among the layers.
• The ground surface. Beam solar and sky solar reflection from the ground is calculated even
if “withReflections” is not used (the default). But in this case the ground plane is considered
unobstructed, i.e., the shadowing of the ground by the building itself or by obstructions such
as neighboring buildings is ignored. This shadowing is taken into account only if “WithRe-
flections” is used in the Solar Distribution field (in “Building” input object) (Figure 6.3). In
this case the user-input value of ground view factor is not used.
1
A different method from that described here is used for calculating reflections from daylighting shelves (see
“Daylighting Shelves”).
233
234 CHAPTER 6. SOLAR RADIATION REFLECTED FROM EXTERIOR SURFACES
Figure 6.1: Examples of solar reflection from shadowing surfaces in the Shading series of input
objects. Solid arrows are beam solar radiation; dashed arrows are diffuse solar radiation. (a)
Diffuse reflection of beam solar radiation from the top of an overhang. (b) Diffuse reflection of sky
solar radiation from the top of an overhang. (c) Beam-to-beam (specular) reflection from the facade
of an adjacent highly-glazed building represented by a vertical shadowing surface.
Figure 6.2: Solar reflection from building surfaces onto other building surfaces. In this example
beam solar reflects from a vertical section of the building onto a roof section. The reflection from
the window is specular. The reflection from the wall is diffuse.
6.1. DIFFUSE REFLECTION OF BEAM SOLAR AND SKY SOLAR RADIATION 235
Figure 6.3: Shadowing by the building itself affects beam solar reflection from the ground. Beam-
to-diffuse reflection from the ground onto the building occurs only for sunlit areas, A and C, not
for shaded area, B. Shadowing by the building also affects sky solar reflection from ground (not
shown).
X
N
Pij = aki vkj , i = 1, 3; j = 1, 3 (6.1)
k=1
where
Pij = jth coordinate of the ith receiving point
vkj = jth coordinate of the kth surface vertex
236 CHAPTER 6. SOLAR RADIATION REFLECTED FROM EXTERIOR SURFACES
Figure 6.4: Vertical rectangular exterior heat transfer surface showing location of receiving points
for calculating incident solar radiation reflected from obstructions.
6.1.2 Rays
A total of 90 rays are sent out into the exterior hemisphere surrounding each receiving point. An
upgoing ray may hit an obstruction or the sky. A downgoing ray may hit an obstruction or the
ground. See Figure 6.5.
In subroutine InitSolReflRecSurf, the following is determined for each ray, i,:
1. Unit vector in direction of ray
2. Cosine of angle between ray and plane of receiving surface (cos αi )
3. Element of solid angle associated with ray (dΩi )
4. If the ray hits one or more obstructions, the coordinates of the hit point on the obstruction
nearest the receiving point
5. For the surface containing the hit point: the surface number, the solar reflectance (ρobs,i if
an obstruction), and the surface unit vector at the hit point pointing into the hemisphere containing
the receiving point
6. If the ray is downgoing and hits the ground, the coordinates of the ground hit point
7. Distance from receiving point to hit point
Figure 6.5: Two-dimensional schematic showing rays going outward from a point on a receiving
surface. Rays 1-6 hit the ground, rays 7-11 hit an obstruction, and rays 12-15 hit the sky.
where
RecSurf N um is the receiving surface number,
Nrec is the number of receiving points,
Nray is the number of rays,
obs, i denotes the obstruction hit by ray i,
Hitobs,i = 1 if ray i hits an obstruction, = 0 otherwise,
V iewF acSkyobs,i = unobstructed sky view factor of the obstruction = (1 + cos tiltobs )/2 ,
Dif ShdgRatioIsoSkyobs,i = (obstructed sky irradiance on obstruction)/(unobstructed sky irra-
diance on obstruction)
In this equation, the product ViewFacSky*DifShdgRatioIsoSky is the sky irradiance at the hit
point divided by the horizontal sky irradiance taking into account shadowing of sky diffuse radiation
on the obstruction by other obstructions, and assuming that the radiance of the sky is uniform.
Note that we ignore secondary reflections here and in the following sections. In the present case
this means that the irradiance at the hit point due to reflection of sky radiation from the ground
or from other obstructions is not considered.
The above reflection factor is used in the timestep calculation to find the irradiance on a receiving
surface due to sky radiation reflected from obstructions:
where DifSolarRad is the horizontal sky irradiance on an unobstructed horizontal plane (W/m2 ).
238 CHAPTER 6. SOLAR RADIATION REFLECTED FROM EXTERIOR SURFACES
Figure 6.6: Two-dimensional schematic showing rays going upward from a ground hit point.
The factor for reflection of sky radiation from the ground onto a receiving surface is calculated
in subroutine CalcSkySolDiffuseReflFactors. It is given by:
where
j(i) denotes an upgoing ray from the ground point hit by ray ifrom the receiving point,
Hitskyj(i) = 1 if ray j(i) hits the sky, = 0 otherwise,
αj(i) is the angle of incidence of ray j(i) with respect to the ground plane,
dΩj(i) is the solid angle element associated with ray j(i) .
This factor is used in the timestep calculation to find the irradiance on a receiving surface due
to sky radiation reflected from the ground:
∑
N rec N
∑ ray
1
Surf Ref lF acBmT oDif f SolObs(RecSurf N um, IHr) = Hitobs,i Hitobs,i,sun dΩi cos αi ρobs,i cos αsun,obs,i (6.6)
Nrec 1 i=1
where
IHr = hour number
Hitobs,i = 1 if ray i from the receiving point hits an obstruction, = 0 otherwise,
Hitobs,i,sun = 1 if the line from ray i’s hit point to the sun is unobstructed, = 0 otherwise,
αsun,obs,i is the angle of incidence of the sun on the obstruction.
This factor is used in the timestep calculation to find the diffuse irradiance on a receiving surface
due to beam solar diffusely reflected from obstructions:
where BeamSolarRad is the timestep value of beam normal solar intensity W /m2 , and Weight-
Now and WeightPreviousHour are time-averaging factors.
∑
N rec N
∑ ray
1
Surf Ref lF acBmT oDif f SolGnd(RecSurf N um, IHr) = Hitgnd,i Hitgnd,i,sun dΩi cos αgnd,i cos αsun,gnd (6.8)
Nrec 1 i=1
where
Hitgnd,i = 1 if ray i hits the ground, = 0 otherwise,
Hitgnd,i,sun = 1 if the line from ray i’s hit point ot the sun is unobstructed, = 0 otherwise,
240 CHAPTER 6. SOLAR RADIATION REFLECTED FROM EXTERIOR SURFACES
Figure 6.7: Two-dimensional schematic showing specular reflection from an obstruction such as the
glazed façade of a neighboring building. The receiving point receives specularly reflected beam
solar radiation if (1) DB passes through specularly reflecting surface EF, (2) CD does not hit any
obstructions (such as RS), and (3) AC does not hit any obstructions (such as PQ).
The program assumes that specular reflection from a surface is due to glazing. If the reflecting
surface is a window belonging to the building itself (as in Figure 6.2), then fC,glazed is the fraction
of the window that is glazed (which is 1.0 unless the window has dividers).
If the surface is a shading surface (that represents, for example, the glazed façade of a neigboring
building) the surface reflection information is entered with the Shading Surface Reflectance object.
This object contains values for:
1. Diffuse solar reflectance of the unglazed part of the shading surface
2. Diffuse visible reflectance of the unglazed part of the shading surface
3. Fraction of shading surface that is glazed
4. Name of glazing construction
In this case fC,glazed is “Fraction of shading surface that is glazed” and ρspec (αC ) is the front
reflectance of the indicated glazing construction as a function of beam solar incidence angle.
The above specular reflection factor is used in the timestep calculation to find the beam irradi-
ance on a receiving surface due to beam-beam reflection from obstructions:
(1) Daylight factors, which are ratios of interior illuminance or luminance to exterior horizontal
illuminance, are calculated and stored. The user specifies the coordinates of one or more
reference points in each daylit zone. EnergyPlus then integrates over the area of each exterior
window in the zone (or enclosure) to obtain the contribution of direct light from the window
to the illuminance at the reference points, and the contribution of light that reflects from the
walls, floor and ceiling before reaching the reference points.
If a zone has surfaces with air boundaries (Construction:AirBoundary) then all of the surfaces
within the grouped enclosure are included in the “zone”. Each daylighting control and refer-
ence point remains associated with a specific zone, but all windows (and other surfaces) within
the grouped enclosure are seen by each reference point within the enclosure. For example if
there is an air boundary between Zone A and Zone B, a daylighting reference point in Zone
A will see all surfaces in both Zone A and Zone B directly.
Window luminance and window background luminance, which are used to determine glare, are
also calculated. Taken into account are such factors as sky luminance distribution, window
size and orientation, glazing transmittance, inside surface reflectances, sun control devices
such as movable window shades, and external obstructions. Dividing daylight illuminance or
luminance by exterior illuminance yields daylight factors. These factors are calculated for the
hourly sun positions on sun-paths for representative days of the run period. To avoid the
spikes of daylight and glare factors calculated during some sunrise and/or sunset hours when
exterior horizontal illuminance is very low, the daylight and glare factors for those hours are
reset to 0.
(2) A daylighting calculation is performed each heat-balance time step when the sun is up. In
this calculation the illuminance at the reference points in each zone is found by interpolating
the stored daylight factors using the current time step’s sun position and sky condition, then
242
7.2. DAYLIGHT FACTOR CALCULATION 243
multiplying by the exterior horizontal illuminance. If glare control has been specified, the
program will automatically deploy window shading, if available, to decrease glare below a
specified comfort level. A similar option uses window shades to automatically control solar
gain.
(3) The electric lighting control system is simulated to determine the lighting energy needed to
make up the difference between the daylighting illuminance level and the design illuminance.
Finally, the zone lighting electric reduction factor is passed to the thermal calculation, which
uses this factor to reduce the heat gain from lights.
The EnergyPlus daylighting calculation is derived from the daylighting calculation in DOE-2.1E,
which is described in [Winkelmann, 1983] and [Winkelmann and Selkowitz, 1985]. There are two
major differences between the two implementations:
(1) In EnergyPlus daylight factors are calculated for four different sky types—clear, clear turbid,
intermediate, and overcast; in DOE-2 only two sky types are used—clear and overcast.
(2) In EnergyPlus the clear-sky daylight factors are calculated for hourly sun-path sun positions
several times a year whereas in DOE-2 these daylight factors are calculated for a set of 20 sun
positions that span the annual range of sun positions for a given geographical location.
7.2.1 Overview
There are three types of daylight factors: interior illuminance factors, window luminance factors,
and window background luminance factors. To calculate these factors the following steps are carried
out for each hourly sun position on the sun paths for the design days and for representative days1
during the simulation run period:
1. Calculate exterior horizontal daylight illuminance from sky and sun for standard (CIE)
clear and overcast skies.
2. Calculate interior illuminance, window luminance and window background luminance for
each window/reference-point combination, for bare and for shaded window conditions (if a shading
device has been specified), for overcast sky and for standard clear sky.
3. Divide by exterior horizontal illuminance to obtain daylight factors.
Clear sky, f irst sun − up hour
Clear/turbid sky, f irst sun − up hour
Intermediate sky, f irst sun − up hour
W indow 1
" # Overcast sky, f irst sun − up hour U nshaded window
W indow 2
Ref pt 1
Shaded window
...
Ref pt 2 ...
Clear sky, last sun − up hour (if shade assigned)
W indow N
Clear/turbid sky, last sun − up hour
Intermediate sky, last sun − up hour
Overcase sky, last sun − up hour
(7.7)
Here, Lz is the zenith luminance (i.e., the luminance of the sky at a point directly overhead). In
the calculation of daylight factors, which are ratios of interior and exterior illumination quantities
250 CHAPTER 7. DAYLIGHTING AND WINDOW CALCULATIONS
that are both proportional to Lz , the zenith luminance cancels out. For this reason we will use Lz
= 1.0 for all sky luminance distributions.
The various angles, which are defined in the building coordinate system, are shown in Figure 7.1.
The angle, γ, between sun and sky element is given by:
γ = cos−1 [sin ϕsky sin ϕsun + cos ϕsky cos ϕsun cos(θsky − θsun )] (7.9)
The general characteristics of the clear-sky luminance distribution are a large peak near the sun;
a minimum at a point on the other side of the zenith from the sun, in the vertical plane containing
the sun; and an increase in luminance as the horizon is approached.
h π i
Z4 = exp −0.563( − ϕsun ){2.6298(ϕsun − 0.008) + 0.812} (7.15)
2
1 + 2 sin ϕsky
ψos (ϕsky ) = Lz (7.16)
3
Unlike the clear sky case, the overcast sky distribution does not depend on the solar azimuth or
the sky azimuth. Note that at fixed solar altitude the zenith (ϕsky = π/2 ) is three times brighter
than the horizon (ϕsky = 0 ).
7.2. DAYLIGHT FACTOR CALCULATION 251
Figure 7.1: Angles appearing in the expression for the clear-sky luminance distribution.
252 CHAPTER 7. DAYLIGHTING AND WINDOW CALCULATIONS
Z2π Zπ/2
Eh,k = ψk (θsky , ϕsky ) sin ϕsky cos ϕsky dθsky dϕsky (7.17)
0 0
X
Nθ X
Nϕ
Eh,k = ψk (θsky (i), ϕsky (j)) sin ϕsky (j) cos ϕsky (j)∆θsky ∆ϕsky (7.18)
i=1 j=1
where
R ⃗ win − R
⃗ ray = (R ⃗ ref )/D (7.24)
⃗1−W
W ⃗2 ⃗ −W
W ⃗2
Ŵn = window outward normal = Ŵ21 × Ŵ23 = × 3
⃗
(7.25)
⃗
1
W − ⃗
W 2 3
W − ⃗
W 2
Equation 7.21 becomes exact as dx/D and dy/D → 0 and is accurate to better than about 1%
for dx ≤ D/4 and dy ≤ D/4 .
The net illuminance from the window is obtained by summing the contributions from all the
window elements:
X
Eh = Lw dΩ cos γ (7.26)
window
elements
In performing the summation, window elements that lie below the workplane (cos γ < 0 ) are
omitted since light from these elements cannot reach the workplane directly.
Figure 7.2: Geometry for calculation of direct component of daylight illuminance at a reference
point. Vectors Rr ef , W1 , W2 , W3 and Rw in are in the building coordinate system.
254 CHAPTER 7. DAYLIGHTING AND WINDOW CALCULATIONS
AEr (1 − ρ) = F1 (7.29)
or
ΦF W ρF W + ΦCW ρCW
Er = (7.30)
A(1 − ρ)
This procedure assumes that the room behaves like an integrating sphere with perfectly diffusing
interior surfaces and with no internal obstructions. It therefore works best for rooms that are close
to cubical in shape, have matte surfaces (which is usually the case), and have no internal partitions.
Deviations from these conditions, such as would be the case for rooms whose depth measured
from the window-wall is more than three times greater than ceiling height, can lead to substantial
inaccuracies in the split-flux calculation.
The upgoing flux is obtained similarly by integrating over the part of the exterior hemisphere
that lies below the window midplane:
θZmax Z0
ΦCW,unshaded = Aw L(θ, ϕ)T (β) cos β cos ϕdθdϕ (7.34)
θmin π/2−ϕw
where ϕw is the angle the window outward normal makes with the horizontal plane.
For a window with a diffusing shade the total transmitted flux is:
θZmax Zπ/2
Φsh = Aw L(θ, ϕ)T (β) cos β cos ϕdθdϕ (7.35)
θmin π/2−ϕw
ΦF W,sh = Φ(1 − f )
(7.36)
ΦCW,sh = Φf
where f, the fraction of the hemisphere seen by the inside of the window that lies above the
window midplane, is given by
f = 0.5 − ϕw /π (7.37)
For a vertical window (ϕw = 0) the up- and down-going transmitted fluxes are equal:
Φ = T (β)Φinc (7.44)
where T is the net transmittance of the window glazing (plus shade, if present).
For an unshaded window all of the transmitted flux is downward since the sun always lies above
the window midplane. Therefore:
ΦF W,unsh = Φ
(7.45)
ΦCW,unsh = 0
For a window with a diffusing shade:
ΦF W,sh = Φ(1 − f )
(7.46)
ΦCW,sh = Φf
7.2. DAYLIGHT FACTOR CALCULATION 257
θZmax Zπ/2
1
Lsh = L(θ, ϕ)T (β) cos β cos ϕdθdϕ (7.47)
π
θmin π/2−ϕw
L1.6
w Ω
0.8
G= (7.48)
Lb + 0.07ω 0.5 Lw
where
G = discomfort glare constant
Lw = average luminance of the window as seen from the reference point
Ω = solid angle subtended by window, modified to take direction of occupant view into account
Lb = luminance of the background area surrounding the window
By dividing the window into Nx by Ny rectangular elements, as is done for calculating the direct
component of interior illuminance, we have:
Ny P
P Nx
Lw (i, j)
j=1 i=1
Lw = (7.49)
Nx Ny
where Lw (i,j) is the luminance of element (i,j) as seen from the reference point.
Similarly,
X X
Ny Nx
ω= dω(i, j) (7.50)
j=1 i=1
where dω(i,j) is the solid angle subtended by element (i,j) with respect to the reference point.
The modified solid angle is:
X X
Ny Nx
where p is a “position factor” [Petherbridge & Longmore, 1954] that accounts for the decrease
in visual excitation as the luminous element moves away from the line of sight. This factor depends
on the horizontal and vertical displacement ratios, xR and yR (Figure 7.3), given by:
√ 2
A −(Y D)2
xR (i, j) = RR (7.52)
yR (i, j) = |Y D/RR|
258 CHAPTER 7. DAYLIGHTING AND WINDOW CALCULATIONS
where
RR = D(R̂ray · v̂view )
A2 = D2 − (RR)2 (7.53)
Y D = Rwin (3) − Rref (3)
Figure 7.3: Geometry for calculation of displacement ratios used in the glare formula.
The factor p can be obtained from graphs given in [Petherbridge & Longmore, 1954] or it can
be calculated from tabulated values of pH , the Hopkinson position factor [Hopkinson, 1966], since
p = p1.25
H . The values resulting from the latter approach are given in Table 7.2. Interpolation of
this table is used in EnergyPlus to evaluate p at intermediate values of xR and yR .
Lb = Eb ρb (7.54)
where ρb is approximated by the average interior surface reflectance of the entire room and
Eb = max(Er , Es ) (7.55)
where Er is the total internally-reflected component of daylight illuminance produced by all the
windows in the room and Es is the illuminance setpoint at the reference point at which glare is
being calculated. A precise calculation of Eb is not required since the glare index (see next section)
is logarithmic. A factor of two variation in Eb generally produces a change of only 0.5 to 1.0 in the
glare index.
where Gi is the glare constant at the reference point due to the ith window.
ext
∆ = Sh,dif m/Snorm,dir (7.58)
ext
where m is the relative optical air mass and Snorm,dir is the extraterrestrial direct normal solar
irradiance.
The relative optional air mass is calculated as follows:
262 CHAPTER 7. DAYLIGHTING AND WINDOW CALCULATIONS
1 − 1e−4 · h
m= sin(b)+0.15
(7.59)
(b+3.885)1.253
where b is the Solar Altitude Angle, that is the angle of the sun above the horizontal (in degrees),
and h is the building altitude (elevation, in meters).
−Z
Π
2
b= (7.60)
DegT oRadians
If ε ≤ 1.2,
Iwin (iL , iS ) = d¯sun Eh,sun + [d¯sky,k (iL , iS )fk + d¯sky,k′ (iL , iS )fk′ ]Eh,sky (7.70)
where Eh,sun and Eh,sky are the exterior horizontal illuminance from the sun and sky, respectively,
and fk and fk’ are the fraction of the exterior horizontal illuminance from the sky that is due to sky
type k and k’, respectively.
The horizontal illuminance from sun and sky are given by:
where Eh,k and Eh,k’ are the horizontal illuminances from skies k and k’, respectively (see “Ex-
terior Horizontal Luminance,” above), and sk,k’ is the interpolation factor for skies kand k’(see
“Time-Step Sky Luminance,” above). For example, if ε > 3, k = cs (clear sky), k’ = ts (clear
turbid sky) and
Swin (iL , iS ) = w̄sun Eh,sun + [w̄sky,k (iL , iS )fk + w̄sky,k′ (iL , iS )fk′ ]Eh,sky (7.74)
Bwin (iL , iS ) = b̄sun Eh,sun + [b̄sky,k (iL , iS )fk + b̄sky,k′ (iL , iS )fk′ ]Eh,sky (7.75)
The total illuminance at a reference point from all of the exterior windows in a zone is
X
Itot (iL ) = Iwin (is , iL ) (7.76)
windows
in zone
where iS = 1 if the window is unshaded and iS = 2 if the window is shaded that time step.
(Before the illuminance calculation is done the window shading control will have been simulated to
determine whether or not the window is shaded.)
Similarly, the total background luminance is calculated:
X
Btot (iL ) = Bwin (is , iL ) (7.77)
windows
in zone
264 CHAPTER 7. DAYLIGHTING AND WINDOW CALCULATIONS
where
• If there is only one reference point, shade a window if it is unshaded and shading it decreases
the glare, even if it does not decrease the glare below GI,max . Note that if a window has
already been shaded, say to control solar gain, it will be left in the shaded state.
– If glare is too high at both points, shade the window if it decreases glare at both points.
– If glare is too high only at the first point, shade the window if the glare at the first point
decreases, and the glare at the second point stays below GI,max .
– If glare is too high only at the second point, shade the window if the glare at the second
point decreases, and the glare at the first point stays below GI,max .
• Shades are closed in the order specified by the fenestration objects listed in the Window-
ShadingControl object until glare at both points is below GI,max , or until there are no more
windows left to shade.
Here, Iset is the illuminance setpoint and Itot is the daylight illuminance at the reference point.
This relationship assumes that the electric lights at full power produce an illuminance equal to Iset
at the reference point.
The fractional electric lighting input power, fP , corresponding to fL is then calculated. The
relationship between fP and fL depends on the lighting control type.
0 f or fL = 0
int(NL fL )+1
fP = f or 0 < fL < 1 (7.82)
NL
1 f or fL = 1
If a lighting control probability, PL , is specified, f (P ) is set one level higher a fraction of the
time equal to 1 − p(L). Specifically, if fP < 1, fP = fP + 1/NL if a random number between 0 and
1 exceeds pL . This can be used to simulate the uncertainty associated with manual switching of
lights.
In this expression, the term to the right in the parentheses corresponds to the fraction of the
zone not controlled by either reference point. For this fraction the electric lighting is unaffected and
the power multiplier is 1.0.
7.3.6 References
CIE Technical Committee 4.2. 1973. Standardization of the Luminance Distribution on Clear Skies.
CIE Pub. No. 22, Commission Internationale d’Eclairage, Paris.
Hopkinson, R.G., J. Longmore and P. Petherbridge. 1954. An Empirical Formula for the
Computation of the Indirect Component of Daylight Factors. Trans. Illum. Eng. Soc. (London)
19, 201.
Hopkinson, R.G., P. Petherbridge and J. Longmore. 1966. Daylighting. Heinnemann, London,
p. 322.
Hopkinson, R.G. 1970. Glare from Windows. Construction Research and Development Journal
2, 98.
Hopkinson, R.G. 1972. Glare from Daylighting in Buildings. Applied Ergonomics 3, 206.
Kittler, R. 1965. Standardization of Outdoor Conditions for the Calculation of the Daylight
Factor with Clear Skies. Proc. CIE Inter-Session Meeting on Sunlight, Newcastle-Upon-Tyne.
Lynes, J.A. 1968. Principles of Natural Lighting. Applied Science Publishers, Ltd., London,
p. 129.
Matsuura, K. 1987. Luminance Distributions of Various Reference Skies. CIE Technical Report
of TC 3-09.
Moon, P. and D. Spencer. 1942. Illumination from a Nonuniform Sky. Illuminating Engineering
37, 707-726.
Perez, R., P. Ineichen, R. Seals, J. Michalsky and R. Stewart. 1990. Modeling Daylight Avail-
ability and Irradiance Components from Direct and Global Irradiance. Solar Energy 44, 271-289.
Petherbridge, P. and J. Longmore. 1954. Solid Angles Applied to Visual Comfort Problems.
Light and Lighting 47,173.
Winkelmann, F.C. 1983. Daylighting Calculation in DOE-2. Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
report no. LBL-11353, January 1983.
Winkelmann, F.C. and S. Selkowitz. 1985. Daylighting Simulation in the DOE-2 Building
Energy Analysis Program. Energy and Buildings 8, 271-286.
and to calculate luminance rather than illuminance. Note however, DElight does not account
for interior surface obstructions (e.g., partitions) in this initial interior illuminance/luminance
distribution. The SplitFlux method does account for interior surface obstruction of initial
illuminance distribution on reference points.
• Complex Fenestration System Calculation: DElight calculates the contribution to the initial
interior illuminance at each reference point, and to the luminance at each gridded nodal patch
of interior surfaces, of the light transmitted by complex fenestration systems (CFS). The
analysis of a CFS within DElight is based on the characterization of the system using bi-
directional transmittance distribution functions (BTDF), which must be either pre-calculated
(e.g., using ray-tracing techniques) or pre-measured, prior to analysis by DElight. A BTDF
is a set of data for a given CFS, which gives the ratios of incident to transmitted light for
a range of incoming and outgoing directions. As illustrated in Figure 7.6, a BTDF can be
thought of as collapsing a CFS to a “black box” that is represented geometrically as a flat
two-dimensional light-transmitting surface that will be treated as an aperture surface in the
daylit zone description. For each incoming direction across the exterior hemisphere of the CFS,
varying portions of that light are transmitted at multiple outgoing directions across the interior
hemisphere of the CFS. The two-dimensional CFS “surface” and directional hemispheres are
“abstract” in that they may not literally correspond to actual CFS component geometric
details.
The pre-calculated or pre-measured BTDF for a CFS is independent of its final position and
orientation within a building. Once a specific instance of a CFS aperture has been positioned within
a building, the incident light from all exterior sources across the CFS exterior hemisphere can be
integrated over all incident directions for each relevant transmitted direction to determine the light
transmitted by the CFS surface in that direction. The light transmitted by the CFS aperture is
then distributed to surfaces in the zone according to its non-uniform directionality. The algorithms
for this BTDF treatment of CFS in DElight are still under development, and are subject to change
in the future.
• Visual Quality: DElight does not currently calculate a measure of visual quality such as
glare due to daylighting. DElight does calculate luminance on nodal patches of all interior,
reflecting surfaces. A variety of visual quality metrics could be calculated from these data in
future implementations.
• Electric Lighting Control Calculation: Up to 100 reference points can be defined within a
DElight daylighting zone. One or more of these reference points must be included in the
control of the electric lighting system in the zone. Each reference point input includes the
fraction of the zone controlled by that point. Values of 0.0 are valid, which allows the
definition of reference points for which interior illuminance levels are calculated, but which
do not control the electric lighting. Any non-zero fraction is thus the equivalent of a relative
weighting given to that reference point’s influence on the overall electric lighting control. The
sum of all fractions for defined reference points must less than or equal to 1.0 for this relative
weighting to make physical sense. If the sum is less than 1.0, the remaining fraction is
assumed to have no lighting control.
7.4.3 References
Modest, M. 1982. A General Model for the Calculation of Daylighting in Interior Spaces, Energy
and Buildings 5, 66-79, and Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory report no. LBL-12599A.
Winkelmann, F.C. 1983. Daylighting Calculation in DOE-2. Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
report no. LBL-11353, January 1983.
Winkelmann, F.C. and S. Selkowitz. 1985. Daylighting Simulation in the DOE-2 Building
Energy Analysis Program. Energy and Buildings 8, 271-286.
coming into the zone from the sky or the ground. This transmitted light strikes the zone interior
surfaces and creates a diffuse component. The CFS daylighting method determines the contribution
of each sky patch to the illumination of the zone surfaces based on the BSDF transmittances and
then luminance is calculated based on the surface reflection.
For the direct path, the window is subdivided using existing subdivision procedures. From the
center of each subdivided element, the angle is calculated to the reference point. The illuminance is
calculated based on the BSDF data for the outgoing direction that corresponds to that angle and
the incident illumination from sky, ground and sun.
A · Er · (1 − ρ) = F1 (7.86)
where F1 represents first reflected flux which in the case of non-CFS is calculated by using the
split-flux method. In the case of CFS, first the reflected flux can be calculated more precisely by
7.5. COMPLEX FENESTRATION DAYLIGHTING CALCULATIONS 273
using light patches area. Since each CFS is described by a BSDF, it is possible to calculate the
light patches for each outgoing direction (see Figure 7.8).
Considering the total flux passing through the window at the outgoing direction “k”, the first
reflect flux (F1,k ) can be calculated as:
P
N
(Aoverlap,k,a · ρvis,k,a )
a=1
F1,k = ϕk · (7.87)
P
N
Aoverlap,k,a
a=1
where ϕk is the total flux entering the zone at the BSDF outgoing direction “k” and is calculated
by integrating Equation 7.84 over the entire window area for a given outgoing direction “k”, N is the
number of interior surfaces hit by the BSDF outgoing direction “k” (see Figure 7.8), Aoverlap,k,a is
the surface (patch) area which the window from the BSDF outgoing direction “k” makes at surface
“a” and ρvis,k,a is the visible reflectance from surface “a”.
Summing all the outgoing directions will result in total first reflected flux:
X
Nout
F1 = F1,k (7.88)
k=1
7.5. COMPLEX FENESTRATION DAYLIGHTING CALCULATIONS 275
X
Ninc
Figure 7.9: Complex Fenestration System Flux Transition - Single Incoming Direction to Single
Outgoing Direction
7.6. DAYLIGHTING DEVICES 277
the direct illuminance at the window element is modified for the product of all the obstruction
transmittances between the luminous and window elements, and Equation 7.84 is modified as:
Y
No
∆EWel,i = Lum(θi , ψi ) · Λi · τobs,p (7.94)
p=1
where No is the number of exterior obstructions and τobs,p is the visible transmittance of ob-
struction “p”.
The second case is to handle all obstructions between the luminous elements and the ground
element. The luminance from the ground element is calculated as:
Eh
Lumgnd = · ρgnd (7.95)
π
where Eh is the horizontal illuminance and ρgnd is the ground reflectance. Horizontal illuminance
is obtained by the integration over sky/sun elements and it is of interest to examine if all elements
are visible from a certain ground point. The integration examines if the ray between the sky and
the ground element is hitting an obstruction. It does not take into account whether or not the
obstruction is transparent, it simply counts the number of hits. The sky obstruction multiplier is
calculated as:
N umberOf U nobstructedRays
SOM = (7.96)
N umberOf Rays
and in case the incoming element is from the ground, the illuminance at the window element
(Equation 7.84) will be additionally modified from the sky obstruction multiplier:
Y
No
∆EWel,i = Lum(θi , ψi ) · Λi · SOM · τobs,p (7.97)
p=1
reflections. The diffuser is typically a flat frosted plastic cover. The diffuser evenly distributes the
daylight to the zone. The dome/diffuser area and pipe area must be approximately equal (within
2%) for running the simulation successfully.
In EnergyPlus the TDD model includes three different, but related, phenomena:
• Daylighting
• Solar gains
• Conductive/convective gains
Solar gains and conductive/convective gains are simulated by the zone heat balance. Daylighting
is simulated independently.
For both daylighting and heat balance simulations, the dome and diffuser are treated as special
window surfaces to take advantage of many of the standard daylighting and heat transfer rou-
tines. Together the dome and diffuser become “receiver” and “transmitter”, i.e. radiation entering
the dome ends up exiting the diffuser.
The pipe is simulated by a separate code module. While several different measures for charac-
terizing TDD performance are in use (Zhang 2002; Harrison 1998), the total transmittance of the
TDD is most compatible with the EnergyPlus daylighting and heat balance code. Calculation of
the transmittance of the pipe and the TDD for different types of radiation is fundamental to all
phenomena covered by the model.
280 CHAPTER 7. DAYLIGHTING AND WINDOW CALCULATIONS
ρ=1−α (7.98)
where α = surface absorptivity. Visible (i.e. daylighting) and solar absorptivities give visible
and solar reflectivities, respectively. Measured reflectivities for commercial TDDs range from 0.90
to 0.99. Although the actual surface reflectivity is slightly dependent on the incident angle, the
model assumes a constant reflectivity for all angles.
The full analytical expression for the transmittance of a beam of light in a highly reflective pipe
has been developed by Swift and Smith and verified by experiment (1994). By integrating over all
rays incident on the pipe entrance, they find the transmittance of a beam of collimated radiation
to be:
Z
4 1 s2
τ= √ ρIN T [a tan θ/s] (1 − (1 − ρ) (a tan θ/s − IN T [a tan θ/s])) ds (7.99)
π s=0 1 − s2
where
a = L/D, the aspect ratio of the TDD
ρ = surface reflectivity
θ = incident angle
s = entry point
This integral does not have an analytical solution and must be calculated numerically. It
was found that a large number of points (100,000) were necessary to achieve an acceptable accu-
racy. Since the integration is time consuming and the transmittance of the pipe must be utilized
many times at every time step, values are calculated over a range of incident angles and stored in
a table. The tabulated values are interpolated to rapidly give the transmittance at any incident
angle. A polynomial fit was also considered but it was found that interpolation gave superior
results.
7.6. DAYLIGHTING DEVICES 281
In the graph below, interpolated values from EnergyPlus are compared to the results of ray
tracing simulations performed at the Florida Solar Energy Center for an incident angle of 30 degrees
(McCluney 2003).
During initialization of each unique TDD, the program integrates and tabulates values for the
visible and solar transmittance of the pipe. The results are subsequently used in the daylighting
simulation and heat balance simulation respectively.
The effect of bends in the pipe on beam transmittance is not included in this model. Recent
research (Zhang 2002) has suggested that a 30 degree bend has a 20% loss in transmitted light. If the
effect of bends must be simulated, it can be approximated by the user by appropriately decreasing
the transmittance of the diffuser material.
τdome (θ) = beam transmittance of the dome glazing at the incident angle
τpipe (θ) = beam transmittance of the pipe at the incident angle, as described above
τdif f user = diffuse transmittance of the diffuser glazing
The dome transmittance is calculated for a flat window. The model does not take into account
refraction due to the curvature of the dome surface.
Diffuse transmittance is always assumed for the diffuser because multiple internal reflections
in the pipe scatter the beam with a diffusing effect. Although the light exiting the pipe is not
isotropic, it can be approximated as diffuse. The use of a frosted diffuser on the TDD, however,
ensures that the light delivered to the zone is very close to isotropic diffuse.
The calculation of TDD diffuse transmittance is considerably more complex and is handled
differently in the daylighting simulation and the heat balance simulation. The details are discussed
in the following sections.
7.6.1.3 Daylighting
The daylighting simulation of the TDD treats the diffuser surface as a regular window illuminated
from the outside by sun, sky, and ground. However, the TDD model replaces the window glazing
transmittance with the appropriate TDD transmittance and converts all transmitted light to diffuse.
The illuminance due to the direct beam of the sun is found using the TDD beam transmittance
tT DD (θ) as described above. The incident angle θ is relative to the dome surface.
The illuminance due to sky radiation and ground reflected radiation is calculated with the
normal daylighting model integration over the sky and ground within the viewable hemisphere of
the dome. The transmittance of each sky or ground element is also found using the TDD beam
transmittance at the incident angle of the sky or ground element relative to the dome.
Light from the diffuser is converted to diffuse inside the zone in the same way as an interior
shade.
For isotropic diffuse radiation P(θ) is the cosine of the incident angle θ.
R π/2
θ=0
τ (θ) cos θ sin θdθ
τdif f,iso = R π/2 (7.103)
θ=0
cos θ sin θdθ
For a given pipe or TDD, tdif f,iso is a constant. The program calculates tdif f,iso once during
initialization using a numerical integration.
The diffuse isotropic transmittance is useful, but not sufficient, for determining the trans-
mittance of sky radiation. As described in the Sky Radiance Model section, sky radiation has
an anisotropic distribution modeled as the superposition of three simple distributions: a diffuse
isotropic background, a circumsolar brightening near the sun, and a horizon brightening. While
the daylighting model is capable of calculating the luminance of any position in the sky, the solar
code only calculates the ultimate irradiance on a surface. For this reason it is not possible to in-
tegrate over an angular distribution function for sky radiance. Instead the three sky distributions
must be handled piecewise.
P
Itrans,aniso Itrans,iso + Itrans,circumsolar + Itrans,horiz
τdif f,aniso = P = (7.104)
Iinc,aniso Iinc,iso + Iinc,circumsolar + Iinc,horiz
Substituting in the appropriate transmittances:
Since the radiance of the horizon is isotropic, and therefore constant across the entire horizon,
the actual value of the radiance cancels out. The result is a constant that is calculated once during
initialization.
Ground radiation is assumed to be isotropic diffuse. The transmittance of ground radiation is
the diffuse isotropic transmittance.
Solar radiation is inevitably absorbed by the TDD before it reaches the zone. Every reflection
in the pipe leaves behind some solar radiation according to the surface absorptance. Rays incident
at a greater angle make more reflections and leave behind more absorbed solar in the pipe wall.
The total absorbed solar radiation in the TDD is the sum of the following gains:
• Outward bound solar absorbed by multiple pipe reflections due to: reflection off of diffuser
surface (inside of TDD) and zone diffuse interior shortwave incident on the diffuser from lights,
etc.
The inward bound solar absorbed by the pipe is the difference between the solar transmitted by
the dome and the solar incident on the diffuser.
′′ ′′
Qabs,in = qtrans,dome Adome − qinc,dif f user Adif f user (7.113)
The solar transmitted by the dome q”trans,dome is calculated as usual for a window. The solar
incident on the diffuser q”inc,dif f user is more complicated because each component must be treated
separately.
′′ ′′ ′′ ′′
qref l,dif f user = qinc,dif f user − qabs,dif f user − qtrans,dif f user (7.116)
The inward flowing portion of solar absorbed in the dome and diffuser glazing is:
7.6.1.7 References
Harrison, S. J., McCurdy, G. G., Cooke, R. 1998. “Preliminary Evaluation of the Daylighting and
Thermal Performance of Cylindrical Skylights”, Proceedings of International Daylight Conference,
Ottawa, Canada, pp. 205-212.
McCluney, R. 2003. “Rating of Tubular Daylighting Devices for Visible Transmittance and Solar
Heat Gain – Final Report”, FSEC-CR-1385-03, January 15, 2003, Florida Solar Energy Center, 1679
Clearlake Rd., Cocoa, FL 32922.
Swift, P. D., and Smith, G. B. 1995. “Cylindrical Mirror Light Pipes”, Solar Energy Materials
and Solar Cells 36, pp. 159-168.
Zhang, X., Muneer, T., and Kubie, J. 2002. “A Design Guide For Performance Assessment of
Solar Light-Pipes”, Lighting Research & Technology 34, 2, pp. 149-169.
Daylighting shelves are simulated separately for daylighting and the zone heat balance. The
general model is similar in both cases, but the details vary.
ΦCW = Φ (7.118)
ΦF W = 0 (7.119)
where
ΦCW = upgoing flux
ΦF W = downgoing flux
Φ = total flux
Since it is assumed that all light falls on the inside shelf, it is implied that the upper window can-
not contribute any direct illuminance (i.e. the upper window cannot be seen from anywhere in the
zone). The remaining light is entirely interreflected sky-related and interreflected sun-related
upgoing flux.
the window from the outside shelf and adds it as a lump sum to the upgoing flux transmitted by
the window.
The additional shelf upgoing flux is the sum of sun-related and sky-related flux:
M tan −1 1
+ N tan −1 1
− (M 2
+ N 2 1/2
) tan −1
(M 2
+ N 2 −1/2
)
1 " M N
M 2 N 2 #
Fws = ( 2
)( 2
) (
2 1+M 2 +N 2
) (
2 1+M 2 +N 2
) (7.123)
πM
1 1+M 1+N M N
+ 4 ln 1+M 2 +N 2 (1+M 2 )(M 2 +N 2 ) (1+N 2 )(M 2 +N 2 )
where
M = H/W (7.124)
N = L/W (7.125)
7.6. DAYLIGHTING DEVICES 289
′′ ′′ ′′
qshelf −inc = qshelf −inc,sun + qshelf −inc,sky (7.126)
where
′′
qshelf −inc,sun = (Isun cos θ) fsunlit ρsol Fws (7.127)
′′
qshelf −inc,sky = Ih,sky fskymult ρsol Fws (7.128)
and
Isun = solar beam intensity of the sun
Ih, sky = total horizontal diffuse solar radiation due to the sky
θ = incident angle of the beam on the shelf
fsunlit = sunlit beam fraction of the surface area
fskymult = anisotropic sky view multiplier (see AnisoSkyMult)
ρsol = shelf surface reflectivity in the solar spectrum
290 CHAPTER 7. DAYLIGHTING AND WINDOW CALCULATIONS
′′
qtrans = q ′′ sky−inc + q ′′ gnd−inc + q ′′ shelf −inc τdif f,sol (7.129)
where
τdif f, sol = diffuse window transmittance in the solar spectrum
7.6.2.5 References
Mills, A. F. 1995. Heat and Mass Transfer, p. 499.
Figure 7.16: Skylight with light well: (a) perspective view, (b) vertical section. If the bottom of the
light well is a rectangle of side lengths c and d, as shown in (a), then the perimeter of the bottom
of the well = 2(c+d) and the area = cd (see description of field names for the Light Well object).
7.6. DAYLIGHTING DEVICES 291
The well efficiency depends on the visible reflectance of well’s side walls and on the well cavity
ratio, WCR, which is given by:
Well Height, Well Perimeter and Well Area are inputs to the model and are discussed in the
figure caption above.
The model in EnergyPlus was implemented by fitting a curve to the data presented as Figure 8-
21, “Efficiency factors for various depths of light wells based on well-interreflectance values,” found in
the Lighting Handbook (IES 1993). The figure below reproduces that reference data and shows well
efficiency vs. WCR for different side wall reflectances. For use in the EnergyPlus calculation, a fit
has been made to this graph that gives the following mathematical expression, where “Reflectance”
is the user input value of the well-wall reflectance expressed as a fraction:
Figure 7.17: Graph showing light well efficiency vs. well cavity ratio (WCR) for well-wall visible
reflectances of 80% (upper curve), 60% (middle curve) and 40% (lower curve). Based on Fig. 8-21
of the Lighting Handbook: Reference and Application, 8th Edition, 1993, Illuminating Engineering
Society of North America.
The well efficiency calculated using this curve fit and user inputs is then applied to daylight
transmission rates to attenuate daylight as a result of the presence of the light well,
292 CHAPTER 7. DAYLIGHTING AND WINDOW CALCULATIONS
7.6.3.1 References
Lighting Handbook: Reference & Application, 8th Edition, Illuminating Engineering Society of
North America, 1993.
• Glazing, which consists of one or more plane/parallel glass layers. If there are two or more
glass layers, the layers are separated by gaps filled with air or another gas. The glazing optical
and thermal calculations are based on algorithms from the WINDOW 4 and WINDOW 5
programs [Arasteh et al., 1989], [Finlayson et al., 1993]. Glazing layers are described using
te input object WindowMaterial:Glazing.
• Gap, layers filled with air or another gas that separate glazing layers. Gaps are described
using the input object WindowMaterial:Gas.
• Frame, which surrounds the glazing on four sides. Frames are described using the input
object WindowProperty:FrameAndDivider.
• Divider, which consists of horizontal and/or vertical elements that divide the glazing into
individual lites.
• Shading device, which is a separate layer, such as drapery, roller shade or blind, on the in-
side or outside of the glazing, whose purpose is to reduce solar gain, reduce heat loss (movable
insulation) or control daylight glare. Shading layers are described using “WindowShading-
Control” input objects.
In the following, the description of the layer-by-layer glazing algorithms is based on material
from Finlayson et al., 1993. The frame and divider thermal model, and the shading device optical
and thermal models, are new to EnergyPlus.
A second approch has been developed where windows are modeled in a simplified approach that
requires minimal user input that is processed to develop and equivalent layer that then reuses much
of the layer-by-model. This “Simple Window Construction: model is described below.
and, therefore, contributes to the zone heat balance. In addition, the visible transmittance of the
glazing is an important factor in the calculation of interior daylight illuminance from the glazing.
294 CHAPTER 7. DAYLIGHTING AND WINDOW CALCULATIONS
T = 0.86156
n = 1.526
2
r = 1.526−1
1.526+1
(7.133)
τ = 0.93974
R = 0.07846
model generates the properties for the layer, the program reuses the bulk of the layer-by-layer
model for subsequent calculations. The properties of the equivalent layer are determined using
the step by step method outlined by Arasteh, Kohler, and Griffith (2009) with modifications to
formulate the angular performance in a manner consistent with the angular properties for coated
glass in other window models. The core equations are documented here. The reference contains
additional information.
The simplified window model accepts U and SHGC indices and is useful for several reasons:
1) Sometimes, the only thing that is known about the window are its U and SHGC;
2) Codes, standards, and voluntary programs are developed in these terms;
3) A single-layer calculation is faster than multi-layer calculations.
Note: This use of U and SHGC to describe the thermal properties of windows is only appropriate
for specular glazings.
While it is important to include the ability to model windows with only U-value and SHGC, we
note that any method to use U and SHGC alone in building simulation software will inherently be
approximate. This is due primarily to the following factors:
• SHGC combines directly transmitted solar radiation and radiation absorbed by the glass
which flows inward. These have different implications for space heating/cooling. Different
windows with the same SHGC often have different ratios of transmitted to absorbed solar
radiation.
• SHGC is determined at normal incidence; angular properties of glazings vary with number of
layers, tints, coatings. So products which have the same SHGC, can have different angular
properties.
Thus, for modeling specific windows, we recommend using more detailed data than just the U
and SHGC, if at all possible.
The simplified window model determines the properties of an equivalent layer in the following
steps.
The values for Ri,w and Ro,w depend on U and are calculated using the following correlations.
1
Ri,w = ; f or U < 5.85 (7.135)
(0.359073 Ln(U ) + 6.949915)
1
Ri,w = ; f or U ≥ 5.85 (7.136)
(1.788041 U − 2.886625)
1
Ro,w = (7.137)
(0.025342 U + 29.163853)
So that the glass-to-glass resistance is calculated using:
1
Rl,w = − Ri,w − Ro,w (7.138)
U
Because the window model in EnergyPlus is for flat geometries, the models are not necessarily
applicable to low-performance projecting products, such as skylights with unisulated curbs. The
model cannot support glazing systems with a U higher than 7.0 because the thermal resistance of
the film coefficients alone can provide this level of performance and none of the various resistances
can be negative.
Tsol = 0.939998 SHGC 2 + 0.20332 SHGC; U > 4.5; SHGC < 0.7206 (7.141)
Tsol = 0.085775 SHGC 2 + 0.963954 SHGC − 0.084958 ; U < 3.4; SHGC > 0.15 (7.144)
7.7. WINDOW CALCULATION MODULE 299
And for U-values between 3.4 and 4.5, the value for Tsol is interpolated using results of the
equations for both ranges.
The layer’s solar reflectance is calculated by first determining the inward flowing fraction which
requires values for the resistance of the inside and outside film coefficients under summer conditions,
Ri,s and Ro,s , respectively. The correlations are:
1
Ri,s = ( ) ; U > 4.5
29.436546 (SHGC − TSol )3 − 21.943415(SHGC − TSol )2 + 9.945872 (SHGC − TSol ) + 7.426151
1
Ri,s = ( ) ; U < 3.4
199.8208128 (SHGC − TSol )3 − 90.639733(SHGC − TSol )2 + 19.737055 (SHGC − TSol ) + 6.766575 (7.145)
1
Ro,s = ; U > 4.5
(2.225824(SHGC − TSol ) + 20.57708)
1
Ro,s = ; U < 3.4
(5.763355(SHGC − TSol ) + 20.541528)
And for U-values between 3.4 and 4.5, the values are interpolated using results from both sets
of equations.
The inward flowing fraction, F racinward , is then calculated using:
Then, the solar reflectances of the front face, Rs,f , and back face, Rs,b , are calculated using:
(SHGC − TSol )
Rs,f = Rs,b = 1 − TSol − (7.147)
F racinward
The thermal absorptance, or emittance, is taken as 0.84 for both the front and back and the
longwave transmittance is 0.0.
The user has the option of entering a value for visible transmittance as one of the simple performance
indices. If the user does not enter a value, then the visible properties are the same as the solar
properties. If the user does enter a value then layer’s visible transmittance at normal incidence,
TV is , is set to that value. The visible light reflectance for the back surface is calculated using:
The visible light reflectance for the front surface is calculated using:
Figure 7.18: Diagram of Transmittance and Reflectance Correlations Used based on U and SHGC
There are ten different correlations, A thru J, for both transmission and reflectance. The cor-
relations are used in various weighting and interpolation schemes according the figure above. The
correlations are normalized against the performance at normal incidence. EnergyPlus uses these
correlations to store the glazing system’s angular performance at 10 degree increments and interpo-
lates between them during simulations. The model equations use the cosine of the incidence angle,
cos(ϕ), as the independent variable. The correlations for transmittance have the form:
been modified algebraically to use a form consistent with what is used for coated glass elsewhere in
the program. To convert from the original equation form,
ρnew (ϕ) = anew + bnew cos(ϕ) + cnew cos2 (ϕ) + dnew cos3 (ϕ) + enew cos4 (ϕ) − τ (ϕ) (7.155)
and,
ρold (ϕ) = aold + bold cos(ϕ) + cold cos2 (ϕ) + dold cos3 (ϕ) + eold cos4 (ϕ) (7.156)
The updated coefficient values for a, b, c, d, and e are listed for transmittance and reflectance
in Tables 7.5 and 7.6, respectively.
is in effect. If the user takes the material properties of an equivalent glazing layer from the simple
window model and then re-enters them into just the detailed model, then the performance will not
be the same because of the angular transmission model will have changed. It is not proper use of
the model to re-enter the equivalent layer’s properties and expect the exact level of performance.
There may not be an exact agreement between the performance indices echoed out and those
input in the model. This is expected with the model and the result of a number of factors. For ex-
ample, when there is a conflict between the SHGC and the U that are not physical and compromises
need to be made. In the versions up till 9.6.0, the reported U value is limited to no higher than
about 5.8W/m2 ·K when input is allowed to go up to U-7 W/m2 ·K. In later versions, this mismatch
of the input and the reported U-factors among exterior windows are resolved with the application of
an adjustment ratio. The adjustment ratio is computed iteratively. In each iteration, the nominal
(or effective) U is re-evaluated, and the adjustment ratio at the current iteration is computed as
a ratio between the input U and nominal U at the current iteration. The iterative process stops
when the input U and the nominal U is close enough (with a less than 0.01 W/m2 ·K difference).
In general, the simple window model is intended to generate a physically reasonable glazing that
approximates the input entered as well as possible. But the model is not always able to do exactly
what is specified when the specifications are not physical.
7.7.4.9 References
Arasteh, D., J.C. Kohler, B. Griffith, Modeling Windows in EnergyPlus with Simple Performance
Indices. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. In Draft. Available at
Ti,j−1 Tj,j
Ti,j = (7.157)
1 − Rj,j
f b
Rj−1,i
2 f
f f Ti,j−1 Rj,j
Ri,j = Ri,j−1 + (7.158)
1 − Rj,j
f b
Rj−1,i
2 b
b b
Tj,j Rj−1,i
Rj,i = Rj,j + (7.159)
1 − Rj−1,i
b f
Rj,j
Figure 7.19: Schematic of transmission, reflection and absorption of solar radiation within a multi-
layer glazing system.
T1,1 T2,2
T1,2 = (7.161)
1 − R2,2
f b
R1,1
2 f
f f T1,1 R2,2
R1,2 = R1,1 + (7.162)
1 − R2,2
f b
R1,1
2 b
b b
T2,2 R1,1
R2,1 = R2,2 + (7.163)
1 − R1,1
b f
R2,2
f
T1,1 R2,2 (1 − T1,1 − R1,1
b
)
Af1 = (1 − T1,1 − f
R1,1 ) + (7.164)
1 − R2,2
f b
R1,1
304 CHAPTER 7. DAYLIGHTING AND WINDOW CALCULATIONS
′
τ (ϕ)2 e−αd/ cos ϕ
T (ϕ) = (7.168)
1 − ρ(ϕ)2 e−2αd/ cos ϕ′
−αd/ cos ϕ′
R(ϕ) = ρ(ϕ) 1 + T (ϕ)e (7.169)
The spectral reflectivity is calculated from Fresnel’s equation assuming unpolarized incident
radiation:
2 2 !
1 n cos ϕ − cos ϕ′ n cos ϕ′ − cos ϕ
ρ(ϕ) = + (7.170)
2 n cos ϕ + cos ϕ′ n cos ϕ′ + cos ϕ
4πκ
α= (7.172)
λ
where κ is the dimensionless spectrally-dependent extinction coefficient and λ is the wavelength
expressed in the same units as the sample thickness.
Solving Equation 7.170 at normal incidence gives:
p
1+
ρ(0)
n= p (7.173)
1 − ρ(0)
Evaluating Equation 7.169 at normal incidence gives the following expression for κ:
λ R(0) − ρ(0)
κ=− ln (7.174)
4πd ρ(0)T (0)
Eliminating the exponential in Equations 7.168 and 7.169 gives the reflectivity at normal inci-
dence:
p
β− β 2 − 4(2 − R(0))R(0)
ρ(0) = (7.175)
2(2 − R(0))
where
τ̄ (ϕ) = τ̄0 + τ̄1 cos(ϕ) + τ̄2 cos2 (ϕ) + τ̄3 cos3 (ϕ) + τ̄4 cos4 (ϕ) (7.177)
and
ρ̄(ϕ) = ρ̄0 + ρ̄1 cos(ϕ) + ρ̄2 cos2 (ϕ) + ρ̄3 cos3 (ϕ) + ρ̄4 cos4 (ϕ) − τ̄ (ϕ) (7.178)
The polynomial coefficients are given in Table 7.9.
0 1 2 3 4
τ̄clr -0.0015 3.355 -3.840 1.460 0.0288
ρ̄clr 0.999 -0.563 2.043 -2.532 1.054
τ̄bnz -0.002 2.813 -2.341 -0.05725 0.599
ρ̄bnz 0.997 -1.868 6.513 -7.862 3.225
These factors are used as follows to calculate the angular transmittance and reflectance:
For T(0) > 0.645:
The integral is evaluated by Simpson’s rule for property values at angles of incidence from 0 to
90 degrees in 10-degree increments.
7.7.8.1 Shades
7.7.8.2 Shade/Glazing System Properties for Short-Wave Radiation
Short-wave radiation includes:
• Beam solar radiation from the sun and diffuse solar radiation from the sky and ground incident
on the outside of the window,
• Beam and/or diffuse radiation reflected from exterior obstructions or the building itself,
• Solar radiation reflected from the inside zone surfaces and incident as diffuse radiation on the
inside of the window,
310 CHAPTER 7. DAYLIGHTING AND WINDOW CALCULATIONS
• Beam solar radiation from one exterior window incident on the inside of another window in
the same zone, and
• Short-wave radiation from electric lights incident as diffuse radiation on the inside of the
window.
Exterior Shade
For an exterior shade we have the following expressions for the system transmittance, the ef-
fective system glass layer absorptance, and the system shade absorptance, taking inter-reflection
between shade and glazing into account. Here, “system” refers to the combination of glazing and
shade. The system properties are given in terms of the isolated shade properties (i.e., shade prop-
erties in the absence of the glazing) and the isolated glazing properties (i.e., glazing properties in
the absence of the shade).
dif τsh
Tsys (ϕ) = T1,N (7.184)
1 − Rfdif ρsh
dif dif τsh
Tsys = T1,N (7.185)
1 − Rfdif ρsh
τsh
Asys dif
j,f (ϕ) = Aj,f , j = 1 to N (7.186)
1 − Rf ρsh
dif,sys τsh
Aj,f = Adif , j = 1 to N (7.187)
j,f
1 − Rf ρsh
dif
dif,sys T1,N ρsh
Aj,b = Adif , j = 1 to N (7.188)
1 − Rf ρsh
j,b
sys τsh Rf
αsh = αsh 1 + (7.189)
1 − Rf ρsh
Interior Shade
The system properties when an interior shade is in place are the following:
τsh
Tsys (ϕ) = T1,N (ϕ) (7.190)
1 − Rbdif ρsh
dif dif τsh
Tsys = T1,N (7.191)
1 − Rbdif ρsh
ρsh
Asys
j,f (ϕ) = Aj,f (ϕ) + T1,N (ϕ) Adifj,b , j = 1 to N (7.192)
1 − Rb ρsh
dif
ρsh
Adif,sys
j,f = Adif
j,f + T1,N
dif
Adif
j,b , j = 1 to N (7.193)
1 − Rb ρsh
dif
τsh
Adif,sys
j,b = Adif
j,b , j = 1 to N (7.194)
1 − Rb ρsh
dif
sys αsh
αsh (ϕ) = T1,N (ϕ) (7.195)
1 − Rbdif ρsh
dif,sys dif αsh
αsh = T1,N (7.196)
1 − Rbdif ρsh
7.7. WINDOW CALCULATION MODULE 311
• Thermal radiation from the sky, ground and exterior obstructions incident on the outside of
the window,
• Thermal radiation from other room surfaces incident on the inside of the window, and
• Thermal radiation from internal sources, such as equipment and electric lights, incident on
the inside of the window.
The program calculates how much long-wave radiation is absorbed by the shade and by the
adjacent glass surface. The system emissivity (thermal absorptance) for an interior or exterior
shade, taking into account reflection of long-wave radiation between the glass and shade, is given
by:
!
lw lw
τsh ρgl
εlw,sys = εlw 1+ (7.197)
sh sh
1 − ρlw lw
sh ρgl
where ρlw
gl is the long-wave reflectance of the outermost glass surface for an exterior shade or the
innermost glass surface for an interior shade, and it is assumed that the long-wave transmittance
of the glass is zero.
The innermost (for interior shade) or outermost (for exterior shade) glass surface emissivity
when the shade is present is:
lw
τsh
εlw,sys = εlw (7.198)
gl gl
1 − ρlw lw
sh ρgl
For switchable glazing, such as electrochromics, the solar and visible optical properties of the glazing
can switch from a light state to a dark state. The switching factor, fswitch , determines what state
the glazing is in. An optical property, p, such as transmittance or glass layer absorptance, for this
state is given by:
where
plight is the property value for the unswitched, or light state, and pdark is the property value for
the fully switched, or dark state.
The value of the switching factor in a particular time step depends on what type of switching
control has been specified: “schedule,” “trigger,” or “daylighting.” If “schedule,” fswitch = schedule
value, which can be 0 or 1.
312 CHAPTER 7. DAYLIGHTING AND WINDOW CALCULATIONS
Figure 7.20: Variations of Window Properties with the Temperature of the Thermochromic Glazing
Layer
On cloudy days the window is at full transmission and letting in diffuse daylighting. On sunny
days the window maximizes diffuse daylighting and tints based on the angle of the sun relative to
the window. For a south facing window (northern hemisphere) the daylight early and late in the
day is maximized and the direct sun at mid day is minimized.
The active thermochromic material can be embodied within a laminate layer or a surface film.
The overall optical state of the window at a given time is a function primarily of:
The tinted film, in combination with a heat reflecting, low-e layer allows the window to reject
most of the absorbed radiation thus reducing undesirable heat load in a building. In the absence of
direct sunlight the window cools and clears and again allows lower intensity diffuse radiation into a
building. TC windows can be designed in several ways (Figure 7.21), with the most common being a
triple pane windows with the TC glass layer in the middle a double pane windows with the TC layer
on the inner surface of the outer pane or for sloped glazing a double pane with the laminate layer
on the inner pane with a low-e layer toward the interior. The TC glass layer has variable optical
properties depending on its temperature, with a lower temperature at which the optical change is
initiated, and an upper temperature at which a minimum transmittance is reached. TC windows
act as passive solar shading devices without the need for sensors, controls and power supplies but
their optical performance is dependent on varying solar and other environmental conditions at the
location of the window.
7.7.9.1 Blinds
Window blinds in EnergyPlus are defined as a series of equidistant slats that are oriented horizontally
or vertically. All of the slats are assumed to have the same optical properties. The overall optical
properties of the blind are determined by the slat geometry (width, separation and angle) and the
slat optical properties (front-side and back-side transmittance and reflectance). Blind properties for
direct radiation are also sensitive to the “profile angle,” which is the angle of incidence in a plane
that is perpendicular to the window plane and to the direction of the slats. The blind optical model
in EnergyPlus is based on Simmler, Fischer and Winkelmann, 1996; however, that document has
numerous typographical errors and should be used with caution.
The following assumptions are made in calculating the blind optical properties:
• The spectral dependence of inter-reflections between slats and glazing is ignored; spectral-
average slat optical properties are used.
• The slats are perfect diffusers. They have a perfectly matte finish so that reflection from a slat
is isotropic (hemispherically uniform) and independent of angle of incidence, i.e., the reflection
has no specular component. This also means that absorption by the slats is hemispherically
uniform with no incidence angle dependence. If the transmittance of a slat is non-zero, the
transmitted radiation is isotropic and the transmittance is independent of angle of incidence.
• Inter-reflection between the blind and wall elements near the periphery of the blind is ignored.
• If the slats have holes through which support strings pass, the holes and strings are ignored.
Any other structures that support or move the slats are ignored.
The direct-to-direct and direct-to-diffuse transmittance of a blind is calculated using the slat ge-
ometry shown in Figure 7.22(a), which shows the side view of one of the cells of the blind. For
the case shown, each slat is divided into two segments, so that the cell is bounded by a total of
six segments, denoted by s1 through s6 (note in the following that si refers to both segment i and
the length of segment i).The lengths of s1 and s2 are equal to the slat separation, h, which is the
distance between adjacent slat faces. s3 and s4 are the segments illuminated by direct radiation.
In the case shown in Figure 7.22(a) the cell receives radiation by reflection of the direct radiation
incident on s4 and, if the slats have non-zero transmittance, by transmission through s3 , which is
illuminated from above.
The goal of the blind direct transmission calculation is to determine the direct and diffuse
radiation leaving the cell through s2 for unit direct radiation entering the cell through s1 .
Figure 7.22(b) shows the case where some of the direct radiation passes through the cell without
hitting the slats. From the geometry in this figure we see that
|w|
dir,dir
τbl,f =1− , |w| ≤ h (7.200)
h
where
cos(φb − φs )
w=s (7.201)
cos φs
Note that we are assuming that the slat thickness is zero. A correction for non-zero slat thickness
is described later.
316 CHAPTER 7. DAYLIGHTING AND WINDOW CALCULATIONS
Figure 7.22: (a) Side view of a cell formed by adjacent slats showing how the cell is divided into
segments, si , for the calculation of direct solar transmittance; (b) side view of a cell showing case
where some of the direct solar passes between adjacent slats without touching either of them. In
this figure ϕs is the profile angle and ϕb is the slat angle.
J1 = Q1
J2 = Q2
J3 = Q3 + ρbdif,dif G3 + τdif,dif G4
(7.202)
J4 = Q4 + τdif,dif G3 + ρfdif,dif G4
J5 = Q5 + ρbdif,dif G5 + τdif,dif G6
J6 = Q6 + τdif,dif G5 + ρfdif,dif G6
In addition we have the following equation relating G and J:
X
6
Gi = Jj Fji , i = 1, 6 (7.203)
j=1
where Fji is the view factor between sj and si , i.e., Fji is the fraction of radiation leaving sj
that is intercepted by si .
Using J1 = Q1 = 0 and J2 = Q2 = 0 and combining the above equations gives the following
equation set relating J and Q:
7.7. WINDOW CALCULATION MODULE 317
X
6 X
6
J3 − ρbdif,dif Jj Fj3 − τdif,dif Jj Fj4 = Q3 (7.204)
j=3 j=3
X
6 X
6
J4 − τdif,dif Jj Fj3 − ρfdif,dif Jj Fj4 = Q4 (7.205)
j=3 j=3
X
6 X
6
J5 − ρbdif,dif Jj Fj5 − τdif,dif Jj Fj6 = Q5 (7.206)
j=3 j=3
X
6 X
6
J6 − τdif,dif Jj Fj3 − ρfdif,dif Jj Fj6 = Q6 (7.207)
j=3 j=3
Q′ = XJ ′ (7.208)
where X is a 4x4 matrix and
J3
′ J4
J = (7.209)
J5
J6
Q3
Q4
Q′ = (7.210)
Q5
Q6
We then obtain J ′ from:
J ′ = X −1 Q′ (7.211)
The view factors, Fij , are obtained as follows. The cell we are dealing with is a convex polygon
with n sides. In such a polygon the view factors must satisfy the following constraints:
X
n
Fij = 1, i = 1, n (7.212)
j=1
Fii = 0, i = 1, n (7.214)
These constraints lead to simple equations for the view factors for n = 3 and 4. For n = 3, we
have the following geometry and view factor expression:
For n = 4 we have:
318 CHAPTER 7. DAYLIGHTING AND WINDOW CALCULATIONS
Applying these to the slat cell shown in Figure 7.25 we have the following:
d1 + d2 − 2s
F12 = (7.215)
2h
h + s 3 − d3
F13 = , etc. (7.216)
2h
The sources for the direct-to-diffuse transmittance calculation are:
Figure 7.25: Slat cell showing geometry for calculation of view factors between the segments of the
cell.
320 CHAPTER 7. DAYLIGHTING AND WINDOW CALCULATIONS
dir
αbl,f = 1 − τbl,f
dir,dif
− τbl,f
dir,dir
− ρdir,dif
bl,f (7.222)
The direct-to-diffuse calculations are performed separately for solar and visible slat properties
to get the corresponding solar and visible blind properties.
The back-side properties are calculated in a similar way by setting Q2 = 1 with the other Qi
equal to zero.
The diffuse-to-diffuse calculations are performed separately for solar, visible and IR slat prop-
erties to get the corresponding solar, visible and IR blind properties.
Figure 7.26: Slat cell showing arrangement of segments and location of source for calculation of
diffuse-to-diffuse optical properties.
322 CHAPTER 7. DAYLIGHTING AND WINDOW CALCULATIONS
ρgnd−dif,dif
bl,f = front reflectance for ground diffuse solar
sky−dif,dif
ρbl,f = front reflectance for sky diffuse solar
gnd−dif,dif
αbl,f = front absorptance for ground diffuse solar
sky−dif,dif
αbl,f = front absorptance for sky diffuse solar
These are obtained by integrating over sky and ground elements, as shown in Figure 7.27,
treating each element as a source of direct radiation of irradiance I(ϕs ) incident on the blind at
profile angle ϕs . This gives:
R h
π/2
dir,dir dir,dif
i
τbl,f (ϕs ) + τbl,f (ϕs ) Isky (ϕs ) cos ϕs dϕs
sky−dif,dif 0
τbl,f = (7.224)
R
π/2
Isky (ϕs ) cos ϕs dϕs
0
R
π/2
ρdir,dif
bl,f Isky (ϕs ) cos ϕs dϕs
0
ρsky−dif,dif
bl,f = (7.225)
R
π/2
Isky (ϕs ) cos ϕs dϕs
0
R
π/2
dir
αbl,f Isky (ϕs ) cos ϕs dϕs
sky−dif 0
αbl,f = (7.226)
R
π/2
Isky (ϕs ) cos ϕs dϕs
0
We assume that the sky radiance is uniform. This means that Isky is independent of ϕs , giving:
Zπ/2h i
sky−dif,dif dir,dir dir,dif
τbl,f = τbl,f + τbl,f cos ϕs dϕs (7.227)
0
Zπ/2
ρsky−dif,dif
bl,f = ρdir,dif
bl,f cos ϕs dϕs (7.228)
0
Zπ/2
sky−dif dir
αbl,f = αbl,f cos ϕs dϕs (7.229)
0
The corresponding ground diffuse quantities are obtained by integrating ϕs from −π/2 to 0.
An improvement to this calculation would be to allow the sky radiance distribution to be non-
uniform, i.e., to depend on sun position and sky conditions, as is done in the detailed daylighting
calculation (see “Sky Luminance Distributions” under “Daylight Factor Calculation”).
Figure 7.27: Side view of horizontal slats in a vertical blind showing geometry for calculating blind
transmission, reflection and absorption properties for sky and ground diffuse radiation.
324 CHAPTER 7. DAYLIGHTING AND WINDOW CALCULATIONS
Figure 7.28 for the case of direct radiation incident on the blind. The slat cross-section is assumed
to be rectangular. The quantity of interest is the fraction, fedge , of direct radiation incident on the
blind that strikes the slat edges. Based on the geometry shown in Figure 7.28 we see that
Slat Properties
Separation 0.012 0.012 0.012 0.012 0.012
(m)
Width (m) 0.016 0.016 0.016 0.016 0.016
Angle (deg) 45 45 45 10 45
IR transmit- 0 0 0 0 0.4
tance
IR emissivity, 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.55
front side
IR emissivity, 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.55
back side
Solar trans- 0 0 0 0 0.4
mittance
7.7. WINDOW CALCULATION MODULE 325
Solar Profile 0 60 0 60 0 60 0 60 0 60
angle (deg)
dif
dir,sys Tgldir (ϕ)αgl,j,b ρdir
bl,f (ϕs )
Agl,j,f (ϕ, ϕs ) = Adir
gl,j,f (ϕ) + , j = 1, N (7.233)
1 − ρdir dif
bl,f (ϕs )Rgl,b
dif dif
!
dir,sys ρdir
bl,f (ϕs )Rgl,b αbl,f
αbl,f dir
(ϕ, ϕs ) = Tgldir (ϕ) αbl,f (ϕs ) + (7.234)
1 − ρdif dif
bl,f Rgl,b
Figure 7.28: Side view of slats showing geometry for calculation of slat edge correction factor for
incident direct radiation.
328 CHAPTER 7. DAYLIGHTING AND WINDOW CALCULATIONS
Tgldif ρsky−dif
bl,f Adif
gl,j,b
Asky−dif,sys
gl,j,f = Adif
gl,j,f + , j = 1, N (7.239)
1 − ρsky−dif
bl,f
dif
Rgl,b
Tgldif ρgnd−dif
bl,f Adif
gl,j,b
Agnd−dif,sys
gl,j,f = Adif
gl,j,f + , j = 1, N (7.240)
1 − ρgnd−dif
bl,f
dif
Rgl,b
dif,sys
dif
Tgldif αbl,f
αbl,f = (7.241)
1 − ρdif dif
bl,f Rgl,b
dir,dir dir,dif
τbl,f dir
(ϕs )Rgl (ϕ)ρdir
bl,b (ϕs ) + τ bl,f (ϕs ) Adif
gl,j,f
Adir,sys dir,dir
gl,j,f (ϕ, ϕs ) = τbl,f (ϕs )Adir
gl,j,f (ϕ) + , j = 1, N
1 − Rgl,f
dif dif
ρbl,b
(7.245)
dif,dif dif
dif,dif τbl,f Tgl
Tf,sys = (7.247)
1 − Rgl,f
dif dif
ρbl,b
sky−dif,dif dif
sky−dif,dif τbl,f Tgl
Tf,sys = (7.248)
1 − Rgl,f
dif dif
ρbl,b
7.7. WINDOW CALCULATION MODULE 329
gnd−dif,dif dif
gnd−dif,dif τbl,f Tgl
Tf,sys = (7.249)
1 − Rgl,f
dif dif
ρbl,b
dif,dif dif
τbl,f Agl,j,f
Adif,sys
gl,j,f = , j = 1, N (7.250)
1 − Rgl,f
dif dif
ρbl,b
sky−dif,dif dif
τbl,f Agl,j,f
Asky−dif,sys
gl,j,f = , j = 1, N (7.251)
1 − Rgl,f
dif dif
ρbl,b
gnd−dif,dif dif
τbl,f Agl,j,f
Agnd−dif,sys
gl,j,f = , j = 1, N (7.252)
1 − Rgl,f
dif dif
ρbl,b
dif,dif dif
dif,sys dif τbl,f Rgl,f dif
αbl,f = αbl,f + αbl,b (7.253)
1− dif dif
Rgl,f ρbl,b
sky−dif,dif dif
sky−dif,sys sky−dif τbl,f Rgl,f dif
αbl,f = αbl,f + αbl,b (7.254)
1− dif dif
Rgl,f ρbl,b
gnd−dif,dif dif
gnd−dif,sys gnd−dif τbl,f Rgl,f dif
αbl,f = αbl,f + αbl,b (7.255)
1− dif dif
Rgl,f ρbl,b
where ρlw
gl is the long-wave reflectance of the outermost glass surface for an exterior blind or the
innermost glass surface for an interior blind, and it is assumed that the long-wave transmittance of
the glass is zero.
The effective innermost (for interior blind) or outermost (for exterior blind) glass surface emis-
sivity when the blind is present is:
τbllw
εlw,ef f
= εlw (7.257)
gl gl
1 − ρlw lw
bl ρgl
The effective inside surface emissivity is the sum of the effective blind and effective glass emis-
sivities:
εlw,ef
ins
f
= εlw,ef
bl
f
+ εlw,ef
gl
f
(7.258)
The effective temperature of the blind/glazing combination that is used to calculate the window’s
contribution to the zone’s mean radiant temperature (MRT) is given by:
330 CHAPTER 7. DAYLIGHTING AND WINDOW CALCULATIONS
εlw,ef
bl
f
Tbl + εlw,ef
gl
f
Tgl
T ef f = (7.259)
εlw,ef
bl
f
+ εlw,ef
gl
f
where fsunlit is the fraction of the window that is sunlit (determined by the shadowing calcula-
tions), Idir,norm is the direct normal solar irradiance, and ϕ is the angle of incidence.
Let Isky,inc be the irradiance on the window due to diffuse solar radiation from the sky (W/m2 )
and let Ignd,inc be the irradiance on the window due to diffuse solar radiation from the ground
(W/m2 ).
Then we have the following expressions for different classes of transmitted and absorbed solar
radiation for the window/blind system (where ϕs is the direct solar profile angle), all in W/m2 :
Direct solar entering zone from incident direct solar:
dir,dir
Idir,inc Tf,sys (ϕ, ϕs ) (7.261)
dir,dif
Idir,inc Tf,sys (ϕ, ϕs ) (7.262)
dir,sys
Idir,inc αbl,f (ϕ, ϕs ) (7.263)
Idir,inc Adir,sys
gl,j,f (ϕ, ϕs ), j = 1, N (7.264)
dif,dif
(Isky,inc + Ignd,inc )Tf,sys (7.265)
dif,sys
(Isky,inc + Ignd,inc )αbl,f (7.266)
7.7.9.18 For windows of tilt angle γ whose blinds have horizontal slats:
(vertical windows have tilt = 90o , horizontal windows have tilt = 0o )
Diffuse solar entering zone from incident diffuse solar:
| cos γ| | cos γ|
sky−dif,dif
Tf,sys 1− Isky,inc + Ignd,inc +
2 2
(7.268)
gnd−dif,dif | cos γ| | cos γ|
Tf,sys Isky,inc + 1 − Ignd,inc
2 2
| cos γ| | cos γ|
sky−dif,sys
αbl,f 1− Isky,inc + Ignd,inc +
2 2
(7.269)
gnd−dif,sys | cos γ| | cos γ|
αbl,f Isky,inc + 1 − Ignd,inc
2 2
7.7.9.19 Screens
The model for window screens currently allows placement on the exterior surface of a window system
(i.e., between glass and interior window screens can not be modeled). The exterior screen is modeled
as a planar semi-transparent sheet having specular transmittance that is dependent on the angle of
incidence of beam solar radiation. The screen transmittance algorithm includes two components.
The first one, Tbeam (α’, φ’), accounts for the blockage of the sun’s rays by the screen material.
This component accounts for the beam solar radiation passing through the screen openings without
hitting the screen material. The second part, Tscatt (α’, φ’), accounts for the additional flux of
transmitted beam solar radiation by diffuse reflectance (scattering) from the screen material. Since
the reflected component is small compared with the incident beam and the direction of scattering
is highly dependent on incident angle, the component of transmitted beam radiation due to screen
material reflectance can be treated in one of three ways based on a user input to the model.
The user may elect not to model the inward reflected beam transmittance due to the uncertainty
of the direction of scattering or its low magnitude for low-reflecting screen materials. The user may
alternately choose to model the inwardly-reflected transmitted beam as an additive component to
the direct beam transmittance in the same solid angle and direction. Finally, the additional flux
due to the inward reflection of direct beam radiation may be modeled as hemispherically-diffuse
transmittance.
This reflected beam transmittance component depends upon the diffuse (i.e., beam-to-diffuse)
reflectance of the screen material, so this reflectance ρsc is a required input to the model. Guidance
input values for this diffuse reflectance are provided, to account for screens that are dark, medium, or
light colored in appearance, in the likely case that more accurate values for the material reflectance
332 CHAPTER 7. DAYLIGHTING AND WINDOW CALCULATIONS
are difficult or time-consuming to obtain. If the diffuse reflectance of the screen material is known,
use this value in place of the guidance provided.
The model is based on an orthogonal crossed cylinder geometry in which the screen material’s
cylindrical diameter and spacing are known. The model assumes that the screen material diameter
and spacing are the same in both directions. Figure 7.29 shows a rendering of intersecting orthogonal
crossed cylinders used as the basis for the EnergyPlus screen model.
If the required screen material dimensions are not available from the manufacturer, they may
be determined using the following procedure:
• Lay the screen next to a finely-divided scale or ruler. A magnifying glass may be helpful in
determining the screen material dimensions. Alternately, a photograph can be taken and the
image enlarged.
• Determine the diameter D of an individual screen material “cylinder”. Average the diameter
values if different in opposing directions.
• Determine the average center-to-center spacing S of the screen material or measure from one
side of a “cylinder” to the same side of the next ”cylinder” and record the spacing S. Average
the spacing values if different in opposing directions.
• Enter these values as inputs to the exterior window screen model.
The screen material diameter and spacing are then used to determine the screen material aspect
ratio for use in the screen model.
γ = D/S (7.271)
where
γ = Screen material aspect ratio, dimensionless
D = Screen material diameter, m
S = Screen material spacing, m
Figure 7.30 below shows the input requirements for material diameter and spacing and the
associated calculation for openness factor, the equivalent to Tbeam at direct normal incidence.
7.7. WINDOW CALCULATION MODULE 333
π
β= − φ′ (7.273)
2
h 1 i
Ty = 1 − γ cos α′′ + sin α′′ tan α′ 1 + cot2 β 2 (7.274)
1
µ = arccos cos2 α′ cos2 φ′ + sin2 α′ 2 (7.275)
cos α′ cos φ′
ε = arccos (7.276)
cos µ
334 CHAPTER 7. DAYLIGHTING AND WINDOW CALCULATIONS
π
η= −ε (7.277)
2
The second component of the window screen transmittance model is an empirical algorithm that
accounts for the inward reflection of incident beam radiation off the screen material surface. The
calculation procedure for the screen’s transmittance via beam reflection, Tscatt (α’, φ’) is as follows:
sc − 0.03624 γ +
vis
Tscattmax = 0.0229 γ + 0.2971 ρvis 2
2 (7.282)
sc ) − 0.44416 γ ρsc
0.04763(ρvis vis
′2 ′2
12
δ = αd + φ d (7.284)
1
P eakratio = (7.285)
0.2ρsc (1 − γ)
vis 1
P eakratio = (7.286)
0.2ρvis
sc (1 − γ)
−|δ−δmax |2.0
′ ′
Tscatt (α , φ ) = 0.2ρsc Tscattmax (1 − γ) 1 + (P eakratio − 1) e 600 (7.287)
′ ′
−|δ−δmax |2.0
vis
Tscatt (α , φ ) = 0.2ρvis vis
sc Tscattmax (1 − γ) 1 + vis
P eakratio −1 e 600 (7.288)
where
Tscattmax = maximum reflected (scattered) beam transmittance
vis
Tscattmax = maximum visible reflected (scattered) beam transmittance
δmax , δ = intermediate variables [degrees]
αd′ = relative solar altitude [degrees]
φ′d = relative solar azimuth [degrees]
P eakratio = Ratio of peak scattered beam transmittance to scattered beam transmittance at
direct normal incidence.
vis
P eakratio = Ratio of peak scattered visible transmittance to scattered visible transmittance at
direct normal incidence.
ρsc = diffuse solar reflectance of the screen material
ρvis
sc = diffuse visible reflectance of the screen material
Tscatt = beam solar transmittance due to reflectance (scattering)
336 CHAPTER 7. DAYLIGHTING AND WINDOW CALCULATIONS
vis
Tscatt = beam visible transmittance due to reflectance (scattering)
The reflected (scattered) transmittance of incident beam radiation is an empirical model derived
by curvefitting results from optical ray trace modeling. Ray traces were performed for a range of
screen aspect ratios, diffuse screen reflectances, and relative solar azimuth and altitude angles. The
surface of the screen cylinders was assumed to be diffusely reflecting, having the optical properties
of a Lambertian surface. The transmitted flux due to reflection was determined by a hemispherical
detector on the transmitted side of the screen.
These two components of beam solar transmittance are then used to specify the properties
for beam-to-beam and beam-to-diffuse transmittance for the screen based on the user selection
for Reflected Beam Transmittance Accounting Method in the WindowMaterial:Screen object. The
calculations below apply to both the solar and visible beam solar transmittance.
If the user selects DoNotModel, the direct beam transmittance is set to Tbeam and the reflected
(scattered) portion of the beam solar transmittance is ignored:
dir,dir ′ ′
Tsc, vis = Tbeam (α , φ ) (7.292)
dir,dif
Tsc, vis = 0.0 (7.293)
where
Tscdir,dir = direct-to-direct beam transmittance of the screen (output report variable Surface
Window Screen Beam to Beam Solar Transmittance)
Tscdir,dif = direct-to-diffuse beam transmittance of the screen (output report variable Surface
Window Screen Beam to Diffuse Solar Transmittance)
dir,dir
Tsc, vis = direct-to-direct visible transmittance of the screen
dir,dif
Tsc, vis = direct-to-diffuse visible transmittance of the screen
If the user selects Model as Direct Beam, the reflected (scattered) portion of the beam solar
transmittance is added to the direct beam transmittance Tbeam in the same solid angle and direction
of the unattenuated solar beam:
dir,dir ′ ′ vis ′ ′
Tsc, vis = Tbeam (α , φ ) + Tscatt (α , φ ) (7.296)
dir,dif
Tsc, vis = 0.0 (7.297)
If the user selects Model as Diffuse Beam, the direct beam transmittance is set to Tbeam and the
reflected (scattered) portion of the beam solar transmittance is modeled as diffuse hemispherical
radiation:
7.7. WINDOW CALCULATION MODULE 337
dir,dir ′ ′
Tsc, vis = Tbeam (α , φ ) (7.300)
dir,dif vis ′ ′
Tsc, vis = Tscatt (α , φ ) (7.301)
spherical coordinates (θ, ϕ) in which the z-axis is perpendicular to the plane of the screen. Using a
finite element computation, this is:
P
N P
M
Ttot (γ, ρsc , θj , ϕi ) sin(θj ) cos(θj )
j=1 i=1
Tscdif,dif (γ, ρsc ) = (7.306)
P
N P
M
sin(θj ) cos(θj )
j=1 i=1
where
θ = solar altitude angle in polar coordinates [radians]
ϕ = solar azimuth angle in polar coordinates [radians]
Tscdif,dif (γ, ρsc ) = diffuse-diffuse transmittance (output report variable Surface Window Screen
Diffuse to Diffuse Solar Transmittance)
Similarly, the reflectance of the screen to diffuse radiation is given by
P
N P
M
dir,dif
Rsc (γ, ρsc , θj , ϕi ) sin(θj ) cos(θj )
dif,dif j=1 i=1
Rsc (γ, ρsc ) = (7.307)
P
N P
M
sin(θj ) cos(θj )
j=1 i=1
There is an assumption in both of these formulas that the brightness of the sky (or ground)
diffuse radiation is the same for all directions. For this reason, the solar azimuth angle ϕ and solar
altitude angle θ have a range of 0 to π/2 (instead of −π/2 to +π/2 ) because the screen is
assumed to have identical optical properties for radiation incident at the same angles on either side
of a vertical or horizontal plane perpendicular to the screen.
Since the screen direct transmittance model is derived with respect to a different coordinate
axis labeling, a coordinate transform is needed in order to calculate the diffuse optical properties.
In these calculations, for each spherical solar coordinates (θ, ϕ) we need the corresponding screen
relative solar coordinates (α’, φ’) to evaluate the screen transmittance model for that direction.
For each θ and ϕ in the summation, the corresponding values for the relative solar altitude α’
and relative solar azimuth φ’ needed to calculate screen transmittance are determined with the
following coordinate transform equations:
The absorptance of the screen to diffuse incident radiation is calculated by subtracting the
diffuse transmittance and diffuse reflectance from unity as follows:
The combined system properties of the screen/glass combination are calculated using the properties
of the screen in combination with the bare glass material properties. Interreflections of radiation
between the screen and glass surfaces are included. The following infinite series serves as an example
for calculating the combined screen/glass system properties. The terms of the series are built up as
illustrated in the following figure. The terms shown at the right of the figure represent each term
in the infinite series for the combined screen/glass property (beam transmittance in this example).
For the example of beam transmittance, the incident solar beam strikes the screen at the in-
cident angle associated with the current relative azimuth and altitude angle. The incident beam
splits into reflected and transmitted components at the screen. The transmitted component is
attenuated as it passes through the screen material by the screen’s beam transmittance (Tscdir,dir ,
shown as Tscdir in the figure and equations below) at this incident angle. The reflected (scattered)
transmittance of incident solar beam is also shown at this point and will be discussed later in this
section. As the attenuated solar beam continues on towards the front glass surface, a portion of the
screen-transmitted beam splits at the window surface into transmitted and reflected components.
The reflected component reflects off the front surface of the glass material (Tscdir,dir Rgl,f dir
) and the
transmitted component continues to travel through the glass material and is further attenuated
by the glass beam transmittance. Thus the first term of the combined screen/glass solar beam
transmittance is shown as Tscdir,dir Tgldir . Interreflections are accounted for by following the beam as
it continues to reflect off the front surface of the glass material and the back surface of the screen
material. Continuing on with the glass-reflected beam (Tscdir,dir Rgl,f dir
) described above, this beam
strikes the back surface of the screen material at the same incident angle as the incident solar
beam. This reflected beam is also assumed to be a collimated beam (solid lines) which strikes
the back surface of the screen material and reflects as hemispherically-diffuse radiation (dotted
lines). The reflective property of the screen material used here is the beam reflectance calculated
dir,dif
at the incident solar angle (Rsc ). A single ray of this diffuse light will be followed through the
remaining steps and represents the energy associated with all diffuse rays interreflecting between
the screen and glass layers. To determine the second term of the combined screen/glass beam
transmittance, the diffusely-reflected ray (Tscdir,dir Rgl,f dir dir,dif
Rsc ) passes through and is attenuated by
the glass layer. Since this ray originates from diffuse reflection, the attenuation of this ray is ac-
counted for using the diffuse transmittance property of the glass. Thus, the second term is shown
dir,dif dif
as Tscdir,dir Rgl,f
dir
Rsc Tgl . Defining the remaining terms continues in a similar fashion using diffuse
properties of both the screen and glass material. Notice that the 3rd and 4th terms shown below are
similar to the 2nd term, but additional terms are raised to increasing powers.
The screen/glass system transmittance equation shown in the figure above is repeated here in an
alternate format to emphasize the recurring nature of the infinite series. This equation represents
the final solar beam transmittance equation for the screen/glass combination. The recurring terms
are shown as a summation of a quantity raised to the n power, with n ranging from 0 to infinity.
dif dif,dif P∞
dif dif,dif n
Since the quantity Rgl Rsc is less than 1, the summation (Rgl,f Rsc ) converges and
−1 n=0
dir,all
Tsys (α′ , φ′ , ϕ) = Tscdir,dir (α′ , φ′ )Tgldir (ϕ)
+(Tscdir,dir (α′ , φ′ )Rgl,f
dir dir,dif
Rsc (α′ , φ′ ) (7.311)
P dif dif,dif n
∞
+Tscdir,dif (α′ , φ′ ))Tgldif (Rgl,f Rsc )
n=0
or:
′ ′
Adir,sys dir,dir
gl,j,f (α , φ , ϕ) = Tsc (α′ , φ′ ) Adir gl,j,f (ϕ) +
(Tscdir,dir (α′ ,φ′ )Rgl
dir (ϕ)Rdir,dif (α′ ,φ′ )+T dir,dif (α′ ,φ′ ) Adif
sc sc ) gl,j,f (7.313)
dif
1−Rgl,f dif,dif
Rsc
, j = 1, N
dir,sys
αsc (α′ , φ′ , ϕ) = Adir ′ ′ dir dir,dir
sc (α , φ ) 1 + Rgl,f (ϕ) Tsc (α′ , φ′ ) +
Adif dif
sc Rgl,f
(7.314)
dif,dif dif
1−Rsc Rgl,f
dir
Rgl,f (ϕ) Tscdir,dir (α′ , φ′ ) Rsc
dir,dif
(α′ , φ′ )
dif,dif
Tscdif,dif Tgldif
Tsys = (7.315)
1 − Rgl,f
dif dif,dif
Rsc
Tscdif,dif Adif
gl,j,f
Adif,sys
gl,j,f = , j = 1, N (7.316)
1 − Rgl,f
dif dif,dif
Rsc
dif
!
dif, sys
Tscdif,dif Rgl,f
αsc = Adif
sc 1+ (7.317)
1 − Rgl,f
dif dif,dif
Rsc
where
′ ′
Adir,sys
gl,j,f (α , φ , ϕ) = glass layer beam absorptance including interreflections with screen material
dir,sys
αsc (α′ , φ′ , ϕ) = beam absorptance of screen material including interreflections with glass
dif,dif
Tsys = screen/glass system diffuse transmittance (output report variable Surface Window
Screen and Glazing System Diffuse Solar Transmittance)
Adif,sys
gl,j,f = glass layer diffuse absorptance including interreflections with screen material
dif,sys
αsc = diffuse absorptance of screen material including interreflections with glass
7.7. WINDOW CALCULATION MODULE 343
Tscdif,dif
εlw,ef
gl
f
= εlw
gl (7.319)
1 − Rsc
dif,dif lw
ρgl
The effective inside surface emissivity is the sum of the effective screen and effective glass
emissivities:
εlw,ef
ins
f
= εlw,ef
sc
f
+ εlw,ef
gl
f
(7.320)
The effective temperature of the screen/glazing combination that is used to calculate the win-
dow’s contribution to the zone’s mean radiant temperature (MRT) is given by
ef f
εlw,ef
sc
f
Tsc + εlw,ef
gl
f
Tgl
T = (7.321)
εlw,ef
sc
f
+ εlw,ef
gl
f
dir,all
Idir,inc Tsys (α′ , φ′ ) (7.323)
Direct solar absorbed by screen:
dir,sys
Idir,inc αsc (α′ , φ′ ) (7.324)
344 CHAPTER 7. DAYLIGHTING AND WINDOW CALCULATIONS
Idir,inc Adir,sys
gl,j,f (ϕ, ϕs ), j = 1, N (7.325)
dif,dif
(Isky,inc + Ignd,inc ) Tsys (7.326)
dif,sys
(Isky, inc + Ignd, inc) αsc (7.327)
The negative sign is added to account for the fact that p(I) and n have opposite sign for incoming
radiation.
The radiance in Equation 7.333 is emitted from the back side of the element of area shown in
Figure 7.34. Considering a second surface, viewing the back side of the fenestration system, we
can use Equation 7.332 to calculate the irradiance on surface 2:
E (2) (p(T) )dA(2) = S (T) (p(T) ) −p(T) · n(2) dΩ(I,2) dA(2) (7.334)
This expression, however, contains a number of new quantities, such as dΩ(I,2) , the element of
solid angle for incoming radiation as seen from surface 2. We can sort this out by referring to
Figure 7.35 and making some changes and clarifications in notation.
In this figure, we consider that surface 1 is the back side of the fenestration system, and surface
2 is some other surface in the room that receives the transmitted solar radiation through the
fenestration system. We consider infinitesimal elements dA(1) and dA(2) of the two surfaces, and
define vector surface elements by dA(1) = dA(1) n (1) and dA(1) = dA(1) n (1) . The quantity r in the
figure denotes a vector pointing from surface 1 to surface 2, the magnitude of which is the distance
r between the two surface elements. This is used to define two unit vectors: ^r(1) = r/r is a
unit vector pointing from surface element 1 to surface element 2, and ^r(2) = −r/ r is a unit vector
pointing from surface element 2 back to surface element 1. The unit vector p(T ) in Equation 7.333
346 CHAPTER 7. DAYLIGHTING AND WINDOW CALCULATIONS
is in fact ^r(1) . The shaded quadrilaterals in the figure are the projected area elements normal to
r. Since the areas are infinitesimal, all the radiation leaving one surface element and arriving at
the other will be in the direction r, so that all radiation will be contained within the parallelepiped
defined by the dashed lines (parallel to r) joining the corners of the two surface elements. It follows
that the area dA(2) is not independent of dA(1) . The figure also shows the solid angle that has
been denoted dΩ(I,2) above, which is the solid angle subtended by dA(1) as seen from dA(2) and is
given by:
dA(1) · r(1)
dΩ(I,2) = (7.335)
r2
The net power from surface element 1 to surface element 2 is:
dA(1) · ^r(1) dA(2) · ^r(2)
W (1→2)
= S (^r ) − S (^r )
(1) (1) (2) (2)
(7.336)
r2
where S (1) (^r(1) ) is the radiance leaving surface element 1 in the direction of surface element 2,
and vice-versa for S (2) (^r(2) ) . In this case, the latter is zero and the former is the quantity called
S (T ) (p(T ) ) above. Given Equation 7.335, we can recognize the quantity multiplying the radiance
as the solid angle dΩ(I,2) times the projected area of surface element 2 perpendicular to r. But the
expression is symmetrical in the two surface elements, so we could also express it as:
W (1→2) = S (T) (p(T) ) dA(1) · ^r(1) dΩ(T) (7.337)
where
dA(2)
· ^
r(2)
dΩ(T) = (7.338)
r2
The superscript (T) is used here because the solid angle element pertains to the direction
(T )
p . In the particular case under discussion that restricts attention to those directions for which
the outgoing radiation strikes surface element 2. We can now rewrite Equation 7.334 as:
E (2) (p(T) )dA(2) = S (T) (p(T) ) n(1) · ^r(1) dΩ(T) dA(1) (7.339)
and since, as can readily be seen from Figure 7.35, dA(1) · ^r(1) = dA(2) · ^r(2) , this becomes:
E (2) (p(T) ) = S (T) (p(T) ) −p(T) · n(2) dΩ(T) (7.340)
Substituting Equation 7.333 for S (T ) (p(T ) ), we obtain a propagation equation for outside radia-
tion passing through the window and arriving at surface element 2:
Z
(2) (T)
E (p ) = T(p(T) , p(I) )S(I) (p(I) )(−p(I) · n(I) )d�(I) (−p(T) · n(2) )d�(T) (7.341)
�(I)
or, in terms involving only irradiance:
Z
(T)
T(p , p )E(p )dΩ −p · n
(2) (T) (T) (I) (I) (I) (T) (2)
E (p ) = dΩ (7.342)
Ω(I)
Comparing these two equations with Equations 7.329 and 7.331, we can see that physically they
represent the processes of (a) propagation of radiation outgoing at one surface (initially, the sky
7.7. WINDOW CALCULATION MODULE 349
Z (
1 p(2) ∈ Ω
δ(p(2) , p(1) )dΩ(1) = (7.346)
0 p(2) ∈
/Ω
Ω
Z
δ(x(2) , x(1) )f (x(1) )dA(1) = f (x(2) ) (7.347)
Z (
1 x(2) ∈ A
δ(x(2) , x(1) )dA(1) = (7.348)
0 x(2) ∈
/A
A
for an arbitrary function f. [In Equations 7.345 and 7.346, the integration is assumed to be over
all possible values of either direction or position, so that the vectors p(2) and x (2) are necessarily
within the domain of integration.]
Physical Caveats
In Equations 7.330 and 7.331, the functions T and R pertain to the overall glazing system,
and are assumed to be averaged over both wavelength and polarization with appropriate weight-
ings. [EnergyPlus considers wavelength only in that it distinguishes between radiation in the
longwave thermal IR region and in the shortwave solar/visible region. (In considering daylighting,
there is a further limitation to the visible region.) In this discussion we are concerned solely with
the shortwave solar/visible region.] While fenestration properties may depend on both wavelength
and polarization, for externally incident radiation this dependence is taken into account in the cal-
culation and averaging of T and R. However, both the wavelength distribution (within the solar
region) and the polarization state of the outgoing radiation will generally be different from that of
the incident radiation. This is not a feature peculiar to non-specular fenestration systems; it is
also true of specular ones, and may in fact be more important there. For most interior surfaces,
where the radiation is either absorbed or diffusely reflected (and where both processes are assumed
350 CHAPTER 7. DAYLIGHTING AND WINDOW CALCULATIONS
wavelength and polarization independent), this is of no importance, but in the case of either interior
windows or the back-reflectance from exterior windows, it could in principle cause errors, unless
proper account is taken in specifying T and R for these cases.
Referring to the definition of the propagation function in Equation 7.344 and properties of the
δ-distribution in Equation 7.346, we see that the integrals in the summation will all be zero, except
when pj (2) is contained in the solid angle element ∆Ωi . In that case the integration produces
pi (1) = pj (2) . We can retain the formal summation by utilizing the finite-dimensional form of the
δ-distribution, known as the Kronicker delta, δ ij :
(
1 i=j
δij = (7.351)
0 i ̸= j
Then, the integral becomes:
Z
L(x(2) , pj (2) ; x(1) , pi (1) )S (1) (pi (1) )dΩ(1) = λ(−pj (2) )δij · δ(x(2) , x(1) + r) (7.352)
∆Ωi
effect of the function δ(x(2) , x(1) + r) in Equation 7.344 is to require that if the expression is formally
integrated over two separate surface areas, only the parts of the integration that satisfy the geometric
constraints will contribute (in effect, the integration is over only one of the surfaces), we will drop
the spatial dependence in the present discussion and replace it later when we consider the total
energy transfer between different surfaces.
Equations 7.352 (without the delta distribution in x) and 7.353 are then considered to define
the components of a diagonal matrix:
(s)
�(s) = Λ(s) ij where Λij = pj · n(s) ∆Ωj δij (7.354)
Considering the radiance in the various basis directions to be the components of a vector:
S1
...
S= where Sj = S(pj ) (7.355)
Sj
...
Equation 7.333 becomes:
P P
S (T) j = Tji Λik Sk where Tji = T (pj (T) , pi (I) ) (7.356)
i k
which has the obvious character of a series of matrix multiplications. (Note that the superscript
(T) here means transmitted, not the matrix operation transpose.) Similarly, the reflectance matrix
elements are:
(These are for radiation incident on the front surface of the fenestration; there is a similar set of
equations for radiation incident on the back surface and propagating in an opposite sense to that
in the above equations.)
In the LBNL method, these equations are used extensively to calculate the overall properties of
a fenestration system from those of its component layers. Here we will assume that the components
of the system property matrices are given at input. These may be from a calculation by WINDOW
or determined by some other method. The quantities needed for each fenestration are:
The transmittance and reflectance are overall system properties. (For daylighting calculations,
one also needs the transmittance and reflectance averaged over the visible spectrum only; the
quantities indicated in the table pertain to the entire solar spectrum.) For the optical calculations
we do not need to know anything about the individual layers making up the fenestration. However,
the thermal calculation of heat flow through the fenestration requires knowledge of the amount of
radiation absorbed in each of the fenestration layers. As indicated in the table, we therefore need
the in-situ layer absorptance for each layer, referenced to the incident surface. This is denoted
AF,n
i for the fraction of the ith component of the irradiance incident on the front surface of the
fenestration that is absorbed in layer n, with a similar quantity, AB,n i , for irradiance incident on
the back surface. The term “in-situ layer absorptance” is used because these are not simply the
absorptance of the layer, but include the transmittance and interreflection by other layers of the
system prior to the absorptance in layer n. The absorptance is a row vector, having possibly a
different value for each direction of the incident irradiance, so that for an irradiance EiF on the front
surface of a fenestration and EiB on the back surface, the power Qn absorbed per unit area in layer
n would be
X F,n F
X B,n B
Qn = Ai Ei + Aj Ej (7.363)
i j
radiation on one surface of the physical layer and outgoing radiation at the second (opposite) surface,
while reflection adds the need for coordinates describing outgoing radiation at the first surface. Back
transmittance and reflectance add the requirement for coordinates describing incoming radiation at
the second surface. The usual way of assigning coordinates to radiation involves specifying its line
of propagation relative to the local surface normal. This means that there are separate coordinate
systems for the first and second surfaces, and that, moreover, the description is different for incoming
and outgoing radiation: for incoming radiation one is specifying a unit vector pointing toward the
source of the radiation (i.e., antiparallel to the direction of propagation), while for outgoing radiation
one is specifying a unit vector in the direction of propagation of the radiation. In principle, then,
one needs four coordinate systems or bases (for each physical layer), and the process of transmission
or reflection involves a discontinuous transition between an input basis and an output basis.
The LBNL method used by WINDOW uses a particular choice of coordinate systems in which
incoming radiation at the first surface and outgoing radiation at the second are described by one
coordinate system, while the same coordinate system reflected through the layer is used to describe
incoming radiation at the second surface and outgoing radiation at the first. The reason for this
choice is that it greatly simplifies the matrix representations: specular transmittance or reflectance
is always represented by a diagonal matrix, one can mix matrices representing forward or backward
incidence processes, and all of the coordinate systems have propagation matrices with the same
representation, so in effect there is one L matrix rather than four.
The point of this discussion is that the components of the transmittance and reflectance matrices,
and the layer absorptance vectors, depend on the definition of these four bases. If they were
generated by WINDOW, then they assume the particular coordinate system described above. (If
they were produced by some other means, they may be specified in yet some other coordinate
system.) While the LBNL coordinate system gives an intuitive description of outgoing radiation,
as a description of incoming radiation it is very unintuitive. And in any case, the coordinate system
is different from that of EnergyPlus. It will be necessary to translate the matrices and vectors into
the correct EnergyPlus coordinate system.
then the global solar irradiance on a horizontal surface at a given time is:
Z
I (G) (t) = I (Sky) (t) 1 − s(p)dΩ + I (D) (t) cos θ(Sun) (t) (7.367)
∆Ω(Sun)
It must be understood that in Equation 7.366 the integration region 2π means integration over
the sky hemisphere and that s(p) is zero for upward-going directions.
With the sky radiance shape s(p) specified in the EnergyPlus code, the angular size of the sun
∆Ω(Sun) known, and the solar zenith angle θ(Sun) (t) calculated in the code, the two hourly input
quantities I (D) (t) and I (G) (t) determine the exterior radiance for any given hour.
In this context, the transmitted radiance for a complex fenestration system given in Equa-
tion 7.332 becomes:
R
S(p(T) ) = I (Sky) (t) T (p(T) , p(I) )s(p(I) ) −p(I) · n dΩ(I)
R Ω(Sky)
+ T (p (T)
, p(I) )S (Gnd) (p(I) , t) −p(I) · n dΩ(I)
Ω(Gnd) R (7.368)
+H ∆Ω(Sun)
(t) ̸⊂ Ω(Sf) T (p(T) , p(I) )S (Sun) (p(I) , t) −p(I) · n dΩ(I)
∆Ω(Sun) (t)
R
+ T (p (T) (I)
, p )S (Refl)
(p(I) , t) −p(I) · n dΩ(I)
Ω(Sf)
where the incoming hemisphere viewed by the fenestration has been broken up into four
parts. The viewed sky (excluding the part containing the sun) is Ω(Sky) , the viewed ground is
7.7. WINDOW CALCULATION MODULE 355
Figure 7.36: Transmitted Radiation in Three Directions for a Perimeter Office. (a) θ = 0o ; (b) θ
= 40o , ϕ = 15o ; (c) θ = 70o , ϕ = 67.5o . θ and ϕ are the normal spherical angle coordinates in a
right-handed coordinate system where y points up and z is normal to the window p
356 CHAPTER 7. DAYLIGHTING AND WINDOW CALCULATIONS
Ω(Gnd) , the part subtended by the sun is ∆Ω(Sun) , and the part subtended by one or more exterior
surfaces (shading or reflecting objects) is Ω(Sf ) . These solid angles must exclude the exterior
surfaces. The symbol H represents a Helmholtz function: Its value is one if its logical argument is
true, zero otherwise. It has been inserted into the equation to account for those times when the
sun is behind an exterior object. Where there are multiple exterior shading or reflecting objects,
Ω(Sf ) may consist of several regions that may be disjoint or connected, depending on the exterior
geometry. As indicated in the equation, ∆Ω(Sun) is time-dependent, to account for the sun’s
movement; Ω(Gnd) and Ω(Sf ) are fixed, but as written Ω(Sky) has a time dependence induced by
the exclusion of the solid angle subtended by the sun. So that we can discuss the parts separately,
we break the outgoing radiance down by source:
S(p(T) ) = S (Sky) (p(T) ) + S (Gnd) (p(T) ) + S (Sun) (p(T) ) + S (Sf) (p(T) ) (7.369)
By subtracting the radiation from the part of the sky hidden by the sun from S (Sun) and adding
it back into S (Sky) we can remove the time dependence of Ω(Sky) :
S (Sun) (p(T) ) = H ∆Ω(Sun) (t) ̸⊂ Ω(Sf)
R (7.370)
× T (p(T) , p(I) ) S (Sun) (p(I) , t) − I (Sky) (t)s(p(I) ) −p(I) · n dΩ(I)
∆Ω(Sun) (t)
Z
S (Sky) (T)
(p )=I (Sky)
(t) T (p
(T)
, p(I) )s(p(I) ) −p(I) · n dΩ(I) (7.371)
Ω(Sky)
Now in Equation 7.371 the integral is to be evaluated without regard to the sun position, and
therefore Ω(Sky) is time-independent.
We can further simplify Equation 7.369 by noting that the angular size of the sun is small, and
both s(p(I) ) and mathcalT (p(T ) , p(I) ) can be considered as constant over the range of directions in
DW(Sun) . We can therefore evaluate them at the direction p(Sun) (t) of the center of the sun and
move them out of the integration, resulting in:
S (Sun) (p(T) ) = T (p(T) , p(Sun) ) I (D) − I (Sky) s(p(Sun) )∆Ω(Sun) cos θ(Sun) H p(Sun) ̸⊂ Ω(Sf) (7.372)
In this equation we have dropped the explicit time dependence, but p(Sun) , q (Sun) , I (D) , and
I (Sky) are time-varying, while ∆Ω(Sun) is simply the constant angular size of the sun.
We separate the reflected radiance S (Sf ) into separate components for each surface:
X
S (Sf) = S (Sf,n) (7.373)
n
The solid angle of integration in this expression is subtended by the portion of the exterior
reflecting surface n viewed by the fenestration; if one surface lies behind another, the hidden part
of its surface is removed from the solid angle it subtends. This is summarized by the requirement:
7.7. WINDOW CALCULATION MODULE 357
S
Ω(Sf) = Ω(Sf,n)
T (Sf,n)n (7.375)
Ω =0
n
(This requirement will need to be modified to handle the case of transmitting exterior surfaces.)
S (Ref l,n) is time dependent because the incident radiation on the surface depends on the sun
position. Equation 7.371 must be evaluated after the exterior surface shading or reflectance calcu-
lations, in order to enforce the requirement that:
where
1 all of ∆Ωi views sky for all of fenestration
(Sky)
Vi = viewed fraction some of ∆Ωi , fenestration views sky (7.381)
0 none of ∆Ωi views sky for any part of fenestration
Then we can carry out the summation over all downward directions and write:
358 CHAPTER 7. DAYLIGHTING AND WINDOW CALCULATIONS
(T,Sky)
X (Sky)
Sj = I Sky (t) Tji Λii Vi si (7.382)
idown
(Sf, n)
where Vi is another geometric view factor, defined analogously to Equation 7.381, giving
the fraction of the solid angle ∆Ωi that views the exterior surface n. Note that:
(Sky)
X (Sf,n)
Vi + Vi =1 (7.384)
n
(I)
The quantity S (Ref l,n) (pi , t) is in fact the reflected radiance at a particular location on the nth
exterior surface — the location where the direction pi (I) intersects the surface. (This statement will
become more precise when the spatial dependence dropped from Equation 7.352 is re-inserted.) This
surface is assumed to have either a diffuse reflectance ρ(n) or a specular reflectance ρ(sp,n) . (Both
properties are possible simultaneously, but EnergyPlus assumes that an exterior surface is either
diffusing or specular, but not both.) The reflectance is assumed uniform over the surface, but the
particular location (effectively, the image of the fenestration projected onto surface n) may or may
not view the sky, or, at a particular time, the sun. We denote the incident irradiance of the surface
n by Ein . This irradiance pertains only to the surface n (in the present EnergyPlus calculation)
and is independent of the fenestration or its basis. We attach the subscript i simply as a reminder
that the irradiance pertains to the portion of the surface that is viewed by the solid angle element
∆Ωi of the fenestration f (which would become important if the EnergyPlus shading calculations
were modified to relax the assumption of uniform incident irradiance on exterior surfaces) and that
the irradiance pertains only to those surfaces n that are viewed by the solid angle element i. For
specularly reflecting surfaces, we make the following definitions: First, within the set of basis solid
angles ∆Ωi , let s(t) identify the one containing the sun direction at time t, and let r(t) identify the
one containing the specular reflection direction of the sun at time t. We then define a contingent
(D,n)
direct beam irradiance, which we denote by Eir(t) . This irradiance is non-zero only if i = r(t) this
direction is such that i is the specularly reflected direction for the surface n. If this is the case, then
(D,n)
Ei=r(t) is the incident direct beam irradiance. With this definition:
(D,n)
S (Refl,n) (pi (I) , t) = ρ(sp,n) Eir(t) + ρ(n) Ein (7.385)
(Sky,n) (Sky) (D,n)
If we then define normalized irradiance factors U by Ein = Ui I (t) + UiSun(tsh) I (D) (t)
(D,n) (D,n) (D,n)
and Eir(t) = Uir(t) I (D) (t) , where UiSun(tsh) denotes the fraction of the beam solar that irradiates
the surface for a given sun direction. It is evaluated during the shading calculation, as indicated
by the notation Sun(tsh). With these definitions we can rewrite the equation as:
X
(Sf,n) (D,n)
Sj (T,Sf,n) = Tji Λii Vi ρ(sp,n) Eir(t) + ρ(n) Ein (7.387)
idown
The specularly reflected term can be removed from the sum, since only one value of i can
contribute:
(Sf,n) (D,n)
X (Sf,n) n
Sj (T,Sf,n) = Tjr(t) Λr(t)r(t) Vr(t) Er(t)r(t) ρ(sp,n) + ρ(n) Tji Λii Vi Ei (7.389)
idown
and
(Sf,n) (D,n)
Sj (T,Sf,n) = Tjr(t) Λr(t)r(t) Vr(t) Ur(t)r(t) I (D) (t)ρ(sp,n)
P
(Sf,n) (D,n) (Sky,n) (Sky) (7.390)
+ρ(n) Tji Λii Vi I (D) (t)UiSun(tsh) + Ui I (t)
idown
which separates specular and diffuse reflectance from the exterior surfaces.
With respect to shading and reflection of exterior radiation into the fenestration, the exterior
reveal surfaces can be treated as additional diffusely reflecting exterior surfaces.
Ground radiation is treated in the same way as radiation reflected from interior surfaces, except
that one sums only over upward-going incident directions and the ground is assumed to be diffusely
reflecting. The transmitted radiance from ground reflectance is:
X (Gnd) (Gnd)
Sj (T,Gnd) = ρ(Gnd) Tji Λii Vi Ei (7.391)
iup
(Gnd)
In this equation, the symbol Ei is shorthand for a spatial calculation. The solid angle region
∆Ωi views (from various points over the fenestration area) some spatial region of the ground. The
(Gnd)
symbol Ei denotes the incident irradiance on the ground over this spatial region. In the absence
of shading, this would be simply I (G) = I (Sky) + I (D) cos θSun ; shading requires a more complex
calculation. Currently the EnergyPlus code does a Monte-Carlo calculation: rays are randomly
generated from the window, when they strike the ground a calculation is made to determine whether
that point receives direct solar radiation and what portion of the sky it views (reflected radiation
from surfaces is neglected). Here we would perform that calculation for each region of the ground
i viewed by a basis solid angle element, instead of generating random rays from the window. We
(Gnd) (D,Gnd) (Sky,Gnd) (Sky)
denote the results of that calculation by Ei = UiSun(tsh) I (D) (t) + Ui I (t), where the
U ’s are average viewing factors for the sun and sky, calculated as part of the shading calculation
(which is indicated by the subscript tsh: Sun(tsh) is the sun direction as specified by the shading
calculation. This then gives:
X
(T,Gnd) (Gnd) (Gnd) (D,Gnd) (D) (Sky,Gnd) (Sky)
Sj =ρ Tji Λii Vi UiSun(tsh) I (t) + Ui I (t) (7.392)
iup
(D)
Sj (T,Sun) = Tjs(t) cos θ(Sun) I (D) (t)Vis(t) (7.393)
(D)
This introduces yet one more geometric view factor: Vis(t) is zero if the sun direction s(t) is not
i; if i = s(t) it is the fraction of the fenestration area irradiated by the direct sun. Equation 7.393
uses the fact that the angular size of the sun is smaller than any basis solid angle element, and that
EnergyPlus treats the sun and circumsolar region as a point source [hence the absence of the sky
correction in Equation 7.370].
At this point we have developed separate expressions for a fenestration’s transmitted radiance
in a particular direction depending on the exterior source of the radiation. These expressions
utilize the discretized BTDF of the fenestration in the form of transmittance matrix elements over
an angular basis. The exterior geometry is re-expressed in the form of geometric view factors in
this basis. In the process, the explicit time dependence of the exterior radiation has been reduced
to the time-varying direct and diffuse solar intensities and the solar position. The time dependence
of the solar position, however, consists merely in specifying, for a particular time, which of the basis
solid angle elements contains the solar direction. The entire exterior geometry necessary for the
fenestration transmittance calculation can therefore be pre-calculated.
Interior
We begin with the discretized form of Equation 7.339, in which we also modify the surface
notation. In that equation, the surfaces involved are termed (1) and (2), where radiation is
outgoing from surface 1 and incoming to surface 2. Here radiation is outgoing from the inner
surface of the fenestration, so we label that surface (f). The receiving surface is one of the surfaces
of the zone in which the fenestration is located. We number those surfaces with the index k, so the
receiving surface is labeled (k). Equation 7.339 then becomes:
(f→k)
dWj = E (k) (pj (T) )dA(k) = Sj (T) · n(f) · pj (T) ∆Ωj (T) dA(f) (7.394)
(T) (T )
or, noting that n(f) · pj ∆Ω(T ) = Λjj (where the superscript T is retained in case the
incoming and outgoing bases are defined differently),
(f→k) (T)
dWj = E (k) (pj (T) )dA(k) = Sj (T) Λjj dA(f) (7.395)
If we integrate this expression over the fenestration area A(f ) we obtain the total power leaving
the fenestration surface in direction j; however, all of that power may not reach surface k: some
may strike the inner window reveal or a different zone surface. If we define a spatial projection
operator by:
(T)
x(k) = P (k) (pj , x(f) ) ≡ P j (k) (x(f) ) (7.396)
where x (k) is in the plane of surface k, and a geometric form factor by:
Z
(k) 1
Fj = (f) dA(f) (7.397)
A
P j (k) (x(f) )∈A(k)
then:
(f→k) (T) (k)
dWj = Sj (T) Λjj Fj A(f) (7.398)
7.7. WINDOW CALCULATION MODULE 361
The total power leaving the fenestration (in any direction) and arriving at surface k is then
(f→k)
X (T) (k)
Wj = Sj (T) Λjj Fj A(f) (7.399)
j
Substituting Equations 7.370, 7.382, 7.388, and 7.391 into Equation 7.399 yields a series of
expressions for the total power arriving at surface k (by transmission through fenestration f) from
each of the sources of exterior radiation. However, the equations for transmitted radiation describe
an infinitesimal region, which means that the radiation in a given direction will always come from one
source. When one integrates the transmitted power over the fenestration surface, one encounters
the problem that for this direction different parts of the fenestration area may receive radiation
from different sources. Also, for a given outgoing direction, the projection of a receiving surface
back onto the fenestration may produce an image that covers only part of the fenestration area,
and this image may not be identical with the part of the area that receives incident radiation from
a particular source. The most important origin of this problem is the existence of inner and outer
window reveals, as illustrated in Figure 7.37.
Figure 7.37: Mismatch of irradiated and viewed fenestration areas for different incident and outgoing
directions
362 CHAPTER 7. DAYLIGHTING AND WINDOW CALCULATIONS
In this figure, the portion of the fenestration area not viewed by the plane of surface k is instead
viewed by one or more of the inner window reveals. Similarly, the portion of the fenestration
not irradiated in the figure is in fact irradiated by diffusely reflected radiation from the outer
window reveals. We can account for this by replacing the area A(f ) in Equation 7.399 with the
(f,Src),k
overlap area Aji (dark shaded in the figure), where “Src” stands for the source of the incident
radiation. This area is defined by:
(f,Src),k (f,Src) (f ),k
Aji = Ai Aj (7.400)
The total power at the interior surface k for each source of radiation then becomes:
X (T) (k)
X (Sky) (f,Sky),k
W (Sky),k = I (Sky) (t) Λjj Fj Tji Λii Vi Aji si (7.401)
j idown
If we define a series of solar irradiation factors, Z, that describe the fraction of the radiation
incident on the fenestration due to a given exterior radiation source that is ultimately incident on
the interior surface k:
X (T) (k)
X (Sky) (f,Sky),k
Z (Sky),k = Λjj Fj Tji Λii Vi Aji si (7.405)
j idown
X (T) (k) (Sf,n) (f,Sf,n),k (D,n)
Zr(t) (sp,Sf,n),k = Λjj Fj Tjr(t) Λr(t)r(t) Vr(t) Ajr(t) Ur(t)s(t) (7.406)
j
X (T) (k)
X (Sf,n) (f,Sf,n),k (D,n)
Zs(t) (Sun,Sf,n),k = Λjj Fj Tji Λii Vi Aji UiSun(tsh) (7.407)
j idown
X (T) (k)
X (Sf,n) (f,Sf,n),k (Sky,n)
Z (Sky,Sf,n),k = Λjj Fj Tji Λii Vi Aji Ui (7.408)
j idown
X (T) (k)
X (Gnd) (f,Gnd),k (D,Gnd)
Zs(t) (D,Gnd),k = Λjj Fj Tji Λii Vi Aji UiSun(tsh) (7.409)
j iup
X (T) (k)
X (Gnd) (f,Gnd),k (Sky,Gnd)
Z (Sky,Gnd),k = Λjj Fj Tji Λii Vi Aji Ui (7.410)
j iup
7.7. WINDOW CALCULATION MODULE 363
Parameters
NBasis Number of elements in the (incoming or outgoing) basis
NSun Number of basis directions that may be sun directions (depends
on fenestration orientation
(Gnd)
NSun Number of sun directions that give significantly different ground
irradiation conditions, as seen by fenestration
NSf Number of reflecting surfaces viewable by fenestration (depends
on fenestration orientation)
364 CHAPTER 7. DAYLIGHTING AND WINDOW CALCULATIONS
(Sf,n)
NSun Number of time steps for which surface n is sunlit (depends on
orientation of surface n; determined during shading calculation)
(Sf,n)
NRef l Number of basis directions that may be reflected sun directions
from surface n (depends on orientation of fenestration and sur-
face n).
NIntSurf Number of interior surfaces in the zone containing the fenestra-
tion
NLayers Number of thermal layers in the fenestration system
Arrays
AF,l
i , Ai
B,l
Absorptance vector element; NBasis
Tij Transmittance matrix element; NBasis X NBasis
(Sky)
Vi Sky viewed fraction; one-dimensional, NBasis
(Sf,n)
Vi Fraction of surface n viewed; NBasis X NSf
ρ(n) , ρ(sp,n) Surface n diffuse, specular reflectance; NSf (already stored by
E+)
(D,n)
Ui Sun(tsh) Fraction of the image of ∆Ωi on surface n that views the sun
(Sf,n)
when it is in direction Sun(tsh); NBasis X NSf X NSun
(Gnd)
Vi Fraction of ∆Ωi that views ground; NBasis
(Sky,Gnd)
Ui Fraction of sky radiation received by the image of ∆Ωi on the
ground; NBasis
(D,Gnd)
Ui Sun(tsh) Fraction of direct solar radiation for sun direction Sun(tsh) re-
ceived by image of ∆Ωi on ground; NGnd Sim X NBasis
(D)
Vi s(t) Fraction of fenestration area irradiated by direct solar radiation
for direction i, given that sun angle is s(t); NSun X NBasis
(k)
Fj Fraction of radiation in direction j leaving fenestration interior
that arrives at surface k; NBasis X NIntSurf
Z(Sky),k Sky irradiation factor; NIntSurf
(sp,Sf,n),k (Sf,n)
Zr(t) Exterior surface specular irradiation factor; NSun X NSf X
NIntSurf
(Sun,Sf,n),k (Sf,n)
Zs(t) Exterior surface direct-diffuse irradiation factor; NSun X NSf
X NIntSurf
Z(Sky,Sf,n),k Exterior surface sky irradiation factor; NSf X NIntSurf
(D,Gnd),k
Zs(t) Ground-reflected direct solar irradiaton factor (given sun direc-
(Gnd)
tion s(t)); NSun X NIntSurf
Z(Sky,Gnd),k Ground-reflected diffuse solar irradiation factor; NIntSurf
(Sun),k
Zs(t) Direct solar irradiation factor; NSun X NIntSurf
K(Sky),l Sky absorption factor; NLayers
7.7. WINDOW CALCULATION MODULE 365
(sp,Sf,n),l (Sf,n)
Kr(t) Exterior surface specular absorption factor; NSf X NRef l X
NLayers
(Sun,Sf,n),l
Ks(t) Exterior surface diffusely reflected direct sun absorption factor;
(Sf,n)
NSf X NSun X NLayers
K(Sky,Sf,n),l Exterior surface reflected sky radiation absorption factor; NSf
X NLayers
(D,Gnd),l (Gnd)
Ks(t) Ground-reflected direct solar absorption factor; NSun X NLayers
K(Sky,Gnd),l Ground-reflected sky radiation absorption factor; NLayers
(Sun),l
Ks(t) Direct sunlight absorption factor; NSun X NLayers
Absorption
For thermal calculations, it is necessary to know the energy absorbed in each layer of the
fenestration. This depends only on the incident geometry, but otherwise is calculated in the same
manner as the solar flux incident on interior surfaces. For a given layer l of a fenestration f, we define
a source-referenced absorption factor, K(source),l. This is the amount of energy absorbed in layer
l divided by the relevant solar intensity (which might be beam, diffuse, or reflected beam or diffuse,
depending on the source of the radiation). These absorption factors and the resultant source-
specific absorbed solar powers are calculated by the analogs [see Equation 7.363 or Equations 7.405
through 7.411]:
X F,l (Sky)
K (Sky),l = A(f) Ai Λii Vi si (7.416)
idown
(Sf,n) (D,n)
Kr(t) (sp,Sf,n),l = A(f) AF,l
r(t) Λr(t)r(t) Vr(t) Ur(t)s(t) (7.418)
Figure 7.38: Sun Paths and Incident Basis for Three Window Orientations, 38o N. Latitude. The
nodal positions (blue dots) for a W6 full basis are compared with the summer solstice (red curve)
and winter solstice (green curve) solar paths. Solar paths for other days of the year will lie between
these two extremes. (Note: the basis points are to be interpreted as the direction of a vector
pointing from the fenestration to the sun.) (a) South facing. (b) West facing. (c) North facing (the
winter path is off the figure (i.e., the window is shaded); allowed paths will be outside the red path.
(D)
Ks(t) (Sun),l = A(f) AF,l
s(t) cos θs(t)
(Sun)
Vis(t) (7.425)
Comment on Bases
Use of the basis in the above discussion has been mostly implicit, but it should nevertheless
be clear that the essential feature of the basis is that it is a two-element list (i.e., a 2 X N array):
it associates with an incident (i) or outgoing (j) direction index a vector pi (or pj ) that is a
unit vector giving the direction of the radiation, the specification of which is two angles in some
coordinate system. The incident and outgoing bases of course must match the matrix elements of
the fenestration properties. These bases will (certainly in the case of WINDOW program; probably
in the case of other input sources) have a structure: ordering of the elements, etc. However, after
the initialization of the hourly loop calculation, this structure will be irrelevant: EnergyPlus will
retain only those incoming and outgoing directions that are essential to the calculation with (one
would hope, most of) the others combined into irradiation factors. At this point, the basis will
truly be an arbitrary list. It follows that the specification of the basis in the EnergyPlus input
should be determined by (1) the source of fenestration property data, and (2) user convenience.
A related point concerns the specification of a basis for specular glazings, i.e., multiple layers
of glass. These fenestrations are both specular (input direction = output direction) and axially
symmetric. These properties have different effects on the calculation.
The specular property means that one should not be using Equation 7.329 at all to describe the
transmittance. Instead, one should use the equation:
This equation is shoehorned into the integral calculation of equation through the use of a delta
function in the incident direction vector, resulting (after the discretization) in a diagonal matrix
for the transmittance (or reflectance). The outgoing radiance element on the diagonal would be
calculated as Tii Λii , where multiplication by Λii substitutes for integration over the basis solid angle
(T)
element. For a specular glazing, Tii = τ (pi )/�ii , so one recovers the correct transmittance when one
does the multiplication. However, there is still a problem in principle: For a specular fenestration,
the angular spread of the outgoing radiation will be that of the source, which for direct sunlight
is very small; the calculation, however, assumes the angular spread of the basis element. This
problem disappears in the geometric approximation to be used in EnergyPlus: by considering only
the central direction of each basis element, the outgoing radiation in that direction is essentially
assumed to be specular, so the blurring in the discretization is undone.
The axial symmetry of conventional glazings means that the transmittance (or reflectance)
depends on only the incident angle, not the azimuthal angle about the normal to the fenestration
plane. So if one specifies the diagonal elements of the matrix, all of the terms with the same incident
angles but different azimuthal angles will be the same. One could alternatively specify only the
specular transmittance at each of the incident angle values, provided one also indicated that it was
for an axially symmetric fenestration. Since expanding this set of values to the equivalent diagonal
elements is a trivial calculation, how one specifies a specular glazing is completely a question of
user convenience. For example, if one were dealing with the WINDOW full basis, would it be more
user-friendly to specify
(T)
(1) Tii = τ (pi )/�ii , for 145 values, 135 of which are repeats of the previous value
(2) τ (θi ) for 9 values of incident angle, θi ?
SurfWinQRadSWwinAbs(Surf, Lay) =
X
Nlayers
where
WinSkyFtAbs(Lay) = front absorptance averaged over sky for layer (Lay) and window belonging
to Surf
WinSkyGndAbs(Lay) = front absorptance averaged over ground for layer (Lay) and window
belonging to Surf
SkySolarInc = incident diffuse solar from the sky
GndSolarInc = incident diffuse solar from the ground
Direct Radiation from the Sun
Energy absorbed in the layers and which originates from direct solar radiation is given by
following equation:
where
7.7. WINDOW CALCULATION MODULE 369
AWinSurf(SurfNum,Lay) – is time step value of factor for beam absorbed in fenestration glass
layers
BeamSolar – Current beam normal solar irradiance
Factor for time step value is given by equation:
where
WinBmFtAbs(Lay,HourOfDay,TimeStep) – is front directional absorptance for given layer and
time
CosInc – cosine of beam solar incident angle
SunLitFract – sunlit fraction without shadowing effects of frame and divider
OutProjSLFracMult(HourOfDay) - Multiplier on sunlit fraction due to shadowing of glass by
frame and divider outside projections.
Direct Solar Radiation Coming from Sun and it is Transmitted Through Other Windows
Direct solar radiation transmitted through other windows is using solar overlap calculations
described in the section on Overlapping Shadows. Overlapping is used to determine amount of
energy transferred through the window is hitting certain surface. That is used to calculate energy
absorbed in walls and same approach will be used to calculate energy absorbed in window layers
(Equation 7.428). In case when receiving surface is complex fenestration, it is not enough just
to apply Equation 7.428 because factor AbsIntSurf is now depending of incoming angle which is
defined through front and back directional absorptance matrices. It would mean that for each
outgoing directions of transmitting complex fenestration, algorithm would need to determine what
is best matching basis direction of receiving surface. Best receiving direction is used to determine
absorptance factors which will be used in Equation 7.428. It is important to understand that for
basis definition, each unit vector defining one beam is going towards surface, which would mean
that best matching directions from surface to surface will actually have minimal dot product.
Bestin = min (dot (outp , in1 ) , dot (outp , in2 ) , . . . , dot (outp , inN )) (7.432)
where
Bestin – is best matching receiving direction basis dot product (ink )
outp – current transmitting complex fenestration direction
in1 , …, inN – set of receiving complex fenestration basis directions
Result of Equation 7.432 is minimal dot product, which corresponds to best matching direction
of receiving surface. If we mark that direction with index k, then Equation 7.428 becomes:
AbsIntSurfk (SurfNum) – directional absorptance for the receiving surface for the best matching
direction.
Everything else is same as described in Equation 7.428.
7.7.11.2 References
Klems, J. H. 1994A. “A New Method for Predicting the Solar Heat Gain of Complex Fenestration
Systems: I. Overview and Derivation of the Matrix Layer Calculation.”. ASHRAE Transactions.
100(pt.1): 1073-1086.
Klems, J. H. 1994B. “A New Method for Predicting the Solar Heat Gain of Complex Fenestra-
tion Systems: II. Detailed Description of the Matrix Layer Calculation.”. ASHRAE Transactions.
100(pt.1): 1073-1086.
Klems, J. H. 1995. “Measurements of Bidirectional Optical Properties of Complex Shading
Devices.”. ASHRAE Transactions. 101(pt 1; Symposium Paper CH-95-8-1(RP-548)): 791-801.
Klems, J. H. 1996. “A Comparison between Calculated and Measured SHGC for Complex
Glazing Systems.”. ASHRAE Transactions. 102(Pt. 1; Symposium Paper AT-96-16-1): 931-939.
Klems, J. H. 1996. “Calorimetric Measurements of Inward-Flowing Fraction for Complex Glaz-
ing and Shading Systems.”. ASHRAE Transactions. 102(Pt. 1; Symposium Paper AT-96-16-3):
947-954.
Papamichael, K. J. 1998. “Determination and Application of Bidirectional Solar-Optical Prop-
erties of Fenestration Systems.”. Cambridge, MA: 13th National Passive Solar Conference.
Figure 7.39: Glazing system with two glass layers showing variables used in heat balance equations.
7.8. WINDOW HEAT BALANCE CALCULATION 373
4) The glass faces are isothermal. This is generally a good assumption since glass conductivity
is very high.
5) The short wave radiation absorbed in a glass layer can be apportioned equally to the two
faces of the layer.
The four equations for double-glazing are as follows. The equations for single glazing (N = 1)
and for N = 3 and N = 4 are analogous and are not shown.
ε2 ε3
k1 (θ1 − θ2 ) + h1 (θ3 − θ2 ) + σ θ34 − θ24 + S2 = 0 (7.435)
1 − (1 − ε2 ) (1 − ε3 )
ε2 ε3
h1 (θ2 − θ3 ) + k2 (θ4 − θ3 ) + σ θ24 − θ34 + S3 = 0 (7.436)
1 − (1 − ε2 ) (1 − ε3 )
int
S2N = S2N + ε2N Ilw (7.439)
Here
ext
Ibm = exterior beam normal solar irradiance
ext
Idif = exterior diffuse solar incident on glazing from outside
int
Isw = interior short-wave radiation (from lights and from reflected diffuse solar) incident on
glazing from inside
int
Ilw = long-wave radiation from lights and equipment incident on glazing from inside
ε2N = emissivity (thermal absorptance) of the room-side face of the inside glass layer
λ
hi = N u (7.440)
H
where
λ is the thermal conductivity of air, and
H is the height of the window.
The Rayleigh number based on height, RaH , is calculated using:
ρ2 H 3 g cp |Tsurf,i − Tair |
RaH = (7.441)
Tm,f µλ
where
ρ is the density of air
g is the acceleration due to gravity,
cp is the specific heat of air,
µ is the dynamic viscosity of air, and
Tm,f is the mean film temperature in Kelvin given by,
1
Tm,f = Tair +(Tsurf,i − Tair ) (7.442)
4
There are four cases for the Nusselt correlation that vary by the tilt angle in degrees, γ, and
are based on heating conditions. For cooling conditions (where Tsurf,i > Tair ), the tilt angle is
complemented so that γ = 180 − γ.
Case A. 0◦ ≤ γ < 15◦
1/
N u = 0.13RaH 3 (7.443)
Case B. 15◦ ≤ γ ≤ 90◦
1/
e0.72γ 5
Racv = 2.5 × 105 (7.444)
sin λ
1
N u = 0.56(RaH sin γ) /4 ; f or RaH ≤ RaCV (7.445)
!
1/ 1/ 1
N u = 0.13 RaH 3 − RaCV3 + 0.56(RaCV sin γ) /4 ; RaH > RaCV (7.446)
1 X
2N
|∆θi | < 0.02K (7.452)
2N i=1
If this test does not pass after 100 iterations, the tolerance is increased to 0.2K. If the test still
fails the program stops and an error message is issued.
The value of the inside face temperature, θ2N , determined in this way participates in the zone
heat balance solution (see Outdoor/Exterior Convection) and thermal comfort calculation (see
Occupant Thermal Comfort).
Because of thermal bridging across the spacer separating the glass layers in multi-pane glazing, the
conductance of the glazing near the frame and divider, where the spacers are located, is higher than
it is in the center of the glass. The area-weighted net conductance (without inside and outside air
films) of the glazing in this case can be written
where
hcg = conductance of center-of-glass region (without air films)
hf e = conductance of frame edge region (without air films)
hde = conductance of divider edge region (without air films)
Acg = area of center-of-glass region
Af e = area of frame edge region
Ade = area of divider edge region
Atot = total glazing area = Acg + Af e + Ade
The different regions are shown in Figure 7.40:
Equation 7.453 can be rewritten as:
7.8. WINDOW HEAT BALANCE CALCULATION 377
ηf e = Af e /Atot (7.456)
αf e = hf e /hcg (7.458)
1 εi εj
hr,k = σ (θi + θj )3 (7.461)
2 1 − (1 − εi ) (1 − εj )
εi , εj = emissivity of the faces bounding the gap
θi , θj = temperature of faces bounding the gap (K)
Equation 7.454 then becomes:
−1
h = (ηcg + αf e ηf e + αde ηde ) (hr,1 + hc,1 )−1 + (hr,2 + hc,2 )−1 (7.462)
We can also write h in terms of effective convective conductances of the gaps as:
−1 −1 −1
h= hr,1 + hc,1 + hr,2 + hc,2 (7.463)
hc,k = hr,k (ηf e (αf e − 1) + ηde (αde − 1)) + hc,k (1 + ηf e (αf e − 1) + ηde (αde − 1)) (7.465)
This is the expression used by EnergyPlus for the gap convective conductance when a frame or
divider is present.
f1 = 1, f2 = 0 if τsh = 0 (7.466)
Otherwise:
f1 = 0, f2 = 0 if αsh ≤ 0.01
f1 = 1, f2 = 0 ) if αsh > 0.999
0.5 ln(1−α ) (7.467)
f1 = 1−e αsh sh
if 0.01 < αsh ≤ 0.999
f2 = 1 − f1
Figure 7.41: Cross section through a window showing frame and divider (exaggerated horizontally).
Qabs = solar radiation (from sun, sky and ground) plus IR from outside window surface absorbed
by outside frame surfaces (see “Calculation of Absorbed Solar Radiation,” below).
The first term can be written as the sum of the exterior IR absorbed by the outside face of the
frame and the exterior IR absorbed by the frame’s outside projection surfaces.
1
E0 ε1 1 + η1 − ε1 (1 + η1 ) θ14 + ho,c (1 + η1 ) (T0 − θ1 ) + k (θ2 − θ1 ) + S1 = 0 (7.474)
2
4
ε1 (1 + η1 )[To,r − θ14 ] (7.478)
384 CHAPTER 7. DAYLIGHTING AND WINDOW CALCULATIONS
(To,r + θ1 )3
ε1 (1 + η1 ) (To,r − θ1 ) (7.479)
2
Defining an outside surface radiative conductance as follows:
(To,r + θ1 )3
ho,r = ε1 (1 + η1 ) (7.480)
2
then gives:
1
Ti,r = [Ei (1 + η2 )/(1 + η2 )]1/4 (7.484)
2
Ap2 pf,2 H + W − (Nh + Nv )wd
η2 = = (7.485)
Af wf H + W + 2wf
and Ei is the interior IR irradiance incident on the plane of the window.
Solving Equations 7.482 and 7.483 simultaneously gives:
D + CA
θ2 = (7.486)
1 − CB
with
If there is no exterior window shade, Idif ext includes the effect of diffuse solar reflecting off of
the glazing onto the outside frame projection, i.e.,
dif
Iext → Iext
dif f,dif
1 + Rgl (7.492)
The beam solar absorbed by the outside face of the frame, per unit frame face area is:
Qbm,f ace bm
abs,sol = Iext αf r,sol cos βf ace fsunlit (7.493)
The beam solar absorbed by the frame outside projection parallel to the window x-axis is:
Here it is assumed that the sunlit fraction, fsunlit , for the window can be applied to the window
frame. Note that at any given time beam solar can strike only one of the two projection surfaces
that are parallel to the window x-axis. If there is no exterior window shade, Ibm ext includes the
effect of beam solar reflecting off of the glazing onto the outside frame projection, i.e.,
bm
Iext → Iext
bm f,bm
1 + Rgl (7.495)
The beam solar absorbed by the frame outside projection parallel to the window y-axis is:
Using a similar approach, the beam and diffuse solar absorbed by the inside frame projections
is calculated, taking the transmittance of the glazing into account.
We will assume that the reveal surfaces are perpendicular to the window plane and that the win-
dow is rectangular. Then the above factors determine a unique shadow pattern. From the geometry
of the pattern the shadowed areas and corresponding illuminated areas can be determined. This
calculation is done in subroutine CalcBeamSolarReflectedFromWinRevealSurface in the SolarShad-
ing module. The window reveal input data is specified in the WindowProperty:FrameAndDivider
object expect for the depth of the outside reveal, which is determined from the vertex locations of
the window and its parent wall.
If an exterior shading device (shade, screen or blind) is in place it is assumed that it blocks
beam solar before it reaches outside or inside reveal surfaces. Correspondingly, it is assumed that
an interior or between-glass shading device blocks beam solar before it reaches inside reveal surfaces.
Representative shadow patterns are shown in Figures 7.43 and 7.44 for a window with no shading
device, and without and with a frame. The case with a frame has to be considered separately because
the frame can cast an additional shadow on the inside reveal surfaces.
The patterns shown apply to both vertical and horizontal reveal surfaces. It is important to
keep in mind that, for a window of arbitrary tilt, if the left reveal surfaces are illuminated the
right surfaces will not be, and vice versa. And if the bottom reveal surfaces are illuminated the
top surfaces will not be, and vice versa. (Of course, for a vertical window, the top reveal surfaces
will never be illuminated by beam solar if the reveal surfaces are perpendicular to the glazing, as is
being assumed.
7.8. WINDOW HEAT BALANCE CALCULATION 387
For each shadow pattern in Figures 7.43 and 7.44, equations are given for the shadowed areas
A1,sh and A2,sh of the outside and inside reveal surfaces, respectively. The variables in these
equations are the following (see also Figure 7.45):
d1 = depth of outside reveal, measured from the outside plane of the glazing to the edge
of the reveal, plus one half of the glazing thickness.
d2 = depth of inside reveal (or, for illumination on bottom reveal surfaces, inside sill
depth), measured from the inside plane of the glazing to the edge of the reveal or the sill, plus one
half of the glazing thickness.
L = window height for vertical reveal surfaces or window width for horizontal reveal
surfaces
α = vertical solar profile angle for shadowing on vertical reveal surfaces or horizontal
solar profile angle for shadowing on horizontal reveal surfaces.
p1 (p2 ) = distance from outside (inside) surface of frame to glazing midplane.
d2 ′ = depth of shadow cast by top reveal on bottom reveal, or by left reveal on right reveal,
or by right reveal on left reveal.
d2 ′′ = depth of shadow cast by frame.
For simplicity it is assumed that, for the case without a frame, the shadowed and illuminated
areas extend into the glazing region. For this reason, d1 and d2 are measured from the midplane of
the glazing. For the case with a frame, the beam solar absorbed by the surfaces formed by the frame
outside and inside projections perpendicular to the glazing is calculated as described in “Window
Frame and Divider Calculation: Calculation of Solar Radiation Absorbed by Frame.”
The following logic gives expressions for the shadowed areas for all possible shadow patterns.
Here:
d1 = d1
d2 = d2
P1 = p1
P2 = p2
f1 = d1 − p1
f2 = d2 − p2
d2prime = d2 ′
d2prime2 = d2 ′′
d12 = d1 + d2 − d2 ′
TanAlpha = tan α
A1sh = A1,sh
A2sh = A2,sh
L=L
L1 = average distance to frame of illuminated area of outside reveal (used to calculate view
factor to frame).
L2 = average distance to frame of illuminated area of inside reveal (used to calculate view factor
to frame).
IF(window does not have a frame) THEN
IF(d2prime < = d2) THEN
IF(d12*TanAlpha < = L) THEN
A1sh = 0.5* TanAlpha*d1**2
A2sh = d2prime*L + 0.5* TanAlpha*d12 **2 - A1sh
ELSE ! d12*TanAlpha > L
IF(d1*TanAlpha < = L) THEN
A1sh = 0.5* TanAlpha*d1**2
7.8. WINDOW HEAT BALANCE CALCULATION 389
Figure 7.43: Expression for area of shaded regions for different shadow patterns: (a) window without
frame
390 CHAPTER 7. DAYLIGHTING AND WINDOW CALCULATIONS
Figure 7.44: Expression for area of shaded regions for different shadow patterns: (b) window with
frame
7.8. WINDOW HEAT BALANCE CALCULATION 391
Figure 7.45: Vertical section through a vertical window with outside and inside reveal showing
calculation of the shadows cast by the top reveal onto the inside sill and by the frame onto the
inside sill.
392 CHAPTER 7. DAYLIGHTING AND WINDOW CALCULATIONS
END IF
END IF
END IF
ELSE
! d2prime > f2 -- Shadow from opposing reveal goes beyond
! inside of frame
A2sh = f2*L
L2 = f2
IF(d2prime > = d1+d2) THEN
A1sh = 0.0
L1 = f1
ELSE ! d2prime < d1+d2
IF(d2prime < = d2+P1) THEN
IF(f1*TanAlpha < = L) THEN
A1sh = 0.5* TanAlpha*f1**2
L1 = f1*((f1*TanAlpha)/(6*L) + 0.5)
ELSE ! f1*TanAlpha > L
A1sh = f1*L - 0.5*L**2/ TanAlpha
L1 = f1 - (L/TanAlpha)/3
END IF
ELSE ! d2prime > d2+P1
IF(d12*TanAlpha < = L) THEN
A1sh = L*( d2prime -(d2+P1)) + 0.5* TanAlpha*d12 **2
L1 = (L*(f1 -d12 /2)-d12*TanAlpha* &
(f1/2-d12 /3))/(L-d12*TanAlpha /2)
ELSE ! d12*TanAlpha > L
A1sh = f1*L - 0.5*L**2/ TanAlpha
L1 = f1 - (L/TanAlpha)/3
END IF
END IF
END IF
END IF
FracToGlassOuts = 0.5*(1.0 - ATAN(FrameWidth/L1)/PiOvr2)
FracToGlassIns = 0.5*(1.0 - ATAN(FrameWidth/L2)/PiOvr2)
END IF ! End of check if window has frame
The beam solar reflected from a sunlit region of area A is given by:
solar absorptance of the frame) and contributes to the frame heat conduction calculation. The rest,
(R/2)F1 (1 − af ) , is assumed to be reflected to the exterior environment.
If the glazing has diffuse transmittance τdif f , diffuse front reflectance ρfdif f , and layer front
f , then, of the portion, (R/2)(1 − F1 ), that goes toward the glazing, (R/2)(1 −
f
absorptance αl,dif
f
F1 )τdif f is transmitted to the zone, (R/2)(1−F1 )αl,dif f is absorbed in glass layer l and contributes to
the glazing heat balance calculation, and (R/2)(1 − F1 )ρfdif f is reflected to the exterior environment.
The beam solar absorbed by an outside reveal surface is added to the other solar radiation
absorbed by the outside of the window’s parent wall.
For inside reveal surfaces it is assumed that R/2 goes towards the window and R/2 goes into
the zone. Of the portion that goes toward the window a fraction (R/2)F2 goes toward the frame,
if present, and (R/2)(1 − F2 ) goes toward the glazing (F2 is calculated using a method analogous
to that used for F1 ). For the portion going towards the frame, (R/2)F2 af is absorbed by the frame
and contributes to the frame heat conduction calculation. The rest, (R/2)F2 (1 − af ), is assumed
to be reflected back into the zone.
If the glazing has diffuse back reflectance ρbdif f , and layer back absorptance αl,dif
b
f , then, of the
portion (R/2)(1 − F2 ) that goes toward the glazing, (R/2)(1 − F2 )τdif f is transmitted back out the
glazing, (R/2)(1 − F2 )αl,dif
b
f is absorbed in glass layer l and contributes to the glazing heat balance
calculation, and (R/2)(1 − F2 )ρbdif f is reflected into the zone.
The beam solar absorbed by an inside reveal surface is added to the other solar radiation
absorbed by the inside of the window’s parent wall.
• For interior and exterior shading device: Long-wave radiation (IR) from the surround absorbed
by shading device, or transmitted by the shading device and absorbed by the adjacent glass.
For interior shading the surround consists of the other zone surfaces. For exterior shading
the surround is the sky and ground plus exterior shadowing surfaces and exterior building
surfaces “seen” by the window.
• Convection from shading layer and glass to the air in the gap (or, for between-glass shading,
gaps) between the shading layer and adjacent glass, and convection from interior shading layer
to zone air or from exterior shading layer to outside air.
• Natural convection airflow in the gap (or, for between-glass shading, gaps) between shading
layer and adjacent glass induced by buoyancy effects, and the effect of this flow on the shading-
to-gap and glass-to-gap convection coefficients.
• For interior shading, convective gain (or loss) to zone air from gap airflow.
In the following it is assumed that the shading device, when in place, covers the glazed part
of the window (and dividers, if present) and is parallel to the glazing. For interior and exterior
shading devices it is assumed that the shading layer is separated from the glazing by an air gap. A
between-glass shading layer is assumed to be centered between two glass layers and separated from
the adjacent glass layers by gaps that is filled with the same gas. If the window has a frame, it is
assumed that the shading device does not cover the frame.
7.8.9 Heat Balance Equations for Shading Device and Adjacent Glass
If a window shading device is deployed the heat balance equations for the glass surfaces facing the
shading layer are modified, and two new equations, one for each face of the shading layer, are added.
Figure 7.46 illustrates the case of double glazing with an interior shading device.
Figure 7.46: Glazing system with two glass layers and an interior shading layer showing variables
used in heat balance equations.
The heat balance equation for the glass surface facing the gap between glass and shading layer
(called in the following, “gap”) is:
Ei ε4 τsh σε4 4
+ θ5 εsh − θ44 (1 − ρsh ) + k2 (θ3 − θ4 ) + hcv (Tgap − θ4 ) + S4 = 0 (7.499)
1 − ρ4 ρsh 1 − ρ4 ρsh
396 CHAPTER 7. DAYLIGHTING AND WINDOW CALCULATIONS
where
τ sh = IR diffuse transmittance of shading device
εsh = diffuse emissivity of shading device
ρsh = IR diffuse reflectance of shading device ( = 1 - ( τ sh + εsh ))
θ5 = temperature of the surface of the shading layer that faces the gap (K).
The term 1 - ρ4 ρsh accounts for the inter-reflection of IR radiation between glass and shading
layer.
The convective heat transfer from glass layer #2 to the air in the gap is:
Figure 7.47: Vertical section (a) and perspective view (b) of glass layer and interior shading layer
showing variables used in the gap airflow analysis. The opening areas Abot , Atop , Al , Ar and Ah are
shown schematically.
|Tgap − Tgap,in |
∆pT = ρ0 T0 gH sin ϕ (7.506)
Tgap Tgap,in
398 CHAPTER 7. DAYLIGHTING AND WINDOW CALCULATIONS
where
ρ0 = density of air at temperature T0 (kg/m3 )
T0 = reference temperature (283K)
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s2 )
H = height of shading layer (m)
ϕ = tilt angle of window (vertical = 90o )
Tgap = effective mean temperature of the gap air (K)
Tgap,in = gap inlet temperature ( = zone air temperature for interior shading) (K)
The ΔpB term is due to the acceleration of air to velocity v (Bernoulli’s law). It is given by:
ρ
∆pB = v 2 (Pa) (7.507)
2
where ρ is the gap air density evaluated at Tgap (kg/m3 ).
The ΔpHP term represents the pressure drop due to friction with the shading layer and glass
surfaces as the air moves through the gap. Assuming steady laminar flow, it is given by the Hagen-
Poiseuille law for flow between parallel plates [Munson et al. 1998]:
H
∆pHP = 12µ v(Pa) (7.508)
s2
where µ is the viscosity of air at temperature Tgap (Pa-s).
The ΔpZ term is the sum of the pressure drops at the inlet and outlet openings:
ρv 2
∆pZ = (Zin + Zout ) (Pa) (7.509)
2
Here, the inlet pressure drop factor, Zin , and the outlet pressure drop factor, Zout , are given by:
2
Agap
Zin = 0.66A − 1
eq,in
2 (7.510)
Agap
Zout = 0.60A eq,out
− 1
where
Aeq,in = equivalent inlet opening area (m2 )
Aeq,out = equivalent outlet opening area (m2 )
Agap = cross-sectional area of the gap = sW (m2 )
If Tgap > Tgap,in :
Atop
Aeq,in = Abot + 2(Abot +Atop
(Al + Ar + Ah )
Abot
(7.511)
Aeq,out = Atop + 2(Abot +Atop
(Al + Ar + Ah )
If Tgap ≤ Tgap,in :
Abot
Aeq,in = Atop + 2(Abot +Atop
(Al + Ar + Ah )
Atop (7.512)
Aeq,out = Abot + 2(Abot +Atop
(Al + Ar + Ah )
Here, the area of the openings through which airflow occurs (see Figure 7.47 and Figure 7.48)
are defined as follows:
Abot = area of the bottom opening (m2 )
Atop = area of the top opening (m2 )
7.8. WINDOW HEAT BALANCE CALCULATION 399
Figure 7.48: Examples of openings for an interior shading layer covering glass of height H and width
W. Not to scale. (a) Horizontal section through shading layer with openings on the left and right
sides (top view). (b) Vertical section through shading layer with openings at the top and bottom
(side view).
The choice of the root of the quadratic equation is dictated by the requirement that v = 0 if
Tgap,in = Tgap .
Gap Outlet Temperature and Equivalent Mean Air Temperature
The temperature of air in the gap as a function of distance, h, from the gap inlet (Figure 7.49)
is:
ZH
1 H0
Tgap = Tgap (h)dh = Tave − (Tgap,out − Tgap,in ) (7.519)
H H
0
qv = LW [hcv (Tgl − Tgap ) + hcv (Tsh − Tgap )] = 2hcv LW (Tave − Tgap ) (W) (7.520)
7.8. WINDOW HEAT BALANCE CALCULATION 401
Figure 7.49: Variation of gap air temperature with distance from the inlet for upward flow.
402 CHAPTER 7. DAYLIGHTING AND WINDOW CALCULATIONS
where the air mass flow rate in the gap is given by:
Where ρ is the fluid density, v s the fluid velocity, Zin/out is the pressure loss factor of the cavity,
As is the cross-section area of the cavity, dgap is the glass-to-shade cavity depth, dsurf ace is the
openness fraction (0 - 1), W is the window width, H is the window height, Aeq , is the equivalent
inlet/outlet area of the cavity, and Al, Ar, Atop, Abot, Ah are the areas of the left, right, top,
bottom, and front surface ventilation gaps respectively.
The set of equations 7.523 include an inherent minimum of pressure loss coefficient, Z, when the
calculated inlet or outlet area, Aeq , equals 5/3 the cross section area, As. This limits the validity
of the model to Aeq less than 5/3 of As. Figure 7.51 illustrates this minimum with a surface map
of calculated Z values (log(Z) plotted to show contours) over a range of Aeq based on a 1m x 1m
window. Figure 7.51 shows a slice of the surface plot at a typical dgap = 15mm. Window surface
area, Aw, is typically one to two orders of magnitude larger than the cross-section area, As. This
means that Aeq exceeds As at relatively low surface openness. For a typical glass-to-shade gap,
dgap = 15mm, the local minimum in Z, and in turn valid openness range of the algorithm, occurs
at an openness of dsurf ace ∼
= 0.1.
7.8. WINDOW HEAT BALANCE CALCULATION 403
Figure 7.50: Illustration of ISO 15099 ventilated shade layer opening locations.
404 CHAPTER 7. DAYLIGHTING AND WINDOW CALCULATIONS
Figure 7.51: Pressure loss factor, Z, as a function of Aeq at As = 0.015m2 ; and (b) surface plot of
Z as a function of As and Aeq for a 1m x 1m window. The minimum follows the predicted ratio of
5/3 between Aeq and As.
Ah = C1 · dC surf ace · Aw
2
t∗ = D4 · w · cosϕ
k ∗ = dsurf ace · kc + (1 − dsurf ace )ks
dtop = 0 (7.525)
dlef t,right = dgap (for outside mount)
dlef t,right = 0(for inside mount)
dbottom = dgap (for outside mount)
dbottom = 0(for inside mount)
where t∗ and k ∗ are the revised layer thickness and equivalent conductivity and kc is the con-
ductivity of the gas between slats at the average blind layer temperature.
Where correlation constants are:
Coefficient Horizontal Blinds Vertical Blinds
D1 0.016 0.041
D2 -0.63 -0.00
D3 0.53 0.270
D4 0.043 0.012
Figure 7.52: Glazing system with two glass layers and a between-glass shading device showing
variables used in the heat balance equations.
406 CHAPTER 7. DAYLIGHTING AND WINDOW CALCULATIONS
The heat balance equations for the two glass surfaces facing the shading device are the following.
For face #2:
σε2 τsh
hcv,1 (Tgap,1 −θ2 )+k1 (θ1 −θ2 )+ (ε3 θ3 + ε6 θ6 ρ3 ) + ε5 θ5 + ε2 θ2 R1 −σε2 θ24 +S2 = 0
4 4 4 4
1 − ρ2 R1 1 − ρ6 ρ3
(7.526)
where
2
τsh ρ3
R1 = ρ5 + (7.527)
1 − ρ6 ρ3
Tgap,1 = effective mean air temperature in gap 1 (K)
hcv,1 = convective heat transfer coefficient from glass or shading layer to gas in gap 1 (W/m2 K)
For face #3:
σε3 τsh
hcv,2 (Tgap,2 −θ3 )+k2 (θ4 −θ3 )+ (ε3 θ2 + ε5 θ5 ρ2 ) + ε6 θ6 + ε7 θ3 R2 −σε3 θ34 +S3 = 0
4 4 4 4
1 − ρ3 R2 1 − ρ5 ρ2
(7.528)
where
2
τsh ρ2
R2 = ρ6 + (7.529)
1 − ρ5 ρ2
Tgap,2 = effective mean air temperature in gap 2 (K)
hcv,2 = convective heat transfer coefficient from glass or shading layer to gas in gap 2 (W/m2 K)
The heat balance equations for the shading layer faces are:
For face #5:
σε5 τsh ρ2
hcv,1 (Tgap,1 −θ5 )+ks h(θ6 −θ5 )+ (ε3 θ3 + ε6 θ6 ρ3 ) + ε2 θ2 + ε5 θ5 ρ2 −σε5 θ54 +S5 = 0
4 4 4 4
1 − ρ2 R1 1 − ρ5 ρ3
(7.530)
For face #6:
σε3 τsh
hcv,2 (Tgap,2 −θ3 )+k2 (θ4 −θ3 )+ (ε2 θ2 + ε5 θ5 ρ2 ) + ε6 θ6 + ε7 θ3 R2 −σε3 θ34 +S3 = 0
4 4 4 4
1 − ρ3 R2 1 − ρ5 ρ2
(7.531)
The convective heat transfer coefficients are given by:
hcv,1 = 2hc,1 + 4v
(7.532)
hcv,2 = 2hc,2 + 4v
where
hc,1 ,hc,2 = surface-to-surface heat transfer coefficients for gap #1 and #2, respectively, when
these gaps are non-vented (closed).
v = air velocity in the gaps (m/s). It is assumed that the gap widths are equal, so that the
velocity of flow in the gaps is equal and opposite, i.e., when the airflow is upward in gap #1 it is
downward in gap #2 and vice-versa.
7.8. WINDOW HEAT BALANCE CALCULATION 407
In analogy to the interior or exterior shading device case, the air velocity is determined by
solving the following pressure balance equation:
|Tgap,1 − Tgap,2 |
∆pT,1,2 = ρ0 T0 gH sin ϕ (Pa) (7.534)
Tgap,1 Tgap,2
The pressure drops on the right-hand side of this equation are:
ρ
∆pB,i = gap,i
2
v2
∆pHP,i = 12µgap,i sH2 (7.535)
ρgap,i v 2
∆pZ,i = 2
(Zin,i + Zout,i )
where i = gap number (1 or 2).
It can be shown that Zin,1 +Zout,1 = Zin,2 +Zout,2 . Then, inserting these pressure drop expressions
into Equation 7.534, we obtain the following expression for the airflow velocity:
2 1/2
12(µgap, 1 +µgap, 2 )H 12(µgap, 1 +µgap, 2 )H
s2
+ 2∆pT,1,2 (ρgap,1 + ρgap,2 )(1 + Zin + Zout ) − s2
v= (7.536)
(ρgap, 1 + ρgap, 2 )(1 + Zin + Zout )
The choice of the sign of the square root term is dictated by the requirement that v = 0 if
∆pT,1,2 = 0, i.e., Tgap,1 = Tgap,2 .
Given v, we can now calculate Tgap,1 and Tgap,2 , which gives ∆pT,1,2 . The procedure is as follows.
We have:
H0,1
Tgap,1 = Tave,1 − (Tgap,1,out − Tgap,2,out ) (7.541)
H
408 CHAPTER 7. DAYLIGHTING AND WINDOW CALCULATIONS
gives:
H0,1
Tgap,1 = Tave,1 − ξ (Tave,1 − Tave,2 ) (7.542)
H
with:
(1 − ξ1 )(1 − ξ2 )
ξ= (7.543)
1 − ξ1 ξ2
Similarly, from:
H0,2
Tgap,2 = Tave,2 − (Tgap,2,out − Tgap,1,out ) (7.544)
H
we get:
H0,2
Tgap,2 = Tave,2 − ξ (Tave,2 − Tave,1 ) (7.545)
H
The overall solution sequence is as follows. At start of the iteration process, guess Tgap,1 =
Tave,1 and Tgap,2 = Tave,2 . Then:
1) Get ρgap,1 , ρgap,2 , µgap,1 , µgap,2 using Tgap,1 , Tgap,2 .
2) Get still-air conductances hc,1 , hc,2 by calling WindowGasConductance and NusseltNumber.
3) Get v from Equation 7.536.
4) Get hcv,1 , hcv,2 from Equation 7.532.
5) Get Tave,1 , Tave,2 .
6) Get Ho,1 , Ho,2 , ξ1 and ξ2 .
7) Get Tgap,1 ,Tgap,2 from Equations 7.542 and 7.545.
The values hcv,1 , hcv,2 , Tgap,1 and Tgap,2 are then used in the face heat balance equations to find
new values of the face temperatures θ2 , θ3 , θ5 and θ6 . These are used in turn to get new values of
hcv,1 , hcv,2 , Tgap,1 and Tgap,2 until the whole iterative process converges.
Figure 7.53: Gap airflow configurations for airflow windows. From “Active facades,” Version no. 1,
Belgian Building Research Institute, June 2002.
410 CHAPTER 7. DAYLIGHTING AND WINDOW CALCULATIONS
Figure 7.54: Glazing system with forced airflow between two glass layers showing variables used in
the heat balance equations.
7.8. WINDOW HEAT BALANCE CALCULATION 411
ε2 ε3
k1 (θ1 − θ2 ) + hcv (Tgap − θ2 ) + σ θ34 − θ24 + S2 = 0 (7.546)
1 − (1 − ε2 )(1 − ε3 )
The corresponding equation for the right-hand glass surface facing the gap is:
ε2 ε3
k2 (θ4 − θ3 ) + hcv (Tgap − θ3 ) + σ θ24 − θ34 + S3 = 0 (7.547)
1 − (1 − ε2 )(1 − ε3 )
Here,
Tgap = effective mean temperature of the gap air (K)
hcv = convective heat transfer coefficient from glass to gap air (W/m2 K).
The convective heat transfer coefficient is given by:
F
v= (m/s) (7.549)
Agap
where
F = airflow rate (m3 /s)
Agap = gap cross-sectional area in direction of flow (m2 )
It is assumed that the airflow is uniform across the width of the window.
The mean temperature of the gap air is given by the following expression, whose derivation
follows that for Equation 7.519 for the case of an interior shading device:
H
Tgap = Tave − (Tgap,out − Tgap,in ) (7.550)
H0
where
θ2 + θ3
Tave = (7.551)
2
ρCp s
H0 = v (7.552)
2hcv
H = glazing height (m)
Tgap,in = gap air inlet temperature (Ti if the airflow source is indoor air, To if the airflow source
is outside air) (K).
The outlet air temperature is given by:
The convective heat gain to the zone air due to the gap airflow when the airflow destination is
indoor air is:
where
Cp,i = heat capacity of the indoor air (J/kg-K)
Cp,out = heat capacity of the gap outlet air (J/kg-K)
and where the air mass flow rate in the gap is:
ṁ = ρF (kg/s) (7.555)
The fan energy used to move air through the gap is very small and is ignored.
Figure 7.55 shows the case of a double-glazed airflow window with a between glass shading device.
The heat balance equations in this case are the same as those for the between-glass shading device
with natural convection (Figure 7.52 and following equations) except that now:
F /2
v= (m/s) (7.556)
Agap
where Agap = sW is the cross-sectional area of the gap on either side of the shading device. It
is assumed that the shading device is centered between the two panes of glass so that the airflow,
F, is divided equally between the two gaps.
The convective heat gain to the zone air due to the airflow through the two gaps when the
airflow destination is indoor air is:
where the average temperature of the two outlet air streams is:
and
Cp,ave,out = heat capacity of the outlet air evaluated at Tgap,ave,out (J/kg-K)
Figure 7.55: Airflow window with between-glass shading device showing variables used in the heat
balance equations.
CCON D = B · P (7.562)
Where:
α1 α2
α= (7.563)
α2 + α1 (1 − α2 )
α1 , α2 = Accommodation coefficients of the gas molecules with the two surfaces. These values
depend on the temperature, surface conditions, etc. For the present configuration and conditions,
414 CHAPTER 7. DAYLIGHTING AND WINDOW CALCULATIONS
it is expected that α is approximately 0.5. If a conservative value is needed, then a value of 1.0
could be used. With α1 , α2 = 0.5, α = 0.333.
γ = Specific heat ratio, γ air = 1.40.
R = Universal gas constant, R = 8,314.462175 J/mol·K
M = Molecular Weight, M air = 28.97 [mol/g]
T = (T 1 + T 2 )/2 [K]
P = Pressure of the gas [N/m2 ]
From the paper Collins and Robinson (Collins, R., & Robinson, S. (1991)), B is set at approxi-
mately 50 for Air, if pressure is given in torr. Therefore according to Collins and Robinson, for air
and approximate conditions of EGU:
CCON D ≈ 50 · P (7.564)
Where P is in torr (i.e., mm Hg).
Note: Conversion from Pa to torr is accomplished by multiplying value in torr by 133.28.
Using formula 2 and assuming T 1 to be 20o C and T 2 to be -18o C (expected temperatures of glass
surfaces in EGU, if one glass surface is low-e and unit is exposed to NFRC standard environmental
conditions), and using SI system of units, the B is calculated as 54.4, which is very close to the
value of 50, proposed by Collins and Robinson:
It should also be noted that values above are based on the fix set of temperatures, while in
reality temperatures will depend on the environmental conditions and surface emissivities (e.g., it
cannot be expected that clear glass will have same T1 and T2 as low-e glass).
Equation 7.566 is a precise formulation for two parallel plates at the constant temperature. A
simplified equation under these conditions is given in the form of:
1
CRAD = 4σ Tm 3 (7.567)
ε1 −1 + ε2 −1 − 1
Where:
Tm = mean temperature, [K]
(T1 + T2 )
Tm = (7.568)
2
Calculation of the U-factor:
1 1
U= = (7.569)
Rtot Ro + 2 · Rglass + Rgap + Ri
1 1
Rgap = = (7.570)
Cgap CCON D + CRAD
tglass
Rglass = (7.571)
kglass
Where:
t glass = glass thickness; [m]
k glass = glass conductivity; k glass = 1 W/(m·K)
Rglass = 0.003 m2 K/W (for 3 mm glass pane)
Ro ≈ 0.033 m2 K/W
Ri ≈ 0.14 m2 K/W
U-factor of EGU without any pillars (pretending that this is possible) would be calculated using
C RAD only. From above radiation conductance calculations:
Clear Glass: U = 2.64 W/(m2 ·K) [0.464 Btu/(hr·ft2 ·ºF)]
Hard Coat Low-e: U = 0.62 W/(m2 ·K) [0.109 Btu/(hr·ft2 ·ºF)]
Soft Coat Low-e: U = 0.19 W/(m2 ·K) [0.034 Btu/(hr·ft2 ·ºF)]
Adding conductance of the air at 0.001 torr (C CON D = 0.08 W/(m2 ·K), these values become:
Clear Glass: U = 2.66 W/(m2 ·K) [0.468 Btu/(hr·ft2 ·ºF)]
Hard Coat Low-e: U = 0.68 W/(m2 ·K) [0.120 Btu/(hr·ft2 ·ºF)]
Soft Coat Low-e: U = 0.27 W/(m2 ·K) [0.048 Btu/(hr·ft2 ·ºF)]
In contrast, the U-factor of the same configuration with the air at atmospheric pressure will be
(For the space width of 50 mm, CCON D � 450 W/m2 K):
Clear Glass: U = 5.52 W/(m2 ·K) [0.468 Btu/(hr·ft2 ·ºF)]
Hard Coat Low-e: U = 5.52 W/(m2 ·K) [0.120 Btu/(hr·ft2 ·ºF)]
Soft Coat Low-e: U = 5.52 W/(m2 ·K) [0.048 Btu/(hr·ft2 ·ºF)]
It is clear that emissivity of the glass surface makes no difference, because of the dominant
conductance of the air space. Also, it is worth noting that the U-factor of such configuration is
very close to the U-factor of single glazing.
416 CHAPTER 7. DAYLIGHTING AND WINDOW CALCULATIONS
7.8.14.3 Evacuated glazing unit (EGU): Glass support element thermal conductance
Glass panes in the EGU are separated by an array of small support elements. Typically, these
support elements have a cylindrical shape and are often referred to as “pillars.” Typical geometry
of the pillar is 0.5-1.0 mm diameter and 0.05 mm (50 mm) height. They are typically spaced 1-2
in. apart in a form of square or staggered matrix.
2ka
Cp = 2h
(7.572)
1 + πa
Where:
k = conductivity of glass, W/(m·K)
a = radius of the pillar (m)
h = pillar height, m
For the square array of support pillars (Collins and Fischer-Cripps 1991) proposes the following
formula for their conductance, C pa :
2ka
Cpa = 2h
(7.573)
λ2 1 + πa
Where:
λ = pillar spacing, m
This formula is approximate and does not include effect of the conductivity of the pillar, but it
gives good approximation for common materials used in this technology, since conductivity of the
pillar does not play substantial role for non-insulating pillars (where “non-insulating” would mean
that conductivity of the pillar is equal or higher than the conductivity of the glass pane.
The U-factor of the EGU with support pillars is then:
1 1
U= = (7.574)
Rtot Ro + 2 · Rglass + Rgap + Ri
Where:
1 1
Rgap = = (7.575)
Cgap CCON D + CRAD + Cpa
7.8.14.5 References
Collins, R., & Fischer-Cripps, A. 1991. “Design of Support Pillar Arrays in Flat Evacuated Win-
dows.”. Aust. J. Phys.
Collins, R., & Robinson, S. 1991. “Evacuated Glazing”. Solar Energy. Vol. 47, No. 1, pp. 27-38.
7.8. WINDOW HEAT BALANCE CALCULATION 417
Corruccini, R. 1959. “Gaseous Heat Conduction at Low Pressures and Temperatures”. Vacuum.
Vol. 7-8, pp.19-29.
the center of glazing location. In addition to adopting Bernier and Bourret (1997) model here, we
have also developed model for calculating change in thermal performance of deflected units when
this deflection is measured in the field. Therefore, the mathematical formulation, presented here is
divided into two sections; 1) calculation of the deflection and resulting thermal performance caused
by pressure and temperature effects and 2) calculation of the thermal performance of the IGU when
the deflection is measured.
16 · ∆P(i) X
∞ X
∞
sin mπx sin nπy
LD(i) (x, y) = 6 W H
2 (7.576)
π · D(i) m=1,3,5... n=1,3,5... mn
m 2 n 2
W
+ H
where
E · t3(i)
D(i) = (7.577)
12 · (1 − ν 2 )
and
E = Young’s modulus (7.2 x 1010 ) [Force per unit Area; SI: Pa, IP: psi]
t = thickness of glazing pane [Length; SI: m, IP: in.]
ν = poison’s ratio (0.22 for glass) [Non-Dimensional]
∆Pi = Pgap(i) − Pgap(i−1) (f or i − th pane) [F orce per unit Area; SI : P a, IP : psi] (7.578)
∆Pi = Pgap(1) − Pa (f irst pane) [F orce per unit Area; SI : P a, IP : psi] (7.579)
∆Pi = Pa - Pgap(n−1) (last pane) [F orce per unit Area; SI : P a, IP : psi] (7.580)
where
Pa = atmospheric pressure. [Force per unit Area; SI: Pa, IP: psi]
Pini Vini(i) Tgap(i)
Pgap(i) = (7.581)
Tini Vgap(i)
where
Pini = Initial pressure. Applies to all gaps as a single value (input data - measured or otherwise)
[Force per unit Area; SI: Pa, IP: psi]
Tini = Initial temperature. Applies to all gaps as a single value (input data - measured or
otherwise) [Degree Temperature; SI: K, IP: R]
Vini(i) = Initial volume for i-th gap. [Length*Length*Length; SI: m3 , IP: in3 ]
7.8. WINDOW HEAT BALANCE CALCULATION 419
Vini(i) = Li · W · H (7.582)
where
Li = non-deflected glazing gap width (for i-th gap) [Length; SI: m, IP: in.]
W = IGU width [Length; SI: m, IP: in.]
H = IGU height [Length; SI: m, IP: in.]
Tgap(i) = temperature of the gap between two glass panes (calculated using center of glazing
thermal calculation algorithm, as described in ISO 15099 (ISO 2003). This value is first calculated
using non-deflected state and is recalculated after the resulting deflection is calculated. This process
is repeated until temperature at next iteration does not differ by more than 0.1 ºC
Vgap(i) = volume of the IGU gap in deflected state [Lentgh*Length*Length; SI: m3 , IP: in3 ]
Vgap(i) = Vini(i) + W · H · LD,i − LD,i+1 (7.583)
where
LD,i is mean deflection value for i-th pane. [Length; SI: m, IP: in.]
Deflection of each pane can be positive or negative and is done solely to establish reference.
Current frame of reference is that positive deflection means that pane is deflecting towards left side,
while negative deflection means that pane is deflecting towards right side (see Equation 7.583).
Whether the deflection is in the direction of reducing the gap width or increasing it, it will be the
result of pressure difference, as described in Equation 7.576. When pressure in the glazing unit is
higher than surrounding environmental pressure, the deflection will be towards increasing gap width
(i.e., ballooning), while the opposite situation will result in decreasing gap width (i.e., vacuuming)
The important part of calculating deflection of the IGU is to determine mean deflection value
for each glazing pane. Mean deflection value is used to calculate gap volume in deflected state (see
Equation 7.583). Mean deflection of glazing pane can be calculated by integrating Equation 7.576:
W 16 · ∆P(i)
H X
∞ X
∞
sin mπx sin nπy
LD(i) = ∫ ∫ W H
2 (7.584)
x=0 y=0 π · D(i)
6 2
m n 2
m=1,3,5... n=1,3,5... mn +
W H
16 · ∆P(i) X
∞ X
∞
∫x=0
W
∫y=0
H
sin mπx sin nπy
W H
LD(i) = 6 2 (7.585)
π · D(i) m=1,3,5... n=1,3,5... mn
m 2 n 2
W
+ H
and because the integral of sin(x) is equal to –cos(x), the above equation will become:
16 · ∆P(i) X
∞ X
∞
(1 − cos (mπ)) (1 − cos (nπ))
LD(i) = 6 2 2 (7.586)
π · D(i) m 2
m=1,3,5... n=1,3,5... mn W + Hn
Finally, because cos (mπ) and cos (nπ) values are always equal to -1 for the given range of m
and n, the above equation will became:
16 · ∆P(i) X
∞ X
∞
4
LD(i) = 6 2 (7.587)
π · D(i) m 2 n 2
m=1,3,5... n=1,3,5... m2 n2 π 2 W
+ H
422 CHAPTER 7. DAYLIGHTING AND WINDOW CALCULATIONS
After calculating the mean pane deflection, the following equation is used to the calculate mean
gap width:
Lr(i) = L + LD,(i) − LD,(i+1) (7.588)
where
Lr(i) = Mean gap “i” width after incorporating glazing deflection. This mean gap width is used
to recalculate thermal performance of deflected IGU.
LD,i = mean glazing deflection for each pane “i”.
Calculation of the deflection at the center of glazing and mean glazing deflection for each pane is
an iterative process, where the initial temperature distribution is calculated for non-deflected state,
then deflection is calculated based on this temperature distribution, new temperature distribution
is calculated for this deflected state, then temperatures from previous iteration are compared to the
current iteration and the process is repeated until the difference is no larger than 0.1o C.
At the end of calculations, program will calculate and return maximum deflection value for each
pane (i.e., center of glazing deflection). If we label maximum deflection of each pane as LD(i),max ,
we can calculate this value by substituting x = W /2 and y = H /2 in Equation 7.576 to determine
deflection at the center point. Therefore:
16 · ∆P(i) X
∞ X
∞
sin mπ sin nπ
LD(i),max = 2 2
2 (7.589)
π 6 · D(i) m=1,3,5... n=1,3,5... mn
m 2 n 2
2
+ 2
For glazing systems with more than two glazing layers, meaning multiple gas filled gaps, the
deflection will be calculated for each glazing pane assuming that the pressure in a gap is independent
from each other and calculated separately, unless spaces are “linked” together (e.g., stretched film
middle glazing that has hole for equalizing pressure).
The procedure shown above generally applies to the 3 or more layer glazing system, with the
exception that neighboring pressures are no longer Pa , but rather could be Pa on one side and Pgap
on the other, or have Pgap on both sides, as shown in Figure 7.58 for gap “i”. Center of glazing
thermal calculation will determine new temperature distribution, after deflection is calculated for
each glazing and will be used to determine new Pgap , as per the procedure above.
When one or more gaps are linked together, their pressure is assumed to be identical (e.g., in triple
glazing IGU Pgap,1 = Pgap,2 ). This pressure is calculated from temperatures of bounding glazing for
linked gaps (e.g., for triple glazing IGU, glazing 1 and 3) and using neighboring pressures outside
of those bounding glazing (e.g., for triple glazed IGU, Pa on both sides).
Note: This feature is not implemented in WINDOW 7.1. It is considered for future enhancements
to the program.
424 CHAPTER 7. DAYLIGHTING AND WINDOW CALCULATIONS
LD(i) X
∞ X
∞
4
R(i) = = 2 (7.591)
LD(i) ,max 2 2 2 m 2
m=1,3,5,... n=1,3,5,... m n π ( W ) + ( Hn )2
An important thing to note is that the ratios R(i) for all gaps in glazing system are equal.
∆P(i)
LD(i),max = ·K (7.595)
D(i)
where coefficient K combines all constant terms, while D(i) is given by Equation 7.577 and ∆P(i)
is calculated by Equations 7.578, 7.579 and 7.580. Summing over all deflections, LD(i),max , the
following equation is obtained:
X
n
D(i) X
n
· LD(i),max = ∆P(i) = 0 (7.596)
i=1
K i=1
Note that sum of all ∆P(i) is equal to zero since the outside pressure is equal to the inside
pressure. Therefore, the remaining equation that completes the set of equations is:
7.8. WINDOW HEAT BALANCE CALCULATION 425
X
n
D(i) · LD(i),max = 0 (7.597)
i=1
X
k=n−1
LD(1),max = LG(k) − L(k) + LD(n),max (7.603)
k=1
X
k=n−1
LD(2),max = LG(k) − L(k) + LD(n),max (7.604)
k=2
X
k=n−1
LD(i),max = LG(k) − L(k) + LD(n),max (7.605)
k=i
X
k=n−1
LD(n−1),max = LG(k) − L(k) + LD(n),max (7.606)
k=n−1
Now substituting this set of equations back into Equation 7.597:
!
Xn−1 X
k=n−1
D(i) · LG(k) − L(k) + LD(n),max + D(n) · LD(n),max = 0 (7.607)
i=1 k=i
Solving for LD(n),max leads to the following equation:
Pn−1 Pk=n−1
(D(i) · L (k) − LG(k) )
LD(n),max = i=1 Pk=i
n (7.608)
i=1 D(i)
Calculating LD(n),max from this equation and substituting it into Equations 7.603 - 7.606 will
enable calculation of the deflection of the remaining panes.
7.8. WINDOW HEAT BALANCE CALCULATION 427
7.8.15.9 References
Arasteh, D.K., J.C. Kohler and B.T. Griffith. Draft 2009. Modeling Windows in EnergyPlus with
only U, SHGC, and optionally VT. LBNL report. Full reference to be determined.
Arasteh, D. J. 2009. Modeling Windows in EnergyPlus with only U, SHGC, and optionally VT.
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory.
Arasteh, D.K., M.S. Reilly and M.D. Rubin. 1989. A versatile procedure for calculating heat
transfer through windows. American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engi-
neers, ASHRAE Transactions, Vol. 95, Pt. 2.
Bernier, M., & Bourret, B. January 1997. “Effects of Glass Plate Curvature on the U-Factor of
Sealed Insulated Glazing Units”. Atlanta, GA: ASHRAE Transactions. Vol. 103, Pt. 1. American
Society for Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers.
Collins, R., & Fischer-Cripps, A. 1991. “Design of Support Pillar Arrays in Flat Evacuated
Windows.”. Aust. J. Phys.
Collins, R., & Robinson, S. 1991. “Evacuated Glazing”. Solar Energy. Vol. 47, No. 1, pp. 27-38.
Corruccini, R. (1959). “Gaseous Heat Conduction at Low Pressures and Temperatures”. Vac-
uum. Vol. 7-8, pp.19-29.
Finlayson, E.U., D.K. Arasteh, C. Huizenga, M.D. Rubin and M.S. Reilly. 1993. WINDOW
4.0: documentation of calculation procedures. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory report no.
LBL-33943.
ISO. 2003. ISO 15099:2003. Thermal performance of windows, doors, and shading devices –
Detailed calculations. International Organization for Standardization.
Klems, J. H. 1994A. “A New Method for Predicting the Solar Heat Gain of Complex Fenestration
Systems: I. Overview and Derivation of the Matrix Layer Calculation.”. ASHRAE Transactions.
100 (pt.1): 1073-1086.
Klems, J. H. 1994B. “A New Method for Predicting the Solar Heat Gain of Complex Fenestration
Systems: II. Detailed Description of the Matrix Layer Calculation.”. ASHRAE Transactions. 100
(pt.1): 1073-1086.
Klems, J. H. 1995. “Measurements of Bidirectional Optical Properties of Complex Shading
Devices.”. ASHRAE Transactions. 101 (pt 1; Symposium Paper CH-95-8-1 (RP-548)): 791-801.
Klems, J. H. 1996. “A Comparison between Calculated and Measured SHGC for Complex
Glazing Systems.”. ASHRAE Transactions. 102 (Pt. 1; Symposium Paper AT-96-16-1): 931-939.
Klems, J. H. 1996. “Calorimetric Measurements of Inward-Flowing Fraction for Complex Glaz-
ing and Shading Systems.”. ASHRAE Trans. 102(Pt. 1; Symposium Paper AT-96-16-3): 947-954.
Munson, B.R, D.F. Young and T.H. Okiishi. 1998. “Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics,” Third
Edition Update, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Papamichael, K. J. 1998. “Determination and Application of Bidirectional Solar-Optical Prop-
erties of Fenestration Systems.”. Cambridge, MA: 13th National Passive Solar Conference.
Simmler, H., U. Fischer and F. Winkelmann. 1996. Solar-Thermal Window Blind Model for
DOE-2. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Simulation Research Group internal report, (un-
published).
Timoshenko, S., & Kreiger-Woinowsky, S. 1959. “Theory of Plates and Shells” 2nd Edition.
McGraw-Hill Company.
428 CHAPTER 7. DAYLIGHTING AND WINDOW CALCULATIONS
and the known set of absorbed solar radiations Si values, in order to solve for the set of layer
temperatures, Ti , and the corresponding heat fluxes. The fenestration model also accounts for the
diathermanous shade layers in the longwave radiant exchange. The latter can be significant for
shading layers. Glass is considered opaque with respect to longwave radiation.
Figure 7.61: Solar analysis of the multi-layer glazing/shading system showing beam and diffuse
fluxes (ASHRAE 1311-RP)
Figure 7.62: Twelve solar properties assigned at each layer (ASHRAE 1311-RP)
432 CHAPTER 7. DAYLIGHTING AND WINDOW CALCULATIONS
Figure 7.63: Radiosity model used in thermal analysis of the multi-layer glazing/shading system
(ASHRAE 1311-RP)
quadratic equation of the form, p = a + bT + cT2 , where the T(K) is temperature and p is the
property being evaluated. EnergyPlus has builtin-data available for common fill gas components
including Air, Argon, Krypton and Xenon. Users specify CUSTOM gas by defining the coefficients
as an input.
m m
τbb (θ) = τbb (θ = 0) · cosb (θ) (7.609)
m m
τbt (θ) = τbt (θ = 0) · cosb (θ) (7.610)
max
m
b = [ −0.5 · ln ( [τbb (θ = 0) , 0.01] max ) , 0.35 ] (7.611)
max
m
b = [ −0.5 · ln ( [τbt (θ = 0) , 0.01] max ) , 0.35 ] (7.612)
m m m
τbt (θ) = τbd (θ) + τbb (θ) (7.613)
434 CHAPTER 7. DAYLIGHTING AND WINDOW CALCULATIONS
◦
ρm m m m m
bt (θ) = ρbd (θ) = ρbt (θ = 0) + (ρbt (θ = 90 ) − ρbt (θ = 0)) · 1 − cos
0.6
(θ) (7.614)
◦
ρm m m
bt (θ = 90 ) = ρbt (θ = 0) + (1 − ρbt (θ = 0)) 0.7( ρy ) 0.7 (7.615)
ρm
bt (θ = 0) ρm
bt (θ = 0)
ρy = = (7.616)
1 − τbb (θ = 0)
m
1 − Ao
The above set of equations for drapery fabrics are used subject to the condition that the solar
absorptance of the fabric, at normal incidence, is not less than 1% (ASHRE 1311-RP). The diffuse-
diffuse material properties, for Equivalent layer window model, are determined using Rhomberg
integration with 32 panels covering the range from θ = 0 to θ = 90o (ASHRAE 1311-RP). The
subscript “X” stands for either front or back side of the layer.
Z π/2
m m
τx,dd =2 τx,bt (θ) cos θ sin θdθ (7.617)
θ=0
Z π/2
ρm
x,dd =2 ρm
x,bt (θ) cos θ sin θdθ (7.618)
θ=0
The above set of equations for drapery fabrics apply to the full range of Ao , fabric transmittance
and fabric reflectance including that falls within the bounds of Keyes’ (1967) fabric chart plus
sheer fabrics (ASHRAE 1311-RP). The longwave thermal emissivity and thermal transmittances of
drapery fabric are calculated using the following correlations and fabric openness fraction (Kotey
et al. 2008).
τ m = 1 − 0.95 · (1 − Ao ) (7.620)
The optical and thermal properties determined using the above same sets of equations are equally
valid for pleated drape shades (Kotey, et. al., 2009a). For pleated drape, the effective beam-beam
and beam-diffuse solar properties are determined by tracking both radiation components, for a given
incident angle, and interaction with a fabric pleated rectangular geometry shown in Figure 7.64.
The solar optical properties of the two different pleat planes are evaluated on the basis of the local
solar incidence angle. Therefore, the effective layer properties are influenced not just by horizontal
solar profile angle, ΩH , but also by incidence angle (ASHRAE 1311-RP).
The solar diffuse-diffuse and long-wave effective properties of the pleated drape are evaluated
using a much simpler net-radiation analysis using conventional shape factors (Kotey, et. al.,
2009a). Users can chose and apply the pleated drape model to any fabric and any degree of
fullness (ASHRAE 1311-RP).
7.8. WINDOW HEAT BALANCE CALCULATION 435
Figure 7.65: Geometry and properties used for venetian blind analysis. The effective longwave
properties are obtained for the layer knowing longwave properties of the slats.
The model assumes that venetian blind slats reflect and transmit solar radiation diffusely
(ASHRAE 1311-RP). The same assumption is made regarding thermal radiation. The input data
required to characterize a venetian blind are: front and back side reflectance and transmittance
of the slat, geometry and infrared emissivity and transmittance of the slate. The effective optical
properties of the venetian blind are determined by tracking beam and diffuse solar radiation through
various interactions with slats positioned at a given slat angle. The model uses simple four-surface
model if the slats are fully sunlit and a six-surface model if the slats are partially sunlit (ASHRAE
1311-RP). Slats are assumed to be thin and flat but a correction is applied to account for slat
436 CHAPTER 7. DAYLIGHTING AND WINDOW CALCULATIONS
The off-normal properties of roller-blind are determined from solar properties of roller blind fabric
measured at normal incidence (θ = 0) using correlations (Kotey, et. al., 2009b). The off-normal
properties for roller blind shades are calculated using the set equations given below:
(
τbb (θ = 0) · cos b θ
θcutoff
· π
2
θ < θCutOf f
τbb (θ) = (7.621)
0 θ ≥ θCutOf f
π
b = 0.6 · cos0.3 Ao · (7.622)
2
π
θcutoff = 65◦ + (90◦ − 65◦ ) · 1 − cos Ao · (7.623)
2
(
−0.467
0.133 · (τ str + 0.003) if (0 ≤ τ str ≤ 0.33)
b= (7.625)
0.33 · (1 − τ str ) if (0.33 < τ str ≤ 1)
τbt (θ = 0) − τbb (θ = 0)
τ str = (7.626)
1 − τbb (θ = 0)
The off-normal solar property calculation of roller blind is based on a set of correlations devel-
oped from measurement data using samples of commonly used commercially produced roller blind
material openness range of 0.0 – 0.14. Thus, these correlations are not applicable for shades with
materials openness fraction exceeding 0.20. The mean solar reflectance of a roller blind material
was found to be purely diffuse and unaffected by incidence angle and is given by:
The diffuse-diffuse transmittance and reflectance are obtained by Rhomberg numerical integra-
tion. The longwave properties of roller blind material determined using the material property and
the openness fraction (Kotey et al. 2008) as shown below:
τ rb = 1 − 0.95 · (1 − Ao ) (7.630)
7.8. WINDOW HEAT BALANCE CALCULATION 437
Ao = (1 − d/s)2 (7.631)
The incidence angle beyond which direct beam transmission is cut off, θCutOf f , can also be
estimated purely from geometry and is given by:
ρbt (θ) = ρbt (θ = 0) + (ρbt (θ = 90◦ ) − ρbt (θ = 0)) · 1 − cosb (θ) (7.638)
ρbt (θ = 0)
ρw = (7.640)
1 − τbb (θ = 0)
at each time step, first the normal incidence optical properties are modified for current incident
angle. Using the off-normal properties, then the ASHWAT_Solar routine sets up the coefficient
matrix based on the net radiation concept to determine the effective absorptance of each layer
and the window transmittance. The total intensity of shortwave radiation absorbed at each layer
is determined by multiplying the incident solar radiation, reflected internal solar radiations, and
internal shortwave source components by the appropriate absorbed fractions and summing them.
where
εef f = composite indoor (room-side) longwave emissivity, (-)
εj = effective emissivity of layer j, (-)
τk = effective infrared transmittance of layer k ({τ 1 = 1)
nl = number of layers in fenestration system (glazing and shade). Layers are numbered
outside to inside (layer 1 is outermost, layer nl is innermost).
Each equivalent layer window surafce yields net longwave radiant flux exchanged with the zone
surfaces. Net longwave radiation exchange from the window to the zone is recast for a composite
surface temperature calculation as follows:
r
ef f 4 Qlw
T = + T0 (7.645)
σεef f
where
Tef f = inside surface temperature of the composite layer, °C (°F)
Qlw = infrared radiant gain from zone, W/m2 (Btu/h-ft2 )
σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant, W/m2 -K4 (Btu/h-ft2 -R4 )
T0 = Temperature of absolute zero, -273.15◦ C (-459.67◦ F)
Recalculating effective inside face window temperature may result in extra convection flux.
The “extra” (Other) convective flux is computed; this is the gain in excess of that resulting from
the standard surface heat balance model. The net other convection term QX calculated below is
added to the zone air heat balance (ASHRAE 1311-RP).
440 CHAPTER 7. DAYLIGHTING AND WINDOW CALCULATIONS
QX = Qconv − hc · (T ef f − Ta ) (7.646)
Where,
hc = inside convective coefficient of the fenestration, W/m2 -K (Btu/h-ft2 -F)
Qconv = total convective heat flux to zone from equivalent layer window thermal model,
W/m2 (Btu/h-ft2 ); includes open-channel gains and impact of inside surface convective coefficient
Ta = zone air temperature, °C (°F)
7.8.16.14 References:
Edwards, D.K. 1977. Solar absorption by each element in an absorber-coverglass array, Technical
Note, Solar Energy, Vol. 19, pp. 401-402.
Parmelee, G. V., and W. W. Aubele. 1952. The shading of sunlit glass: an analysis of the effect
of uniformly spaced flat opaque slats, ASHVE Transactions, Vol. 58, pp. 377-398.
Farber, Erich A.; William A. Smith, C.W. Pennington, John C. Reed. 1963. Theoretical analysis
of solar heat gain through insulating glass with inside shading. ASHRAE Transactions, Vol. 69,
pp.393-405.
Rheault, S., and E. Bilgen. 1989. Heat transfer analysis in an automated venetian blind system,
Journal of Solar Energy, Vol. 111 (Feb.), pp. 89-95.
Pfrommer, P., K. J. Lomas, and C. Kupke. 1996. “Solar Radiation Transport through Slat-Type
Blinds: a New Model and its Application for Thermal Simulation of Buildings,” Solar Energy, Vol.
57, No. 2, pp. 77-91.
Rosenfeld, J.L.J., W. J. Platzer, H. Van Dijk, and A. Maccari. 2000. “Modelling the Optical
and Thermal Properties of Complex Glazing: Overview of Recent Developments”, Solar Energy,
Vol. 69 Supplement, No. 1-6, pp.1-13.
Yahoda, D. S. and J. L. Wright. 2004. “Methods for Calculating the Effective Longwave
Radiative Properties of a Venetian Blind Layer,” ASHRAE Transactions, Vol. 110, Pt. 1., pp. 463-
473.
Yahoda, D. S. and J. L. Wright. 2005. “Methods for Calculating the Effective Solar-Optical
Properties of a Venetian Blind Layer,” ASHRAE Transactions, Vol. 111, Pt. 1, pp. 572-586.
Yahoda, D. S. and J. L. Wright. 2004. “Heat Transfer Analysis of a Between-Panes Venetian
Blind Using Effective Longwave Radiative Properties,” ASHRAE Transactions, Vol. 110, Pt. 1.,
pp. 455-462.
Huang, N.Y.T., J. L. Wright, M. R. Collins. 2006. “Thermal Resistance of a Window with an
Enclosed Venetian Blind: Guarded Heater Plate Measurements,” ASHRAE Transactions, Vol. 112,
Pt. 2. pp. 13-21.
Wright, J. L. 2008. “Calculating Centre-Glass Performance Indices of Glazing Systems with
Shading Devices,” ASHRAE Transactions, Vol. 114, Pt. 2.
Wright, J. L., N. Y. T. Huang, and M. R. Collins. 2008. “Thermal Resistance of a Window
with an Enclosed Venetian Blind: A Simplified Model,” ASHRAE Transactions, Vol. 114, Pt. 1.
Kotey, N. A., J. L. Wright, and M. R. Collins. 2008. “Determining Longwave Radiative Prop-
erties of Flat Shading Materials,” 33rd Annual SESCI / 3rd CSBC Conference Proceedings, Fred-
ericton, NB.
Kotey, N.A., Wright, J.L., M. R. Collins. 2009a. “Determination of Angle-Dependent Solar
Optical Properties of Roller Blind Materials,” drafted for submission to ASHRAE Transactions,
Vol. 115, Pt. 1.
7.8. WINDOW HEAT BALANCE CALCULATION 441
X
nsurf aces
qconv = hc,i Ai (Ta − Ts,i ) (8.1)
i=1
8.3 Infiltration/Ventilation
8.3.1 Infiltration
Any outdoor air that enters by way of infiltration is assumed to be immediately mixed with the
zone air. The determination of the amount of infiltration air is quite complicated and subject to
significant uncertainty. In the most common procedure, the infiltration quantity is converted from
a number of air changes per hour (ACH) and included in the zone air heat balance using the outside
temperature at the current simulation time step.
EnergyPlus contains three models for infiltration. The first is the “Design Flow Rate” model
that was inherited from EnergyPlus’ predecessor programs. It is accessed through the ZoneIn-
filtration:DesignFlowRate object and is based on environmental conditions modifying a design
flow rate. The second is the “Effective Leakage Area” model based on Sherman and Grimsrud
(1980) and accessed using the ZoneInfiltration:EffectiveLeakageArea input object. The third is
442
8.3. INFILTRATION/VENTILATION 443
the “Flow Coefficient” model based on Walker and Wilson (1998) and accessed using the ZoneIn-
filtration:FlowCoefficient input object. The model formulations for the Effective Leakage Area and
Flow Coefficient models are from the ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals (2001 Chapter 26; 2005
Chapter 27) where they are referred to as “Basic” and “Enhanced”, respectively.
Inf iltration = (Idesign ) (Fschedule ) A + B |(Tzone − Todb )| + C (W indSpeed) + D W indspeed2
(8.2)
More advanced infiltration calculations are possible using the EnergyPlus AirflowNetwork model
for natural infiltration driven by wind when the HVAC system does not operate and/or driven by
wind and forced air for times when the HVAC system operates. Exfiltration (the leakage of zone air
to the outside) is generally handled better as zone exhaust air in the zone equipment description.
The question of typical values for these coefficients is subject to debate. Ideally, one should
do a detailed analysis of the infiltration situation and then determine a custom set of coefficients
using methods such as those laid out in Chapter 26 of the ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals.
The EnergyPlus defaults are 1,0,0,0 which gives a constant volume flow of infiltration under all
conditions.
BLAST (one of the EnergyPlus predecessors) used the following values as defaults: 0.606,
0.03636, 0.1177, 0. These coefficients produce a value of 1.0 at 0◦ C deltaT and 3.35 m/s (7.5 mph)
windspeed, which corresponds to a typical summer condition. At a winter condition of 40◦ C deltaT
and 6 m/s (13.4 mph) windspeed, these coefficients would increase the infiltration rate by a factor
of 2.75.
In DOE-2 (the other EnergyPlus predecessor), the air change method defaults are (adjusted to
SI units) 0, 0, 0.224 (windspeed), 0. With these coefficients, the summer conditions above would
give a factor of 0.75, and the winter conditions would give 1.34. A windspeed of 4.47 m/s (10 mph)
gives a factor of 1.0.
The source of the BLAST defaults is noted in the BLAST documentation as:
“Empirical equation and the coefficient default were determined from ASHRAE journal articles
and other data on the effects of outdoor weather conditions.”
The source of the DOE-2 defaults is based on examining the infiltration relationships described
in the ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals.
The EnergyPlus example files use all of the above, the BLAST defaults in some (e.g., Geome-
tryTest), the DOE-2 defaults in some (e.g., 5ZoneAirCooled), and the EnergyPlus defaults in some
(e.g., LgOffVAVDetCoil).
444 CHAPTER 8. AIR HEAT BALANCE MANAGER / PROCESSES
where,
Fschedule is a value from a user-defined schedule,
c is the flow coefficient in m3 /(s·Pan ),
Cs is the coefficient for stack-induced infiltration in (Pa/K)n ,
n is the pressure exponent,
Cw is the coefficient for wind-induced infiltration in (Pa·s2 /m2 )n , and
s is the shelter factor.
8.3.4.1 References:
Coblenz, C. W. and Achenbach, P. R. 1963. Field Measurement of Ten Electrically-Heated Houses.
ASHRAE Transactions pp 358-365.
Sherman, M.H. and D.T. Grimsrud. 1980. Infiltration-pressurization correlation: Simplified
physical modeling. ASHRAE Transactions 86(2):778
Walker, I.S., and D.J. Wilson. 1998. Field validation of equations for stack and wind driven air
infiltration calculations. International Journal of HVAC&R Research 4(2).
ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals. 2005. Chapter 27. (and 2001 Chapter 26).
8.3. INFILTRATION/VENTILATION 445
8.3.5 Ventilation
EnergyPlus contains two models for ventilation. The “Design Flow Rate” model, inherited from
EnergyPlus’ predecessor programs, is accessed through the ZoneVentilation:DesignFlowRate object
and is based on environmental conditions modifying a design flow rate. The “Wind and Stack with
Open Area” model, based on equations defined in Chapter 16 of the 2009 ASHRAE Handbook of
Fundamentals, is accessed using the ZoneVentilation:WindandStackOpenArea input object. Since
the “Wind and Stack with Open Area” object requires the height difference between the midpoint
of the lower opening and the neutral pressure level, which is difficult to estimate, this object should
be used with care (e.g., research only).
These two ventilation objects can be used alone or in combination to determine ventilation
air for a zone. If multiple ZoneVentilation:* objects are specified for a zone, then the total zone
ventilation flow rate is the sum of the ventilation air flow rates calculated by each ZoneVentilation
object.
V entilation = (Vdesign ) (Fschedule ) A + B |Tzone − Todb | + C (W indSpeed) + D W indSpeed2
(8.5)
More advanced ventilation calculations are possible using the EnergyPlus AirflowNetwork model.
The following description is copied from the Infiltration discussion above. The question of typical
values for these coefficients is subject to debate. Ideally, one should do a detailed analysis of the
ventilation situation and then determine a custom set of coefficients using methods such as those
laid out in Chapter 26 of the ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals. The EnergyPlus defaults are
1,0,0,0 which gives a constant volume flow of ventilation under all conditions.
BLAST (one of the EnergyPlus predecessors) used the following values as defaults: 0.606,
0.03636, 0.1177, 0. These coefficients produce a value of 1.0 at 0◦ C deltaT and 3.35 m/s (7.5 mph)
windspeed, which corresponds to a typical summer condition. At a winter condition of 40◦ C deltaT
and 6 m/s (13.4 mph) windspeed, these coefficients would increase the ventilation rate by a factor
of 2.75.
In DOE-2 (the other EnergyPlus predecessor), the air change method defaults are (adjusted to
SI units) 0, 0, 0.224 (windspeed), 0. With these coefficients, the summer conditions above would
give a factor of 0.75, and the winter conditions would give 1.34. A windspeed of 4.47 m/s (10 mph)
gives a factor of 1.0.
The source of the BLAST defaults is noted in the BLAST documentation as:
446 CHAPTER 8. AIR HEAT BALANCE MANAGER / PROCESSES
“Empirical equation and the coefficient default were determined from ASHRAE journal articles
and other data on the effects of outdoor weather conditions.”
The source of the DOE-2 defaults is based on examining the infiltration relationships described
in the ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals.
The EnergyPlus example files use all of the above, the BLAST defaults in some (e.g., Air-
flowNetwork_Simple_house), the DOE-2 defaults in some (e.g., VentilationSimpleTest – has all 3),
and the EnergyPlus defaults in some (e.g., 5ZoneNightVent2).
where
QInf iltration,i = Outdoor airflow rate given in the ith ZoneInfiltration objects for the same zone
The balanced ventilation airflow is the sum of outdoor airflows from all ZoneVentilation: De-
signFlowRate objects with Ventilation Type = Balanced:
X
Qb,v = Qv,Balanced,i (8.13)
i
where
Qv,Balanced,i = Ventilation rate with “Balanced” ventilation type defined in the ith ZoneVenti-
lation:DesignFlowRate object for the same zone
The unbalanced ventilation airflow is given by the following equation:
( )2 ( )2 ( )2 ( )2 0.5
∑ ∑ ∑ ∑ ∑ ( )
Qu,v = Qv,N atural,i + Qv,W ind,i + Qv,Intake,i + Qv,Exhaust,i + M ax 0, (QERV,Exh,i − QERV,Sup,i )
i i i i i
(8.14)
where
Qv,Exhaust,i = Ventilation rate with “Exhaust” type in the ith ZoneVentilation:DesignFlowRate
object for the same zone
Qv,Intake,i = Ventilation rate with “Intake” type in the ith ZoneVentilation:DesignFlowRate
object for the same zone
Qv,N atural,i = Ventilation rate with “Natural” type in the ith ZoneVentilation:DesignFlowRate
object for the same zone
Qv,W ind,v = Ventilation rate in the ith ZoneVentilation:WindandStackOpenArea object for the
same zone
QERV,Sup,i = Supply flow rate given in the ith ZoneHVAC:EnergyRecoveryVentilator object
QERV,Exh,i = Exhaust flow rate given in the ith ZoneHVAC:EnergyRecoveryVentilator object
For Ventilation Type = Intake in the ZoneVentilation:DesignFlowRate object, an appropriate
amount of fan heat will be ignored and the outdoor temperature will be used in the zone air heat
balance equation.
This object provides a simple airflow interaction model without having to use the AirflowNetwork
capabilities, when the Air Balance Method is specified as Quadrature.
8.3.9 Reference
ASHRAE. 2009. 2009 ASHRAE Handbook – Fundamentals, Chapter 16, Atlanta: American Society
of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
For one-way mixing (using ZoneMixing object(s)), the mixing air flow is only used for the energy
and mass balance for the receiving zone. The mass referred to in this section includes air, water
vapor and CO2 . The source zone energy and mass balance are not affected, although the user
may choose to enter complementary pairs of one-way mixing objects. Multiple mixing flows can be
defined for any receiving zone. For cross-zone mixing (using ZoneCrossMixing object(s)), the mixing
air flow impacts the mass and energy balances in both the source and receiving zones. A separate
ZoneCrossMixing object must be used for each of the two zones exchanging air if the mixing flow
is bi-directional and based on a temperature difference greater than zero.
For refrigerated space air exchange (using ZoneRefrigerationDoorMixing object(s)), the mixing
air flow impacts the mass and energy balances in both the source and receiving zones. A single
object accounts for the two-way air flow with the energy and mass exchanges determined by the air
density difference between the two zones.
TReceivingZone + TSourceZone WReceivingZone + WSourceZone
ρAvg = f , , PBarometric (8.15)
2 2
TReceivingZone + TSourceZone WReceivingZone + WSourceZone
cP,Avg =f , (8.16)
2 2
X
ṁM ixingF lowT oReceivingZone = ρAvg V̇Air (8.17)
AllSourceZones
X
Q̇M ixingF lowT oReceivingZone = ρAvg Cp,Avg V̇Air (TsourceZone − TreceivingZone ) (8.18)
AllSourceZones
X
M oistureM ixingF lowT oReceivingZone = ρAvg V̇Air WSourceZone (8.19)
AllSourceZones
where
cP,Avg is the average specific heat of air within the two zones (J/kg.K)
ṁMixingFlowToReceivingZone is the mass of moist air flowing into the receiving zone (kgair /s)
MoistureM ixingF lowT oReceivingZone is the moisture mass flow rate into the receiving zone (kgH2O /s)
PBarometric is the outside barometric pressure (Pa)
ρAvg is the average density of air within the two zones (kg/s)
450 CHAPTER 8. AIR HEAT BALANCE MANAGER / PROCESSES
Q̇MixingFlowToReceivingZone is the energy added to receiving zone air by mixing mass flow (W)
TReceivingZone is the temperature in the receiving zone (o C)
TSourceZone is the temperature in the source zone (o C)
V̇Air is the volume rate of air flow defined by the user (m3 /s)
WReceivingZone is the humidity ratio in the receiving zone (kgH2O /kgdryair )
WSourceZone is the humidity ratio in the source zone (kgH2O /kgdryair )
For cross-mixing, the mass of moist air exchanged between the two zones is assumed to be
equal. Again, the density and specific heat are based on the average conditions in the two zones.
Note that the temperature and humidity ratio differences ensure that when the energy and moisture
terms are used in the Moisture Predictor-Corrector, they correctly reflect a loss or gain in each zone.
ṁM ixingF lowT oReceivingZone = ṁM ixingF lowT oSourceZone = ρAvg V̇Air (8.20)
Q̇M ixingF lowT oSourceZone = ρAvg Cp,Avg V̇Air (TReceivingZone − TSourceZone ) (8.21)
Q̇M ixingF lowT oReceivingZone = ρAvg Cp,Avg V̇Air (TSourceZone − TReceivingZone ) (8.22)
Q̇M ixing
ṁDryAirZonesAB = (8.32)
hzoneB − hzoneA
X
ṁM ixingF lowZoneBtoA = ṁDryAirZonesAB (1 + WZoneB ) (8.33)
AllZoneBs
X
Q̇M ixingF lowZoneBtoA = ṁZoneBtoA Cp,ZoneB (TzoneB − TzoneA ) (8.34)
AllZoneBs
X
MoistureM ixingF lowZoneBtoA = ṁZoneBtoA (WzoneB − WzoneA ) (8.35)
AllZoneBs
X
ṁM ixingF lowZoneAtoB = ṁDryAirZonesAB (1 + WZoneA ) (8.36)
AllZoneAs
X
Q̇M ixingF lowZoneAtoB = ṁZoneBtoA Cp,ZoneA (TzoneA − TzoneB ) (8.37)
AllZoneAs
X
MoistureM ixingF lowZoneAtoB = ṁZoneBtoA (WzoneA − WzoneB ) (8.38)
AllZoneAs
where
Adoor is the area of door between Zones A and B (m2 )
FF low is the doorway flow factor, = 0.8 if ∆T > 11o C; = 1.1 if ∆T < = 11o C
FP rotection is the doorway protection factor, = 0 for no protection; = 0.5 for an air curtain; and
0.9 for a strip curtain (dimensionless)
g is the gravitational constant (m/s2 )
hZoneA is the enthalpy of the air within Zone A (J/kg)
hZoneB is the enthalpy of the air within Zone B (J/kg)
Hdoor is the height of door between source and receiving zones (m)
QF ullF low is the sensible and latent refrigeration load (on Zone A) for fully established flow (W)
452 CHAPTER 8. AIR HEAT BALANCE MANAGER / PROCESSES
QM ixing is the sensible and latent mixing refrigeration load on Zone A for the time step (W)
mDryAirZoneAB is the mass of dry air exchanged between zones A and B (kgair /s)
ScheduleDoorOpen is the value scheduled by user, fraction of time door open during time step
(dimensionless)
WZoneA is the humidity ratio of the air within Zone A (kgH2O /kgair )
WZoneB is the humidity ratio of air within Zone B (kgH2O /kgair )
PZoneA is the density of air within Zone A (kg/m3 )
ρZoneB is the density of air within Zone B (kg/m3 )
8.4.3 References
ASHRAE. 2006d. Refrigeration Handbook, Chapter 13. Atlanta: American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
ASHRAE. 2009. Fundamentals Handbook, Chapter 1. Atlanta: American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
Gosney, W.B., Olama, G.A.-L. 1975. Heat and Enthalpy Gains through Cold Room Door-
ways, Proceedings of the Institute of Refrigeration, vol. 72, pp 31-41.
EnergyPlus uses a loop based HVAC system formulation. An example of the dual duct VAV system
is shown below.
453
454 CHAPTER 9. BUILDING SYSTEM SIMULATION SYSTEM MANAGER / PROCESSES
the zone temperatures and humidity ratios are corrected using results from the system simulation.
As a result the usual algebraic loops arising in steady state air system simulations are eliminated
from the EnergyPlus system simulation. The zone temperatures, humidity ratios, and heating and
cooling demands are known inputs to the system simulation.
The need for iteration can be reintroduced by the need for system control. If system setpoints
are fixed, externally determined, or lagged and control is local (sensor located at a component
outlet, actuator at a component inlet) then iteration can be confined to the components and the
overall air system equations can be solved directly. However these requirements are too restrictive
to simulate real systems. System setpoints are held fixed during a system time step. But controller
sensors are allowed to be remote from the location of the actuator. Consequently EnergyPlus uses
iteration over the entire primary air system in order to converge the system controllers.
• If this is the first simulation this system time-step, just call ManageAirLoops (simulates the
primary air systems) and ManageZoneEquipment (simulates the zone equipment sets) once
and quit. This initial pass is simulated with full design air flow rates and allows the zone
equipment to set the flow rates for each zone that will meet the zone loads.
• Otherwise loop over primary air systems and zone equipment sets until the temperatures, flow
rates, enthalpies, humidity ratios etc. agree to within tolerance at each primary air system –
zone equipment gap.
while ( ( SimAirLoops || SimZoneEquipment ) && ( IterAir <= MaxAir ) ) {
++ IterAir; // Increment the iteration counter
// Call AirflowNetwork simulation to calculate air flows and pressures
ResimulateAirZone = false;
if ( SimulateAirflowNetwork > AirflowNetworkControlSimple ) {
ManageAirflowNetworkBalance ( FirstHVACIteration , IterAir , ResimulateAirZone );
}
if ( SimAirLoops ) {
ManageAirLoops( FirstHVACIteration , SimAirLoops , SimZoneEquipment );
SimElecCircuits = true; //If this was simulated there are possible electric changes that
need to be simulated
}
}
FlowMaxAvailAlreadyReset = false;
RepIterAir += IterAir;
if ( IterAir > MaxAir ) {
AirLoopConvergFail = 1;
} else {
AirLoopConvergFail = 0;
}
// Check to see if any components have been locked out. If so , SimAirLoops will be reset to TRUE.
ResolveLockoutFlags ( SimAirLoops );
The logical flags SimAirLoops and SimZoneEquipment are used to signal whether the primary
air systems or the zone equipment sets need to be resimulated. These flags are set by the subroutine
456 CHAPTER 9. BUILDING SYSTEM SIMULATION SYSTEM MANAGER / PROCESSES
Quantities Tolerances
specific enthalpy [J/kg} 10.0
mass flow rate [kg/s] 0.01
humidity ratio [kg H O / kg dry air] 0.0001
quality 0.01
air pressure [Pa] 10.0
temperature [C] 0.01
energy [J] 10.0
ResolveAirLoopFlowLimits is invoked to deal with zone equipment – primary air system flow
mismatches. For instance the zone air terminal units (ATUs) may be asking for more air than the
central fan can supply. In this case ResolveAirLoopFlowLimits takes the air flow that the fan can
supply and apportions it among the ATUs in proportion to their design maximum air flow rates
(ResolveAirLoopFlowLimits sets the ṁmax avail,node at the entering node of each ATU in the system).
At the end of the air loop simulation ResolveLockoutFlags is called. This subroutine checks if
any air system component has requested that the economizer be locked out. If such a request has
been made and if the economizer is active, ResolveLockoutFlags sets SimAirLoops to true and the
EconoLockout flag to true to ensure that the air loop will be resimulated with the economizer forced
off.
// This flag could be used to resimulate only the air loops that needed additional iterations.
// This flag would have to be moved inside SimAirLoops to gain this flexibility.
SimAir = std:: any_of( AirLoopControlInfo .begin (), AirLoopControlInfo .end(), []( DataAirLoop ::
AirLoopControlData const & e ){ return e.ResimAirLoopFlag; } );
1. If the user input data has not been input, get the data and store it in the air loop data
structures.
a. Controllers;
b. System Availability Managers;
These objects and their data are described in the EnergyPlus Input Output Reference document.
The utility routines used to get and check the data are described in the EnergyPlus Guide for Module
Developers, section Input Services.
458 CHAPTER 9. BUILDING SYSTEM SIMULATION SYSTEM MANAGER / PROCESSES
where Woa is the humidity ratio of the outside air; PsyHFnTdbW is the EnergyPlus psychro-
metric function for enthalpy h, given temperature and humidity ratio; and Qu is quality.
• Loop over all of the central air systems (Air Primary Loops).
• For each controller, repeat the simulation of all the Air Primary Loop components until the
controller has converged
During and at the end of each loop some tests are performed.
At the end of the first pass of loop 2, a decision is made on whether a second pass is needed.
The first pass has been performed assuming that there is a mass flow balance in the central air
system simulation. This is usually the case. A call to ResolveSysFlow checks the mass balance and
imposes a mass balance if there is not a balance. The lack of a system mass balance requires a
resimulation of the central air system: i.e., a second pass in loop 2.
In loop 3, a call to ManageControllers simulates controller action and checks for controller
convergence. If convergence is achieved loop 3 is exited.
After all the controllers on a loop are converged, steps 5 & 6 are repeated one more time to
ensure all the components on the loop have final values.
At the end of the primary air system simulation a call to UpdateHVACInterface passes the
primary air system outlet node data to the zone equipment inlet nodes. If the data across the supply
side – demand side gap doesn’t match to within a preset tolerance, the flag SimZoneEquipment is set
to true to ensure that the zone equipment side gets resimulated. Finally a flag indicating whether
the economizer is active is set. This flag is used at a higher level to decide whether the primary air
system needs to be resimulated if an HVAC component is calling for economizer lockout.
rate (economizer control). The outside air system differs from the primary air system in that
it is not described in terms of splitters, mixers, and branches. Instead the components are sim-
ply listed in simulation order in an AirLoopHVAC:OutdoorAirSystem:EquipmentList input ob-
ject. The components other than the OutdoorAir:Mixer are assumed to be in the outside air
stream. The connectivity is defined by upstream component’s outlet node = downstream com-
ponent’s inlet node. The OutdoorAir:Mixer should be the first component in the AirLoopH-
VAC:OutdoorAirSystem:EquipmentList object.
9.4.1 Simulation
The data for and simulation of the outside air system are contained in the MixedAir module. This
includes the data and simulation of the OutdoorAir:Mixer and the Controller:OutdoorAir. The
simulation of the outside air system is straightforward.
• All controllers other than Controller:OutdoorAir are moved up to the primary air system
level, where they are simulated with the primary air system controllers.
• The components contained in the outside air system are simulated in the order of their input
in the AirLoopHVAC:OutdoorAirSystem:EquipmentList.
9.5.1 Simulation
Given the air mass flow rates and conditions (humidity ratio, specific enthalpy) at the return
air node, relief air node, and outside air node, the simulation uses mass and energy balance to
calculate the air mass flow rate, humidity ratio, and specific enthalpy at the mixed air node. The
mixed air temperature is calculated from the mixed air humidity ratio and specific enthalpy using
the EnergyPlus psychrometric routine PsyTdbFnHW.
IF (GetInputFlag) THEN
CALL GetZoneEquipment
GetInputFlag = .FALSE.
END IF
IF (ZoneSizingCalc) THEN
CALL SizeZoneEquipment
ELSE
CALL SimZoneEquipment(FirstHVACIteration , SimAir)
END IF
CALL ReportZoneEquipment
SimZone = .False.
RETURN
1. If the user input data has not been input, get the data and store it in the zone equipment
data structures
3. If calculation of the design zone air flow rates and loads needs to be done, do it. The results of
this calculation are stored in the zone sizing and air terminal sizing data structures and used
by the component automatic sizing algorithms and the central system sizing calculations.
5. Transfer the zone equipment outlet node data to the inlet nodes of the primary air systems
and check for convergence (done in RecordZoneEquipment by calling UpdateHVACInterface).
a. the zone connection to the air loop – air inlet nodes, exhaust nodes, return nodes, and
zone node;
b. the components serving each zone – air terminal units, fan coils etc.;
ṁnode = 0 (9.17)
9.6.3 Simulation
The subroutine SimZoneEquipment does the actual simulation of all the zone equipment. Note that
this includes components that are part of the demand side of an air loop as well as components
that are independent of any air loop.
For zone equipment components that are part of the demand side of an air loop the simulation
sequence is effectively performed in the direction of the air flow. First the supply air plenums and
zone splitters are simulated in their input order. Then the air terminal units are simulated followed
by the zone return plenums and zone mixer. Each air terminal unit sets its inlet node to the air mass
flow rate required to satisfy its zone load. These mass flow rates are then passed back upstream
to the air loop demand-side inlet nodes at the end of each zone equipment simulation sequence.
These demand-side inlet mass flow rates are then used as mass flow rate setpoints in the air loop
supply-side simulation.
464 CHAPTER 9. BUILDING SYSTEM SIMULATION SYSTEM MANAGER / PROCESSES
If multiple air-conditioning components are attached to a zone, the components are simulated
in the order specified by the user assigned priority given in the ZoneHVAC:EquipmentList object,
using one of four load distribution schemes. See Zone Equipment Load Distribution described in
9.6.4
For each full air loop there should be 1 supply air path for each primary air system outlet (i.e. 1
for single duct systems, 2 for dual duct systems). For each full air loop there may be one return
air path. The supply air paths consist of any combination of zone splitters and zone supply air
plenums as long as it forms a tree structure with the supply air path inlet node the root and the
air terminal unit inlet nodes as the leaves. The return air paths consist of any combination of zone
mixers and zone return air plenums as long as it forms a tree structure with the demand-side outlet
node the root and the zone return air nodes as the leaves.
a. Loop over each component (supply plenum or zone splitter) on the supply air path and
simulate each component. The components are simulated in input order.
a. Loop over the components on each supply air path in reverse input order. This reverse
order simulation passes the air terminal units inlet mass flows back upstream to the
return air path inlet node.
b. Check to see if the supply air path inlet node mass flow rate has changed. If it has set
the SimAir flag to true. This signals the HVAC manager that the supply-side of the air
loop needs to be resimulated.
4. Calculate the zone air flow mass balance – the zone inlet and exhaust mass flow rates are
summed and the zone node and return air node mass flow rates are determined by a mass
balance for each zone.
5. Calculate the conditions at each zone return air node. Here energy not included in the zone
energy balance such as light-heat-to-return-air is added to the return nodes of the controlled
zones.
a. Loop over each component (return plenum or zone mixer) on the return air path and
simulate each component.
flow rate is set to the sum of the outlet air mass flow rates. The same calculation is done for the
maximum available and minimum available air flow rates.
The outlet air temperature, enthalpy, humidity ratio and pressure are set to the zone conditions.
In addition to its normal function of acting as an air stream mixer, the return plenum can have
2 types of special connection to upstream air terminal units.
468 CHAPTER 9. BUILDING SYSTEM SIMULATION SYSTEM MANAGER / PROCESSES
(1) The user can model the effects of duct leakage in VAV single duct systems using the Simplified
Duct Leakage Model (see ZoneHVAC:AirDistributionUnit for how to set up this model). After
the normal outlet air flow calculation is completed as above, the calculation loops over the
air distribution units connected to the zones that feed air to the plenum and adds in to the
outlet air mass flow rate the leakage air flow rates from the upstream leaks defined in the
ZoneHVAC:AirDistributionUnit inputs. This connection between the leaks and the plenum
is not explicit: no extra nodes are defined in the return plenum or in the terminal unit.
(2) The user can model secondary (recirculated) air drawn from the plenum into a
fan powered induction unit (AirTerminal:SingleDuct:SeriesPIU:Reheat or AirTermi-
nal:SingleDuct:ParallelPIU:Reheat). In this case the connection is explicit: extra outlet
nodes are defined in the return plenum which act as the secondary air inlet nodes for the
terminal units. The recirculated air flow rates are set by the terminal units. The outlet
return air is then:
X X
ṁair,out = ṁair,in,i − ṁair,recirc,j (9.26)
i=1,n j=1,m
Qload
Tout = Tin − (9.27)
ṁcp
where
Tout = the outlet water temperature
Tin = the inlet water temperature
Qload = the scheduled plant load
ṁ = the water mass flow rate
cp = the specific heat of water
The user requested flow rate is not always available from the plant loop. The actual flow rate
used in the calculation is the lesser of the user requested value and the plant available value.
9.9. PLANT/CONDENSER LOOPS 469
Note that the LoadProfile:Plant object can still request and receive flow even if the scheduled
plant load is zero. In this case the outlet temperature will be the same as the inlet tempera-
ture. This allows users to drive the plant loop flow without necessarily affecting the loop temper-
ature.
For reporting purposes the energy consumption of the object is calculated using the equation:
E = Qload ∆t (9.28)
where
E = the energy consumption
Qload = the scheduled plant load
∆t = the time step interval
baseboards, radiant systems, etc. The load is met by primary equipment such as chillers or boilers
on the supply side half-loop. Each supply side half-loop must be connected to a demand side half-
loop and vice versa. A similar breakdown is present on condenser loops where the demand side
includes the water side of chiller’s condensers while the supply side includes condenser equipment
such as cooling towers.
Figure 9.1: Connections between the Main HVAC Simulation Loops and Half-Loops.
The breakdown into two half-loops allows for better handling and control of information and
simulation flow throughout the program. Direct connections between the half-loops of the air, plant,
and condenser loops are enhanced by components with connections between the various main loop
types. For example, coils (heating or cooling) are in reality heat exchangers with an air and a water
or refrigerant side. The air side of the coil is handled within the air loop where the control of the
device is also maintained. The fluid side of the coil is handled within the plant demand side, which
passes the energy requirements of the coil on to the plant supply side. All loops are simulated
together by successively modeling each half-loop in a particulary calling order. Overall iterations
ensure that the results for the current time step are balanced and updated information has been
passed to both sides of the sub-loops as well as across to the other side of air loop connections such
as coils.
The plant equipment on a half-loop is described by a set of branches for that half-loop. Com-
ponents can be arranged on a branch in series, and branches can be placed in parallel, with some
restrictions. Figure “Branch Layout for Individual Plant Half-Loops” provides an overview of the
intended branch layout for each plant half-loop. Branches are individual legs within the loop struc-
ture. Thus, the segment between point A and point B is defined as a branch, as is the section
between points E and F. There may be multiple sections (C1 to D1 through Cn to Dn) in between
the splitter and mixer.
9.9. PLANT/CONDENSER LOOPS 471
Each half-loop may only have one splitter and one mixer. Thus, equipment may be in parallel
between the mixer and splitter, however, within any single branch, there can only be components
in series and not in parallel. The topology rules for individual half-loops allow a reasonable amount
of flexibility without requiring a complicated solver routine to determine the actual flow and tem-
perature conditions. Note that since plant supply and demand are broken up into two separate
half-loops, chillers or boilers may be in parallel to each other in the supply side and coils may be in
parallel to each other on the demand side. Thus, the restriction of only a single splitter and mixer
on a particular half-loop does not unduly limit the allowable configurations. In some cases a single
branch can be used to define an entire half-loop, but in general a half-loop should have a splitter
and a mixer even if all equipment on the sub-loop is simply in series.
In addition, to avoid the need for overly complex solver routines, there are some restrictions
on the placement of pumps within a particular half-loop. There are two general types of pumps,
loop pumps and branch pumps. A pump that is the first component on the first branch (between
A and B) is termed a “loop pump” while any pump in the parallel section (between Ci and Di)
is termed a “branch pump”. The simplest and most common arrangement is to have one loop
pump on the supply side inlet. In plant demand half-loops pumps can be placed only in the inlet
branch. This will allow simulation of primary-secondary systems. For more information on pumps
and pump placement rules, see the section on PipingSystem:Underground Simulation Pumps in this
document.
Essentially, each branch is made up of one or more components linked together in series. The
branch has system nodes that store properties at a location on the loop (temperature, enthalpy, flow
rate, etc.) at the beginning and end of the branch as well as between components. Components on
the branch take the conditions of the node at their inlet and use that information as well as overall
control information to simulate the component and write the outlet data to the node following
the component. This information is then used either by the next component on the branch or
establishes the outlet conditions for the branch.
Although the plant model in EnergyPlus is quite flexible, in most cases the topology of the plant
system in the model will be somewhat different from the topology of the actual plant system in a
building. EnergyPlus is focused on modeling building energy performance over long periods of time
and is not intended as a completely flexible system that can directly model any actual plant system
with its full complexity and exact layout. Given the design of an actual complex plant system, the
modeler will typically need to develop a simpler system that conforms to EnergyPlus’s capabilities
and strives to capture the issues important for energy consumption modeling. Just like complex
geometry should be simplified into thermal zones for energy models, complex plants should to be
simplified into sets of pairs of closed half-loops with the allowed branch topologies.
4. Call all the supply side half-loops of the condenser loops (in input object order).
This initial calling order is then revised during a setup phase of program execution when the
plant component models are iteratively read in, initialized and sized. The algorithm is based on
information provided by those component models that connect loops together. The components
register that two loop-sides are connected and declare which one places demands on the other. If a
half loop is connected and places demands on anther loop, then the calling order for the independent
demanding loop is placed just ahead of the dependent loaded half-loop. For example a water cooled
chiller component model reports that the supply side of the chilled water loop is connected to the
demand side of the condenser loop and that the chilled water loop places demands on the condenser
loop. The plant manger algorithm is iterative and repeatedly calls all of the half loops a total of
four times. After this setup phase, the calling order is fixed for the rest of the simulation.
of some non-zero type 1 requests. Flow requests of type 3 will not affect the overall loop flow
rate. These classifications are hard coded and cannot be altered by the user.
input and models that calculate the mass flow rate as an output—sometimes in the context of a
single loop configuration.
In order to achieve these design criteria without resorting to a pressure based flow network solver
in the HVAC portion of the code, a rules-based “flow resolver” was developed for the EnergyPlus
plant manager. The flow resolver is based on the following assumptions and limitations:
• Each loop is only allowed to have a single splitter and a single mixer
• Due to the fact that there can only be one splitter and one mixer on a given loop, it follows
logically that there can be at most one bypass on each loop side
• No other components may be in series with a bypass, i.e., a branch that contains a bypass
may have no other equipment on that branch
• Equipment may be in parallel only between the splitter and mixer components of a loop
• Flow rates on individual branches will be controlled using maximum and minimum available
flow rate limits
The flow resolver employs a simple predictor-corrector algorithm to enforce mass continuity
across the plant loop splitter as shown in the following figure.
As previously discussed, the pump establishes the total loop mass flow rate by setting the flow
in the first supply side branch. In the second step, a predictor algorithm calls to simulate each piece
of equipment on the loop and they update their mass flow rate requests based on the current flow
rates, temperatures and load dispatch requests. The loop manager calls the appropriate module to
simulate (in flow order) all of the components on each branch of the loop except for splitters and
mixers. In this step, each component sets the conditions at its outlet node including temperature
and sets component flows on the inlet node. Each component and branch is classified for their type
of flow control. Prior to version 7 this was input by the user where branch objects were tagged in
the user input file as an ACTIVE, SERIESACTIVE, PASSIVE or BYPASS type of model. As of
version 7 this has been hard coded and the input is no longer used. An ACTIVE flow control type
describes a demand based plant model that calculates mass flow rate as an output. An ACTIVE
component when OFF will shut down the whole branch irrespective of the type of other components
on the branch. A SERIESACTIVE branch is like an ACTIVE component except that there are
more than one ACTIVE components on the branch so that two components requests may be at
odds with each other and so it might not shut down the whole branch when the component is OFF.
The flow resolution algorithm is same for both ACTIVE and SERIESACTIVE components and
in the rest of the document description of one type will fit the other type too. A PASSIVE type
describes a semi-deterministic model that is simulated with the mass flow rate as an input. The
BYPASS type designates a loop bypass.
The predictor algorithm first establishes the desired flow rate of each branch by searching for
ACTIVE components on the branch. The first ACTIVE component in simulation order sets the
desired branch flow. Branches with only PASSIVE components require a flow rate between the
minimum and maximum allowable branch flow. Branches with a BYPASS component have a
branch flow only when all other branches combined cannot handle the entire loop flow.
476 CHAPTER 9. BUILDING SYSTEM SIMULATION SYSTEM MANAGER / PROCESSES
The loop flow resolver makes any necessary “corrections” to the requested branch flows in order
to enforce overall continuity on the loop. If mass conservation allows all ACTIVE branches to be
satisfied, then the remaining flow is divided between the PASSIVE branches and as a last resort,
the BYPASS. If there is insufficient flow to meet the branch demand, ACTIVE branch requests are
met first in the order that the branches appear in the branch list in the input file.
The flow rate is resolved first for each individual branch. For every branch, the program cycles
through each node on the branch and determines what the flow requests and flow limits are. The
most restrictive flow constraints are assumed to be valid for the entire branch regardless of com-
ponent type. Active components are given highest priority for requesting a particular flow rate. If
there is more than one active component on a particular branch, then it is assumed that the active
component on the branch with the highest flow request dictates the flow request for the entire
branch.
Once all of the branches have set their flow rates and constraints, the splitter and mixer must
resolve the various flow requests. The mixer and any branch following the mixer is passive. Thus,
all of the flow control happens at the splitter. The splitter first attempts to sum the maximum
and minimum constraints from all of the active branches coming out of the device and compares
those to the constraints that are valid for the branch leading into the splitter. When there is a
mismatch between the outlet constraints and the inlet constraints, the simulation will defer to the
inlet constraints due to the fact that the pump is in reality controlling flow on the loop. Since
the constraints of the pump would be passed across to the demand side from the supply side, an
assumption is made that the coils or other demand side components must live within the bounds
of the pump.
Once the flow has been resolved at the splitter, the branch flow rates and constraints between
the splitter and mixer can be adjusted, if necessary. In some cases, this will be mandatory to
maintain a mass balance at the splitter. When the flow rate coming out of the splitter does not
match the active branch requests, individual branch flow rates must be adjusted to provide for the
extra flow or the “flow deficit”. When there is extra flow, the excess flow is sent through any bypass
branch first and then is sent to passive branches in reverse order of their appearance in the splitter
outlet list. When all of these branches have been exhausted and there is still excess flow, flow will
be increased to the active branches, also in reverse order. The reverse order guarantees that the
branch appearing first has the highest priority to receive the flow rate it has requested.
If there is not enough flow to meet all active branch requests (i.e., a “flow deficit”), then the
flow rates through the bypass and passive branches are set to zero. The flow rates through the
active branches will then be decreased in reverse order until the splitter outlet flow rate matches
the available flow at the splitter inlet. For a plant loop flow deficit, the bypass and passive branch
flows are also set to zero, and flow rates for each active branch are calculated as follows:
ṁbr_request
ṁbr = ∗ ṁtot_available (9.29)
ṁtot_request
where:
ṁbr = final resolved branch flow rate
ṁbr_request = requested branch flow rate
ṁtot_request = total loop mass flow rate request
ṁtot_available = total loop mass flow rate available
It is also necessary to monitor the flow constraints at the branches and components since once the
flow rates are changed, the components must be resimulated by the controlling loop (air loop, zone
478 CHAPTER 9. BUILDING SYSTEM SIMULATION SYSTEM MANAGER / PROCESSES
equipment, or plant supply side). The controllers for these components must know if the constraints
have been modified so that the simulation does not toggle between a component requesting a flow
that the pump cannot meet and the pump then resetting the flow to what it can provide. Note
that once a flow rate for any component has changed that this signals the need to resimulate any
sub-loop to which it might have an indirect connection. Currently, this means that if a flow rate on
the plant demand side changes, the simulation must recalculate the conditions on both the air loop
and zone equipment sub-loops since coils and other equipment could be on either side of the main
air loop. Similarly, if the condenser demand side simulation results in a change in flow rate through
a chiller condenser, then the plant supply side must be triggered to perform its calculations again.
Care has been taken to avoid cases where the various half-loops might simply keep triggering the
resimulation of their indirect connections in an infinite loop.
capacitance.
The total plant loop volume is separated into two tanks, on on each half-loop inlet. For normal
loops (without common pipes) each tank is one half of the plant loop volume. For common pipe
plant loops, the tank on the supply side inlet has three fourths of the volume and the tank on the
demand side inlet has one fourth. Each plant loop is assigned a total fluid volume as user input
or an autocalculate routine based on the design flow rate. The size of the thermal capacitance
affects the speed of recovery from situations where the setpoint was not maintained. The user must
estimate a fluid volume based on the size of the pipes in the loop. Note that rough estimates seem
to be sufficient. Loop capacitance (m3 ) could be calculated from pipe size data but this is not
usually known. If zero capacitance is specified the above formulation reduces to an instantaneous
update in demand update temperature and the demand inlet temperature becomes the supply outlet
temperature at the previous time step. If a very large capacitance is specified unrealistic time delay
may result and there may be poor response to changes in loop setpoint temperature. The loop
capacitance ‘autocalculate’ option sets the loop volume to the product of the maximum loop flow
rate and the loop circulation time (a user input which defaults to 2 minutes).
The tank temperature is modeled by drawing a control volume and energy balance around the
tank and solving for the temperature. The temperature of each tank is recalculated whenever
480 CHAPTER 9. BUILDING SYSTEM SIMULATION SYSTEM MANAGER / PROCESSES
the two half-loops are interfaced together. The tank temperature history is stored at the end of
the simulation timestep. The model equation for tank (and outlet temperature) is formulated as
follows:
Mtank cp Ttank,old
ṁcp Tinlet + tsys 3600
+ Q̇pumpheat
Ttank,new = Mtank cp
(9.30)
mcP + tsys 3600
The tank temperature at the end of the simulation timestep is solved by the analytical approach
and expressed as
!
ṁcp Tinlet + Q̇pumpheat ṁcp ṁcp Tinlet + Q̇pumpheat
t
Ttank = t−δt
Ttank − exp − t + (9.31)
ṁcp Mtank cp ṁcp
where:
t−δt
Ttank is the previous system time-step tank temperature [°C]
t
Ttank is the current tank and tank outlet temperature [°C]
ṁ is the current fluid mass flow rate through the tank [kg/s]
δt is the duration of system time step [second]
cP is the heat capacity of fluid [J/kg]
Mtank is the mass of the water in the tank [kg]
Q̇pumpheat is the heat generated by a pump in the tank [W]
When modeling plants using one of the common pipe modes for plant loops, the same tank
model is used but the tanks are situated differently and account for extra connections. For common
pipe situation, the tanks are located on the outlet of a half loop with common pipe interactions
downstream of the tank.
The average temperature is reported as the tank temperature. The average temperature is
defined as the value of an integral function of tank temperature on an interval [0,δt].
Z !
− δt
1 Mtank cp ṁcp Tinlet + Q̇pumpheat ṁcp
T =
t
Ttank dt = t−δt
Ttank − 1 − exp − δt
δt 0 ṁcp δt ṁcp Mtank cp
ṁcp Tinlet + Q̇pumpheat
+
ṁcp
(9.32)
• The OPTIMAL scheme first loads each component to its optimal part load ratio (specified
in input). Any remaining loop demand is distributed evenly to all the components.
• The UNIFORMLOAD scheme first divides the load evenly among all available components.
If some components do not have the capacity to meet the uniformly distributed load, the
remaining load is distributed sequentially to the other available components.
• The SEQUENTIALLOAD scheme loads each component one at a time to capacity until
the loop demand is met. The components are loaded up in the order that they appear in the
equipment list specified in input.
• The UNIFORMPLR scheme loads all equipment uniformly by maintaining uniform part
load ratios across all equipment on the equipment list. If the load is below the load required
by the plant to operate at the largest component minimum part load ratio, the last item is
482 CHAPTER 9. BUILDING SYSTEM SIMULATION SYSTEM MANAGER / PROCESSES
removed from each equipment list. This process is repeated until the plant can operate above
the largest component minimum part load ratio.
Note: For all schemes, if the load for any individual component is less than the component load
at the minimum PLR, the individual component model will false load or reduce duty cycle while
operating at the minimum part load ratio until the load is met.
Examples of application of each Load Distribution schemes can be found in the following tables.
Each example assume that we have two pieces of equipment, with Equipment A being first in line
in the PlantEquipmentList, and having the following characteristics:
9.9.5.1 OptimalLoad
The OptimalLoad Load Distribution occurs in three steps:
Step 1: Sequentially load each equipment to the Minimum of Optimal Load (= Load corresponding
to optimal Part Load Ratio) and Loop Demand
Step 2: Evenly distribute the remaining loop demand, without exceeding the maximum Part Load
Ratio of each equipment
Step 3: It there is still some remaining demand, look for any equipment that is not yet at maximum
Part Load Ratio and load it (up to its maximum Part Load Ratio)
9.9. PLANT/CONDENSER LOOPS 483
Plant Load Initial Loading A Remaining Load Initial Loading B Remaining Load
5 5 0 0 0
25 24 1 1 0
50 24 26 26 0
100 24 76 40 36
150 24 126 40 86
200 24 176 40 136
Plant Load Final Loading A Final Loading B Final PLR A Final PLR B Load Not Met
5 5 0 0.2 * - 0
25 24 1 0.6 0.15 * 0
50 24 26 0.6 0.26 0
100 40 60 1 ** 0.6 0
150 40 100 1 ** 1 ** 10
200 40 100 1 ** 1 ** 60
9.9.5.2 UniformLoad
The UniformLoad Load Distribution occurs in two steps:
Step 1: Distribute the load equally to all machines, without exceeding the maximum PLR of the
equipment
Step 2: If there is a remaining loop demand, sequentially distribute it to all machines, without ex-
ceeding the maximum Part Load Ratio.
484 CHAPTER 9. BUILDING SYSTEM SIMULATION SYSTEM MANAGER / PROCESSES
9.9.5.3 SequentialLoad
The SequentialLoad simply loads all machine sequentially up to their maximum Part Load Ratio.
9.9.5.4 UniformPLR
The UniformPLR Load Distribution occurs in three steps:
Step 1: Determine PlantCapacity and LargestMinCompPLR for each successive equipment being
turned on. PlantCapacity is the capacity of all equipment that is turned on and consid-
ered. LargestMinCompPLR is the max of minimum Part Load Ratio for each equipment
considered.
Step 2: While the load to be met is below the LargestMinCompPLR equipment still in consideration,
remove the last equipment in the Plant Equipment List. Always keep one equipment.
9.9.5.5 SequentialUniformPLR
The SequentialUniformPLR Load Distribution occurs in two steps:
Step 1: Turn on each equipment sequentially to have enough capacity to meet the loop demand.
two setpoint managers are required, one with Control Variable = MaximumTemperature and
another with Control Variable = MinimumTemperature. Examples of applicable setpoint
managers include: SetpointManager:Scheduled, SetpointManager:OutdoorAirReset, SetpointMan-
ager:FollowOutdoorAirTemperature, etc. Look in the Input Output Reference for the correct usage
of these SetpointManagers.
The Plant Loop Demand Calculation Scheme determines the amount of heating or cooling nec-
essary to bring the temperature of the Plant Loop to its setpoint(s). When this value is determined
then the Load Distribution scheme explained in the previous section takes this value and distributes
the load to the appropriate equipment. The demand calculation scheme determines how the load
is calculated. In the next section is a summary of the 2 algorithms and how they are used.
The sign of the Loop Demand determines if the loop has a cooling or heating load. Then the
Load Distribution scheme distributes this calculated load to the appropriate equipment, if there is
any.
9.9. PLANT/CONDENSER LOOPS 487
9.9.8.2 Cooling Load Range Based Operation or Heating Load Range Based Operation
PlantEquipmentOperation:CoolingLoad (or PlantEquipmentOperation:HeatingLoad) defines the
different ranges and which equipment list is valid for each range. In each trio, there is a lower
limit for the load range, an upper limit for the load range, and a name that links to an equipment
availability list (PlantEquipmentList). Load range operation is used when the loop load is
calculated and then the equipment is selected in the proper range. This allows for the most efficient
operation of the plant equipment or for the user to determine the most efficient plant configuration.
When the equipment list has been deteremined then the load is allocated to the equipment in a
manner selected by the user with “Optimal or Sequential” load distribution scheme. The load
range based operation scheme has two statements associated with it: a main statement that defines
the ranges that individual priority settings are valid and the lists of equipment that may be used
for each range.
select the algorithm that will be used to determine which equipment is available for each time step.
The ‘Range Based Operation’ schemes select a user specified set of equipment for each user specified
range of a particular simulation variable. ‘Load Range Based’ schemes compare the demand on the
condenser supply side with specified load ranges and associated equipment lists. ‘Outdoor…Range
Based’ schemes compare the current value of an environmental parameter with user specified ranges
of that parameter. See the Input Output Reference for input field details.
9.9.9.2 Cooling Load Range Based Operation or Heating Load Range Based Operation
PlantEquipmentOperation:CoolingLoad (or PlantEquipmentOperation:HeatingLoad) statement
defines the different ranges and which equipment list is valid for each range. In each trio, there
is a lower limit for the load range, an upper limit for the load range, and a name that links to
an equipment availability list (CondenserEquipmentList). Load range operation is used when the
loop load is calculated and then the equipment is selected in the proper range. This allows for the
most efficient operation of the plant equipment or for the user to determine the most efficient plant
configuration. When the equipment list has been deteremined then the load is allocated to the
equipment in a manner selected by the user with “Optimal or Sequential” load distribution scheme.
The load range based operation scheme has two statements associated with it: a main statement
that defines the ranges that individual priority settings are valid and the lists of equipment that
may be used for each range.
9.9.9.3 Outdoor Drybulb Range Based Operation, Outdoor Wetbulb Range Based
Operation, Outdoor RHPercent Range Based Operation
The various “PlantEquipmentOperation:Outdoor*” statements define the different ranges of the
various environmental parameters and which equipment list is valid for each range. After the
keyword and the identifying name, a series of data trios is expected. In each trio, there is a lower
limit for the load range, an upper limit for the load range, and a name that links to an equipment
availability list (the “CondenserEquipmentList”).
• Pumps are placed on both demand and supply side of the loop.
• Secondary pump flow rate can be less than, equal to or greater than the primary pump flow
rate.
• The flow at the inlet node of the half loop is equal to the flow at the outlet node of the half
loop.
• The pumps can have different schedules and any loop can be shut off when the other loop is
still running.
Common pipe simulation is done during the interface update call at both Supply-to-Demand
and Demand-to-Supply. Appropriate checks are used to make sure that the effect of flow reversal
490 CHAPTER 9. BUILDING SYSTEM SIMULATION SYSTEM MANAGER / PROCESSES
in between iteration is taken care of. Moreover, the common pipe keeps track of the flow rates
and temperatures at all the four nodes linked to it; namely, the inlet and outlet nodes of each
sub loop. This record will help to decide if loops have converged or not. In situations where the
primary component meets the setpoint and the coil controls does not change its flow request, the
common pipe converges quickly. The simple description of the control algorithm for common Pipe
implementation is as follows:
2. Common pipe is simulated at interfaces and thus we will have 2 different flows handle on
either side of interface.
3. Loops and corresponding flow rates are assigned inlet or outlet (to common pipe) depending on
the interface which calls it. So when common pipe is called from demand to supply interface,
the inlet loop is demand side and outlet loop is supply side and vice versa.
4. Inlet flow is compared to outlet flow and the difference is set as the common pipe flow.
5. At each interface the common pipe flow is assigned a direction which can be into the interface
(Inlet flow < Outlet flow) or away from interface (Inlet flow > Outlet flow).
6. Outlet temperature is calculated depending on the flow rate and flow direction. When flow is
away from interface outlet flow temperature is same as inlet flow temperature. For a common
pipe flow into the interface, the outlet flow temperature is calculated as mixed temperature
of inlet flow and the common pipe flow.
7. At demand to supply interface, the supply side inlet node temperature and flow rate are up-
dated every iteration. At supply to demand interface, only flow is updated. The temperature
is updated only at the end of timestep.
8. Loops iterate till the flow and temperatures at all the 4 concerned nodes do not change.
• The secondary flow may be less than, equal to, or greater than the primary flow.
• The mass flow rate at the Primary Side Outlet Node is always equal to the mass flow rate at
the Primary Side Inlet Node.
9.9. PLANT/CONDENSER LOOPS 491
• The mass flow rate at the Secondary Side Outlet Node is always equal to the mass flow rate
at the Secondary Side Inlet Node.
• Only one additional node, either primary-side inlet or secondary-side inlet, (along with the
primary-side/supply-side outlet node) can be controlled. The system of equations that de-
scribe the loop interface will be under specified if both the Primary and Secondary Inlet nodes
have to be controlled.
Figure 9.7 shows a schematic of the Two-Way Common Pipe. There are two common pipe legs,
shown as broken lines, allow for some recirculation at the half loop level. The model allows for
common pipe flow in either or both directions. The model determines flow rates in the common
pipes and temperatures at nodes based on the following:
• Which additional node is being controlled to meet a temperature setpoint? If the primary-side
inlet node is controlled, then the flows are controlled to deliver the desired temperature at
supply side inlet. If the secondary-side inlet node is controlled then the flows are controlled
to deliver the desired temperature at the demand side inlet.
• Is the specified setpoint achievable with current secondary and primary outlet conditions?
If the setpoint is not achievable, then the flow in each common pipe leg is reduced to its
minimum possible value.
• At the controlled node, with known demand outlet temperature, supply outlet temperature,
primary flow rate and secondary flow rate, and energy balance is used to calculate recirculation
flows in the common pipes for that particular half loop, so that the desired temperature
setpoint is achieved.
• With a known flow in one common pipe leg, the flow on Primary to Secondary (or secondary
to primary) is easily obtained by mass balance.
• When the Two Way Common Pipe is controlling conditions at the secondary-side, or demand
side, inlet node, then the loop capacitance model usually used for the conditions at the demand
inlet is not used as it would interfere with control.
by a number of user-specified heating sources. Then on the demand side of the heat recovery loop
there is the engine driven chiller, internal combustion, and combustion turbine electric generators
with specified mass flows to recover the heat. This hot water is pump on the supply side by the heat
recovery pump and provides the heat to the water heater to meet the water heater setpoint. This
is probably one of the more complex configurations and interactions that would take place in heat
recovery, but using the Plant supply and demand side configurations this can be extended to meet
most user configurations. The plant water heater can also be used to just meet scheduled domestic
hot water use, provide a hot water source for PlantLoop equipment, or provide a hot water storage
tank for heat recovery as a single function. Or any combination of the above can be configured.
Example files of some of these configurations are provided with the installation.
1. Pump Location
2. Loop Pump
3. Branch Pumps
4. Loop Types
5. PlantLoop
6. CondenserLoop
The supply side inlet (before the pump) is always set to standard atmospheric pressure. This
allows the node pressures around the loop to stay positive. The actual values of pressure are not
9.9. PLANT/CONDENSER LOOPS 495
all that important, it is the delta pressure that is of interest for our calculations, but this makes
the pressure values appear realistic if one plots the pressure around the loop.
The pressure drop is at the branch level, not the component level. If multiple components are
found on a single branch, the pressure drop is always applied to the last component on the branch.
This is coordinated with the rule that a pump must always be the first component if it is found on
a branch.
Calculations use the branch flow rate and the branch entering temperature to calculate properties
for the whole branch.
of this, the pump power is based on rated head during the first iteration. On subsequent iterations,
the pump power is based on the dynamic pressure head calculated by pressure drop information.
If anything drastically changes between one iteration and the next, the loop will be re-simulated,
and the latest value of pressure head will be used. By the time the loop is converged, the pressure
head between the current and most previous iterations will agree to within simulation tolerance.
Thus the pump is using a lagged value of pressure head, but once the loop is converged, the lagged
and current values will agree.
1 X
m
1
p = p (9.36)
KP arallelEquivalent j=1
KBranch(j)
From all these ‘K’ values of the branches a corresponding K value for complete loop is calculated.
This representative K value for the loop will lock down a system curve for a single iteration. This
K value will change throughout the higher-level plant iterations and simulation time steps.
498 CHAPTER 9. BUILDING SYSTEM SIMULATION SYSTEM MANAGER / PROCESSES
ψ = C4 × φ4 + C3 × φ3 + C2 × φ2 + C1 × φ + C0 . (9.37)
C1−4 are curve coefficients with last mandatory non-zero constant term C0 (as pump curve will
not pass through origin).
The nondimensional variables in the previous equation are defined in terms of the following
expressions:
ψ – Non-dimensional pressure rise: ψ = ρN∆P2 D2
ṁ
φ - Non-dimensional flow: φ = ρN D3
The user preprocesses mass flow and pressure values into these nondimensional forms in order to
generate the curve fit. The program then resolves the nondimensional forms into actual values based
on the pump speed, diameter, and fluid density. This gives the proper pressure-flow relationship
for the simulation.
9.9.12.7 References
Haaland, SE. 1983. “Simple and Explicit Formulas for the Friction Factor in Turbulent Flow”.
Transactions ASIVIE, Journal of Fluids Engineering 103: pp. 89-90.
1. Steam flows through the system unaided by external energy source such as pumps; pressure
difference moves steam across the system.
2. Steam, because of its low-density, can be used in high-rise buildings where water systems
create excessive pressure.
3. Terminal units such as heating coils can be added or removed without making any changes
to the system.
4. Steam components can be repaired or replaced by closing the steam supply without the
difficulties associated with draining and refilling like in the water systems.
6. Steam can be distributed through out the system without any change in temperature.
In view of the advantages mentioned, the steam systems are suitable for applications where heat
is required for process and comfort heating such as in industrial plants, hospitals, restaurants, dry
cleaning plants laundries and commercial buildings. They are also suitable in places where the
heating medium has to travel great distances such as in facilities with scattered building locations
or where the building height would result in excessive pressure in a water system, or locations
where the load changes occur intermittently. Thus steam system is an essential and necessary
development step for EnergyPlus.
From EnergyPlus simulation point of view, the advantage associated with a steam system is
that steam can be distributed through out the system without change in temperature. This means
that the boiler outlet temperature can simply be set equal to the heating coil inlet temperature for
a steam system.
Another simulation-based advantage associated with the steam system is Steam Quality, which
does not change from boiler outlet to coil inlet. Actual building steam systems are equipped with
condensate drains through out the system, these drains remove, almost immediately any condensate
that is formed during steam transportation, thereby maintaining the steam quality at constant value
of 1.0 through out the high-pressure steam side.
The HVAC steam system implementation includes simulation models for two phase steam equip-
ment like steam boiler, steam to air heating coils, steam pipes and condensate pumps, which can
be connected to the generic loop framework.
• Process 1–2 on the Ts diagram, represents condensation of steam in the coil at constant
pressure; this is where the steam gives up latent heat to the zone.
• Process 2–3 represents the subcooling of condensed steam at higher pressure, this subcooling
takes place inside the steam coil, just before the steam trap. The delta temperature repre-
sented by 2-3 is the degree of subcooling in the steam coil, and is a user input to the steam
coil. This subcool generally accounts for 1 to 2% of the total heat transfer in the steam coil.
• Process 3–4’ represents the isenthalpic expansion of water from high-pressure steam side to
atmospheric pressure across the steam trap. As steam gives up its latent heat at the steam
coil the condensate that forms in the steam coil still exists at higher pressure. This condensate
is discharged to a lower pressure across the steam trap, this condensate contains more heat
than necessary to maintain the liquid phase at the lower pressure, this excess heat causes
some of the condensate to vaporize or flash to steam at lower pressure at some quality. The
amount of water that flashes to steam can be calculated by the following equation
h4′ − h4
%F lash Steam = × 100 (9.38)
hf g
Where h4’ is Enthalpy of liquid at steam pressure just before condensate is supposed to leave
the coil. Enthalpy at Point 3 is equal to enthalpy at point 4’, since it is an isenthalpic process,
and hfg is the latent enthalpy of the fluid at atmospheric pressure.
For example, water at 102◦ C and 120 Kpa flashes to steam at 100◦ C and atmospheric pressure,
with quality equal to 0.003. This results in loss of some latent capacity of steam and is one of the
terms contributing to loop loss in steam system.
• Process 4’- 4 represents the condensation of the flashed steam, which has exited from steam
trap into the condensate drain. Condensation occurs at atmospheric pressure Patm, there is
loss in latent capacity due to this unavoidable process, only condensate can be returned back
to the boiler in a steam system.
• Process 4-5 represents the loop sub cooling at atmospheric pressure; this is the sub cooling
of the condensate that takes place during condensate return to the boiler because the return
loop is not insulated, loop sub cooling is of the order of 20◦ C to 30◦ C. This is a user-defined
input in every steam coil, because the variability in location of steam coils in a building will
result in different condensate return temperatures for each of the coils.
• Process 5-6 represents the temperature and pressure rise in condensate due to pump heat
addition. The pumping process generates heat, which is added to the condensate. The
condensate is pumped back to the boiler at higher pressure.
• Process 6-2 represents the sensible heat addition by the boiler to the return condensate.
• Process 2-1 represents the latent enthalpy of steam, added by the boiler to the water to
convert it to steam at saturation pressure.
• Point 3, which is outlet of the coil and Point 5, which is inlet of the pump are specified
directly by the user, subsequently the loop losses in EnergyPlus are directly summed up as
502 CHAPTER 9. BUILDING SYSTEM SIMULATION SYSTEM MANAGER / PROCESSES
the enthalpy difference between point 3 and 5, which is calculated by fluid property routines
in EnergyPlus. This helps to maintain flexibility and at the same time helps negate the
intermediate points calculation in the system.
Aspects of the steam loop such as quality of steam, steam pressure, and steam generation which
play an important role in EnergyPlus simulation are described in following sections.
The energy difference between the superheated state and the saturated state as calculated in
the following equation. A 5◦ C superheat provides only a 0.2608% increase in heat transfer. The
advantage of this additional increase in heat transfer is negligible, especially when considering the
economic aspect of sizing a bigger heat exchanger to accommodate additional superheat trans-
fer. The detrimental effects of superheated steam on the building HVAC system also come into
effect once superheat is used.
2691000 − 2684000
∆Q2−1 = × 100 = 0.2608 percent (9.43)
2684000
Based on the reasoning above the steam loop in EnergyPlus is designed and implemented to
operate at saturated conditions.
condensate heat capacity, C p,w are evaluated at the steam coil inlet node temperature and standard
barometric pressure of 101325.0 Pa.
Qzc
ṁzc = (9.44)
hf g + cp,w × ∆Tsc
In case of the air loop-heating coil, the load on the coil is calculated within the coil simulation
routine. The air loop coil is setpoint controlled and heats the air to maintain the air stream at the
desired setpoint, the setpoint is a user input, generally in the range of 12◦ C to 16◦ C. The following
equation describes the air loop coil load.
IF [ (ṁs > 0) .and. (ṁa > 0) .and. (Schedule = ON ) .and. (QZC > 0.0) ] T HEN
(9.48)
If the heating demand from the zone-heating coil is greater than coil capacity, then the heating
coil is undersized, and the coil can only deliver its maximum heating capacity to the zone. In this
case the heating demand on the coil is set equal to this lower value of maximum heating capacity. If
the above is not true then the simulation ignores this statement and proceeds to the next one.
The following equation calculates the steam mass flow rate required by the coil. This flow rate
is required to meet the heating requirements for the zone. This value of mass flow is requested
from the splitter outlet.
Qzc
ṁzc = (9.50)
hf g + cp,w × ∆Tsc
If the calculated value of steam mass flow with the previous equation is greater than the maxi-
mum inlet steam flow that the splitter can provide to the coil at that time step. Then the requested
coil flow rate is set equal to the inlet steam flow rate. This is the maximum amount of steam that
can be supplied to the coil at this moment. The coil can provide heating capacity equal to this
limited amount of steam. If the requested flow rate is less that what the splitter can provide then
the program ignores the logic of the IF Loop Below
EN D IF (9.53)
The following equations calculate the outlet condensate-water and outlet air temperatures to
the zone based on the amount of heating capacity provided by the coil.
Qzc
T aout = T ain + (9.55)
ṁa × cp,a
ELSE Else the coil is not running and in this case set outlets to inlets.
EN D IF (9.57)
EN D IF End IF for the zone load controlled coil.
" #
(ṁs > 0) . and. (ṁa > 0) .and. (Schedule = ON ) .and.
IF T HEN (9.59)
(TSP − T ain ) > 0.0001)
9.10. STEAM SYSTEMS AND COMPONENT MODELS 507
Calculate the heating load on the coil using setpoint and inlet air temperatures.
Qal
T aout = T ain + (9.64)
ṁa × cp,a
Qal
ṁal = (9.66)
hf g + cp,w × ∆Tsc
A check is introduced to determine if this requested mass flow rate is greater than what the
splitter outlet can provide to the coil at that particular time step of simulation. In this case
the requested value of steam mass flow is greater that what the splitter can provide to that coil,
subsequently set the requested coil flow rate equal to the inlet steam flow rate, delivered to the coil
by the splitter. This is the maximum amount of steam that can be supplied to the coil at this
moment. If the requested flow rate is less that what the splitter can provide then the program
ignores the logic of the IF Loop.
Qal
T aout = T ain + (9.69)
ṁa × cp,a
End IF (9.70)
If the above two IF ELSE block are not true, then the coil is perfectly sized, the splitter can
provide the required mass flow rate to the coil, and the setpoint temperature can be maintained as
desired.
ELSE (9.71)
The ideal case where the coils can meet the required setpoint temperature. Setting the outlet
air temperature to the setpoint, calculating the water outlet temperature and the required steam
mass flow rate.
Subsequently loop loss for each coil would be enthalpy difference between 3 and 5 and is calcu-
lated using the following equation
The total loop loss would be a summation of the individual losses occurring for each of the
steam coils, this is the unavoidable loss in current steam system.
A simple schematic describing the coil framework, inlet and outlet conditions to the coil and
the flow rate resolution is shown in Figure 9.11. Five zone coils and one air loop coil are described
in the picture, Qzone is calculated by EnergyPlus heat balance and it is the input to the zone coils,
while in air loop coil the Qal is calculated within the simulation model
As depicted in the figure above the steam condenses on entering the coils, sub cools by the
specified amount and leaves the heat exchanger as water. The steam in the heat exchanger at any
moment has to condense eventually since steam trap at the outlet to coil permits only water to
leave the coil. Steam traps being an essential part of the loop are modeled by controlling the coil
outlet condition at quality equal to 0.0. Subsequently the amount of heat transferred to air is a
direct function of latent heat and the degree of sub cooling desired by the user.
510 CHAPTER 9. BUILDING SYSTEM SIMULATION SYSTEM MANAGER / PROCESSES
Using the previous equation the pump volume flow rate is determined; the user enters the value
of the maximum and minimum volume flow rate.
The pump part load ratio is a function of the pump volume flow rate at any instance determined
by the loop and the pump nominal volume flow rate, which is a user input. The following equation
calculates the Part Load Ratio (PLR).
V̇
P LR = (9.80)
V̇nom
The pump power is calculated as described in following equation. Pump power is a product of
fractional full load power and pump nominal power use. Fractional full load power is calculated in
a preceding equation while pump nominal power is a user input to the model.
P = PF rac × PN om (9.81)
The shaft power is simply the product of the pump power and motor efficiency, this is required
to calculate the heat generated and delivered to the fluid being pumped. The following equation
is used to calculate pump shaft power.
PS = P × ηm (9.82)
The model assumes that all heat generated and lost ends up in the fluid to the loop, this
assumption is necessary since EnergyPlus operates on a closed loop. The following equation is
used to calculate the pump heat to the fluid, which raises the condensate temperature. The pump
motor efficiency is defined by the user input and the fractional motor loss to fluid is the amount of
heat generated by the pump motor that is added to the fluid loop (as opposed to being lost to the
environment where the pump is located). FracMotorLossToFluid is also a user input
PH = PS + ( P − PS ) × Fmf (9.83)
The shaft power relates to the increase in head through the pump to the loop operating pres-
sure. The head lost through the piping network due to frictional heat, represents the heat gain by
the fluid throughout the network. . For model simplicity, this heat is added along with the heat
resulting from the pump motor. The difference between the pump power and the shaft power is the
inefficiency of the pump, or the amount of energy input into the pump that the motor converts to
heat rather than mechanical energy. Some of this heat is added to the fluid being pumped. These
two above-mentioned terms are used in the PumpHeatToFluid equation for calculating PH shown
above.
A simple energy balance over the pump based on the pump inlet conditions and flow rate is
used to calculate the pump outlet temperature. The condensate outlet temperature from the
pump is slightly higher than inlet due to the heat dissipation to the fluid steam during pumping
action. This is calculated in the following equation. The pump water outlet temperature is the
boiler inlet temperature.
PH
Twout = Twin + (9.84)
ṁ × cp,w
Pump control is an important part of the steam loop. Existing control structure from Energy-
Plus has been utilized to operate the condensate pump. The pump is simulated first on the supply
side of the loop after the demand side loop has determined what the demand on the loop will be.
512 CHAPTER 9. BUILDING SYSTEM SIMULATION SYSTEM MANAGER / PROCESSES
A simple schematic describing the flow across the pump is shown in the following figure
Due to the fact that a pump is a mechanical device that acts on the fluid it is circulating, it causes
the fluid temperature rise. The EnergyPlus model assumes that all pressure increase caused by
the pump will eventually be lost due to friction, and that friction will be added as heat to the
fluid. Although the plant and condenser loops in steam systems are simple pressure-based models,
a simplifying assumption has be made in EnergyPlus to assume the heat resulting from the pump
itself and from friction throughout the loop is added at the fluid being pumped. In case of steam,
this assumption is easily justified because the volume flow rate of water is very small in the loop.
The steam pipe essentially serves as “energy carrier” and transfers the node conditions from one
point of the pipe to another. It’s simply a node inlet to node outlet connection, transferring
values from inlet to outlet. The pipe forms an important part of the framework connecting various
equipments from the supply to demand side and inlet and outlets of the equipments.
The steam pipe supports two additional properties, which are pressure and quality, unlike its
water counterpart. Pipe simulation model in EnergyPlus is hardwired to water as a fluid type;
this necessitated the development of similar model supporting pressure and quality for the steam
system.
9.10. STEAM SYSTEMS AND COMPONENT MODELS 513
The importance of correct equipment sizing is often ignored in discussions of building simulation
methods. The lack of reliable, efficient and flexible sizing calculations can present a serious barrier
to the adoption and acceptance of building simulation programs. This section describes the sizing
methodology implemented in EnergyPlus. This method includes:
1. A zone by zone heat balance load and air-flow calculation for multiple design days;
3. Zone, system and plant level calculations of design heating and cooling capacities and fluid
flow rates;
5. Options for monitoring how the initial sizes operate over multiple design days and then making
adjustments and repeating plant level calculations
• Loop over all the sizing periods by each day. This starts the zone design calculations.
514
10.1. SIZING MANAGER 515
– Call UpdateZoneSizing(BeginDay) to initialize zone design load and flow rate sequences.
– Loop over hours in the day
∗ Loop over zone time steps in each hour
· Call ManageWeather to obtain outside conditions for this time-step.
· Call ManageHeatBalance to do a full heat balance calculation for each zone. The
call to ManageHeatBalance also brings about an HVAC simulation. ZoneSizing-
Calc = true signals the HVACManager to ignore the real HVAC system and
instead run the ideal zonal system (described below) used to calculate design
loads and flow rates. HVACManager also calls UpdateZoneSizing(DuringDay)
to save the results of the ideal zonal system calculation in the design load and
flow rate sequences.
– Call UpdateZoneSizing(EndDay) to calculate peaks and moving averages from the zone
design sequences for each design day.
• Call UpdateZoneSizing(EndZoneSizingCalc) to calculate for each zone the peak heating &
cooling loads and flow rates over all the sizing periods (design days and sizing periods from
the weather file, if specified). The corresponding design load and flow rate sequences are saved
for use in the system design calculations. This ends the zone design calculations.
• Call ManageZoneEquipment and ManageAirLoops to read in the zone and central system
inputs needed for the system design calculations. The program needs enough information to
be able to figure out the overall air loop connectivity.
• Loop over all the sizing periods by each day. This starts the system design calculations.
– Call UpdateSysSizing(BeginDay) to initialize system design load and flow rate sequences.
– Loop over hours in the day
∗ Loop over zone time steps in each hour
· Call ManageWeather to obtain outside conditions for this time-step.
· Call UpdateSysSizing(DuringDay) to save the results of the system design cal-
culations in the system design load and flow rate sequences.
– Call UpdateSysSizing(EndDay) to calculate peaks and moving averages from the system
design sequences for each sizing period.
• Call UpdateSysSizing(EndSysSizingCalc)) to calculate for each system the peak heating &
cooling loads and flow rates over all the sizing periods (design days and sizing periods from
the weather file, if specified). The corresponding design load and flow rate sequences are saved
for use in the component sizing calculations. This ends the system design calculations.
• Call DetermineSizingAnalysesNeeded(). This checks what user input and decides what, if any-
thing, needs to be done for advanced sizing algorithms. This involves, for example, checking
the input in Sizing:Plant object to see if coincident sizing option has been selected.
• Call SetupSizingAnalyses(). This method creates the data logging apparatus needed to moni-
tor operation during HVAC Sizing Simulations. Individual sizing algorithms include selecting
specific variables, such as system node states or load output variables, that will be recorded.
• Loop over some number of Sizing Passes. The set of sizing periods, run as HVAC Sizing
Simulations, can iterate up to a maximum limit on the number of passes
– Loop over all the sizing periods by each day. This runs the HVAC Sizing Simulations
which have basically the same set of calls as are used for marching through time and
calling of EnergyPlus modeling for the Primary Simulations (in ManageSimulation).
– Call PostProcessLogs(). This method applies running averages (if desired) and averages
system timestep data to fill zone timestep data in the records.
– Call ProcessCoincidentPlantSizeAdjustments(). This method retrieves data from the
logs and calls for the coincident plant sizing algorithm to execute. Set flag if the sizing
analyses request another Sizing Pass. (See the section below on Coincident Plant Sizing.)
– Call RedoKickOffAndResize(). The methods calls SetupSimulation() and sets flag to
signal that system and component level sizing methods need to be called again. These
are fake timesteps used to initialize and are not part of a Simulation.
10.3. ZONE DESIGN LOADS AND AIR FLOW RATES 517
– Break out of Sizing Pass loop if size results did not change or the limit on Sizing Passes
has been reached.
• Empty HVACSizingSimulationManager object to free memory
Currently the only application for HVAC Sizing Simulations is to improve the sizing of plant
loops using the Coincident sizing option. However this approach may be expanded in the future to
extend advanced sizing methods to air-side equipment.
Name Description
Select data from Zone-
SizingInput
DesHeatMassFlow the zone design heating air mass flow rate in [kg/s]
DesCoolMassFlow the zone design cooling air mass flow rate in [kg/s]
DesHeatLoad the zone design heating load in [W]
DesCoolLoad the zone design cooling load in [W]
DesHeatDens the zone design heating air density [kg/m ]
DesCoolDens the zone design cooling air density [kg/m ]
DesHeatVolFlow the zone design heating air volume flow rate [m3 /s]
DesCoolVolFlow the zone design cooling air volume flow rate [m3 /s]
DesHeatCoilInTemp zone heating coil design air inlet temperature [C]
DesCoolCoilInTemp zone cooling coil design air inlet temperature [C]
DesHeatCoilInHumRat the zone heating coil design air inlet humidity ratio [kg/kg]
DesCoolCoilInHumRat the zone cooling coil design air inlet humidity ratio [kg/kg]
HeatMassFlow current zone heating air mass flow rate at the HVAC time
step [kg/s]
CoolMassFlow current zone cooling air mass flow rate at the HVAC time
step [kg/s]
HeatLoad Current zone heating load [W]
CoolLoad Current zone cooling load [W]
HeatZoneTemp Current zone temperature during heating [C]
HeatZoneRetTemp current zone return temperature during heating [C]
CoolZoneTemp Current zone temperature during cooling [C]
CoolZoneRetTemp current zone return temperature during cooling [C]
HeatZoneHumRat Current zone humidity ratio during heating [C]
CoolZoneHumRat Current zone humidity ratio during cooling [C]
ZoneTempAtHeatPeak zone temperature at maximum heating [C]
ZoneRetTempAtHeatPeak zone return temperature at maximum heating [C]
ZoneTempAtCoolPeak zone temperature at maximum cooling [C]
ZoneRetTempAtCoolPeak zone return temperature at maximum cooling [C]
ZoneHumRatAtHeatPeak zone humidity ratio at maximum heating [kg/kg]
ZoneHumRatAtCoolPeak zone humidity ratio at maximum cooling [kg/kg]
TimeStepNumAtHeatMax zone time step number (in the day) at the heating peak
TimeStepNumAtCoolMax zone time step number (in the day) at the cooling peak
HeatDDNum design day index of design day causing heating peak
10.3. ZONE DESIGN LOADS AND AIR FLOW RATES 519
Name Description
CoolDDNum design day index of design day causing cooling peak
MinOA design minimum outside air [m3 /s]
HeatFlowSeq(i) daily sequence of zone heating air mass flow rates (zone
time step) [kg/s]
CoolFlowSeq(i) daily sequence of zone cooling air mass flow rates (zone
time step) [kg/s]
HeatLoadSeq(i) daily sequence of zone heating loads (zone time step) [W]
CoolLoadSeq(i) daily sequence of zone cooling loads (zone time step) [W]
HeatZoneTempSeq(i) daily sequence of zone temperatures (heating, zone time
step) [C]
HeatZoneRetTempSeq(i) daily sequence of zone return temperatures (heating, zone
time step) [C]
CooltZoneTempSeq(i) daily sequence of zone temperatures (cooling, zone time
step) [C]
CoolZoneRetTempSeq(i) daily sequence of zone return temperatures (cooling, zone
time step) [C]
HeatZoneHumRatSeq(i) daily sequence of zone humidity ratios (heating, zone time
step) [kg/kg]
CoolZoneHumRatSeq(i) daily sequence of zone humidity ratios (cooling, zone time
step) [kg/kg]
If the user has selected Account For Dedicated Outdoor Air = Yes the function performs an ideal
DOAS calculation. The DOAS supply temperature is set according to the user’s choice of 1 of
3 possible control strategies: NeutralSupplyAir, NeutralDehumidifiedSupplyAir, or ColdSupplyAir.
The different strategies are:
• DOAS Control Strategy = NeutralSupplyAir. The purpose of this strategy is to cool or heat
the outdoor air (OA) to keep it between the Tl and Th setpoints.
• DOAS Control Strategy = Neutral Dehumidified Supply Air. The purpose of this strategy is
to cool and dehumidify the outdoor air, then reheat it to a “neutral” temperature so that no
sensible load is imposed on the space or AHU unit. The DOAS will with this strategy handle
some or all of the latent load. If the outdoor air temperature is greater than Tl the outdoor
air is cooled to Tl and reheated to Th . If the outdoor air temperaure is below Tl it is heated
to Th .
• DOAS Control Strategy = ColdSupplyAir. The purpose of this strategy is to provide cool,
dehumidified ventilation air to the zone. In this case the DOAS can handle part of the sensible
zone cooling load as well as meet part or all of the latent load. If the outdoor air temperature
is below Tl it is heated to Th . If it is above Tl , it is cooled to Tl .
With the DOAS supply temperature set and the air mass flow rate set to the minimum design
ventilation flow rate the heat addition rate is just
2) If the system is active (zone temperature not in the deadband and zone load greater than 1
watt) the sign of the zone load is used to determine whether heating or cooling is required
and Tin and Win are set to the appropriate values from the Sizing:Zone input. When the
SupplyTemperature method is specified in the Sizing:Zone object, Tin is fixed at the cooling
or heating supply temperature. When the TemperatureDifference method is selected, Tin is
calculated at each time step using the current zone air temperature. The system output Qsys
is simply set equal to the zone demand - it is assumed that the ideal system can always meet
the zone load. The air flow rate corresponding to the load is just
3) The results for each zone are stored in the zone sizing data arrays.
10.3. ZONE DESIGN LOADS AND AIR FLOW RATES 521
10.3.4.1 BeginDay
The environment (in this case, a design day) name and number are stored in the zone sizing data
structures
10.3.4.2 DuringDay
The calculated and stored sequences are summed or averaged over the zone time-step.
10.3.4.3 EndDay
(1) Smooth the design sequences by applying a moving, fixed-width averaging window to the
sequences. The width of the window is user specified in the Sizing:Parameters input object.
The sequences that are smoothed are:
(a) CoolFlowSeq
(b) CoolLoadSeq
(c) HeatFlowSeq
(d) HeatLoadSeq
(e) CoolZoneRetTempSeq
(f) HeatZoneRetTempSeq
(2) The peak heating and cooling loads and mass & volume flow rates are extracted from each
set of design sequences.
(3) Using the time of the peak and the design outside air fraction the design zone heating and
cooling coil inlet temperatures and humidity ratios are calculated.
(4) For each zone, looking at the results for all of the design days, the design days that cause
the peak heating and peak cooling for that zone are chosen and the corresponding design
sequences and peak loads and flow rates are saved in the CalcFinalZoneSizing array. This
finishes the calculated - unmodified by the user - portion of the zone design calculation.
522 CHAPTER 10. LOOP, EQUIPMENT SIZING AND OTHER DESIGN DATA
10.3.4.4 EndZoneSizingCalc
(1) Write out onto a comma-separated file the calculated design sequences for each zone: Heat-
LoadSeq, CoolLoadSeq, HeatFlowSeq, CoolFlowSeq and the corresponding peaks and volumet-
ric flow peaks.
(2) The data in CalcZoneSizing and CalcFinalZoneSizing is moved to ZoneSizing and Final-
ZoneSizing. The user modifications to the calculated sizing will be applied to and stored in
ZoneSizing and FinalZoneSizing.
(3) The user can modify the calculated zone design results by specifying heating and cooling
sizing factors at the global or zone level or by specifying and actual design heating or cooling
zone design volumetric flow rate. All of this input is treated as a sizing factor. If the user
inputs a cooling design volumetric flow rate for a zone it is divided by the calculated cooling
design volumetric flow rate for the zone to give a zone cooling sizing factor. Note that the
user can input a zone sizing factor or a zone design flow rate - not both - so there is never a
conflict.
(4) Once the zone heating and cooling sizing factors are established, the design flow and load
sequences as well as peak loads and flows are multiplied by the appropriate sizing factor and
stored in ZoneSizing and FinalZoneSizing. This is the data that will be used for sizing zone
HVAC equipment and in the system sizing calculation.
(5) The outside air fractions are recalculated using the new user-modified design flow rates and
new design zone coil inlet conditions calculated and stored. At this point the condition that
the design flow rates are never allowed to be less than the minimum outside air flow rate is
imposed.
If outside air method is flow/zone, the input outside air flow per zone value will be used, even
if it is zero or blank. If outside air method is sum, the sum of the outside air flow per person *
DesignNumberOfPeople + outside air flow per area * ZoneArea will be used. If outside air method
is maximum, the maximum of the outside air flow per person * DesignNumberOfPeople and outside
air flow per area * ZoneArea will be used. If outside air method is flow/person, outside air flow per
person will be used to calculate the design minimum outside airflow rate.
If cooling design air flow method is flow/zone, then cooling design air flow rate will be used for
the design max cooling air flow rate. If cooling design air flow method is design day, then the design
day calculation will set the design max cooling air flow rate. If cooling design air flow method is
design day with limit, then the maximum from cooling min flow per area and cooling min flow will
set a lower limit on the design max cooling air flow rate. In all cases, the maximum from cooling
min flow per area, cooling min flow, and cooling min flow fraction will set a minimum zone cooling
air flow rate. In all cases the maximum design cooling air flow rate must be > = to the ventilation
requirement.
If heating design air flow method is flow/zone, then heating design air flow rate will be used for
the design max heating air flow rate. If heating design air flow method is design day, then the design
day calculation will set the design max heating air flow rate. If heating design air flow method is
design day with limit, then the maximum from heating max flow per area, heating max flow and
heating max flow fraction will set an upper limit on the design max heating air flow rate. The
design max heating air flow rate must always be > = the ventilation requirement. In each case, the
10.3. ZONE DESIGN LOADS AND AIR FLOW RATES 523
outside airflow will be modified based on zone ventilation effectiveness specified in the zone sizing
object.
This concludes the calculation of the zone design flow rates and loads.
All of these factors default to 1.0. Function UpdateTermUnitFinalZoneSizing first fills each
instance of TermUnitFinalZoneSizing with a copy of FinaZoneSizing for the controlled zone served
by the terminal unit. Then, if there is an applicable DesignSpecification:AirTerminal:Sizing input,
the following adjustments are made:
CoolF lowT U = CoolF lowN oOAF Z · CoolF lowRatio + M inOAF rac · (CoolF lowW ithOAF Z − CoolF lowN oOAF Z ) (10.6)
time step using the design environment weather data and the data stored in the zone sizing arrays.
The results of the system design calculation are stored in the system sizing arrays described below.
Name Description
All the data from SysSizIn-
put
CoinCoolMassFlow coincident peak cooling mass flow rate [kg/s]
CoinHeatMassFlow coincident peak heating mass flow rate [kg/s]
NonCoinCoolMassFlow noncoincident peak cooling mass flow rate [kg/s]
NonCoinHeatMassFlow noncoincident peak heating mass flow rate [kg/s]
DesMainVolFlow design main supply duct volume flow [m3 /s]
DesHeatVolFlow design heat supply duct volume flow [m3 /s]
DesCoolVolFlow design cool supply duct volume flow [m3 /s]
SensCoolCap design sensible cooling capacity [W]
TotCoolCap design total cooling capacity [W]
HeatCap design heating capacity [W]
PreheatCap design preheat capacity [W]
MixTempAtCoolPeak mixed air temperature at the time of the cooling peak
[C]
MixHumRatAtCoolPeak mixed air humidity ratio at the time of the cooling peak
[kg water/kg dry air]
RetTempAtCoolPeak return air temperature at the time of the cooling peak
[C]
RetHumRatAtCoolPeak return air humidity ratio at the time of the cooling peak
[kg water/kg dry air]
OutTempAtCoolPeak outside air temperature at the time of the cooling peak
[C]
526 CHAPTER 10. LOOP, EQUIPMENT SIZING AND OTHER DESIGN DATA
Name Description
OutHumRatAtCoolPeak outside air humidity ratio at the time of the cooling peak
[kg water/kg dry air]
HeatMixTemp design mixed air temperature for heating [C]
HeatMixHumRat design mixed air humidity ratio for heating [kg water/kg
dry air]
HeatRetTemp design return air temperature for heating [C]
HeatRetHumRat design return air humidity ratio for heating [kg water/kg
dry air]
HeatOutTemp design outside air temperature for heating [C]
HeatOutHumRat design outside air humidity ratio for heating [kg water/kg
dry air]
HeatFlowSeq(i) daily sequence of system heating air mass flow rate (zone
time step) [kg/s]
CoolFlowSeq(i) daily sequence of system cooling air mass flow rate (zone
time step) [kg/s]
SumZoneCoolLoadSeq(I) daily sequence of zones’ summed cooling load (zone time
step) [W]
CoolZoneAvgTempSeq(I) daily sequence of zones flow weighted average tempera-
ture (zone time step) [W]
SensCoolCapSeq(I) daily sequence of system sensible cooling capacity (zone
time step) [W]
TotCoolCapSeq(I) daily sequence of system total cooling capacity (zone time
step) [W]
HeatCapSeq(i) daily sequence of system heating capacity (zone time
step) [W]
PreHeatCapSeq(i) daily sequence of system preheat capacity (zone time
step) [W]
SysCoolRetTempSeq(i) daily sequence of system cooling return temperatures
(zone time step) [C]
SysCoolRetHumRatSeq(I) daily sequence of system cooling return humidity ratios
(zone time step) [kg water/kg dry air]
SysHeatRetTempSeq(i) daily sequence of system heating return temperatures
(zone time step) [C]
SysHeatRetHumRatSeq(I) daily sequence of system heating return humidity ratios
(zone time step) [kg water/kg dry air]
SysCoolOutTempSeq daily sequence of system cooling outside temperatures
(zone time step) [C]
10.4. SYSTEM DESIGN LOADS AND AIR FLOW RATES 527
Name Description
SysCoolOutHumRatSeq daily sequence of system cooling outside humidity ratios
(zone time step) [kg water/kg dry air]
SysHeatOutTempSeq daily sequence of system heating outside temperatures
(zone time step) [C]
SysHeatOutHumRatSeq daily sequence of system heating outside humidity ratios
(zone time step) [kg water/kg dry air]
10.4.3 System Design Flow Rate and Load Summation and Adjustment
There is no system level subroutine corresponding to SizeZoneEquipment. Instead the system
design loads and flow rates are calculated using the zone level results. The zone design flow rates
for the zones served by an air loop are summed to obtain the system level design flow rates. These
air flows are mixed with the system level design minimum outside air flow rate to obtain system
design coil loads. These activities are all performed within the UpdateSysSizing subroutine in the
SimAirServingZones module. It is called at the start of each design day (CallIndicator = BeginDay),
at the zone time-step (CallIndicator = DuringDay), at the end of the design day (CallIndicator =
EndDay) and at the end of the zone design calculation (CallIndicator = EndSysSizingCalc).
There is a logical flag SysSizingCalc corresponding to ZoneSizingCalc. It is used to allow the
component routines to distinguish a normal simulation call from a being called during a system
sizing calculation.
Note that throughout this section, any reference to a “zone” is equivalent to “air terminal unit”.
10.4.3.1 BeginDay
(1) The environment (in this case, a design day) name is stored in the system sizing data struc-
tures.
NonCoinCoolMassFlowsys = Σ DesCoolMassFlowzone
NonCoinCoolMassFlowsys = Σ DesHeatMassFlowzone
10.4.3.2 DuringDay
(1) Loop over the zones cooled by this air loop:
HeatOutTempsys = Toutside
HeatOutHumRatsys = Woutside
Here MinFlowRatsys is the user specified minimum supply flow ratio.
10.4.3.3 EndDay
If the user has specified coincident system sizing then:
DesCoolVolFlowsys = ρair *CoinCoolMassFlowsys
DesHeatVolFlowsys = ρair *CoinHeatMassFlowsys
DesMainVolFlowsys = Max(DesCoolVolFlowsys , DesHeatVolFlowsys )
If the user has specified noncoincidentsystem sizing then:
DesCoolVolFlowsys = ρair *NonCoinCoolMassFlowsys
DesHeatVolFlowsys = ρair *NonCoinHeatMassFlowsys
DesMainVolFlowsys = Max(DesCoolVolFlowsys , DesHeatVolFlowsys )
Based on the outdoor air method selected, the DesCoolVolFlowsys and DesHeatVolFlowsys are
modified based on the system ventilation effciency calculated based on the maximum outdoor air
fraction.
10.4.3.4 EndSysSizingCalc
At this point all the calculations have been done in SysSizing(i,j): we have results for each design
day. Now these results need to be processed to find the heating and cooling design quantities for
each system over all the design days.
For coincident sizing the task is quite easy.
(i) If the value of DesCoolVolFlow in SysSizing for the current design day is greater than the
value stored in CalcSysSizing, then move DesCoolVolFlow from SysSizing into CalcSysSiz-
ing along with CoolDesDay, CoinCoolMassFlow, SensCoolCap, CoolFlowSeq(i), SensCool-
CapSeq(i), CoolMixTemp, CoolRetTemp, CoolMixHumRat, CoolRetHumRat, CoolOutTemp,
CoolOutHumRat, SysCoolRetTempSeq(i), SysCoolRetHumRatSeq(i), SysCoolOutTempSeq(i)
and SysCoolOutHumRatSeq(i).
(ii) If the value of DesHeatVolFlow in SysSizing for the current design day is greater than the
value stored in CalcSysSizing, then move DesHeatVolFlow from SysSizing into CalcSysSizing
along with HeatDesDay, CoinHeatMassFlow, HeatCap, PreHeatCap, HeatFlowSeq(i), Heat-
CapSeq(i), PreHeatCapSeq(i), HeatMixTemp, HeatRetTemp, HeatMixHumRat, HeatRetHum-
Rat, HeatOutTemp, HeatOutHumRat, SysHeatRetTempSeq(i), SysHeatRetHumRatSeq(i),
SysHeatOutTempSeq(i) and SysHeatOutHumRatSeq(i).
At the end of each design day loop the peak cooling and the peak heating data will be stored
in CalcSysSizing. At this point we set DesMainVolFlow in CalcSysSizing equal to the maximum of
DesCoolVolFlow and DesHeatVolFlow.
For noncoincident sizing the task is harder since we don’t have a single time-step during which
all the zone peaks occur. So there is no obvious value for outside air temperature at the peak, return
530 CHAPTER 10. LOOP, EQUIPMENT SIZING AND OTHER DESIGN DATA
air temperature at the peak and so forth. We must return to the zone sizing data and calculate
average values for return and outside conditions.
(b) Loop over all of the zones cooled by this air loop.
(c) Loop over all of the zones heated by this air loop.
(2) We now have the calculated system sizing data. This data needs to be altered to take into
account the user input system design flow rates (if any), or the fact that the user may have
requested that the system flow rate be sized on the ventilation requirement. Note that user
specified sizing ratios have already been applied to the zone sizing data which have been used
in out preceding system sizing calculation. Thus the user specified sizing ratios do not have
to be explicitly taken into account at the system level.
First we move the calculated system sizing data from CalcSysSizing array into the FinalSysSizing
array. FinalSysSizing will contain the user modified system design data when we are all done.
Loop over the air loops.
(i) As in the zone case, the user specified system design flow rates are turned into sizing
ratios by dividing the user input value by the calculated value. The same strategy is employed
for sizing on the ventilation requirement: the design ventilation flow rate is divided by the
calculated design flow rate value. For each air loop this gives us a SizRatcool and SizRatheat .
At this point, the design main flow is the larger of the cooling design flow or the heating design
flow. The program stores the information for which was dominant for each airloop in the boolean
data structure variables sysSizeCoolingDominant and sysSizeHeatingDominant.
The three summed values for terminal air flows for each airloop are reported to the EIO and table
summary report using the outputs ”Sum of Air Terminal Maximum Heating Flow Rates [m3/s],”
”Sum of Air Terminal Minimum Heating Flow Rates [m3/s],” and ”Sum of Air Terminal Maximum
Flow Rates [m3/s].”
The summed values are used to ”Adjust” the system sizing results in the following ways. The
setting for the type of zone sum to use can be either noncoincident or coincident (determined in the
input field called Type of Zone Sum to Use in the Sizing:System input object). For noncoincident
the design system heating flow rate is set to be the larger of the airloop heating maximum flow rate
sum (from the air terminals) and the design flow rate from the load based calculations (described
above). The design system main flow rate is set to be the larger of the airloop maximum flow rate
sum (from the air terminals) and the design flow rate from the larger of the cooling and heating
calculations. The cooling design flow rate is set differently depending on if the air loop was cooling
dominant or heating dominant. For noncoincident and cooling dominant, the cooling design air
flow rate is set to the design main air flow (typically the airLoopMaxFlowRateSum). For coincident
and heating dominant, the cooling design air flow rate is set to the larger of the original cooling-
load-based value for flow and the lowest value the air handler will really operate at (from the
airLoopHeatingMinimumFlowRateSum).
For coincident type sums, the air terminal summation is not as useful because we generally
expect that the straight sum of air terminal sizes will be larger than the coincident sum because by
its very nature the straight sum is only expected to match noncoincident approach. Therefore the
adjustments are more to keep design flows within bounds set by minimum and maximum sums so
that the coincident sum is within physical bounds set by how the air terminals can operate. For
coincident and cooling dominant airloops, (a) the heating design flow rate is the larger of the
heating minimum flow rate (from the airLoopHeatingMinimumFlowRateSum) and the design heat
flow from the coincident design calculation, (b) the main design flow is not typically altered but it
will be checked to be at least as large as the heating minimum flow rate (from the airLoopHeating-
MinimumFlowRateSum), and (c) the cooling design flow rate is set to the main design flow which we
expect to be the result of the coincident design calculation. For coincident and heating dominant
airloops, (a) the heating design flow rate is the larger of the heating maximum flow rate (from the
airLoopHeatingMaximumFlowRateSum) and the design heat flow rate from the coincident design
calculation, (b) the main design flow rate is set to be the larger of the heating maximum flow rate
(from the airLoopHeatingMaximumFlowRateSum) and main design flow rate from the coincident
sizing calculations, and (c) the cooling design flow rate is set to be the larger of the heating mini-
mum flow rate (from the airLoopHeatingMinimumFlowRateSum) and the cooling design flow rate
from the coincident calculation.
The resulting adjusted system sizes for each airloop are reported to the EIO and table summary
report using the outputs ”Adjusted Heating Design Air Flow Rate [m3/s],” ”Adjusted Cooling
Design Air Flow Rate [m3/s],” and ”Adjusted Main Design Air Flow Rate [m3/s].”
ratio, if set to autosize by the user. The ratio is calculated by dividing the adjusted design heating
flow by the adjusted design main flow.
1. Find the maximum mass flow rate over all Sizing Periods, along with the coinciding return
temperature and load. Record which sizing period and timestep. This system node used for
logging here is the plant loop supply side inlet node.
2. Find the maximum load, and the coinciding mass flow and return temperature. Record which
sizing period and timestep. For a heating or steam plant loop, the load that is logged is
associated with the output variable called Plant Supply Side Heating Demand Rate. For a
cooling or condenser plant loop, the load log is as for the output variable called Plant Supply
Side Cooling Demand Rate.
3. Calculate a maximum design flow rate from the maximum load, from step 2, and the tem-
perature difference entered in the Plant:Sizing object and the specific heat (at 5 degC) of the
plant fluid.
4. Compare the flow rate from step 1 to the flow rate from step 3 and take the higher.
5. Apply a sizing factor to the flow rate from Step 4, if desired. The user can select among
different options for which sizing factor use.
6. Compare the flow rate from step 5 to the current value for plant loop flow rate and calculate
a normalized change using
|NewFlowRate − PreviousFlowRate|
Normalized_Change = (10.9)
PreviousFlowRate
• Compare magnitude of Normalized_Change to a threshold, currently set at 0.005, to deter-
mine if it was significant or not.
• If change is significant, then alter the size result for that plant loop. Set flags that sizes have
changed and sizing calculations need to be called again. Trigger special setup timesteps with
flags set so that all plant system and component level sizes will be recomputed. Not this will
call and resize all of plant so that if one loop has coincident sizing and it places a load on a
loop that has noncoincident sizing, the noncoincident loop might still change size because the
loop it depends on changed. Call for another Sizing Pass.
• If change is not significant, then leave the sizes alone and do not trigger resizing. Do not call
for another Sizing Pass.
Sizing Passes, or iterations, because sometimes the algorithm will switch between coincident flow
and coincident demand from one Sizing Pass and gradually find a size that just meets conditions.
Be aware that all the controls and and EMS are also
The design fan temperature rise (C) due to fan heat is added to the cooling coil inlet air
temperature or subtracted from the cooling coil outlet air temperature during sizing calculations
as appropriate for blow-through or draw-through fan configurations, respectively. The calculation
uses a straight-forward inversion of the classic Q = ṁ ∗ Cp ∗ ∆T equation as:
10.7.4 Coil:Cooling:Water
The sizing is done in function SizeWaterCoil of module WaterCoils.
Where:
X Q̇sens,at−peak
Tsup,avg = Tzones,avg − (10.13)
ρ c V̇
zones air p,air cool,air,max
and:
• ṁcc,air,peak : the air mass flow rate through the cooling coil at the sensible or total system
peak cooling load (m3 /s)
P
• zones Q̇sens,at−peak : sum of the zone sensible cooling loads at the time of the peak system
cooling load
• Tcool,supply : the supply air temperature for cooling specified in Sizing:System (C)
• Tmix,at−peak : the mixed air temperature at the time of the system peak cooling load (C)
• Tzones,avg : the average zone temperature at the time of the system peak cooling load (C)
• V̇cc,air : the design volumetric air flow rate through the cooling coil (m3 /s). This is the flow
rate at either the sensible or total cooling load peak from the design period calculations.
• V̇cool,air,max : the maximum cooling volumetric air flow rate from the design calculations (m3 /s).
This flow rate occurs at the maximum zone cooling demand.
• V̇sys,air,max : the maximum volumetric air flow rate from the design calculations (m3 /s). This
flow rate occurs at either the maximum zone cooling or heating demand.
540 CHAPTER 10. LOOP, EQUIPMENT SIZING AND OTHER DESIGN DATA
Design coil load (cooling capacity) is not an input for Coil:Cooling:Water. It is used for calculating
the design water flow rate.
The design load is calculated as:
Where:
• Q̇f an,heat,des : is the design fan heat (W) - see Section 10.7.3
The design air mass flow rate depends on the location of the coil. If the coil is in the outside air
stream, the flow rate is set to:
where V̇a,coil.oa,des is the design outside air volumetric flow rate for the system. Otherwise, it is
set to:
• Tair,in,des = Tout,cool,at−peak (the outside air temperature at the design cooling peak)
• Tair,out,des = Tsys,precool (the specified Precool Design Temperature from the System:Sizing
object)
• Wair,in,des = Wout,cool,at−peak (the outside humidity ratio at the design cooling peak)
• Wair,out,des = Wsys,precool (the specified Precool Design Humidity Ratio from the System:Sizing
object)
10.7. COMPONENT SIZING 541
• Tair,in,des = Tmix,cool,at−peak (the mixed air temperature at the design cooling peak. Plus the
design fan temperature rise due to fan heat, + Tf an,heat,des , for blow through configuration -
see Section 10.7.3)
• Wair,in,des = Wmix,cool,at−peak (the mixed humidity ratio at the design cooling peak)
• Tair,out,des = Tcc,exit (calculated above in the Initial Calculation section. Minus the design fan
temperature rise due to fan heat, - Tf an,heat,des , for draw through configuration - see Section
10.7.3)
• Wair,out,des = Wsup,cool (the specified Central Cooling Design Supply Air Humidity Ratio from
the Sizing:System object)
V̇air,out,des
• foa = V̇cc,air
• Tair,in,des = foa Tprecool + (1 − foa ) Tret,cool,at−peak (Precool temperature is the specified Precool
Design Temperature from System:Sizing Manager; T_ret_cool_at-peak is the return tem-
perature at the system cooling peak load. Plus the design fan temperature rise due to fan
heat, + Tf an,heat,des , for blow through configuration - see Section 10.7.3)
• Wair,in,des = foa Wprecool + (1 − foa ) Wret,cool,at−peak (Precool humidity ratio is the specified
Precool Design Humidity Ratio from System:Sizing Manager; W_ret_cool_at-peak is the
return humidity ratio at the system cooling peak load)
• Tair,out,des = Tcc,exit (calculated above in the Initial Calculation section. Minus the design fan
temperature rise due to fan heat, - Tf an,heat,des , for draw through configuration - see Section
10.7.3))
• Wair,out,des = Wsup,cool (the specified Central Cooling Design Supply Air Humidity Ratio from
the Sizing:System object)
With the inlet and outlet conditions established, we can obtain the inlet and outlet enthalpies:
Where PsyHFnTdbW is the EnergyPlus function for calculation air specific enthalpy given the
air temperature and humidity ratio. We now have all we need to calculate the design coil capacity,
Q̇coil,des .
542 CHAPTER 10. LOOP, EQUIPMENT SIZING AND OTHER DESIGN DATA
Q̇coil,des
V̇w,coil,des = (10.20)
ρw cp,w ∆Tw,des
Where ∆Tw,des is just the Loop Design Temperature Difference user input from Sizing:Plant (if
the coil is in the outside air stream, 1/2 the Loop Design Temperature Difference is used). The
design coil load Loadcoil,des is calculated from:
Q̇coil,des
V̇w,coil,des = (10.22)
ρw cp,w ∆Tw,des
Where ∆Tw,des is just the Loop Design Temperature Difference user input from Sizing:Plant.
10.7. COMPONENT SIZING 543
1. the design outside air flow rate if the coil is in the outside air stream;
2. the coil design flow rate from function GetCoilDesFlowT described in section “Initial Calcu-
lations”;
3. the design flow rate set by the parent component (such as a unitary system) containing the
cooling coil.
• Coil in outside air stream: Tair,in,des = Tout,cool,at−peak (the outside air temperature set at the
design cooling peak).
• Coil in main air stream, no preconditioning of outside air: Tair,in,des = Tmix,cool,at−peak (the
mixed air temperature at the cooling design peak. Plus the design fan temperature rise due
to fan heat, + Tf an,heat,des , for blow through configuration - see Section 10.7.3).
• Coil in main air stream, outside air preconditioned. The outside air fraction is calculated
as foa = V̇air,out,des /V̇cc,air , where V̇cc,air is calculated above. Then Tair,in,des = foa Tprecool +
(1 − foa ) Tret,cool,at−peak , where Tprecool is the specified Precool Design Temperature from Sys-
tem:Sizing, Tret,cool,at−peak is the return temperature at the system cooling peak load. Plus the
design fan temperature rise due to fan heat, + Tf an,heat,des , for blow through configuration -
see Section 10.7.3).
2. For fan coil units the design inlet temperature is set to the mixed air temperature: Tair,in,des =
foa Toa,coolpeak + (1 − foa ) Tz,coolpeak , where foa = ρa V̇z,oa,des /ṁz,cool,des
3. In all other cases the design inlet temperature is set to the zone design cooling coil inlet tem-
perature which is calculated in the zone sizing simulation and is basically the same calculation
as the fan coil unit.
1. Coil in outside air stream: Tair,out,des = Tsys,des,precool (the specified Precool Design Tempera-
ture from the Sizing:System object).
2. Coil in main air stream: the design outlet air temperature is set to the temperature calculated
in the Initial Calculation section above.
For all other cases Tair,out,des is set to Tz,sup,des (the zone design supply air temperature as
specified in Sizing:Zone).
• Coil in outside air stream: Wair,in,des = Wout,cool,at−peak (the outside air humidity ratio at the
design cooling peak).
• Coil in main air stream, no preconditioning of outside air: Wair,in,des = Wmix,cool,at−peak (the
mixed air humidity ratio at the cooling design peak).
• Coil in main air stream, outside air preconditioned. The outside air fraction is calculated
as foa = V̇air,out,des /V̇cc,air , where V̇cc,air is calculated above. Then Wair,in,des = foa Wprecool +
(1 − foa ) Wret,cool,at−peak , where Wprecool is the specified Precool Design Humidity Ratio from
System:Sizing, and Wret,cool,at−peak is the return humidity ratio at the system cooling peak
load.
10.7. COMPONENT SIZING 545
10.7.6 CoilSystem:Cooling:Water
The sizing of water cooling coil components wrapped in this coil system is done in function
SizeWaterCoil of module WaterCoils. See component sizing sections for Coil:Cooling:Water and
Coil:Cooling:Water:DetailedGeometry.
T otCapT empM odF ac = T CC1 + T CC2 (TW B,ratio ) + T CC3 (TS,ratio ) + T CC4 + T CC5 (10.43)
where:
TCC1 = user input for Total Cooling Capacity Coefficient 1
TCC2 = user input for Total Cooling Capacity Coefficient 2
TCC3 = user input for Total Cooling Capacity Coefficient 3
TCC4 = user input for Total Cooling Capacity Coefficient 4
TCC5 = user input for Total Cooling Capacity Coefficient 5
The 4th and 5th coefficient (TCC4 and TCC5) used in the above equation are multipliers for the
load-side and source-side flow ratios, respectively. For sizing, these ratios are assumed to be 1.
The enthalpy of the entering air is then compared with the enthalpy of the exiting air. The
calculations for air enthalpy are identical to that done for Coil:Cooling:Water. If the entering air
enthalpy is less than the exiting air enthalpy, a reference value of 48,000 J/kg is used as the entering
air enthalpy. If the TotCapTempModFac calculation above yields 0 as the result, a value of 1 is
used in the following calculation. If the design air mass flow rate is determined to be less than
a very small flow value (0.001 kg/s) or the capacity calculated here is less than 0, the coil total
cooling capacity is set equal to 0.
• Q̇f an,heat,des : is the design fan heat (W) - see Section 10.7.3
10.7. COMPONENT SIZING 549
TDB,air,in,des + 273.15C
TDB,ratio = (10.45)
283.15C
29.44C + 273.15C
TS,ratio = (10.46)
283.15C
where:
TDB,ratio = ratio of load-side inlet air dry-bulb temperature in Kelvin to a reference temperature
where:
SCC1 = user input for Sensible Cooling Capacity Coefficient 1
SCC2 = user input for Sensible Cooling Capacity Coefficient 2
SCC3 = user input for Sensible Cooling Capacity Coefficient 3
SCC4 = user input for Sensible Cooling Capacity Coefficient 4
SCC5 = user input for Sensible Cooling Capacity Coefficient 5
SCC6 = user input for Sensible Cooling Capacity Coefficient 6
The 5th and 6th coefficient (SCC5 and SCC6) used in the above equation are multipliers for the
load-side and source-side flow ratios, respectively. For sizing, these ratios are assumed to be 1.
The dry-bulb temperature of the entering air is then compared with the dry-bulb temperature
of the exiting air. The calculations for air dry-bulb temperature are identical to that done for
Coil:Cooling:Water. If the entering air dry-bulb temperature is less than the exiting air dry-bulb
temperature, a reference value of 24◦ C is used as the entering air dry-bulb temperature. If the
SensCapTempModFac calculation above yields 0 as the result, a value of 1 is used in the following
calculation. If the design air mass flow rate is determined to be less than a very small flow value
(0.001 kg/s) or the capacity calculated here is less than 0, the coil sensible cooling capacity is set
equal to 0.
• Q̇f an,heat,des : is the design fan heat (W) - see Section 10.7.3
10.7.8 Coil:Cooling:WaterToAirHeatPump:VariableSpeedEquationFit
Sizing
For the cooling coil of VS WSHP, we specify a nominal speed level. During the sizing calcula-
tion, the Rated Air Volume Flow Rate, the Rated Water Volume Flow Rate and the Rated Total
550 CHAPTER 10. LOOP, EQUIPMENT SIZING AND OTHER DESIGN DATA
Cooling Capacity at the Selected Nominal Speed Level are determined in the same way as the
Coil:Cooling:WaterToAirHeatPump:EquationFit object. The sensible heat transfer rate is not al-
lowed for auto-sizing, instead, it is a function of the rated air and water flow rates, rated total
cooling capacity and the Reference Unit SHR at the nominal speed level. The default nominal
speed level is the highest speed. However, the model allows the user to select a nominal speed level
rather than the highest.
T otCapT empM odF racN ominalSpeed = a+b∗W Bi +c∗W Bi2 +d ∗ EWT+e∗EW T 2 +f ∗W Bi ∗EW T
(10.49)
where:
WBi = wet-bulb temperature of the air entering the heating coil, ◦ C
EWT = entering water temperature, ◦ C
a-f = regression curve-fit coefficients.
If the entering air enthalpy is less than the exiting air enthalpy, a reference value of 48,000 J/kg
is used as the entering air enthalpy. If the TotCapTempModFac calculation above yields 0 as the
result, a value of 1 is used in the following calculation. If the rated air mass flow rate is determined
to be less than a very small flow value (0.001 kg/s) or the capacity calculated here is less than 0,
the coil total cooling capacity is set equal to 0.
If Hin > Hout Then
Q̇coil,rated,total = mair,rated (Hin − Hout )/T otCapT empM odF racN ominalSpeed (10.50)
Else
Q̇coil,rated,total = mair,rated (48000 − Hout )/T otCapT empM odF racN ominalSpeed (10.51)
End If
10.7. COMPONENT SIZING 551
• Q̇f an,heat,des : is the design fan heat (W) - see Section 10.7.3
10.7.10 Coil:Heating:WaterToAirHeatPump:VariableSpeedEquationFit
Sizing
For the heating coil of VS WSHP, we specify a nominal speed level. During the sizing calculation,
the Rated Air Volume Flow Rate and the Rated Water Volume Flow Rate are determined in the
same way as the Coil:Heating:WaterToAirHeatPump:EquationFit object. On the other hand, the
Rated Heating Capacity at the Selected Nominal Speed Level should be the same as the total
cooling capacity of its corresponding cooling coil, which has to be sized first. The default nominal
speed level will be the highest speed. However, the model allows the user to select a nominal speed
level rather than the highest.
Otherwise the design flow is obtained from the zone design data array:
Here cp,air is calculated at the outlet humidity and the average of the inlet and outlet tempera-
tures.
With the coil load and the user specified (in a Sizing:Plant object) design hot water temperature
decrease, calculate the max water flow rate:
If the coil is part of a terminal unit the mass flow rate is determined by the volumetric flow rate
of the terminal unit:
Otherwise the design flow is obtained from the zone design data array:
Here cp,air is calculated at the outlet humidity and the average of the inlet and outlet tempera-
tures.
We now have all the data needed to obtain UA. The numerical inversion is carried out by calling
subroutine SolveRegulaFalsi. This is a general utility routine for finding the zero of a function. In
this case it finds the UA that will zero the residual function - the difference between the design coil
load and the coil output divided by the design coil load. The residual is calculated in the function
SimpleHeatingCoilUAResidual.
Loadcoil,des
V̇coil,steam,max = (10.78)
ρsteam (hf g + cp,w · ∆Tsc )
The steam density (ρsteam ) is for saturated steam at 100 ◦ C (101325.0 Pa) and hf g is the latent
heat of vaporization of water at 100 ◦ C (101325.0 Pa). Cp,w is the heat capacity of saturated
water (condensate) at 100 ◦ C (101325.0 Pa) and ∆Tsc is the Degree of Subcooling defined in the
Coil:Heating:Steam object input. The design coil load Loadcoil,des is calculated from:
Tair,coil,des,in = HeatOutTempsys (the outdoor air temperature at the design heating peak)
2) Sizing based on minimum outdoor air flow. The outdoor air fraction
. is calculated as Fracoa
•
= DesOutAirVolFlowsys / DesVolFlow. DesVolFlow is mair,des ρair .
Tair,coil,des,in = Fracoa HeatOutTempsys + (1.- Fracoa ) HeatRetTempsys (see Table 10.2 System
Sizing Data)
1. Coil:Cooling:DX:SingleSpeed
2. Coil:Heating:DX:SingleSpeed
3. Coil:Cooling:DX:TwoSpeed
We check that the design volume flow per total capacity is within the prescribed range:
where
and
The sizing calculation for DX cooling coils for 100% dedicated outdor air system (DOAS) are
identical to regular DX cooling coils. However, they operate operate at different flow to capacity
ratio ranges and are within the prescribed range below:
and
• Coil:Heating:DX:MultiSpeed
• Coil:Cooling:DX: MultiSpeed
The rated air volume flow rate, rated total cooling capacity, rated heating capacity, rated SHR,
evaporative condenser air volume flow rate, evaporative condenser pump rated power consumption
at the highest speed are sized in the same ways as DX Coil Sizing.
After the sizes are determined at the highest speed, the sizes in the rest of speeds are assumed
to
n
V aluen = ∗ V alueN umberOf Speed (10.132)
N umberOf Speed
where
Valuen = Any autosizable variable at Speed n, except SHR
SHRn = SHRN umberOf Speed
n = Speed Index number from 1 to NumberOfSpeed-1
NumberOfSpeed = The highest speed number
562 CHAPTER 10. LOOP, EQUIPMENT SIZING AND OTHER DESIGN DATA
T otCapT empM odF racN ominalSpeed = a + b∗W Bi + c ∗ W Bi2 + d∗DBo + e ∗ DBo T 2 + f ∗ W Bi ∗ DBo
(10.133)
where
WBi = wet-bulb temperature of the air entering thecooling coil, degC
DBo = condenser entering air temperature, degC
a-f = regression curve-fit coefficients.
If the entering air enthalpy is less than the exiting air enthalpy, a reference value of 48,000 J/kg
is used as the entering air enthalpy. If the TotCapTempModFac calculation above yields 0 as the
result, a value of 1 is used in the following calculation. If the rated air mass flow rate is determined
to be less than a very small flow value (0.001 kg/s) or the capacity calculated here is less than 0,
the coil total cooling capacity is set equal to 0.
If Hin > Hout Then
Q̇coil,rated,total = mair,rated (Hin − Hout )/T otCapT empM odF racN ominalSpeed (10.134)
Else
Q̇coil,rated,total = mair,rated (48000 − Hout )/T otCapT empM odF racN ominalSpeed (10.135)
End If
• Q̇f an,heat,des : is the design fan heat (W) - see Section 10.7.3
The other sizing procedures, e.g. evaporative condenser pump, etc., are the same as
Coil:Cooling:DX:SingleSpeed.
10.7. COMPONENT SIZING 563
where
Cp,w is the specific heat of evaporator loop fluid at 5◦ C;
ρw is the density of evaporator loop fluid at standard conditions (5.05◦ C);
∆Tloop,des is the chilled water loop design temperature rise (from the chilled water loop’s Siz-
ing:Plant input data);
V̇loop,des is the loop design volume flow rate.
fsize is the chiller’s sizing factor.
The evaporator flow rate is set equal to the loop’s design flow rate multiplied by the chiller’s sizing
factor.
The condenser flow rate is obtained by balancing the total heat rejected at full capacity with the heat
transferred by the condenser fluid at the design temperature difference using the fluid properties
for the condenser loop.
where
Cp,w is the specific heat of condenser loop fluid at design condenser inlet temperature;
ρw is the density of condenser loop fluid at standard conditions (5.05◦ C);
∆Tloop,des is the condenser loop design temperature rise (from condenser loop’s Sizing:Plant input
data);
COPchiller,nom is the chiller’s nominal COP.
10.7. COMPONENT SIZING 565
where
V̇loop,des is the loop design volume flow rate;
fsize is the heat pump’s sizing factor.
For the heating heat pump, the heat supplied is reduced by the compressor work,
The Loop Demand Side design flow rate,V̇Dmd,des , is set equal to the Loop Supply Side design
flow rate.
• For Performance Input Method = NominalCapacity, Q̇f luidcooler,nom is provided by the user.
• For Performance Input Method = NominalCapacity, Q̇f luidcooler,nom is provided by the user.
• UFactorTimesAreaAndDesignWaterFlowRate
• NominalCapacity
Q̇f luidcooler,design = 1.25 • Q̇f luidcooler,standarddesign (to allow f or compressor heat) (10.194)
• UFactorTimesAreaAndDesignWaterFlowRate
• StandardDesignCapacity
• UserSpecifiedDesignCapacity
where:
cp,air is specific heat of air evaluated at the average of the inlet & outlet temperatures and the
coil outlet humidity ratio, J/kgC.
V̇max,hw is maximum hot water flow rate, m3 /s.
Q̇coil,des is heating coil design load, W.
cp,w is specific heat of hot water, J/kgC.
ρw is density of hot water, m3 /kg.
∆Tloop,des is hot water loop design temperature difference, ∆C.
10.7.30.3 Supply air volumetric flow rate when no cooling or heating is needed
V̇SA, no cool or heat = M AX(DesCoolV olF lowzone , DesHeatV olF lowzone ) (10.223)
10.7.30.6 Outside air volumetric flow rate when no cooling or heating is needed
10.7.31.1 Supply air volumetric flow rate during cooling operation at the highest
speed
V̇SA,cooling = M AX(DesCoolV olF lowzone , DesHeatV olF lowzone )/ZoneF raction (10.228)
10.7.31.2 Supply air volumetric flow rate during heating operation at the highest
speed
V̇SA,heating = M AX(DesCoolV olF lowzone , DesHeatV olF lowzone )/ZoneF raction (10.229)
10.7. COMPONENT SIZING 581
10.7.31.3 Supply air volumetric flow rate when no cooling or heating is needed
V̇SA, no cool or heat = M AX(DesCoolV olF lowzone , DesHeatV olF lowzone )/ZoneF raction (10.230)
where ZoneFraction = Fraction of the total volume flow that goes through the controlling zone.
10.7.31.4 Supply air volumetric flow rate during cooling operation at Speed n (1 to
NumberOfSpeed-1)
n
V̇SA,cooling,n = V̇SA,cooling (10.231)
N umberOf Speed
10.7.31.5 Supply air volumetric flow rate during heating operation at Speed n (1 to
NumberOfSpeed-1)
n
V̇SA,heating,n = V̇SA,heating (10.232)
N umberOf Speed
where:
n = Speed Index number from 1 to NumberOfSpeed-1
NumberOfSpeed = The highest speed number
where:
D is depth of pad, m
ϵ is saturation effectiveness.
10.7.38.1 ZoneHVAC:LowTemperatureRadiant:Electric
10.7.38.1.1 Nominal Capacity
10.7.38.2 ZoneHVAC:LowTemperatureRadiant:VariableFlow
10.7.38.2.1 Maximum Hot Water Flow
DesHeatLoadzone · HeatSizingF actor
V̇h = (10.264)
∆Th · cp,h · ρh
where
V̇h is maximum hot water flow rate, m3 /s
cp,h is specific heat of hot water at reference condition (60◦ C), J/kgK
ρh is the density of water at reference condition (60◦ C), kg/m3 .
10.7.38.3 ZoneHVAC:LowTemperatureRadiant:ConstantFlow
10.7.38.3.1 Rated Flow Rate
The object provides both cooling and heating, and also operates in a single operating mode such
as cooling-only or heating-only mode. Thus, the rated flow rate is determined, depending upon the
operating mode of the unit. If the unit operates in a single operating mode, either design chilled
water or hot water flow rate is chosen. The larger of the two is chosen if the unit provides both
cooling and heating. The flow rates are determined in the same fashion to the variable flow system
above.
10.7. COMPONENT SIZING 587
10.7.39.3 Supply Air volumetric flow rate when DX coils are used as a system:
V̇SA = max (DesCoolVolFlowzone , DesHeatVolFlowzone ) /ZoneFraction (10.269)
where ZoneFraction is the fraction of the total volume flow that goes through the controlling
zone.
The unitary system object also allows scalable sizing as follows:
Flow Per Floor Area:
Q̇sens,at−peak ∗ f rac
Tsup = Tzone,at−peak + (10.276)
ρair cp,air V̇air,min
where:
Tsup is the supply air temperature limit to meet a fraction of the zone design load, (o C)
Tzone,at−peak is the zone air temperature at the time of peak design load, (o C)
Qsens,at−peak is the zone design cooling or heating load, (W) (negative for cooling)
frac is the fraction of zone design load at minimum fan speed, 50% for the single zone VAV
model
ρair is the density of air at standard conditions, (kg/m3 )
cp,air is the specific heat of zone air, (J/kg K)
Vair,min is the air volume flow rate at minimum fan speed, (m3 /s)
This design data is entered in an outdoor air design data object and may be referenced by other
objects during the simulation. A single specification for outdoor air design data may be used by all
other appropriate objects within EnergyPlus, or multiple outdoor air design data objects may be
specified and these design data objects may be used as necessary by other objects when outdoor air
design quantaties vary for any reason.
DesignSpecification :OutdoorAir ,
ZoneOAData , !- Name
Maximum , !- Outdoor Air Method
0.00944 , !- Outdoor Air Flow per Person {m3/s}
0.00305; !- Outdoor Air Flow per Zone Floor Area {m3/s-m2}
, !- Outdoor Air Flow per Zone
, !- Outdoor Air Flow Air Changes per Hour
Min OARequirements Sched; !- Outdoor Air Flow Rate Fraction Schedule Name
Given this set of data, the quantity of outdoor air is calculated based on the Outdoor Air Method
specified in each outdoor air design data object. In this example, the maximum of the per person
and per zone floor area is used to establish the outdoor air quantity.
As previously mentioned, this group of outdoor air design data is reference by other objects
used in the simulation. The reference is by the name of the outdoor air design data object. Any
reference to this name by other objects simply means that the object referencing this data set will
use the values specified in this common object. Note that a zone name is not included in the list
of data and the calculation of occupancy, zone floor area, or zone volume is implied through this
named reference and the connection to a zone via the referencing object. For example, if a terminal
unit references an outdoor air design data object, the zone served by that terminal unit is used to
determine the occupancy, zone floor area, and zone volume in the following calculations.
OAF lowperF loorArea = outdoor air volume flow rate per zone floor area, [m3 /s-m2 ]
OAzone = zone outdoor air volume flow rate, [m3 /s]
OAF lowperZone = outdoor air volume flow rate per zone, [m3 /s]
OAACH = outdoor air volume flow rate based on air changes per hour, [m3 /s]
Vzone = zone volume, [m3 ]
OAF lowAirChangesperHour = outdoor air volume flow in air changes per hour, [m3 /s-m3 ]
Given the calculations for each specific type of design data, the method used to calculate the
outdoor air design data is then based on a user selected method for this specific outdoor air design
data object. The outdoor air methods used to calculate the outdoor air quantity and the associated
value for outdoor air volume flow rate are shown here.
Flow/Person ⇒ OApeople
Flow/Area ⇒ OAf loor area
Flow/Zone ⇒ OAzone
AirChanges/Hour ⇒ OAACH
Sum ⇒ OApeople + OAf loor area + OAzone + OAACH
Maximum ⇒ M AX (OApeople , OAf loor area , OAzone , OAACH )
If an Outdoor Air Flow Rate Fraction Schedule Name is specified, the flow rate determined
above will be multiplied by the current schedule value.
Examples of objects that reference the outdoor air design data object are:
• Sizing:Zone
• AirTerminal:SingleDuct:VAV:NoReheat
• AirTerminal:SingleDuct:VAV:Reheat
• AirTerminal:DualDuct:VAV:OutdoorAir
• ZoneHVAC:FourPipeFanCoil
• ZoneHVAC:IdealLoadsAirSystem
• Controller:MechanicalVentilation
10.8.2 References
ASHRAE Fundamentals 2001. 2001 ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook. Atlanta: American Soci-
ety of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
Pedersen, C.O., D.E. Fisher, and R.J. Liesen. 1997. A heat balance based cooling load calcula-
tion procedure. ASHRAE Transactions, Vol. 103(2), pp. 459-468.
Pedersen, C.O. 2001. Toolkit for Building Load Calculations. Atlanta: American Society of
Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
Chapter 11
Operational Faults
• Retrofit analysis: starts with calibrated simulation; the ability to estimate the severity of
common faults is expected to improve the accuracy and transparency of the calibrated model
and hence the increase accuracy of the analysis of different retrofit measures.
• Commissioning providers can use the fault models to demonstrate the saving to be expected
from fixing faults found in retro-commissioning
• Support for building operation by using the calibrated model, including unfixed faults, as a
real-time reference model to detect, and verify the diagnosis of, newly occurring faults.
The users in these cases are practitioners, not power users, so it is needed to implement the
fault models using conventional EnergyPlus objects rather than the EMS, which, in any case, could
only be used to model limited types of faults.
EnergyPlus contains a number of objects to model operational faults of sensors, meters, equip-
ment and systems. The current implementation allows the modeling of a number of fault types
that categorized as: (1) sensor faults with air economizers (e.g., outdoor air temperature sensor)
(2) thermostat/humidistat offset faults, (3) fouling or scaling at air side or water side components
(e.g., heating and cooling coil, air filter, cooling tower), (4) sensor faults with plant components
(e.g., chiller supply water temperature sensor offset).
591
592 CHAPTER 11. OPERATIONAL FAULTS
• FaultModel:TemperatureSensorOffset:OutdoorAir
• FaultModel:HumiditySensorOffset:OutdoorAir
• FaultModel:EnthalpySensorOffset:OutdoorAir
• FaultModel:TemperatureSensorOffset:ReturnAir
• FaultModel:EnthalpySensorOffset:ReturnAir
For the humidistat that is independent of the thermostat, ∆RH can be described by a pre-
defined schedule. For the humidistat offset that is caused by the thermostat offset, ∆RH is related
with both the thermostat offset level as well as the indoor air conditions which are dynamic, and
therefore cannot be described with a pre-defined schedule. In this case, the humidistat offset level
is calculated each time step.
where:
rair is the air side fouling factor, m2 -K/W
rwater is the water side fouling factor, m2 -K/W
Aair is the air side coil surface area, m2
Awater is the water side coil surface area, m2 .
Given the input of the object based on the outside coil surface area and the inside to outside
coil surface area ratio, this results in:
rwater rair
Rf oul = + (11.6)
Aout ∗ Aratio Aout
where:
Aout is the Outside Coil Surface Area (in contact with the air), m2 .
Aratio is the Inside to Outside Coil Surface Area Ratio.
The pressure drop associated with the fouling is ignored in the current implementation.
An Availability schedule is used to schedule the fault on or off. A Severity Schedule is also used
to represent the severity of the fault, or Fault Fraction. Schedule value of 1 (default) means that
the fault is applied as is.
FouledUARated:
If method FouledUARated is used, the total U Af ouled of the coil is specified, but we still have
to split the fouling between External (air) and Internal (water).
So we start by calculating the current split ratio SR between internal and external, and will use
it for the new split:
U Awater = SR · U Aair
(11.13)
U A′water = SR · U A′air
U A = [ U A1air + 1
U Awater
]−1
U A = [ U A1air + 1
SR ·U Aair
]−1 (11.14)
air ·SR
U A = U A1+S R
The effect of the fouling air filter on the fan performance is related with a number of factors,
including the fan types, fan curves, and system design and operating conditions. In general, there
are three possible situations to be addressed in modeling dirty air filters:
(a) The required airflow rate can be maintained by the variable speed fan running
at higher speed.
In this case, the fan operation state changes from point A (intersection of the fan curve corre-
sponding to a lower speed and the system curve with clean filters) to point B (intersection of the
fan curve corresponding to a higher speed and the system curve with dirty filters), as shown in
Figure 11.1. Point B corresponds to a higher fan pressure rise than Point A, and the same air flow
rate.
Figure 11.1: Effect of dirty air filter on variable speed fan operation – flow rate maintained
The required airflow rate m can be maintained while the fan pressure rise ∆P is increased to
∆Pdf . This leads to higher fan power Q̇tot,df and higher power entering the air Q̇toair,df , and thus
changes the specific enthalpies of the fan outlet air stream (hout,df ).
Figure 11.2: Effect of dirty air filter on variable speed fan operation – flow rate reduced
The airflow rate m is reduced to mdf while the fan design pressure rise ∆P is increased to ∆Pdf .
Similarly to case (a), the fan power (Q̇tot ), the power entering the air (Q̇toair ), and the specific
598 CHAPTER 11. OPERATIONAL FAULTS
enthalpies of the fan outlet air stream (hout ) are all affected. Different from case (a), however,
the fan power (Q̇tot ) may either increase or decrease, depending on the degree of the airflow rate
decrease and pressure rise increase. Also note that ff low,df is always 1 in this case, since the fan
runs at its maximum speed.
ff low,df = 1 (11.24)
Figure 11.3: Effect of dirty air filter on constant speed fan operation
where:
etot is the motor efficiency
m is the air mass flow in kg/s
hin is the inlet air stream specific enthalpies in J/kg
hout is the outlet air stream specific enthalpies in J/kg
Q̇tot is the fan power in Watts
Q̇toair is the power entering the air in Watts
Q̇shaf t is the fan shaft power in Watts
∆P is the fan pressure increase in Pascal
design is for the parameters in the design condition
The chiller supply water temperature readings deviate from the actual water temperature levels due
to sensor offset at the evaporator outlet. This can lead to incorrect chiller supply water temperature,
and thus the inappropriate and inefficient chiller operations.
600 CHAPTER 11. OPERATIONAL FAULTS
• Chiller:Electric
• Chiller:Electric:EIR
• Chiller:Electric:ReformulatedEIR
• Chiller:ConstantCOP
• Chiller:EngineDriven
• Chiller:CombustionTurbine
• Chiller:Absorption
• Chiller:Absorption:Indirect
• ConstantFlow for constant pumping with flow controlled by chiller to operate at full design
flow rate.
• LeavingSetpointModulated for variable pumping with flow controlled by chiller to vary flow to
target a leaving temperature setpoint.
• NotModulated for either variable or constant pumping with flow controlled by the external
plant system.
where:
Tevap−o,f is the evaporator outlet temperature in the faulty case (actual value)
Tevap−o,f f is the evaporator outlet temperature in the fault-free case (reading, design value)
∆T is the difference between the temperature reading and the actual temperature.
The water flow rate at faulty operations can be obtained via:
• CoolingTower:SingleSpeed
• CoolingTower:TwoSpeed
• CoolingTower:VariableSpeed
602 CHAPTER 11. OPERATIONAL FAULTS
• CoolingTower:VariableSpeed:MERKEL
The effect of an offset in a condenser supply water temperature sensor whose sole use is for
calculation of the difference between the set-points and the actual values can be modeled as an
equal and opposite offset:
• CoolingTower:SingleSpeed
• CoolingTower:TwoSpeed
• CoolingTower:VariableSpeed:MERKEL
The fault model allows the user to describe the fouling using UA reduction factor, which is the
ratio between the UA value at fouling case and that at fault free case. The factor is applicable to
both the Design UA and Free Convection UA of the tower.
• Coil:Heating:Electric
• Coil:Heating:Gas
• Coil:Heating:Steam
• Coil:Heating:Desuperheater
• Coil:Heating:Water
• Coil:Cooling:Water
• Coil:Cooling:Water:Detailedgeometry
The effect of an offset in a coil supply air temperature sensor whose sole use is for calculation of
the difference between the set-points and the actual values can be modeled as an equal and opposite
offset:
• Chiller:Electric
• Chiller:Electric:EIR
• Chiller:Electric:ReformulatedEIR
• Chiller:ConstantCOP
• Chiller:EngineDriven
• Chiller:CombustionTurbine
The fault does not apply to the absorption chillers that do not have water-based heat exchangers.
The model allows the user to describe the fault using a dynamic fouling factor. The reference
factor indicates the decrease of the reference capacity of the chiller, which is the ratio between
the nominal capacity at fouling case and that at fault free case. The reference COP is decreased
correspondingly.
11.2. OPERATIONAL FAULTS MODELING 605
Demand Limiting
Demand limiting, or demand management, is a strategy for reducing a building’s demand for utili-
ties, e.g., electricity. Utility companies typically charge a monthly fee for “demand charges” that
is based on the peak demand during a certain time period. Often the peak demand charge is
set by one exceptional day that is much higher than the peak demand for an average day during
the month. Therefore, to save utility costs, it is in the interest of building owners to find ways
to manage the demand on peak days. While demand management is generally concerned with
the demand for electricity, the future will likely see demand management of other utilities, such as
natural gas or water.
Demand limiting controls shut off or reduce the power to non-essential loads in order to reduce
the overall building demand. Some typical controls:
The demand limiting controls implemented in EnergyPlus are intended to allow some of the more
common demand limiting strategies. The DemandManagerAssignmentList object is a high level
control that makes demand limiting decisions based on a list of possible demand limiting strate-
gies. Each demand limiting strategy is described in a separate DemandManager object. Each
DemandManager object controls a group of similar load objects of the same type, such as Demand-
Manager:Lights, DemandManager:ElectricEquipment, DemandManager:Thermostats, or Demand-
Manager:Ventilation objects.
12.1 Algorithm
In EnergyPlus the DemandManagerAssignmentList and DemandManager objects are simulated by
the Demand Manager module. The Demand Manager is built into the overall solution method for
the program. For each zone time step, the program executes three major segments of code:
606
12.1. ALGORITHM 607
• zone heat balance (surface heat balances, internal gains, and air flows)
The exterior energy use segment is completely independent of the zone heat balance and HVAC
system simulation. Exterior energy use handles energy use accounting for exterior lights and ex-
terior equipment that are outside of the building and are not part of the zone heat balance. The
zone heat balance segment includes all of the surface heat balances, internal heat gains, and air
flows. The HVAC system simulation includes air and plant loops with their associated HVAC com-
ponents. The behaviour of the HVAC system depends on the results of the zone heat balance. The
HVAC system simulation operates on a variable “system” time step which is automatically shortened
if necessary for stability.
The Demand Manager is called after the first pass through the HVAC system simulation, before
the system time step is shortened. After evaluating the DemandManagerAssignmentList object,
the Demand Manager decides if demand limiting is required. If demand limiting is required, the
individual DemandManager objects are surveyed to determine which loads can be limited. Based on
the Demand Manager Priority selected, the Demand Manager then decides which DemandManager
objects should be activated. In turn, the activated DemandManager objects set the demand
limiting hooks on their respective load objects. Finally, depending on the type of DemandManager
objects that were activated, one or more of the major segments of code must be called to be
resimulated because the load conditions have changed. The code segments depend on the type
of DemandManager and the relationship of its load objects to the overall solution method. The
table below shows the different DemandManager types and the related code segments that must be
resimulated.
All demand limiting controls are disabled during warmup days and sizing runs.
cannot reduce the demand. Possible reasons that a manager cannot reduce demand include:
For each DemandManager in the list that is successfully activated, one or more of the major
code segments must be called to be resimulated (see above). The DemandManagerAssignmentList
object is then reevaluated to determine if further demand limiting is required before the next
DemandManager is activated.
The implication of sequential priority is that a DemandManagerAssignmentList with many
DemandManagers may make many passes through the Demand Manager before all demand limiting
decisions are finalized. Each pass requires an additional resimulation of the current time step. In
some cases this could significantly slow down the overall simulation runtime. The use of the
Minimum Limit Duration field can help to ensure that not every DemandManager is being activated
at every time step.
609
610 CHAPTER 13. ALTERNATIVE MODELING PROCESSES
The present AirflowNetwork model may only be applied to a single heating and cooling system
that uses a single air distribution system (a single AirLoopHVAC object). The model excludes the
impact of the air and duct system thermal capacitance.
13.1.3.1 Initialization
Newton’s method is used to solve for node air pressures and it requires an initial set of values for
the node pressures. There are two initialization methods available. The first is linear initialization
and equivalent to Initialization flag = 0. These initial values may be obtained by including in each
airflow component a linear approximation relating airflow to pressure drop:
∆Pi
ṁi = Ci ρ (13.1)
µ
where:
This initialization handles stack effects very well and tends to establish the proper direction for
the airflows. The linear approximation is provided by the laminar regime.
The second initialization method assumes the initial pressures are zero and uses Newton’s
method directly.
The relative airflow tolerance is equivalent to the ratio of the absolute value of the sum of all
network airflows to the sum of the network airflow magnitudes. The absolute airflow tolerance is
the summation of the absolute value of all network airflows. The solution has converged when both
of these convergence criteria have been met.
By rearranging terms and adding wind pressure impacts, the above equation may be rewritten
in the format used by the airflow network model:
∆P = Pn − Pm + PS + PW (13.5)
where:
The Input Output Reference provides the relationship between airflow and pressure
for the most of the components (Ref.AirflowNetwork Model). The relationship between
airflow and pressure for the AirflowNetwork:Multizone:Component:DetailedOpening, Air-
flowNetwork:Multizone:Component:SimpleOpening, and AirflowNetwork:Multizone:Component:-
HorizontalOpening objects are provided in detail in this reference.
The schematic drawing of a possible air flow pattern through a detailed vertical opening (Air-
flowNetwork:Multizone:Component:DetailedOpening) is shown in Figure 13.1. The equations used
below are extracted from the COMIS Fundamentals manual (1990).
The air density is assumed to be a linear function of height:
Figure 13.1: The general problem of gravitational flow through a vertical opening
13.1. AIRFLOWNETWORK MODEL 613
The pressure difference is assumed to be linear and simulate the effect of turbulence:
P1 (z) − P2 (z) = (P01 − P02 ) − g (ρ01 z + b1 z 2 /2) − (ρ02 z + b2 z 2 /2) + (Pt0 + bt z) (13.8)
The velocity at any level z is given by
s
P1 (z) − P2 (z)
v(z) = 2 (13.9)
ρ
The locations of the two possible neutral planes are given by an equilibrium in pressure which
leads to a zero velocity point. By assuming the left terms in the equation above to be zero, one
may have:
Z
z=H
ṁ = Cd θ ρν(z)W dz (13.11)
z=0
The one real solution represents two-way (bi-directional) flow, which may be written in the
following equations.
Z
z=z1
Z
z=H
The two real solutions represent three-way flow, which may be written in the following equations.
Z
z=H
Z
z=z2
Z
z=H
where:
The discharge coefficient, opening width, opening height, and start height factor are modulated
based on opening factors. A detailed description of opening factor calculations may be found in the
Input Output Reference (Ref. AirflowNetwork:Multizone:Zone, AirflowNetwork:Multizone:Surface,
and AirflowNetwork:Multizone:Component:DetailedOpening).
The above calculation procedure is used for a normal rectangular window. For a horizontally
pivoted rectangular window, the calculation procedure is slightly different. A schematic drawing of
a horizontally-pivoted window is shown in Figure 13.2.
The opening angle α (0-90°) is linearly proportional to the window opening factor (0-1.0). An
13.1. AIRFLOWNETWORK MODEL 615
opening factor of 1.0 is equal to an opening angle of 90°. The heights in the pivoted area are
expressed as:
Z
z=h4
It should be pointed out that the discharge coefficient is modulated based on opening factors,
while opening width, opening height, and start height factor do not apply for a horizontally-pivoted
window. The actual window width and height are used to calculate airflows for a horizontally-
pivoted window.
The schematic drawing of air flow patterns through a simple vertical opening (AirflowNet-
work:Multizone:Component:SimpleOpening) is shown in Figure 13.3. The equations used below are
available from Walton (1989).
The air density for each node is assumed to be constant. The hydrostatic equation is used to
relate pressures at various heights for each node:
It is assumed that the velocity of the airflow as a function of height is given by the orifice
equation (Brown and Solvason 1962):
s
Pn (y) − Pm (y)
v(y) = Cd 2 (13.23)
ρ
616 CHAPTER 13. ALTERNATIVE MODELING PROCESSES
Figure 13.3: Schematic of large opening and associated three flow patterns
13.1. AIRFLOWNETWORK MODEL 617
where:
The neutral height, Y, where the velocity of the air is zero, may be calculated in the following
equation:
Pon − P0m Pom − P0n
Y = or (13.24)
g(ρn − ρm ) g(ρm − ρn )
When the neutral plane is within the opening (first pattern in Figure 13.3), two-way (bi-
directional) flows occur. The total flow through a large opening is the sum of both flows.
Z
y=Y
Z
y=H
When the neutral plane is below or above the large opening (second and third pattern in Fig-
ure 13.3), one-way flow occurs.
Z
y=H
ṁ = Cd θ ρν(y)W dy (13.27)
y=0
The opening width is modulated based on opening factors. A detailed description of opening fac-
tor calculations may be found in the Input Output Reference (Ref. AirflowNetwork:Multizone:Zone,
AirflowNetwork:Multizone:Surface, and AirflowNetwork:Multizone:Component:DetailedOpening).
The above two objects are used to simulate airflows across large vertical openings. The simple
opening component (AirflowNetwork:Multizone:Component:SimpleOpening) assumes the pressure
difference across the opening is a function of height varied from opening bottom to top, so that
two-way flow may be obtained if appropriate (Walton 1989). The Detailed Opening component (Air-
flowNetwork:Multizone:Component:DetailedOpening) assumes both the pressure difference across
the opening and air density are a function of height, so that three-way flow may be obtained (COMIS
1990). If these opening models would be used for horizontal openings, the pressure difference across
the opening and air density remain constant, so that only one-way flow is possible using the detailed
and simple opening components which are meant for vertical or near-vertical openings. In reality,
there are two-way flows (air recirculation) across a large horizontal opening caused by buoyancy due
to temperature and pressure difference and forced flow driven by air pressure difference only. There-
fore, a horizontal opening component (AirflowNetwork:Multizone:Component:HorizontalOpening)
is available to simulate airflows across large horizontal openings with the possibility of two-way flow
by combining forced and buoyancy airflows together.
The model for horizontal openings consists of forced airflow, buoyancy airflow, purge pressure
and sloping plane. The model is mainly from a NIST report presented by Cooper (1989). The
618 CHAPTER 13. ALTERNATIVE MODELING PROCESSES
sloping plane (Bolmqvist and Sandberg 2004) portion of the model was added to allow for staircase
simulations.
For simplicity, a two zone building (upper and lower zones) connected by a large horizontal
opening is used to describe the model, as shown in Figure 13.4. Forced and buoyancy airflows are
described separately below.
PL = PU (13.28)
ṁU = ṁL = 0 (13.29)
where:
Scenario 2
PL > P U (13.30)
ṁU = 0 (13.31)
0.5
2∆P
ṁL = ρL ACd (13.32)
ρave
0.5
∂ ṁL 1
= ρL ACd (13.33)
∂PL 2∆P ρave
where:
Scenario 3
PL < P U (13.34)
ṁL = 0 (13.35)
620 CHAPTER 13. ALTERNATIVE MODELING PROCESSES
0.5
2 |∆P |
ṁU = −ρU ACd (13.36)
ρave
0.5
∂ ṁU 1
= ρU ACd (13.37)
∂PL 2 |∆P | ρave
where:
ṁbuo,max = Buoyancy mass flow rate at zero forced airflow pressure difference
[kg/s]
g = Gravity acceleration [m/s2 ]
DH = Hydraulic diameter [m]
ρave = Average air density between the lower and upper zones [kg/m3 ]
∆ρ = Density difference between the lower and upper zones [kg/m3 ]
a function of opening geometry and the buoyancy force (ΔP/(gΔ�DH )) and may be expressed as
(Cooper 1998):
2 g∆ρD 5
∆PF lood = CShape H (13.39)
2A2
where:
( )
0.754 for a circle opening
CShape = (13.40)
0.942(w/D) for a rectangle opening
where:
As mentioned above, when the air pressure difference between two zones is zero there is the
maximum bi-directional flow due to the buoyancy force. When the pressure difference increases
from 0 and is less than |∆PF lood |, there is some bi-directional flow across the opening, but less
than the maximum flow. If the pressure difference keeps increasing and exceeds |∆PF lood |, there
is no bi-directional flow. Cooper’s model assumes the buoyancy flow varies linearly with pressure
difference.
( )
|∆P |
ṁbuo,max · 1 − |∆PF lood | If ∆ρ > 0 and |∆P|∆P |
F lood |
< 1
ṁbuo = (13.41)
0 Otherwise
The total air flow across the opening is based on superposition of the forced and buoyancy flows,
and may be expressed for three different pressure difference scenarios as follows:
a. PL = PU
∂ ṁL
=0 (13.44)
∂PL
b. PL > PU
622 CHAPTER 13. ALTERNATIVE MODELING PROCESSES
0.5
2∆P
ṁL = ρL ACd + ṁbuo (13.46)
ρave
0.5
∂ ṁL 1 ṁbuo,max
= ρL ACd − (13.47)
∂PL 2∆P ρave |∆PF lood |
where:
c. PL < PU
0.5
2 |∆P |
ṁU = −ρU ACd + ṁbuo (13.49)
ρave
0.5
∂ ṁU 1 ṁbuo,max
= ρU ACd + (13.50)
∂PL 2 |∆P | ρave |∆PF lood |
When a staircase is introduced as shown in Figure 13.5, the effective opening area will be used to
replace A (opening area) in the above equations. The effective area may be estimated as (Bolmqvist
and Sandberg 2004):
Note: the hydraulic diameter calculation is based on the effective opening area, while the opening
depth remains the same.
Figure 13.6 demonstrates possible forced and buoyancy flow rates at different ratios of pressure
difference to purging pressure across a horizontal opening when the upper zone air density is greater
than the lower zone air density. The pressure difference is the lower zone pressure minus the upper
zone pressure. Otherwise, the buoyancy flow is zero. In addition, when the absolute ratio is above
1, the buoyancy flow is also zero. The following table provides a brief description for the legend
listed in Figure 13.6.
Legend Description
Forced downward Forced flow rate from upper to lower at P -P < 0
Forced upward Forced flow rate from lower to upper at P -P > 0
Buoyancy upward Total upward flow rate due to buoyancy only at P -P < 0
Buoyancy downward Total downward flow rate due to buoyancy only at P -P > 0
Combined downward Total downward flow at P -P < 0 (Forced downward + buoyancy
upward)
Combined upward Total upward flow at P -P > 0 (Forced upward + buoyancy
downward)
2
Vref
pw = C p ρ (13.52)
2
where:
624 CHAPTER 13. ALTERNATIVE MODELING PROCESSES
Cp,n = Cp value at a given angle between wind direction and the outward
normal of the surface under consideration [dimensionless]
α = Angle between wind direction and outward normal of wall under
consideration [deg]
G = Natural log of the ratio of the width of the wall under consideration
to the width of the adjacent wall [dimensionless]
n = Index of incident angle at 30-degree increments
For walls of a high rise building, a two-dimensional array of surface-averaged wind pressure
coefficients is generated based on wind incident angle and side ratio. The wind pressure coefficients
are provided in 2001 ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook, p. 16.5, Fig. 7, “Surface Averaged Wall
Pressure Coefficients for Tall Buildings”. The original work was performed by Atkins et al. (1979).
The incident angle has an increment of 30 degrees. The side ratio values are 0.25, 1.0, and 4.0. For
a given incident angle and building aspect ratio, the program uses linear interpolation to calculate
the corresponding wind pressure coefficient Cp,n .
For the roof of a high rise building, a two-dimensional array of surface-averaged wind pressure
coefficients is also generated based on wind incident angle and side ratio. The wind pressure
coefficients are provided in 2001 ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook, p. 16.6, Fig. 9, “Surface
Averaged Roof Pressure Coefficients for Tall Buildings”. The original work was performed by Holmes
(1986). The incident angle has an increment of 30 degrees. The side ratio values are 0.25, 1.0, and
4.0. At a given wind incident angle and building aspect ratio, the program uses linear interpolation
to calculate the corresponding wind pressure coefficient Cp,n .
The wind surface pressure at the given incident angle can be calculated by combining the above
two equations:
2
Vref
pw,n = Cp,n ρ (13.55)
2
{P }∗ = {P } − {C} (13.56)
where the correction vector, {C}, is computed by the matrix relationship:
where n is the node number and i indicates all flow paths connecting node n to other nodes,
and [J] is the square Jacobian matrix whose elements are given by:
X ∂ ṁ
Jn,m = (13.59)
i
∂Pm
Pn ∗ = Pn − Cn /(1 − r) (13.60)
where:
r = the ratio of Cn for the current iteration to its value for the previous
iteration [dimensionless]
Cn = Correction value at the n-th node [Pa]
Pn = Estimated pressure at the n-th node [Pa]
Pn∗ = Corrected pressure at the n-th node used in the next iteration [Pa]
This method is similar to a Steffensen iteration (Conte and de Boor 1972) which is used as a
fixed-point iteration method for individual nonlinear equations.
The iteration correction method presented in the above equation gives a variable factor. When
the solution is close to convergence, the solution method converges quadratically. By limiting cases
where the value of r is less than some value, such as -0.5, the solution will not interfere with the rapid
convergence. It has not been proven that the convergence acceleration equation will always lead to
convergence, but it can be shown that it will not prevent convergence. Newton’s method converges
when the estimated solution values are within some distance, called the radius of convergence, or
the correct solution. Applying the convergence acceleration equation when -1 < r <0, will cause
a smaller correction than Newton’s method, which therefore, can not force the iterations outside
the radius of convergence. When r<-1, the solution diverges in an oscillatory fashion. When r>1,
the solution also diverges, but in a nonoscillatory manner. For 0<r<1, the solution is approached
from one direction. In all three cases, the convergence acceleration equation applies as long as r is
truly constant over several iterations. However, for the last case, this involves a true extrapolation
of correction factor which is very sensitive to the accuracy of r. This is most extreme for the case
of r = 1, which would cause an infinite correction.
dT
ṁCp = U P (T∞ − T ) (13.61)
dx
where:
1
U= 1 1
P tj (13.62)
hi
+ ho
+ kj
where:
{M } = Airflow matrix
[T ] = Temperature vector
[B] = Given boundary conditions
The zone air temperatures and primary air loop component (fan and coils) outlet conditions
are used as prescribed conditions in the AirflowNetwork model. In addition, the temperature
difference across zone loop components (terminal units) is held constant during the calculations.
For example, thermal zone temperatures calculated during the previous system time step are used
as prescribed temperatures when calculating all other node temperatures. The zone air temperature
is assumed constant (prescribed) throughout the AirflowNetwork iterative solution. The fan and
coil outlet air temperatures, and terminal unit temperature differences are assumed constant within
an AirflowNetwork iteration. The sensible heat gains calculated during the AirflowNetwork solution
are then used to predict a new zone air temperature.
σ(Td4 − Ts4 )
Q̇d→s = 1−ϵd (13.66)
fe Ad ϵd
+ fe Ad1Fd→s + 1−ϵs
As ϵs
where:
dW
ṁ = Um P (W∞ − W ) (13.67)
dx
where:
1
Um = 1 1
P tj (13.68)
hm,i
+ hm,o
+ Dj
The outlet air humidity ratio at the end of the duct (x = L) is:
Um A
Wo = W∞ + (Wi − W∞ ) · exp − (13.69)
ṁ
where:
The zone air humidity ratios and primary air loop component (fan and coils) outlet conditions
are used as prescribed conditions in the AirflowNetwork model. For example, thermal zone humid-
ity ratios calculated during the previous system time step are used as prescribed humidity ratios
when calculating all other node humidity ratios. The zone air humidity ratio is assumed constant
(prescribed) throughout the AirflowNetwork iterative solution. The coil outlet air humidity ratio is
assumed constant within an AirflowNetwork iteration. The latent heat gains calculated during the
AirflowNetwork solution are then used to predict a new zone air humidity ratio.
X
M CP Tairf low = ṁinf Cp Tamb + (ṁmix Cp Tzone ) (13.73)
where:
M CPairf low = Sum of air mass flow rate multiplied by specific heat for infiltration
and mixing [W/K]
M CP Tairf low = Sum of air mass flow rate multiplied by specific heat and tempera-
ture for infiltration and mixing [W]
ṁinf = Incoming air mass flow rate from outdoors [kg/s]
ṁmix = Incoming air mass flow rate from adjacent zones [kg/s]
Tamb = Outdoor air dry-bulb temperature [°C]
Tzone = Adjacent zone air temperature [°C]
The latent load items from multizone load calculations may be written as follows:
13.1. AIRFLOWNETWORK MODEL 631
X
Mairf low = ṁinf + ṁmix (13.74)
X
M Wairf low = ṁinf Wamb + ṁmix Wzone (13.75)
where:
Mairf low = Sum of air mass flow rates for infiltration and mixing [kg/s]
M Wairf low = Sum of air mass flow rate multiplied by humidity ratio for infiltra-
tion and mixing [kg/s]
ṁinf = Incoming air mass flow rate from outdoors [kg/s]
ṁmix = Incoming air mass flow rate from adjacent zones [kg/s]
Wamb = Outdoor air humidity ratio [kg/kg]
Wzone = Adjacent zone air humidity ratio [kg/kg]
The air distribution system (ADS) loads due to duct conduction and leakage depend on the air
distribution system component (e.g., duct) location. The air distribution system sensible and latent
loads are calculated for each zone as follows:
X X
QADS,i = Qcond(i,j) + Qleak(i,j) (13.76)
j j
X X
QADS,m,i = Qcond,m(i,j) + Qleak,m(i,j) (13.77)
j j
where:
QADS,i = Total sensible load in the i-th zone due to ADS losses [W]
Qcond(ij) = Duct wall conduction loss at the j-th duct located in the i-th zone
[W]
Qleak(ij) = Sensible supply leak loss at the j-th linkage located in the i-th zone
[W]
QADS,m,i = Total latent load in the i-th zone due to ADS losses [kg/s]
Qcond,m(ij) = Duct wall vapor diffusion loss at the j-th duct located in the i-th
zone [kg/s]
Qleak,m(ij) = Latent supply leak loss at the j-th linkage located in the i-th zone
[kg/s]
Airflow = Airflow during ADS on cycle * ADS Part-load ratio + Airflow dur-
ing ADS off cycle * (1.0 – ADS Part-load ratio)
where:
Zone load
13.1. AIRFLOWNETWORK MODEL 633
System run time fraction = Maximum run time fraction of coils and fans in the air distribution sys-
tem
Zone energy losses = Zone energy loss during ADS on cycle * System run time frac-
tion + Zone energy loss during ADS off cycle * (1.0 - Sys-
tem run time fraction)
The calculation of loads due to multizone airflow, without forced air distribution system op-
eration, is performed when the HVAC system is first simulated during a simulation time step
(FirstHVACIteration = True). The calculation of loads due to air distribution system operation is
performed on subsequent iterations within the same simulation time step when the mass flow rate
at the supply air fan inlet is greater than 0.0 (and FirstHVACIteration = False).
1. Set up terminal airflows in the AirflowNetwork module based on the SimVAV subroutine in
the HVACSingleDuctSystem module.
3. Assign the supply fan airflow rate based on the sum of all terminal flow rates and all supply
leak ratios until it reaches the maximum fan flow rate
Pn
ṁi,terminal
ṁf an = i
P (13.78)
1 − kj Fj
where:
634 CHAPTER 13. ALTERNATIVE MODELING PROCESSES
4. If the calculated supply fan flow rate is above the maximum limit of the supply fan flow
rate, and the supply leak ratios remain the same, the supply fan flow rate is set to the
maximum limit, and the terminal flow rates are reduced proportionally weighted by a ratio of
the maximum supply fan flow rate by input to the calculated supply fan flow rate. Therefore,
a sum of all terminal rates and all supply leak rates is equal to the maximum supply fan rate.
ṁf an,max
R= (13.79)
ṁf an,cal
R = The ratio of the maximum fan flow rate given in the inputs to the
requested fan flow rate based on the above equation
ṁf an,max = The maximum supply fan flow rate by input
ṁf an,cal = The calculated supply fan flow rate
ṁi,terminal,f inal = The final flow rate at each terminal adjusted by the ratio
where MCPTairf low is the sum of mass flow rate multiplied by specific heat and temperature for
infiltration and mixing, QADS,z is the added total sensible load in the zone due to Air Distribution
System losses, and MCPairf low is the sum of mass flow rate multiplied by specific heat for infiltration
and mixing as calculated in the AirflowNetwork model described above.
The revised coefficient (B) used in the zone humidity ratio calculation is shown below:
X X
surfs
B= kgmass,sched−loads + M Wairf low + ṁsys,in Wsys + Ai hmi ρairz Wsurfsi + QADSm,z (13.82)
i=1
where MWairf low is the sum of mass flow rate multiplied by humidity ratio for infiltration and
mixing and QADS,m,z is the added total latent (moisture) load in the zone due to Air Distribution
System losses from the AirflowNetwork model described above. This coefficient is used in the
prediction of moisture as described in the section “Moisture Predictor-Corrector” found elsewhere
in this document.
where Uref is a reference velocity taken as the undisturbed wind speed U (zref ) at a reference height
zref = 10m. There is a pressure difference ∆p(t) between the two opening locations, with time-
averaged mean value ∆p and standard deviation σ∆p .
There are three principal mechanisms determining the flow rate:
(a) Mean pressure difference: a non-zero mean value for the difference in pressure at the two
1/2
opening locations, ∆p, drives a flow that scales as ∆p .
636 CHAPTER 13. ALTERNATIVE MODELING PROCESSES
(b) Unsteady pressure difference: turbulence drives a fluctuating pressure difference between the
two openings, resulting in a net addition of air from the outside. This is characterized by the
standard deviation of the pressure difference signal, σ∆p and the associated flow rate adds
to that arising from ∆p. It includes periodic Strouhal forcing (‘pumping’) at relevant wind
angles. Note that this contribution is non-zero even when the mean pressure difference is zero.
(c) Shear layer mechanism: when there is small or zero mean pressure difference between the two
opening locations, the local flow parallel to the façade causes a mixing layer to grow over the
length of the opening resulting in the incorporation of ambient air. This scales with UL .
Our model therefore views the flow rate as comprising contributions from each of these as
appropriate, i.e.
1/2
Q′ = ap |∆cp | + aσ σ∆cp + as UL′ (13.84)
where ap , aσ and as are constants, the mean and fluctuating pressure difference terms have been
written as pressure coefficients
∆p
∆cp = 1 2 , (13.85)
2
ρUref
σ∆p
σ∆cp = 1 2 , (13.86)
2
ρU ref
ρ being the ambient air density and
UL
UL′ = . (13.87)
Uref
The pressure-difference mechanisms (a) and (b) are dominant for the 2-opening case and (c) is
negligible, while, in contrast, in the case of a single opening, shear is dominant. Hence we take
as = 0 for 2-opening cases and ap = aσ = 0 for one opening. Henceforth we focus on the 2-opening
case, although a procedure is given at the end of the section for how to approximate a greater
number by just two.
Figure 13.7 shows the geometry of this case in plan view. The two openings are a distance s
apart in a façade of width WB whose normal has azimuthal angle φn . The wind azimuthal direction
is φw , so that its direction relative to the façade is
θ = φw − φn . (13.88)
In these definitions, 0° ≤ φn , φw ≤ 360°, while |θ| ≤ 180°. Note that if θ initially falls outside the
range indicated it should be replaced by sign(θ) [|θ| − 360°].
According to the above discussion, the flow rate is modeled as comprising two terms, arising,
respectively, from the mean and fluctuating components of the pressure difference between the two
aperture locations:
1/2
Q′ = ap |∆cp | + aσ σ∆cp (13.89)
There are two parts to deriving the detailed form of the model:
1. Express the mean and fluctuating pressures in terms of other physical quantities that are
more readily accessible. EnergyPlus does not have the information on variations in pressure
that is needed to compute ∆cp and σ∆cp . Analysis of wind tunnel pressure data (Linden et
al., 2013) allows for the derivation of simple expressions for these quantities in terms of the
wind direction and opening separation s.
13.1. AIRFLOWNETWORK MODEL 637
2. Find the coefficients ap and aσ . This is achieved here by analysis of ventilation rate data
(Linden et al., 2013), and using linear regression on the data.
and
σ∆cp = g(s′ , θ) (13.91)
where the dimensionless separation s′ = s/WB,
and
g(s′ , θ) = Σ0 + s′ · Σ(θ). (13.93)
That is, to a first approximation the pressure difference mean and standard deviation vary linearly
with opening separation, each modulated by its own function of relative wind angle θ.
The formulae for the components are as follows.
(
0.44 sgn(θ) sin(2.67|θ|), |θ| ≤ θ0
Π(θ) = (13.94)
−0.69 sgn(θ) sin(288 − 1.6|θ|), θ0 ≤ |θ| ≤ 180°.
θ0 = 67.5° (13.95)
Σ(θ) = 0.423 − 1.63 × 10−3 |θ| (13.96)
638 CHAPTER 13. ALTERNATIVE MODELING PROCESSES
Figure 13.8: Mean pressure difference, ∆cp predicted by Equations 13.94 and 13.95, compared with
experimental data. The façade containing the openings is facing South and the separation is large
(s′ = 0.85).
Σ0 = 0.24 (13.97)
Figures 13.8 and 13.9 show an example of ∆cp and σ∆cp generated by Equations 13.94 through
13.97, respectively, compared with the data.
This completes item 1 above, i.e. the approximation of the two pressure coefficient terms in
Equation 13.89 in terms of the dimensionless opening separation and the relative wind angle. There
remains item 2, i.e. fitting the flow rate data to the formula-generated pressure parameters to
determine the constants ap and aσ . When this was carried out, the best fit was found to occur with
ap = 0.173 and aσ = 0.042. Figure 13.10 shows the comparison between the flow rate prediction
and the experimental data.
Combining with the previous results we have
Q
= (0.01 + [0.173|Π(θ)| + 0.042Σ(θ)] s′ )
1/2
(13.98)
Ain Uref
The flow Q is defined to be positive when opening #1 is the inlet and opening #2 is the outlet.
Since ∆p is defined as p1 − p2 , this can occur when ∆cp > 0, which in turn corresponds to certain
relative wind angles, i.e.
Q < 0 otherwise
(13.99)
Q > 0 if 0° < θ < θ0 or −180° < θ < −θ0
Note that the sense of Q is not necessarily well-defined for all such angles, e.g. when the unsteady
contribution in Equation 13.89 is significant: nevertheless, we retain this definition for all angles.
13.1. AIRFLOWNETWORK MODEL 639
Figure 13.9: Standard deviation of pressure difference, σ∆cp , predicted by Equations 13.96 and
13.97, compared with experimental data. The façade containing the openings is facing South and
the separation is large (s′ = 0.85).
Figure 13.10: Comparison of predicted flow rates with experimental data. Each graph shows
experimental data (red diamonds) plotted against model prediction (gray squares). Cases in the
left-hand column, (a)-(c), are for s′ = 0.75, those in right-hand column, (d)-(f), s′ = 0.32. The
three rows are for 2-story isolated, 4-story isolated and 2-story with low density surroundings,
respectively.
13.1. AIRFLOWNETWORK MODEL 641
where Q′ = Q/(Ain Uref ) is the non-dimensional flow rate of Equation 13.98, which is expressed in
terms of Q, the window area Ain and the wind speed at 10 m height, Uref . √
The factor (Ain /Aeff )2 = 2, since A1 = A2 = Ain , and therefore Aeff = Ain / 2. The factor
(Uref /V ) relating the velocity scale used in the correlation with that used in the EnergyPlus pressure
coefficient may be simplified by noting the following.
EnergyPlus assumes the surface pressure due to wind, pw , is derived from a pressure coefficient
Cp using the local wind speed at window height, Vref (zw in), i.e.
where the subscript “met” denotes conditions at the meteorological site, and the default values are
zmet = 10 m, δmet = 270 m and αmet = 0.14. The user can change the site parameters from their
default values.
The correlation in Equation 13.98 assumes the reference velocity is the wind speed at 10 m,
which will be taken as the local velocity at the building, Vref (10). Combining these results, the
pressure coefficient representing the difference in pressure between the two openings is given by
2
1 Vref (10)
∆cE+
p,12 = 2 (0.02 + [0.346|Π(θ)| + 0.084Σ(θ)] ·s′ ) (13.105)
Cd Vref (zwin )
642 CHAPTER 13. ALTERNATIVE MODELING PROCESSES
2, then this will provide the necessary pressure difference to give the flow in Equation 13.98 in a
network context.
Note: the pressure coefficient ∆cE+
p,12 refers to the difference in pressure between the two openings
and is defined in terms of the wind speed at window height. If this is to be combined with a
background pressure coefficient for the façade it is important to ensure the two are defined using
the same reference velocity.
• Building: either 2-story, with WB = 47.5 cm, DB = 19.3 cm, HB = 9.9 cm, or 4-story, with
HB = 19.8 cm. The model has a nominal scale of 1:70 (based on earlier tests).
• Approach flow: suburban boundary layer, approximately 10 m/s at 1 m height. The model
was mounted on a turntable allowing any desired wind direction to be used. Increments of
11.25° and 22.5° were used for the Closed Box and Ventilation runs, respectively.
• Room and openings: the building envelope contained a second-floor room of dimensions WRM
= 45.9 cm, DRM = 17.7 cm and HRM = 5.0 cm. A total of 15 opening positions were available,
distributed around the room. These were sealed for the Closed Box tests but opened in various
combinations for the Ventilation runs.
The data used to develop the model consisted of 6 scenarios: 3 building/environment cases,
• 2-story isolated building
Figure 13.12: Local velocity as function of wind angle for wind tunnel data analyzed. On the 2-story
graph ‘WP85’ refers to Warren and Parkins (1985), whose measurement location is most closely
matched by the “Center” curve.
644 CHAPTER 13. ALTERNATIVE MODELING PROCESSES
Figure 13.13: Wind tunnel data, averaged over all cases, plotted with curve to fit data.
13.1. AIRFLOWNETWORK MODEL 645
combined with 2 choices of opening position on the South (long) façade, namely wide separation
(s′ = 0.75) and medium separation (s′ = 0.32).
This check requires that closed elapsed time is longer than the minimum closing time.
Closed time > minimum closed time
If the time duration is not long enough, the output is false so that a window remains closed.
If the time duration is long enough, an occupancy check is performed.
Step 2: Occupancy check
If a zone is not occupied and the occupancy check is requested, the output is false. If the zone
is occupied, the next step is to check the setpoints using zone air temperature at the previous time
step as a reference.
Step 3: Setpoint check
There are 5 temperature control types. The following types are available:
• No control: Bypass
• Single heating setpoint: If Tzon > setpoint, go to next step. Otherwise, return false.
• Single cooling setpoint: If Tzon < setpoint, go to next step. Otherwise, return false.
• Dual heating and setpoints: If heating setpoint < Tzon < Cooling setpoint, go to next step.
Otherwise, return false.
13.1.15 References
Atkins, R. E., J. A. Peterka, and J. E. Cermak. 1979. “Averaged pressure coefficients for rectangular
buildings,” Wind Engineering, Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference 7:369-80, Fort
Collins, CO. Pergamon Press, NY.
Awbi, H. B. 2003. Ventilation of Buildings (2nd Edition). Routledge.
Bolmqvist, C. and M. Sandberg, 2004, “Air Movements through Horizontal Openings in Build-
ings – A Model Study,” International Journal of Ventilation, Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 1-9.
COMIS Fundamentals. 1990. Edited by Helmut E. Feustel and Alison Rayner-Hooson, LBL-
28560, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, Berkeley, California.
Conte, S. D. and C de Boor. 1972.Elementary Numerical Analysis: an Algorithmic Approach,
McGraw-Hill.
Cooper, L., 1989, “Calculation of the Flow Through a Horizontal Ceiling/Floor Vent,” NISTIR
89-4052, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland.
Dols, W. S. and G. N. Walton. 2002. “CONTAMW 2.0 User Manual,” NISTIR 6921, National
Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg , Maryland.
Holmes, J. D. 1986. Wind Loads on low-rise buildings: The structural and environmental
effects of wind on buildings and structures, Chapter 12, Faculty of Engineering, Monash University,
Melbourne, Australia.
13.2. ROOMAIR MODELS 649
The room air models are coupled to the heat balance routines using the framework described
by Griffith and Chen (2004). Their framework was modified to include features needed for a com-
prehensive program for annual energy modeling rather than one for hourly load calculations. The
formulation is largely shifted from being based on the setpoint temperature to one based on the cur-
rent mean air temperature. This is necessary to allow for floating temperatures and dual setpoint
control where there may be times that the mean zone temperatures are inside the dead band. The
13.2. ROOMAIR MODELS 651
coupling framework was also extended to allow for exhaust air flows (e.g. bathroom exhaust fans)
in addition to air system return flows.
The inside face temperature calculation is modified by rewriting the zone air temperature, Ta ,
with an additional subscript, i, for the surface index (Taj → Tai,j or Ta → Tai ). The inside face
heat balance is solved for its surface temperature using,
∑
nz ∑
nz ∑
nq
Tsoi,j Yi,o + Tsoi,j−k Yi,k − Tsi,j−k Zi,k + Φi,k q ′′ kii,j−k + Tai,j hci,j + q ′′ LW S + q ′′ LW X + q ′′ SW + q ′′ sol
k=1 k=1 k=1
Tsi,j = (13.115)
Zi,o + hci,j
where:
Ts is the inside face temperature
i is the subscript indicates individual surfaces
j is the subscript indicates current time step
k is the subscript indicates time history steps
Tso is the outside face temperature
Yi are the cross CTF coefficients
Zi are the inside CTF coefficients
φi are the flux CTF coefficients
′′
qki is the conduction heat flux through the surface
hci is the surface convection heat transfer coefficient
Ta is the near-surface air temperature
′′
qLW S is the longwave radiation heat flux from equipment in zone
′′
qLW X is the net long wavelength radiation flux exchange between zone surfaces
′′
qSW is the net short wavelength radiation flux to surface from lights
′′
qsol is the absorbed direct and diffuse solar (short wavelength) radiation.
• Tai is the adjacent air temperature which is then used in the calculation of inside face surface
temperature during the heat balance calculations.
• Tleaving is the temperature of air leaving the zone and entering the air system returns.
• Texhaust is the temperature of air leaving the zone and entering the exhaust.
• Tstat is the temperature of air “sensed” at the thermostat (not currently used in air system
control because air system flows use load-based control).
652 CHAPTER 13. ALTERNATIVE MODELING PROCESSES
The user defined room air models used indirect coupling so that the patterns provide values
for, or ways to calculate, how specific temperatures differ from TM AT . The various ∆T values
determined from the model are applied to TM AT as follows:
temperatures and two based on thermal loads – see the Input Output Reference. The user provides
upper and lower bounding values. If the current value of the “sensing” variable lies between the
upper and lower bounds, then grad is determined using linear interpolation. If the designated value
is above the upper bound then the upper value for grad is used (no extrapolation). Similarly, if
the designated value is below the lower bound, then the lower value for grad is used. Note that
“upper” and “lower” indicate the temperature and heat rate bounds and that the values for grad
do not have to follow in the same way; the grad value for the lower bound could be higher than the
grad value for the upper bound (providing a something of a reverse control scheme). Rather than
directly using ∆T values from the user, the temperatures for the return air, exhaust and thermostat
are determined based on user-entered heights (in units of meters from the floor) and applying the
current value for grad.
ρ cp V̇ (TAirF loor − TSupply ) = hcF loor AF loor (TF loor − TAirF loor ) + QConvSourceF loor + QInf ilF loor (13.122)
where:
ρ is the air density
cp is the air specific heat at constant pressure
·
V is the air system flow rate
Tsupply is the air system’s supply air drybulb temperature
hcF loor is the convection heat transfer coefficient for the floor
Af loor is the surface area of the floor
Tf loor is the surface temperature of the floor
QconvSourceF loor is the convection from internal sources near the floor (< 0.2 m)
QInf ilF loor is the heat gain (or loss) from infiltration or ventilation near the floor.
“Floor splits” are the fraction of total convective or infiltration loads that are dispersed so as to
add heat to the air located near the floor. The user prescribes values for floor splits as input. No
guidance is known to be available to use in recommending floor splits, but the user could for example
account for equipment known to be near the floor, such as tower computer cases, or supplementary
ventilation designed to enter along the floor. The equation above can be solved directly for TAirF loor
and is used in the form of the equation below,
P
ρ cp V̇ TSupply + hcF loor AF loor TF loor + Q̇ConvSourceF loor + Q̇Inf ilF loor
TAirF loor = P (13.123)
ρ cp V̇ + hcF loor AF loor
654 CHAPTER 13. ALTERNATIVE MODELING PROCESSES
The upper air node temperature is obtained by solving the overall air heat balance for the entire
thermal zone for the temperature of the air leaving the zone and going into the air system return,
Tleaving .
−Q̇sys
TLeaving = + TSupply (13.124)
pcp V̇
where Q̇sys is the air system heat load with negative values indicating a positive cooling
load. Values for Q̇sys are computed by the load calculation routines and passed to the air
model. The vertical temperature gradient or slope, dT/dz, is obtained from,
dT
Tai = Tleaving − (zleaving − zi ) (13.126)
dz
So for example the temperatures near the ceiling can easily be determined. Accounting for the
location of the thermostat inside the zone (e.g. 1.1 m) is accomplished by returning the temperature
for the appropriate height to the appropriate air node used for control. If the walls are subdivided
in the vertical direction as shown in the figure above, then the air model can provide individual
values for each surface based on the height and slope. However, no additional heat balances are
necessarily made (in the air domain) at these points as all the surface convection is passed to the
model in the totaled value for Q̇sys .
This is the main difference between the DV models implemented in theRP-1222 toolkit and the
model that is described here.
The UCSD DV model is closer to a nodal model than to a zonal model. However, it is best to
classify it in a separate category: plume equation based multi-layer models (Linden et al. 1990,
Morton et al. 1956). These models assume that the dominant mechanism is plume-driven flow from
discrete internal sources and that other effects (such as buoyancy driven flow at walls or windows)
may be neglected. Alternatively, these heat sources also produce plumes that can be included in
the model. The result is a zone divided vertically into two or more well separated regions – each
region characterized by a single temperature or temperature profile. This characterization allows
the physics of the heat gains and the ventilation flow to be represented in a realistic manner, without
the introduction of ad hoc assumptions.
g Q̇
B= (13.130)
ρCp T
where
ρ = density of air [kg/m3]
T = air temperature [K]
g = acceleration of gravity [m/s2]
658 CHAPTER 13. ALTERNATIVE MODELING PROCESSES
1. Downward moving buoyancy driven airflow rate is of the same order of magnitude as plume
driven flow (these airflow currents are typically generated on lateral surfaces or in the ceiling
whenever these surfaces are much cooler than the room air).
2. Upward moving wall or floor generated buoyancy flux in the lower layer is of the same order
of magnitude as plume driven flow.
Although these limitations are significant it is important to note that even in the presence of
dominant convection from the floor surface, a buoyancy, two layer flow can be established whenever
the plume buoyancy flux is more than 1/7 of the horizontal flux (Hunt et al. 2002). A two layer
structure can also originate when the only heat source is a heated portion of the room floor, as long
as the heated area does not exceed 15% of the room floor (Holford et al. 2002).
For the case of multiple non-coalescing plumes (n), with equal strength, the total vertical airflow
for a given height is:
24.55F 3/5
h= 1/5
(13.134)
n3 Q̇
13.2. ROOMAIR MODELS 659
13.2.3.7 Implementation
The model predicts three temperatures that characterize the three main levels in the stratification
of the room:
1. A floor level temperature Tf loor to account for the heat transfer from the floor into the supply
air.
2. An occupied subzone temperature Toc representing the temperature of the occupied region.
3. An upper level temperature Tmx representing the temperature of the upper, mixed region and
the outflow temperature.
We assume that the model for multiple, equal strength plumes (equations and will be adequate
for our calculations. The supply air flow rate V̇ is obtained by summing all the air flows entering
the zone: supply air, infiltration, ventilation, and inter-zone flow. The heat gain Q̇ is estimated
by summing all the convective internal gains located in the occupied subzone – task lights, people,
equipment – and dividing this power equally among the n plumes. With these assumptions we can
describe the implementation.
The UCSD DV model is controlled by the subroutine ManageUCSDDVModel which is called
from the RoomAirModelManager. The RoomAirModelManager selects which zone model will be
used for each zone.
The calculation is done in subroutine CalcUCSDDV. First we calculate the convective heat gain
going into the upper and lower regions.
Q̇ocz = Q̇oc,conv +Q̇tl,conv +Q̇eleq,conv +Q̇gaseq,conv +Q̇otheq,conv +Q̇hw,conv +Q̇stmeq,conv +Q̇bb,conv (13.135)
X
M CPsys = ṁi Cp,i (13.139)
inlets
X
M CP Tsys = ṁi Cp,i Ti (13.142)
inlets
660 CHAPTER 13. ALTERNATIVE MODELING PROCESSES
The number of plumes per occupant Nplumesperpers is a user input. The total number of plumes
in the zone is:
The gains fraction F rgains is a user input via a schedule. It is the fraction of the convective
gains in the occupied subzone that remain in that subzone. Using this we calculate the total power
in the plumes and the power per plume.
We now make an initial estimate of the height fraction Frhb (height of the boundary layer divided
by the total zone height).
!3/5
0.000833 · M CPtot
F rhb = (24.55/Hceil ) 1/3
(13.147)
Nplumes · Q̇perplume
where 0.000833 = 1/(ρair · cp,air ) converts M CPtot to a volumetric flow rate. Next we iterate
over the following 3 steps.
1. Call subroutine HcUCSDDV to calculate a convective heat transfer coefficient for each surface
in the zone, an effective air temperature
P for each surface, and HAmx , HAT
Pmx , HAoc , HAToc ,
HAf l , and HATf l . Here HA is hc,i · Ai for a region and HAT is hc,i · Ai · Ti for
surf aces surf aces
a region. The sum is over all the surfaces bounding the region; hc,i is the convective heat
transfer coefficient for surface i, Ai is the area of surface i, and Ti is the surface temperature
of surface i.
The hc ’s calculated in step 1 depend on the subzone temperatures and the boundary layer height.
In turn the subzone temperatures depend on the HA and HAT’s calculated in step 1. Hence the
need for iteration
Next we describe Steps 1 and 3 in more detail.
13.2. ROOMAIR MODELS 661
13.2.3.9 Step 1
Subroutine HcUCSDDV is quite straightforward. It loops through all the surfaces in each zone and
decides whether the surface is located in the upper, mixed subzone or the lower, occupied subzone,
or if the surface is in both subzones. If entirely in one subzone the subzone temperature is stored in
the surface effective temperature variable SurfTempEffBulkAir(SurfNum) and hc for the surface is
calculated by a call to subroutine CalcDetailedHcInForDVModel. This routine uses the “detailed”
natural convection coefficient calculation that depends on surface tilt and ∆T 1/3 . This calculation
is appropriate for situations with low air velocity.
For surfaces that bound 2 subzones, the subroutine calculates hc for each subzone and then
averages them, weighting by the amount of surface in each subzone.
During the surface loop, once the hc for a surface is calculated, the appropriate subzone HA and
HAT sums are incremented. If a surface is in 2 subzones the HA and HAT for each subzone are
incremented based on the area of the surface in each subzone.
13.2.3.10 Step 3
The calculation of subzone temperatures follows the method used in the ZoneTempPredictor-
Corrector module and described in the section Basis for the System and Zone Integration.
Namely a third order finite difference expansion of the temperature time derivative is used in updat-
ing the subzone temperatures. Otherwise the subzone temperatures are obtained straightforwardly
by solving an energy balance equation for each subzone.
Tf l = (Cair,f l ·(3·T−1,f l −(3/2)·T−2,f l +(1/3)·T−3,f l )+HATf l +M CP Ttot +0.6·Toc ·M CPtot )/((11/6)·Cair,f l +HAf l +1.6·M CPtot )
(13.148)
Toc = (Cair,oc · (3 · T−1,oc − (3/2) · T−2,oc + (1/3) · T−3,oc ) + Q̇ocz · F rgains + HAToc + 1.6 · Tf l · M CPtot )
(13.149)
/((11/6) · Cair,oc + HAoc + 1.6 · M CPtot )
Tmx = (Cair,mx · (3 · T−1,mx − (3/2) · T−2,mx + (1/3) · T−3,mx ) + Q̇ocz · (1 − F rgains ) + Q̇mxz + HATmx + Toc · M CPtot )
/((11/6) · Cair,mx + HAmx + M CPtot )
(13.150)
Here Cair,f l , Cair,oc , and Cair,mx are the heat capacities of the air volume in each subzone. Cair,mx
is calculated by:
Rair,mx = Vmx · (∆zmx /zceil ) · ρair,mx · cp,air,mx · M ulcap /(∆tz · 3600) (13.151)
and the subzone temperatures and depths calculated, we check to see if this assumption was justified.
If not, zone conditions must be recalculated assuming a well-mixed zone.
If Tmx < Toc or M CPtot ≤ 0 or Hf r ·Hceil < Hf l,top +∆zocc,min then the following mixed calculation
will replace the displacement ventilation calculation.
Note: ∆zocc,min is the minimum thickness of occupied subzone. It is set to 0.2 meters. Hf l,top
is the height of the top of the floor subzone. It is defined to be 0.2 meters; that is, the floor subzone
is always 0.2 meters thick and Tf l is the temperature at 0.1 meter above the floor surface.
The mixed calculation iteratively calculates surface convection coefficients and room temperature
just like the displacement ventilation calculation described above. In the mixed case however, only
one zone temperature Tavg is calculated. The 3 subzone temperatures are then set equal to Tavg .
First, Frhb is set equal to zero.
Then the code iterates over these steps.
1. Calculate Tavg using:
Tavg = (Cair,z · (3 · T−1,z − (3/2) · T−2,z + (1/3) · T−3,z ) + Q̇tot,conv + HAToc + HATmx + HATf l + M CP Ttot )
(13.153)
/((11/6) · Cair,z + HAoc + HAmx + HAf l + M CPtot )
Tf l = Tavg (13.156)
2. Call HcUCSDDV to calculate the hc ’s.
3. Repeat step 1
Tcomf = Tf l (13.164)
Else if Hcomf ≥ Hf lavg and Hcomf < Hocavg :
Tcomf = (Tf l (Hocavg − Hcomf ) + Tmx (Hcomf − Hf lavg )/(Hocavg − Hf lavg ) (13.165)
Else if Hcomf ≥ Hocavg and Hcomf < Hmxavg :
Tcomf = (Toc (Hmxavg − Hcomf ) + Tmx (Hcomf − Hocavg )/(Hmxavg − Hocavg ) (13.166)
Else if Hcomf ≥ Hmxavg and Hcomf < Hceil :
Tstat = Tf l (13.169)
Else if Hstat ≥ Hf lavg and Hstat < Hocavg :
Tstat = (Tf l (Hocavg − Hstat ) + Tmx (Hstat − Hf lavg )/(Hocavg − Hf lavg ) (13.170)
Else if Hstat ≥ Hocavg and Hstat < Hmxavg :
Tstat = (Toc (Hmxavg − Hstat ) + Tmx (Hstat − Hocavg )/(Hmxavg − Hocavg ) (13.171)
Else if Hstat ≥ Hmxavg and Hstat < Hceil :
up into a number of separate heat sources so that each subsection with n’ = n/m diffusers per heat
source will have the same stratification as other subsections. Further, the air flow and the heat load
into the subsection Q’ and B’ will be Q′ = Q/m B ′ = B/m respectively, where Q’ and B’ are the
total air flow and the total heat load for the entire UFAD space. Then the momentum flux each
diffuser per heat source carries is Md = ( n1′ Q′ )2 /A. Equation 13.181 will be modified as:
(Q cos θ)3/2
Γ= (13.183)
m(n′ A)5/4 (0.0281W )1/2
where Q is the net flow rate coming out from all diffusers (m3 /s); W is the total net heat load
(kW); A is the effective area of each diffuser (m2 ); n’ is the number of diffusers per heat source;
qθ is the angle between the diffuser slots and the vertical direction and m is the number of heat
sources.
Definition of ϕ
In our theoretical model, two-layer stratification forms at steady state, provided that each
diffuser carries the same momentum flux, and each heat source has the same heat load. We could
define a dimensionless parameter ϕ, which indicates the strength of stratification.
Small-scale cases
In our salt-water tank experiments, fluid density r is measured. Define that:
ρu − ρl
ϕ= (13.184)
ρu − ρo
where ρu and ρl are the fluid density of the upper layer and lower layer, separately; and ρo is
the source density at the diffusers.
Therefore, ρl = ρo gives ϕ = 1, which means the largest stratification (displacement ventilation
case); ρl = ρu leads to ϕ = 0, in which case there is no stratification (mixed ventilation case).
Full-scale cases
Similarly, we can define ϕ for full-scale cases by using temperature.
Tr − Toz
ϕ= (13.185)
Tr − Ts
where Tr , Toz , and Ts are the return air temperature, the occupied zone temperature and the
supply temperature, respectively (K). Again ϕ = 1 occurs in displacement ventilation; while ϕ = 0
happens in mixed ventilation.
Comparisons between full-scale UCB data and small-scale UCSD data
The figures (Figure 13.15. Data comparisons in the non-dimensional (a) regular Γ-ϕ plot and
Figure 13.16. (b) log-log Γ-ϕ plot.} show the comparisons between UCB’s data and the UCSD
13.2. ROOMAIR MODELS 667
Figure 13.15: Data comparisons in the non-dimensional (a) regular Γ-ϕ plot
668 CHAPTER 13. ALTERNATIVE MODELING PROCESSES
salt tank data in the Γ-ϕ plot. As seen in the figures, the full-scale and small-scale data are on the
same trend curve. This provides the evidence that the salt-tank experiments have included most
characteristics of a UFAD system. Note that big Γ (>20) of UCB’s experiments all have large DDR
(from 1.19 to 2.18). The largest DDR (2.18) even gives a negative (Tr − Toz )/(Tr − Ts ), which is
NOT shown in the figures.)
We could work out the occupied zone temperature by using the least-square fitting line suggested
in Figure 13.16. Hence the interface height is needed to√determine a entire two-layer stratification.
Figure 13.17 shows the dimensionless interface height(h/ n′ A) of the UCSD small-scale experiments
plotted against Γ. Note that for the experiments with elevated heat source, the interface heights
have been modified byh′ = h − 21 hs where hs is the vertical position of the elevated heat source. All
data then are located along a line in Figure 13.17. Since the salt-tank experiments are concluded to
represent important characteristics of a full-scale UFAD room, this figure provides some guidelines
for estimate the interface position in a real UFAD room.
will be;
0.0281W
Tr = Ts + Ts (13.186)
Qg
13.2.4.4 Implementation
The implementation closely follows the procedure described in the displacement ventilation zone
model. The model predicts two temperatures that characterize the two main levels in the stratifi-
cation of the room:
1. An occupied subzone temperature Toc representing the temperature of the occupied region;
2. An upper level temperature Tmx representing the temperature of the upper, mixed region and
the outflow temperature.
We will use Equation 13.188 to calculate the interface height and do a heat balance calculation
on each subzone. Γ is given by Equation 13.183. The supply air flow rate V̇ is obtained by summing
all the air flows entering the zone: supply air, infiltration, ventilation, and inter-zone flow. The heat
gain Q̇ is estimated by summing all the convective internal gains located in the occupied subzone –
task lights, people, equipment – and dividing this power equally among the n plumes. With these
assumptions we can describe the implementation.
The UCSD UFI model is controlled by the subroutine ManageUCSDUFModels which is called
from the RoomAirModelManager. The RoomAirModelManager selects which zone model will be
used for each zone.
The calculation is done in subroutine CalcUCSDUI. First we calculate the convective heat gain
going into the upper and lower regions.
X
M CPsys = ṁi Cp,i (13.193)
inlets
X
ṁsystot = ṁi (13.194)
inlets
The hc ’s calculated in step 1 depend on the subzone temperatures. In turn the subzone temper-
atures depend on the HA and HAT’s calculated in step 1. Hence the need for iteration.
Next we describe Steps 1 and 2 in more detail.
13.2.4.6 Step 1
Subroutine HcUCSDUF is quite straightforward. It loops through all the surfaces in each zone and
decides whether the surface is located in the upper, mixed subzone or the lower, occupied subzone,
or if the surface is in both subzones. If entirely in one subzone the subzone temperature is stored in
the surface effective temperature variable SurfTempEffBulkAir(SurfNum) and hc for the surface is
calculated by a call to subroutine CalcDetailedHcInForDVModel. This routine uses the “detailed”
natural convection coefficient calculation that depends on surface tilt and ∆T 1/3 . This calculation
is appropriate for situations with low air velocity.
For surfaces that bound 2 subzones, the subroutine calculates hc for each subzone and then
averages them, weighting by the amount of surface in each subzone.
During the surface loop, once the hc for a surface is calculated, the appropriate subzone HA and
HAT sums are incremented. If a surface is in 2 subzones the HA and HAT for each subzone are
incremented based on the area of the surface in each subzone.
13.2.4.7 Step 2
The calculation of subzone temperatures follows the method used in the ZoneTempPredictor-
Corrector module and described in the section Basis for the System and Zone Integration.
Namely a third order finite difference expansion of the temperature time derivative is used in updat-
ing the subzone temperatures. Otherwise the subzone temperatures are obtained straightforwardly
by solving an energy balance equation for each subzone.
Here Cair,oc and Cair,mx are the heat capacities of the air volume in each subzone. Cair,mx is
calculated by:
Rair,mx = Vmx · (∆zmx /zceil ) · ρair,mx · cp,air,mx · M ulcap / (∆tz · 3600) (13.207)
The gains fraction F rgains is a user input via a schedule. It is the fraction of the convective
gains in the occupied subzone that remain in that subzone.
The other subzone air heat capacities are calculated in the same manner.
If UFAD:
If Hcomf < Hocavg :
Tcomf = (Toc (Hmxavg − Hcomf ) + Tmx (Hcomf − Hocavg )) / (Hmxavg − Hocavg ) (13.217)
Using the user defined thermostat height we calculate the temperature at the thermostat.
If mixing:
If UFAD:
IfHstat < Hocavg :
Tstat = (Toc (Hmxavg − Hstat ) + Tmx (Hstat − Hocavg )) / (Hmxavg − Hocavg ) (13.221)
temperature. The boundary between the 2 subzones moves up & down each time step as a function
of zone loads and supply air flow rate. Thus at each HVAC time step, the height of the boundary
above the floor must be calculated, portions of surfaces assigned to each subzone, and a separate
convective heat balance performed on each subzone.
13.2.5.4 Implementation
The implementation closely follows the procedure described in the UFAD interior zone model. The
model predicts two temperatures that characterize the two main levels in the stratification of the
room:
1. An occupied subzone temperature Toc representing the temperature of the occupied region;
2. An upper level temperature Tmx representing the temperature of the upper, mixed region and
the outflow temperature.
We will use Equation 13.226 to calculate the interface height and do a heat balance calculation
on each subzone. Γ is given by Equation 13.183. The supply air flow rate V̇ is obtained by summing
all the air flows entering the zone: supply air, infiltration, ventilation, and inter-zone flow. The heat
gain Q̇ is estimated by summing all the convective internal gains located in the occupied subzone
– task lights, people, equipment – and adding to this the convective gain coming from the window
surface. With these assumptions we can describe the implementation.
The UCSD UFE model is controlled by the subroutine ManageUCSDUFModels which is called
from the RoomAirModelManager. The RoomAirModelManager selects which zone model will be
used for each zone.
The calculation is done in subroutine CalcUCSDUEI. First we calculate the convective heat gain
going into the upper and lower regions.
Then:
1. Call subroutine HcUCSDUF to calculate a convective heat transfer coefficient for each surface
in the zone, an effective air temperature for each surface, and HA P mx , HATmx , HAoc , HAToc ,
HAmx,win , HATmx,win , HAoc,win ,and HAToc,win . Here HA is hc,i · Ai for a region and
P surf aces
HAT is hc,i · Ai · Ti for a region. The sum is over all the surfaces bounding the region;
surf aces
hc,i is the convective heat transfer coefficient for surface i, Ai is the area of surface i, and
Ti is the surface temperature of surface i. Variables with the win subscript are summed
over window surfaces only. Then the convective gain from the window is recalculated using
Equation 13.242 and the power in the plume is recalculated: Q̇plumes = Q̇ocz + Q̇win,conv .
The hc ’s calculated in step 1 depend on the subzone temperatures. In turn the subzone temper-
atures depend on the HA and HAT’s calculated in step 1. Hence the need for iteration.
Next we describe Steps 1 and 3 in more detail.
13.2.5.6 Step 1
Subroutine HcUCSDUF is quite straightforward. It loops through all the surfaces in each zone and
decides whether the surface is located in the upper, mixed subzone or the lower, occupied subzone,
or if the surface is in both subzones. If entirely in one subzone the subzone temperature is stored in
the surface effective temperature variable SurfTempEffBulkAir(SurfNum) and hc for the surface is
calculated by a call to subroutine CalcDetailedHcInForDVModel. This routine uses the “detailed”
natural convection coefficient calculation that depends on surface tilt and ∆T 1/3 . This calculation
is appropriate for situations with low air velocity.
For surfaces that bound 2 subzones, the subroutine calculates hc for each subzone and then
averages them, weighting by the amount of surface in each subzone.
During the surface loop, once the hc for a surface is calculated, the appropriate subzone HA and
HAT sums are incremented. If a surface is in 2 subzones the HA and HAT for each subzone are
incremented based on the area of the surface in each subzone. The subroutine calculates a separate
HA and HAT for the windows for use in calculating the window convective gain.
13.2. ROOMAIR MODELS 679
13.2.5.7 Step 2
The calculation of subzone temperatures follows the method used in the ZoneTempPredictor-
Corrector module and described in the section Basis for the System and Zone Integration.
Namely a third order finite difference expansion of the temperature time derivative is used in updat-
ing the subzone temperatures. Otherwise the subzone temperatures are obtained straightforwardly
by solving an energy balance equation for each subzone.
Here Cair,oc and Cair,mx are the heat capacities of the air volume in each subzone. Cair,mx is
calculated by:
Rair,mx = Vmx · (∆zmx /zceil ) · ρair,mx · cp,air,mx · M ulcap / (∆tz · 3600) (13.244)
Tcomf = (Toc (Hmxavg − Hcomf ) + Tmx (Hcomf − Hocavg )) / (Hmxavg − Hocavg ) (13.254)
Tstat = (Toc (Hmxavg − Hstat ) + Tmx (Hstat − Hocavg )) / (Hmxavg − Hocavg ) (13.258)
Else if Hstat ≥ Hmxavg and Hstat < Hceil :
13.2.6.2 Cross-Ventilation
The CV model is developed from analysis of the flow structure inside a cross-ventilated room,
which naturally divides into distinct jet and recirculation flow regions. The flows are calculated for
different room and opening geometries using CFD. Correlations with room and aperture parameters
are then deduced for a characteristic temperature and velocity in the jet and recirculation regions.
The SS 2-opening model is developed from analysis of wind tunnel data for pressure and venti-
lation rates, correlating the flow rate with the pressure difference between the two openings, with
contributions from both the mean and unsteady components. The local velocity estimate is also
based on wind tunnel data, and gives the velocity as a function of wind angle.
13.2.6.3 Approach
With the widespread availability of air conditioning, natural ventilation became a rare feature in
commercial buildings in the US. The recent resurgence of the use of natural ventilation relies on
systems whose performance can be predicted and controlled, often working in conjunction with me-
chanical ventilation and cooling systems in hybrid ventilation configurations. In this contemporary
approach natural ventilation deals with thermal and air renewal requirements in the cold and mild
season and often plays a limited role in the warm season (due to the need to control indoor velocities
and noise levels). Whereas traditional natural ventilation systems often use large openings (1-4m2 ),
both recent and expected future examples tend to use smaller openings (0.2-1m2 ), often in multiple
opening configurations that allow for efficient heat removal with controlled indoor velocities.
682 CHAPTER 13. ALTERNATIVE MODELING PROCESSES
The modeling approach used is based on simplified solutions of the Navier Stokes equations that
are integrated into scaling formulae that predict relevant flow quantities (characteristic velocities
and temperatures) in distinct regions of the flow. The scaling expressions that will be developed
use the principle of flow similarity: for a given room geometry and flow regime (either laminar or
turbulent), the flow pattern is constant. In the present case, where the goal is to predict internal
velocities using as input the inflow velocity (that can be estimated by the airflow rate predicted by
the AirflowNetwork model), the principle can be stated as:
(Velocity in a given position in the room) = (Inflow velocity) × (Constant)
The constant is non-dimensional and depends on the position or room zone where the prediction
is being made. For a given geometry the constant can be measured experimentally or inferred from
a detailed CFD simulation. It is expected that the constant may depend on non-dimensional room
geometry parameters that can be inferred from a careful analysis of the flow. The proposed CV
model uses a set of CFD simulations, in conjunction with simplified solutions of the Navier Stokes
equations, to obtain the constants and their dependence on room geometry features.
The updated CV model proposed in this document was developed using inlet areas Ain and
room cross-section areas ARM in the following range:
0.5% < Ain /ARM < 5%
whereas the existing model used:
3.2% < Ain /ARM < 21%
The room lengths for which these models are expected to be applied range between the smallest
room size of 4m and the maximum achievable CV room flushing length of 15-18m.
Air flows into the room through an inflow window in the form of an approximately axisymmetric
jet, with characteristic diameter L = Ain 1/2 , that is confined by the room surfaces (see Figure 13.19).
The initial portion of the jet (up to six diameters) is called the potential core and is characterized
13.2. ROOMAIR MODELS 683
by shear layer development along the perimeter of the jet. After this phase the jet transitions into
a self similar profile whose centerline velocity decays as 1/x’, where x’ = x/D (Awbi, 2003).
For the relevant room length range the geometries used in the two models result in:
New model: 6 < x’ < 60
Existing model: 2 < x’ < 18
The smaller openings used in the new model result in significantly more space for jet development
along the room length. In all but the shortest rooms the jet will enter the fully developed stage
characterized by a 1/x’ centerline velocity decay rate. For this reason, the updated model uses the
average jet velocity profile as opposed to shear layer momentum transfer.
Figure 13.19: Top view of a cross ventilated room. The air entrained by the jet is detrained at the
outlet, typically creating two recirculation zones.
The goal of the model is to obtain the value and functional form of the constant term shown in
the scaling laws for the characteristic average velocities in the two flow regions: jet and recirculation
684 CHAPTER 13. ALTERNATIVE MODELING PROCESSES
Figure 13.20: Top view of one half of a cross ventilated room. The flow is approximately composed
of a confined jet and two lid driven cavity flows (one on each side).
regions.
To estimate the average jet velocity we integrate along the depth of the room (including both the
core region and the 1/x’ velocity decay region) to derive an average maximum jet velocity, V J,m :�
p n p o
VJ,m = Uin Ain 6 + 6.3 ln D /6 Ain /D∗
∗
(13.262)
(To allow for wind angle effects the room depth D has been replaced by D* - see a later section.)
The lid-driven cavity flow profile that characterizes the recirculation region has a maximum velocity
that is approximately one half of the driving velocity, which in this case is due to the jet. For this
reason we define the separation between the two regions along the virtual surface where the jet
reaches 50% of its maximum, centerline, velocity.
The analysis of the flow revealed that the room containment effect leads to higher velocities for
cases that combine a large inflow opening with a small room cross-section area. In order to account
for this effect we propose to use the following non-dimensional scaling parameter:
to predict the maximum recirculation flow rate, which can be predicted by multiplying the average
velocity by the room cross-section area:
Qin
QR = C3 (VJ,m /Uin ) (13.266)
CRM
Because of the self-similar velocity profile shape that occurs in the recirculation, the near wall
velocity (used to predict forced convection) can be estimated simply by multiplying the characteristic
recirculation velocity by two.
The expressions obtained apply in the turbulent regime (because the CFD simulations on which
they are based are for that regime). Both velocity correlations presented below have the functional
form:
V = aX + b (13.267)
where a is C 1 , C 2 or C 3 , X is a velocity scale and b is a constant that results from the best fit.
The model has a lower limit on the value of X: if X is too small the flow is no longer turbulent.
This limit implies that the point X = 0 is never achieved, avoiding the unrealistic prediction of
V (0) = b.
In addition to the velocity and airflow rate predictions described above it is also essential to
predict the temperature variations in the two zones of the flow. In most cases these variations
will be positive due to the internal sensible heat gains. However‘, as a result of room surface heat
transfer, in some cases the variations may be negative. Analysis of the CFD simulations that are
presented in the next section revealed that approximately all the exhaust air comes from the jet
regions. For this reason, the heat gains affect the two regions differently:
• Heat gains in the jet region only affect this region (no temperature increase in the recirculation
regions).
• Heat gains in the recirculations affect both jet and recirculation regions (because they must
be exhausted by the jets).
In order to predict the temperature increase, heat gains were inserted into the recirculation
regions for different room geometries in the set of simulations presented in the next section. The
volume containing the heat gains extended over the whole depth of the room, from floor to ceiling,
and in the lateral direction from halfway between the window edge and the wall all the way to the
wall. Applying energy conservation principles to predict the temperature increase in the jet and
recirculation region as a function of the sensible heat gains in each region (the sum of internal gains
and internal surface heat transfer) we can obtain the average value of temperature increase in each
region:
q ′′RM
∆TJ = CT,J (13.268)
ρcp Qin
q ′′RM
∆TR = CT,R (13.269)
ρcp Qin
where q”RM is the total internal heat gain for the room, ρ and cp are the density and specific
heat capacity of air, respectively, and C T,J , C T,R are constants.
686 CHAPTER 13. ALTERNATIVE MODELING PROCESSES
13.2.6.5 Results
Table 13.3 lists the cases used to develop the updated CV model, which predicts the output variables
defined in Table 13.4 (see also Figure 13.21). Figures 13.22, 13.23, and 13.24 show plots of the data
derived from the CFD simulations of these test cases, and the lines giving the best fit to the
data. Table 13.5 summarizes the correlation formulae and constants. Finally, Table 13.6 provides
estimates for the error of the correlation in each test case.
Figure 13.21: Jet and recirculation regions in typical vertical cross-section through room (y-z plane).
Jet boundary occurs where jet velocity has fallen to 50% of centerline maximum. Remainder of
cross-section is treated as recirculation. Volumetric heat sources ar
See also Figure 13.21. Note the x-coordinate is along the room, the y-coordinate is across the
room and the z-coordinate is vertical.
Y X a b R2
p
Jet velocity UJ /Uin A /A · (VJ,m /Uin ) 1.6173 0.1466 0.8343
p in RM
Recirculation UR /Uin Ain /ARM · (VJ,m /Uin ) 0.8911 0.0393 0.6464
zone velocity
p
Recirculation QR /Uin Ain /ARM · (VJ,m /Uin ) 0.4444 0.1751 0.6761
zone flow rate
′′
qRM
Jet tempera- ∆TJ ρcp Qin
0.8254 0 n/a
ture rise
688 CHAPTER 13. ALTERNATIVE MODELING PROCESSES
Y X a b R2
′′
qRM
Recirculation ∆TR ρcp Qin
1.2734 0 n/a
zone tem-
perature
rise
Cases Errors
(%)
ID A W D H Jet Recirc- Recirc- Jet Recirc-
(m2) (m) (m) (m) Ve- ulation ulation Temper- ulation
locity Velocity Flow ature Temper-
Rate Rise ature
Rise
1 0.25 6 9 2.3 16 45 60 1 10
2 0.25 11 9 2.3 5 43 32 5 7
3 0.5 9 4.5 2.3 2 18 27 15 2
4 0.5 9 6 2.3 6 32 28 7 1
5 0.5 6 9 2.3 7 6 21 7 0
6 0.5 9 9 2.3 10 4 6 15 17
7 0.5 11 9 2.3 6 7 0 14 20
8 0.5 13.5 9 2.3 14 9 5 21 2
9 0.5 9 13.5 2.3 10 11 17 7 8
10 0.5 9 18 2.3 10 25 29 8 3
11 0.5 13.5 18 2.3 8 2 23 9 6
12 1 9 9 2.3 2 5 3 3 4
13 1 9 13.5 2.3 8 10 10 3 6
14 1 9 18 2.3 0 18 6 13 2
Average 8 17 19 9 6
In each case the error is the percentage difference between the given correlation prediction and
the test case result obtained from CFD, i.e. 100*|(correlation prediction – CFD)/CFD|.
13.2. ROOMAIR MODELS 689
• The inflow area is reduced, creating a larger inflow velocity for the same flow rate.
• The room flow path length is increased, from D to D*, resulting in a larger apparent depth.
• The first effect increases indoor velocities while the second effect decreases the velocities.
• The part of the recirculation flow that exchanges heat with the jet (label R).
• The wall boundary layer part of the recirculation flow (label W).
The light gray arrows show flow direction. The dark gray arrows show heat transfer in the shear
layer. The recirculation region coordinate system is shown in the figure, with coordinate r varying
between 0 and L.
ASL = LP (13.271)
ρ CP F
hSL = √ (13.272)
CD AIN 4 σ π
Locally, the heat transfer process is driven by the variable, local, temperature difference:
Figure 13.26: Flow regions for a room with 2 inlets and 2 outlets.
13.2. ROOMAIR MODELS 693
Figure 13.27: Jet velocity and recirculation velocity for the two halves of 3 different 2-inlet rooms,
A-C, compared with the corresponding 1-inlet rooms.
694 CHAPTER 13. ALTERNATIVE MODELING PROCESSES
An accurate representation of system behavior must consider both the local heat transfer in the
shear layer (varying along the x direction, driven by the temperature profiles TJ (x) and TR (x)) and
the heat transfer in the wall boundary layers (with temperature TW (r)). Both transfers can be
modeled using differential equations, resulting in the following system of equations:
ρCp F R ∂TW∂r
(r)
= AS hS
L
(TS − TW (r))
∂TR (x)
ρCp F R ∂x = ASL hSL
L
(TJ (x) − TR (x)) (13.274)
∂TJ (x)
ρCp F ∂x = ASL hSL
L
(TR (x) − TJ (x))
The first equation in Equation 13.274 models heat transfer in the wall layer. The second models
the temperature variation of the portion of the recirculation flow that is in contact with the jet,
it differs from the third equation only in a sign (the temperature variation in TR is symmetric to
the variation in TJ ) and the flow rate (F·R for the recirculation and F for the main jet). The
temperature in the recirculation region is given by:
hS A S ASL hSL (1+R)
r
−
e ρ CP R F L (e ρ CP R F
− 1)
TW (r) = TS − (TS − TIN ) A h (1+R) hS AS
(13.276)
− SLρ CSLR F
e P −e ρ CP R F
(1 + R) + R
13.2. ROOMAIR MODELS 695
GJ
TIN G = TIN + (13.277)
ρCP F
Gains occurring in the jet region, close to the outlet can be ignored in a first order accuracy
model.
Clearly the two approaches described above are only exact when: the gains occur at the inlet
and perfectly mix with the inflow jet (for the first case), or whenever the gains occur very close to
the outlet (in the second case). In all other situations, the first approach provides a conservative
approximation. In the model implementation in EnergyPlus the user will not define the exact
location of the heat gains within each region of the flow therefore, heat gains in the jet region, are
inserted in two equal parts in two separate points of the jet flow (in the room entrance and before
the exit, see points r = 0 and r = LR in Figure 13.28).
!
1 GR (1 + R)
TR (0) = TIN + ASL hSL (1+R)
+1 (13.279)
e −1
ρ CP F R ρ CP F R
The temperature in the recirculation is inversely proportional to the recirculation flow ratio (R)
and the shear layer area (measured by the product: ASL hSL ). As both of these parameters increase
this expression becomes similar to Equation 13.277. The recirculation flow temperature at x = L
is given by:
13.2.6.13 Combined effects of surface heat transfer and internal gains in the recircu-
lation region
In this case, the following system of equations must be solved:
ρCp F R ∂TW
∂r
(r)
= − ASLhS (TS − TW (r)) − G R
LR
ρCp F R ∂T∂x
R (x)
= ASLLhSL (TJ (x) − TR (x)) (13.282)
ρCp F ∂T∂x
J (x)
= ASLLhSL (TR (x) − TJ (x))
With the boundary conditions: TW (L) = TR (0) , TW (0) = TR (L) , TJ (0) = TIN
For simplicity the heat gains are considered to be evenly distributed along the recirculation
path. The temperature variation in the recirculation region is given by:
The RoomAirflowNetwork integrates the RoomAir model with the AirflowNetwork model. The
model allows multiple Room Air nodes to be associated with AirflowNetwork intra zone nodes. The
AirflowNetwork intra zone linkages provide links among the intra zone nodes and users may specify
airflow components among these links. The AirflowNetwork model calculates airflows of the links.
The incoming airflows are part of the zone heat and moisture balances of intra zone nodes. The
698 CHAPTER 13. ALTERNATIVE MODELING PROCESSES
model also allows users to specify a node to be connected to surfaces to have convective heat transfer
and/or moisture transfer between surfaces and the node, portion of internal gains and supply air
and return air fractions from zone equipment and AirLoop terminals.
The input object RoomAirSettings:AirflowNetwork lists multiple RoomAirflowNetwork nodes
in a zone. The input object of RoomAirflowNetwork:Node defines a list of connections assigned to
a particular RoomAirflowNetwork node so that the connections will be used as components of node
heat and moisture balance equations. In addition, the input objects AirflowNetwork:IntraZone:Node
and AirflowNetwork:IntraZone:Linkage specify airflow nodes, linkages, and associated flow compo-
nents, so that the AirflowNetwork model is used to calculate intrazone linkage airflows, which will
be a part of loads for the RoomAir node balances.
dTz,i X X X
Ni,g Ni,sur Ni,AF N
Fi Cz,i = Fgain,j Q̇i,j + hi,j Aj (Ts,j − Tz,i ) + ṁAF N i,j Cp (Tz,j − Tz,i )
dt j=1 j=1 j=1
(13.284)
X
Ni,HV AC
+ FHV AC,j ṁsup,i,j Cp Tsupj − Tz,i
j=1
where:
Fi = Fraction of zone air volume for the ith node, defined in the Fraction of Zone Air Volume
field of the RoomAir:Node:Airflownetwork
Cz,i = Volumetric heat capacity for the ith node: ρair,i V Cp CT
ρair,i = Dry air density at the ith zone node
Cp = zone dry air specific heat
CT = sensible heat capacity multiplier (Detailed description is provided below)
V = Zone air volume
Tz,i = Air temperature at the ith zone RoomAir node
Ni,g = The number of internal gains for the ith node, defined in the RoomAir:Node:Airflownetwork:InternalG
object
Fgain,j = Fraction of internal gain from jth internal gain object defined in the RoomAir:Node:Airflownetwork
object
Q̇i,j = The amount of internal sensible gain at the jth internal gain object and ith node.
NPi,g
Fgain,j Q̇i,j = The total amount of internal sensible gains assigned to the ith node
j=1
Ni,sur = The number of adjacent surface with convective heat transfer for the ith node, defined
in the RoomAir:Node:Airflownetwork:AdjacentSurfaceList object
hi,j = Heat transfer coefficient between the jth adjacent surface and ith node
Aj = Area of the jth adjacent surface
13.2. ROOMAIR MODELS 699
dWz,i X X X
Ni,g Ni,sur Ni,AF N
Fi Mz,i = Fgain,j Q̇i,j + hM,j Aj (Ws,j − Wz,i ) + ṁAF N i,j (Wz,j − Wz,i )
dt j=1 j=1 j=1
(13.285)
X
Ni,HV AC
+ FHV AC,j ṁsup,i,j Wsupj − Wz,i
j=1
where:
Fi = Fraction of zone air volume for the ith node, defined in the Fraction of Zone Air Volume
of the RoomAir:Node:Airflownetwork
Mz,i = Mass for the ith node: ρair,i VCp CT
ρair,i = Dry air density at the ith zone RoomAir node
V = Zone air volume
Wz,i = Air humidity ratio at the ith zone RoomAir node
Ni,g = The number of internal gains for the ith node, defined in the
RoomAir:Node:Airflownetwork:InternalGains object
Fgain,j = Fraction of internal gain from jth internal gain object defined in the RoomAir:Node:Airflownetwork
object
Q̇i,j = The amount of internal latent gain at the jth internal gain object and ith node.
P
Ni,g
Fgain,j Q̇i,j = The total amount of internal latent gains attached to the ith node
j=1
700 CHAPTER 13. ALTERNATIVE MODELING PROCESSES
Ni,sur = The number of adjacent surface with convective heat transfer for the ith node, defined
in the RoomAir:Node:Airflownetwork:AdjacentSurfaceList object
hM,j = Mass transfer coefficient between the jth adjacent surface and ith node
Aj = Area of the jth adjacent surface
Ws,j = Inside humidity ratio at the jth adjacent surface
NP
i,sur
hM,j Aj (Ws,j − Wz,i ) = The total amount of convective moisture gains from adjacent sur-
j=1
faces attached to the ith node
Ni,AF N = The number of RoomAir:Node:Airflownetwork objects connected to the ith node. The
links are defined in AirflowNetwork:IntraZone:Linkage objects.
ṁAF N,i,j = Mass flow rate from the jth node to the ith node. The flow rates are calculated in
the AirflowNetwork model. It should be pointed out that the outgoing flow from the ith node will
not be used in the present calculation, because they are a part of energy balance.
Wz,j = Air humidity ratio at the jth zone RoomAir node
PN
Ni,AF
ṁAF N,i,j (Wz,j − Wz,i ) = The total amount of moisture transfer driven by intra zonal flows
j=1
Ni,HV AC = The number of RoomAir:Node:Airflownetwork:HVACEquipment objects which pro-
vide supply air to the ith node.
FHV AC,j = Fraction of output or supply air to the ith node from jth HVAC equipment defined
in RoomAir:Node:Airflownetwork:HVACEquipment objects
ṁsup,i,j = The supply mass flow rate from the jth HVAC equipment
Wsup,j = Supply air humidity ratio at the jth HVAC equipment
PAC
Ni,HV
FHV AC,j ṁsup,i,j (Wsup,j − Wz,i ) = The total amount of moisture transfer from HVAC
j=1
equipment to the ith node
13.2.8 References
Altmayer, E.F., Gadgil, A.J., Bauman, F.S., Kammerud, R.C. Correlations for convective heat
transfer from room surfaces. ASHRAE Transactions, No. 2764.
Awbi, H.B. 2003. Ventilation of Buildings (2nd Edition). Routledge.
13.2. ROOMAIR MODELS 701
Awbi, H.B. and Hatton, A. 1999. Natural convection from heated room surfaces, Energy and
Buildings, 30, 233-244.
Awbi, H.B. and Hatton, A. 2000. Mixed convection from heated room surfaces, Energy and
Buildings, 32, 153-166.
Aynsley, R.M., Melbourne, W., Vickery, B.J. 1977. Architectural Aerodynamics. Applied Sci-
ence London.
Baturin, V. V. , Billington, N. S. 1972. Fundamentals of Industrial Ventilation, Franklin Book
Company 1972, pp. 174-179.
Bejan, A. 1994. Convection Heat Transfer 2nd ed, Wiley, USA.
Carrilho da Graça, G. 2003. Simplified models for heat transfer in rooms. Ph. D. Thesis,
University of California, San Diego.
Chandra, S., Kerestecioglu, A.A. 1984. Heat transfer in naturally ventilated rooms data from
full-scale measurements, ASHRAE Transactions, Volume 90, part 1b 211-224.
Chen, Q., and B. Griffith. 2002. Incorporating Nodal Room Air Models into Building Energy
Calculation Procedures. ASHRAE RP-1222 Final Report.
Cooper, P. and P.F. Linden. 1996. Natural ventilation of an enclosure containing two buoyancy
sources. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, Vol. 311, pp. 153-176.
Dominique, M. and P. Guitton. 1997. Validation of displacement ventilation simplified models.
Proc. of Building Simulation.
Griffith, B. and Q. Chen. 2004. Framework for coupling room air models to heat balance load
and energy calculations (RP-1222). International Journal of Heating, Ventilating, Air-conditioning
and Refrigerating Research. ASHRAE, Atlanta GA. Vol 10. No 2. April 2004.
Holford, J.M., G.R. Hunt and P.F. Linden. 2002. Competition between heat sources in a
ventilated space. Proceedings of RoomVent 2002, pp. 577-580.
Hunt, G.R., J.M. Holford and P.F. Linden. 2002. Characterization of the flow driven by a finite
area heat source in a ventilated enclosure. Proceedings of RoomVent 2002, pp. 581-584.
Hunt, G.R. and P.F. Linden. 2001. Steady-state flows in an enclosure ventilated by buoyancy
forces assisted by wind. . Journal of Fluid Mechanics, Vol. 426, pp. 355-386.
Kalema, T., Haapala, T. ‘995. Effect of interior heat transfer coefficients on thermal dynamics
and energy consumption, Energy and Buildings 22 (2) pp. 101-113.
Kaye, K.N. and P.F. Linden. 2004. Coalescing axisymmetric turbulent plumes. Journal of
Fluid Mechanics, Vol. 502, pp. 41–63.
Lin, Y.J. and P.F. Linden. 2005. A model for an under floor air distribution system. En-
ergy&Building, Vol. 37, pp. 399-409.
Linden, P.F., G.F. Lane-Serff and D.A. Smeed. 1990. Emptying filling boxes: the fluid mechan-
ics of natural ventilation. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, Vol. 212, pp. 309-335.
Linden, P.F. and P. Cooper. 1996. Multiple sources of buoyancy in a naturally ventilated
enclosure. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, Vol. 311, pp. 177-192.
Liu, Q. 2006. The Fluid Dynamics of an Underfloor Air Distribution System. A PhD dissertation
in Engineering Sciences (Systems Science) at UC San Diego.
Morton, B.R., G.I. Taylor andJ.S. Turner. 1956. Turbulent gravitational convection from
maintained and instantaneous sources. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Vol A234,
pp. 1-23.
Mundt, E. 1996. The Performance of Displacement Ventilation Systems – Experimental and
Theoretical Studies, Ph. D. Thesis, Bulletin N38, Building Services Engineering KTH, Stockholm.
702 CHAPTER 13. ALTERNATIVE MODELING PROCESSES
Neiswanger, L., Johnson, G.A., Carey, V.P. 1987. An experimental study of high Raleigh number
mixed convection in a rectangular enclosure with restricted inlet and outlet openings. Transactions
of ASME, Vol. 109, 446-453.
Ohba, M., Irie, K., Kurabuchi, T. 2001. Study on airflow characteristics inside and outside a
CVmodel, and ventilation flow rate using wind tunnel experiments. Journal of Wind Engineering
and Industrial Aerodynamics, in press.
Rees, S.J., and P. Haves. 2001. A nodal model for displacement ventilation and chilled ceiling
systems in office spaces. Building and Environment, Vol. 26, pp. 753-762.
Siebers, D. L., Schwind, R. G., Moffat, R. J. 1983. Experimental Mixed Convection Heat
Transfer From a Large Vertical Surface in a Horizontal Flow. SAND 83-8225, Sandia National
Laboratories, Livermore CA.
Spitler, J. D., Pedersen, C.O., Fisher, D.E. 1991. Interior Convective Heat Transfer in Buildings
with Large Ventilative Flow Rates. ASHRAE Transactions, Vol. 97, Pt.1, pp. 505-515.
parameters.
The new hybrid modeling approach uses the inverse modeling method to improve the accuracy of
the building energy simulation for existing buildings, which adds measured data to solve uncertain
model parameters. The hybrid modeling approach builds upon the virtue of the physics-based
model taking advantage of measured data. The approach uses measured zone air temperature,
humidity ratio, or CO2 concentration to solve highly uncertain parameters such as internal thermal
mass, infiltration airflow rate, and people count with the reformulated zone heat, moisture, or CO2
balance equations. Figure 13.29 shows the relationship among the measurements and unkonwn
parameters.
Figure 13.30 illustrates a conceptual diagram that easily express the concept of the hybrid
modeling approach with measured air temperature.
energy model, reformulating the heat, moisture, and CO2 balance algorithms with measured zone
air temperature, humidity ratio, and CO2 concentration data (traditionally results/output of the
physics-based model) to solve highly unknown parameters.
EnergyPlus provides algorithms of 3rd order backward difference and analytical solution to
solve the zone air energy balance equation. The 3rd order finite difference approximation provides
stability without requiring a prohibitively small time step, the method still has truncation errors and
requires a fixed time step length for the previous three simulation time steps. Therefore, different
time step lengths for the previous three simulation time steps may make the temperature coefficients
invalid. The analytical solution algorithm is an integration approach that provides a possible way to
obtain solutions without truncation errors and independent of time step length and only requires the
zone air temperature for one previous time step. The hybrid modeling approach uses the analytical
solution for internal thermal mass inverse calculation and the 3rd order backward difference for
infiltration inverse calculation. The basis for the zone air system integration is to formulate energy
balances for the zone air as shown in following equations and solve the resulting ordinary differential
equations.
dTz
Cz = ΣQi + Σ[hi Ai (Tsi − Tz )] + Σ[ṁi Cp (Tzi − Tz )] + ṁinf Cp (To − Tz ) + Qsys (13.286)
dt
Cz = V ρair Cp CT (13.287)
Where:
ρair : Zone air density [kg/m3 ],
Vz : Zone air volume [m3 ],
Cp : Zone air specific heat [kJ/kg · K],
Tz : Zone air temperature at the current time step [K],
Tzi : Nearby zone air temperature at the current time step [K],
To : Outdoor air temperature at the current time step [K],
Tsys : System supply air temperature at the current time step [K],
t : Current time,
ΣQin : Sum of internal sensible heat gain ,
Σhi Ai (Tsi − Tz ) : Convective heat transfer from the zone surfaces [kW ],
Σṁzi Cp (Tzi − Tz ) : Heat transfer due to interzone air mixing [kW ],
ṁinf (To − Tz ) : Heat transfer due to infiltration of outside air [kW ],
ṁsys (Tsys − Tz ) : Heat transfer due to air supplied by HVAC system [kW ],
The moisture balance equation is in the following form. The sum of zone moisture loads and the
provided air system moisture content equals the change in moisture content stored in the zone.
dWz
ρair Vz Cw =Σkgmasssched + ΣAi hi rhoair (Wsi − Wz ) + Σṁzi Cp (Wzi − Wz )
dt (13.288)
+ ṁinf (Wo − Wz ) + ṁsys (Wsys − Wz )
706 CHAPTER 13. ALTERNATIVE MODELING PROCESSES
Where:
ρair : Zone air density [kg/m3 ],
Vz : Zone air volume [m3 ],
Cw : Zone air humidity capacity multiplier,
Wz : Zone air humidity ratio [kgw /kgdry·air ],
Wzi : Nearby zone air humidity ratio [kgw /kgdry·air ],
Wo : Outdoor air humidity ratio [kgw /kgdry·air ],
Wsys : System supply air humidity ratio [kgw /kgdry·air ],
t : Current time,
Σkgmasssched : sum of scheduled internal moisture load [kg/s],
Σmzi (Wzi − Wz ) : Moisture transfer due to interzone air mixing [kg/s],
ṁinf (Wo − Wz ) : Moisture transfer due to infiltration [kg/s],
ṁsys (Wsys − Wz ) : Moisture transfer due to HVAC supply air [kg/s],
Similarly, there is a CO2 balance equation in the following form. The sum of zone CO2 loads and
the provided air system CO2 content equals the change in CO2 content stored in the zone.
dCz
ρair Vz CCO2 =Σkgmasssched × 106 + Σṁzi (Czi − Cz )
dt (13.289)
+ ṁinf (Co − Cz ) + ṁsys (Csys − Cz )
Where:
ρair : Zone air density [kg/m3 ],
Vz : Zone air volume [m3 ],
CCO2 : Zone carbon dioxide capacity multiplier [dimensionless],
Cz : Zone air carbon dioxide concentration at the current time step [ppm],
Czi : Nearby zone air carbon dioxide concentration [ppm],
Co : Carbon dioxide concentration in outdoor air [ppm],
Csys : Carbon dioxide concentration in the system supply airstream [ppm],
t : Current time,
Σkgmasssched : Sum of scheduled internal carbon dioxide loads [kg/s],
Σṁzi (Czi − Cz ) : Carbon dioxide transfer due to interzone air mixing [ppm · kg/s],
ṁinf (Co − Cz ) : Carbon dioxide transfer due to infiltration and ventilation of outdoor air [ppm · kg/s],
ṁsys (Csys − Cz ) : Carbon dioxide transfer due to system supply [ppm · kg/s],
13.3. HYBRID MODEL 707
algorithm to adjust the zone air thermal capacity. The current EnergyPlus assumes the same
constant capacitance multiplier for all zones. Although it allows users modifying this multiplier, it
is not easy to determine the accurate value and not common for a typical use.
The use of the internal mass multiplier, the zone temperature capacitance multiplier only corrects
the zone air heat capacity reflecting heat stored in the internal mass. Assumptions are not different
from the approach used in InternalMass object, which ignores the geometrical construction of the
internal mass, and do not contribute to the heat transfer across surfaces and the solar heat gain
through windows. The approach in this hybrid modeling method derives the interior mass by solving
the zone temperature capacity multiplier. The derivation is based on the inverse modeling method
replacing the input of interior thermal mass with the measured zone air temperature. The zone air
temperature is the only additional requirement for the proposed approach.
t
ΣQi + Σ(hi Ai Tsi ) + Σ(ṁi Cp Tzi ) + ṁinf Cp To + ṁsys Cp Tsup
+
Σ(hi Ai ) + Σ(ṁi Cp ) + ṁinf Cp + ṁsys Cp
The hybrid modeling approach derives the internal mass by solving the heat capacity of zone
air and internal thermal mass, Cz . The equation below shows the inverse heat balance algorithm
that replacing the zone air temperature, Tz with the measured zone air temperature. The current
timestep measured temperature, Tzt and the previous timestep measured temperature, Tzt−δt are
given from inputs, them the zone air heat capacity, Czt for each timestep is expressed as following.
There are different conditions in deriving the interior thermal mass depending on the air system
operation. The initial process assumes that calculation is conducted when HVAC systems are off.
If HVAC systems are turned off during unoccupied hours, the zone heat capacity can be determined
without additional inputs of the supply air temperature for the above condition. The condition when
13.3. HYBRID MODEL 709
t
the air system is off, Qsys = 0, this induces Tsup = Tzt . Zone air capacitance with internal mass, Cz
remains constant, not changing with the given time series. When the air system is operating, Qsys
t
is not zero. This requires input values of the supply air temperature as denoted as Tsup and supply
air volume. These are additional inputs when estimating interior thermal mass under the condition
when HVAC system is operating. When the air system is operating, Cz dT dt
z
becomes zero or almost
zero. The zone temperature is maintained at the set-point temperature, thus the temperature
difference between Tzt and Tzt−δt is zero. For those hours zone temperatures are maintained at the
set-point temperature, the interior thermal mass, Czt is not calculated.
Zone air heat capacity needs to be derived from the stabilized internal zone air temperature
data that fully captures the stored heat in the air and internal thermal mass. It is recommended
the measured zone temperature needs to be at least one week of data for more reliable result. Zone
heat capacity is an important component for buildings as it stabilizes interior temperatures, thus
at least one week of the measured interior temperature can capture the stored heat in the interior
thermal mass. The temperature capacity multiplier i.e., internal mass multiplier, CTt is calculated
for each time step using the equation below.
Czt
CTt = (13.292)
V ρair Cp
The default value is 1.0. Ideally the zone heat capacity shall remain constant for the same
condition of the interior environment in the zone heat balance equation. An underlying assumption
is that the zone heat capacity is treated as constant for the equilibrium of the inversed heat balance
model. However the measured temperatures are not the same as the simulated zone air temperatures
which is the result of the energy simulation in Equations 13.291 and 13.292. This causes the internal
mass multiplier, CTt , the result from the inverse model is not constant during the course of the
simulation period. The hybrid model will determine a time span when |Tzt − Tzt−δt | > 0.05◦ C that
Czt remains more constant. Internal mass multiplier calculations are only done when the zone air
temperature difference between timesteps meets the condition. This filter is needed for more reliable
inverse calculation to avoid the anomaly conditions due to the use of the inverse model.
define a design flow rate and coefficients for temperature and wind velocity using the ZoneInfiltra-
tion:DesignFlowRate object. EnergyPlus calculates airflow rates by adjusting for the indoor-outdoor
temperature differences and the outdoor wind speed using the following equation.
Infiltration = Infiltrationdesign Fschedule A + B|Tz − To | + C(WindSpeed) + D(WindSpeed2 )
(13.293)
Where A is the constant term coefficient, B is the temperature term coefficient, C is the velocity
term coefficient, D is the velocity squared coefficient, and Fschedule is a user-defined schedule value
between 0 and 1.
The simplified infiltration model using a constant infiltration flow rate is designed to capture
the average effect over the year and in different locations. The simple infiltration approach has
an empirical correlation that modifies the infiltration as a function of wind speed and temperature
difference across the envelope. The difficulty in using this approach the determination of valid co-
efficients for each building type in each location. These coefficients vary and provide very different
results that cause great uncertainty. This is not easy to identify correct ones for typical modeling
practices. The current EnergyPlus simplified infiltration modeling method uses a fixed infiltration
rate that can represent the average impact over a year. This may not be realistic for accurate
energy modeling when capturing hourly dynamics. More complicated flow network simulations are
necessary for detailed modeling. Other infiltration related EnergyPlus models that add details and
complexities are the “Effective Leakage Area” model (Jokisalo et al. 2009) using the ZoneInfiltra-
tion:EffectiveLeakageArea object and “Flow Coefficient” model (Walker & Wilson 1998), using the
ZoneInfiltration:FlowCoefficient object.
It is not easy to estimate as the infiltration is caused by various sources of unknown leakages.
The development of the hybrid model fills the gap when estimating the infiltration that reflects
all complexities of design flow rate, coefficients, and climate conditions by only requiring easily
attainable zone air temperature, humidity ratio, or CO2 concentration data. The development
of the infiltration hybrid modeling algorithm is consistent with the EnergyPlus source code. The
approach derives the infiltration mass flow rate, ṁinf by reformulating the zone air heat. moisture,
or CO2 balance equations. The 3rd order backward difference method is used for the inverse model
development for the infiltration hybrid modeling. The inverse model using the analytical solution
cannot be realized in a mathematical form. The time-series zone air temperature, Tz using the 3rd
order method is shown in the following equation.
ΣQi + Σ(hi Ai Tsi ) + Σ(ṁi Cp Tzi ) + ṁinf Cp To
Cz 3 t−2δt 1 t−3δt
+ ṁsys Cp Tsup −
t
−3Tz + Tz
t−δt
− Tz
t δt 2 3
Tz = 11 Cz
(13.294)
6 δt
+ Σ(hi Ai ) + Σ(ṁi Cp ) + ṁinf Cp + ṁsys Cp
The equation below shows the inverse algorithm for infiltration hybrid modeling method to
derive the zone infiltration mass flow rate using the measured zone air temperature.
13.3. HYBRID MODEL 711
− 3Tzt−δt + 32 Tzt−2δt − 13 Tzt−3δt
11 t
T
6 z
C z δt
− (ΣQin + Σhi Ai (Tsi − Tz ) + Σṁzi Cp (Tzi − Tz ) + ṁsys Cp (Tsys − Tz ))
ṁinf = (13.295)
Cp (To − Tzt )
Similarly, the infiltration air flow rate can be derived with the measured zone air humidity rate:
− 3Wzt−δt + 32 Wzt−2δt − 13 Wzt−3δt
11
6
Wzt
Cwz δt
− Σkgmasssched + ΣAi hi ρair (Wsi − Wzt ) + Σṁzi (Wzi − Wzt )
ṁinf = (13.296)
Wo − Wzt
The infiltration air flow rate can also be derived with the measured zone air CO2 concentration:
− 3Czt−δt + 32 Czt−2δt − 31 Czt−3δt
11 t
C
6 z
CCO2 z δt
− Σkgmasssched × 10 + Σṁzi (Czi − Cz ) + ṁsys (Csys − Cz )
6
ṁinf = (13.297)
Co − Czt
The infiltration air flow rate, qinf is then calculated from the derived infiltration mass flow rate
from the following equation.
ṁinf
qinf = (13.298)
air
13.3.6 References
Balaras, C. a., 1996. The role of thermal mass on the cooling load of buildings. An overview of
computational methods. Energy and Buildings, 24(1), pp.1–10.
Braun, J.E. & Chaturvedi, N., 2002. An Inverse Gray-Box Model for Transient Building Load
Prediction. HVAC&R Research, 8(1), pp.73–99.
Clevenger, C. M., & Haymaker, J. (2001). THE IMPACT OF THE BUILDING OCCUPANT
ON ENERGY MODELING SIMULATIONS, 1–10.
Deru, M., Field, K., Studer, D., Benne, K., Griffith, B., Torcellini, P., Liu, B., et al. 2011. U .
S . Department of Energy Commercial Reference Building Models of the National Building Stock.
Gowri, K., Winiarski, D. & Jarnagin, R., 2009. PNNL-18898: Infiltration Modeling Guidelines
for Commercial Building Energy Analysis, PNNL.
Jokisalo, J. et al., 2009. Building leakage, infiltration, and energy performance analyses for
Finnish detached houses. Building and Environment, 44(2), pp.377–387.
Karlsson, J., 2012. Possibilities of using thermal mass in buildings to save energy, cut power
consumption peaks and increase the thermal comfort, Lund Institute of Technology.
Lee, K. & Braun, J.E., 2008. Model-based demand-limiting control of building thermal mass.
Building and Environment, 43(10), pp.1633–1646.
Ma, P. & Guo, N., 2015. Modeling of Thermal Mass in a Small Commercial Building and
Potential Improvement by Applying TABS. American Journal of Mechanical Engineering, 3(2),
pp.55–62.
Walker, I.S. & Wilson, D.J., 1998. Field validation of equations for stack and wind driven air
infiltration calculations. ASHRAE HVAC&R Research Journal, 4(2), pp.119–139.
Wang, S. & Xu, X., 2006. Parameter estimation of internal thermal mass of building dynamic
models using genetic algorithm. Energy Conversion and Management, 47(13-14), pp.1927–1941.
Xu, P. & Zagreus, L., 2010. Demand Shifting with Thermal Mass in Light and Heavy Mass
Commercial Buildings. 2009 ASHRAE Annual Conference, (June 2009).
Zeng, R. et al., 2011. New concepts and approach for developing energy efficient buildings: Ideal
specific heat for building internal thermal mass. Energy and Buildings, 43(5), pp.1081–1090.
Zhang, Y. et al., 2015. A new approach, based on the inverse problem and variation method, for
solving building energy and environment problems: Preliminary study and illustrative examples.
Building and Environment, 91, pp.204–218.
Chapter 14
The following descriptions are grouped alphabetically (as much as possible) with some also having
additional tags of “Heat Balance”, “HVAC”, and “Plant”. With the integrated solution, these
designations signify where the effects of these models have their first impacts. The main sections
in this chapter are:
• Air Terminals
• Boilers
• Chillers
714
14.1. AIR SYSTEM DISTRIBUTION TERMINALS 715
zone. This object is configured for use with a constant volume central air system, unitary system
or furnace and variable supply air temperature.
This unit allows the program to know what zone this branch of the air system is attached to, and
has input fields for availability schedule, air inlet and outlet nodes, an input field for the maximum
air flow rate, and other two optional input fields. The air inlet node should be the same as one
of the AirLoopHVAC:ZoneSplitter or AirLoopHVAC:SupplyPlenum component outlet nodes. The
air outlet node name should be same as zone air inlet node name and the air distribution unit
air outlet node name. The last two optional input fields: Design Specification Outdoor Air Object
Name, and Per Person Ventilation Rate Mode are used to compute the outdoor air requirement of
an air terminal unit and the air terminal mass flow rate is set to the value calculated using these
two input fields.
14.1.3 Variable Air Volume Single Duct Reheat and No Reheat Air
Terminals
The VAV Single Duct Reheat and No Reheat terminal units (objects AirTerminal:SingleDuct:VAV:Reheat
and AirTerminal:SingleDuct:VAV:NoReheat) provide models for single duct variable-air-volume
(VAV) systems that control zone temperature primarily by varying the quantity of supply air
rather than by varying the supply air temperature. The supply air temperature must be low
enough to meet the cooling load in the zone having the greatest load when the zone terminal
device is wide open. For zones with a smaller cooling load, the terminal device damper reduces
the flow to match the zone setpoint.. If the lower flow limit on the terminal device is reached and
the load is not matched, the inlet air temperature can be moderated if the terminal device has a
reheat coil. In that case both the quantity of air and its temperature entering the zone are varied
to meet the load. For air terminals using reheat coils, the maximum flow during reheat may be
limited. Limiting the maximum flow during reheat occurs only when cooling is required (when
any valid air loop cooling coil is active) and the terminal unit must reheat the air. Optional user
inputs may also be used to control the amount of outdoor air entering the zone.
The operation of the dampers and the control are described in the section AirTermi-
nal:SingleDuct:VAV:HeatAndCool:Reheat and
AirTerminal:SingleDuct:VAV:HeatAndCool:NoReheat, which follows. The exception is that the
14.1. AIR SYSTEM DISTRIBUTION TERMINALS 717
section below describes how the air flow rate is varied for both cooling and heating. For the case
of AirTerminal:SingleDuct:VAV:NoReheat and AirTerminal:SingleDuct:VAV:Reheat, air flow only
varies during cooling operation and the air flow rate is set at the minimum value (minimum air
flow fraction) when zone heating is required.
14.1.4 Variable Air Volume Heating and Cooling Single Duct Reheat
and NoReheat Air Terminal
14.1.4.1 Overview
The VAV Heating and Cooling Single Duct Reheat and No Reheat terminal units (objects
AirTerminal:SingleDuct:VAV:HeatAndCool:Reheat and AirTerminal:SingleDuct:VAV:HeatAnd-
Cool:NoReheat provide models for variable-air-volume (VAV) terminal units are widely used in
commercial and industrial applications. The VAV terminal units contain actuated dampers that
vary the amount of central system air supplied to a zone. These terminal units may also contain
a heating coil to trim the supply air temperature when overcooling is possible. The heating coil
may also serve as the primary air heating source when the central system contains cooling-only
equipment.
The VAV terminal units described here are used primarily with central air handling equipment
with cooling and heating capability. The terminal unit dampers modulate in both cooling and
heating mode to maintain the zone setpoint temperature(s). The central air handling equipment
may be either variable air volume or constant volume where a bypass duct is used to shunt excess
system air flow back to the inlet of the central air handler as terminal unit dampers modulate to
satisfy the zone thermostat (i.e., AirLoopHVAC:UnitaryHeatCool:VAVChangeoverBypass).
Both units are simulated to provide an air flow rate sufficient to satisfy the thermostat request.
The air flow rate is a function of the terminal unit’s inlet air temperature and the load sensed by
the thermostat. The output of the models are simply the damper position required to satisfy the
zone’s thermal load. Other information regarding terminal unit performance may be viewed using
node report variables and heating coil report variables.
!!
Q̇zone
ṁ = min ṁmax , max ṁmax × M inAirF lowF rac × M inAirF lowT urnDownF rac,
DeltaCpT
(14.4)
where:
Cpzone = Specific heat of zone air, J/kg-K
Cpinlet = Specific heat of terminal unit inlet air, J/kg-K
ωzone = Zone air humidity ratio, kg/kg
Tzone = Zone air dry-bulb temperature, °C
ωinlet = Terminal unit inlet air humidity ratio, kg/kg
Tinlet = Terminal unit inlet air dry-bulb temperature, °C
Q̇zone = Zone load, W (positive values denote heating, negative values denote cooling)
ṁ = Terminal unit air mass flow rate, kg/s
P syCpAirF nW = Psychrometric function calculating air specific heat given air humidity ratio
M inAirF lowF rac = User-specified zone minimum air flow fraction
M inAirF lowT urnDownF rac = User-specified zone minimum air flow turndown fraction
ṁmax = Terminal unit maximum air mass flow rate, kg/s.
The outdoor air input fields, if entered, are then used to adjust the terminal unit air mass flow
rate to ensure the correct amount of outdoor air enters the zone (within the constraints of the
terminal unit maximum and minimum flow rate inputs). The amount of outdoor air is calculated
per the outdoor air requirements and is adjusted by the fraction of outdoor air entering the air loop
outdoor air system.
ṁOA
ṁ = max ṁ, (14.5)
OAF rac
where:
ṁOA = zone outdoor air flow rate, kg/s
OAF rac = fraction of outdoor air entering the air loop outside air system.
If the terminal unit is in reheat mode (i.e., the central air loop cooling coil is active, the supply
air was overcooled, and the zone thermostat is requesting heating) the maximum air flow rate
allowed during reheat mode is adjusted as necessary.
·
· ·
m = M IN m, mreheat (14.6)
720 CHAPTER 14. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
where ṁreheat = maximum air mass flow rate during reheat, kg/s
The damper position is then calculated as:
ṁ
F RACdamper = (14.7)
ṁmax
and the amount of outdoor air entering the zone is:
14.1.4.5 References
No specific references.
14.1.5 Constant Volume Single Duct Four Pipe Induction Air Terminal
The four pipe induction terminal unit (object name:
AirTerminal:SingleDuct:ConstantVolume:FourPipeInduction) is a hybrid air-hydronic unit that
supplies both centrally conditioned air and local hydronic heating/cooling to a zone. Centrally
conditioned air is supplied to the terminal unit at high pressure and constant flow. The central
(primary) air is discharged into the terminal unit through a nozzle, inducing a fixed flow of zone
(secondary) through a hydronic heating/cooling coil. The primary and secondary air streams mix
and are discharged to the zone. Hot or cold water flow through the coil is varied to meet the zone
heating or cooling requirement.
14.1.5.1 Model
The four pipe induction terminal unit is modeled as a compound component consisting of three
sub-components: a hot water coil, a chilled water coil and an air mixer. In terms of EnergyPlus
objects these are Coil:Heating:Water, Coil:Cooling:Water, and AirLoopHVAC:ZoneSplitter. The
terminal unit is a forward model: its inputs are defined by the state of its inlets: namely its 2 air
streams – primary and secondary; and its two water inlets – hot and cold. The outputs of the
model are the conditions of the outlet air stream: flow rate, temperature and humidity ratio. The
terminal unit data and simulation are encapsulated in the module HVACSingleDuctInduc.
14.1. AIR SYSTEM DISTRIBUTION TERMINALS 721
14.1.5.3 Calculation
Given the needed inputs, the output is calculated in subroutine CalcFourPipeIndUnit. The temper-
ature, humidity ratio and flow rate of the primary and secondary air streams are taken from the inlet
air nodes. The inlet hot and chilled water flow rates are passed in as parameters – temperatures
are taken from the inlet water nodes. Then:
The hot water coil is simulated (Call SimulateWaterCoilComponents);
The chilled water coil is simulated (Call SimulateWaterCoilComponents);
The two air streams are mixed (Call SimAirMixer).
Finally the load met by the terminal unit is calculated and passed back to the calling routine:
subroutine SolveRegulaFalsi. This is a general utility routine for finding the zero of a function (the
residual function) of a single independent variable. In this case, the residual function calculates
(Q̇z,req − Q̇out )/Q̇z,req . SolveRegulaFalsi varies either the hot water or cold water mass flow rate to
zero the residual.
Decide whether the unit is on or off. The unit is off if: a) it is scheduled off; b) the inlet air
mass flow rate is zero; c) the zone thermostat is in the deadband; d) or the zone heating/cooling
demand is very small.
If the unit is off, call CalcFourPipeIndUnit with the hot and cold water flow rates set to their
minimum flows and return.
If the unit is on, check whether active heating or cooling by the hydronic coils is needed. Call
CalcFourPipeIndUnit with minimum water flows to see what how much cooling (or possibly heating)
the unit is doing with primary air only. The output for this case is Q̇pri .
If Q̇z,req > Q̇pri , we need active heating. Set the cold water flow rate to the minimum. Check
that the terminal unit can meet the load by setting the hot water flow rate to the maximum and
calling CalcFourPipeIndUnit. If the output is less than the zone demand we are done – all the
outputs have been calculated. Otherwise call SolveRegulaFalsi to obtain the hot water flow rate
that will make the unit output match the zone demand. This ends the unit simulation.
If Q̇z,req < Q̇pri , we need active cooling. We set the hot water flow rate to the minimum. We
check whether the terminal unit can supply the needed output by setting the cold water flow rate
to the maximum and calling CalcFourPipeIndUnit. If this maximum cooling output is not able to
meet the zone cooling demand we are done. Otherwise call SolveRegulaFalsi to obtain the cold water
flow rate that will make the unit output match the zone demand. This ends the unit simulation.
Note that the terminal unit output is never explicitly passed to another routine. Instead the out-
put is saved as the outlet conditions on the terminal unit outlet air node. The node data is accessed
when the terminal unit output is needed elsewhere in the program (in SimZoneAirLoopEquipment
for instance).
14.1.5.5 References
No specific references.
14.1.6 Fan Powered Induction Series and Parallel Single Duct Reheat
Air Terminal
14.1.6.1 Overview
The input objects AirTerminal:SingleDuct:SeriesPIU:Reheat and
AirTerminal:SingleDuct:ParallelPIU:Reheat provide models for fan powered induction terminal
units that occur in a variety of configurations. EnergyPlus models 2 types: series (sometimes
called constant) and parallel (sometimes called intermittent). The series unit provides a constant
flow of air to the zone (the fan is always on at a constant flow) with a variable proportion of primary
and secondary air. The parallel unit has an intermittent fan: the fan is off at maximum cooling and
does not switch on until primary air flow is significantly reduced from the maximum or if reheat is
required. Once on it provides a constant flow of secondary air. Both units induce air from the zone
or plenum (secondary air) and mix it with centrally conditioned supply air (primary air). Both
units are variable volume: the supply air flow rate is varied to match zone conditioning requirement.
14.1. AIR SYSTEM DISTRIBUTION TERMINALS 723
14.1.6.2 Model
Both types of PIU are modeled as compound components. The series unit, in sequence from its
inlet, consists of an air mixer, a constant volume fan, and a heating coil. In terms of EnergyPlus
objects, this is:
1. AirLoopHVAC:ZoneMixer
2. Fan:SystemModel or Fan:ConstantVolume
The parallel unit contains a fan (in the secondary air stream, an air mixer, and a heating coil.
In terms of EnergyPlus objects, this is:
1. Fan:SystemModel or Fan:ConstantVolume
2. AirLoopHVAC:ZoneMixer
Both units are forward models: their inputs are defined by the state of their inlets: namely the
air inlet and the hot water inlet. The outputs of the models are the conditions of the outlet air
stream: flow rate, temperature and humidity ratio. The PIUs data and simulation are encapsulated
in the module PoweredInductionUnits. The main simulation routine for the units within the module
are CalcSeriesPIU and CalcParallelPIU.
14.1.6.4 Calculation
The calculation is performed by simulating the sub-components in the order given above. Most of
the code is involved with figuring out what the various flow rates should be before simulating the
subcomponents. These calculations are described below.
724 CHAPTER 14. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
• If the unit is scheduled off, the primary and secondary flow rates are set to zero.
• If there is no primary air flow (or less than .001 kg/s), the primary air flow is set to zero and
the secondary air flow is set to the constant total air flow input by the user only if there is a
heating load.
• If the zone temperature is in the deadband or the zone load is less than 1 watt or the zone
needs heating, the primary air flow rate is set to the minimum flow rate specified by the input
and the secondary air flow rate is set to the difference between the fixed total air flow rate
and the primary air flow rate.
• Otherwise, the zone needs cooling and the unit is active.
– We determine the fan temperature rise: the secondary air flow is set to the max total
air flow, primary air flow to zero, and the mixer and fan are simulated. The fan delta T
is the difference between the temperature at the fan’s outlet node and inlet node.
– We calculate the unit air outlet temperature needed to meet the zone cooling load:
Tout = Tz + Q̇z,req /(ṁair,tot · cp,air,z )
– The temperature needed at the outlet of the mixer is then: Tmix = Tout − ∆Tf an
– We can then set the primary air flow rate.
∗ If Tmix ≤ Tin,pri , then ṁpri = ṁpri,max
∗ Else if Tmix ≥ Tin,pri and Tmix ≥ Tin,sec , then ṁpri = ṁpri,min
∗ Otherwise ṁpri = ṁair,tot · (Tin,sec − Tmix )/(Tin,sec − Tin,pri ), subject to the constraints
that the flow rate can’t be bigger than the max and min allowed.
The air flow rates are now determined and we can fire the air mixer (Call SimAir-Mixer) and
fan (Call SimulateFanComponents) component simulations. Finally we simulate the heating coil:
• for a hot water coil, if the coil is off (no flow, deadband, no load) just fire the coil simulation
once (Call SimulateWaterCoilComponents). Otherwise call ControlCompOutput; Control-
CompOutput is a general component control routine. In this case it calls SimulateWaterCoil-
Components repeatedly while varying the hot water flow rate and minimizing
• If the unit is scheduled off, the primary and secondary flow rates are set to zero.
• If there is no primary air flow (or less than .001 kg/s), the primary air flow is set to zero and
the secondary air flow is set to the max secondary air flow input by the user only if there is
a heating load.
• If the zone temperature is in the deadband or the zone load is less than 1 watt or the zone
needs heating, the primary air flow rate is set to the minimum flow rate specified by the
input. If there is a heating load or reheat is required, the secondary air flow rate is set to max
secondary air flow input by the user.
– We determine the fan temperature rise: the secondary air flow is set to the max secondary
air flow, primary air flow to zero, and the fan and mixer are simulated. The fan delta
T is defined as the difference between the temperature at the mixer outlet node and the
fan inlet node.
– Assuming that the fan is off, we calculate the primary air flow needed to meet the cooling
demand.
The secondary flow rate is set to the user input fixed flow rate if reheat is required or
if the primary air flow fraction is at or below the user-specified fan on fraction. The
primary air flow rate is constrained to be between the min and max primary flow rated.
The air flow rates are now determined and we can fire the fan (Call SimulateFanComponents)
and air mixer (Call SimAirMixer) component simulations. Finally we simulate the heating coil:
726 CHAPTER 14. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
• For a hot water coil, if the coil is off (no flow, deadband, no load) just fire the coil simulation
once (Call SimulateWaterCoilComponents). Otherwise call ControlCompOutput; Control-
CompOutput is a general component control routine. In this case it calls SimulateWaterCoil-
Components repeatedly while varying the hot water flow rate and minimizing
• For gas, electric or steam coils, the required coil output is set to Q̇coil,req = Q̇z,req − cp,air ·
ṁair,coil (Tair,coil,in −Tz ) . Then the coil simulation is fired (Call SimulateHeatingCoilComponent
or SimulateSteamCoilComponents).
14.1.6.6 References
No specific references.
14.1.7 Variable Air Volume Fan Powered Single Duct Air Terminal
14.1.7.1 Overview
The input object AirTerminal:SingleDuct:VAV:Reheat:VariableSpeedFan provides a model for vari-
able speed (VS) fan VAV terminal unit that is a typical VAV reheat unit with the addition of a
variable-speed blower fan to assist in moving supply air from the plenum to the conditioned zone.
It is typically used with under-floor air distribution systems (UFAD) where the supply air is sent
at low static pressure through an under-floor supply plenum. The fan has two maximum flow rate
settings: one for cooling and one for heating. The cooling maximum is usually the actual fan max-
imum while the heating maximum is a lesser flow rate. The fan is upstream of the heating coil
(this is a blow-through unit). The heating coil can be hot-water, electric or gas. Cooling control is
obtained by varying the supply air flow rate from the cooling maximum to the minimum flow rate.
Heating control is established by varying both the heating coil output (or hot water flow rate for
hot water coils) and the supply air flow rate. Note that for this unit the minimum supply air flow
rate is the flow rate when the fan is off.
14.1.7.2 Model
The VS fan VAV terminal unit is modeled as a compound component consisting of two
sub-components: a fan and a heating coil. In terms of EnergyPlus objects the fan is a
Fan:VariableVolume object and the heating coil is a Coil:Heating:Water, Coil:Heating:Electric or
a Coil:Heating:Fuel. The terminal unit is a forward model: its inputs are defined by the state of
its inlets: namely its air inlet and its hot water inlet, if it has a hot water coil. The outputs of
14.1. AIR SYSTEM DISTRIBUTION TERMINALS 727
the model are the conditions of the outlet air stream: flow rate, temperature and humidity ratio.
The terminal unit data and simulation are encapsulated in the module SingleDuct. The main
simulation routine for the unit within the module is SimVAVVS.
14.1.7.4 Calculation
Given the needed inputs, the output is calculated in subroutine CalcVAVVS. The temperature and
humidity of the supply air stream are taken from the inlet air node. The inlet air flow rate and the
hot water flow rate are passed in as parameters. If the coil is electric or gas the coil heating power
is passed instead of the hot water flow rate. Then
The fan is simulated (call SimulateFanComponents). If the fan is off the fan outlet conditions
are set to the inlet conditions.
The heating coil is simulated (call SimulateWaterCoilComponents if the coil is a hot water coil;
call SimulateHeatingCoilComponents if the coil is gas or electric).
Finally the sensible load met by the terminal unit is calculated and passed back to the calling
routine:
Decide whether the unit is on or off. The unit is off if: a) it is scheduled off; b) the inlet air
mass flow rate is zero; or c) the zone thermostat is in the deadband
If the unit is off, call CalcVAVVS with flow rates set to their minimum flows and return.
If the unit is on, we need to establish the boundaries of 4 conditioning regions: a) active cooling
with fan on; b) active heating with fan on; c) active heating with fan off; d) passive cooling with
fan off. The heating/cooling demand will fall into one of these regions. Once the correct region
is determined, we will know which model input to vary for control and thus how to invert the
calculation.
To establish the boundaries of region a) we call CalcVAVVS twice: once with the supply air
flow rate set to the cooling maximum, once with the cooling air flow rate set to the minimum. In
both cases the heating coil output is at the minimum and the fan is on. Call the 2 cooling outputs
Q̇cool,max,f anon and Q̇cool,min,f anon . Remembering that EnergyPlus convention is that cooling loads
are negative, then if Q̇tot < Q̇cool,max,f anon the terminal unit can not meet the demand. Set the air
mass flow rate to the cooling maximum and call CalcVAVV again. This concludes the simulation.
If Q̇cool,max,f anon < Q̇tot < Q̇cool,min,f anon the cooling demand is in the active cooling region. We hold
the heating at the minimum, allow the supply air flow to vary between the cooling maximum and
the minimum with the fan on, and call SolveRegulaFalsi to obtain the supply air flow rate that will
produce the unit sensible cooling output that matches the demand. This concludes the simulation.
To establish the boundaries of region b) call CalcVAVVS twice: once with the supply air flow rate
set to the heating maximum, once with the supply air flow rate set to the minimum. In both calls,
if the heating coil is a hot water coil, the hot water flow rate is at the maximum. For electric and
gas coils, the heating power is set to the maximum at maximum supply air flow and to zero at the
minimum supply air flow. In both calls the fan is set to be on. Call the 2 heating outputs returned
from the two calls to CalcVAVVS Q̇heat,max,f anon and Q̇heat,min,f anon . If Q̇heat,max,f anon < Q̇tot the
terminal unit can not meet the load. Set the air flow rate to the heating maximum and the hot
water flow rate or heating coil power to the maximum and call CalcVAVVS again. This concludes
the simulation for this case. If Q̇heat,min,f anon < Q̇tot < Q̇heat,max,f anon the heating demand is in the
active heating, fan on region. For a hot water coil we call SolveRegulaFalsi with the supply air flow
rate as the input that is varied and the hot water flow rate set to the maximum. For electric and
gas coils the coil power and the supply air flow rate are both varied together from their minimum
to maximum in a call to SolveRegulaFalsi. The call to SolveRegulaFalsi concludes the simulation
for this case.
This region only applies to terminal units with a hot water coil. To establish the boundaries
of region c) the fan is set to off, the supply air flow rate is set to minimum flow and CalcVAVVS
is called twice: once with the hot water flow at maximum and once with the hot water flow at
minimum. Call the two heating outputs Q̇heat,max,f anof f and Q̇tot . If Q̇tot is between these values,
the supply air flow rate is set to its minimum, the fan is set to off, and in the call to SolveRegulaFalsi
the hot water flow rate is varied to meet the load. This concludes the simulation for this case.
If the cooling demand does not fall into cases a) – c), the unit is assumed to be in the passive
cooling state: heating is off or at the minimum, the fan is off, and the minimum supply air flow is
delivered to the zone.
Note that the terminal unit output is never explicitly passed to another routine. Instead the out-
put is saved as the outlet conditions on the terminal unit outlet air node. The node data is accessed
when the terminal unit output is needed elsewhere in the program (in SimZoneAirLoopEquipment
for instance).
14.1. AIR SYSTEM DISTRIBUTION TERMINALS 729
14.1.7.6 References
No specific references.
primary air flow rates will impact the rate that room air is induced to flow across the convector.
The function can be described using any of the single-variable curves or a lookup table. The single
independent variable is the ratio between the current normalized primary air flow rate, ṁSA , and
the normalized flow rate used to rate beam performance, ṁSA,rated . Flow rates are normalized by
dividing the total length of all the beam units in the zone. The ratio is calculated using air mass
flow rates with the rated flow rate assumed to be for standard temperature and pressure at sea level
so that elevation effects appear only in the numerator when the function is evaluated.
ṁSA
fṁSA,cool,mod () = fṁSA,cool,mod (14.27)
ṁSA,rated
ṀSA
ṁSA = (14.28)
L
ṀCW
ṁCW = (14.31)
L
ṀHW
ṁHW = (14.38)
L
ṁHW is the mass flow rate of hot water per meter of length, in kg/s-m
ṁHW,rated is the mass flow rate of hot water per meter of length at rating point, in kg/s-m
ṁSA is the mass flow rate of primary air per meter of length, in kg/s-m
ṁSA,rated is the mass flow rate of primary air per meter of length at rating point, kg/s-m
ṀSA is the mass flow rate of primary air entering the zone through the air terminal unit, in kg/s
ṀCW is the mass flow rate of chilled water, kg/s
ṀHW is the mass flow rate of hot water, kg/s
q̇cool,rated is the rated beam cooling capacity per meter of length, in W/m.
q̇heat,rated is the rated beam heating capacity per meter of length, in W/m.
Q̇Beam is the conditioning power delivered to the zone by the beam convector, in W.
Q̇SA is the conditioning power delivered to the zone by the primary air mass flow, in W.
Q̇T ot is the total (net) conditioning power delivered to zone by the air terminal unit, in W.
ρair,ST P is the density of air at standard conditions (sea level), in kg/m3
ρair is the density of air at standard conditions adjusted for elevation), in kg/m3
ρCW is the density of chilled water, in kg/m3
TSA is the dryblub temperature of the (central) primary air entering the air terminal unit, in
degrees C.
TZ is the dryblub temperature of the zone air, in ◦ C.
TCW,in is the temperature of chilled water entering the convector, in ◦ C.
∆Tair−CW is the difference between the zone air temperature and chilled water entering the
convector, ∆◦ C.
∆THW −air is the difference between the water and zone air temperature entering the convector,
◦
∆ C.
∆Tair−CW,rated is the value of ∆Tair−CW at rating conditions for cooling performance, ∆◦ C.
∆THW −air,rated is the value of ∆THW −air at rating conditions for heating performance, ∆◦ C.
v̇SA,rated is the volume flow rate of air per meter length at rating point, in m3 /s-m.
v̇CW,rated is the volume flow rate of chilled water per meter length at rating point, in m3 /s-m.
v̇HW,rated is the volume flow rate of hot water per meter length at rating point, in m3 /s-m.
The performance capacity model described above is controlled to modulate water flow through
the beam’s convector using the non-linear numerical solver in EnergyPlus called Solve root solver.
The predicted zone load to setpoint Q̇Zone,Required is adjusted by Q̇SA to determine the required
beam load.
Q̇Beam
TCW,out = TCW,in − (14.41)
ṁCW · cp,CW
However, to protect from a non-physical result the leaving chilled water temperature is con-
strained to be no warmer than a 1.0◦ C approach temperature compared to the zone air or the
primary supply air. If the above result is too warm the leaving temperature and beam cooling
14.1. AIR SYSTEM DISTRIBUTION TERMINALS 733
capacity are adjusted using the following equations, and a recurring warning is issued to alert the
user that there may be a problem with the cooliong performance input data.
Q̇Beam
THW,out = THW,in − (14.44)
ṁHW · cp,HW
To protect from a non-physical result the leaving hot water temperature is constrained to be no
cooler than a 1.0◦ C approach temperature compared to the zone air or the primary supply air. If
the above result is too cool the leaving temperature and beam heating capacity are adjusted using
the following equations, and a recurring warning is issued to alert the user that there may be a
problem with the heating performance input data.
Because of the way the model is formulated with defaulted inputs for rated, normalized perfor-
mance data, we can link the four inputs together to ensure an internally consistent set of sizes. If
any one of these four inputs is not autosized (given a fixed value at input) then the other three can
be computed using the normalized, rated performance data which are either input or have default
values. If the total beam length is input, then the following equations are used:
If the design primary supply air flow rate is input then the beam length can be determined as
follows and then water flow rates evaluated as above.
V̇SA,Des
L= (14.50)
v̇SA,rated
If the chilled water flow rate is input, then the beam length can be determined as follows and
the other values evaluated as above:
V̇CW,Des
L= (14.51)
v̇CW,rated
If the hot water flow rate is input, then the beam length can be determined as follows and the
other values evaluated as above:
V̇HW,Des
L= (14.52)
v̇HW,rated
When all four inputs are autosized, which is the usual case, there is no simple way to anchor the
sizes and we need to use the results from the zone and system sizing calculations to determine sizes
for the four pipe beam unit. The following design data from the zone and system sizing calculations
are used when sizing the four pipe beam:
V̇T U,Z,f inal,cool is the final zone terminal unit design volume flow rate for cooling, in m3 /s
V̇T U,Z,f inal,heat is the final zone terminal unit design volume flow rate for heating, in m3 /s
V̇Z,f inal,OA is the final zone design volume flow rate for minimum outdoor air mechanical venti-
lation, in m3 /s.
TSA,cool,design is the final design zone terminal unit inlet supply air temperature at cooling peak,
in ◦ C.
wSA,cool,design is the final design zone terminal unit inlet supply air humidity ratio at cooling
peak, in kgH2O /kgdryair .
TZ,cool,design is the final design zone air temperature at cooling peak, in ◦ C.
wZ,cool,design is the final design zone air humidity ratio at cooling peak, in kgH2O /kgdryair .
Q̇Z,cool,design is the final design zone cooling load at cooling peak, in W.
TCW,design is the chilled water plant loop supply side design exit temperature, in ◦ C.
TSA,heat,design the the final design zone terminal unit inlet supply air temperature at heating
peak, in ◦ C.
wSA,heat,design is the final design zone terminal unit inlet supply air humidity ratio at heating
peak, in kgH2O /kgdryair .
TZ,heat,design is the final design zone air temperature at heating peak, in ◦ C.
wZ,heat,design is the final design zone air humidity ratio at heating peak, in kgH2O /kgdryair .
Q̇Z,heat,design is the final design zone heating load at heating peak, in W.
THW,design is the hot water plant loop supply side design exit temperature, in ◦ C.
Overhead beam type air terminals induce room air to flow over the convector by the directing
primary supply air through special nozzles. Therefore, the cooling and heating capacity of the
beam’s convector is not separable from the primary flow rate, varying the primary flow rate varies
the beam capacity. The design primary flow rate is chosen to be largest value that satisfies three
requirements: (1) the ventilation requirement, (2) the design cooling load (if cooling is present), (3)
and the design heating load (if heating is present).
14.1. AIR SYSTEM DISTRIBUTION TERMINALS 735
The sizing method here uses the non-linear solver inside EnergyPlus, called root solver, to
arrive at a set of sizes that meet the design load. The solver is for a single independent variable
and although we have four sizes to solve for, we can reduce the problem to finding a suitable design
primary supply air flow rate and then the other sizes can be determined from that as shown above.
The solver needs as its input a minimum and a maximum “x-value,” which here is the primary
supply air flow rate, and then it searches for a solution that minimizes a residual. In general
the design primary supply flow rate that meets the load is somewhere between the minimum flow
required for ventilation and a maximum flow where the primary supply flow meets all the zone’s
design load without any help from the beam’s convector. For example if the supply air is cold, as it
would be for latent control, and there is a cooling load then there will be a relatively large air flow
rate that meets all the load without any cooling from chilled water circulating through the beam.
This larger air flow serves as the upper bound for the solver.
When sizing for the cooling design load, the following design values are set for use in the model
calculations:
TZ = TZ,cool,design (14.55)
ṁSA,maxlimit
ṁSA,minlimit = min(V̇Z,f inal,OA , , max(V̇T U,Z,f inal,heat , V̇T U,Z,f inal,cool )) (14.62)
3.0
When sizing for the heating design load, the following design values are set for use in the model
calculations:
TZ = TZ,heat,design (14.65)
V̇SA,Des
L= (14.74)
v̇SA,rated
air system components. The usual methods of sizing the main AirLoopHVAC branch and fans are
not able account for the methods used to size the four pipe beam. When the Sizing:System object
was set to use VentilationRequirement, the air handler will be too small. When the Sizing:System
object was set to use Sensible, the air handler will be too large. The system sizing calculations have
already been completed at the time the four pipe beam air terminals are sized so we need to make
some adjustments. The final primary supply air flow rate size is compared to the original final zone
sizes for the air terminal unit and the air loop sizes adjusted to make up for the difference. A sizing
report item called “AirLoopHVAC Design Supply Air Flow Rate Adjustment [m3/s]” is generated
for each four pipe beam that shows the magnitude of the adjustment to data structure values used
to size central air systems. Therefore when autosizing air handlers with four pipe beams, it is
expected that the outcomes for air system sizes will not agree with the system sizing reporting
because of the differences introduced by this adjustment.
Snippet of catalog data for capacity and primary air flow rate dependence (Trox DID632A)
738 CHAPTER 14. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
Choosing a 6 foot beam (with Nozzle type H) at 140 CFM as the rating point, we get 3726
Btu/h = 1092 W, 6 ft = 1.83 m, and 1092/1.83 = 597 W/m for normalized beam cooling capacity
at rating point. The associated primary air flow rate of 140 ft3 /min = 0.066 m3 /s and 0.066/1.83 =
0.036 m2 /s is the normalized beam primary air flow rate at the rating point. Note that because the
flow rate is normalized by beam length, the units are m3 /s/m (which reduces to m2 /s). The rating
heating capacity is listed as a “net” heating rate but since this is not well defined in the catalog
we go ahead and assume that this represents the beam heating rate where the associated cooling
provided by the primary air has already been subtracted. The net heating capacity is 7411 Btu/h
= 2172 W. This value need to be increased by the primary cooling provided by 55◦ F = 12.7◦ C air
entering a zone at 70◦ F = 21◦ C. The catalog does not completely define the moist air state of the
zone nor the primary air so we assume nominal average moist air density of 1.2 kg/m3 and a specific
heat of 1000.0 J/kg-K so that the primary air cooling rate is (21 – 12.7) * 0.066 * 1.2 * 1000 = 660
W. The beam heating rate is therefore 2172 + 660 = 2832 W. Then normalizing for beam length
2832/1.83 = 1548 W/m is the rated beam heating capacity.
The catalog includes two more data points for capacity at different flow rates, one for 100 ft3 /min
and the other for 180 ft3 /min. These are processed in the same way as the rating point data and
used to create the modification curves that describe performance as a function of primary air flow
rate.
14.1.9.1 Model
The chilled beam system is modeled as an EnergyPlus terminal unit. In terms of configuration
within the overall HVAC system, it resembles a 4 pipe induction terminal unit. The user describes
the system as a typical single duct constant volume system (with outside air mixer, fan, heating
and cooling coils) on the air loop side, and with cooled beam terminal units on the zone equipment
side.
The model is an empirical model developed at the equipment manufacturer Halton Oy. It
consists of the following relationships.
14.1. AIR SYSTEM DISTRIBUTION TERMINALS 739
The room air volumetric flow rate across coil per unit length in m3 /(s-m) is:
14.1.9.3 Sizing
The Cooled Beam sizing calculations generally follow the procedures used for other terminal units
(see Loop Equipment Sizing). One difference is that the Cooled Beams use the Cooled Beam inputs
Design Inlet Water Temperature and Design Outlet Water Temperature for the chilled water ∆T
rather than the ∆T from Plant Sizing. There are also two inputs unique to the Cooled Beam units
that are autosized and will be described here.
The input Number of individual beam units in the zone is autosized by dividing the beam system
zone design chilled water flow rate (either input by the user or autosized) by a nominal chilled water
beam flow rate: 0.07 kg/s.
The input Length of an individual beam unit is autosized by using the model equations to
calculate the length. The inputs to the equations are:
740 CHAPTER 14. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
1. The design load per beam. The design load is calculated from the design water mass flow
rate and the design water inlet and outlet temperatures. The design load is divided by the
number of beams to obtain the design load per beam.
2. The design air supply air flow per beam – obtained by dividing the design supply air flow by
the number of beams.
3. The design water flow per beam (m3 /s) – obtained by dividing the design water flow by the
number of beams.
4. The design water velocity – obtained by dividing the design water flow per beam by the cross
sectional inside area of a water tube (πD2 /4, where D is the input Pipe inside diameter.
5. Average air to water ∆T = Tz, cool peak - 0.5(Tw,des inlet + Tw,des outlet ); where Tz, cool peak is the
zone air temperature at the cooling peak and the Tw,des ’s are the water design inlet and outlet
temperatures.
With these inputs the model equations can be solve directly for beam length for passive cooled
beams, and iteratively for active cooled beams.
14.1.9.4 Calculation
The subroutine CalcCoolBeam uses the model equations to calculate the cooling power Pbeams,out
delivered to the room air and the outlet water temperature given the water flow rate (and the room
air temperature and water inlet temperature). Since the model equations are nonlinear they must
be solved iteratively. The subroutine does this by varying the outlet water temperature Tw,out and
calculating the water-side cooling power:
know the chilled water flow rate. This numerical inversion is carried out by calling the subroutine
SolveRegulaFalsi. This is a general utility routine for finding the zero of a function (the residual
function) of a single independent variable. In this case the residual function is basically:
14.1.9.6 References
Documentation Package Update #2 for DOE-2.1E, Version 107, page 3.152 describes the input and
the model for the DOE-2 cooled beam model.
ṁd is the system design air mass flow rate through both heating or cooling duct, kg/s
ṁc is the cold deck air mass flow rate, kg/s
ṁh is the hot deck air mass flow rate, kg/s.
nodes (one for the heating duct and one for the cooling duct) and one outlet node.
In addition, the DDVAV terminal unit also has a maximum flow rate and a minimum flow
fraction like the VAV terminal unit. This allows the flow to be throttled back when it is possible
to provide the proper amount of conditioning with less flow. The maximum flow rate can be
auto-sized, if desired.
!!
Q̇zone
ṁ = min ṁmax , max ṁmax · M inAirF lowF rac × M inAirF lowT urnDownF rac,
∆Cp T
(14.92)
where
Cp,zone is the specific heat of zone air, J/kg-K
Cp,inlet is the specific heat of terminal unit inlet air, J/kg-K
ωzone is the zone air humidity ratio, kg/kg
Tzone is the zone air dry-bulb temperature, °C
ωinlet is the terminal unit inlet air humidity ratio, kg/kg
Tinlet is the terminal unit inlet air dry-bulb temperature, °C
Q̇zone is the zone load, W (positive values denote heating, negative values denote cooling)
ṁ is the terminal unit air mass flow rate through either heating or cooling duct, kg/s
P syCpAirF nW is the psychrometric function calculating air specific heat given air humidity
ratio
M inAirF lowF rac is the user-specified zone minimum air flow fraction
744 CHAPTER 14. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
M inAirF lowT urnDownF rac is the user-specified zone minimum air flow turndown fraction
ṁmax is the terminal unit maximum air mass flow rate, kg/s.
The outdoor air input requirements, if entered, are then used to adjust the terminal unit air mass
flow rate to ensure the correct amount of outdoor air enters the zone (within the constraints of the
terminal unit maximum and minimum flow rate inputs). The amount of outdoor air is calculated
per the outdoor air requirements and is adjusted by the fraction of outdoor air entering the air loop
outdoor air system.
ṁOA
ṁ = max ṁ, (14.93)
OAF rac
where:
ṁOA is the zone outdoor air flow rate, kg/s
OAF rac is the fraction of outdoor air entering the air loop outside air system.
The damper position is then calculated as:
ṁ
F RACdamper = (14.94)
ṁmax
where F RACdamper is the output variable ‘Zone Air Terminal VAV Damper Position’ in fraction
of maximum flow.
If the flow rate was between the maximum flow rate and the minimum flow rate for the terminal
unit, then no other calculations are needed. However, if the flow was reset to either the maximum
or minimum flow rate, then flow through the active duct must be balanced by flow through the
other duct to achieve the proper conditioning.
14.1.11.6 References
No specific references. Refer to the ASHRAE Handbook series for general information on different
system types as needed.
14.1.12 Dual Duct Dedicated Outside Air Terminal with VAV Cooling
14.1.12.1 Overview
The input object AirTerminal:DualDuct:VAV:OutdoorAir provides a model for dedicated outside
air combined with recirculated air for cooling. This air terminal has two inlets and one outlet.
The outdoor air inlet has one damper that is controlled to meet the air flow requirements for
ventilation. The second inlet is for cool recirculated air and has a second damper that is controlled
to meet the zone’s cooling loads. The two streams are then mixed and inlet to the zone. This unit
is for central air systems (using AirLoopHVAC object). Because of the limitation in EnergyPlus of
allowing only one air terminal per zone, the dual duct approach offers advantages in that it allows
modeling dedicated outdoor air systems (DOAS) and central VAV cooling at the same time. The
original motivation for adding this terminal was to model twin-fan, twin-coil systems.
The recirculated cool air duct is actually optional. If no node name is input for the recirculated
air inlet node, then only the outdoor air duct is operational and the air terminal behaves as a single
duct. This offers additional capabilities for single duct DOAS in that this terminal can request
outdoor air flows that change over time but are not controlled to meet zone loads.
14.1. AIR SYSTEM DISTRIBUTION TERMINALS 745
where Q̇T oCoolSetpointRemain= is the remaining load to cooling setpoint as determined by Predictor
and including the impacts of any other zone equipment sequenced before this terminal. Then the
recirculated cool air mass flow rate, ṁRC (kg/s), is calculated using:
Q̇RC
ṁRC = (14.100)
(cp,RC TRC − cp,zone Tzone )
The model also includes a form of damping where the last three values for ṁRC are stored and
used to detect if the solution is oscillating from one iteration to the next and if it is then the new
value is not used but rather the value from the previous iteration is used. Once the two mass flows
are known, the moist air properties of the outlet node are calculated using mass flow weighting.
14.1.12.3 References
Sekhar, S. C., K. W. Tham, et al. (2004). Development of energy-efficient single-coil twin-fan
air-conditioning system with zonal ventilation control, Nashville, TX, United states, Amer. Soc.
Heating, Ref. Air-Conditoning Eng. Inc.
14.2 Boilers
14.2.1 Simple Hot Water Boiler
The input object Boiler:HotWater provides a simple model for boilers that only requires the user to
supply the nominal boiler capacity and thermal efficiency. An efficiency curve can also be used to
more accurately represent the performance of non-electric boilers but is not considered a required
input. The fuel type is input by the user for energy accounting purposes.
The model is based the following three equations
BoilerLoad
OperatingP artLoadRatio = (14.101)
BoilerN omCapacity
BoilerLoad
T heoreticalF uelU se = (14.102)
N ominalT hermalEf f iciency
T heoreticalF uelU se
F uelU sed = (14.103)
BoilerEf f iciencyCurveOuput
or
BoilerLoad
F uelU sed = (14.104)
(N ominalT hermalEf f iciency) (BoilerEf f iciencyCurveOutput)
The final equation above includes the impact of the optional boiler efficiency performance curve.
To highlight the use of the normalized boiler efficiency curve, the fuel use equation is also shown in
an expanded format. The normalized boiler efficiency curve represents the changes in the boiler’s
nominal thermal efficiency due to loading and changes in operating temperature. If the optional
boiler efficiency curve is not used, the boiler’s nominal thermal efficiency remains constant through-
out the simulation (i.e., BoilerEfficiencyCurveOutput = 1).
14.2. BOILERS 747
When a boiler efficiency performance curve is used, any valid curve object with 1 or 2 inde-
pendent variables may be used. The performance curves are accessed through EnergyPlus’ built-in
performance curve equation manager (curve objects). The linear, quadratic, and cubic curve types
may be used when boiler efficiency is solely a function of boiler loading, or part-load ratio (PLR).
These curve types are used when the boiler operates at the specified setpoint temperature through-
out the simulation. Other curve types may be used when the boiler efficiency can be represented
by both PLR and boiler operating temperature. Examples of valid single and dual independent
variable equations are shown below. For all curve types, PLR is always the x independent variable.
When using curve types with 2 independent variables, the boiler water temperature (Twater) is al-
ways the y independent variable and can represent either the inlet or outlet temperature depending
on user input.
When a boiler efficiency curve is used, a constant efficiency boiler may be specified by setting C1
= 1 and all other coefficients to 0. A boiler with an efficiency proportional to part-load ratio or which
has a non-linear relationship of efficiency with part-load ratio will typically set the coefficients of a
linear, quadratic, or cubic curve to non-zero values. Using other curve types allows a more accurate
simulation when boiler efficiency varies as a function of part-load ratio and as the boiler outlet
water temperature changes over time due to loading or as changes occur in the water temperature
setpoint.
The parasitic electric power is calculated based on the user-defined parasitic electric load and
the operating part load ratio calculated above. The model assumes that this parasitic power does
not contribute to heating the water.
Figure 14.8 describes the rudimentary loop structure with steam flowing from coils to boiler. It
is essential to mention that it is the coils that determine the mass of steam required and the boiler
simply delivers the required mass flow at desired temperature provided it is adequately sized. The
algorithm for determining the mass flow rate is structured on the demand side and the variable flow
boiler has no role to play in determining the steam mass flow.
Figure 14.9 outlines the simple steam boiler model. Sub cooled water enters the variable flow
boiler through the pump, the boiler inputs energy to water stream consuming fuel, boiler losses are
accounted via boiler efficiency. The boiler delivers steam at a quality equal to 1.0 at saturated
condition.
The advantage of steam heating systems over hot water is the high latent heat carrying capacity
of steam, which reduces the mass flow rate of the fluid required. The amount of superheated and
14.2. BOILERS 749
sub cooled heat transfer in Steam heating systems is negligible, latent heat transfer accounts for
almost all of the heat exchange into the zones via steam to air heat exchangers.
Boiler Load is a summation of sensible and latent heat addition to the water stream as described
with the following equation. The mass flow rate through the boiler is known, while delta temp
is the temperature difference between the boiler inlet and boiler outlet. Latent heat of steam is
calculated at loop operating temperature.
QB = ṁ × [(cp,w × ∆T ) + hf g ] (14.106)
Theoretical fuel used is calculated with the following equation. Boiler efficiency is a user input
and accounts for all the losses in the steam boiler.
QB
Ft = (14.107)
ηB
The operation part load ratio is calculated with the following equation. This is later used to
calculate the actual fuel consumption, its ratio of boiler load to boiler nominal capacity.
QB
OP LR = (14.108)
QB,N
The actual fuel consumption by the boiler is calculated as using the following equation, where
C1, C2, and C3 are the Part Load Ratio coefficients:
Ft
F= (14.109)
C1 + C2 × OP LR + C3 × OP LR 2
Essentially the boiler model provides a first order approximation of performance for fuel oil,
gas, and electric boilers. Boiler performance is based on theoretical boiler efficiency and a single
quadratic fuel use-part load ratio curve represented in the equation above. This single curve
accounts for all combustion inefficiencies and stack losses.
750 CHAPTER 14. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
The control algorithm for a steam boiler is an important issue. The user may want the boiler
to be undersized and in such a case it will not be able to meet the demand side steam flow re-
quest. Subsequently the boiler load exceeds the boiler nominal capacity. The boiler operates at its
nominal capacity but is unable to meet the plant heating demand. Pseudo code from EnergyPlus
has been used to describe the control logic used in the steam boiler simulation.
*********************PSEUDO CODE SECTION STARTS***********************
At start of simulation an initial value of steam mass flow rate is calculated. This is required to
start the flow of steam around the loop.
IF (FirstTimeThrough) THEN
Calculate the boiler supply steam mass flow rate at start of simulation.
QB
ṁs = (14.110)
hf g + cp,w × ∆Tloop
ELSE ! Not first time through
Steam boiler calculations rely heavily on the variable ṁb , boiler mass flow rate. This variable
ṁb is the assigned equal to mass flow at boiler inlet node for preliminary calculations.
QB = ṁb × hf g (14.113)
ELSE
QB = QHeatingDemand (14.115)
QB
ṁs = (14.116)
hf g + cp,w × ∆Tloop
ENDIF
14.2. BOILERS 751
In case the requested load exceeds the boiler nominal capacity, which is its maximum heating
capacity. In this case the requested steam mass flow is not met and the zone is not heated
adequately. This happens if the boiler is undersized. The steam mass flow rate is recalculated at
nominal capacity.
IF (QB > QN ominalCapacity ) THEN
Boiler load is set equal to boiler nominal capacity and steam mass flow rate recalculated.
QB = QN ominalCapacity (14.117)
QB
ṁs = (14.118)
hf g + cp,w × ∆Tloop
ENDIF
ENDIF
End If statement for the boiler load control algorithm. This algorithm determines all possible
control conditions that might while simulating a system in EnergyPlus.
*********************PSEUDO CODE SECTION ENDS***********************
If the boiler operating pressure exceeds the maximum allowable boiler pressure, the simulation
trips and outputs a warning regarding the same. This notifies the user about potential system
pressure sizing problems.
Integration of the steam boiler simulation model in EnergyPlus required developing number of
subroutines, which operate in sequence. These subroutines are designed to read inputs from the in-
put file, initialize the variables used in the boiler simulation model, simulate the boiler performance,
update the node connections, and report the required variables. In case the user has difficulty with
boiler inputs, provisions have been made to auto size the boiler nominal capacity and maximum
steam flow rate. These two values play an important role in sizing the boiler.
14.2.2.4 References
ASHRAE Handbook. 1996. HVAC Systems and Equipment, Air Conditioning and Heating Sys-
tems. Chapter 10, Steam Systems. pp. 10.1-10.16. 1996.
BLAST 3.0 Users Manual. 1999. Building Systems Laboratory. Urbana-Champaign: Building
Systems Laboratory, Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Illinois.
Chillar, R.J. 2005. “Development and Implementation of a Steam Loop In The Building Energy
Simulation Program EnergyPlus,” M.S. Thesis, Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineer-
ing, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
TRNSYS 16 User Manual. 2004. A Transient System Simulation Program. Solar Energy
Laboratory, Madison. University of Wisconsin-Madison.
El-Wakil, M. M. 1984. Power Plant Technology, McGraw Hill, New York, pp. 30-72.
Babcock & Wilcox. 1978. Steam-Its Generation and Use, The Babcock & Wilcox Company,
New York ,Section I, II, IV, and VII.
S.A. Klein. 2004. Engineering Equation Solver EES. University of Wisconsin Madison.
754 CHAPTER 14. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
14.3 Chillers
14.3.1 Absorption Chiller
The input object Chiller:Absorption provides a model for absorption chillers that is an empirical
model of a standard absorption refrigeration cycle. The condenser and evaporator are similar
to that of a standard chiller, which are both water-to-water heat exchangers. The assembly
of a generator and absorber provides the compression operation. Low-pressure vapor from the
evaporator is absorbed by the liquid solution in the absorber. A pump receives low-pressure liquid
from the absorber, elevates the pressure of the liquid, and delivers the liquid to the generator. In
the generator, heat from a high temperature source (hot water or steam) drives off the vapor that
has been absorbed by the solution. The liquid solution returns to the absorber through a throttling
valve whose purpose is to provide a pressure drop to maintain the pressure difference between the
generator and absorber. The heat supplied to the absorber can be waste heat from a diesel jacket,
or the exhaust heat from diesel, gas, and steam turbines. For more information on absorption
chillers, see the Input/Output Reference Document (Object: Chiller:Absorption).
The part-load ratio of the absoprtion chiller’s evaporator is simply the actual cooling effect
produced by the chiller divided by the maximum cooling effect available.
Q̇evap
P LR = (14.119)
Q̇evap,rated
where:
P LR is the part-load ratio of chiller evaporator
Q̇evap is the chiller evaporator load [W]
Q̇evap, rated is the rated chiller evaporator capacity [W].
This absorption chiller model is based on a polynomial fit of absorber performance data. The
Generator Heat Input Part Load Ratio Curve is a quadratic equation that determines the ratio of
the generator heat input to the demand on the chiller’s evaporator (Qevap ).
C1
GeneratorHeatInputRatio = + C2 + C3 (P LR) (14.120)
P LR
The Pump Electric Use Part Load Ratio Curve is a quadratic equation that determines the ratio
of the actual absorber pumping power to the nominal pumping power.
Q̇generator = GeneratorHeatInputRatio Q̇evap (CyclingF rac) (14.123)
Q̇evap
ṁevap = (14.127)
Cp,evap ∆Tevap
where:
ṁevap is the chiller evaporator water mass flow rate (kg/s)
ṁevap, max is the chiller design evaporator water mass flow rate (kg/s)
∆Tevap is the chiller evaporator water temperature difference (◦ C)
Tevap, in is the chiller evaporator inlet water temperature (◦ C)
Tevap, SP is the chiller evaporator outlet water setpoint temperature (◦ C)
Cp is the = specific heat of water entering evaporator (J/kg-◦ C).
The evaporator outlet water temperature is then calculated based on the cooling effect produced
and the evaporator entering water temperature.
Q̇evap
Tevap,out = Tevap,in + (14.128)
ṁevap Cp,evap
where:
Tevap,out is the chiller evaporator outlet water temperature (◦ C)
Tevap,in is the chiller evaporator inlet water temperature (◦ C)
Cp, evap is the specific heat of chiller evaporator inlet water (J/kg-◦ C)
ṁevap is the chiller evaporator water mass flow rate (kg/s).
The condenser heat transfer and condenser leaving water temperature are also calculated.
Q̇cond
Tcond,out = Tcond,in + (14.130)
ṁcond Cp,cond
where:
756 CHAPTER 14. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
Q̇generator
ṁsteam = (14.131)
hf g + cp, water × ∆Tsc
Q̇generator
ṁgenerator = (14.134)
Cp,water ∆Tgenerator
14.3. CHILLERS 757
Q̇generator
Tgenerator,out = Tgenerator,in − (14.135)
ṁgenerator (Cp , water )
where:
ṁgenerator is the generator hot water mass flow rate (kg/s)
ṁgenerator, max is the generator design hot water mass flow rate (kg/s)
∆Tgenerator is the generator design hot water temperature difference (◦ C).
where:
CAP F Tevaporator is the capacity correction (function of evaporator temperature) factor
CAP F Tcondenser is the capacity correction (function of condenser temperature) factor
CAP F Tgenerator is the capacity correction (function of generator temperature) factor
Tevaporator is the evaporator outet water temperature (◦ C)
Tcondenser is the condenser inlet water temperature (◦ C)
Tgenerator is the generator inlet water temperature (◦ C)
Q̇evap,max is the maximum chiller capacity (W)
Q̇evap,rated is the rated chiller capacity (W).
The part-load ratio of the indirect absoprtion chiller’s evaporator is simply the actual cooling
effect required (load) divided by the maximum cooling effect available.
Q̇evap
P LR = (14.139)
Q̇evap,max
where:
P LR is the part-load ratio of chiller evaporator
Q̇evap is the chiller evaporator operating capacity (W).
The generator’s heat input is also a function of several parameters. The primary input for
determining the heat input requirements is the Generator Heat Input function of Part-Load Ratio
Curve. The curve is a quadratic or cubic equation that determines the ratio of the generator heat
input to the chiller’s maximum capacity (Qevap, max ) and is solely a function of part-load ratio.
Typical generator heat input ratios at full load (i.e., PLR = 1) are between 1 and 2. Two additional
curves are available to modifiy the heat input requirement based on the generator inlet water
temperature and the evaporator outlet water temperature.
P LR
CyclingF rac = M IN 1, (14.144)
P LRmin
Q̇generator = GeneratorHIR Q̇evap, max (Genf CondT ) (Genf EvapT ) (CyclingF rac) (14.145)
Q̇evap
ṁevap = (14.149)
Cp,evap ∆Tevap
where:
ṁevap is the chiller evaporator water mass flow rate (kg/s)
ṁevap, max is the chiller design evaporator water mass flow rate (kg/s)
∆Tevap is the chiller evaporator water temperature difference (◦ C)
Tevap, in is the chiller evaporator inlet water temperature (◦ C)
Tevap, SP is the chiller evaporator outlet water setpoint temperature (◦ C)
Cp, evap is the specific heat of water entering evaporator (J/kg-◦ C).
The evaporator outlet water temperature is then calculated based on the cooling effect produced
and the evaporator entering water temperature.
Q̇evap
Tevap,out = Tevap,in + (14.150)
ṁevap Cp,evap
where:
Tevap,out is the chiller evaporator outlet water temperature (◦ C)
Tevap,in is the chiller evaporator inlet water temperature (◦ C)
Cp, evap is the specific heat of chiller evaporator inlet water (J/kg-◦ C)
ṁevap is the chiller evaporator water mass flow rate (kg/s).
The condenser heat transfer and condenser leaving water temperature are also calculated.
Q̇cond
Tcond,out = Tcond,in + (14.152)
ṁcond Cp,cond
where:
Q̇cond = chiller condenser heat transfer rate (W)
Tcond,out = chiller condenser outlet water temperature (◦ C)
Tcond,in = chiller condenser inlet water temperature (◦ C)
Cp, cond = specific heat of chiller condenser inlet water (J/kg-◦ C)
ṁcond = chiller condenser water mass flow rate (kg/s).
The absorption chiller can model the impact of steam or hot water entering the generator,
although the connection of the steam (hot water) nodes to a plant is not actually required. The
calculations specific to the generator depend on the type of fluid used and are described here in
further detail.
Q̇generator
ṁsteam = (14.153)
hf g + cp,water × ∆Tsc
Q̇generator
ṁgenerator = (14.157)
Cp,water ∆Tgenerator
Q̇generator
Tgenerator,out = Tgenerator,in − (14.158)
ṁgenerator (Cp , water )
where:
ṁgenerator is the generator hot water mass flow rate (kg/s)
ṁgenerator, max is the generator design hot water mass flow rate (kg/s)
∆Tgenerator is the generator design hot water temperature difference (◦ C).
T CEntrequired − T CEntrated
(14.159)
T ELvrequired − T ELvrated
where:
TCEntrequired is the required entering condenser air or water temperature to maintain rated
capacity
14.3. CHILLERS 763
TCEntrated is the rated entering condenser air or water temperature at rated capacity
TELvrequired is the required leaving evaporator water outlet temperature to maintain rated
capacity
TELvrated is the rated leaving evaporator water outlet temperature at rated capacity.
The Capacity Ratio Curve is a quadratic equation that determines the Ratio of Available Ca-
pacity to Nominal Capacity. The defining equation is:
TempCondIn − TempCondInDesign
∆Temp = − (TempEvapOut − TempEvapOutDesign)
TempRiseCoefficient
(14.161)
where:
TempCondIn is the temperature entering the condenser (water or air temperature depending on
condenser type)
TempCondInDesign is the temperature of the design condenser inlet from user input above
TempEvapOut is the temperature leaving the evaporator
TempEvapOutDesign is the temperature of the design evaporator outlet from user input above
TempRiseCoefficient is based on user input from above.
The following three fields contain the coefficients for the quadratic equation.
The Power Ratio Curve is a quadratic equation that determines the Ratio of Full Load to
Power. The defining equation is:
where FIC represents the Fuel Input Curve Coefficients, TBFIC represents the Temperature
Based Fuel Input Curve Coefficients, Rload is the Ratio of Load to Combustion Turbine Engine
Capacity, and ATair is the difference between the current ambient and design ambient temperatures.
The Exhaust Flow Curve is a quadratic equation that determines the Ratio of Exhaust Gas
Flow Rate to Engine Capacity. The defining equation is:
where GTCapacity is the Combustion Turbine Engine Capacity, and ATair is the difference
between the current ambient and design ambient temperatures.
The Exhaust Gas Temperature Curve is a polynomial equation that determines the Exhaust
Gas Temperature. The equation combines both the Exhaust Gas Temperature Curve Coefficients
(Based on the Part Load Ratio) and the (Ambient) Temperature Based Exhaust Gas Temperature
Curve Coefficients. The defining equation is:
where C represents the Exhaust Gas Temperature Curve Coefficients, TBC are the Temperature
Based Exhaust Gas Temperature Curve Coefficients, RLoad is the Ratio of Load to Combustion
Turbine Engine Capacity, and ATair is the difference between the actual ambient and design ambient
temperatures.
The Recovery Lubricant Heat Curve is a quadratic equation that determines the recovery lube
energy. The defining equation is:
14.3.4 ChillerHeater:Absorption:DirectFired
14.3.4.1 Overview
This model (object name ChillerHeater:Absorption:DirectFired) simulates the performance of a
direct fired two-stage absorption chiller with optional heating capability. The model is based on the
direct fired absorption chiller model (ABSORG-CHLR) in the DOE-2.1 building energy simulation
program. The EnergyPlus model contains all of the features of the DOE-2.1 chiller model, plus
some additional capabilities.
This model simulates the thermal performance of the chiller and the fuel consumption of the
burner(s). This model does not simulate the thermal performance or the power consumption of asso-
ciated pumps or cooling towers. This auxiliary equipment must be modeled using other EnergyPlus
models (e.g. Cooling Tower:Single Speed).
14.3. CHILLERS 765
14.3.4.3 Cooling
The following nomenclature is used in the cooling equations:
AvailCoolCap is the available full-load cooling capacity at current conditions (W)
CEIR is the user input “Electric Input to Cooling Output Ratio”
CEIRfPLR is the electric input to cooling output factor, equal to 1 at full load, user input
“Electric Input to Cooling Output Ratio Function of Part Load Ratio Curve Name”
CEIRfT is the electric input to cooling output factor, equal to 1 at design conditions, user input
“Electric Input to Cooling Output Ratio Function of Temperature Curve Name”
CFIR is the user input “Fuel Input to Cooling Output Ratio”
CFIRfPLR is the fuel input to cooling output factor, equal to 1 at full load, user input “Fuel
Input to Cooling Output Ratio Function of Part Load Ratio Curve Name”
CFIRfT is the fuel input to cooling output factor, equal to 1 at design conditions, user input
“Fuel Input to Cooling Output Ratio Function of Temperature Curve Name”
CondenserLoad is the condenser heat rejection load (W)
CoolCapfT is the cooling capacity factor, equal to 1 at design conditions, user input “Cooling
Capacity Function of Temperature Curve Name”
CoolElectricPower is the cooling electricity input (W)
CoolFuelInput is the cooling fuel input (W)
CoolingLoad is the current cooling load on the chiller (W)
CPLR is the cooling part-load ratio = CoolingLoad / AvailCoolCap
HeatingLoad is the current heating load on the chiller heater (W)
HFIR is the user input “Fuel Input to Heating Output Ratio”
HPLR is the heating part-load ratio = HeatingLoad / AvailHeatCap
MinPLR is the user input “Minimum Part Load Ratio”
NomCoolCap is the user input “Nominal Cooling Capacity” (W)
RunFrac is the fraction of time step which the chiller is running
Tcond is the entering or leaving condenser fluid temperature (◦ C). For a water-cooled condenser
this will be the water temperature returning from the condenser loop (e.g., leaving the cooling tower)
if the entering condenser fluid temperature option is used. For air- or evap-cooled condensers this
will be the entering outdoor air dry-bulb or wet-bulb temperature, respectively, if the entering
condenser fluid temperature option is used.
Tcw,l is the leaving chilled water temperature (◦ C).
Five performance curves are used in the calculation of cooling capacity and efficiency:
1) Cooling Capacity Function of Temperature Curve
2) Fuel Input to Cooling Output Ratio Function of Temperature Curve
3) Fuel Input to Cooling Output Ratio Function of Part Load Ratio Curve
4) Electric Input to Cooling Output Ratio Function of Temperature Curve
5) Electric Input to Cooling Output Ratio Function of Part Load Ratio Curve
766 CHAPTER 14. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
The cooling capacity function of temperature (CoolCapfT) curve represents the fraction of the
cooling capacity of the chiller as it varies by temperature. This a biquadratic curve with the input
variables being the leaving chilled water temperature and either the entering or leaving condenser
fluid temperature. The output of this curve is multiplied by the nominal cooling capacity to give the
full-load cooling capacity at specific temperature operating conditions (i.e., at temperatures different
from the design temperatures). The curve should have a value of 1.0 at the design temperatures
and flow rates specified in the input data file by the user. The biquadratic curve should be valid
for the range of water temperatures anticipated for the simulation.
2 2
CoolCapf T = a + bTcw,l + cTcw,l + dTcond + eTcond + f Tcw,l Tcond (14.169)
The available cooling capacity of the chiller is then computed as follows:
2 2
CF IRf T = a + bTcw,l + cTcw,l + dTcond + eTcond + f Tcw,l Tcond (14.171)
The fuel input to cooling output ratio function of part load ratio (CFIRfPLR) curve represents
the fraction of the fuel input to the chiller as the load on the chiller varies at a given set of operating
temperatures. The curve is normalized so that at full load the value of the curve should be 1.0.
The curve is usually linear or quadratic.
RunF rac = MIN (1.0, MAX (HP LR, CP LR) /M inP LR) (14.173)
The cooling fuel input to the chiller is then computed as follows:
CoolF uelInput = AvailCoolCap∗RunF rac∗CF IR∗CF IRf T (Tcw,l , Tcond )∗CF IRf P LR(CP LR)
(14.174)
The electric input to cooling output ratio as function of temperature (CEIRfT) curve represents
the fraction of electricity to the chiller at full load as it varies by temperature. This a biquadratic
curve with the input variables being the leaving chilled water temperature and either the entering
or leaving condenser fluid temperature.
14.3. CHILLERS 767
2 2
CEIRf T = a + bTcw,l + cTcw,l + dTcond + eTcond + f Tcw,l Tcond (14.175)
The electric input to cooling output ratio function of part load ratio (CEIRfPLR) curve rep-
resents the fraction of electricity to the chiller as the load on the chiller varies at a given set of
operating temperatures. The curve is normalized so that at full load the value of the curve should
be 1.0. The curve is usually linear or quadratic.
14.3.4.4 Heating
The following nomenclature is used in the heating equations:
AvailHeatCap is the available full-load heating capacity at current conditions (W)
CPLRh is the cooling part-load ratio for heating curve = CoolingLoad / NomCoolCap
HeatCapfCPLR is the heating capacity factor as a function of cooling part load ratio, equal to
1 at zero cooling load, user input “Heating Capacity Function of Cooling Capacity Curve Name”
HeatCoolCapRatio is the user input “Heating to Cooling Capacity Ratio”
HeatElectricPower is the heating electricity input (W)
HeatFuelInput is the heating fuel input (W)
HeatingLoad is the current heating load on the chiller (W)
HEIR is the user input “Electric Input to Heating Output Ratio”
HFIR is the user input “Fuel Input to Heating Output Ratio”
HFIRfHPLR is the fuel input to heating output factor, equal to 1 at full load, user input “Fuel
Input to Heat Output Ratio During Heating Only Operation Curve Name”
HPLR is the heating part-load ratio = HeatingLoad / AvailHeatCap
MinPLR is the user input “Minimum Part Load Ratio”
NomCoolCap is the user input “Nominal Cooling Capacity” (W)
RunFrac is the fraction of time step which the chiller is running
TotalElectricPower is the total electricity input (W)
TotalFuelInput is the total fuel input (W).
Cooling is the primary purpose of the Direct Fired Absorption Chiller so that function is satisfied
first and if energy is available for providing heating that is provided next.
768 CHAPTER 14. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
The two performance curves for heating capacity and efficiency are:
1) Heating Capacity Function of Cooling Capacity Curve
2) Fuel-Input-to Heat Output Ratio Function
The heating capacity function of cooling capacity curve (HeatCapfCool) determines how the
heating capacity of the chiller varies with cooling capacity when the chiller is simultaneously heating
and cooling. The curve is normalized so an input of 1.0 represents the nominal cooling capacity
and an output of 1.0 represents the full heating capacity. An output of 1.0 should occur when the
input is 0.0.
The fuel input to heat output ratio curve (HFIRfHPLR) function is used to represent the fraction
of fuel used as the heating load varies as a function of heating part load ratio. It is normalized so
that a value of 1.0 is the full available heating capacity. The curve is usually linear or quadratic
and will probably be similar to a boiler curve for most chillers.
RunF rac = MIN (1.0, MAX (HP LR, CP LRh) /M inP LR) (14.183)
The heating electric input to the chiller is computed as follows:
If the chiller is delivering heating and cooling simultaneously, the parasitic electric load will be
double-counted, so the following logic is applied:
IF ( HeatElectricPower < = CoolElectricPower ) THEN
HeatElectricPower = 0.0
ELSE
HeatElectricPower = HeatElectricPower - CoolElectricPower
ENDIF
The total fuel and electric power input to the chiller is computed as shown below:
14.3.5 ChillerHeater:Absorption:DoubleEffect
14.3.5.1 Overview
This model (object name ChillerHeater:Absorption:DoubleEffect) simulates the performance of an
exhaust fired two-stage (double effect) absorption chiller with optional heating capability. The
model is based on the direct fired absorption chiller model (ABSORG-CHLR) in the DOE-2.1
building energy simulation program. The EnergyPlus model contains all of the features of the
DOE-2.1 chiller model, plus some additional capabilities. The model uses the exhaust gas output
from Microturbine.
This model simulates the thermal performance of the chiller and the thermal energy input to
the chiller. This model does not simulate the thermal performance or the power consumption
of associated pumps or cooling towers. This auxiliary equipment must be modeled using other
EnergyPlus models (e.g. Cooling Tower:Single Speed).
14.3.5.3 Cooling
The following nomenclature is used in the cooling equations:
AvailCoolCap is the available full-load cooling capacity at current conditions (W)
CEIR is the user input “Electric Input to Cooling Output Ratio”
CEIRfPLR is the electric input to cooling output factor, equal to 1 at full load, user input
“Electric Input to Cooling Output Ratio Function of Part Load Ratio Curve Name”
CEIRfT is the electric input to cooling output factor, equal to 1 at design conditions, user input
“Electric Input to Cooling Output Ratio Function of Temperature Curve Name”
TeFIR is the user input “Thermal Energy Input to Cooling Output Ratio”
TeFIRfPLR is the thermal energy input to cooling output factor, equal to 1 at full load, user
input “Thermal Energy Input to Cooling Output Ratio Function of Part Load Ratio Curve Name”
TeFIRfT is the thermal energy input to cooling output factor, equal to 1 at design conditions,
user input “Thermal Energy Input to Cooling Output Ratio Function of Temperature Curve Name”
CondenserLoad is the condenser heat rejection load (W)
CoolCapfT is the cooling capacity factor, equal to 1 at design conditions, user input “Cooling
Capacity Function of Temperature Curve Name”
CoolElectricPower is the cooling electricity input (W)
CoolThermalEnergyInput is the cooling thermal energy input (W)
CoolingLoad is the current cooling load on the chiller (W)
CPLR is the cooling part-load ratio = CoolingLoad / AvailCoolCap
HeatingLoad is the current heating load on the chiller heater (W)
HFIR is the user input “Thermal Energy Input to Heating Output Ratio”
HPLR is the heating part-load ratio = HeatingLoad / AvailHeatCap
ṁExhAir is the exhaust air mass flow rate from microturbine (kg/s)
770 CHAPTER 14. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
2 2
CoolCapf T = a + bTcw,l + cTcw,l + dTcond + eTcond + f Tcw,l Tcond (14.187)
The available cooling capacity of the chiller is then computed as follows:
2 2
T eF IRf T = a + bTcw,l + cTcw,l + dTcond + eTcond + f Tcw,l Tcond (14.189)
The thermal energy input to cooling output ratio function of part load ratio (TeFIRfPLR) curve
represents the fraction of the thermal energy input to the chiller as the load on the chiller varies at
14.3. CHILLERS 771
a given set of operating temperatures. The curve is normalized so that at full load the value of the
curve should be 1.0. The curve is usually linear or quadratic.
To make sure that the exhaust mass flow rate and temperature from microturbine are sufficient
to drive the chiller, the heat recovery potential is compared with the cooling thermal energy input
to the chiller (CoolThermalEergyInput). The heat recovery potential should be greater than the
CoolThermalEnergyInput. Heat recovery potential is calculated as:
2 2
CEIRf T = a + bTcw,l + cTcw,l + dTcond + eTcond + f Tcw,l Tcond (14.194)
The electric input to cooling output ratio function of part load ratio (CEIRfPLR) curve rep-
resents the fraction of electricity to the chiller as the load on the chiller varies at a given set of
operating temperatures. The curve is normalized so that at full load the value of the curve should
be 1.0. The curve is usually linear or quadratic.
curves derived from manufacturer’s data are also provided in the dataset (ExhaustFiredChiller.idf)
which is provided with the standard EnergyPlus installation.
The condenser load is computed as follows:
14.3.5.4 Heating
The following nomenclature is used in the heating equations:
AvailHeatCap is the available full-load heating capacity at current conditions (W)
CPLRh is the cooling part-load ratio for heating curve = CoolingLoad / NomCoolCap
HeatCapfCPLR is the heating capacity factor as a function of cooling part load ratio, equal to
1 at zero cooling load, user input “Heating Capacity Function of Cooling Capacity Curve Name”
HeatCoolCapRatio is the user input “Heating to Cooling Capacity Ratio”
HeatElectricPower is the heating electricity input (W)
HeatThermalEnergyInput is the heating thermal energy input (W)
HeatingLoad is the current heating load on the chiller (W)
HEIR is the user input “Electric Input to Heating Output Ratio”
HFIR is the user input “Thermal Energy Input to Heating Output Ratio”
HFIRfHPLR is the thermal energy input to heating output factor, equal to 1 at full load, user
input “Thermal Energy Input to Heat Output Ratio During Heating Only Operation Curve Name”
HPLR is the heating part-load ratio = HeatingLoad / AvailHeatCap
MinPLR is the user input “Minimum Part Load Ratio”
NomCoolCap is the user input “Nominal Cooling Capacity” (W)
RunFrac is the fraction of time step which the chiller is running
TotalElectricPower is the total electricity input (W)
TotalThermalEnergyInput is the total thermal energy input (W)
Cooling is the primary purpose of the Exhaust Fired Absorption Chiller so that function is
satisfied first and if energy is available for providing heating that is provided next.
The two performance curves for heating capacity and efficiency are:
1) Heating Capacity Function of Cooling Capacity Curve
2) Thermal Energy Input to Heat Output Ratio Function
The heating capacity function of cooling capacity curve (HeatCapfCPLR) determines how the
heating capacity of the chiller varies with cooling capacity when the chiller is simultaneously heating
and cooling. The curve is normalized so an input of 1.0 represents the nominal cooling capacity
and an output of 1.0 represents the full heating capacity. An output of 1.0 should occur when the
input is 0.0.
The thermal energy input to heat output ratio curve (HFIRfHPLR) function is used to represent
the fraction of thermal energy used as the heating load varies as a function of heating part load
ratio. It is normalized so that a value of 1.0 is the full available heating capacity. The curve is
usually linear or quadratic and will probably be similar to a boiler curve for most chillers.
The fraction of the time step during which the chiller is operating is computed as a function of
the cooling and heating part-load ratios and the user-input minimum part-load ratio:
If the chiller is delivering heating and cooling simultaneously, the parasitic electric load would
be double-counted, so the following logic is applied:
If HeatElectricPower is less than or equal to CoolElectricPower:
14.3.5.5 References
Personal communications with various absorption chiller manufacturers, March 2011.
Absorption Chillers and Heat Pumps, Keith Herold, Reinhard Radermacher and Sanford A.
Klein (Mar 18, 1996).
Absorption systems for combined heat and power: The problem of part-load operation, ASHRAE
Transactions, 2003, Vol 109, Part1.
774 CHAPTER 14. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
jacket coolers. The other three chillers can model heat recovery where part of its condenser section
is connected to a heat recovery loop for what is commonly known as a double bundled chiller, or
single condenser with split bundles. The heat recovery chiller is simulated as a standard vapor
compression refrigeration cycle with a double bundled condenser. A double bundle condenser
involves two separate flow paths through a split condenser. One of these paths is condenser
water typically connected to a standard cooling tower; the other path is hot water connected to
a heat recovery loop. After leaving the compressor, the refrigerant is condensed to liquid in a
refrigerant to water condenser. In a split bundle, the chiller’s internal controls will direct a part
of the refrigerant to heat recovery condenser bundle and/or to the tower water condenser bundle
depending on the chilled water load, the condenser inlet temperatures and internal chiller controls
(and possibly a leaving hot water temperature setpoint). The refrigerant pressure is then dropped
through a throttling valve so that fluid can evaporate at a low pressure that provides cooling to
the evaporator. Note that the heat recovery side of the chiller is placed on the demand-side of a
heat recovery loop which will typically supply a hot water storage tank. Heat recovery is a passive
benefit when the chiller is dispatched for cooling. The standard plant controls cannot dispatch the
chiller based on a heat recovery requirement.
The algorithm for the heat recovery portion of the chiller needs to be determined from relatively
simple inputs to estimate the amount of the heat that is recovered and then send the rest of the
heat to the cooling tower. For the chiller models associated with the object Chiller:Electric, air-
or evaporatively-cooled condensers are allowed to be used with heat recovery and, when used,
the condenser specific heat, mass flow rate, and temperatures shown below refer to outdoor air. A
776 CHAPTER 14. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
condenser air volume flow rate must be specified when using heat recovery with air- or evaporatively-
cooled chillers.
The basic energy balance for the condenser section of a heat recovery chiller is
the heat recovery load implied by the leaving setpoint. When setpoint control is used, the desired
rate of heat recovery heat transfer is:
Q̇HR,Setpoint = M ax Q̇HR,Setpoint , 0.0 (14.216)
Then the heat recovery rate is simply modeled as the lower of the three different heat flow
rates: the desired capacity, the maximum capacity, and the current total heat rejection rate.
Q̇HR = M in Q̇HR,Setpoint , Q̇HR,max , Q̇T ot (14.217)
Q̇HR
THR,out = THR,in + (14.219)
ṁHR Cp,HR
Q̇Cond
TCond,out = TCond,in + (14.220)
ṁCond Cp,Cond
A heat recovery chiller may need to work harder because the refrigeration system faces a higher
lift owing to an elevated effective temperature for heat rejection. With heat recovery, the condenser
temperature used with the chiller’s performance curves is determined using one of the following heat-
flow-weighted methods. The first is used for the chiller model for the objects Chiller:Electric, and
Chiller:Electric:EIR which use the condensing entering temperature for performance.
Q̇HR THR,in + Q̇Cond TCond,in
TCond,in,Avg = (14.221)
Q̇HR + Q̇Cond
The second is used for the chiller model for the object Chiller:Electric:ReformulatedEIR which
uses the leaving condenser fluid temperature.
Q̇HR THR,out + Q̇Cond TCond,out
TCond,out,Avg = (14.222)
Q̇HR + Q̇Cond
Both of these are available as an output variable called Chiller Effective Heat Rejection Tem-
peature in ◦ C.
778 CHAPTER 14. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
AvailableChillerCapacity
CapRatio = = A1 + A2 ∆Tchiller + A3 ∆Tchiller 2 (14.223)
N ominalChillerCapacity
where the Delta Temperature is defined as:
Tcond,in − Tcond,in,design
∆Tchiller = − (Tevap,out − Tevap,out,design ) (14.224)
T empRiseRatio
where the temperature rise coefficient is defined as the ratio of the required change in condenser
water temperature to a given change in chilled water temperature, which maintains the capacity
at the nominal value. If the chiller is a heat recovery chiller,then the condenser inlet temperature
is adjusted to account for both fluid streams as described in the section above on heat recovery
chillers. This is calculated as the following ratio:
Tcond,in,required − Tcond,in,rated
T empRiseRatio = − (Tevap,out − Tevap,out,design ) (14.225)
Tevap,out,required − Tevap,out,rated
where:
Tcond,in,required is the required entering condenser air or water temperature to maintain rated
capacity (◦ C)
Tcond,in,rated is the rated entering condenser air or water temperature at rated capacity (◦ C)
Tevap,out,required is the required leaving evaporator water outlet temperature to maintain rated
capacity (◦ C)
Tevap,out,rated is the rated leaving evaporator water outlet temperature at rated capacity (◦ C)
The Power Ratio Curve is a quadratic equation that determines the Ratio of Full Load to
Power. The defining equation is:
The Load Ratio Curve is a quadratic equation that determines the Ratio of Actual Cooling Load
to Full Cooling Load. The defining equation is:
AvailableChillerCap
P ower = P owerRatio ∗ LoadRatio ∗ (14.230)
RatedCOP
The cooling capacity function of temperature curve is a biquadratic performance curve with
two independent variables: the leaving chilled water temperature and the entering condenser fluid
temperature. The output of this curve is multiplied by the reference capacity to give the full-load
cooling capacity at specific temperature operating conditions (i.e., at temperatures different from the
reference temperatures). The curve should have a value of 1.0 at the reference temperatures and flow
rates specified in the input data file by the user. The biquadratic curve should be valid for the range
of water temperatures anticipated for the simulation. If the chiller is a heat recovery chiller,then
the condenser inlet temperature is adjusted to account for both fluid streams as described in the
section above on heat recovery chillers.
780 CHAPTER 14. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
Note: The curve is evaluated at the leaving chilled water (=evaporator outlet) setpoint temper-
ature, not the actual leaving chilled water temperature.
where:
ChillerCapFTemp is the cooling capacity factor, equal to 1 at reference conditions
Tcw,ls is the leaving chilled water setpoint temperature (◦ C)
Tcond,e is the entering condenser fluid temperature (◦ C). For a water-cooled condenser this will be
the water temperature returning from the condenser loop (e.g., leaving the cooling tower). For air-
or evap-cooled condensers this will be the entering outdoor air dry-bulb or wet-bulb temperature,
respectively.
The energy input to cooling output ratio function of temperature curve is a biquadratic perfor-
mance curve that parameterizes the variation of the energy input to cooling output ratio (EIR) as
a function of the leaving chilled water temperature and the entering condenser fluid temperature.
The EIR is the inverse of the COP. The output of this curve is multiplied by the reference EIR
(inverse of the reference COP) to give the full-load EIR at specific temperature operating conditions
(i.e., at temperatures different from the reference temperatures). The curve should have a value of
1.0 at the reference temperatures and flow rates specified in the input data file by the user. The
biquadratic curve should be valid for the range of water temperatures anticipated for the simulation.
where:
ChillerEIRFTemp is the energy input to cooling output factor, equal to 1 at reference conditions
Tcw,l is the leaving chilled water temperature (◦ C)
Tcond,e is the entering condenser fluid temperature (◦ C). For a water-cooled condenser this will be
the water temperature returning from the condenser loop (e.g., leaving the cooling tower). For air-
or evap-cooled condensers this will be the entering outdoor air dry-bulb or wet-bulb temperature,
respectively. If the chiller is a heat recovery chiller,then the condenser inlet temperature is adjusted
to account for both fluid streams as described in the section above on heat recovery chillers.
The energy input to cooling output ratio function of part-load ratio curve is a quadratic per-
formance curve that parameterizes the variation of the chiller input power ratio as a function of
the part-load ratio. The part-load ratio is the actual cooling load divided by the chiller’s available
cooling capacity. The output of this curve ChillerEIRFPLR is multiplied by the reference EIR (in-
verse of the reference COP), chiller capacity as a function of temperature curve ChillerCapFTemp
and the Energy Input to Cooling Output Ratio Function of Temperature Curve ChillerEIRFTemp
to give the normalized power input at the specific temperature and part-load ratio at which the
chiller is operating. Normalized power input is the ratio of chiller power input at a given operating
condition to the chiller power input at reference condition. This curve should have a value of 1.0
when the part-load ratio equals 1.0. The quadratic curve should be valid for the range of part-load
ratios anticipated for the simulation.
14.3. CHILLERS 781
where:
ChillerEIRFPLR = energy input to cooling output factor, equal to 1 at reference conditions
PLR = part-load ratio = (cooling load) / (chiller’s available cooling capacity)
Pchiller = chiller power at specific PLR
Pref = Q·ref /COPref .
All three of the performance curves are accessed through EnergyPlus’ built-in performance curve
equation manager (curve:quadratic and curve:biquadratic). It is not imperative that the user utilize
all coefficients in the performance curve equations if their performance equation has fewer terms
(e.g., if the user’s ChillerEIRFPLR performance curve is linear instead of quadratic, simply enter
the values for a and b, and set coefficient c equal to zero). Performance curves for more than 160
chillers, including the default DOE-2.1E reciprocating and centrifugal chillers, are provided in the
EnergyPlus Reference DataSets (Chillers.idf and AllDataSets.idf).
Note: Chiller:Electric:EIR objects and their associated performance curve objects are developed
using performance information for a specific chiller and should normally be used together for an
EnergyPlus simulation. Changing the object input values, or swapping performance curves between
chillers, should be done with caution.
For any simulation time step, the chiller’s available cooling capacity is calculated as follows:
Q̇avail
Tcw,l = Tcw,e − (14.235)
ṁevap Cp,evap
where:
Tcw,l is the water temperature leaving the evaporator (◦ C)
Tcw,e is the water temperature entering the evaporator (◦ C)
ṁevap is the evaporator mass flow rate (kg/s)
782 CHAPTER 14. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
Cp,evap is the specific heat of water entering evaporator at Tcw,e (J/kg-◦ C).
The part-load ratio is then calculated as the ratio of the evaporator heat transfer rate to the
available chiller capacity. The part-load ratio is not allowed to be greater than the maximum
part-load ratio specified by the user or less than zero as follows:
!!
Q̇evap
P LR = max 0.0, min , P LRmax (14.236)
Q̇avail
where:
PLR is the part-load ratio
Q̇evap is the load to be met by the chiller (W)
PLRmax is the maximum part-load ratio (specified by the user in the input data file).
The model assumes that the cooling load is met through chiller unloading down to the minimum
unloading ratio. False loading (e.g. hot-gas bypass) is assumed to occur between the minimum
unloading ratio and the minimum part load ratio yielding constant electrical power consumption
under these conditions. Below the minimum part load ratio, the chiller cycles on and off to meet
very small loads and the power consumption during the on cycle is the same as when the chiller is
operating at the minimum part load ratio. When the chiller part load ratio is less than the minimum
part load ratio, the on-off cycling ratio of the chiller is calculated as follows and is available as an
output variable.
P LR
ChillerCyclingRatio = min , 1.0 (14.237)
P LRmin
To properly account for chiller electric power consumption when PLR is less than the minimum
unloading ratio, the PLR is reset to the greater of the PLR calculated above and the PLR at the
minimum unloading ratio. The result is available as the output variable Chiller Part Load Ratio.
1
Pchiller = Q̇avail (ChillerEIRF T emp) (ChillerEIRF P LR) (ChillerCyclingRatio)
COPref
(14.240)
where:
Pchiller is the chiller compressor power (W)
COPref is the reference coefficient of performance (W/W).
Heat rejected by the chiller condenser includes the heat transferred in the evaporator plus a
portion or all of the compressor electrical energy consumption. For electric chillers with hermetic
14.3. CHILLERS 783
compressors, all compressor energy consumption is rejected by the condenser (compressor motor
efficiency = effmotor = 1.0). For chillers with semi-hermetic or open compressors, only a portion
of the compressor energy use is rejected by the condenser. The heat transfer rate for the chiller
condenser is calculated as follows:
Q̇cond
Tcond,l = Tcond,e + (14.242)
ṁcond Cp,cond
where:
Tcond,l is the water temperature leaving the condenser (◦ C)
Tcond,e is the water temperature entering the condenser (◦ C)
ṁcond is the mass flow rate through the condenser, kg/s
Cp,cond is the specific heat of water entering the condenser at Tcond,e , J/kg-(◦ C).
For air- and evaporatively-cooled condensers, the exiting air temperature is not calculated and
is set equal to the entering air or wet-bulb temperature, respectively.
The model then calculates the condenser fan energy for air- and evaporatively-cooled condensers.
The amount of condenser fan energy is assumed to be proportional to the chiller cycling ratio and
is calculated as follows:
Note: The standard ratings described in this section require that the EIR/Reformulated EIR
chiller models be evaluated at specific operating conditions (e.g., specific evaporator outlet tempera-
ture (6.67◦ C) and dry-bulb temperatures for air entering the air-cooled [outdoor] condenser). If the
chiller performance curves can not be evaluated at the required test conditions, then the standard
rating value will be determined at user specified curve limit and warning error message is provided.
For example, if the curve object (Curve:Biquadratic) for Cooling Capacity Function of Temperature
Curve has a minimum value of 21◦ C for dry-bulb temperature entering the air-cooled condenser coil,
the IPLV calculation requires that EERD be calculated at 13◦ C – so, this would result in IPLV value
calculated at 21◦ C and reported in the output and a warning message in the eplusout.err file.
The IPLV is a single number part-load performance figure of merit for Water-Chilling Packages.
The IPLV equations and procedures described below are taken from Appendix D of ANSI/AHRI
Std. 550/590, 2011 and provide a consistent method for calculating IPLV. These equations provide
representative average part-load efficiency for a single chiller. For equipment covered by this
standard, the IPLV is calculated using the following formula:
where:
A is the EER or COP at 100% capacity at AHRI standard rating conditions
B is the EER or COP at 75% capacity and reduced ambient (see Table 14.2)
C is the EER or COP at 50% capacity and reduced ambient (see Table 14.2)
D is the EER or COP at 25% capacity and reduced ambient (see Table 14.2).
14.3. CHILLERS 785
The Coefficient of Performance (COP) at the various load capacity points (100%, 75%, 50%,
and 25% part-load ratios) are calculated using the procedure outlined below and applicable test
conditions specified in Table 14.2.
EER at desired reduced capacity (75%, 50%, and 25%) is calculated as follows
1
COP = (14.249)
EIR
Power
EIR = EnergyInputRatio = (14.250)
PartLoadRatio ∗ AvailChillerCap
AvailChillerCap
P ower = (EIRT empM odF acReducedT emp )(EIRP LRM odF acReducedP LR )
COPref erence
(14.251)
where:
%Load
100
is the standard rating part load ratio (PLR) points, 75%, 50%, 25%
F ull load unit capacity is the full load heating capacity (W) of the air-source heat pump
equipment determined from ANSI/AHRI Standard 550/590 and test conditions shown in Table 14.2
for 100% load
P art load unit capacity is the part load heating capacity (W) of the air-source heat pump
units determined from ANSI/AHRI Standard 550/590 at the standard desired reduced ambient
test conditions as shown in Table 14.2 and the minimum part load capacity of the unit.
F ull load unit capacity = Q̇total,Ref erence (CapT empM odF acRated ) (14.256)
P art load unit capacity = M inP LR · Q̇total,Ref erence (CapT empM odF acReducedT emp ) (14.257)
where:
Q̇total,Ref erence is the reference capacity specified by the user (W)
CapT empM odF acRated is the user-specified bi-quadratic curve evaluated at full load (100%) test
conditions shown in Table 14.2 (dimensionless)
CapT empM odF acReducedT emp is the part load capacity (W) of the chiller determined from AN-
SI/AHRI Standard 550/590 at the standard desired reduced ambient test conditions as shown in
Table 14.2
M inP LR = Minimum PLR up to which chiller can be unloaded.
IPLV NPLV
Evaporator (All
types)
100% Load LWT 2
44.0◦ F 6.7◦ C 2
Selected LWT 2
Selected LWT
0% Load LWT 2
44.0◦ F 6.7◦ C Same as 100% Same as 100%
load load
3
Flow Rate (gpm) 2.4 gpm/ton 0.043 L/s per kW 3 Selected 3
L/s per kW
gpm/ton
F.F.A 0.0001 0.000018 As Specified As Specified
h-ft2 -◦ F/Btu 2 ◦
m - C/W
1 Condenser
(Water Cooled)
100% load EWT 85.0◦ F 29.4◦ C 2
Selected EWT 2
Selected EWT
75% load EWT 75.0◦ F 23.9◦ C 4 4
IPLV NPLV
3 3 3
Flow rate (gpm) 3.0 gpm/ton 0.054 L/s per kW Selected L/s per kW
gpm/ton
F.F.A. 0.00025 0.000044 As Specified As Specified
h-ft2 -◦ F/Btu m2 -◦ C/W
1
Condenser (Air
Cooled)
100% load EDB 95.0◦ F 35.0◦ C No Rating Requirements
75% load EDB 80.0◦ F 26.7◦ C
50% load EDB 65.0◦ F 18.3◦ C
25% load EDB 55.0◦ F 12.8◦ C
0% load EDB 55.0◦ F 12.8◦ C
F.F.A. 0.0 h-ft2 -◦ F/Btu 0.0 m2 -◦ C/W
1
Condenser
(Evaporatively
Cooled)
100% load EWB 75.0◦ F 23.9◦ C No Rating Requirements
0% load EWB 50.0◦ F 10.0◦ C
F.F.A. 0.0 h-ft2 -◦ F/Btu 0.0 m2 -◦ C/W
Air-Cooled
Without Con-
denser
100% load SDT 125.0◦ F 51.7◦ C No Rating Requirements
0% load SDT 55.0◦ F 12.8◦ C
Water and
Evaporatively
Cooled Without
Condenser
100% load SDT 105.0◦ F 40.6◦ C No Rating Requirements
0% load SDT 65.0◦ F 18.3◦ C
1
If the unit Manufacturer’s recommended minimum temperatures are greater than those
specified in Table 3, then those may be used in lieu of the specified temperatures.
2
Correction for Fouling Factor Allowance
3
The flow rates are to be held constant at full load values for all part-load conditions.
4
For part-load entering condenser water temperatures, the temperature should vary
788 CHAPTER 14. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
IPLV NPLV
linearly from the selected
EWT at 100% load to 65.0 oF at 50% loads, and fixed at 65.0°F for 50% to 0% loads.
SDT - saturated discharge temperature
LWT - leaving water (liquid) temperature
EWT - entering water (liquid) temperature
EDB - entering air dry-bulb temperature
EWB - entering air wet-bulb temperature
F.F.A. - Fouling Factor Allowance
Source: Table 3, Page 10, ANSI/AHRI Standard 550/590-2011
time step.
where:
ChillerCapFTemp is the cooling capacity factor, equal to 1 at reference conditions
Tcw,l is the leaving chilled water temperature (◦ C)
Tcond,l is the leaving condenser water temperature (◦ C). This will be the water temperature
entering the condenser loop (e.g., entering the cooling tower). If the chiller is a heat recovery
chiller,then the condenser leaving temperature is adjusted to account for both fluid streams as
described in the section above on heat recovery chillers.
The energy input to cooling output ratio function of temperature curve is a biquadratic perfor-
mance curve that parameterizes the variation of the energy input to cooling output ratio (EIR) as
a function of the leaving chilled water temperature and the leaving condenser water temperature.
The EIR is the inverse of the COP. The output of this curve is multiplied by the reference EIR
(inverse of the reference COP) to give the full-load EIR at specific temperature operating conditions
(i.e., at temperatures different from the reference temperatures). The curve should have a value of
1.0 at the reference temperatures and flow rates specified in the input data file by the user. The
biquadratic curve should be valid for the range of water temperatures anticipated for the simulation
(otherwise the program issues warning messages).
where:
ChillerEIRFTemp is the energy input to cooling output factor, equal to 1 at reference conditions
Tcw,l is the leaving chilled water temperature (◦ C)
Tcond,l is the leaving condenser water temperature (◦ C). This will be the water temperature
entering the condenser loop (e.g., entering the cooling tower). If the chiller is a heat recovery
790 CHAPTER 14. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
chiller,then the condenser leaving temperature is adjusted to account for both fluid streams as
described in the section above on heat recovery chillers.
The energy input to cooling output ratio function of part-load ratio curve parameterizes the
variation of the energy input ratio (EIR). The output of this curve is multiplied by the reference
EIR (inverse of the reference COP) and the Energy Input to Cooling Output Ratio Function of
Temperature Curve to give the EIR at the specific temperatures and part-load ratio at which the
chiller is operating. This curve should have a value of 1.0 at the reference leaving condenser water
temperature with part-load ratio equal to 1.0. It is recommended that this performance curve
be developed using both full- and part-load performance data. The bicubic curve should be valid
for the range of condenser water temperatures and part-load ratios anticipated for the simulation
(otherwise the program issues warning messages). Either of the following two types of curves can
be used.
The first type is a bicubic performance curve that parameterizes the variation of the chiller input
power ratio as a function of the leaving condenser water temperature and the part-load ratio. The
part-load ratio is the actual cooling load divided by the chiller’s available cooling capacity.
ChillerEIRF P LR = a + b(Tcond,l ) + c(Tcond,l )2 + d(P LR) + e(P LR)2 + f (Tcond,l )(P LR) + g(P LR)3
(14.260)
Pchiller
ChillerEIRF P LR = (ChillerCapF T emp) (ChillerEIRF T emp) (14.261)
Pref
where:
ChillerEIRFPLR is the energy input to cooling output factor, equal to 1 at the reference leaving
condenser water temperature and PLR = 1.0
Tcond,l is the leaving condenser water temperature (◦ C). This will be the water temperature
entering the condenser loop (e.g., entering the cooling tower). If the chiller is a heat recovery
chiller,then the condenser leaving temperature is adjusted to account for both fluid streams as
described in the section above on heat recovery chillers.
PLR is the part load ratio = (cooling load) / (chiller’s available cooling capacity)
Pchiller is the chiller power at specific PLR
Pref = Q̇ref /COPref .
Note: Although a bicubic curve requires 10 coefficients (ref. Curve:Bicubic), coefficients 7, 9
and 10 are typically not used in the performance curve described here and should be entered as 0
unless sufficient performance data and regression accuracy exist to justify the use of these terms of
the bicubic curve.
The second type is a Chiller Part Load Custom Curve that parameterizes the variation of EIR
as a function of the normalized dT, normalized Tdev and the PLR.
dT ∗ = dT /dTref (14.263)
14.3. CHILLERS 791
∗
Tdev = Tdev /dTref (14.264)
where:
dT is the delta of temperature across the leaving condenser water temperature and leaving
evaporator water temperature of a chiller (lift)
dT ∗ is the normalized fractional lift
dTref is the lift under the reference condition
PLR is the part load ratio
Tdev is the deviation of leaving chilled water temperature from the reference condition
∗
Tdev is the normalized Tdev term.
All of these performance curves are accessed through EnergyPlus’ built-in performance curve
equation manager (curve:biquadratic, curve:bicubic, and Curve:ChillerPartLoadWithLift). Note
that the above three performance curves use the leaving condenser water temperature as an in-
dependent variable, instead of the entering condenser water temperature used in the performance
curves for the Chiller:Electric:EIR model. Since the leaving condenser water temperature is cal-
culated based on the condenser heat transfer rate, which is a function of the load to be met by
the chiller, chiller compressor power, and the false loading (detailed calculations are given below),
iterative calculations are required to determine the actual (converged) leaving condenser water tem-
perature. The program uses the leaving condenser water temperature from the previous iteration
to calculate values for each of the three performance curves described above. After obtaining the
condenser heat transfer rate, the leaving condenser water temperature is recalculated. When the
difference between the leaving condenser water temperature calculated on successive iterations is
less than 0.0001◦ C, the solution is assumed to have converged. Warning messages are issued if the
calculated solution for leaving condenser water temperature and/or part-load ratio falls outside the
valid range specified for the chiller’s performance curves. If these warnings are issued, the user may
choose to extend the range for the performance curves (only if a small extension is required since
model extrapolation may produce significant errors) or a different chiller and associated performance
curves with extended performance range can be located and used for the simulation.
Note: Chiller:Electric:ReformulatedEIR objects and their associated performance curve objects
are developed using performance information for a specific chiller and should almost always be used
together for an EnergyPlus simulation. Changing the object input values, or swapping performance
curves between chillers, should be done with extreme caution. For example, if the user wishes to
model a chiller size that is different from the reference capacity, it is highly recommended that the
reference flow rates be scaled proportionately to the change in reference capacity. Although this
model can provide more accurate prediction than the Chiller:Electric:EIR model, it requires more
performance data to develop the associated performance curves (at least 12 points from full-load
performance and 7 points from part-load performance).
Although performance curve data sets for 160 chillers are provided in the EnergyPlus Reference
DataSets (Chillers.idf and AllDataSets.idf), they may not meet the requirements for specific appli-
cations. One can develop performance curves from performance data using two available techniques
(Hydeman and Gillespie 2002). The first technique is called the Least-squares Linear Regression
method and is used when sufficient performance data exist to employ standard least-square linear
regression techniques. The second technique is called Reference Curve Method and is used when
insufficient performance data exist to apply linear regression techniques. A detailed description of
both techniques can be found in the reference mentioned above.
792 CHAPTER 14. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
For any simulation time step, the chiller’s available cooling capacity is calculated as follows:
Q̇avail
Tcw,l = Tcw,e − (14.266)
ṁevap Cp,evap
where:
Tcw,l is the water temperature leaving the evaporator (◦ C)
Tcw,e is the water temperature entering the evaporator (◦ C)
ṁevap is the evaporator mass flow rate (kg/s)
Cp,evap is the specific heat of water entering evaporator at Tcw,e (J/kg-◦ C).
The part-load ratio is then calculated as the ratio of the evaporator heat transfer rate to the
available chiller capacity. The part-load ratio is not allowed to be greater than the maximum
part-load ratio specified by the user or less than zero as follows:
!!
Q̇evap
P LR = max 0.0, min , P LRmax (14.267)
Q̇avail
where:
PLR is the part-load ratio
Q̇evap is the load to be met by the chiller (W)
PLRmax is the maximum part-load ratio (specified by the user in the input data file).
Note that the maximum part-load ratio (PLRmax , specified in the Chiller:Electric:ReformulatedEIR
object) used in the equation should be less than or equal to the maximum part-load ratio specified
in the “Energy Input to Cooling Output Ratio Function of Part-Load Ratio” performance curve
object.
The model assumes that the cooling load is met through chiller unloading down to the minimum
unloading ratio. False loading (e.g. hot-gas bypass) is assumed to occur between the minimum
unloading ratio and the minimum part-load ratio yielding constant electrical power consumption
under these conditions. Below the minimum part-load ratio, the chiller cycles on/off to meet
14.3. CHILLERS 793
very small loads and the power consumption during the on cycle is the same as when the chiller is
operating at the minimum part load ratio. When the chiller part-load ratio is less than the minimum
part-load ratio, the on-off cycling ratio of the chiller is calculated as follows and is available as an
output variable.
P LR
ChillerCyclingRatio = min , 1.0 (14.268)
P LRmin
To properly account for chiller electric power consumption when PLR is less than the minimum
unloading ratio, the PLR is reset to the greater of the PLR calculated above and the PLR at the
minimum unloading ratio. The result is available as the output variable Chiller Part Load Ratio.
The electrical power consumption for the chiller compressor(s) for any simulation time step is
then calculated using the following equation:
• 1
Pchiller = Qavail (ChillerEIRF T emp) (ChillerEIRF P LR) (ChillerCyclingRatio)
COPref
(14.271)
where:
Pchiller is the chiller compressor power (W)
COPref is the reference coefficient of performance (W/W).
Heat rejected by the chiller condenser includes the heat transferred in the evaporator plus a
portion or all of the compressor electrical energy consumption. For electric chillers with hermetic
compressors, all compressor energy consumption is rejected by the condenser (compressor motor
efficiency = effmotor = 1.0). For chillers with semi-hermetic or open compressors, only a portion
of the compressor energy use is rejected by the condenser. The heat transfer rate for the chiller
condenser is calculated as follows:
Q̇cond
Tcond,l = Tcond,e + (14.273)
ṁcond Cp,cond
where:
Tcond,l is the water temperature leaving the condenser (◦ C)
Tcond,e is the water temperature entering the condenser (◦ C)
ṁcond is the mass flow rate through the condenser (kg/s)
Cp,cond is the specific heat of water entering the condenser at Tcond,e (J/kg-◦ C)
The final calculations determine the total heat transfer energy for the condenser and evaporator,
as well as the total electric energy consumed by the chiller compressor motor(s) and condenser fan(s).
The results are available as output variables.
14.3.10.5 References
Hydeman, M., N. Webb, P. Sreedharan, and S. Blanc. 2002. Development and Testing of a
Reformulated Regression-Based Electric Chiller Model. ASHRAE Transactions HI-02-18-2.
Hydeman, M. and K.L. Gillespie. 2002. Tools and Techniques to Calibrate Electric Chiller
Component Models. ASHRAE Transactions AC-02-9-1.
Hydeman, M., K. Gillespie, and R. Kammerud. 1997. PG&E’s CoolTools project: A toolkit
to improve evaluation and operation of chilled water plants. Presented at the Cool$ense National
Forum on Integrated Chilled Water Retrofits, Sep. 1997. Berkeley California: Lawrence Berkeley
National Laboratory.
The exhaust gas temp and flow rate are used if a stack heat exchanger is used to recover waste
heat from the exhaust. This temperature is the inlet temperature to the heat exchanger which is
modeled in a UA-effectiveness form:
Finally, heat recovered from the lube oil and the water jacket are accounted for as follows:
The following descriptions are grouped alphabetically (as much as possible) with some also having
additional tags of “Heat Balance”, “HVAC”, and “Plant”. With the integrated solution, these
designations signify where the effects of these models have their first impacts.
Main Sections:
This model (object name ThermalStorage:Ice:Simple) simulates the performance of an ice storage
tank. The model is based on an integrated chiller and storage tank model developed for a special
optimization project (Henze and Krarti 2002). This implementation removed the integrated chiller
and allows the tank to be charged by any chiller configuration in an EnergyPlus plant loop..
This thermal storage model is based on a simple simulation of an ice storage tank with a
fixed capacity. The tank is charged, or frozen, in an ice-on-coil configuration where ice builds
up on the outside of the tubes carrying the brine or glycol solution from the chiller. There are
two discharge (melt) options, internal or external. Internal melt uses the same fluid tubes for
charging and discharging. External melt uses a separate fluid path for discharge such that the
outer layers of ice melt first. The ice storage model includes an implied 3-way valve to control the
amount if charge/discharge based on the incoming water temperature and the outlet node setpoint
temperature. The tank is controlled using the PlantEquipmentOperation:ComponentSetpoint plant
operation scheme, and requires that a setpoint be placed by a setpoint manager on the ice storage
Plant Outlet Node. The model currently does not calculate any tank losses.
798
15.1. ICE THERMAL STORAGE 799
15.1.1.2.2 Control
The ice storage module is a passive component and will accept any flow rate placed on the inlet
node. The load on the ice storage tank is determined by the inlet node flow rate, the inlet node
temperature, and the outlet node setpoint temperature. A positive load indicates a request for
cooling and the tank discharges if possible. A negative load indicates a request for charging the
tank if possible. A zero load indicates the tank is dormant in which case all flow bypasses the
tank and the outlet node temperature is set to the inlet node temperature. The model includes
an implied 3-way valve which controls the leaving water temperature to the outlet node setpoint
temperature if possible.
15.1.1.2.3 Charging
When charging is requested, the following limits are calculated to determine the actual charging
rate:
1. If the entering water temperature is greater than -1◦ C, the charging rate is zero.
2. If the entering water temperature is greater than or equal to the outlet setpoint temperature,
the charging rate is zero.
3. If the current fraction of ice stored is 1.0, the tank is fully charge, and the charging rate is
zero.
4. If the requested charging rate times the current system timestep is more than the remaining
uncharged storage capacity, the charging rate is limited to that required to completely fill the
tank.
5. The maximum charging rate which the chilled water flow can provide is determined by the
entering water temperature and flow rate and an outlet temperature which is the minimum
of -1◦ C or the outlet setpoint temperature.
6. The maximum charging rate which the tank can accept is calculated by the following equations
developed in the prior work (Henze and Krarti 2002):
where:
UAIceCh is the UA value for charging
y is the current ice fraction stored
ITSNomCap is the nominal storage capacity (GJ)
800 CHAPTER 15. SIMULATION MODELS - ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
15.1.1.2.4 Discharging
When discharging is requested, the following limits are calculated to determine the actual charg-
ing rate:
1. If the entering water temperature is less than 1◦ C, the discharge rate is zero.
2. If the entering water temperature is less than or equal to the outlet setpoint temperature, the
discharge rate is zero.
3. If the current fraction of ice stored is 0.0, the tank is fully discharged, and the discharge rate
is zero.
4. If the requested discharge rate times the current system timestep is more than the remaining
charged storage capacity, the discharge rate is limited to that required to completely deplete
the ice in the tank.
5. The maximum discharge rate which the chilled water flow can accept is determined by the
entering water temperature and flow rate and an outlet temperature which is the maximum
of 1◦ C or the outlet setpoint temperature.
6. The maximum discharge rate which the tank can deliver is calculated by the following equa-
tions developed in the prior work (Henze and Krarti 2002):
where:
UAIceDisCh is the UA value for discharging
y = 1 - current ice fraction stored
ITSNomCap is the nominal storage capacity (GJ)
TimeInterval is 3600 (s).
The smallest discharge rate determined by the above rules is selected and the corresponding
leaving water temperature is calculated.
15.1. ICE THERMAL STORAGE 801
15.1.1.3 References
Henze, Gregor P. and Moncef Krarti. 2002. Predictive Optimal Control of Active and Passive
Building Thermal Storage Inventory, Final Report for Phase I: Analysis, Modeling, and Simula-
tion. U.S. Department of Energy National Energy Technology Laboratory Cooperative Agreement
DE-FC-26-01NT41255, December 2002.
q ∗ = C1 + C2 (1 − Pc ) + C3(1 − Pc )2 + C4 + C5 (1 − Pc ) + C6(1 − Pc )2 ∆Tlm
∗
(15.4)
or
q ∗ = C1 + C2 (Pd ) + C3(Pd )2 + C4 + C5 (Pd ) + C6(Pd )2 ∆Tlm
∗
(15.5)
where:
q∆t
q∗ ≡ (15.6)
Qstor
802 CHAPTER 15. SIMULATION MODELS - ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
∗ ∆Tlm
∆Tlm ≡ (15.7)
∆Tnominal
T − Tbrine,out
∆Tlm ≡ brine,in (15.8)
Tbrine,in −Tbrine,f reeze
ln Tbrine,out −Tbrine,f reeze
• Initialize To = Tset
15.1. ICE THERMAL STORAGE 803
• Calculate LMTD*
• Calculate q* from charging equation for the current percent charged (We will assume that
the EnergyPlus time step is sufficiently small so that we do not need to find the average
percent charged for the time step. This was necessary when one hour time steps were used as
in BLAST, but EnergyPlus generally uses relatively short time steps. Since there is already
some iteration involved in the solution, we would like to avoid another layer of iteration
if at all possible. One alternative that could be implemented would be to make a second
pass with a closer average value based on what happens during the time step. This would
effectively double the execution time for the model and would need to be justified before
implementation.)
• Use To,new to calculate a new LMTD* and iterate until To converges to some acceptable level
Charging would continue in subsequent time steps until the final state of the ice storage unit at
the end of a particular time step is fully charged. If running a chiller would “overcharge” the tank,
then the flow to the tank would be reduced (greater than zero bypass flow) while maintaining the
same setpoint temperature coming out of the tank (though not necessarily out of the component).
• Initialize To = Tset
• Calculate LMTD*
• Calculate q* from charging equation for the current percent charged (we will assume that
the EnergyPlus time step is sufficiently small so that we do not need to find the average
percent charged for the time step; this was necessary when one hour time steps were used as
in BLAST, but EnergyPlus generally uses relatively short time steps)
804 CHAPTER 15. SIMULATION MODELS - ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
• Use To,new to calculate a new LMTD* and iterate until To converges to some acceptable level
• Once To has converged, we need to compare this value again to Tset . If To is greater than or
equal to Tset , then we either just met the load (equal) or can’t quite meet it (greater than). In
this case, we simply leave To as is because we cannot meet the setpoint temperature.
• If To is less than Tset , then we have more capacity available than we need. In this case, we
need to bypass some of the flow. Since the load on the ice storage device and the outlet
temperature are not changing (we are just reducing the flow), we only need to split the flow
and do not need to recalculate the action of the ice storage device. Some systems may
be slightly dependent on the actual flow through the device itself. However, in an actual
application, this only means that a slightly different amount will bypass the device. The
overall energy impact will be the same and thus it is not necessary to be concerned about
flow rate dependence.
Discharging would continue in subsequent time steps until the final state of the ice storage unit
at the end of a particular time step is fully discharged.
15.1.2.4 References
Strand, R.K. 1992. “Indirect Ice Storage System Simulation,” M.S. Thesis, Department of Mechan-
ical and Industrial Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
15.2 Coils
15.2.1 Chilled-Water-Based Air Cooling Coil
The input object Coil:Cooling:Water is simpler than the detailed geometry model. The simple
model provides a good prediction of the air and water outlet conditions without requiring the
detailed geometric input required for the detailed model. A greatly simplified schematic of enthalpy
and temperature conditions in a counter flow cooling/dehumidifying coil is shown in the schematic
Figure 15.1. The input required to model the coil includes only a set of thermodynamic design
inputs, which require no specific manufacturer’s data. The coil simulation model is essentially a
modification of one presented by Elmahdy and Mitalas (1977), TRNSYS, 1990 and Threlkeld, J.L.
1970. The model calculates the UA values required for a Dry, Wet and Part Wet & Part Dry Coil
and iterates between the Dry and Wet Coil to output the fraction wet. There are two modes of
flow operation for this model: CrossFlow or CounterFlow. The default mode is CounterFlow. In
addition the coil has two modes of analysis: Simple Analysis and Detailed Analysis. The Simple
analysis mode operates the coil as either wet or dry while the detailed mode simulates the coil as
part wet part-dry. While the detailed mode provides more accurate results, it is significantly slower
15.2. COILS 805
than the simple model. The simple mode gives good results for an annual simulation but will not
be adequate for a time step performance analysis.
15.2.1.3 Intermediate calculated U-Factor Times Area Values: The Crux of the Model
The various U-Factor Times Area values (UA) required by this model are calculated from the above
inputs, which are explained later in the document. The various UA are:
The UA values are calculated assuming a wet coil at the design conditions. Following are a few
important calculations to understand the working of the model. The model is basically divided
into two blocks: the Design Block and the Operating Block.
The Design Block is a one time calculation. The aim of the Design Block is to calculate the Coil
UA for use in the operating Block.
15.2. COILS 807
• Aluminum fins, 12 fins per inch with fins to total outside surface area ratio of 90%.
Interior and exterior U values (really UA’s per unit exterior surface area) are calculated by
dividing the above UA’s by the area. The resulting Ucoil,ext is assumed to be Ucoil,ext,wet ; Ucoil,ext,dry
is set equal to Ucoil,ext,wet . We now have all the starting values needed for inverting the simple coil
model using the chosen root solver iterative method. Once the iteration is completed, we have coil
UA’s and U’s that yield the design outlet air and water enthalpies given the inlet design conditions
and flow rates. Note that the simple coil model can not exactly match the specified design outlet
air temperature and humidity ratio. It can only match the design air outlet enthalpy. Generally
the simple coil model will yield outlet conditions near the saturation curve if any dehumidification
is occuring. Typical outlet relative humidities are around 95%.
15.2.1.5 Variable UA
The above calculations yield coil UA’s for the design inlet conditions and air and water flow rates.
As the flow rates vary during the time step calculations, the UA’s need to be adjusted, since coil
UA’s are a rather strong function of air and water side flow rates. Each time step the coil UA’s are
modified using the same formulas as are used in the hot water coil model. Refer to that model for
the flow dependences.
• Coil is completely dry: There is no moisture condensation on the coil surface and the coil is
a dry coil. This is an extreme condition when the entering air has very low humidity ratio or
is dry air.
• Coil is completely wet: The entire coil is wet due to complete condensation on the surface of
the coil.
• Part Wet Part Dry Mode: This is the usual/frequent mode of operation of coil where part of
the coil at entry of air is dry and as air cools condensation occurs and part of the coil becomes
wet.
810 CHAPTER 15. SIMULATION MODELS - ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
The Part Wet Part Dry Mode of operation is essentially a function the Coil Completely Dry
and Coil Completely Wet mode. This subroutine iterates between the Dry Coil and the Wet Coil
to give outputs, a detailed explanation is given later in the document. The operating block requires
5 inputs, which are mentioned earlier in the document. These inputs are automatically generated
from the node connections in Energy Plus. The user does not have to input any information to run
this coil model.
The option to identify which mode of operation the coil should perform ie, for a given set of
inputs would the coil be Dry, Wet or Part Wet Part Dry, is decided by set of conditions described
below.
• IF (Temperature Dewpoint Air < Water Inlet Temperature) THEN the coil is Dry
and we call the Subroutine Coil Completely Dry. In this case outlet temperature of air would
be higher than the air dewpoint and hence there would be no condensation.
• IF (Temperature Dewpoint Air > Water Inlet Temperature) THEN the coil is
completely wet, call subroutine Coil Completely Wet, it is assumed that moisture condensation
occurs over completely surface of the coil. However we go ahead and check for the coil being
partially wet with the following condition.
The Operating Block for Simple Mode Analysis is divided into two modes of coil performance,
the two modes being:
• Coil is completely dry: There is no moisture condensation on the coil surface and the coil is
a dry coil.
• Coil is completely wet: The entire coil is wet due to complete condensation on the surface of
the coil.
The option to identify which mode of operation the Simple mode analysis should perform ie, for
a given set of inputs would the coil be Dry or Wet is decided by set of conditions described below.
• IF (Temperature Dewpoint Air < Water Inlet Temperature) THEN the coil is Dry
and we call the Subroutine Coil Completely Dry. In this case outlet temperature of air would
be higher than the air dewpoint and hence there would be no condensation.
• IF (Temperature Dewpoint Air > Water Inlet Temperature) THEN the coil is
completely wet, call subroutine Coil Completely Wet, it is assumed that moisture condensation
occurs over completely surface of the coil. However we go ahead and check for the coil being
partially wet with the following condition.
The above is a simple mode of analysis and the results are very slightly different from the detailed
mode of analysis. The algorithms used in Simple mode and the Detailed mode are identically similar.
The surface area wet fraction in the coil is reported as 1.0 or 0.0 for wet or dry coil respectively.
The program defaults to simple mode of analysis for enabling higher execution speed.
15.2. COILS 811
M inCapacityStream
RatioStreamCapacity = (15.33)
M axCapacityStream
In Equation 15.33, the capacities of stream are defined as below in Equation 15.34:
CoilU A
NT U = (15.35)
M inStreamCapacity
Cross Flow Heat Exchanger Effectiveness Equation:
Exp(−N T U × RatioStreamCapacity × N T U −0.22 ) − 1
ηCrossF low = 1 − EXP (15.36)
RatioStreamCapacity × N T U −0.22
The variables in the above equation have already been defined earlier. Depending on the mode
of operation of the coil model, the CrossFlow or CounterFlow equations are used to calculate the
effectiveness.
M axHeatT ransf er
T empAirOut = T empAirinlet − ηcross,counter × (15.37)
StreamCapacityAir
812 CHAPTER 15. SIMULATION MODELS - ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
M axHeatT ransf er
T empW aterOut = T empW aterInlet + ηCross,counter × (15.38)
StreamCapacityW ater
In Equations 15.37 and 15.38 above, the maximum heat transfer is calculated as shown in the
following equation:
Total Coil Load in the case of a Wet Coil is the product of mass flow rate of air and enthalpy
difference between the inlet and outlet streams as given in the following equation:
and
ELSE
There is no condensation. Thus, the inlet and outlet humidity ratios are equal, and the outlet
temperature is a function of the outlet air enthalpy as shown below:
and
After the above convergence check for the coil being dry, iterate to calculate surface fraction
area wet.
IF
{(AreaF ractionW et ≤ 0.0) .AN D.(W etDryInterf aceSurf T emp > AirDewP t)} (15.58)
THEN CoilCompletelyDry
If Equation 15.58 is satisfied, then the coil is dry and simply output the value for Dry Coil
calculated else the coil is partially wet and then iterate to find the surface fraction area wet. Start
with the initial guess value of surface area fraction (Equation 15.54) wet and iterate on the entire
loop starting from Equation 15.54 until the Wet Dry Interface Temperature equals the Air Dewpoint
Temperature. The value of Surface Area fraction wet at which the interface air temperature equals
is dewpoint is the transition point from wet to dry and gives the % of coil that is dry and % that
is wet.
Graphs Showing the Performance of the coil model at optimum operating conditions are shown
below. All values of variable used have been normalized.
Figure 15.2: Air Outlet Temperature Vs. Air Mass Flow Rate
816 CHAPTER 15. SIMULATION MODELS - ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
Figure 15.3: Sensible Load Variations Vs. Air mass Flow Rate
15.2. COILS 817
Figure 15.4: Total and Sensible Load Variations Vs. Air Mass Flow Rate
818 CHAPTER 15. SIMULATION MODELS - ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
Figure 15.5: Surface Area Fraction Wet Vs Air Mass Flow Rate
15.2. COILS 819
15.2.1.12 References
Equations 15.59 through 15.64 represent two sets of three equations with 7 unknowns: Q̇d ,
Ta,1 , Ta,2 , Tw,2 , Tw,3 , ṁa , ṁw . However, normally at least four of these variables are specified, for
example: inlet water temperature, outlet air temperature, water flow rate, air flow rate, so that the
system of equations is effectively closed.
of saturated air over the range of surface temperature is made using Equation 15.67. Note that in
Equation 15.66 Hw refers to the enthalpy of saturated air at the water temperature.
Hw = aa + bbTw (15.67)
Equation 15.68 is derived from the above equations and is used to solve for the coil conditions
when all of the inlet conditions are given as input. Operating in this manner, the coil does not
have a controlled outlet air temperature.
(1 − Z) (Ha,1 − aa − K1Cp,a Ta,1 ) + ZTw,1 bb − mwmCap,w
Tw,2 = (15.68)
bb − Z mwmCap,w − (1 − Z) K1Cp,a
An alternative solution method is to define the coil leaving air temperature as an input with
a variable water flow rate. In this case Equations 15.69 and 15.70 are more convenient. Equa-
tions 15.71 through 15.73 define terms that are used to simplify Equations 15.68, 15.69 and 15.70.
(1 − Z) (Ha,3 − aa) + Tw,1 mwmCap,w − bbZ
Tw,2 = mw Cp,w
(15.69)
ma
− bb
mw Cp,w
(Zd − 1) Ta1 Cp,a + Tw,3 Cp,a − Zd ma
Tw,2 = (15.70)
mw Cp,w
Zd Cp,a − ma
1 bb
Z = exp Uc Aw − (15.71)
ma mw Cp,w
Zd − 1
K1 = ma Cp,a
(15.72)
Zd − mw Cp,w
1 1
Zd = exp Uc Adry − (15.73)
ma Cp,a mw Cp,w
by the Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute (1972) for air-cooling coils. The definition of
overall inside thermal resistance follows directly as shown in Equation 15.75.
1
Ri = (15.75)
fi A i
Equation 15.76 gives the film coefficient for the air side. Another form of the same equation
is Equation 15.77, which is familiar from the data presented in Kays and London (1984). For
coil sections that have a wet surface due to condensation, the air side film coefficient is modified
according to Equation 15.78. The correction term, a function of air Reynolds number, is valid
for Reynolds numbers between 400 and 1500. The coefficients in Equations 15.76 and 15.77 are
calculated by Equations 15.79 and 15.80 that are functions of the coil geometry. Elmahdy (1977)
explains the modifier for the wet surface and coefficients for the film coefficient. Equations 15.81
through 15.84 show definitions and values of common parameters and properties.
ma
fo = C1 ReC
a
2
Cp,a P ra2/3 (15.76)
Aa,minf low
C1 ReC 2/3
a = Sta P ra
2
(15.77)
fo,w = fo 1.425 − 5.1 × 10−4 Rea + 2.63 × 10−7 Re2a (15.78)
−0.065 0.141
δf in δf in
C1 = 0.159 (15.79)
Dhdr Lf in
0.049 0.549 −0.028
∆f ins Df in δf in
C2 = −0.323 (15.80)
Lf in ∆tuberows ∆f ins
4Aa,minf low δcoil
Dhdr = (15.81)
As,total
4δcoil (1 + wa ) ma
Rea = (15.82)
As,total µa
P ra = 0.733 (15.83)
s
(Df in − Dtube ) 2fo
f ai = (15.86)
2 kf in δf in
Dtube
ρ= (15.87)
Df in
f ai
ue = (15.88)
1−ρ
ub = ue ρ (15.89)
Af ins
ηo = 1 − (1 − ηf in ) (15.90)
As,total
The definition of overall outside thermal resistance is given in Equation 15.91 as a function of
fin efficiency and film coefficient. For a wet coil surface the resistance must be defined differently
because the heat transfer equations are based on enthalpy rather than temperature differences, as
shown in Equation 15.92.
1
Ro = (15.91)
fo ηo As,total
Cp,a /bb
Ro,w = (15.92)
fo,w ηo,w As,total
Equation 15.93 gives the last two overall components of thermal resistance. They represent the
metal tube wall and internal fouling. The fouling factor, due to deposits of dirt and corrosion of the
tube inside surfaces, is assumed to be 5x10−5 m2 -K/W. All components of thermal resistance are
added in series to produce the overall heat transfer coefficients shown in Equations 15.94 and 15.95.
δtube Fl
Rmf = + (15.93)
ktube Ai Ai
Adry 1
U Adry = (15.94)
As,total Ri + Rmf + Ro
Aw 1/bb
Uc Aw = (15.95)
As,total Ri + Rmf + Ro,w
of the inlet air. For the controlled coil, Equations 15.69 and 15.70 give two calculations of the
boundary temperature, and the water flow rate and boundary position are adjusted until the two
equations agree.
Special cases occur when the coil is all wet or all dry. The coil is solved as if it were all wet
before the general case is attempted. If the wet surface temperatures at the coil inlet and outlet
are both below the dewpoint, no further solution is required. However, to ensure a continuous
solution as flow variables are changed, when the surface is all dry or when it is wet with only
the dry surface equations yielding a surface temperature below the dewpoint at the water outlet,
the general solution is used to calculate the unknowns. In the solution of the controlled coil the
outlet air enthalpy, given some resulting dehumidification, must correspond to the enthalpy at the
specified outlet air temperature.
UA
NTU = (15.98)
_ a ,Cp,w m
min (Cp,a m _w)
and the UA, the effectiveness is calculated using the formula for the effectiveness of a cross-flow
heat exchanger with both fluid streams unmixed. The effectiveness then allows the calculation of
the outlet conditions from the inlet conditions.
The inputs to the model are: (1) the current inlet temperatures and flow rates of the air and
water fluid streams and (2) the UA of the coil. Note that the UA is fixed in this model and is not
a function of the flow rates.
There are 2 alternative user inputs for the component: the user may input the design water
volumetric flow rate and the UA directly; or the user may choose to input the more familiar design
heating capacity plus design inlet & outlet temperatures and let the program calculate the design
UA. These alternative user inputs are fully described in the EnergyPlus Input Output Reference
document.
N T U = U A/Ċmin (15.104)
The effectiveness is:
e−N T U ·Z·η − 1
ε = 1 − exp( ) (15.105)
Z ·η
where η = N T U −0.22 .
The outlet conditions are then:
The UA value is recalculated for each timestep. A nominal UA, UA0 , at the rating point is
calculated by the program using the input for rated conditions and a search routine called root
solver.
User input for the ratio of convective heat transfers at the nominal or rated operating point,
“r,” is used in the model. This ratio is defined as:
ηf (hA)air
r= (15.109)
(hA)water
where:
ηf is the fin efficiency, (dimensionless)
h is the surface convection heat transfer coefficient
A is the surface area.
The value calculated for UA0 is used with the input for r to characterize the convective heat
transfer on the water sides at the nominal rating operation point using:
r+1
((hA)w )0 = U A0 (15.110)
r
and on the air side at the nominal rating point using:
0.8
ṁa
ηf (hA)a = xa (ηf (hA)a )0 (15.113)
ṁa,0
0.014
xw = 1 + (Twater,in − Twater,in,0 ) (15.114)
1 + 0.014Twater,in,0
0.85
ṁw
(hA)w = xw (hA)w,0 (15.115)
ṁw,0
−1
1 1
UA = + (15.116)
(hA)w ηf (hA)a
The above formulas are from the following reference, along with further references. The equation
for xw was modified from that published in Wetter (1999) to correct a small error.
15.2.3.3 References
Wetter, M. 1999. Simulation Model: Finned Water-to-Air Coil Without Condensation. LBNL-
42355. This document can be downloaded from LBNL.
828 CHAPTER 15. SIMULATION MODELS - ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
temperature of the air entering the air-cooled condenser coil (wet-bulb temperature if mod-
eling an evaporative-cooled condenser). The output of this curve is multiplied by the rated
total cooling capacity to give the total cooling capacity at the specific entering air tempera-
tures at which the DX coil unit is operating (i.e., at temperatures different from the rating
point temperatures). This curve is typically a biquadratic but any curve or table with two
independent variables can be used.
Note: The data used to develop the total cooling capacity modifier curve (function of tempera-
ture) should represent performance when the cooling coil is ‘wet’ (i.e., coil providing sensible cooling
and at least some dehumidification). Performance data when the cooling coil is ‘dry’ (i.e., not pro-
viding any dehumidification) should not be included when developing this modifier curve. This
model automatically detects and adjusts for ‘dry coil’ conditions (see section “Dry Coil Conditions”
below).
Note: The data used to develop the energy input ratio (EIR) modifier curve (function of tem-
perature) should represent performance when the cooling coil is ‘wet’ (i.e., coil providing sensible
cooling and at least some dehumidification). Performance data when the cooling coil is ‘dry’ (i.e.,
not providing any dehumidification) should not be included when developing this modifier curve.
This model automatically detects and adjusts for ‘dry coil’ conditions (see section “Dry Coil Con-
ditions” below).
• The energy input ratio (EIR) modifier curve (function of flow fraction) is a curve with one
independent variable being the ratio of the actual air flow rate across the cooling coil to the
rated air flow rate (i.e., fraction of full load flow). The output of this curve is multiplied by the
rated EIR (inverse of the rated COP) and the EIR modifier curve (function of temperature)
to give the EIR at the specific temperature and air flow conditions at which the DX unit is
operating. This curve is typically a quadratic but any curve or table with one independent
variable can be used.
• The part load fraction correlation (function of part load ratio) is a curve with one independent
variable being part load ratio (sensible cooling load / steady-state sensible cooling capacity).
The output of this curve is used in combination with the rated EIR and EIR modifier curves
to give the “effective” EIR for a given simulation time step. The part load fraction (PLF)
correlation accounts for efficiency losses due to compressor cycling. This curve is typically a
linear, quadratic, or cubic but any curve or table with one independent variable can be used.
PLF ≥ 0.7
(15.125)
PLF ≥ PLR
If PLF < 0.7 a warning message is issued, the program resets the PLF value to 0.7, and the
simulation proceeds. The runtime fraction of the coil is defined as PLR/PLF. If PLF < PLR, then
a warning message is issued and the runtime fraction of the coil is limited to 1.0.
A typical part load fraction correlation for a conventional, single-speed DX cooling coil (e.g.,
residential or small commercial unit) would be:
Q̇total = Q̇total,rated (T otCapT empM odF ac) (T otCapF lowM odF ac) (15.127)
In a similar fashion, the electrical power consumed by the DX unit (compressors plus outdoor
condenser fans) for any simulation time step is calculated using the following equation:
P ower = Q̇total (EIR) (RT F ) (15.128)
where:
Q̇total is the total cooling capacity as shown in Equation 15.127 (W)
1
EIR = Energy input ratio = (EIRT empM odF ac) (EIRF lowM odF ac) (15.129)
COPrated
where:
Pcrankcase is the DX cooling coil crankcase heater power (W)
Q̇cap,crankcase is the crankcase heater capacity (W).
If this cooling coil is used as part of an air-to-air heat pump (Ref. AirLoopHVAC:UnitaryHeat-
Pump:AirToAir), the crankcase heater defined for this DX cooling coil is disregarded and the as-
sociated output variable is omitted. Instead, the crankcase heater defined for the DX heating coil
(Coil:Heating:DX:SingleSpeed) is enabled during the time that the compressor is not running for ei-
ther heating or cooling. In this instance, RTF in the above equations would be the runtime fraction
of the heat pump’s heating coil or cooling coil, whichever is greater.
In addition to calculating the total cooling capacity provided by the DX air conditioner, it is
important to properly determine the break down of total cooling capacity into its sensible (temper-
ature) and latent (dehumidification) components. The model computes the sensible/ latent split
using the rated SHR and the ADP/BF approach (Carrier et al. 1959). When the DX coil model is
initially called during an EnergyPlus simulation, the rated total capacity and rated SHR are used to
calculate the coil bypass factor (BF) at rated conditions. The rated total capacity and rated SHR
are first used to determine the ratio of change in air humidity ratio to air dry-bulb temperature:
ωin − ωout
SlopeRated = (15.133)
Tdb,in − Tdb,out rated
where:
ωin is the humidity ratio of the air entering the cooling coil at rated conditions (kg/kg)
ωout is the humidity ratio of the air leaving the cooling coil at rated conditions (kg/kg)
Tdb,in is the dry-bulb temperature of the air entering the cooling coil at rated conditions (◦ C)
Tdb,out is the dry-bulb temperature of the air leaving the cooling coil at rated conditions (◦ C).
Along with the rated entering air conditions, the algorithm then searches along the saturation
curve of the psychrometric chart until the slope of the line between the point on the saturation
curve and the inlet air conditions matches SlopeRated. Once this point, the apparatus dewpoint, is
found on the saturation curve the coil bypass factor at rated conditions is calculated as follows:
hout,rated − hADP
BFrated = (15.134)
hin,rated − hADP
where:
hout,rated is the enthalpy of the air leaving the cooling coil at rated conditions (J/kg)
hin,rated is the enthalpy of the air entering the cooling coil at rated conditions (J/kg)
hADP is the enthalpy of saturated air at the coil apparatus dewpoint (J/kg).
The coil bypass factor is analogous to the “ineffectiveness” (1-ε) of a heat exchanger, and can
be described in terms of the number of transfer of unit (NTU).
BF = e−N T U = e− ( cp )/ ṁ = e− Ao/ ṁ
UA
(15.135)
For a given coil geometry, the bypass factor is only a function of air mass flow rate. The model
calculates the parameter Ao in Equation 15.135 based on BFrated and the rated air mass flow rate.
With Ao known, the coil BF can be determined for non-rated air flow rates.
For each simulation time step when the DX air conditioner operates to meet a cooling load, the
total cooling capacity at the actual operating conditions is calculated using Equation 15.127 and the
15.2. COILS 833
coil bypass factor is calculated based on Equation 15.135. The coil bypass factor is used to calculate
the operating sensible heat ratio (SHR) of the cooling coil using Equations 15.136 and 15.137.
•
(Qtotal /ṁ)
hADP = hin − (15.136)
1 − BF
hT in,wADP − hADP
SHR = M in , 1 (15.137)
hin − hADP
where:
hin is the enthalpy of the air entering the cooling coil (J/kg)
hADP is the enthalpy of air at the apparatus dewpoint condition (J/kg)
hT in,wADP is the enthalpy of air at the entering coil dry-bulb temperature and humidity ratio at
ADP (J/kg)
ṁ is the air mass flow rate (kg/s).
With the SHR for the coil at the current operating conditions, the properties of the air leaving
the cooling coil are calculated using the following equations:
Q̇total · P LR
hout = hin − (15.138)
ṁ
• Biquadratic SHR modifier normalized curve for DX cooling coil entering air (outdoor) wet-
bulb and dry-bulb temperatures. The coil entering conditions can be outdoor air or pretreated
outdoor air.
Q̇total
hout = hin − (15.143)
ṁ
The cooling coil outlet air enthalpy at the coil enlet air temperature and coil outlet humidity
ratio is given by:
Q̇total
hTin ωout = hin − (1.0 − SHR) (15.144)
ṁ
The DX cooling coil outlet air humidity ratio is calculated from the psychometric function as
follows:
SHRF F F is the sensible heat ratio modifier normalized quadratic curve as a function of air
mass flow fraction. Flow fraction is the ratio of actual to rated mass flow rate of air through the
DX cooling coil (-).
SHRrated is the sensible heat ratio at rated condition (-).
•
m (ωevapcond,out − ωevapcond,in )
Vwater = air (RT F ) (T imeStepSys) (3600.) (15.150)
ρwater
where:
Vwater is the DX cooling coil evap condenser water consumption (m3 )
ṁair is the evaporative condenser air mass flow rate (kg/s)
ωevapcond,in is the humidity ratio of outdoor air entering the evap condenser (kg/kg)
ωevapcond,out is the humidity ratio of air leaving the evap condenser (kg/kg)
ρwater is the density of water at the outdoor dry-bulb temperature (kg/m3 )
TimeStepSys is the HVAC system simulation time step (hr).
zone air temperature and humidity ratio. With this methodology, the determination of the air mass
flow rate and air properties for the two different supply air fan operation modes is slightly different.
Cycling Fan Mode:
For the case of cycling fan/cycling compressor when humidity control is not specified, the
conditions of the air leaving the cooling coil are the steady-state values calculated using Equa-
tions 15.138, 15.140, and 15.141 above. However the air mass flow rate passed along to the next
component (and eventually to the conditioned zone) is the average air mass flow rate for the system
simulation time step (determined by the cooling system; see ZoneHVAC:WindowAirConditioner,
AirLoopHVAC:Unitary:Furnace:HeatCool, AirLoopHVAC:UnitaryHeatCool, or AirLoopH-
VAC:UnitaryHeatPump:AirToAir).
For the case of cycling fan/cyling compressor when humidity control is specified, the conditions
of the air leaving the cooling coil are calculated as the average conditions during the fan operating
period. When the compressor operates in tandem with the fan (i.e., compressor part-load ratio
[PLR] is equal to the fan PLR), the outlet conditions are identical to the calculations described
above. When the compressor operates for a shorter duration than the fan (i.e., the compressor
PLR is less than the heating/fan PLR), the air properties leaving the cooling coil are calculated
as the average conditions during the fan operating period. In this case the calculation of exiting
air conditions is analogous to the calculations for continuous fan mode described below except that
PLR in the equations represents the ratio of the compressor to the fan operating period. For cycling
fan systems, the fan will only operate longer than the compressor, and therefore latent degradation
may be modeled (user input), when humidity control is specified, a moisture load exists (i.e., the
zone air humidistat senses a moisture load), and a heating load exists where the heating PLR is
greater than the cooling PLR.
Continuous Fan Mode:
For the case of continuous fan/cycling compressor, the air mass flow rate is constant. However,
the air properties leaving the cooling coil are calculated as the average conditions during the system
simulation time step. The model assumes that the exiting air conditions are the steady-state values
calculated using Equations 15.138, 15.140, and 15.141 above when the compressor(s) operate. For
the remainder of the system simulation time step, it is assumed that the air exiting the DX coil
has the same properties as the air entering the coil. For this supply air fan operating strategy, the
leaving air properties are calculated as follows:
Tdb,out,ContF anCycComp = P syT dbF nHW (hout, ContF anCycComp , ωout,ContF anCycComp ) (15.153)
cooling coil is deactivated (Figure 15.7). The net effect is that the amount of moisture removed
from the air is degraded at part-load conditions as compared to steady-state conditions when the
compressor operates continuously (Figure 15.8).
EnergyPlus is able to model latent capacity degradation based on algorithms developed by
Henderson and Rengarajan (1996). The model is applicable to single-stage cooling units, like
residential and small commercial air conditioners or heat pumps with less than 19 kW of nominal
cooling capacity. The model inputs are described in the EnergyPlus Input/Output Reference for
the object Coil:Cooling:DX:SingleSpeed. The model is enabled only if the four numerical inputs
are defined (values greater than zero, see IO Reference).
The following discussion applies to both cycling fan and continuous fan operation when the fan
operates for a longer period of time than the compressor and air continues to flow over the moisture
laden cooling coil after compressor operation has terminated.
Figure 15.7: Transient Sensible and Latent Capacity of a Cooling Coil Over an Operating Cycle
Figure 15.9 graphically depicts the latent degradation concepts and defines several key model
parameters. After the cooling coil starts to operate, the coil temperature is eventually reduced
below the dewpoint temperature of the entering air. Moisture from the air then builds on the
surface of the coil until time to has elapsed and the total moisture mass on the coil is Mo . After
this time (to ), moisture begins to fall from the coil and all of the latent capacity provided by the
coil is “useful” since this condensate is collected and removed from the unit. When the coil cycles
off and the supply air fan continues to operate, the initial moisture mass buildup on the coil (Mo )
evaporates back into the supply air stream. If the cooling coil cycles back on before all of the
moisture has evaporated, then the time until the first condensate removal (to ) is shorter for this
cooling cycle since the coil is already partially wetted.
15.2. COILS 839
Figure 15.8: Field Data Showing the Net Impact of Part-Load Operation on Sensible Heat Ratio
Figure 15.9 also shows several parameters that are used in the latent degradation model. The
ratio of the coil’s moisture holding capacity (Mo ) and the steady-state latent capacity (Q̇L ) is
defined as twet : the nominal time for moisture to fall from the coil (ignoring transient effects at
startup and starting with a dry coil). The ratio of the initial moisture evaporation rate (Q̇e ) and
the steady-state latent capacity (Q̇L ) is defined as γ. Both twet and γ at the rated air volume
flow rate and temperature conditions are required model inputs. Two other model inputs are the
Maximum ON/OFF Cycling Rate (cycles per hour, Nmax ) and the time constant (τ , in seconds) for
the cooling coil’s latent capacity to reach steady state after startup. The development of the latent
degradation model is fully described by Henderson and Rengarajan (1996). The model implemented
in EnergyPlus is for their “linear decay” evaporation model.
During the simulation, all of the steady-state calculations described previously in Equa-
tions 15.117 through 15.137 are completed. The latent degradation model then modifies the
steady-state sensible heat ratio for the coil as shown below. The value of twet at the current air
volume flow rate and entering air conditions is first calculated based on the rated value of twet
entered by the user:
•
Qlatent,rated
twet = M inimum twet,rated •
, twet,max (15.154)
Qlatent
where:
twet is the nominal time for condensate removal to begin at the current airflow and entering air
conditions, starting with a dry coil (sec)
840 CHAPTER 15. SIMULATION MODELS - ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
twet,rated is the nominal time for condensate removal to begin at the coil’s rated airflow and
entering air conditions, starting with a dry coil (sec)
Q̇latent,rated is the cooling coil latent capacity at the rated airflow and temperature conditions
(W)
Q̇latent is the cooling coil latent capacity at the current airflow and temperature conditions (W)
twet,max is the maximum allowed value for twet (9999.0 sec).
Likewise, the value of γ at the current air volume flow rate and entering air conditions is
calculated based on the rated value of γ entered by the user:
•
Qlatent,rated
Tdb,i − Twb,i
γ = γrated • (15.155)
Q Tdb,rated − Twb,rated
latent
where:
γ is the ratio of the initial moisture evaporation rate from the cooling coil (when the compressor
first turns off, in Watts) and the coil’s steady-state latent capacity (Watts) at the current air volume
flow rate and entering air conditions
γrated is equal to γ at the rated air flow and entering air conditions
Tdb,i is the dry-bulb temperature of the air entering the cooling coil (◦ C)
Twb,i is the wet-bulb temperature of the air entering the cooling coil (◦ C)
Tdb,rated is the dry-bulb temperature of air entering the cooling coil at rated conditions (26.7◦ C)
Twb,rated is the wet-bulb temperature of air entering the cooing coil at rated conditions (19.4◦ C).
The cooling coil on and off times are then calculated based on the maximum number of cycles
per hour and the calculated run-time fraction for the coil.
3600
ton = (15.156)
4Nmax (1 − X)
3600
tof f = (15.157)
4Nmax X
where:
ton is the duration of cooling coil on-cycle (sec)
Nmax is the maximum on/off cycles per hour (cph)
X is the cooling coil runtime fraction (-)
tof f is the duration of cooling coil off-cycle (sec).
For cycling fan systems, the duration of the heating coil on and off cycles are also calculated.
When the heating coil operates for a longer duration of time than the cooling coil, latent degradation
can also occur. For this case, the off-cycle time (i.e., the amount of time the fan operates longer
than the cooling coil) is recalculated and based on the difference between the heating coil on-cycle
time and the cooling coil on-cycle time. Ton and Toff for the heating coil are calculated in the same
manner as shown above except that the heating run-time fraction is used for the calculations. This
model assumes that the cycling rate of the cooling and heating coils are the same. In addition, since
the heating coil cycling rate may be different than the cooling coil (based on run-time fractions), the
heating coil may also turn on again before the next cooling coil on-cycle. The following equations
are used when the heating coil operates for a longer time period than does the cooling coil.
3600
ton,heating = (15.158)
4Nmax (1 − Xheating )
842 CHAPTER 15. SIMULATION MODELS - ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
3600
tof f,heating = (15.159)
4Nmax (Xheating )
( ( (( ) ( ))))
ton,heating = ton,heating + M AX 0, M IN ton,heating , ton + tof f − ton,heating + tof f,heating (15.160)
where:
ton,heating is the duration of heating coil on-cycle (sec)
X,heating is the heating coil runtime fraction (-)
tof f,heating is the duration of heating coil off-cycle (sec).
The equation for calculating the time to when moisture first begins to fall from the cooling coil
is shown below, and is solved iteratively by EnergyPlus:
γ2 j
to 2twet
tj+1
o = γtof f − t2of f −τ e τ − 1 , tof f ≤ (15.162)
4twet γ
where:
to is the time where condensate removal begins (sec)
τ is the latent capacity time constant at start-up (sec)
j is the iteration number.
The part-load latent heat ratio of the cooling coil is then calculated with to , ton and τ , which is
in turn used to calculate the “effective” sensible heat ratio of the cooling including part-load latent
degradation effects.
LHR t −t
= M aximum on −tono , 0.0 (15.163)
LHRss t + τ e ( τ ) − 1
on
LHR
SHRef f = 1 − (1 − SHRss ) (15.164)
LHRss
where:
LHR is the part-load latent heat ratio
LHRss is the latent heat ratio at steady-state conditions (1 − SHRss with SHRss from Equa-
tion 15.137)
SHRef f is the part-load sensible heat ratio (SHRss � SHRef f � 1.0)
SHRss is the steady-state sensible heat ratio (from Equation 15.137).
With the “effective” SHR for the coil at the current operating conditions, including the impacts
of latent degradation, Equations 15.138 through 15.141 are then used to calculate the properties
of the air leaving the cooling coil when it operates. Finally, Equations 15.151 through 15.153 are
used to calculate the average leaving air conditions (average when the coil is on and off) for the
simulation time step.
15.2. COILS 843
Calculations are also made to estimate the electric power input to the DX coil basin heater. A
schedule may be used to disable the basin heater during regular maintenance periods or other time
periods (e.g., during summer). If a schedule is not provided, the basin heater is assumed to be
available the entire simulation time period. The basin heater operates when it is scheduled on, the
outdoor air dry-bulb temperature is below the basin heater setpoint temperature, and the DX coil
is not active. The user is required to enter a basin heater capacity (watts per degree Kelvin) and a
heater setpoint temperature (o C) if they want to model basin heater electric power.
where:
Pbasinheater is the DX coil basin heater electric power (W)
Ebasinheater is the DX coil basin heater electric consumption (J)
Tsetpoint,basin is the basin heater setpoint temperature (◦ C)
Tdb,outdoor is the outdoor air dry-bulb temperature (◦ C)
CAP basinheater is the basin heater capacity (W/K)
RT F is the run time fraction of DX cooling coil.
The multimode DX coil uses 1 to 4 set of performance specifications which all feed into the main
DX coil model as described above. The multimode DX coil may have 1 or 2 capacity stages and
may have 1 enhanced dehumidification mode in addition to its “normal” or base mode performance.
Any mode may specify that a portion of the total airflow is bypassed.
written to eplusout.err. For example, if the curve object (Curve:Biquadratic) for Total Cooling
Capacity Function of Temperature Curve has a minimum value of 21◦ C for dry-bulb temperature
entering the air-cooled condenser coil, the IEER calculation requires that EERD be calculated at
18.3◦ C – so, this would result in IEER calculatd at user specified curve limit as an output and a
warning message in the eplusout.err file.
The standard rating cooling capacity (AHRI 2007, AHRI 2008) is calculated as follows:
Q̇Standard Rating
EER = (15.173)
P owerT otal,Rated
P owerT otal,Rated = Q̇T otal,Rated (T otCapT empM odF acRated) (T otCapF lowM odF acRated ) · EIRRated
+ F anP owerP erV olF lowRate · V̇Rated
(15.174)
848 CHAPTER 15. SIMULATION MODELS - ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
1
EIRRated = (EIRT empM odF acRated )(EIRF lowM odF acRated ) (15.175)
COPRated
where:
EER is the Energy Efficiency Ratio (W/W)
P owerT otal,Rated is the total electric power (compressors, condenser fans and evaporator fan)
with 19.44◦ C wet-bulb temperature air entering the cooling coil, 35.0◦ C dry-bulb temperature air
entering the air-cooled (outdoor) condenser, and air flow rate across the evaporator at the Rated
Air Volume Flow Rate (W).
T otCapT empM odF acRated is the total cooling capacity function of temperature curve evaluated
with 19.44◦ C wet-bulb temperature air entering the cooling coil and 35.0◦ C dry-bulb temperature
air entering the air-cooled (outdoor) condenser (dimensionless)
EIRT empM odF acRated is the Energy Input Ratio function of temperature curve evaluated
with 19.44◦ C wet-bulb temperature air entering the cooling coil and 35.0◦ C dry-bulb temperature
air entering the air-cooled (outdoor) condenser (dimensionless).
The Integrated Energy Efficiency Ratio (IEER) is intended to be a measure of merit for the
cooling coil’s part-load efficiency. IEER replaced Integrated Part-Load Value (IPLV) as the part-
load performance metric in Std. 340/360 as of January 1, 2010. Full details regarding the IEER
calculation are available in ANSI/AHRI Std. 340/360 (AHRI 2007). A summary of the IEER
calculations made by EnergyPlus for single-speed air-cooled DX cooling coils is provided below:
IEER = (0.02 · EERA ) + (0.617 · EERB ) + (0.238 · EERC ) + (0.125 · EERD ) (15.176)
where,
EERA is the EER at 100% net capacity at AHRI standard rating conditions (same as EER
calculation shown above)
EERB is the EER at 75% net capacity and reduced outdoor air temperature
EERC is the EER at 50% net capacity and reduced outdoor air temperature
EERD is the EER at 25% net capacity and reduced outdoor air temperature.
P owerT otal, P artLoad = LF (CD · P owerCompCondF an, P artLoad )+ F anP owerP erV olF lowRate · V̇Rated
(15.178)
P owerCompCondF an,P artLoad = Q̇T otal,Rated (T otCapT empM odF acP artLoad )
(15.179)
· (T otCapF lowM odF acRated ) · EIRP artLoad
1
EIRP artLoad = (EIRT empM odF acP artLoad )(EIRF lowM odF acRated ) (15.180)
COPRated
15.2. COILS 849
where:
Q̇T otal,N et,P artLoad is the net total cooling capacity with 19.44◦ C wet-bulb temperature air entering
the cooling coil rated air volume flow through the cooling coil (W). The dry-bulb temperature of
air entering the air-cooled condenser varies (B = 27.5◦ C, C = 20.0◦ C, D = 18.3◦ C).
P owerT otal,P artLoad is the total electric power (compressors, condenser fans and evaporator fan)
with 19.44◦ C wet-bulb temperature air entering the cooling coil and air flow rate across the evap-
orator at the Rated Air Volume Flow Rate (W). The dry-bulb temperature of air entering the
air-cooled condenser varies (B = 27.5◦ C, C = 20.0◦ C, D = 18.3◦ C).
P owerCompCondF an, P artLoad is the electric power of the compressor and condenser fan at the
various part-load ratios, with 19.44◦ C wet-bulb temperature air entering the cooling coil and rated
supply air volume flow rate (W). The dry-bulb temperature of air entering the air-cooled condenser
varies per the part-load ratio (B = 27.5◦ C, C = 20.0◦ C, D = 18.3◦ C).
EIRT empM odF acP artLoad is the Energy Input Ratio function of temperature curve evaluated
with 19.44◦ C wet-bulb temperature air entering the cooling coil and dry-bulb temperature of air
entering the air-cooled condenser corresponding to the reduced part-load ratio (B = 27.5◦ C, C =
20.0◦ C, D = 18.3◦ C) (dimensionless).
CD is the degradation coefficient to account for cycling of the compressor = 1.13 – 0.13LF
LF is the fractional “on” time at the desired load point.
The load factor (LF) is the fractional “on” time for the desired reduced load points (75%, 50%,
or 25%) calculated from the following equation:
% Load/
100 · Q̇StandardRating
LF = (15.181)
Q̇T otal,N et,P artLoad
where %Load is the part-load operating points, i.e., 75% (B), 50% (C), 25% (D).
The calculations for QT otal,N et,P artLoad and P owerT otal,P artLoad are calculated in nearly the same
way as QT otal,N et,T estB and P owerT otal,T estB are calculated for SEER (defined above). The only dif-
ference is that these cooling capacity and power values, used for calculating EERB /EERC /EERD
for IEER, are calculated for a series of dry-bulb temperatures of air entering the air-cooled con-
denser (B = 27.5◦ C, C = 20.0◦ C, D = 18.3◦ C) and part-load performance degradiation correction
is also applied to the condensing unit electric power calculation.
of the four standard tests and four application classes (ASHRAE – 2012). The four test conditions:
A, B, C and D are provided in the ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 127. And the test conditions are
different for each application classes described in the standard. In total sixteen performance data of
net cooling capacity and total electric power inputs are reported. The total cooling electric power
includes the supply fan power.
where:
Q̇StandardRating is the standard rating (net) cooling capacity (W)
Q̇T otal,Rated is the rated Total (Gross) Cooling Capacity, user input (W)
TotCapTempModFacRated is the total cooling capacity function of temperature curve evaluated
at wet-bulb temperature of air entering the cooling coil and dry-bulb temperature of air entering
the air-cooled (outdoor) condenser (dimensionless)
TotCapFlowModFacRated is the total cooling capacity function of flow fraction curve evaluated
at a flow fraction of 1.0 (dimensionless)
FanPowerPerVolFlowRate is the rated evaporator fan power per volume flow rate, user input
(W/(m3 /s))
V̇Rated is the rated air volume flow rate, user input (m3 /s).
The standard rating net total cooling electric power input is calculated as follows:
h i
PowerTotal = Q̇T otal,Rated (TotCapTempModFac) (TotCapFlowModFacRated )
(15.183)
·EIR + (FanPowerPerVolFlowRate · _ V )Rated
EIRTempModFacEIRFlowModFacRated
(15.184)
COPRated
where:
15.2. COILS 851
EER is the Energy efficiency ratio at wet-bulb temperature of air entering the cooling coil,
dry-bulb temperature of air entering the air-cooled (outdoor) condenser, and rated air volume flow
through the cooling coil (W/W)
TotCapTempModFac is the total cooling capacity function of temperature curve evaluated at
the test condition of wet-bulb temperature of air entering the cooling coil and dry-bulb temperature
of air entering the air-cooled (outdoor) condenser (dimensionless)
PowerTotal is the total electric power (compressors, condenser fans and evaporator fan) at the
test conditions of wet-bulb temperature of air entering the cooling coil, and dry-bulb temperature
of air entering the air-cooled (outdoor) condenser, and rated air volume flow through the cooling
coil (W)
COPRated is the Coefficient of Performance at rated conditions, user input (W/W)
EIRTempModFac is the Energy Input Ratio function of temperature curve evaluated at the test
condition of wet-bulb temperature of air entering the cooling coil and dry-bulb temperature of air
entering the air-cooled (outdoor) condenser (dimensionless)
EIRFlowModFacRated is the Energy Input Ratio function of flow fraction curve evaluated at a
flow fraction of 1.0 (dimensionless).
Reference:
ASHRAE 2012. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 127-2012 Method of Testing for Rating Computer
and Data Processing Room Unitary Air Conditioners.
1. If the CondenserType for stage 1 is EvapCooled, then the basin heater power is calculated
for (1 - RunTimeFractionStage1) of DX coil
2. Elseif the CondenserType for stage 2 is EvapCooled, then the basin heater power is calculated
for (1 - RunTimeFractionStage2) of DX coil.
15.2.4.14 References
AHRI 2008. ANSI/AHRI Standard 210/240: 2008 Standard for Performance Rating of Unitary Air-
Conditioning & Air-Source Heat Pump Equipment. Arlington, VA: Air-Conditioning, Heating,
and Refrigeration Institute.
AHRI 2007. ANSI/AHRI Standard 340/360: 2007 Standard for Performance Rating of Com-
mercial and Industrial Unitary Air-Conditioning and Heat Pump Equipment. Arlington, VA: Air-
Conditioning, Heating, and Refrigeration Institute.
ASHRAE. 1993. HVAC2 Toolkit: A Toolkit for Secondary HVAC System Energy Calculation.
Atlanta: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
Carrier, W.H., R.E. Cherne, W.A. Grant, and W.H. Roberts. 1959. Modern air conditioning,
heating and ventilating, 3d ed. New York: Pitman Publishing Corporation.
852 CHAPTER 15. SIMULATION MODELS - ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
Henderson, H.I. Jr., K. Rengarajan, and D.B. Shirey III. 1992. The impact of comfort control
on air conditioner energy use in humid climates. ASHRAE Transactions 98(2): 104-113.
Henderson, H.I. Jr. and K. Rengarajan. 1996. A Model to Predict the Latent Capacity of Air
Conditioners and Heat Pumps at Part-Load Conditions with Constant Fan Operation. ASHRAE
Transactions 102(2): 266-274.
Henderson, H. 1998. The impact of part load air conditioner operation on dehumidification
performance: Validating a latent capacity degradation model. Presented at ASHRAE’s IAQ &
Energy ‘98 conference. New Orleans, LA. October.
Henderson, H. and D. Shirey. 2003. Understanding the Dehumidification Performance of Air-
Conditioning Equipment at Part-Load Conditions. Paper presented at Joint CIBSE/ASHRAE
Conference, Building Sustainability, Value and Profit. September. Edinburgh, Scotland.
Walker, I.S. and Lutz, J.D. 2005. Laboratory Evaluation of Residential Furnace Blower Perfor-
mance. Berekely, CA: Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Report LBNL 58752.
Walker, I.S. 2007. Comparing Residential Furnace Blowers for Rating and Installed Perfor-
mance. Berkeley, CA: Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Environmental Energy Technolo-
gies Division Report LBNL 62344.
speeds (above 1), the model linearly interpolates the performance at two consecutive speeds (n-1
and n) as needed to meet the cooling load, with the fraction of time at each speed established by
the speed ratio.
When single mode operation is specified at higher speeds (above 1), defined in the UnitarySys-
temPerformance:Multispeed object, a child object of AirLoopHVAC:UnitarySystem, its performance
is almost the same as the performance for the Coil:Cooling:DX:SingleSpeed model at different flow
rate and capacity with given speed number. No linear interpolation is performed between two ad-
jacent speeds. The highest speed which does not exceed the sensible load is used for each HVAC
timestep. This operation does not apply to speed 1 operation and the case when the sensible load
is above the highest sensible capacity.
The total delivered cooling capacity for speed 1 operating at the cycling ratio needed to meet
the requested cooling load is:
The average specific enthalpy of the coil outlet air is then calculated based on the total delivered
cooling capacity and the average air mass flow rate entering the coil:
Qcoil,cycling
houtlet,average = hinlet − · (15.186)
minlet
where
houtlet,average is the averaged specific enthalpy at the coil outlet (J/kg)
hinlet is the specific enthalpy at the coil inlet (J/kg)
Qcoil,cycling is the total capacity at full load (W)
ṁinlet is the mass flow rate at the inlet to the coil as established by the parent object (Ref.
AirLoopHVAC:UnitaryHeatPump:AirToAir:MultiSpeed, Mass Flow Rate Calculation). This flow
rate is the average value determined by the parent object, accounting for the specified flow rate
when the cooling coil is ON and the specified flow rate when the cooling coil is OFF for the time
step being simulated.
• Sensible capacity
The minimum humidity ratio (HRmin ) is based on humidity ratios between inlet and full load
outlet as:
Qcoil,sens = ṁSpeed1 ∗ CycRatio ∗ [hinlet (Tinlet , HRmin ) − houtlet,f ull (Toutlet,f ull , HRmin )] (15.188)
where:
Qcoil,sens is the delivered sensible cooling capacity (W)
houtlet,f ull is the full load specific enthalpy at the coil outlet as a function of outlet dry-bulb
temperature at the full load, and the minimum humidity ratio (J/kg)
hinlet is the specific enthalpy at the coil inlet (J/kg).
• Latent capacity
The latent capacity is the difference between total and sensible capacities
Qcoil,latent
HRoutlet,average = HRinlet − (15.190)
λṁinlet
where λ is the heat of vaporization as a function of HRmin and CycRatio * Toutlet,f ull +(1-
CycRatio) * Tinlet (J/kg).
Using the above averaged outlet humidity ratio and specific enthalpy, the averaged outlet tem-
perature can be calculated using the psych function of PsyTdbFnHW.
The main reason using the above approach is that outlet conditions are calculated in the same
way in low and high speed operation.
The crankcase heater defined for this DX cooling coil is enabled during the time that the com-
pressor is not running for either heating or cooling. The crankcase heater power use from either
heating or cooling is reported in the heating coil (Coil:Heating:DX:MultiSpeed).
T otCapn−1 = f (RatedCapn−1 , T otCapT empM odF acn−1 , T otCapF lowM odF acn−1 , BypassF actorn−1 )
(15.193)
T otCapn = f (RatedCapn , T otCapT empM odF acn , T otCapF lowM odF acn , BypassF actorn )
(15.194)
where
TotCapi is the total cooling capacity at given temperatures and flow rates at Speed i (W)
RatedCapi is the cooling capacity at the rated conditions at Speed i (W)
TotCapTempModFaci is the total cooling capacity modifier as a function of indoor web-bulb
temperature and outdoor air dry-bulb temperature at Speed i
TotCapFlowModFaci is the total cooling capacity modifier as a function of the ratio of the actual
flow rate across the cooling coil to the rated airflow rate at Speed i
i is Speed n or Speed n-1.
The calculation is performed by a subroutine, called CalcTotCapSHR in the DXCoil module.
EIRn−1 = RatedEIRn−1 ∗ EIRT empM odF acn−1 ∗ EIRF lowM odF acn−1 (15.195)
EIRn = RateEIRn ∗ EIRT empM odF acn ∗ EIRF lowM odF acn (15.196)
where:
EIRi is the energy input ratio at given temperatures and flow rates at Speed i (W)
RatedEIRi is the energy input ratio at the rated conditions at Speed i (W)
EIRTempModFaci is the energy input ratio modifier as a function of indoor and outdoor air
dry-bulb temperature at Speed i
EIRFlowModFaci is the energy input ratio modifier as a function of ratio of the actual flow rate
across the heating coil to the rated airflow rate at Speed i
i is n or n-1.
The calculation procedure of full load outlet conditions at Speed n-1 and Speed n is
the same as the calculation procedure used in the Coil:Cooling:DX:SingleSpeed model (Ref.
Coil:Cooling:DX:SingleSpeed). The difference is that the outlet conditions at Speed n-1 are
calculated based on the total cooling capacity and mass flow rate at Speed n-1, while the outlet
conditions at Speed n are calculated based on the total cooling capacity and mass flow rate at
Speed n.
Qcoil,SpeedRatio
houtlet,average = hinlet − (15.198)
ṁinlet
where:
houtlet,average is the averaged specific enthalpy at the coil outlet (J/kg)
hinlet is the specific enthalpy at the coil inlet (J/kg)
ṁinlet is the mass flow rate at the inlet to the coil as established by the parent object (Ref.
AirLoopHVAC:UnitaryHeatPump:AirToAir:MultiSpeed, Mass Flow Rate Calculation). This flow
rate is the average value determined by the parent object, accounting for the specified flow rate
when the heating coil is at Speed n and the specified flow rate when the heating coil is at Speed
n-1 for the time step being simulated.
The effective latent cooling capacity is the difference between the total and sensible capacity:
Qcoil,latent
HRoutlet,average = HRinlet − (15.202)
λṁinlet
where λ is the heat of vaporization as a function of HRmin and SpeedRatio*Toutlet,n +(1-
SpeedRatio)*Toutlet,n−1 (J/kg).
At the given averaged outlet humidity ratio and specific enthalpy, the averaged outlet temper-
ature can be calculated using the psych function of PsyTdbFnHW.
When the input for the field ‘Apply Part Load Fraction to Speeds Greater than 1’ is No in the
object (equivalent to a single compressor), the combined energy output is calculated as follows:
where CoolingPower is the power used (W) and RTF is the run time fraction at Speed n.
• Latent degradation
• Crankcase heater
where:
Q̇StandardRating N et is the total standard (net) cooling capacity (W) of the air-conditioning or
heat pump equipment in cooling mode determined from ANSI/AHRI Standard 210/240 and A2
test conditions shown in Table 15.6. The standard cooling test conditions for air-cooled condenser
are: indoor coil entering air dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures 26.7◦ C/19.4◦ C and outdoor coil
entering air dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures 35.0◦ C/23.9◦ C
Q̇StandardRating is the total standard cooling capacity (W) of the air-conditioning or heat pump
equipment determined from ANSI/AHRI Standard 210/240 and A2 test conditions shown in Ta-
ble 15.6. The standard cooling test conditions for air-cooled are: indoor coil entering air dry-bulb
and wet-bulb temperatures 26.7◦ C/19.4◦ C and outdoor coil entering air dry-bulb and wet-bulb
temperatures 35.0◦ C/23.9◦ C
Q̇k=2
T, CRated is the rated total cooling capacity at maximum speed, user input (W)
CAP F TTk=2 estA2 is the user-specified bi-quadratic curve evaluated at the indoor coil entering air
wet-bulb temperature (19.4◦ C) and outdoor coil entering air dry-bulb temperature (35.0◦ C) for
air-cooled condenser per A2 test condition as specified in Table 15.6 (dimensionless)
CAP F F FTk=2 estA2 is the user-specified quadratic or cubic curve modifying the total cooling ca-
pacity as function of flow fraction, (dimensionless). This curve is evaluated at a flow fraction of
1.0.
F anP ower, Rated is the supply air fan power at rated conditions at high (maximum) compressor
speed (W)
k=2
V̇CRated is the rated air volume flow rate at high (maximum) compressor speed, user input (m3 /s)
F anP owerP erV olF lowRatek=2 is the rated indoor coil fan power per volume flow rate is a
user-entered value, with a default of 773.3 W/(m3 /s)) if the user leaves this input field blank. The
default value is taken from ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 210/240 -2008 where it is defined for systems
which do not have an indoor coil fan furnished as part of the system. See the description given
below how this value is calculated, user input (W/(m3 /s)).
The Rated Evaporator (Indoor Coil) Fan Power Per Volume Flow rate is a user-entered value,
with a default of 773.3 W/(m3 /s)) if the user leaves this input field blank. The default value is taken
from ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 210/240-2008 where it is defined for systems which do not have an
Indoor Coil (Evaporator) fan furnished as part of the system. The test conditions in ANSI/AHRI
Standard 210/240 vary the external static pressure (i.e., pressure drop associated with ductwork
and other devices external to the indoor fan/coil section) seen by the supply air fan based on the
standard rating cooling capacity.
The SEER value for multi-speed compressor air conditioner or air-to-air heat pumps per
AHRI/ANSI Std. 210/240 – 2008 is calculated as follows:
P
8
qc (Tj )
N
j=1
SEER = (15.209)
P
8
ec (Tj )
N
j=1
where:
15.2. COILS 861
qc (Tj )/N is the ratio of space cooling capacity provided by the unit during periods of the space
cooling season when the outdoor temperature fell within the range represented by bin temperature
Tj to the total number of hours in the cooling season (N), (W)
ec (Tj )/N is the ratio of the electrical energy consumed by the unit during periods of the space
cooling season when the outdoor temperature fell within the range represented by bin temperature
Tj to the total number of hours in the cooling season (N), W.
j is the bin number, dimensionless. For cooling season, j ranges from 1 to 8.
Tj is the outdoor air bin temperature (◦ C). Outdoor temperatures are “binned” such that calcu-
lations are only performed based one temperature within the bin. Bins of 2.8◦ C with 8 cooling season
bin temperatures being 19.44◦ C, 22.22◦ C, 25.0◦ C, 27.78◦ C, 30.56◦ C, 33.33◦ C, 36.11◦ C, 38.89◦ C.
For multi-speed compressor the SEER value is weighted average performance at different outdoor
air temperature bins. The eight outdoor air temperature bins and the corresponding weight are
provided in Table 15.7. Distribution of Fractional Hours with in Cooling Season Temperature Bins.
The steady-state cooling capacity delivered and the electric power inputs when the DX coil is
operating at minimum compressor speed (k = 1), and outdoor air temperature Tj , are determined
by linear interpolation using the values of B1 and F1 tests as follows:
" #
Q̇k=1 (27.78)
Ėck=1 (27.78) = c
k=1
· EIRF TTk=1
estB1 · EIRF F FT estB1 + F anP owerCRated
k=1 k=1
(15.213)
COPCRated
" #
k=1
Q̇ (19.44)
Ėck=1 (19.44) = c
k=1
· EIRF TTk=1
estF 1 · EIRF F FT estF 1 + F anP owerCRated
k=1 k=1
(15.215)
COPCRated
k=1
F anP owerCRated = F anP owerP erV olF lowRatek=1 · _
Vk=1
CRated (15.216)
where:
Q̇k=1
T, CRated is the rated total cooling capacity at minimum compressor speed specified by users
(W)
k=1
COPCRated is the rated gross COP at minimum compressor speed specified by users (-)
862 CHAPTER 15. SIMULATION MODELS - ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
CAP F TTk=1estB1 is the cooling capacities modifier curve for temperature at minimum compressor
speed and B1 test condition (-)
CAP F F FTk=1 estB1 is the cooling capacities modifier curve for flow fraction at minimum compressor
speed and B1 test condition (-)
EIRF TTk=1estB1 is the EIR modifier curve for temperature at minimum compressor speed and B1
test condition (-)
EIRF F FTk=1 estB1 is the EIR modifier curve for flow fraction at minimum compressor speed and
B1 test condition (-)
CAP F TTk=1estF 1 is the cooling capacities modifier curve for temperature at minimum compressor
speed and F1 test condition (-)
CAP F F FTk=1 estF 1 is the cooling capacities modifier curve for flow fraction at minimum compressor
speed and F1 test condition (-)
EIRF TTk=1estF 1 is the EIR modifier curve for temperature at minimum compressor speed and F1
test condition (-)
EIRF F FTk=1 estF 1 is the EIR modifier curve for flow fraction at minimum compressor speed and
F1 test condition (-)
k=1
F anP owerCRated is the the rated supply air fan power when the unit is operating at minimum
compressor speed (W)
k=1
VCRated is the rated cooling supply air volume flow rate at minimum compressor speed specified
by users (-)
F anP owerP erV olF lowRatek=1 is the rated indoor coil fan power per volume flow rate at low
(minimum) compressor speed specified value by the user (W/(m3 /s)).
The steady-state cooling capacity delivered and the electric power inputs when the DX cooling
coil is operating at maximum (high) compressor speed (k = 2), and outdoor air temperature Tj ,
are determined as follows:
" #
k=2
Q̇ (35.0)
Ėck=2 (35.0) = c
k=2 estA2 · EIRF F FT estA2 + F anP owerCRated
· EIRF TTk=2 k=2 k=2
(15.220)
COPCRated
" #
k=2
Q̇ (19.44)
Ėck=2 (27.78) = c
k=2
· EIRF TTk=2
estB2 · EIRF F FT estB2 + F anP owerCRated
k=2 k=2
(15.222)
COPCRated
15.2. COILS 863
k=2
F anP owerCRated = F anP owerP erV olF lowRatek=2 · _
Vk=2
CRated (15.223)
where:
Q̇k=2
T, CRated is the rated total cooling capacity at maximum (high) compressor speed specified by
users (W)
k=2
COPCRated is the rated gross COP at maximum (high) compressor speed specified by users (-)
k=2
CAP F TT estA2 is the cooling capacity modifier curve for temperature at maximum (high) com-
pressor speed and A2 test condition (-)
CAP F F FTk=2 estA2 is the cooling capacity modifier curve for flow fraction at maximum (high)
compressor speed and A2 test condition (-)
EIRF TTk=2 estA2 is the EIR modifier curve for temperature at maximum (high) compressor speed
and A2 test condition (-)
EIRF F FTk=2 estA2 is the EIR modifier curve for flow fraction at maximum (high) compressor speed
and A2 test condition (-)
CAP F TTk=2 estB2 is the cooling capacity modifier curve for temperature at maximum (high) com-
pressor speed and B 2 test condition (-)
CAP F F FTk=2 estB2 is the cooling capacity modifier curve for flow fraction at maximum (high)
compressor speed and B 2 test condition (-)
EIRF TTk=2 estB2 is the EIR modifier curve for temperature at maximum (high) compressor speed
and B 2 test condition (-)
EIRF F FTk=2 estB2 is EIR modifier curve for flow fraction at maximum (high) compressor speed
and B 2 test condition (-)
k=2
F anP owerCRated is the the rated supply air fan power when the unit is operating at maximum
(high) compressor speed (W)
k=2
VCRated is the rated supply air volume flow rate at maximum (high) compressor speed specified
by users (-)
F anP owerP erV olF lowRatek=2 is the the Rated Evaporator (Indoor Coil) Fan Power Per Vol-
ume Flow rate at maximum (high) compressor speed specified value by the user (W/(m3 /s)).
The above steps show how the cooling capacity and electric power inputs are determined when
the DX cooling coil is operating at minimum (low) and maximum (high) compressor speeds. But
the unit may operate at minimum (low) speed capacity, cycle on–off, cycle between successiave lower
and higher compressor speed capacity, or operate at maximum (high) speed capacity depending on
the building cooling load. The operating range of the DX cooling coil is determined based on the
building cooling load for each binned outside air temperature. The building cooling load at an
outdoor air temperature Tj , is calculated as follows:
!
Tj − 18.3 Q̇k=2
c (35.0)
BL(Tj ) = (15.224)
35.0 − 18.3 1.1
where:
BL(T j ) is the building space cooling load corresponding to outdoor temperature of Tj (W)
Q̇k=2
c (35.0) is the the cooling capacity determined from the standard A2 test (W).
The temperatures 35.0◦ C and 18.3◦ C in the building load calculation equation represent the
outdoor design air temperature, and zero-load base temperature, respectively (ANSI/ASHRAE,
2008). 1.1 is a sizing factor.
864 CHAPTER 15. SIMULATION MODELS - ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
The cooling capacity delivered and the electric power inputs calculations when the DX cooling
coil is cycling on-off, operating at minimum (low) compressor speed, cycling between successive
minimum (low) and maximum (high) compressor speed, or operating at maximum (high) compressor
speed are described next.
Case 1: The steady state cooling capacity when the unit is operating at or below the minimum
(low) speed compressor capacity, i.e., when the building cooling load is less or equal to the minimum
(low) compressor speed capacity, is calculated as follows:
Q̇k=1
c (Tj ) ≥ BL(Tj ) (15.225)
qc (Tj ) h k=1 i n
j
= X (Tj ) · Q̇k=1
c (Tj ) · (15.226)
N N
k=1
ec (Tj ) X (Tj ) k=1 nj
= Ėc (Tj ) · (15.227)
N P LFj N
BL(Tj )
X k=1 (Tj ) = (15.228)
Q̇k=1
c (Tj )
P LFj = 1 − CD
c
1 − X k=1 (Tj ) (15.229)
where:
X(Tj ) is the cooling mode load factor or part-load ratio for temperature bin j (-)
ni /N is the fractional bin hours for the cooling season; the ratio of the number of hours during the
cooling season when the outdoor temperature fell within the range represented by bin temperature
Tj to the total number of hours in the cooling season (-). (see Table 15.7)
c
CD is the cooling coefficient of degradation, default value is 0.25.
Case 2: The unit cycles between successive the minimum (low) and maximum (high) compressor
speed capacity to meet the building cooling load at outdoor air temperature Tj . That is, the cooling
building load is between the units successive minimum (low) and maximum (high) compressor speed
capacities:
Q̇k=1
c (Tj ) < BL(Tj ) < Q̇k=2
c (Tj ) (15.230)
Q̇k=2
c (Tj ) − BL(Tj )
X k=1 (Tj ) = (15.233)
Q̇k=2
c (Tj ) − Q̇k=1
c (Tj )
Case 3: The steady-state cooling capacity when the unit is operating continuously at maximum
(high) compressor speed capacity at outdoor air temperature Tj . That is the building cooling load
is greater or equal to the available capacity at maximum (high) compressor speed:
BL(Tj ) ≥ Q̇k=2
c (Tj ) (15.234)
15.2. COILS 865
For units when operating continuously at maximum (high) compressor speed (k = 2) at tem-
perature Tj , the delivered cooling capacity and electric power inputs are calculated as follows:
qc (Tj ) h k=2 i nj
= Q̇c (Tj ) · (15.235)
N N
ec (Tj ) h k=2 i nj
= Ėc (Tj ) · (15.236)
N N
15.2.5.12 References
See the references for the single speed DX cooling coil earlier in this document.
between these 2 states to obtain the needed cooling output. Below minimum load the unit cycles
on/off, just like the single speed unit.
15.2.6.3 Calculation
Calculation is performed in routine CalcMultiSpeedDXCoil in module DXCoils. The inputs to the
calculation are the coil index (denoting a specific coil with its particular performance parameters),
the speed ratio, and the cycling ratio. The speed ratio is an artificial parameter between 0 and 1.
If the speed ratio (SR) is greater than zero, the performance of the unit will be:
DX unit outlet air humidity ratio is above the humidity ratio setpoint, the simulation will
increase the speed and/or cycling ratio to meet the desired unit outlet air humidity ratio. The
humidity ratio setpoint is specified through the use of a humidistat (ref. ZoneControl:Humidistat)
and a setpoint manager (ref. SetpointManager:SingleZone:Humidity:Maximum, SetpointMan-
ager:MultiZone:MaximumHumidity:Average, SetpointManager:MultiZone:Humidity:Maximum or
SetpointManager:OudoorAirPretreat). When used with the CoilSystem:Cooling:DX component,
the dehumidification control type Multimode is not allowed.
Basin heater for the object Coil:Cooling:DX:TwoSpeed operates in the same manner as for
Coil:Cooling:DX:SingleSpeed. Refer to the “Basin Heater For Single-Speed DX Coil” description
above.
The Coil:Cooling:DX:TwoSpeed object includes industry standard ratings of Standard Rating Cool-
ing Capacity, Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER), and Integrated Energy Efficiency Ratio (IEER) which
are calculated according to ANSI/AHRI Standard 340/360-2007 with Addenda 1 and 2 (AHRI
2007). These ratings apply to unitary air conditioners with air-cooled condensers with standard
rated cooling capacities from 19 kW (65,000 Btu/h) to below 220 kW (760,000 Btu/h).
For the Coil:Cooling:DX:TwoSpeed object in EnergyPlus, these standard ratings are not direct
inputs to the model. However, these standard ratings can be calculated using user-entered infor-
mation for the Coil:Cooling:DX:TwoSpeed object. These standard rating values are provided in the
eplusout.eio output file (Ref. OutputDetailsAndExamples.pdf) and also in the predefined tabular
output reports (Output:Table:SummaryReports object, Equipment Summary report, DX Cooling
Coil table and VAV DX Cooling Standard Rating Details table). Currently, the standard ratings are
only calculated and output for Packaged VAV cooling coils with air-cooled condensers and variable-
air-volume fans. If the two-speed DX coling coil is specified with an evaporatively-cooled condenser
or along with a constant volume fan, then no standard ratings are output from EnergyPlus at this
time.
The standard rating cooling capacity is calculated as follows:
Q̇StandardRating = Q̇T otal,Rated T otCapT empM odF acRated T otCapF lowM odF acRated −F anHeatCorrection
(15.238)
where:
Q̇StandardRating is the standard rating (net) cooling capacity (W)
Q̇T otal,Rated is the rated total (gross) cooling capacity, user input (W)
T otCapT empM odF acRated is the total cooling capacity function of temperature curve evaluated
with 19.4◦ C wet-bulb temperature air entering the cooling coil and 35.0◦ C dry-bulb temperature
air entering the air-cooled (outdoor) condenser (dimensionless)
T otCapF lowM odF acRated is the total cooling capacity function of flow fraction curve evaluated
at a flow fraction of 1.0 (dimensionless)
F anHeatCorrection is the rate that air is heated by the supply fan (W).
15.2. COILS 869
F anHeatCorrection is calculated in one of two ways depending on the user’s input for the field
called Unit Internal Static Air Pressure. If this field was left blank, then the fan heat is calculated
using:
Q̇Standard Rating
EER = (15.241)
P owerT otal,Rated
P owerT otal,Rated = Q̇T otal,Rated T otCapT empM odF acRated T otCapF lowM odF acRated EIRRated +F anP owerCorr
(15.242)
1
EIRRated = (EIRT empM odF acRated )(EIRF lowM odF acRated ) (15.243)
COPRated
where:
EER is the Energy Efficiency Ratio (W/W)
P owerT otal,Rated is the total electric power (compressors, condenser fans and evaporator fan)
with 19.4◦ C wet-bulb temperature air entering the cooling coil, 35.0◦ C dry-bulb temperature air
entering the air-cooled (outdoor) condenser, and air flow rate across the evaporator at the rated
high speed air flow rate.
870 CHAPTER 15. SIMULATION MODELS - ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
Similar to the fan heat correction, the fan power correction is calculated in one of two ways
depending on the input for internal static pressure. If no internal static is provided, fan power is
calculated using:
IEER = (0.02 · EERA ) + (0.617 · EERB ) + (0.238 · EERC ) + (0.125 · EERD ) (15.245)
where:
EERA is the EER at 100% net capacity at AHRI standard rating conditions (same as EER
calculation shown above but in Btu/h)
EERB is the EER at 75% net capacity and reduced outdoor air temperature Btu/h
EERC is the EER at 50% net capacity and reduced outdoor air temperature Btu/h
EERD is the EER at 25% net capacity and reduced outdoor air temperature Btu/h.
The following table summarizes the test points.
Point Net Capac- Coil inlet Coil inlet Condenser Supply air flow rate
ity wetbulb drybulb inlet dry-
bulb
A 100% 19.4◦ C 26.7◦ C 35.0◦ C Rated High speed flow rate
B 75% 19.4◦ C 26.7◦ C 27.5◦ C Root solver result where
C 50% 19.4◦ C 26.7◦ C 20.0◦ C coil leaving drybulb
D 25% 19.4◦ C 26.7◦ C 18.3◦ C matches Point A
The units are assumed to be VAV and Standard 340/360 is be applied as for VAV indoor
supply fan. Because the standard stipulates “the airflow rate at part load should be adjusted to
maintain the full load measured leaving dry-bulb temperature,” the part load rating test points “B”,
15.2. COILS 871
“C”, and “D” are evaluated by using the entire DX coil model calculations to obtain the supply air
conditions leaving the coil and iterating on supply air flow rate to find the supply air flow rate. The
numerical method called root solver is used to find the supply flow rate at each of the part load
test points. Once the supply air flow rate is known, the two-speed DX coil model results are used
to determine EER at the part load test points.
When evaluating the two-speed DX coil model, the speed ratio and cycling ratio are specified
based on the desired or target net capacity. When the low speed net capacity is lower than the
target part load net capacity, the speed ratio is calculated using:
DesiredN etCapacity
CyclingRatio = (15.247)
LowSpeedN etCapacity
The results for EER, COP, and supply air mass flow rate at the part load test points are reported
to the EIO file and a predefined table report called VAV DX Cooling Standard Rating Details.
15.2.6.8 References
See the references for the single speed DX cooling coil earlier in this document.
The rated conditions for obtaining the capacities, COPs and SHR are indoor dry-bulb temper-
ature at 26.67◦ C (80◦ F), wet bulb temperature at 19.44◦ C (67◦ F), and the source side entering air
temperature at 35◦ C (95◦ F).
Variable-speed cooling coils lead to varied dehumidification behaviors, that the Bypass Factor
(BF) is not only dependent on the indoor air flow rate, but also on the refrigerant mass flow rate,
i.e. the compressor speed. The methods of calculating Bypass factor and Sensible Heat Transfer
Ratio at each speed are the same as the water source variable-speed cooling coil (object name
Coil:Cooling:WaterToAirHeatPump:VariableSpeedEquationFit).
If the volumetric air flow rate at one speed level is higher than the flow rate allowed by the fan
in the parent object, the flow rate will be set back to the fan flow rate.
If Air Flow Scale Factor equals to unity, the loop air flow rate become the design flow rates of
the original unit (after scaled by the rated total cooling capacity). The Rated Volumetric Air Flow
Rate is introduced here to correlate with the actual flow rate in the air loop, in case that these
differ from the design specifications. Certainly, it is recommended that the Rated Volumetric Air
Flow Rate is selected in the way that Air Flow Scale Factor is unity, so as to get more accurate
results from the performance curves.
If the condenser is evaporatively cooled, it is necessary to know the condenser air flow rate, so
as to calculate the water evaporation rate. We will have fields for specifying the Reference Unit
condenser volumetric air flow rates at individual speed levels, and these inputs are optional. If the
condenser air flow rates are not inputted by the user, default values of condenser volumetric air
flow rate as a function of the rated total cooling capacity will be used. Condenser air flow rates of
the simulated unit are calculated as below,
The flow fraction modifier curves are used as a placeholder, to account for off-design flow rates
if needed. If the manufacturer doesn’t provide the off-design performances, we can simply use a
default modification multiplier of 1.0.
At the lowest speed, there will be one additional performance curve to correlate the part-load
condition, i.e.
The total cooling capacity modifier as a function of temperature curve (CAP-FT) is a biquadratic
curve with two independent variables: wet-bulb temperature of the air entering the cooling coil and
the condenser entering air temperature. The output of this curve is multiplied by the rated total
cooling capacity at the speed, to give the total cooling capacity at the specific entering air WB and
condenser inlet air DB at which the DX unit is operating (i.e., at temperatures different from the
rating point temperatures).
874 CHAPTER 15. SIMULATION MODELS - ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
Note: The data used to develop the total cooling capacity modifier curve (function of tem-
perature) should represent performance when the cooling coil is ‘wet’ (i.e., coil providing sensible
cooling and at least some dehumidification). Performance data when the cooling coil is ‘dry’ (i.e.,
not providing any dehumidification) should not be included when developing this modifier curve.
This model automatically detects and adjusts for ‘dry coil’ conditions.
where:
WBi is the wet-bulb temperature of the air entering the indoor cooling coil (◦ C)
DBo is the dry-bulb temperature of the air entering the condenser coil (◦ C)
a-f is the regression curve-fit coefficients.
The total cooling capacity modifier curve (function of air flow fraction) is a cubic curve with the
independent variable being the ratio of the actual air flow rate across the cooling coil to the design
air flow rate (i.e., fraction of design flow at the speed).
DesignAirMassFlowRate@SpeedLevel(x) =
(15.255)
ReferenceUnitAirMassFlowRate@SpeedLevel(x) × CapacityScaleFactor
The energy input ratio modifier curve as a function of temperature (EIR-FT) is a biquadratic
curve with two independent variables: wet-bulb temperature of the air entering the cooling coil
and the condenser entering air temperature. The output of this curve is multiplied by the rated
EIR (inverse of the rated COP) at the speed level, to give the EIR at the specific entering air
temperatures at which the DX unit is operating (i.e., at temperatures different from the rating
point temperatures).
4) Energy input ratio (EIR) modifier curve (function of air flow fraction)
15.2. COILS 875
where a-d are regression curve fit coefficients. If no data is available for correction, the user can
simply use a = 1.0 and set the other coefficients to 0.0.
This field defines the name of a quadratic or cubic performance curve (Ref: Performance Curves)
that parameterizes the variation of electrical power input to the unit as a function of the part load
ratio (PLR, Sensible or Latent Load/Steady-State Sensible or Latent Capacity for Speed 1). The
description of the part load fraction correlation for the variable-speed DX cooling coil is similar to
the variable-speed DX heating coil.
The lowest speed operation of the variable-speed DX cooling coil is similar to the single speed DX
cooling coil. The total (gross) cooling capacity of the variable-speed DX coil is calculated as follows:
1.0
EIR1 = EIRTempModFac1 ∗EIRAirFlowModFac1 (15.259)
Reference Unit COP@Speed(1)
At the lowest speed, the dehumidification calculation is exactly the same as the single speed DX
coil. That is to use the rated SHR and the design air flow rate at the lowest speed to calculate rated
bypass factor of BFrated,1 , and the corresponding effective surface area of Ao,1 . With Ao,1 known,
the coil BF can be adjusted for non-rated air flow rates.
The part load ratio for sensible cooling is:
1.0
EIRx−1 = EIRTempModFacx−1 ∗EIRAirFlowModFacx−1
Reference Unit COP@Speed(x − 1)
(15.266)
1.0
EIRx = EIRTempModFacx ∗EIRAirFlowModFacx (15.267)
Reference Unit COP@Speed (x)
it will be controlled from the zone thermostat by meeting the zone demand. See Input Output
Reference for additional information.
For a coil that is controlled to meet the zone demand, it will meet the zone demand unless
this demand exceeds the capacity of the coil specified by the user. The following code section
demonstrates the simulation of the electric air heating coil.
! Control output to meet load QCoilReq
IF((AirMassFlow > 0.0 .AND. HeatingCoil(CoilNum)%NominalCapacity > 0.0) .and. &
(GetCurrentScheduleValue(HeatingCoil(CoilNum)%SchedPtr) > 0.0) .and. &
(QCoilReq > 0.0) .and. (TempSetPoint = = 0.0)) THEN
!check to see if the Required heating capacity is greater than the user! specified capacity.
IF(QCoilReq > HeatingCoil(CoilNum)%NominalCapacity) Then
QCoilCap = HeatingCoil(CoilNum)%NominalCapacity
Else
QCoilCap = QCoilReq
End IF
TempAirOut = TempAirIn + QCoilCap/CapacitanceAir
HeatingCoilLoad = QCoilCap
!The HeatingCoilLoad is the change in the enthalpy of the Heating
HeatingCoil(CoilNum)%ElecUseLoad = HeatingCoilLoad/Effic
For a temperature setpoint coil, the delta temperature from the coil inlet temperature to the
setpoint is determined and the capacity of the coil is calculated and is met if that demand is less
than the user specified capacity. The following code section demonstrates this.
! Control coil output to meet a setpoint temperature.
Else IF((AirMassFlow > 0.0 .AND. HeatingCoil(CoilNum)%NominalCapacity > 0.0) .and. &
(GetCurrentScheduleValue(HeatingCoil(CoilNum)%SchedPtr) > 0.0) .and. &
(QCoilReq = = 0.0) .and. &
(ABS(TempSetPoint-TempAirIn) > TempControlTol) ) THEN
QCoilCap = CapacitanceAir*(TempSetPoint - TempAirIn)
! check to see if setpoint above enetering temperature. If not, set
! output to zero.
IF(QCoilCap ≤ 0.0) THEN
QCoilCap = 0.0
TempAirOut = TempAirIn
!check to see if the Required heating capacity is greater than the user
! specified capacity.
Else IF(QCoilCap > HeatingCoil(CoilNum)%NominalCapacity) Then
QCoilCap = HeatingCoil(CoilNum)%NominalCapacity
TempAirOut = TempAirIn + QCoilCap/CapacitanceAir
Else
TempAirOut = TempSetPoint
End IF
HeatingCoilLoad = QCoilCap
!The HeatingCoilLoad is the change in the enthalpy of the Heating
HeatingCoil(CoilNum)%ElecUseLoad = HeatingCoilLoad/Effic
15.2. COILS 879
15.2.9.1 Field: Part Load Fraction Correlation (function of part load ratio)
The part load correction defines the name of a quadratic or cubic performance curve (Ref: Per-
formance Curves) that parameterizes the variation of fuel consumption rate by the heating coil
as a function of the part load ratio (PLR, sensible heating load/nominal capacity of the heating
coil). For any simulation time step, the nominal fuel consumption rate (heating load/burner ef-
ficiency) is divided by the part-load fraction (PLF) if a part-load curve has been defined. The
part-load curve accounts for efficiency losses due to transient coil operation.
The part-load fraction correlation should be normalized to a value of 1.0 when the part load
ratio equals 1.0 (i.e., no efficiency losses when the heating coil runs continuously for the simulation
time step). For PLR values between 0 and 1 ( 0 < = PLR < 1), the following rules apply:
PLF > = 0.7 and PLF > = PLR
If PLF < 0.7 a warning message is issued, the program resets the PLF value to 0.7, and the
simulation proceeds. The runtime fraction of the heating coil is defined a PLR/PLF. If PLF <
PLR, then a warning message is issues and the runtime fraction of the coil is limited to 1.0.
A typical part load fraction correlation for a conventional gas heating coil (e.g., residential
furnace) would be:
flow stages. Each stage has a set of user inputted gas burner efficiency, Nominal capacity, and Para-
sitic electric load (for gas coil only). The full load supply airflow rate is dependent on the stage num-
ber and is set by its parent object (Ref: AirLoopHVAC:UnitaryHeatPump:AirToAir:MultiSpeed).
The part-load impact on coil energy use is automatically applied to the lowest stage.
When the model determines performance at Stage 1 (the lowest stage) or cycling between OFF
and Stage 1, its performance is almost the same as the performance for the Coil:Heating:Electric
and Coil:Heating:Fuel models. However, the outlet conditions are calculated slightly differently.
Therefore, the Coil:Heating:Electric and Coil:Heating:Fuel model may be considered as subsets of
the multistage model described here. When the multistage coil model determines performance at
higher stages (above 1), the model linearly interpolates the performance at two consecutive stages
(n-1 and n) as needed to meet the heating load, with the fraction of time at each speed established
by the speed ratio. For the time being, this coil model can only be called by the parent object
AirLoopHVAC:UnitaryHeatPump:AirToAir:MultiSpeed.
The total delivered heating capacity for Stage 1 operating at the cycling ratio needed to meet
the requested heating load is:
where:
Qcoil,cycling is the delivered sensible heating capacity for Stage 1 operating at a specific cycling
ratio (W)
ṁSpeed 1 is the air mass flow rate through heating coil at Speed 1 as set by the parent object
(kg/s)
houtlet,f ull is the specific enthalpy of the coil outlet air during full-load operation at Stage 1 (no
cycling) (J/kg)
hinlet is the specific enthalpy of the coil inlet air (J/kg)
CycRatio is the cycling ratio at Stage 1, ratio of requested heating load to the full-load capacity
of the coil at Stage 1 (dimensionless).
It is assumed that the coil provides no heating capacity when the coil is OFF, even if the supply
air fan continues to operate.
The average specific enthalpy of the coil outlet air is then calculated based on the delivered
sensible heating capacity and the average air mass flow rate entering the coil:
Qcoil,cycling
houtlet,average = hinlet − · (15.280)
minlet
where:
houtlet,average is the average specific enthalpy at the coil outlet (J/kg)
ṁinlet is the mass flow rate at the inlet to the coil as established by the parent object (Ref.
AirLoopHVAC:UnitaryHeatPump:AirToAir:MultiStage, Mass Flow Rate Calculation). This flow
rate is the average value determined by the parent object, accounting for the specified flow rate
when the heating coil is ON and the specified flow rate when the heating coil is OFF for the time
step being simulated.
The heating coil’s outlet air humidity ratio equals the inlet air humidity ratio since the coil does
not change the moisture content of the air. So the average outlet air temperature is calculated
based on the inlet air humidity ratio and the average outlet air enthalpy using the psychrometric
function PsyTdbFnHW.
The main reason for using the above approach is that outlet air conditions are calculated in the
same way for all operating Stages.
• Full load outlet air specific enthalpy at Stage n-1 and Stage n
where:
houtlet,f ull Speed n is the specific enthalpy of the coil outlet air during full-load operation at Stage
n (no cycling) (J/kg)
houtlet,f ull Speed n−1 is the specific enthalpy of the coil outlet air during full-load operation at
Stage n-1 (no cycling) (J/kg).
• Effective total heating capacity
where:
Qcoil,SpeedRatio is the delivered sensible heating capacity at a given Stage ratio between two
consecutive Stages (W)
ṁSpeed n is the air mass flow rate through heating coil at Stage n as set by the parent object
(kg/s)
ṁSpeed n−1 is the air mass flow rate through heating coil at Stage 1 as set by the parent object
(kg/s).
• Average outlet air enthalpy
Qcoil,SpeedRatio
houtlet,average = hinlet − · (15.286)
minlet
where:
houtlet,average is the average specific enthalpy at the coil outlet (J/kg)
hinlet is the specific enthalpy of the coil inlet air (J/kg)
ṁinlet is the mass flow rate at the inlet to the coil as established by the parent object (Ref.
AirLoopHVAC:UnitaryHeatPump:AirToAir:MultiStage, Mass Flow Rate Calculation). This flow
rate is the average value determined by the parent object, accounting for the specified flow rate
when the heating coil is at Stage n and the specified flow rate when the heating coil is at Stage n-1
for the time step being simulated.
• Average outlet air temperature
The heating coil’s outlet air humidity ratio equals the inlet air humidity ratio since the coil does
not change the moisture content of the air. So the average outlet air temperature is calculated
based on the inlet air humidity ratio and the average outlet air enthalpy using the psychrometric
function PsyTdbFnHW.
• Full load energy inputs at Stage n-1 and Stage n
HeatingP ower = HeatingP owern (SpeedRatio) + HeatingP owern−1 (1.0 − SpeedRatio) (15.289)
• The total heating capacity modifier curve (function of temperature) can be a function of
both the outdoor and indoor air dry-bulb temperature or only the outdoor air dry-bulb
temperature. User has the choice of a bi-quadratic curve with two independent variables
or a quadratic curve as well as a cubic curve with a single independent variable. The bi-
quadratic curve is recommended if sufficient manufacturer data is available as it provides
sensitivity to the indoor air dry-bulb temperature and a more realistic output. The output of
884 CHAPTER 15. SIMULATION MODELS - ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
this curve is multiplied by the rated total heating capacity to give the total heating capacity
at specific temperature operating conditions (i.e., at an outdoor or indoor air temperature
different from the rating point temperature).
or
or
T otCapT empM odF ac = a+b (Tdb,i )+c(Tdb,i )2 +d (Tdb,o )+e(Tdb,o )2 +f (Tdb,i ) (Tdb,o ) (15.292)
where:
Tdb,i is the dry-bulb temperature of the air entering the indoor coil (◦ C)
Tdb,o is the dry-bulb temperature of the air entering the outdoor coil (◦ C).
• The total heating capacity modifier curve (function of flow fraction) is a quadratic or cubic
curve with the independent variable being the ratio of the actual air flow rate across the
heating coil to the rated air flow rate (i.e., fraction of full load flow). The output of this curve
is multiplied by the rated total heating capacity and the total heating capacity modifier curve
(function of temperature) to give the total heating capacity at the specific temperature and
air flow conditions at which the coil is operating.
or
where:
Actual air mass f low rate
f f = f low f raction = (15.295)
Rated air mass f low rate
Note: The actual volumetric airflow rate through the heating coil for any simulation time
step where the DX unit is operating should be between 0.00002684 m3 /s and .00008056 m3 /s
per watt of rated total heating capacity (200 - 600 cfm/ton). The simulation will issue a
warning message if this airflow range is exceeded.
15.2. COILS 885
• The energy input ratio (EIR) modifier curve (function of temperature) can be a function
of both the outdoor and indoor air dry-bulb temperature or only the outdoor air dry-bulb
temperature. User has the choice of a bi-quadratic curve with two independent variables or a
quadratic curve as well as a cubic curve with a single independent variable. The bi-quadratic
curve is recommended if sufficient manufacturer data is available as it provides sensitivity to
the indoor air dry-bulb temperature and a more realistic output. The output of this curve is
multiplied by the rated EIR (inverse of the rated COP) to give the EIR at specific temperature
operating conditions (i.e., at an outdoor or indoor air temperature different from the rating
point temperature).
or
or
EIRT empM odF ac = a + b (Tdb,i ) + c(Tdb,i )2 + d (Tdb,o ) + e(Tdb,o )2 + f (Tdb,i ) (Tdb,o ) (15.298)
• The energy input ratio (EIR) modifier curve (function of flow fraction) is a quadratic or cubic
curve with the independent variable being the ratio of the actual air flow rate across the
heating coil to the rated air flow rate (i.e., fraction of full load flow). The output of this
curve is multiplied by the rated EIR (inverse of the rated COP) and the EIR modifier curve
(function of temperature) to give the EIR at the specific temperature and air flow conditions
at which the coil is operating.
or
• The part-load fraction correlation (function of part-load ratio) is a quadratic or cubic curve
with the independent variable being part-load ratio (sensible heating load / steady-state
heating capacity). The output of this curve is used in combination with the rated EIR and
EIR modifier curves to give the “effective” EIR for a given simulation time step. The part-load
fraction (PLF) correlation accounts for efficiency losses due to compressor cycling.
or
where:
sensible heating load
P LR = part − load ratio = (15.303)
steady − state sensible heating capacity
The part-load fraction correlation should be normalized to a value of 1.0 when the part load
ratio equals 1.0 (i.e., no efficiency losses when the compressor(s) run continuously for the
simulation time step). For PLR values between 0 and 1 ( 0 < = PLR < 1), the following
rules apply: PLF > = 0.7 and PLF > = PLR.
If PLF < 0.7 a warning message is issued, the program resets the PLF value to 0.7, and the
simulation proceeds. The runtime fraction of the coil is defined a PLR/PLF. If PLF < PLR,
then a warning message is issued and the runtime fraction of the coil is limited to 1.0.
A typical part load fraction correlation for a conventional, single-speed DX heating coil (e.g.,
residential heat pump) would be: PLF = 0.85 + 0.15(PLR).
• The defrost energy input ratio (EIR) modifier curve (function of temperature) is a bi-quadratic
curve with two independent variables: outdoor air dry-bulb temperature and the heating coil
entering air wet-bulb temperature. The output of this curve is multiplied by the heating coil
capacity, the fractional defrost time period and the runtime fraction of the heating coil to
give the defrost power at the specific temperatures at which the coil is operating. This curve
is only required when a reverse-cycle defrost strategy is specified.
Def rostEIRT empM odF ac = a+ b (Twb,i ) + c(Twb,i )2 + d (Tdb,o ) + e(Tdb,o )2 +f (Twb,i ) (Tdb,o )
(15.304)
where:
Twb,i is the wet-bulb temperature of the air entering the indoor heating coil (◦ C)
Tdb,o is the dry-bulb temperature of the air entering the outdoor coil (◦ C).
All six curves are accessed through EnergyPlus’ built-in performance curve equation manager
(curve:quadratic, curve:cubic and curve:biquadratic). It is not imperative that the user utilize all
coefficients shown in the preceding Equations 15.290 through 15.304 in items (1) through (6) if their
performance equation has fewer terms (e.g., if the user’s PartLoadFrac performance curve is linear
instead of quadratic or cubic, simply enter the appropriate values for the coefficients a and b, and
set the remaining coefficients to zero).
The next input item for the Heating DX single speed coil is the supply air fan operation mode.
Either the supply air fan runs continuously while the DX coil cycles on/off, or the fan and coil
cycle on/off together. The next two inputs define the minimum outdoor dry-bulb temperature
that the heat pump compressor will operate and the maximum outdoor dry-bulb temperature for
defrost operation. Crankcase heater capacity and crankcase heater cutout temperature are entered
in the following two inputs. The final four inputs cover the type of defrost strategy (reverse-cycle or
resistive), defrost control (timed or on-demand), the fractional defrost time period (timed defrost
control only), and the resistive defrost heater capacity if a resistive defrost strategy is selected.
15.2. COILS 887
1. If the outdoor air dry-bulb temperature is below the specified minimum temperature for
compressor operation or the DX heating coil is not scheduled to operate, simply pass through
the heating coil inlet air conditions as the coil outlet conditions, set power and heating rates
equal to zero, and set crankcase heater power equal to the crankcase heater capacity value
specified by the input file.
2. If the outdoor air dry-bulb temperature is above the specified minimum temperature for
compressor operation and the DX heating coil is scheduled to operate, then:
(a) If the outdoor dry-bulb temperature is below the specified maximum outdoor dry-bulb
temperature for defrost operation, calculate a heating capacity multiplier, input power
multiplier and fractional defrost time period depending on the defrost strategy and de-
frost control type specified for the heating coil.
(b) Using the rated heating capacity and COP, the part-load curves specified for the DX
heating coil, the defrost multipliers calculated above (if applicable), and the part-load
ratio that is being requested of the heating coil, determine the following: heating coil
exiting air conditions (dry-bulb temperature, humidity ratio and enthalpy), total DX
coil heating rate, electric power during heating (compressors and outdoor fans), electric
power during defrost, and crankcase heater power.
The following paragraphs give a detailed description of the model calculations that are performed
when the DX heating coil is operating (i.e., scenario # 2 above).
is calculated by the model (for on-demand defrost) using an empirical equation and ∆ω coil,out .
Adjustment factors to total heating coil capacity and input power due to frost formation on the
outdoor coil are also calculated by empirical models with ∆ω coil,out or fractional defrost time period
as the independent variable. The defrost time period fraction and adjustment factors due to frost
formation on the outdoor coil vary depending on the defrost control type as shown below.
Timed Defrost:
F ractional Def rost T ime = time period specif ied by user = tf rac,def rost (15.307)
where:
Qdef rost is the additional indoor heating load due to reverse-cycle defrost (W )
Qtotal,rated is the total full-load heating capacity of the coil at rated conditions (W)
Pdef rost is the average defrost power for the simulation time step (W)
Qcap,def rost is the capacity of the resistive defrost heating element (W)
DefrostEIRTempModFac is the energy input ratio modifier curve applicable during defrost
P LR
RT F = = runtime f raction of the heating coil (15.317)
P artLoadF rac
Qtotal = Qtotal,rated (T otCapT empM odF ac) (T otCapF lowM odF ac) (15.318)
If the outdoor air dry-bulb temperature is below the maximum temperature for defrost operation,
then the total heating capacity is further adjusted due to outdoor coil frost formation based on the
results of Equation 15.318 and Equation 15.308 or 15.311.
1
EIR = Energy Input Ratio = (EIRT empM odF ac) (EIRF lowM odF ac) (15.323)
COPrated
COPrated is the coefficient of performance at rated conditions (user input)
InputPowerMultiplier is the power adjustment due to frost if applicable as in Equation 15.309
or 15.312.
The crankcase heater is assumed to operate when the heating coil’s compressor is OFF, and the
average crankcase heater power for the simulation time step is calculated as follows:
890 CHAPTER 15. SIMULATION MODELS - ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
P LR
RT F = = runtime f raction of the heating coil (15.325)
P artLoadF rac
where:
Pcrankcase is the average crankcase heater power for the simulation time step (W)
Qcap,crankcase is the crankcase heater capacity (W).
If this heating coil is used as part of an air-to-air heat pump (Ref. AirLoopHVAC:UnitaryHeat-
Pump:AirToAir), the crankcase heater defined for this DX heating coil is enabled during the time
that the compressor is not running for either heating or cooling (and the crankcase heater power
defined in the DX cooling coil object is disregarded in this case). In this instance, RTF in the above
equations would be the runtime fraction of the heat pump’s heating coil or cooling coil, whichever
is greater.
The properties of the air leaving the heating coil at full-load operation are calculated using the
following equations:
Qtotal
houtlet = hinlet + (15.326)
ṁ
Tdb,outlet,ContF anCycComp = P syT dbF nHW (houtlet,ContF anCycComp , ωoutlet,ContF anCycComp ) (15.331)
892 CHAPTER 15. SIMULATION MODELS - ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
15.2.11.9 References
DOE. 1982. DOE-2 engineers manual, version 2.1A. LBL-11353. Berkeley, CA: Lawrence Berkeley
National Laboratory.
ESTSC. 2001. DOE-2.1E Version 110 (source code).Oak Ridge, TN: Energy Science and Tech-
nology Software Center.
Miller, R.L. and Jaster, H. 1985. Performance of Air-Source Heat Pumps. EM-4226. Palo Alto,
CA: Electric Power Research Institute.
Q̇HighStandardRating is the total standard heating capacity (W) of the air-source heat pump equip-
ment in heating mode determined from ANSI/AHRI Standard 210/240 and test conditions shown in
Table 15.10. The standard heating test conditions for air-cooled condenser are: indoor coil entering
air dry-bulb 21.1◦ C and outdoor coil entering air dry-bulb 8.33◦ C
Q̇total,Rated is the rated total heating capacity, user input (W)
T otCapT empM odF acRated is the user-specified bi-quadratic curve evaluated at the indoor coil
entering air dry-bulb 21.1◦ C and outdoor coil entering air dry-bulb 8.33◦ C for air-cooled condenser
as specified in Table 15.9 (dimensionless)
F anP ower,Rated is the supply air fan power at rated conditions, (W). The Rated Indoor Coil Fan
Power Per Volume Flow rate is a user-entered value, with a default of 773.3 W/(m3 /s)) if the user
leaves this input field blank. The default value is taken from ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 210/240-
2008 where it is defined for systems which do not have an Indoor Coil fan furnished as part of the
system. See the description given at the end of this section for how this value is calculated.
Calculations of HSPF of a heat pump having a single-speed compressor that was tested with a
fixed speed indoor fan installed, a constant-air-volume-rate indoor fan installed, or with no indoor
fan installed is given below.
J
P
nj
N
· BL(Tj )
j
HSP F = J h i J h i · Fdef (15.336)
P eh (Tj ) P RH(Tj )
N
+ N
j j
where:
eh (Tj )
N
is the ratio of the electrical energy consumed by the heat pump during periods of the space
heating season when the outdoor temperature fell within the range represented by bin temperature
Tj to the total number of hours (N) in the heating season (W)
RH(Tj )
N
= The ratio of the electrical energy used for resistive space heating during periods when
the outdoor temperature fell within the range represented by bin temperature Tj to the total
number of hours (N) in the heating season (W)
Tj is the outdoor bin temperature (◦ C). Outdoor temperatures are “binned” such that calcula-
tions are only performed based one temperature within the bin. Bins of 2.78◦ C are used
nj
N
is the fractional bin hours for the heating season; the ratio of the number of hours during the
heating season when the outdoor temperature fell within the range represented by bin temperature
n
Tj to the total number of hours in the heating season, dimensionless. Obtain Nj values from Table
17 of AHRI Std. 210/240-2008 (Table 15.10 below).
j is the bin number (dimensionless)
J is, for each generalized climatic region, the total number of temperature bins (dimensionless).
Referring to Table 15.10, J is the highest bin number (j) having a nonzero entry for the fractional
bin hours for the generalized climatic region of interest.
Fdef is the demand defrost credit described in section 3.9.2 of AHRI Std. 210/240-2008 (dimen-
sionless). For simplification, assigned a value of 1 for timed defrost control and a value of 1.03 for
demand defrost control.
BL(Tj ) is the building space conditioning load corresponding to an outdoor temperature ofTj ;
the heating season building load also depends on the generalized climatic region’s outdoor design
temperature and the design heating requirement (W).
Building heating load can be evaluated by using the following equation:
(18.33 − Tj )
BL(Tj ) = · C · DHR (15.337)
(18.33 − TOD )
where:
TOD is the outdoor design temperature (◦ C. An outdoor design temperature is specified for each
generalized climatic region in Table 17 of AHRI Std. 210/240-2008 (Table 15.10 below).
C is 0.77, a correction factor which tends to improve the agreement between calculated and
measured building loads (dimensionless)
DHR is the Design Heating Requirement (W). This is the amount of heating required to main-
tain a given indoor temperature at a particular outdoor design temperature.
For a single speed heat pump with a fixed speed indoor fan installed, a constant-air-volume-rate
indoor fan installed, or with no indoor fan installed, the minimum and maximum design heating
requirements for each generalized climatic region can be calculated as follows:
15.2. COILS 895
( )
Q̇h (8.33) · (1.8) · 18.33−T OD
, f or Regions I, II, III, IV, and V I
DHRmin = 60.0
(15.338)
Q̇h (8.33), f or Region V
( )
2 · Q̇h (8.33) · (1.8) · 18.33−T
60.0
OD
, f or Regions I, II, III, IV, and V I
DHRmax =
2.2 · Q̇h (8.33), f or Region V
(15.339)
Both DHRmin and DHRmax above should be rounded to the nearest standardized DHR given
in Table 15.11.
The intermediate term used in the calculations of HSPF can be calculated using the equations
described below.
·
eh (Tj ) X(Tj ) · Eh (Tj ) · δ(Tj ) nj
= · (15.340)
N P LFj N
RH(Tj ) · nj
= BL(Tj ) − X(Tj ) · Qh (Tj ) · δ(Tj ) · (15.341)
N N
Where,
·
BL(TJ )/ Qh (Tj )
X(Tj ) = or (15.342)
1
whichever is less; the heating mode load factor for temperature bin j, dimensionless.
·
Qh (Tj ) is the space heating capacity of the heat pump when operating at outdoor temperature
Tj (W)
·
Eh (Tj ) is the electrical power consumption of the heat pump when operating at outdoor tem-
perature Tj (W)
δ(Tj ) is the heat pump low temperature cut-out factor (dimensionless)
P LFj is the part load factor (dimensionless)
The part load factor is determined as follows:
Eh (Tj )
896 CHAPTER 15. SIMULATION MODELS - ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
where:
Tof f is the outdoor temperature when the compressor is automatically shut off (◦ C). Note that
if no such temperature exists, Tj is always greater than Tof f andTon .
Ton is the outdoor temperature when the compressor is automatically turned back on, if appli-
cable, following an automatic shut-off (◦ C).
Calculate Q̇h · (Tj ) and Ėh · (Tj ) using:
Q̇ (−8.33) + [Q˙h (8.33)−Q˙h (−8.33)]·(Tj +8.33) , if T ≥ 7.22◦ C or T ≤ −8.33◦ C
h j j
Q̇h (Tj ) = 16.67
(15.345)
Q̇ (−8.33) + [Q̇h (1.67)−Q̇h (−8.33)]·(Tj +8.33) , if − 8.33◦ C < T < 7.22◦ C
h 10 j
Ė (−8.33) + [E˙h (8.33)−E˙h (−8.33)]·(Tj +8.33) , if T ≥ 7.22◦ C or T ≤ −8.33◦ C
h j j
Ėh (Tj ) = 16.67
(15.346)
Ė (−8.33) + [ Ėh (1.67)− Ėh (−8.33)]·(Tj +8.33)
, if − 8.33◦ C < Tj < 7.22◦ C
h 10
Q̇h (−8.33), Q̇h (1.67), Q̇h (8.33), E˙h (−8.33), E˙h (1.67) and E˙h (8.33) are the (net) values cal-
culated using performance curves entered by the user and supply fan power per rated air flow
rate.
The total delivered heating capacity for speed 1 operating at the cycling ratio needed to meet
the requested heating load is:
The average specific enthalpy of the coil outlet air is then calculated based on the delivered
sensible heating capacity and the average air mass flow rate entering the coil:
Qcoil,cycling
houtlet,average = hinlet − (15.348)
ṁinlet
where:
houtlet,average is the average specific enthalpy at the coil outlet (J/kg)
900 CHAPTER 15. SIMULATION MODELS - ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
ṁinlet is the mass flow rate at the inlet to the coil as established by the parent object (Ref.
AirLoopHVAC:UnitaryHeatPump:AirToAir:MultiSpeed, Mass Flow Rate Calculation). This flow
rate is the average value determined by the parent object, accounting for the specified flow rate
when the heating coil is ON and the specified flow rate when the heating coil is OFF for the time
step being simulated.
The heating coil’s outlet air humidity ratio equals the inlet air humidity ratio since the coil does
not change the moisture content of the air. So the average outlet air temperature is calculated
based on the inlet air humidity ratio and the average outlet air enthalpy using the psychrometric
function PsyTdbFnHW.
The main reason for using the above approach is that outlet air conditions are calculated in the
same way for all operating speeds.
The crankcase heater defined for this DX heating coil is enabled during the time that the
compressor is not running for either heating or cooling. The crankcase heater power use from either
heating or cooling is reported in the heating coil.
T otCapn−1 = RatedCapn−1 (T otCapT empM odF acn−1 ) (T otCapF lowM odF acn−1 ) (15.349)
T otCapn = RatedCapn (T otCapT empM odF acn ) (T otCapF lowM odF acn ) (15.350)
where:
TotCapi is the total delivered heating capacity at given temperatures and flow rates at Speed i
(W)
RatedCapi is the heating capacity at the rated conditions at Speed i (W)
TotCapTempModFaci is the total heating capacity modifier as a function of indoor and outdoor
air dry-bulb temperature at Speed i
TotCapFlowModFaci is the total heating capacity modifier as a function of the ratio of the actual
flow rate across the heating coil to the rated airflow rate at Speed i
i is Speed n or Speed n-1.
EIRn−1 = RatedEIRn−1 (EIRT empM odF acn−1 ) (EIRF lowM odF acn−1 ) (15.351)
EIRn = RateEIRn (EIRT empM odF acn ) (EIRF lowM odF acn ) (15.352)
15.2. COILS 901
where:
EIRi is the energy input ratio at given temperatures and flow rates at Speed i (W)
RatedEIRi is the energy input ratio at the rated conditions at Speed i (W)
EIRTempModFaci is the energy input ratio modifier as a function of indoor and outdoor air
dry-bulb temperature at Speed i
EIRFlowModFaci is the energy input ratio modifier as a function of the ratio of the actual flow
rate across the heating coil to the rated airflow rate at Speed i
i is Speed n or Speed n-1.
• Full load outlet air specific enthalpy at Speed n-1 and Speed n
where,
Qcoil,SpeedRatio is the delivered sensible heating capacity at a given speed ratio between two
consecutive speeds (W)
ṁSpeed n is the air mass flow rate through heating coil at Speed n as set by the parent object
(kg/s)
ṁSpeed n−1 is the air mass flow rate through heating coil at Speed 1 as set by the parent object
(kg/s).
Qcoil,SpeedRatio
houtlet,average = hinlet − (15.356)
ṁinlet
where:
houtlet,average is the average specific enthalpy at the coil outlet (J/kg)
hinlet is the specific enthalpy of the coil inlet air (J/kg)
902 CHAPTER 15. SIMULATION MODELS - ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
ṁinlet is the mass flow rate at the inlet to the coil as established by the parent object (Ref.
AirLoopHVAC:UnitaryHeatPump:AirToAir:MultiSpeed, Mass Flow Rate Calculation). This flow
rate is the average value determined by the parent object, accounting for the specified flow rate
when the heating coil is at Speed n and the specified flow rate when the heating coil is at Speed
n-1 for the time step being simulated.
The heating coil’s outlet air humidity ratio equals the inlet air humidity ratio since the coil does
not change the moisture content of the air. So the average outlet air temperature is calculated
based on the inlet air humidity ratio and the average outlet air enthalpy using the psychrometric
function PsyTdbFnHW.
When the input for the field ‘Apply Part Load Fraction to Speeds Greater than 1’ is No (equiv-
alent to a single compressor), the combined energy output is calculated as follows:
HeatingP ower = HeatingP owern (SpeedRatio) + HeatingP owern−1 (1.0 − SpeedRatio) (15.359)
When the input for the field ’Apply Part Load Fraction to Speeds Greater than 1’ is Yes
(equivalent to multiple compressors), the combined energy output is calculated as follows:
where:
HeatingPower is the power used (W)
RTFis the run time fraction (SpeedRatio/Part-load Fraction) at Speed n.
When the defrost strategy is resistive, the power calculation is the same as Speed 1 operation
(Ref. Coil:Heating:DX:SingleSpeed). When the defrost strategy is reverse-cycle, the following
calculations are performed:
Qtotal,rated,n
Qdef rost,n = 0.01(tf rac,def rost )(7.222 − Tdb,o ) (15.361)
1.01667
Qtotal,rated,n−1
Pdef rost,n−1 = Def rostEIRT empM odF ac (tf rac,def rost ) (15.362)
1.01667
Qtotal,rated,n
Pdef rost,n = Def rostEIRT empM odF ac (tf rac,def rost ) (15.363)
1.01667
where:
Qdef rost,n is the additional indoor heating load due to reverse-cycle defrost at Speed n (W )
Qtotal,rated,n is the total full-load heating capacity of the coil at rated conditions at Speed n (W)
Pdef rost,n−1 is the full load defrost power for the simulation time step at Speed n-1 (W)
Pdef rost,n is the full load defrost power for the simulation time step at Speed n (W)
Qtotal,rated,n−1 is the capacity of the resistive defrost heating element at Speed n-1 (W)
Qtotal,rated,n is the capacity of the resistive defrost heating element at Speed n (W)
DefrostEIRTempModFac is the defrost energy input ratio (EIR) modifier curve (Ref.
Coil:Heating:DX:SingleSpeed).
Tf rac,def rost is the fractional defrost time (Ref. Coil:Heating:DX:SingleSpeed).
When the input for the field ‘Apply Part Load Fraction to Speeds Greater than 1’ is No (equiv-
alent to a single compressor), the average defrost power is calculated as follows:
Pdef rost = Pdef rost,n (SpeedRatio) + Pdef rost,n−1 (1.0 − SpeedRatio) (15.364)
When the input for the field ’Apply Part Load Fraction to Speeds Greater than 1’ is Yes
(equivalent to multiple compressors), the combined defrost energy is calculated as follows:
• Crankcase heater
P
M
nj
N
· BL (Tj )
j
HSP F = · Fdef (15.367)
P
M
eh (Tj ) P
M
RH(Tj )
N
+ N
j j
15.2. COILS 905
where:
BL(Tj ) is the building space conditioning load corresponding to an outdoor temperature of Tj ;
the heating season building load also depends on the generalized climatic region’s outdoor design
temperature and the design heating requirement (Btu/h).
eh (Tj )/N is the ratio of the electrical energy consumed by the heat pump during periods of
the space heating season when the outdoor temperature fell within the range represented by bin
temperature Tj to the total number of hours (N) in the heating season (W). For heat pumps having
a heat comfort controller, this ratio may also include electrical energy used by resistive elements to
maintain a minimum air delivery temperature.
RH(Tj )/N is the ratio of the electrical energy used for resistive space heating during periods
when the outdoor temperature fell within the range represented by bin temperature Tj to the total
number of hours (N) in the heating season (W). Resistive space heating is modeled as being used
to meet that portion of the building load that the heat pump does not meet because of insufficient
capacity or because the heat pump automatically turns off at the lowest outdoor temperatures.
Tj is the outdoor bin temperature (◦ C). Outdoor temperatures are “binned” such that calcula-
tions are only performed based one temperature within the bin. Bins of 2.78◦ C are used.
nj /N is the fractional bin hours for the heating season; the ratio of the number of hours during the
heating season when the outdoor temperature fell within the range represented by bin temperature
Tj to the total number of hours in the heating season, dimensionless, given in Table 15.10.
j is the bin number (dimensionless)
M is for each generalized climatic region, the total number of temperature bins, dimensionless.
Referring to Table 15.10, M is the highest bin number (j) having a nonzero entry for the fractional
bin hours for the generalized climatic region of interest.
Fdef is the demand defrost credit described in section 3.9.2 of AHRI Std. 210/240-2008, dimen-
sionless. For simplification, assigned a value of 1 for timed defrost control and a value of 1.03 for
demand defrost control.
The building heating load is calculated as follows:
18.33−Tj
BL (Tj ) = · C · DHR (15.368)
18.33−TOD
The minimum and maximum design heating requirements for each generalized climate regions
are given by:
(
18.33−TOD
8.33Q̇k=2
h for Regions I, II, III, IV, and VI
DHRmin = 33.33
k=2
(15.369)
8.33Q̇h for Region V
and
(
2 · 8.33Q̇k=2
h
18.33−TOD
for Regions I, II, III, IV, and VI
DHRmin = 33.33
(15.370)
2 · 8.33Q̇h
k=2
for Region V
where:
C = 0.77, a correction factor which tends to improve the agreement between calculated and
measured building loads (dimensionless)
DHR is the design heating requirement for each generalized climate region (Btu/h)
Q̇k=2
h (8.33) is the heating capacity determined from H12 test (W).
906 CHAPTER 15. SIMULATION MODELS - ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
The heating capacity delivered and electric power input of the heat pump when operating at
minimum (low) compressor capacity and outdoor air temperature of Tj is given by:
_ [_
Ek=1 (16.67)−_
Ek=1 (8.33)]·(Tj −8.33)
E k=1
(8.33) + h h
, if Tj ≥ 4.44◦ C
h (16.67−8.33)
_
Ek=1 _ [_
Ek=1 (1.67)−_Ek=1 (−8.33)]·(Tj +8.33)
h (Tj ) = Ek=1 (−8.33) + h h
, if − 8.33◦ C ≤ Tj < 4.44◦ C
h (1.67+8.33)
_ _ _ k=1
[Ek=1 (8.33)−Eh (−8.33)]·(Tj +8.33)
Ek=1 (−8.33) + h
h (8.33+8.33)
, ifT < −8.33◦ C
j
(15.372)
where:
_k=1 (16.67) and _
Q Ek=1 (16.67) are determined from the H01 test
h h
_k=1 (8.33) and _
Q E k=1
(8.33) are determined from the H11 test
h h
_ k=1 _ k=1
Qh (1.67) and Eh (1.67) are determined from the H21 test
_k=1 (−8.33) and _
Q Ek=1 (−8.33) are determined from the H31 test.
h h
An alternative to conducting or evaluating the performance at the H21 test is to approximate
the capacity and electric power inputs as follows:
_ k=1 k=1
Ek=1
h (1.67) = 0.985 · _
Eh (−8.33) + 0.6 _
Eh (8.33) − _
Ek=1
h (−8.33) (15.374)
The heating capacity delivered and electric power input of the heat pump when operating at
maximum (high) compressor speed and outdoor air temperature of Tj is given by:
Q̇k=2 (−8.33) + [Q̇k=2
h (8.33)−Q̇k=2
h (−8.33)]·(Tj +8.33)
, if Tj ≥ 7.2◦ C or Tj ≤ −8.33◦ C
k=2 h 8.33+8.33
Q̇h (Tj ) =
Q̇k=2 (−8.33) + h
[ Q̇k=2 (1.67)−Q̇k=2 (−8.33) ·(T +8.33)
h ] j
, if − 8.33◦ C < Tj < 7.2◦ C
h 1.67+8.33
(15.375)
Ė k=2 (−8.33) + [Ėhk=2 (8.33)−Ėhk=2 (−8.33)]·(Tj +8.33) , if Tj ≥ 7.2◦ C or Tj ≤ −8.33◦ C
h
Ėhk=2 (Tj ) = 8.33+8.33
Ė k=2 (−8.33) + [Ėhk=2 (1.67)−Ėhk=2 (−8.33)]·(Tj +8.33) , if − 8.33◦ C < Tj < 7.2◦ C
h 1.67+8.33
(15.376)
where:
Q̇k=2
h (8.33) and Ėhk=2 (8.33) are determined from the H12 test
Q̇h (1.67) and Ėhk=2 (1.67) are determined from the H22 test
k=2
Q̇k=2
h (−8.33) and Ėhk=2 (−8.33) are determined from the H32 test.
15.2. COILS 907
The electric energy used by the heat pumps differs depending up on whether the heat pump
would operate at low (minimum) capacity, cycle between successive lower and higher speed capaci-
ties, or operate at high speed capacity in responding to the building load. The procedure for each
operation cases is described next.
Case 1: The steady state heating capacity when the unit is operating at minimum or low
capacity, i.e., when the building heating load is less or equal to the low capacity:
Q̇k=1
c (Tj ) ≥ BL (Tj ) (15.377)
RH (Tj ) nj
=BL (Tj ) · [1−δ ′ (Tj )] · (15.379)
N N
( )
BL (T ) / _k=1 (T )
Q
j j
Xk=1 (Tj ) = MIN h
(15.380)
1.0
0, if Tj ≤ Toff
′
δ (Tj ) = 1/2, if Toff < Tj ≤ Ton (15.381)
1, if Tj > Ton
h
P LFj = 1−CD · 1−Xk=1 (Tj ) (15.382)
h
where CD is the degradation coefficient which has a minimum value of 0.25.
Case 2: The unit cycles between the low (minimum) and high (maximum) compressor capacity
to meet the building heating load at outdoor air temperature Tj . That is, the heating building
load is between the unit low and high compressor capacities:
Q̇k=1 k=2
h (Tj ) < BL(Tj ) < Q̇h (Tj ) (15.383)
ec (Tj ) h k=1 i nj
= X (Tj ) · Ėhk=1 (Tj ) + X k=2 (Tj ) · Ėhk=2 (Tj ) · δ ′ (Tj ) · (15.384)
N N
RH (Tj ) nj
= BL (Tj ) · [1−δ ′ (Tj )] · (15.385)
N N
0, if T j ≤ T off
′
δ (Tj ) = 1
, if Toff < Tj ≤ Ton (15.386)
2
1, if Tj > Ton
h (Tj ) − BL(Tj )
Q̇k=2
X k=1 (Tj ) = (15.387)
Q̇h (Tj ) − Q̇k=1
k=2
h (Tj )
Case 3: The steady-state heating capacity when the unit is operating continuously at high or
maximum compressor capacity at outdoor air temperature Tj . The building heating load is greater
than the available capacity at maximum or high compressor capacity:
BL (Tj ) ≥ Q̇k=2
c (Tj ) (15.389)
For units when operating continuously at maximum compressor speed (k = 2) speed at temper-
ature Tj , the delivered heating capacity and electric power inputs are calculated as follows:
ec (Tj ) h k=2 i n
= Ėh (Tj ) · δ ′′ (Tj ) ·
j
(15.390)
N N
RH(Tj ) n h
′′
io n
j
= BL(Tj ) − Q̇h (Tj ) · δ (Tj ) ·
k=2
(15.391)
N N
0, if T ≤ T or
Q̇k=2 (Tj )
k=2 (T ) < 1
h
j off Ėh j
′′ Q̇k=2 (Tj )
δ (Tj ) = 1
, if Toff < Tj ≤ Ton and Ė k=2 h
≥1 (15.392)
2 (Tj)
h
1, if Tj > Ton and Q̇k=2
k=2 (Tj )
Ė
h
(T )
≥1
h j
where:
X(Tj ) is the heating mode load factor for temperature bin j (-)
_ (T ) is the space heating capacity of the heat pump when operating at outdoor temperature
Q h j
Tj (W)
_
Eh (Tj ) is the electrical power consumption of the heat pump when operating at outdoor tem-
perature Tj (W)
δ (Tj ) is the heat pump low temperature cut-off factor (-)
Tof f is the outdoor temperature when the compressor is automatically shut off (◦ C). (If no such
temperature exists, Tj is always greater than Tof f and Ton ).
Ton is the outdoor temperature when the compressor is automatically turned back on, if appli-
cable, following an automatic shut-off (◦ C).
Test Air Entering Indoor Air Entering Outdoor Compressor Heating Air
Description Unit Temperature Unit Temperature Speed Volume Flow
Rate
Dry Bulb Wet Bulb Dry Bulb Wet Bulb
◦
C (◦ F) ◦
C (◦ F) ◦
C (◦ F) ◦
C ◦ F)
H01 Test (re- 21.1 (70) 15.6 (60) 16.7 (62) 18.3 Low Heating Mini-
quired,steady) (max) (56.5) mum (1)
H12 Test (re- 21.1 (70) 15.6 (60) 8.33 (47) 6.11 (43) High Heating Full-
quired,steady) (max) Load (2)
H1C2 Test (re- 21.1 (70) 15.6 (60) 8.33 (47) 6.11 (43) High
quired, cyclic) (max)
15.2. COILS 909
H11 Test (re- 21.1 (70) 15.6 (60) 8.33 (47) 6.11 (43) Low Heating Mini-
quired,steady) (max) mum (1)
H1C1 Test (re- 21.1 (70) 15.6 (60) 8.33 (47) 6.11 (43) Low
quired, cyclic) (max)
H22 Test (re- 21.1 (70) 15.6 (60) 1.67 (35) 0.56 (33) High Heating Full-
quired) (max) Load
H21 Test (re- 21.1 (70) 15.6 (60) 1.67 (35) 0.56 (33) Low Heating Mini-
quired) (max) mum
H32 Test (re- 21.1 (70) 15.6 (60) -8.33 (17) -9.44 (15) High Heating Full-
quired,steady) (max) Load
H31 Test (re- 21.1 (70) 15.6 (60) -8.33 (17) -9.44 (15) Low Heating Mini-
quired,steady) (max) mum
Source: Table 11, ANSI/AHRI Standard 210/240-2008
15.2.13.10 References
AHRI 2008. ANSI/AHRI Standard 210/240: 2008 Standard for Performance Rating of Unitary Air-
Conditioning & Air-Source Heat Pump Equipment. Arlington, VA: Air-Conditioning, Heating,
and Refrigeration Institute.
See the references for the single speed DX heating coil earlier in this document.
The latest technology for commercial air conditioners and air-to-air heat pumps can utilize a variable
speed compressor with a variable speed indoor blower and outdoor fan. The indoor and outdoor air
flow rates are usually a function of the compressor speed. Refrigerant mass flow rate is a function
of compressor speed as well as outdoor heat exchanger entering air temperature and indoor dry
bulb or wet bulb. The control system adjusts the equipment capacity based on zone temperature
measurements relative to the thermostat set point. The control logic determines what compressor
speed is required to control to the zone temperature requirement in response to increased or de-
creased capacity (heating or cooling load). The compressor, fan and blower speeds are not discrete
values and can be considered to vary infinitesimally between the minimum and maximum compres-
sor speed. At the minimum compressor speed (which is different for heating and cooling), for a
continuous fan, the supply airflow is fixed and the unit will have to cycle for reduced part loads
below this point. For a cycling fan, the fan will cycle with the compressor.
Similar to variable-speed water source heat pump, we expand the number of speed levels and
the corresponding curve sets up to ten. The number of speed levels is selectable by the user. The
user can provide speed levels at any number from 1 to 10. In the case that the given speed levels are
above 1, the model would do linear interpolation between neighboring speeds. The more curves, the
more accurate. Furthermore, using linear interpolation and inputting air flow rates at individual
speed levels facilitates arbitrary relationships of flow rate as a function of the compressor speed
level.
910 CHAPTER 15. SIMULATION MODELS - ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
RatedTotalHeatingCapacity
CapacityScaleFactor = (15.393)
ReferenceUnitTotalHeatingCapacity@NominalSpeedLevel
And then, this scaling factor is used to determine capacities at rated conditions for other speed
levels, RatedTotalHeatingCapacity@SpeedLevel(x) = CapacityScaleFactor times ReferenceUnitTo-
talHeatingCapacity@SpeedLevel (x)
The Rated Volumetric Air Flow Rate is used to determine an internal scaling factor, and cal-
culate the air flow rates in the parent objects, as follows:
RatedVolumetricAirFlowRate
AirFlowScaleFactor =
ReferenceUnitVolAirFlowRate@NominalSpeedLevel × CapacityScaleFactor
(15.394)
where the loop volumetric air flow rates at various speed levels in the parent objects are calcu-
lated as LoopVolumetricAirFlowRate @ SpeedLevel (x) = AirFlowScaleFactor times ReferenceU-
nitVolAirFlowRate @ SpeedLevel (x) times CapacityScaleFactor.
If the volumetric air flow rate at one speed level is higher than the flow rate allowed by the fan
in the parent object, the flow rate will be set back to the fan flow rate.
If AirFlowScaleFactor equals unity, the loop air flow rate becomes the design flow rate of the
Reference Unit (after scaled by the rated heating capacity). The Rated Volumetric Air Flow Rate
is introduced here to correlate with the actual flow rate in the air loop, in case that it differs from
the design specification. Certainly, it is recommended that the Rated Volumetric Air Flow Rate is
selected in the way that AirFlowScaleFactor is unity, so as to get more accurate results from the
performance curves.
15.2. COILS 911
4. Energy input ratio (EIR) modifier curve (function of air flow fraction).
The flow fraction modifier curves are used as a placeholder, to account for off-design flow rates
if needed. If the manufacturer doesn’t provide off-design performances, we can simply use a default
modification multiplier of 1.0.
At the lowest speed, there will be one additional performance curve to account for the part-load
condition, i.e.
Additional details on each of the above five curves are provided in the following paragraphs.
The total heating capacity modifier as a function of temperature curve (CAP-FT) is a bi-
quadratic curve with two independent variables: dry-bulb temperature of the air entering the
heating coil and the air DB temperature entering the evaporator coil. The output of this curve is
multiplied by the rated total heating capacity at the speed, to give the total heating capacity at
the specific entering air temperatures at which the ASHP unit is operating (i.e., at temperatures
different from the rating point temperatures).
where:
DBi is the dry-bulb temperature of the air entering the heating coil (◦ C)
DBo is the dry-bulb temperature of the air entering the outdoor coil (◦ C)
a-f are regression curve-fit coefficients.
The energy input ratio modifier curve as a function of temperature (EIR-FT) is a biquadratic
curve with two independent variables DBi and DBo . The output of this curve is multiplied by
the rated EIR at the speed (inverse of the rated COP), to give the EIR at the specific entering
air temperatures at which the ASHP coil unit is operating (i.e., at temperatures different from the
rating point temperatures).
4) Energy input ratio (EIR) modifier curve (function of air flow fraction)
This field defines the name of a quadratic or cubic performance curve (Ref: Performance Curves)
that parameterizes the variation of electrical power input to the unit as a function of the part load
ratio (PLR, heating load/steady-state heating capacity for Speed 1):
Qtotal,1 = RatedTotalHeatingCapacity@SpeedLevel1
(15.403)
∗TotCapTemModFac1 ∗TotCapAirFlowModFac1
And the EIR is calculated as:
1.0
EIR1 = ∗EIRTempModFac1 ∗EIRAirFlowModFac1 (15.404)
ReferenceUnitCOP@Speed(1)
And the power consumption including the compressor, outdoor fan and accessories (not including
indoor fan power) is,
DesignAirFlowRateSpeedRatio = ReferenceUnitAirMassFlowRate@SpeedLevel (x − 1)
∗CapacityScaleFactor ∗ (1 − SpeedRatio)
+ReferenceUnitAirMassFlowRate@SpeedLevel (x)
∗CapacityScaleFactor ∗ SpeedRatio
(15.407)
and the fractions of air flow is given as:
The total heating capacities and EIRs at Speed x-1 and Speed x are given:
Qtotal,x−1 = RatedTotalHeatingCapacity@SpeedLevel (x − 1)
(15.409)
∗TotCapTempModFacx−1 ∗TotCapAirFlowModFacx−1
914 CHAPTER 15. SIMULATION MODELS - ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
1.0
EIRx−1 = EIRTempModFacx−1 ∗EIRAirFlowModFacx−1
ReferenceUnitCOP@Speed(x − 1)
(15.411)
1.0
EIRx = EIRTempModFacx ∗EIRAirFlowModFacx (15.412)
ReferenceUnitCOP@Speed(x)
The total heating capacity at the corresponding speed ratio is:
The input object Coil:Heating:Desuperheater provides a model that simulates the thermal per-
formance of a refrigerant-to-air heating coil and the parasitic electric consumption of its control
valves or other auxiliary devices. The model assumes that the heating energy provided by this coil
is reclaimed from the superheated refrigerant gas leaving a compressor and does not impact the
performance of the compressor. The objects from which this coil can obtain its heating energy are:
Coil:Cooling:DX:SingleSpeed
Coil:Cooling:DX:TwoSpeed
Coil:Cooling:DX:TwoStageWithHumidityControlMode
Refrigeration:CompressorRack
Refrigeration:Condenser* (multiple objects)
The heat reclaim recovery efficiency (specified by the user) defines the amount of heat available
for use by this coil. Approximately 25-30% of the energy rejected by typical refrigeration system
condensers is to reduce the superheated refrigerant vapor temperature to the condensing tempera-
ture. Recovery efficiencies higher than 30% may cause the refrigerant gas to condense which in turn
impacts the performance of the refrigeration compressor rack. For this reason, the maximum heat
reclaim recovery efficiency for this coil for all sources except the Refrigeration:Condenser:(Air, Wa-
ter, or Evap)Cooled is 30%.For these refrigeration condensers, the amount of waste energy available
in the superheat region is explicitly calculated, so for these condensers the maximum heat recovery
efficiency is 90% of this superheat energy. Also, for these refrigeration condensers, an estimate of
the temperature of the reclaimed heat source is made and compared to the inlet air temperature
for the coil. If the reclaimed heat source is too cool, the amount of available reclaim energy is set
to zero.
NOTE: When the heating source is a refrigeration compressor rack, the heat rejection location
in the Refrigeration:CompressorRack object must be “Outdoors”. If the compressor rack heat
rejection location is “Zone”, the total amount of heat rejection available for reclaim (e.g., by this
desuperheater heating coil) is set to zero by the compressor rack object and the simulation proceeds.
The sources for the waste heat can also be used to supply other coils. To avoid double-
counting this waste heat, the amount available is corrected to reflect these other uses. For the three
DX Cooling Coil sources, this correction is made within the same time step loop. For the two
refrigeration system sources, the correction is made using the value from the previous time step.
The desuperheater heating coil can be used in air loop simulations for various air heating ap-
plications. For example, it can be used as an air reheat coil for high humidity control in the
compound objects AirLoopHVAC:Unitary:Furnace:HeatCool and AirLoopHVAC:UnitaryHeatCool
(see High Humidity Control With HeatCool Configuration). For this application, the desuper-
heater coil is controlled based on the calculated heating load to maintain the zone temperature and
humidity setpoints (load-based control). The source of reclaimed heat could be the direct expan-
sion (DX) cooling coil itself (Coil:Cooling:DX:SingleSpeed) or a refrigerated case compressor rack
(Refrigeration:CompressorRack).
916 CHAPTER 15. SIMULATION MODELS - ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
The desuperheater heating coil can also be used with cooling/heating systems that maintain
specific air loop (deck) temperatures. For example, Figure 15.10 shows a schematic diagram of
the desuperheater heating coil used in conjunction with the CoilSystem:Cooling:DX object. The
desuperheater heating coil must be placed downstream of the DX cooling coil when reclaiming heat
from that cooling coil’s compressor(s). Desuperheating heating coil placement is unrestricted when
reclaiming heat from a refrigeration compressor rack or refrigeration condenser. The configuration
in Figure 15.10 shows the heating coil being controlled via a temperature-based strategy. In this
example, the DX cooling coil could be used to the maintain its discharge air temperature at 11°C for
zone dehumidification. The desuperheater heating coil could then raise the air dry-bulb temperature
to 16°C providing a dry supply air stream at a temperature which does not require much additional
heating by terminal units to meet the zone temperature setpoint.
Figure 15.10: Desuperheater Heating Coil Used as a Reheat Coil with CoilSystem:Cooling:DX
Since the heating provided by the desuperheater coil is based on available waste heat from an-
other system, the selection of fan control for the air loop equipment is essential for proper modeling.
When the coil’s heating source is a direct expansion cooling coil (Coil:Cooling:DX:SingleSpeed,
Coil:Cooling:DX:TwoSpeed, or Coil:Cooling:DX:TwoStageWithHumidityControlMode), the air
loop’s fan control mode may be auto fan (cycling fan cycling coil), constant fan, or variable volume
since the desuperheater heating coil cycles on/off with the DX cooling coil. When the heating
source is a compressor rack or condenser for refrigerated cases, the supply air fan control should
be either variable volume or constant fan since the desuperheater heating coil will typically be
available the entire simulation time step.
NOTE: Use of the desuperheater heating coil in variable air volume systems should be done with
caution since the model assumption of a fixed heat reclaim recovery efficiency may not be valid if
the air flow rate over the coil varies significantly.
15.2. COILS 917
The following sections describe the calculations used for both the load-based and temperature-
based strategies that can control the desuperheater heating coil.
Otherwise the amount of reclaimed heat is set equal to the coil’s heating capacity and the
desuperheater heating coil will operate the entire time that the waste heat source operates.
Q̇reclaim
Tout = Tin + (15.421)
ṁCp
where:
Tout is the coil outlet air temperature (◦ C)
Tin is the coil inlet air temperature (◦ C)
ṁ is the air mass flow rate through the heating coil (kg/s)
Cp is the specific heat of air entering the heating coil (J/kg-◦ C).
A final calculation is made to determine the runtime fraction of the desuperheater heating coil.
Since the maximum amount of reclaim heat available is dependent on the runtime fraction of the
waste heat source, the runtime fraction of the desuperheater heating coil is the product of the waste
heat source’s runtime fraction and the ratio of the amount of heat reclaimed to the desuperheater
coil’s heating capacity.
!
Q̇reclaim
RT Fcoil = RT Fsource (15.422)
Q̇coil
where:
RT Fcoil is the runtime fraction of the desuperheater heating coil
RT Fsource is the runtime fraction of the desuperheater heating source.
The heating coil’s outlet air humidity ratio and air mass flow rate are simply set equal to the coil
inlet air values. The outlet air enthalpy is calculated based on the outlet air dry-bulb temperature
and the outlet air humidity ratio.
Q̇reclaim = 0 (15.426)
Q̇reclaim
Tout = Tin + (15.429)
ṁCp
If the amount of heat required to meet the setpoint is less than the desuperheater coil’s heating
capacity, the amount of reclaimed heat is set equal to the calculated heating load and the outlet
air dry-bulb temperature is set equal to the setpoint temperature. In this case the desuperheater
heating coil will cycle off when the requested load is satisfied.
15.2.15.7 References
Kosar, D. 2006. Dehumidification Enhancements, ASHRAE Journal, Vol. 48, No. 2, February
2006.
Kosar, D. et al. 2006. Dehumidification Enhancement of Direct Expansion Systems Through
Component Augmentation of the Cooling Coil. 15th Symposium on Improving Building Systems in
Hot and Humid Climates, July 24-26, 2006.
Nimmo, B.G. et al. 1993.DEAC: Desiccant Enhancement of Cooling-Based Dehumidification.
ASHRAE Transactions, Vol.99, Part 1, Paper number CH-93-4-4, pp. 842-848.
for the coil. If the reclaimed heat source is too cool, the amount of available reclaim energy is set
to zero. For all heat sources, the model includes the ability to modify the heat reclaim recovery
efficiency based on variations in inlet water temperature and outdoor air dry-bulb temperature.
NOTE: When the heating source is a refrigerated case compressor rack, the heat rejection
location in the Refrigeration:CompressorRack object must be “Outdoors”. If the compressor rack
heat rejection location is “Zone”, the total amount of heat rejection available for reclaim (e.g., by
this desuperheater heating coil) is set to zero by the compressor rack object and the simulation
proceeds.
To model a desuperheater water heating coil, the input data file must include the following
objects:
• Coil:WaterHeating:Desuperheater
• WaterHeater:Mixed or WaterHeater:Stratified
A schematic diagram showing the desuperheater water heating coil with its water heater and
DX system condenser is shown below.
Limit
IF (εreclaim,rated ) (HEf F T emp) > Limit, THEN Hef f F T emp = (15.438)
εreclaim,rated
where:
15.2. COILS 923
where:
Q̇coil is the water heating capacity of the desuperheater coil (W)
Q̇cond is the average rate of condenser waste heat rejected by the heating source (W)
DXSystemP LR is the part load ratio for the desuperheater coil heating source (1.0 for refrig-
erated case compressor rack and detailed refrigeration condenser).
The desuperheater is assumed to have a water circulation pump located downstream of the
refrigerant-to-water coil. Pump heat is added to the desuperheater water heating capacity based
on a user-defined fraction as follows:
Qcoil
Twater,outlet = Twater,inlet + f or ṁwater > 0 (15.441)
ṁwater · Cp,water
Tcut−in − Ttank,f loat
P LR = M IN DXSystemP LR, M AX 0.0, (15.443)
Ttank,initial − Ttank,f loat
924 CHAPTER 15. SIMULATION MODELS - ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
where:
P LR is the part load ratio of desuperheater heating coil
Ttank,f loat is the tank temperature in float mode when heating capacity is set to zero (◦ C)
Ttank,initial is the tank water temperature at the beginning of a simulation time step (◦ C)
Since the water pump is assumed to cycle on and off with the desuperheater coil, the average
water mass flow rate through the desuperheater coil is then set proportional to the PLR calculated
above:
ṁwater,avg
Desuperheater P art Load , Ratio = M IN , DXSystemP LR (15.446)
ṁwater
Desuperheater W ater Heating Energy (J) = Q̇coil (P LR) (3600) (tsys ) (15.448)
Desuperheater P ump Electric Consumption (J) = Ppump (P LR) (3600) (tsys ) (15.450)
Desuperheater Heat Reclaim Ef f iciency M odif ier Curve Output = HEf f F T emp (15.451)
where:
Pparasiticload,on is the on-cycle parasitic electric load (W)
Pparasiticload,of f is the off-cycle parasitic electric load (W)
tsys is the HVAC system simulation time step (hours).
Note: All output variables, including off cycle parasitic electrical power and energy, equal 0
when the desuperheater heating coil availability schedule equals 0.
Figure 15.13: Psychrometric Process for Heat Exchanger Assisted Cooling Coil (Sensible HX Only)
the air temperature exiting the cooling coil on the previous modeling iteration for this simulation
time step. Convergence is reached when the change in this air temperature for successive iterations
is within a specified tolerance (0.0005◦ C). Consecutive modeling of the heat exchanger and cooling
coil is terminated and a warning message is issued if the number of modeling iterations exceeds 50.
For the CoilSystem:Cooling:DX:HeatExchangerAssisted object, heat exchanger operation can
be controlled based on high humidity levels in a zone. By default, the heat exchanger is assumed to
always provide its heat transfer when the associated DX cooling coil is operating and no humidity
control mechanism is specified. However, the heat exchanger’s energy transfer may be controlled
(i.e., turned on and off) based on a zone air humidity level using either a humidistat alone (Fig-
ure 15.15) or a humidistat and a maximum humidity setpoint manager (Figure 15.16) depending
on the HVAC system that is utilizing the heat exchanger assisted cooling coil.
The heat exchanger assisted DX cooling coil may be used with furnaces or unitary sys-
tems located in an air loop (ref. AirLoopHVAC:Unitary:Furnace:HeatCool or AirLoopH-
VAC:UnitaryHeatCool). These system objects have three options for dehumidification control
(None, Multimode, and CoolReheat). When no dehumidification control is specified in the furnace
or unitary system object (None), the heat exchanger is always active when the cooling coil is
operating. When multimode or coolreheat dehumidification control is specified, a humidistat is
required as shown in Figure 15.15. For the case of multimode dehumidification control, the heat
exchanger is only active when the zone air humidity level is above the humidistat setpoint (i.e.,
the system’s cooling coil can’t meet the latent cooling load when operating without heat exchanger
energy transfer) while the AC system operates to meet the sensible (dry-bulb cooling thermostat)
load. For the case of coolreheat dehumidification control, the heat exchanger is always active when
928 CHAPTER 15. SIMULATION MODELS - ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
Figure 15.14: Psychrometric Process for Heat Exchanger Assisted Cooling Coil (Sensible+Latent
HX)
the cooling coil operates and this system tries to meet both the sensible (thermostat) and latent
(humidistat) loads.
The heat exchanger assisted DX cooling coil may also be used with a DX system located in an
air loop (ref. CoilSystem:Cooling:DX). This system object also has three options for dehumidifica-
tion control (None, Multimode, and CoolReheat). When no dehumidification control is specified
(None), the heat exchanger is always active when the cooling coil is operating. When multimode
or coolreheat dehumidification control is specified, a humidistat and a maximum humidity setpoint
manager are required as shown in Figure 15.16 (setpoint needs to be placed on the DX system’s
control node). For multimode dehumidification control, the heat exchanger is only active when the
zone humidity levels are above the humidistat setpoint (i.e., the system’s cooling coil can’t meet the
maximum humidity ratio setpoint when operating without heat exchanger energy transfer) while
the AC system operates to meet the sensible (dry-bulb cooling thermostat) load. For coolreheat
dehumidification control, the heat exchanger is always active when the cooling coil operates and
this system tries to meet both the sensible (thermostat) and latent (humidistat) loads.
When the heat exchanger assisted cooling coil is used with a furnace or unitary system (ref.
AirLoopHVAC:Unitary:Furnace:HeatCool or AirLoopHVAC:UnitaryHeatCool) or DX system (ref.
CoilSystem:Cooling:DX) located in an air loop (or DX system used in an outside air system),
an ecomizier function may be customized as necessary. For economizer control, an outdoor air
controller (ref. Controller:OutdoorAir) is used to define the economizer control inputs and determine
when economizer mode is active. The heat exchanger (ref. HeatExchanger:*) object provides an
economizer lockout feature which disables heat recovery any time the economizer is active. This
feature can be turned on and off using the heat exchanger lockout input. Heat exchanger assisted
15.2. COILS 929
Figure 15.15: Schematic of a heat exchanger assisted DX cooling coil with optional humidistat
cooling coils used with the zone equipment described below disregard this economizer control feature.
The heat exchanger assisted DX cooling coil may also be used with the unitary changeover bypass
system and the unitary air-to-air heat pump system (ref. AirLoopHVAC:UnitaryHeatCool:VAV-
ChangeoverBypass and AirLoopHVAC:UnitaryHeatPump:AirToAir); however, the heat exchanger
is assumed to always provide its heat transfer when the cooling coil operates and can not be turned
on and off based on a zone air humidity setpoint (ref. Figure 15.12). Two zone air conditioners may
also use this heat exchanger/coil assembly model for improved dehumidification. The first type is
the packaged terminal heat pump (ref. ZoneHVAC:PackagedTerminalHeatPump) where the heat
exchanger’s heat transfer is always active whenever the cooling coil operates (ref. Figure 15.12).
The second type is the window air conditioner (ref. ZoneHVAC:WindowAirConditioner) where the
heat exchanger’s heat transfer is always active when the cooling coil operates and no humidity
control mechanism is specified (ref. Figure 15.12), or the heat exchanger’s heat transfer may be
controlled based on zone air humidity level when a humidistat and high humidity setpoint manager
are specified (maximum humidity ratio setpoint must be placed on the heat exchanger’s exhaust
air outlet node). For this case, the heat exchanger is only active when the zone air humidity level is
above the humidistat setpoint (i.e., the system’s cooling coil can’t meet the maximum humidity ratio
setpoint when operating without heat exchanger energy transfer) while only the sensible (dry-bulb
cooling thermostat) load is met by the AC system (ref. Figure 15.16).
For the CoilSystem:Cooling:Water:HeatExchangerAssisted object, there is currently no method
to enable or disable heat exchange based on zone air humidity level. Heat exchange will occur
whenever the heat exchanger is available to operate (via its availability schedule) and a temperature
difference exists between the two air streams.
930 CHAPTER 15. SIMULATION MODELS - ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
Figure 15.16: Schematic of Heat Exchanger Assisted DX Coil with Humidistat and Setpoint Man-
ager
15.2.17.1 References
Kosar, D. 2006. Dehumidification Enhancements, ASHRAE Journal, Vol. 48, No. 2, February
2006.
Kosar, D. et al. 2006. Dehumidification Enhancement of Direct Expansion Systems Through
Component Augmentation of the Cooling Coil. 15th Symposium on Improving Building Systems in
Hot and Humid Climates, July 24-26, 2006.
Nimmo, B.G. et al. 1993.DEAC: Desiccant Enhancement of Cooling-Based Dehumidification.
ASHRAE Transactions, Vol.99, Part 1, Paper number CH-93-4-4, pp. 842-848.
denser waste heat for water heating, and thus achieve significant energy saving. The control and
operation of ASIHPs are complicated because they have six working modes in total: (1) space cool-
ing (SC), (2) space heating (SH), (3) dedicated water heating (DWH), (4) combined space cooling
and water heating with full condensing (SCWH), (5) combined space cooling and water heating with
desuperheating (SCDWH), and (6) combined space heating and water heating with desuperheating
(SHDWH).
The SC mode has the same operation as Coil:Cooling:DX:VariableSpeed. The SH mode has the
same operation as Coil:Heating:DX:VariableSpeed. The DWH mode uses outdoor air as the heating
source, which can be represented by an object of Coil:WaterHeating:AirToWaterHeatPump:VariableSpeed.
The SCWH mode uses indoor air as the heating source and full condenser heat for water heating.
Coil:WaterHeating:AirToWaterHeatPump:VariableSpeed is used for the mode.
The SCDWH mode uses the superheated section of an outdoor condenser to heat the
water. In this combined SCDWH mode, the cooling function is simulated using an object of
Coil:Cooling:DX:VariableSpeed, containing temperature correction curves as a function of the
indoor air and ambient temperatures at each speed level. The water heating function is simulated
using an object of Coil:WaterHeating:AirToWaterHeatPump:VariableSpeed, having temperature
correction curves as a function of the ambient air temperature and entering water temperature
at each speed level. It should be noted that the rated power and power correction curves are
contained in the Coil:Cooling:DX:VariableSpeed object. Thus, the power values and curves in the
Coil:WaterHeating:AirToWater–HeatPump:VariableSpeed are not used. That means the power
consumption at each speed level of the SCDWH mode is accounted by the cooling coil part.
The SHDWH uses the superheated section of an indoor condenser to heat the water. In this com-
bined mode, the heating function is simulated using an object of Coil:Heating:DX:VariableSpeed,
having temperature correction curves as a function of the indoor air and ambient tem-
peratures at each speed level. The water heating function is simulated using an object
of Coil:WaterHeating:AirTo–WaterHeatPump:VariableSpeed, having temperature correc-
tion curves as a function of the ambient air temperature and entering water tempera-
ture at each speed level. It should be noted that the rated power and power correc-
tion curves are contained in the Coil:Heating:DX:VariableSpeed object. Thus, the power
values and curves in the Coil:WaterHeating:AirToWaterHeatPump:VariableSpeed are not
used. That means the power consumption at each speed level of the SHDWH mode is
accounted by the heating coil. Coil:Heating:DX:VariableSpeed object calculates the to-
tal heating capacity added to the indoor air flow. The WH capacity is calculated using
Coil:WaterHeating:AirToWaterHeatPump:VariableSpeed.
The parent object of the ASIHP is named as CoilSystem:IntegratedHeatPump–:AirSource, which
is a collection of all the sub-models as above. Also, CoilSystem:IntegratedHeatPump:AirSource
facilitates mode switch and control algorithms.
desuperheater heat is used for water heating, which changes with the compressor speed and opera-
tion conditions. This is a dual-function coil, which provides both space heating and water heating,
and so performance curves for the dual functions will be included in the coil objects, respectively.
It should be noted that the rated power and power correction curves are contained
in the Coil:Heating:DX:VariableSpeed object. Thus, the power values and curves in the
Coil:WaterHeating:AirToWaterHeatPump:VariableSpeed are not used. That means the power
consumption at each speed level of the SHDWH mode is accounted for by the heating coil part.
The Coil:WaterHeating:AirToWaterHeatPump:VariableSpeed object contains rated water heat-
ing capacity and capacity correction curves to simulate water heating capacity as a function
of the outdoor air temperature and the water entering temperature at each speed level. The
Coil:Heating:DX:VariableSpeed object calculates the total heating capacity, added to indoor air
flow.
–Loop object:
–Air side: share the same air side connections as the SH mode, i.e., AirLoopHVAC:UnitarySystem.
–Water side: the same loop object as the DWH mode, i.e., WaterHeater:HeatPump:PumpedCondenser.
–Load matching:
Always match the space heating load by iterating the AirLoopHVAC object, and the water
heating amount in the water tank object is resultant.
Figure 15.17: Schematic of a Heat Pump Water Heater using Optional Mixer/Splitter Nodes
The heat pump water heater DX coil model described here determines the thermal performance
and energy consumption of the DX compression system, which includes a water heating coil (con-
denser), a coil used to extract heat from air (evaporator), and the compressor. This model also
simulates the performance of a condenser water pump that is assumed to cycle on and off with the
compressor.
Virtually all of the inputs to this DX coil model relate to its water heating performance
and energy consumption. Model inputs differ between the Coil:WaterHeating:AirToWaterHeatPump:Pumped
and Coil:WaterHeating:AirToWaterHeatPump:Wrapped to include only the relevant inputs for WaterHeater:HeatPump:
PumpedCondenser and WaterHeater:HeatPump:WrappedCondenser, respectively. The air-side cooling capacity of this
DX system is derived from user inputs and some model assumptions. The sensible/latent cooling
capacity split is defined by the user at rated conditions, and the model adjusts this split at off-rated
conditions.
15.2. COILS 935
3. Heating capacity modifier curve (function of water flow fraction, pumped condenser only)
6. Heating COP modifier curve (function of water flow fraction, pumped condenser only)
Note: The air dry-bulb or wet-bulb temperature used in the following curve objects is the in-
let air temperature to the HPWH evaporator coil/fan assembly. If the fan placement specified in
the WaterHeater:HeatPump:* compound object is draw-through, then the inlet air temperature
represents the temperature of the air entering the evaporator coil itself. If blow-through fan place-
ment is specified, then the inlet air temperature represents air conditions entering the fan located
immediately in front (upstream) of the evaporator coil.
The heating capacity as a function of temperature modifier curve defines the variation in DX
coil heating capacity as a function of inlet fluid (air and water) temperatures. The curve object
may use either a bi-quadratic or cubic form. The bi-quadratic curve uses inlet air temperature
(dry-bulb or wet-bulb temperature based on the input field Evaporator Air Temperature Type for
Curve Objects) and condenser inlet water temperature as the independent variables. The cubic
curve uses inlet air (dry-bulb or wet-bulb) temperature as the independent variable. The curve
should be normalized to have the value of 1.0 at the rating point temperatures specified by the
user.
HCapF T emp = a+b (Tevap,in )+c(Tevap,in )2 +d (Tcond,in )+e(Tcond,in )2 +f (Tevap,in ) (Tcond,in ) (15.456)
or
The heating capacity as a function of air flow fraction modifier curve is a quadratic or cubic
curve that defines the variation in DX coil heating capacity as a function of the ratio of actual air
flow rate across the evaporator coil to the rated evaporator air flow rate (i.e., fraction of full load air
flow rate). When used, the output of this curve should be normalized to have the value of 1.0 at
an air flow fraction of 1.
When the part load fraction correlation for a heat pump water heater DX coil is unknown,
the typical part load fraction correlation for a conventional, single-speed DX cooling coil (e.g.,
residential or small commercial unit) may be used:
Q̇heating = Q̇heating,rated (HCapF T emp) (HCapF AirF low) (HCapF W aterF low) (15.474)
In a similar fashion, the coefficient of performance for the DX coil for any simulation time step
is calculated using the following equation:
COPheating = COPheating,rated (HCOP F T emp) (HCOP F AirF low) (HCOP F W aterF low)
(15.475)
The electric power for the heat pump water heater DX coil is then calculated using the water
heating capacity and coefficient of performance calculated above.
!
Q̇heating
Pheating = (15.476)
COPheating
where:
Q̇heating is the water heating capacity at the current operating conditions (W)
Q̇heating,rated is the water heating capacity at rated conditions, user input (W)
COPheating is the coefficient of performance at the current operating conditions (W/W)
COPheating,rated is the coefficient of performance at rated conditions, user input (W/W)
Pheating is the DX heating coil power (electricity consumption rate) at the current operating
conditions (W).
The heating capacity calculated above may or may not include the impact of pump heat. For
this reason, the user input Condenser Pump Heat Included in Rated Heating Capacity and Rated
COP is used to determine the total water heating capacity including pump heat.
If (Condenser Pump Heat Included In Rated Heating Capacity and Rated COP), then:
where:
Q̇heating,total is the total water heating capacity including condenser pump heat (W)
Ppump is the condenser water pump power, user input (W)
F racpumptowater is the fraction of condenser pump heat to water, user input.
Compressor power (electricity consumption rate) is then calculated based on two additional
inputs provided by the user. The first input specifies if the condenser pump heat is included in the
rated heating capacity and rated COP. If the condenser pump heat is included in the rated heating
capacity and COP, then condenser pump power must be subtracted from the DX heating coil power
calculated above to determine the compressor power.
The second of these inputs specifies if the evaporator fan power is included in the rated heating
COP. If evaporator fan power is included in the rated COP, then fan power must also be subtracted
from the DX heating coil power to determine the compressor power as follows:
If (Cond Pump Power in COP), then:
conditions uses the ADP/BF approach described for the DX cooling coil model (Ref. Coil Model
– DX Cooling Coil Model). The exiting air conditions for the HPWH DX coil are calculated the
same way as they are for the DX cooling coil model (cycling fan, cycling coil). The crankcase heater
power and consumption are also calculated using the same equations used for the DX cooling coil
model.
The runtime fraction of the DX coil compressor is calculated as the ratio of the compressor part
load ratio to the part load fraction correlation entered by the user. The part load ratio of the DX coil
is determined by the heat pump water heater compound object (Ref. WaterHeater:HeatPump:*)
and is used by the DX coil to determine the run time fraction of the compressor.
P artLoadF rac
RT F = = runtime f raction of the compressor (15.485)
P artLoadF rac
Finally, the condenser water outlet temperature is calculated based on the total water heating
capacity of the DX coil and the actual condenser water mass flow rate.
!
Q̇heating,total
Tcond,out = Tcond,in + (15.486)
ṁcond Cp
where:
Tcond,out is the condenser outlet water temperature when the DX coil is operating (◦ C)
Tcond,in is the condenser inlet water temperature (◦ C)
Cp is the specific heat of water entering the condenser coil (J/kg-◦ C)
ṁcond is the actual condenser water mass flow rate when the coil is operating, defined in the
WaterHeater:HeatPump:PumpedCondenser parent object (kg/s).
DX Coil T otal W ater Heating Energy (J) = Q̇heating,total (P LR) (3600) (tsys ) (15.488)
DX Coil W ater Heating Electric Consumption (J) = (Pcomp + Ppump ) (RT F ) (3600) (tsys )
(15.490)
DX Coil T otal Cooling Energy (J) = Q̇evap (P LR) (3600) (tsys ) (15.492)
942 CHAPTER 15. SIMULATION MODELS - ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
DX Coil Sensible Cooling Energy (J) = Q̇evap (P LR) (SHR) (3600) (tsys ) (15.494)
DX Coil Latent Cooling Energy (J) = Q̇evap (P LR) (1.0 − SHR) (3600) (tsys ) (15.496)
P LR
DX Coil Runtime F raction = (15.497)
P artLoadF rac
DX Coil Crankcase Heater Consumption (J) = (Pcrankcase ) (1.0 − RT F ) (3600) (tsys ) (15.499)
where:
tsys is the HVAC system simulation time step (hr)
SHR is the sensible heat ratio at the current inlet air conditions and air flow rate (Ref. Coil
Model – DX Cooling Coil Model, ADP/BF approach)
Pcrankcase is the crankcase heater capacity, user input (W).
The total cooling capacity modifier curve (function of temperature) defines the performance of the
DX cooling coil as a function of operating conditions. These operating conditions may be specified
as either a linear, quadratic or cubic equation using coil entering air wet-bulb temperature as the
independent variable or as a biquadratic equation using both coil entering air wet-bulb temperature
and outdoor dry-bulb temperuate as the independent variables. Since the variable refrigerant flow
system modulates the compressor speed to serve the individual cooling coils, the single independent
variable equation is likely to be sufficient to define the DX cooling coil performance. However, if
other more accurate information is available, a biquadratic curve using two independent variables
may be used. The output of this curve is multiplied by the rated total cooling capacity to give
the total cooling capacity at the specific entering air temperatures at which the DX coil unit is
operating (i.e., at temperatures different from the rating point temperatures).
or
T otCapT empM odF ac = a + b (Twb,i ) + c(Twb,i )2 + d (Tc,i ) + e(Tc,i )2 + f (Twb,i ) (Tc,i ) (15.501)
where:
Twb,i is the wet-bulb temperature of the air entering the cooling coil (◦ C
Tc,i is the dry-bulb temperature of the air entering an air-cooled condenser or wet-bulb temper-
ature of the air entering an evaporative-cooled condenser (◦ C).
The total cooling capacity modifier curve (function of flow fraction) is a linear, quadratic, or
cubic curve with the independent variable being the ratio of the actual air flow rate across the cooling
coil to the rated air flow rate (i.e., fraction of full load flow). The output of this curve is multiplied
by the operating (modulated) total cooling capacity and the total cooling capacity modifier curve
(function of temperature) to give the total cooling capacity at the specific temperature and air flow
conditions at which the DX unit is operating. The cubic form of the equation is:
Q̇total = Q̇ref erence (T otCapT empM odF ac) (T otCapF lowM odF ac) (15.504)
where:
Q̇total = Total available cooling capacity (W)
Q̇ref erence = Total reference (rated) cooling capacity (W).
In addition to calculating the total cooling capacity provided by the DX cooling coil, it is impor-
tant to properly determine the break down of total cooling capacity into its sensible (temperature)
and latent (dehumidification) components. The model computes the sensible/ latent split using
the SHR and ADP/BF approach (Carrier et al. 1959). When the DX coil model is initially called
during an EnergyPlus simulation, the rated total capacity and rated SHR are used to calculate the
coil bypass factor (BF) at rated conditions. The rated total capacity and rated SHR are first used
to determine the ratio of change in air humidity ratio to air dry-bulb temperature:
ωin − ωout
SlopeRated = (15.505)
Tdb,in − Tdb,out rated
where:
ωin is the humidity ratio of the air entering the cooling coil at rated conditions (kg/kg)
ωout is the humidity ratio of the air leaving the cooling coil at rated conditions (kg/kg)
15.2. COILS 945
Tdb,in is the dry-bulb temperature of the air entering the cooling coil at rated conditions (◦ C)
Tdb,out is the dry-bulb temperature of the air leaving the cooling coil at rated conditions (◦ C).
Along with the rated entering air conditions, the algorithm then searches along the saturation
curve of the psychrometric chart until the slope of the line between the point on the saturation
curve and the inlet air conditions matches SlopeRated. Once this point, the apparatus dew point,
is found on the saturation curve the coil bypass factor at rated conditions is calculated as follows:
hout,rated − hADP
BFrated = (15.506)
hin,rated − hADP
where:
hout,rated is the enthalpy of the air leaving the cooling coil at rated conditions (J/kg)
hin,rated is the enthalpy of the air entering the cooling coil at rated conditions (J/kg)
hADP is the enthalpy of saturated air at the coil apparatus dew point (J/kg).
The coil bypass factor is analogous to the “ineffectiveness” (1-ε) of a heat exchanger, and can
be described in terms of the number of transfer of unit (NTU).
( )/
−N T U − Uc A
= e−Ao/ṁ
ṁ
BF = e =e p (15.507)
For a given coil geometry, the bypass factor is only a function of air mass flow rate. The model
calculates the parameter Ao in the equation above based on BFrated and the rated air mass flow
rate. With Ao known, the coil BF can be determined for non-rated air flow rates.
For each simulation time step when the DX cooling coil operates, the total cooling capacity
and coil bypass factor at the actual operating conditions are calculated. The coil bypass factor
is used to calculate the operating sensible heat ratio (SHR) of the cooling coil using the following
equations. Here is where the differnce in models occur for the VRF DX cooling coil and single-speed
DX cooling coil. The original coil model (ref: Coil:Cooling:DX:SingleSpeed) calculates the full load
outlet air enthalpy and, considering the bypass factor, finds the coil surface temperture (hADP ) at
full load (i.e., PLR = 1). Conversely, the VRF coil model modulates refrigerant flow to the VRF DX
cooling coil which is why this model uses the full load coil capacity multipled by the part-load ratio
(the modulated refrigerant flow). The effectively finds the coil surface temperature for a variable
refrigerant flow DX cooling coil and the operating sensible heat ratio (SHR) can be calculated.
Q̇total /ṁ
hADP = hin − f orasingle − speedDXcoilmodel(hADP 1 inf igurebelow) (15.508)
1 − BF
Q̇total × P LR /ṁ
hADP = hin − f oravariableref rigerantf lowDXcoilmodel (15.509)
1 − BF
hTin ,w,ADP − hADP
SHR = M inimum ,1 (15.510)
hin − hADP
where:
hin is the enthalpy of the air entering the cooling coil (J/kg)
hADP is the enthalpy of air at the apparatus dew point condition (J/kg)
946 CHAPTER 15. SIMULATION MODELS - ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
hTin ,w,ADP is the enthalpy of air at the entering coil dry-bulb temperature and humidity ratio at
ADP (J/kg)
ṁ is the air mass flow rate (kg/s).
With the SHR for the coil at the current operating conditions, the properties of the air leaving
the cooling coil are calculated using the following equations:
hout = hin − Q̇total × P LR /ṁ (15.511)
where:
hout is the enthalpy of the air leaving the cooling coil (J/kg)
hT in,ωout is the enthalpy of air at the entering coil dry-bulb temperature and leaving air humidity
ratio (J/kg)
ωout is the leaving air humidity ratio (kg/kg)
Tdb,out is the leaving air dry-bulb temperature (◦ C)
PsyWFnTdbH is an EnergyPlus psychrometric function that returns humidity ratio given dry-
bulb temperature and enthalpy
PsyTdbFnHW is an EnergyPlus psychrometric function that returns dry-bulb temperature given
enthalpy and humidity ratio.
The following figure shows this process on a psychrometric chart. This variable refrigerant flow
DX cooling coil model follows the dotted process line from hin towards the outlet air enthalpy (the
clear circles, o) based on the modulated refrigerant flow (PLR). The coil surface temperature (ADP,
apparatus dew point) is found by drawing a straight line through these points. The process line
from hin to hADP 1 represents the full load (PLR = 1). This would be what the original DX cooling
coil model calculates. At this point the sensible heat ratio is at the design point (assuming hin is
the rating point and the coil operates at the rated air mass flow rate). As the coil load is reduced,
the refrigerant flow rate is restricted and the outlet air condition rides up the dotted line. The
outlet air condition and associated hADP 2 is shown for a PLR of 0.7 (for example purposes only).
Here the sensible heat ratio is higher than that found at full load operation. As the load continues
to reduce, the refrigerant flow rate continues to throttle back and there comes a point where the
coil’s ADP is equal to the inlet air dew point temperature (hADP 3 ). At this point, and for all other
PLR’s less than this value, the coil surface becomes dry (at PLR = 0.4 in this example) and the
coil’s sensible heat ratio = 1. Between this PLR and PLR = 0, the coil outlet air condition follows
the dotted line back towards hin .
15.2. COILS 947
·
Figure 180. Process on psychrometric chart
If the user wishes to model an air-cooled condenser that has evaporative media placed in front
of it to cool the air entering the condenser coil, then the user should specify Condenser Type =
EvapCooled. The user must also enter the appropriate evaporative effectiveness for the media.
In this case, the Total Cooling Capacity Modifier Curve (function of temperature) and the Energy
Input Ratio Modifier Curve (function of temperature) will utilize the condenser inlet air temperature
as calculated below:
operation while values other than 0 specify fan ON operation. The use of a schedule allows the fan
operation mode to change based on time-of-day or with changes in season.
The EnergyPlus methodology for determining the impact that HVAC equipment has on an air
stream is to calculate the mass flow rate and air properties (e.g., enthalpy, dry-bulb temperature,
humidity ratio) exiting the equipment. These exiting conditions are passed along as inlet conditions
to the next component model in the air stream. Eventually the flow rate and properties of the air
being supplied to the conditioned zone are used in the zone energy balance to determine the resulting
zone air temperature and humidity ratio.
With this methodology, the determination of the air mass flow rate and air properties for the
two different supply air fan operation modes is slightly different. For the case of cycling fan/cycling
compressor, the conditions of the air leaving the cooling coil are the steady-state values calculated
using the equations described above. However the air mass flow rate passed along to the next
component (and eventually to the conditioned zone) is the average air mass flow rate for the system
simulation time step.
For the case of continuous fan/cycling compressor, the air mass flow rate is constant. However,
the air properties leaving the cooling coil are calculated as the average conditions during the system
simulation time step. The model assumes that the exiting air conditions are the steady-state values
calculated using the equations described above when the heat pump operates. For the remainder
of the system simulation time step, it is assumed that the air exiting the DX coil has the same
properties as the air entering the coil. For this supply air fan operating strategy, the leaving air
properties are calculated as follows:
Tdb,out,ContF anCycComp = P syT dbF nHW (hout,ContF anCycComp , ωout,ContF anCycComp ) (15.518)
15.2.25 Variable Speed Water to Air Heat Pump (Heating & Cooling)
15.2.25.1 Overview
A Variable Speed Water Source Heat Pump (let’s call it VS WSHP) has a system control which
dictates the refrigerant flow rate, the design unit supply airflow and the required water flow rate at
each compressor speed. The air and water flow rates are usually a function of the compressor speed.
Refrigerant mass flow rate is a function of compressor speed as well as entering water temperature
and indoor dry bulb or wet bulb. The control system adjusts the equipment capacity based on
zone temperature measurements relative to the thermostat set point. The control logic determines
what compressor speed is required to control to the zone temperature requirement in response to
increased or decreased capacity (heating or cooling load). The compressor, fan and pump speeds
15.2. COILS 951
are not discrete values and can be considered to vary infinitesimally between the minimum and
maximum compressor speed. At the minimum compressor speed (which is different for heating and
cooling), for a continuous fan, the supply airflow is fixed and the unit will have to cycle for reduced
part loads below this point. For a cycling fan, the fan will cycle with the compressor.
Presently, EnergyPlus is capable of modeling multiple-speed DX air-to-air coils. The number
of speed levels is up to four. In some cases, four sets of performance curves are not sufficient to
include all the information for a variable speed equipment. There is a need to expand the space
for containing more performance curves. Here, we expand the number of speed levels and the
corresponding curve sets up to ten. The number of speed levels is selectable by the user. The
user can provide speed levels at any number from 2 to 10. In any case, our model would just do
linear interpolation between neighboring speeds. The more curves, the more accurate. Furthermore,
using linear interpolation and inputting air and water flow rates at individual speed levels facilitates
arbitrary relationships of flow rates as a function of the compressor speed level.
This model (object name Coil:Heating:WaterToAirHeatPump:VariableSpeedEquationFit)
simulates the performance of a variable-speed water-to-air heat pump with heating capa-
bility. It fits in the parent objects of AirLoopHVAC:UnitaryHeatPump:WaterToAir and
ZoneHVAC:WaterToAirHeatPump. The rated conditions for obtaining the Reference Unit total
heating capacities and COPs are indoor dry-bulb temperature at 21.1◦ C (70◦ F) and the source
side entering water temperature at 21.1◦ C (70◦ F).
Then, this scaling factor is used to determine capacities at rated conditions for other speed
levels, as RatedTotalHeatingCapacity@SpeedLevel(x) = CapacityScaleFactor * ReferenceUnitTo-
talHeatingCapacity@SpeedLevel(x)
The Rated Volumetric Air Flow Rate is used to determine an internal scaling factor, and cal-
culate the air flow rates in the parent objects, as follows:
RatedV olumetricAirF lowRate
AirF lowScaleF actor = (15.522)
Ref erenceU nitV olAirF lowRate@N ominalSpeedLevel × CapacityScaleF actor
952 CHAPTER 15. SIMULATION MODELS - ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
The loop volumetric air flow rates at various speed levels in the parent objects are calculated
as LoopVolumetricAirFlowRate@SpeedLevel(x) = AirFlowScaleFactor * ReferenceUnitVolAir-
FlowRate@SpeedLevel(x) * CapacityScaleFactor
If the volumetric air flow rate at one speed level is higher than the flow rate allowed by the fan
in the parent object, the flow rate will be set back to the fan flow rate.
This Rated Volumetric Water Flow Rate is used to determine an internal scaling factor, and
calculate the loop water flow rates.
The required volumetric water flow rates in the parent objects are calculated as LoopVol-
umetricWaterFlowRate@SpeedLevel(x) = WaterFlowScaleFactor * ReferenceUnitWater-
VolFlowRate@SpeedLevel(x) * CapacityScaleFactor
The required volumetric water flow rate as above should be restricted by the pump in the water
loop.
If AirF lowScaleF actor and W aterF lowScaleF actor equal unity, the loop flow rates become
the design flow rates of the Reference Unit (after scaled by the rated heating capacity). The
Rated Volumetric Air Flow Rate and Rated Volumetric Water Flow Rate are introduced here
to correlate with the actual flow rates in the air and water loops, in case that these differ from
the design specification. Certainly, it is recommended that the Rated Volumetric Air Flow Rate
and Rated Volumetric Water Flow Rate are selected in the way that AirF lowScaleF actor and
W aterF lowScaleF actor are unity, so as to get more accurate results from the performance curves.
Performance curves:
This object includes 7 curve objects at each individual speed level.
Curves for (3) and (6) above are new curves as compared to those used for Multi-Speed Electric
DX Air Heating Coil, as to correlate the change in water flow rate at the speed. The flow fraction
modifier curves are used as a placeholder, to account for off-design flow rates if needed. If the
manufacturer doesn’t provide off-design performances, we can simply use a default modification
multiplier of 1.0.
At the lowest speed, there will be one additional performance curve to account for the part-load
condition, i.e.
15.2. COILS 953
More details on the various curves listed above are provided in the following paragraphs.
The total heating capacity modifier as a function of temperature curve (CAP-FT) is a bi-
quadratic curve with two independent variables: dry-bulb temperature of the air entering the heat-
ing coil and the VS WSHP’s entering water temperature. The output of this curve is multiplied
by the rated total heating capacity at the speed, to give the total heating capacity at the specific
entering air and water temperatures at which the WSHP unit is operating (i.e., at temperatures
different from the rating point temperatures).
where:
DBi is the dry-bulb temperature of the air entering the heating coil (◦ C)
EWT is the entering water temperature (◦ C)
a-f are regression curve-fit coefficients.
The energy input ratio modifier curve as a function of temperature (EIR-FT) is a biquadratic
curve with two independent variables: dry-bulb temperature of the air entering the heating coil
and the WSHP’s entering water temperature. The output of this curve is multiplied by the rated
EIR at the speed (inverse of the rated COP), to give the EIR at the specific entering air and water
temperatures at which the WSHP coil unit is operating (i.e., at temperatures different from the
rating point temperatures).
where:
DBi is the dry-bulb temperature of the air entering the heating coil (◦ C)
EWT is the entering water temperature (◦ C)
a-f are regression curve fit coefficients.
5) Energy input ratio (EIR) modifier curve (function of air flow fraction)
6) Energy input ratio (EIR) modifier curve (function of water flow fraction)
7) Recoverable heat modifier as a function of indoor dry-bulb and water entering temperatures.
Recoverable heat modifier function accounts for the recoverable waste heat at the condensing
side, as a fraction to the input power. This part of heat doesn’t added to the supply side.
W asteHeatT empM odF ac = a+b∗DBi +c∗DBi2 +d∗EW T +e∗EW T 2 +f ∗DBi ∗EW T (15.530)
This field defines the name of a quadratic or cubic performance curve (Ref: Performance Curves)
that parameterizes the variation of electrical power input to the unit as a function of the part load
ratio (PLR, heating load/steady-state heating capacity for Speed 1):
EIR1 = 1.0
ReferenceUnitCOP@Speed(1)
∗ EIRT empM odF ac1
∗EIRAirF lowM odF ac1 (15.536)
∗EIRW aterF lowM odF ac1
The power consumption including the compressor and accessories (not including pump and
indoor fan powers) is:
QRecoverHeat,1 = ReferenceUnitWasteHeatFractionofEnergyInput@SpeedLevel(1)
(15.538)
∗P ower1 ∗ W asteHeatT empM odF ac1
where:
Ref erenceU nitW asteHeatF ractionof EnergyInput@SpeedLevel (1) is the waste heat fraction
of the energy input at Speed 1, from the Reference Unit data.
The total amount of heat absorbed by the evaporator is calculated as:
956 CHAPTER 15. SIMULATION MODELS - ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
f fw,x−1 = f fw,x = actual water mass f low rate/DesignW aterF lowRateSpeedRatio (15.545)
The total heating capacities and EIRs at Speed x-1 and Speed x are given by:
15.2.25.3 Coil:Cooling:WaterToAirHeatPump:VariableSpeedEquationFit
15.2.25.4 Overview
This model (object name Coil:Cooling:WaterToAirHeatPump:VariableSpeedEquationFit) sim-
ulates the performance of an variable-speed water-to-air heat pump with cooling capability.
It fits in the parent objects of AirLoopHVAC:UnitaryHeatPump:WaterToAir and Zone-
HVAC:WaterToAirHeatPump. It has the same logic for varying the compressor, indoor fan
and pump speeds as the Coil:Heating:WaterToAirHeatPump:VariableSpeedEquationFit object. The
rated conditions for obtaining the capacities, COPs and SHR are indoor dry-bulb temperature
at 26.67◦ C (80◦ F), wet bulb temperature at 19.44◦ C (67◦ F), and the source side entering water
temperature at 29.4◦ C (85 ◦ F).
Variable-speed cooling coils lead to varied dehumidification behaviors, that the Bypass Factor
(BF) is not only dependent on the indoor air flow rate, but also on the refrigerant mass flow rate,
i.e. the compressor speed. It is necessary to assess the BF approach for single-speed DX coil, to be
used for the variable-speed systems.
TheDOE/ORNL Heat Pump Design Model(HPDM) is a steady-state vapor compression equip-
ment simulation model, which is able to simulate the performance of a VS WSHP system. We
rana calibrated HPDM model to produce performance data of a 2.5-ton, VS WSHPunit in space
cooling mode. We ran the model to get the total cooling capacities and SHRs, by specifying the
EWT at 65◦ F, indoor air DB at 80◦ F and relative humidity at 0.5, and then varying the indoor air
flow rate from 400 scfm to 1000 scfm, the compressor speed from 30 Hz to 90 Hz in a 7×7 matrix.
Based on the performance results, we used EES (Engineering Equation Solver) to back-calculate the
corresponding BF factors and the Ao (effective coil surface area) parameters,using the BF equations
for the single speed DX cooling coil in EnergyPlus Engineering Reference.
And then, we plotted the resultant Ao as a function of indoor air flow rate and compressor
speed, as below:
As indicated in the two figures above, the compressor speed is a significant factor impacting
the Ao parameter and the BF factor. So, the current BF factor approach should be upgraded to
accommodate variable-speed cooling coils.
As shown in the Ao figure, we can almost assume that the Ao parameter mainly depends on the
compressor speed. And thus, for enhancing the VS WSHP model, in the IDF file, we need to input
SHRs at individual compressor speeds (this is similar to the current multi-speed DX cooling coil).
And then, within the VS WSHP module, we calculate the Ao parameter specific to each compressor
speed at the design air flow rates, and then do linear interpolation of Ao between neighboring
compressor speeds. For calculating SHRs in energy simulations, we first calculate the Ao parameter
related to the actual compressor speed, and then use the simulated Ao parameter in the original
BF correlation to correlate effect of the varied indoor air flow rate.
Figure 15.19: Effective Surface Area (Ao) Changing with Compressor Speed and Indoor SCFM
960 CHAPTER 15. SIMULATION MODELS - ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
Figure 15.20: Bypass Factor (BF) Changing with Compressor Speed and Indoor SCFM
15.2. COILS 961
Volumetric Air Flow Rate (Numeric Field 4) and Rated Volumetric Water Flow Rate (Numeric
Field 5). They are used to scale the performances of an actual unit and correlate with the actual
loop flows. Except the three fields, all other total cooling capacity and flow rate inputs at individual
speed levels should be directly obtained from Reference Unit catalog data, specific to an actual unit.
The Rated Total Cooling Capacity at Selected Nominal Speed Level contains the rated total
cooling capacity to match the building sensible or latent cooling load. The rated cooling capacity
is used to determine a capacity scaling factor, as compared to the Reference Unit catalog capacity
at the nominal speed level.
RatedT otalCoolingCapacity
CapacityScaleF actor = (15.555)
Ref erenceU nitT otalCoolingCapacity@N ominalSpeedLevel
And then, this scaling factor is used to determine capacities at rated condition for other speed
levels, as below,
The Rated Volumetric Air Flow Rate is used to determine an internal scaling factor, and cal-
culate the air flow rates in the parent objects, as follows:
RatedV olumetricAirF lowRate
AirF lowScaleF actor = (15.557)
Ref erenceU nitV olAirF lowRate@N ominalSpeedLevel ∗ CapacityScaleF actor
And the loop volumetric air flow rates in the parent objects are calculated as below,
If the volumetric air flow rate at one speed level is higher than the flow rate allowed by the fan
in the parent object, the flow rate will be set back to the fan flow rate.
This Rated Volumetric Water Flow Rate is used to determine an internal scaling factor, and
calculate the loop water flow rates.
And the required volumetric water flow rates in the parent objects are calculated as below,
The required volumetric water flow rate as above is restricted by the pump in the parent object.
If AirF lowScaleF actor and W aterF lowScaleF actor are equal to unity, the loop flow rates
become the design flow rates of the original unit (after scaled by the rated total cooling capacity).
The Rated Volumetric Air Flow Rate and Rated Volumetric Water Flow Rate are introduced here
962 CHAPTER 15. SIMULATION MODELS - ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
to correlate with the actual flow rates in the air and water loops, in case that these differ from
the design specifications. Certainly, it is recommended that the Rated Volumetric Air Flow Rate
and Rated Volumetric Water Flow Rate are selected in the way that AirF lowScaleF actor and
W aterF lowScaleF actor are unity, so as to get more accurate results from the performance curves.
Performance Curves:
This object includes 7 curve objects at each individual speed level.
5) Energy input ratio (EIR) modifier curve (function of air flow fraction)
6) Energy input ratio (EIR) modifier curve (function of water flow fraction)
7) Recoverable heat modifier as a function of indoor air wet-bulb and water entering tempera-
tures.
Curves (3) and (6) above are new curves as compared to those used for Multi-Speed Electric DX
Air Cooling Coil, to correlate the change in water flow rate at the speed. The flow fraction modifier
curves are used as a placeholder, to account for off-design flow rates if needed. If the manufacturer
doesn’t provide the off-design performances, we can simply use a default modification multiplier of
1.0.
At the lowest speed, there will be one additional performance curve to correlate the part-load
condition, i.e.
More details on the above curves are provided in the following paragraphs.
The total cooling capacity modifier as a function of temperature curve (CAP-FT) is a biquadratic
curve with two independent variables: wet-bulb temperature of the air entering the cooling coil and
the WSHP’s entering water temperature. The output of this curve is multiplied by the rated total
cooling capacity at the speed, to give the total cooling capacity at the specific entering air WB and
water temperatures at which the WSHP unit is operating (i.e., at temperatures different from the
rating point temperatures).
Note: The data used to develop the total cooling capacity modifier curve (function of tem-
perature) should represent performance when the cooling coil is ‘wet’ (i.e., coil providing sensible
cooling and at least some dehumidification). Performance data when the cooling coil is ‘dry’ (i.e.,
not providing any dehumidification) should not be included when developing this modifier curve.
This model automatically detects and adjusts for ‘dry coil’ conditions.
where:
WBi is the wet-bulb temperature of the air entering the heating coil (◦ C)
EWT is the entering water temperature (◦ C)
a-f are regression curve-fit coefficients.
The total cooling capacity modifier curve (function of air flow fraction) is a cubic curve with the
independent variable being the ratio of the actual air flow rate across the cooling coil to the design
air flow rate (i.e., fraction of design flow at the speed).
a-d are regression curve fit coefficients. If there is no data for correction, the user can simply
set a = 1.0, and the other coefficients to 0.0.
The total cooling capacity modifier curve (function of water flow fraction) is a cubic curve with
the independent variable being the ratio of the actual water flow rate across the water-to-refrigerant
heat exchanger to the design water flow rate (i.e., fraction of design flow at the speed).
DesignW aterM assF lowRate@SpeedLevel(x) = Ref erenceU nitW aterM assF lowRate@SpeedLevel(x)
∗CapacityScaleF actor
(15.565)
a-d are regression curve-fit coefficients. If there is no data available for the correction, the user
can simply set a = 1.0 and the other coefficients to 0.0.
The energy input ratio modifier curve as a function of temperature (EIR-FT) is a biquadratic
curve with two independent variables: wet-bulb temperature of the air entering the cooling coil and
the WSHP’s entering water temperature. The output of this curve is multiplied by the rated EIR
(inverse of the rated COP) at the speed level, to give the EIR at the specific entering air and water
964 CHAPTER 15. SIMULATION MODELS - ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
temperatures at which the WSHP unit is operating (i.e., at temperatures different from the rating
point temperatures).
where:
WBi is the wet-bulb temperature of the air entering the cooling coil (◦ C)
EWT is the entering water temperature (◦ C)
a-f are regression curve fit coefficients.
5) Energy input ratio (EIR) modifier curve (function of air flow fraction)
6) Energy input ratio (EIR) modifier curve (function of water flow fraction)
7) Recoverable heat modifier as a function of indoor wet-bulb and water entering temperatures.
Recoverable heat modifier function is to account for the recoverable heat at the condensing side,
as a fraction to the power input, which doesn’t discharged to the water side.
W asteHeatT empM odF ac = a+b∗W Bi +c∗W Bi2 +d∗EW T +e∗EW T 2 +f ∗W Bi ∗EW T (15.569)
This field defines the name of a quadratic or cubic performance curve (Ref: Performance Curves)
that parameterizes the variation of electrical power input to the unit as a function of the part load
ratio (PLR, Sensible or Latent Load/Steady-State Sensible or Latent Capacity for Speed 1). The
description of the part load fraction correlation for the VS WSHP cooling coil is similar to the VS
WSHP heating coil.
Lowest Speed Operation:
The lowest speed operation of the VS WSHP is similar to the single speed DX cooling coil. The
total (gross) cooling capacity of the WSHP unit is calculated as follows:
15.2. COILS 965
1.0
EIR1 = Ref erenceU nitCOP @Speed(1)
EIRT empM odF ac1
∗EIRAirF lowM odF ac1 (15.571)
∗EIRW aterF lowM odW aterF ac1
The power consumption excluding the indoor fan and the water pump is,
f fw,x−1 = f fw,x = actual water mass f low rate/DesignW aterF lowRateSpeedRatio (15.580)
The total cooling capacities and EIRs at Speed x-1 and Speed x are calculated:
15.2.25.6 References
Keith C. Rice, 2011, DOE/ORNL Heat Pump Design Model.
S.A. Klein 2011, User Manual of Engineering Equation Solver V8.
outdoor but when installed indoor either heat is dumped to or extracted from the secondary zone.
A secondary zone is a conditioned or unconditioned zone where the secondary coil is installed.
Secondary coils are not standalone DX coil objects but they are add-on features on existing DX coil
objects. A secondary DX coil is modelled by specifying additional inputs in single speed and multi
speed DX coil objects: The additional inputs allow us to model the heat rejected or extracted by
the secondary coil while the primary coil serves another controlled zone as shown in Figure 15.21.
A secondary coil is not controlled directly but responds to the requirements of the primary DX
coil. The operating mode of a secondary DX coil is determined by the primary DX coil serving the
conditioned zone. If the primary DX coil is in cooling mode, then the secondary coil is rejecting
heat (heating mode) to the secondary zone, or else if the primary DX coil is in heating mode, then
the secondary coil is extracting heat (cooling mode) from the secondary zone. Heat rejected to
a secondary zone by a condenser of a DX system or a heat pump is considered as sensible only.
Whereas energy extracted from a secondary zone may contain sensible and latent components.
The condenser type of the primary DX coils should be AirCooled. There is no need to specify
the condenser air inlet node. The model uses zone air node as the secondary coil air inlet node.
Air drawn by the secondary coil fan passes through the secondary coil and dumped back into the
secondary zone. The previous time step zone condition is used as an inlet condition to the current
time for the secondary DX coil model.
Applications of this technology include: inter-zone heat pump in NTED (Dixon, 2010), and
PTAC or PTHP serving Offices attached to a Warehouse, where the office partially or fully enclosed
by the warehouse and the condenser is placed inside the Warehouse. The heat rejected or extracted
by the secondary DX coil is estimated from the delivered capacity and electric power input of the
primary DX coils. And the rejected or extracted heat is treated as internal gain of the secondary
zone. Currently secondary DX coil are allowed in single speed, two speed and multi speed DX coil
objects: Coil:Cooling:DX:SingleSpeed, Coil:Heating:DX:SingleSpeed, Coil:Cooling:DX:TwoSpeed,
Coil:Cooling:DX:MultiSpeed, and Coil:Heating:DX:MultiSpeed.
heating DX coils six inputs are required for single speed coils and a minimum of 11 input fields are
required for multispeed DX heating coils. And five more inputs are required for every additional
compressor speed. The extensible five input fields are used for splitting the total heat extraction
rate into sensible and latent components. These five input fields are: rated sensible heat ratio,
secondary air flow rates, scaling factor for auto-sizing secondary air flow rates, sensible heat ratio
modifier curves as a function of temperature and sensible heat ratio modifier curves as a function
of secondary air flow fraction. The secondary coil model assumes that liquid water from defrosting
operation is drained to the outdoor and has no impact on the zone air heat balance.
Cooling Operating Mode: the primary DX cooling coil of a DX system serving a primary
zone is on and heat is rejected by the secondary coil (condenser) into a secondary zone. The
secondary zone name is specified in DX cooling coil objects. This operating mode applies to a DX
cooling system and cooling operating mode of air-to-air single and multi-speed heat pumps. The
heat rejected by the secondary coil (condenser) of a DX system or heat pump operating in cooling
mode is given by:
Heating Operating Mode: When a heat pump operates in heating mode then energy is
extracted from the secondary zone. The total energy extracted is estimated by rearranging the
equation above as follows:
970 CHAPTER 15. SIMULATION MODELS - ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
where:
SHRF T is the sensible heat ratio modifier normalized biquadratic curve as a function of sec-
ondary DX coil entering air wet-bulb and primary DX coil entering air dry-bulb temperature. The
secondary DX coil (evaporator) entering air wet-bulb temperature is the secondary zone air wet-bulb
temperature.
SHRF F F is the sensible heat ratio modifier normalized quadratic curve as a function of air
mass flow fraction.
F F , flow fraction, is the ratio of actual to rated mass flow rate of air through the secondary DX
coil.
SHRrated is the sensible heat ratio at rated conditions.
For multispeed secondary DX coils when the system is cycling between two speeds of n and n-1
the operating SHR is weighted using SpeedRatio as follows:
SHRn is the sensible heat ratio at speed n determined from user specified rated SHR, and SHR
modifier curves at speed n,
SHRn−1 is the sensible heat ratio at speed n-1 determined from user specified rated SHR, and
SHR modifier curves at speed n-1,
SpeedRatio is a parameter that relates performance between successive compressor speeds,
(QEvap /P LR)
hDelta = (15.596)
ṁCond
The coil outlet enthalpy is calculated as follows:
Reference: Dixon, Erin Elizabeth, “Energy Model Development and Heating Energy Investi-
gation of the Nested Thermal Envelope Design (NTED (tm))” (2010). Theses and dissertations.
Paper 974.
Depending on the operating mode, different parts are active. There are six modes to consider.
Off Mode is when the unit is not running but the TES tank still interacts with ambient and
the model needs to track the state of charge in the tank.
15.2. COILS 973
Q̇Evap = Q̇Evap,RatedCoolOnly (EvapCapT empM odF ac) (EvapCapF lowM odF ac) (15.618)
Q̇evap (EIRT empM odF ac) (EIRF lowM odF ac) (P LR)
Ẇelec = (15.619)
(COPRated,CoolOnly ) (EvapP artLoadF ac)
The sensible heat ratio (SHR) is determined by a rated SHR and two performance curves. The
SHR temperature modifying factor is a function of evaporator entering wetbulb and evaporator
entering drybulb temperature.
ṁevap,air
SHRF lowM odF ac = f (15.621)
ṁevap,air,rated
The results of the performance curves are applied as follows to determine SHR:
Cool and Charge Mode is when the unit is both cooling and charging the TES, then all the
parts are active. The electric power into the compressor is split into two terms to accommodate
devices that actually have dual compressors.
DT
− M cp + Q̇Amb + Q̇P lant + Q̇T ES = 0 (water tank) (15.623)
Dt
DF
− M hf s + Q̇Amb + Q̇P lant + Q̇T ES = 0 (ice tank) (15.624)
Dt
Q̇Evap = Q̇Evap,RatedCoolAndCharge (EvapCapT empM odF ac) (EvapCapF lowM odF ac) (15.635)
Q̇T ES = Q̇Charge,Rated (T ESCapT empM odF ac) (T ESCapP artLoadF ac) (15.636)
Q̇Evap (EIRT empM odF ac) (EIRF lowM odF ac) (EvapP LR)
ẆEvap,elec = (15.637)
(COPRated,Cooling ) (EvapP artLoadF ac)
Q̇T ES (EIRStorT empM odF ac) (EIRStorF lowM odF ac) (StorP LR)
ẆT ES,elec = (15.638)
(COPRated,Charging ) (StorP artLoadF ac)
The sensible heat ratio (SHR) is determined by a rated SHR and two performance curves. There
are two options for the SHR temperature modifying factor, it can either be a function of evaporator
entering wetbulb and evaporator entering drybulb temperature or it can add a third independent
variable for the state of charge of TES.
(
f (Tevap,wb , Tevap,db )
SHRT empM odF ac = (15.639)
f (Tevap,wb , Tevap,db , ST ES )
The SHR flow fraction modifying factor is a function of air flow fraction through the evaporator
section where air flow fraction is the ratio of current air mass flow rate to the rated air mass flow
rate.
ṁevap,air
SHRF lowM odF ac = f (15.640)
ṁevap,air,rated
The results of the performance curves are applied as follows to determine SHR:
Q̇Evap = Q̇Evap,RatedCoolAndDischarge (EvapCapT empM odF ac) (EvapCapF lowM odF ac) (15.657)
Q̇T ES = −Q̇Discharge,Rated (T ESCapT empM odF ac) (T ESCapP artLoadF ac) (15.658)
Q̇Evap (EIREvapT empM odF ac) (EIREvapF lowM odF ac) (EvapP LR)
ẆEvap,elec = (15.659)
(COPRated,Cooling ) (EvapP artLoadF ac)
Q̇T ES (EIRStorT empM odF ac) (EIRStorF lowM odF ac) (StorP LR)
ẆT ES,elec = (15.660)
(COPRated,Discharging ) (StorP artLoadF ac)
The sensible heat ratio (SHR) is determined by a rated SHR and two performance curves. There
are two options for the SHR temperature modifying factor, it can either be a function of evaporator
entering wetbulb and evaporator entering drybulb temperature or it can add a third independent
variable for the state of charge of TES.
(
f (Tevap,wb , Tevap,db )
SHRT empM odF ac = (15.661)
f (Tevap,wb , Tevap,db , ST ES )
The SHR flow fraction modifying factor is a function of air flow fraction through the evaporator
section where air flow fraction is the ratio of current air mass flow rate to the rated air mass flow
rate.
ṁevap,air
SHRF lowM odF ac = f (15.662)
ṁevap,air,rated
The results of the performance curves are applied as follows to determine SHR:
DT
− M cp + Q̇Amb + Q̇P lant + Q̇T ES = 0 (water tank) (15.664)
Dt
DF
− M hf s + Q̇Amb + Q̇P lant + Q̇T ES = 0 (ice tank) (15.665)
Dt
1
Ẇelec = Q̇T ES (EIRT empM odF ac) (15.672)
COPRated,ChargeOnly
Discharge Only Mode is when the unit is only discharging, there is no heat flow at the
condenser. The rate of discharge will modulate to meet part loading at the evaporator.
The governing equations for “Discharge Only Mode”
15.2. COILS 983
DT
− M cp + Q̇Amb + Q̇P lant + Q̇T ES = 0 (water tank) (15.673)
Dt
DF
− M hf s + Q̇Amb + Q̇P lant + Q̇T ES = 0 (ice tank) (15.674)
Dt
Q̇Evap = Q̇Evap,RatedDischargeOnly (EvapCapT empM odF ac) (EvapCapF lowM odF ac) (15.683)
Q̇evap (EIRStorT empM odF ac) (EIRStorF lowM odF ac) (EvapP LR)
Ẇelec = (15.684)
(COPRated,DischargeOnly ) (EvapP artLoadF ac)
entering wetbulb and evaporator entering drybulb temperature or it can add a third independent
variable for the state of charge of TES.
(
f (Tevap,wb , Tevap,db )
SHRT empM odF ac = (15.686)
f (Tevap,wb , Tevap,db , ST ES )
The SHR flow fraction modifying factor is a function of air flow fraction through the evaporator
section where air flow fraction is the ratio of current air mass flow rate to the rated air mass flow
rate.
ṁevap,air
SHRF lowM odF ac = f (15.687)
ṁevap,air,rated
The results of the performance curves are applied as follows to determine SHR:
delivered by the cooling coil to achieve proper dehumidification and some form of air reheat may
be required to avoid overcooling of the zones being served by this air loop.
where:
Tapproach is the approach temperature (◦ C)
ωSA is the supply (outlet) air humidity ratio (kg/kg)
P is the outdoor barometric pressure (Pa)
Tdp is the supply (outlet) air dewpoint temperature (◦ C)
TSA is the supply (outlet) air dry-bulb temperature (◦ C)
PsyTdpFnWPb is the EnergyPlus psychrometric function, returns dewpoint temperature given
humidity ratio and barometric pressure.
The supply air dewpoint temperature required to meet the humidity ratio setpoint
(placed on the control node by SetpointManager:SingleZone:Humidity:Maximum, SetpointMan-
ager:MultiZone:MaximumHumidity:Average or SetpointManager:MultiZone:Humidity:Maximum)
is then calculated as a function of the humidity ratio setpoint and barometric pressure as follows:
ecomizier function may be customized as necessary. For economizer control, an outdoor air con-
troller (ref. Controller:OutdoorAir) is used to define the economizer control inputs and determine
when economizer mode is active. The heat exchanger (ref. HeatExchanger:*) object provides an
economizer lockout feature which disables heat recovery any time the economizer is active. This
feature can be turned on and off using the heat exchanger lockout input. Heat exchanger assisted
cooling coils used with the zone equipment described below disregard this economizer control fea-
ture. The heat recovery bypass control input may also be used to selectively control heat recovery.
15.3.2.1 Inputs
• Controller Name
• Minimum Outdoor Air Schedule (schedule values multiply the minimum outside air flow rate)
• Minimum Fraction of Outdoor Air Schedule(schedule values sets the limit on minimum outside
air fraction)
• Maximum Fraction of Outdoor Air Schedule(schedule values sets the maximum outside air
fraction possible in the system)
• Time-of-day economizer control schedule (economizer active when schedule values are greater
than 0)
• High humidity control flag: Yes | No
• Humidstat control zone name (zone name where humidistat is located)
• Control high indoor humidity based on outdoor humidity ratio: Yes | No
• High humidity outside air flow ratio (this flow ratio is multiplied by the maximum outside air
flow rate during periods of high indoor relative humidity)
• Heat Recovery Bypass Control Type: BypassWhenWithinEconomizerLimits | Bypass-
WhenOAFlowGreaterThanMinimum
15.3.2.3 Simulation
The simulation contains 4 steps.
990 CHAPTER 15. SIMULATION MODELS - ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
Note: the above three checks also set the EconomizerOperationFlag and HighHumidityCon-
trolFlag to false (economizer and high humidity control not operating).
• If Differential dry-bulb was input as Economizer choiceand Ti > Tr , then Soa,init = foa,min .
• If Differential Enthalpy was input as Economizer choiceand hi > hr , then Soa,init = foa,min ,
where hi and hr are the outside air inlet and return air enthalpies.
Setpoints are checked after this which include check for Fixed dry-bulb temperature limit,
Enthalpy Limit, Dewpoint Limit and Humidity ratio limit if specified.
• If Differential Enthalpy was input as Economizer choiceand hi > hr , then Soa,init = foa,min ,
where hi and hr are the outside air inlet and return air enthalpies.
Setpoints are checked after this which include check for Fixed dry-bulb temperature limit, En-
thalpy Limit, Dewpoint Limit and Humidity ratio limit if specified.
• If a FixedDryBulb / FixedEnthalpy / FixedDewPointAndDryBulb / ElectronicEnthalpy was
input as the economizer choice then the limits are checked as before.
• Limits are checked as follows:
– If a high temperature limit was input and Toa > Thigh , Soa,init = foa,min ; where Toa is the
outside air temperature.
– If an enthalpy limit was input and hoa > hhigh , Soa,init = foa,min ; where hoa is the outside
air specific enthalpy.
– If a dewpoint temperature limit was input and TDP,OA > TDP,high , Soa,init = foa,min ;
where TDP,OA is the outside air dewpoint temperature and TDP,high is the dewpoint
temperature limit.
– If an electronic enthalpy curve was input and wOA > wCurveOutput , Soa,init = foa,min ;
where w OA is the outside air humidity ratio and w CurveOutput is the curve’s humidity
ratio output as a function of outdoor air dry-bulb temperature.
• Another Economizer choice called DifferentialDryBulbAndEnthalpy checks the outside air
temperature against return temperature and outside air enthalpy against return air enthalpy
and also checks the setpoints.
• If a low temperature limit was input and Toa < Tlow , Soa,init = foa,min .
Note: the above nine cases set the EconomizerOperationFlag to false (economizer not operating),
otherwise the economizer is active.
• If high humidity control is specified and the zone humidistat indicates a moisture load
(i.e. zone relative humidity greater than the relative humidity setpoint), the HighHumidi-
tyOperationFlag is set to true. If high humidity control is based on the outdoor humidity
ratio then the HighHumidityOperationFlag is set to true only when the outdoor air humidity
ratio is less than the humidstat’s zone humidity ratio. A true HIghHumidityOperationFlag
also enables economizer operation in the heat exchangers as if the economizer flag used here
was also set to true (Ref. HeatExchanger:* - field Economizer Lockout).
The economizer schedule is then checked to determine if a “push-button” type economizer con-
trol is used. When schedule values are greater than 0, the economizer is active (EconomizerOpera-
tionFlag = true). This test overrides the economizer limit checks described above in Step 3.
992 CHAPTER 15. SIMULATION MODELS - ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
15.3.2.8 Step 5: calculate the outside air flow rate and apply final constraints
If BypassChoice = True and HighHumidityOperationFlag = false, Soa = foa,min .
If the HighHumidityOperationFlag is true, then:
ṁoa,max,des
Soa = max foa,min , OAF lowRatioHighRH (15.698)
ṁmix
If night ventilation is occuring, Soa = 1. Note that night ventilation has priority over the above
constraints.
Now, the outside air flow rate is calculated:
• ṁoa must be greater than or equal to the air primary loop total exhaust air mass flow rate
(ṁexhaust ).
• If MinimumLimit = Fixed Minimum, ṁoa must be greater than or equal to the minimum
outside air mass flow rate.
• If the Minimum Fraction of Outdoor Air Schedule or the Maximum Fraction of Outdoor Air
Schedule is available, outside air fraction Soa = ṁoa / ṁmix is checked against those fractions
from the schedule.
15.3.3 Outdoor Air Damper Controller for Zone Energy Recovery Ven-
tilator
The stand alone energy recovery ventilator (ERV) controller is used solely in conjunction with a
stand alone energy recovery ventilator (see figure below).
This controller object mimics virtually all of the control logic available for a conventional air-side
economizer as embodied in the object Controller:OutdoorAir. However, this controller is only used
with the stand alone energy recovery ventilator object (dedicated to serving a single zone, without a
traditional air distribution system) while the Controller:OutdoorAir is used with systems that utilize
an air loop to provide conditioned air to one or more zones. The purpose of this controller is to signal
the object HeatExchanger:AirToAir:SensibleAndLatent that favorable conditions are available for
free cooling and heat exchange should be suspended (i.e., air flow is fully bypassed around a fixed-
plate heat exchanger or the rotation of a rotary heat exchanger is stopped). A time-of-day schedule
may also be used to simulate a “push-button” type economizer. The air flow rate through the
stand alone ERV remains the same regardless of whether the controller is signaling for economizer
(free cooling) operation or not. In this way, this controller is very similar to Controller:OutdoorAir
with the field Economizer Control Action Type set to “MinimumFlowWithBypass”. However, the
supply and exhaust air flow rates may be modified in response to a high indoor humidity condition
(i.e., when the zone relative humidity is “predicted” to exceed the setpoint, at times the actual
zone relative humidity may be slightly below the setpoint. Ref. Zone/Sys Moisture Load Rate
Predicted.) and works in a similar fashion to the outside air controller where the air flow rates are
adjusted based on a user specified air flow ratio.
994 CHAPTER 15. SIMULATION MODELS - ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
In many ways, the logic for this controller follows that established for the object Con-
troller:OutdoorAir. Nearly the same computations (source code) are used for this controller
as for Controller:OutdoorAir, except the addition of a few calculations that are unique for this
stand alone ERV controller. Refer to the Simulation discussion for the outdoor air controller to re-
view the calculation procedure. In some instances local variables used in the Controller:OutdoorAir
computations are set to specific values for ZoneHVAC:EnergyRecoveryVentilator:Controller to
allow the same computations and logic to be used for both controllers. The logic that is being
applied for ZoneHVAC:EnergyRecoveryVentilator:Controller is presented below.
As explained above the controller senses when air conditions are such that heat exchange by the
air-to-air heat exchanger should be suspended to provide free cooling to the zone, thereby reducing
the amount of mechanical cooling that needs to be provided by other equipment. The inputs for
this controller specify temperature and/or enthalpy conditions that are used to trigger economizer
operation. An economizer lockout input is provided in the heat exchanger object and is used for
customizing heat exchanger performance during economizer operation. Heat exchange is suspended
only if the heat exchanger’s economizer lockout input is set to Yes.
The user can enter a high and low temperature limit for economizer operation. When the
supply inlet (outdoor) air is between these two values, heat exchange is suspended while air flow
rates remain unchanged. This logic represents a conventional single-point temperature economizer
control. If the user wishes to model differential temperature control, EXHAUST AIR TEMP LIMIT
should be specified in the proper input field. In this case, heat exchange is suspended whenever
the temperature of the exhaust air is greater than the temperature of the outdoor air. The user
still needs to set the low temperature limit to restart the heat exchange process when the outdoor
temperature falls too low.
15.4. BASEBOARD HEATERS 995
A high dewpoint temperature limit may also be specified. When the supply inlet (outdoor) air
is below this limit, heat exchange is suspended while air flow rates remains unchanged. The user
still needs to set the low temperature limit to restart the heat exchange process when the outdoor
temperature falls too low.
Similar logic can be used with air enthalpy. The user can enter a high enthalpy limit, and
heat exchange between the supply and exhaust air streams will be suspended when the outdoor air
enthalpy falls below this value. This logic represents single-point enthalpy economizer control. If
the user wishes to model differential enthalpy control, EXHAUST AIR ENTHALPY LIMIT should
be specified in the proper input field. Regardless of modeling single-point enthalpy or differential
enthalpy control, the user still needs to set the low temperature limit to restart the heat exchange
process when the outdoor temperature falls too low.
The user may also specify an electronic enthalpy curve object to represent a variable enthalpy
controller. A quadratic or cubic curve is used in this case. The output of this curve would represent
the maximum outdoor humidity ratio allowed as a function of outdoor dry-bulb temperature.
The air flow rates through the stand alone ERV may also be modified based on a high indoor
relative humidity condition. The change in air flow rates may occur at any time the indoor relative
humidity is high or when the indoor relative humidity is high and the outdoor humidity ratio is
lower than the indoor humidity ratio. This control mode modifies the air flow rates according to
the user specified high humidity outside air flow ratio. When high humidity control is active, heat
exchange is suspended in the same manner as if an economizer were used and, as with economizer
operation, heat exchange is suspended only if the heat exchanger’s economizer lockout input is set
to Yes.
The model is flexible, and checks all limits established by the user in the object’s input data.
The model initially assumes that heat exchange should be suspended, and then checks each one
of the limits that the user has set (single-point temperature, differential temperature, single-point
enthalpy and differential point enthalpy, single-point dewpoint or electronic (variable) enthalpy). If
any of the limits entered by the user is exceeded, then economizer operation is terminated and heat
exchange between the supply and exhaust air streams is modeled.
for this new thermal energy incident on surfaces throughout the space. This also then means that
the baseboard heaters with radiation and convection will take longer to simulate since all Zone
HVAC models that have a radiant component need to iterate through the surface heat balances
more than once. These iterations slow down the simulation but are necessary to correctly account
for the changes to the radiation balance on the surfaces in the zone.
This section provides some of the calculation details for the five different baseboard models. More
information on the input required for these models can be found in the Input/Output Reference for
EnergyPlus.
15.4.1.4 References
The effectiveness-NTU method is taken from Incropera and DeWitt, Fundamentals of Heat and
Mass Transfer, Chapter 11.4, p. 523, eq. 11.33. However, the user can always refer to any heat
transfer textbook for more information on heat exchanger methodology or the ASHRAE Handbook
series for general information on different system types as needed.
998 CHAPTER 15. SIMULATION MODELS - ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
15.4.2.4 References
While there are no specific references for this model as it is fairly intuitive, the user can always refer
to the ASHRAE Handbook series for general information on different system types as needed.
to the zone air after they have been heated, and the radiant heat transferred to people which is
assumed to be added to the zone air heat balance by convection from people to the zone air. This
actual convective power is used to directly meet any remaining heating requirement in the zone
based on the thermostatic controls. The model thus improves the accuracy of thermal comfort
predictions by allowing the impact of radiation from the baseboard unit to people in the zone to be
taken into account while better accounting for the actual effect of the radiation from the baseboard
unit to surfaces.
The baseboard heater is supplied with hot water from the primary system which is circulated
through the inside of a finned tube within the space. This could also be used to model a hot water
radiator (convector in the UK). Heat is transferred from the water inside the pipe, through the
tube and fins. It is also not only convected to the surrounding air but also radiated to the surfaces
and people within the zone. The user is allowed to specify the percentage of radiant heat from the
heater to the surfaces as well as how that radiation is distributed to individual surfaces through the
use of radiant distribution fractions. In addition, the user has the option to define what fraction
of radiation leaving the heater is incident directly on a person within the zone for thermal comfort
purposes. This amount of heat is then used in the thermal comfort models in the same way that
radiation from a high temperature radiant heater is utilized.
This model calculates a UA value using the log mean temperature difference (LMTD) method
for heat exchangers. The calculation is based on standard conditions of both fluids inputted by
the user who obtains the information in a rating document or manufacturer’s literature. Overall
energy balances to the hot water and air account for the heat exchange between the water loop and
the zone air. Once the UA for the baseboard heater has been determined, the model employs an
effectiveness-NTU heat exchanger method during simulation to determine the heat transfer between
the water and zone air. This is necessary because during the simulation only the inlet water and
“inlet air” (assumed to be zone air) temperatures are known. As a result, the effectiveness-NTU
heat exchanger methodology is better suited to determine the performance of the system during the
simulation than the Log Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD) approach to characterizing heat
exchangers.
in EnergyPlus.
Many of the inputs for the radiant heat transfer portion of the hot water baseboard model are
the same as for the high temperature radiant heater model. The user inputs the fraction radiant
and the fraction of radiant energy incident both on people and on surfaces as this information is
required to calculate the radiant energy distribution from the heater to people and surfaces in the
zone. The sum of these radiant distribution fractions (surfaces and people) must sum to unity, and
each water baseboard heater is allowed to distribute radiant energy to up to 20 surfaces.
∆T1 − ∆T2
∆Tlm = (15.721)
log ∆T 1
∆T2
ṁw
ṁa = ṁa,std (15.726)
ṁw,max
The model then determines the radiant heat addition by:
15.4.3.4 References
I = B = R Ratings for Boilers. 2009. Baseboard Radiation, Finned Tube (Commercial) Radiation,
and Indirect Fired Water Heaters, January 2009 Edition
Incropera and DeWitt. Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, Chapter 11.3 and 11.4, eq.
11.15, 11.17, and 11.33.
Li Lianzhong and M. Zaheeruddin. 2006. Dynamic modeling and simulation of a room with hot
water baseboard heater, International Journal of Energy Research; 30, pp. 427–445
heater receives energy via electric resistance heating. Radiant heat calculated by the user-defined
fraction from the heating capacity of a baseboard unit impacts the surface heat balances and ther-
mal comfort of occupants in a zone. EnergyPlus then assumes that the remaining convective gains
from the unit are evenly spread throughout the space thus having an immediate impact on the zone
air heat balance which is used to calculate the mean air temperature (MAT) within the space.
these types of systems affect thermal comfort). The load met, the actual convective system impact
for the baseboard heater, qreq , is calculated using the following equation:
15.4.4.4 References
While there are no specific references for this model as it is fairly intuitive, the user can always refer
to the ASHRAE Handbook series for general information on different system types as needed.
This model determines the heating provided by the unit from the sum of the latent heat transfer
and sensible cooling of water in a similar fashion as the steam coil model in EnergyPlus does. Overall
energy balances to the steam and air handle the heat exchange between the steam loop and the
zone air. The mass flow rate of steam is determined based on the heating demand in the zone. The
model requests the user input the desired degree of subcooling so that it determines the heating
rate from the heater due to the cooling of the condensate.
15.4.5.4 References
While there are no specific references for this model as it is fairly intuitive, the user can always refer
to the ASHRAE Handbook series for general information on different system types as needed. The
user can also consult information on the EnergyPlus steam coil for further details.
Chapter 16
The following descriptions are grouped alphabetically (as much as possible) with some also having
additional tags of “Heat Balance”, “HVAC”, and “Plant”. With the integrated solution, these
designations signify where the effects of these models have their first impacts.
Main Sections:
1007
1008 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
For single speed cooling towers, the capacity control can be fan cycling or fluid bypass. In
fluid bypass mode, portion of the water goes through the tower media and gets cooled while the
remaining water flow gets bypassed, two water flows then mix together trying to meet the tower
exiting water setpoint temperature. In both the free convection cooling when fan is off and normal
cooling when fan is on for the entire time step, if the tower exiting water temperature is lower
than the setpoint, the tower operates in fluid bypass mode. The model determines the fluid bypass
fraction by iterations until the mixed water meets the tower exiting water temperature setpoint.
In the fluid bypass mode, except the free convection, the tower fan runs at full speed for the entire
time step. The maximum amount of tower water that can be bypassed is bounded by the freezing
point of the tower water – the tower exiting water temperature cannot be lower than the freezing
setpoint.
Evaporative fluid coolers are modeled very similar to cooling towers. The main difference be-
tween the two is in the “Performance input method” input field. Cooling tower has two choices
for this field namely “UFactorTimesAreaAndDesignWaterFlowRate” and “Nominal capacity”. The
nominal capacity is specified for the standard conditions i.e. entering water at 35◦ C (95◦ F), leaving
water at 29.44◦ C (85◦ F), entering air at 25.56◦ C (78◦ F) wet-bulb temperature and 35◦ C (95◦ F) dry-
bulb temperature. On the other hand evaporative fluid cooler has three choices for “Performance
input method” which are “UFactorTimesAreaAndDesignWaterFlowRate”, “StandardDesignCapac-
ity” and “UserSpecifiedDesignCapacity”. First method is same for both tower and fluid cooler.
Standard design capacity is specified for the same conditions which are used to specify nominal
capacity for tower as described above. If the capacity of fluid cooler for conditions other than the
standard ones is known then UserSpecifiedDesignCapacity method should be used. In this case, the
conditions for which the fluid cooler capacity is known i.e. entering water temperature, entering air
temperature and entering air wet bulb temperature must be specified in the input. To calculate
evaporation loss for fluid cooler, spray water flow rate which is different than the process fluid flow
rate must be specified for all the performance input methods. This is not required for cooling tower
because cooled fluid i.e. water is in direct contact with the air so the water loss is calculated by
using cooled fluid flow rate only. Unlike cooling tower, evaporative fluid cooler model does not
account for free convection.
Cooling tower model is described below which holds equally good for evaporative fluid cooler.
The differences are mentioned whenever required.
U dA
dQ̇total = (hs − ha ) (16.1)
cp
where:
hs is the enthalpy of saturated air at the wetted-surface temperature (J/kg)
ha is the enthalpy of air in the free stream (J/kg)
cp is the specific heat of moist air (J/kg-◦ C)
U is the cooling tower overall heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 -◦ C)
A is the heat transfer surface area (m2 ).
Equation 16.1 is based on several assumptions:
16.1. COOLING TOWERS AND EVAPORATIVE FLUID COOLERS 1009
In this model, it is also assumed that the moist air enthalpy is solely a function of the wet-bulb
temperature and that the moist air can be treated as an equivalent ideal gas with its mean specific
heat defined by the following equation:
∆h
c̄pe = (16.2)
∆Twb
where:
∆h is the enthalpy difference between the air entering and leaving the tower (J/kg)
∆Twb is the wet-bulb temperature difference between the air entering and leaving the tower (◦ C).
Since the liquid side conductance is much greater than the gas side conductance, the wetted-
surface temperature is assumed to be equal to the water temperature. Based on this assumption
and Equations 16.1 and 16.2, the expression for total heat transfer becomes:
where:
U Ae
N T U = N umber of T ransf er U nits = (16.11)
Ċw
This equation is identical to the expression for effectiveness of an indirect contact (i.e., fluids
separated by a solid wall) counterflow heat exchanger (Incropera and DeWitt 1981). Therefore,
the cooling tower can be modeled, in the steady-state regime, by an equivalent counterflow heat
exchanger as shown in the following figure.
The first fluid is water and the second fluid is an equivalent fluid entering the heat exchanger
at temperature Twbin and specific heat c̄pe . The heat exchanger is characterized by a single param-
eter, its overall heat transfer coefficient-area product UAe . The actual cooling tower heat transfer
coefficient-area product is related to UAe by the following expression:
cp
U A = U Ae (16.12)
c̄pe
This heat transfer coefficient-area product is assumed to be a function of the air mass flow rate
only and can be estimated from laboratory test results or manufacturers’ catalog data.
The model for the variable speed Merkel tower also includes Scheier’s modifications. Scheier
has extended the Merkel model to also include terms that adjust UA with three factors that model
how UA values change when the tower is operating away from its rated conditions. The first factor,
fU A,wetbulb , adjusts UA for the current outdoor wetbulb temperature. The user enters a performance
curve or lookup table that is a function of one independent variable. The independent variable
is the difference between the design wetbulb temperature and the current wetbulb temperature, in
degrees Celsius.
file. Since an iterative solution is required, a first guess of the outlet air wet-bulb temperature is
then made and the enthalpy of this estimated outlet air wet-bulb temperature is calculated. Based
on these inlet and outlet air conditions, the mean specific heat of the air is calculated based on
Equation 16.2, repeated here:
∆h
c̄pe = (16.17)
∆Twb
With the overall heat transfer coefficient-area product for the cooling tower entered by the user,
the effective heat transfer coefficient-area product is calculated by rearranging Equation 16.12:
c̄pe
U Ae = U A (16.18)
cp
With c̄pe and U Ae known, the effectiveness of the heat exchanger is then calculated:
n h io
1 − exp −N T U 1 − ĊĊmin
ε = n h max io (16.19)
1 − ĊĊmin
exp −N T U 1 − Ċ Ċmin
max max
where:
U Ae
N T U = N umber of T ransf er U nits = (16.24)
Ċmin
The heat transfer rate is then calculated as follows:
Q̇total
Twbout = Twbin + (16.26)
Ċa
The iterative process of calculating Twbout continues until convergence is reached.
Finally, the outlet water temperature is calculated as follows:
Q̇total
Twout = Twin + (16.27)
Ċw
16.1. COOLING TOWERS AND EVAPORATIVE FLUID COOLERS 1013
16.1.1.4 Calculating the Actual Exiting Water Temperature and Fan Power
The previous section describes the methodology used for calculating the steady-state temperature
of the water leaving the cooling tower. This methodology is used to calculate the exiting water
temperature in the free convection regime (water pump on, tower fan off) and with the tower fan
operating (including low and high fan speed for the two-speed tower). The exiting water temperature
calculations use the fluid flow rates (water and air) and the UA-values entered by the user for each
regime.
The cooling tower model seeks to maintain the temperature of the water exiting the cooling tower
at (or below) a setpoint. The model obtains the target temperature setpoint from the setpoints
placed on either the tower outlet node or the loop’s overall setpoint node (typically set to the supply
side outlet node). The model checks to see if the outlet node has a setpoint placed on it and uses
that if it does. If the outlet node does not have a temperature setpoint then the model uses the
loop-level outlet node specified in the input field called Loop Temperature Setpoint Node Name in
the PlantLoop or CondenserLoop object. The model first checks to determine the impact of “free
convection”, if specified by the user, on the tower exiting water temperature. If free convection is
not specified by the user, then the exiting water temperature is initially set equal to the entering
tower water temperature. If the user specifies “free convection” and the steady-state exiting water
temperature based on “free convection” is at or below the setpoint, then the tower fan is not turned
on.
If the exiting water temperature remains above the setpoint after “free convection” is modeled,
then the tower fan is turned on to reduce the exiting water temperature to the setpoint. The
model assumes that part-load operation is represented by a simple linear interpolation between two
steady-state regimes (e.g., tower fan on for the entire simulation time step and tower fan off for the
entire simulation time step). Cyclic losses are not taken into account.
The fraction of time that the tower fan must operate is calculated based on the following
equation:
Tset − Twout,of f
ω= (16.28)
Twout,on − Twout,of f
where:
Tset is the exiting water setpoint temperature (◦ C)
Twout,of f is the exiting water temperature with tower fan off (◦ C)
Twout,on is the exiting water temperature with tower fan on (◦ C).
The average fan power for the simulation time step is calculated by multiplying ω by the steady-
state fan power specified by the user.
The calculation method for the two-speed tower is similar to that for the single-speed tower
example described above. The model first checks to see if “free convection” is specified and if
the resulting exiting water temperature is below the setpoint temperature. If not, then the model
calculates the steady-state exiting water temperature with the tower fan at low speed. If the exiting
water temperature at low fan speed is below the setpoint temperature, then the average fan power is
calculated based on the result of Equation 16.28 and the steady-state, low speed fan power specified
by the user. If low-speed fan operation is unable to reduce the exiting water temperature below
the setpoint, then the tower fan is increased to its high speed and the steady-state exiting water
temperature is calculated. If this temperature is below the setpoint, then a modified version of
Equation 16.28 is used to calculate runtime at high fan speed:
1014 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
Tset − Twout,low
ω = (16.29)
Twout,high − Twout,low
where
Tset is the exiting water setpoint temperature (◦ C)
Twout,low is the exiting water temperature with tower fan at low speed (◦ C)
Twout,high is the exiting water temperature with tower fan at high speed (◦ C).
The average fan power for the simulation time step is calculated for the two-speed cooling tower
as follows:
16.1.1.7 References
Rosaler, Robert C. 1995. Standard Handbook of Plant Engineering, 2nd Ed. New York, NY:
McGraw-Hill, pp. 6-36-37.
The input object CoolingTower:VariableSpeed provides models for variable speed towers that are
based on empirical curve fits of manufacturer’s performance data or field measurements. The user
specifies tower performance at design conditions, and empirical curves are used to determine the
approach temperature and fan power at off-design conditions. The user defines tower performance
by entering the inlet air wet-bulb temperature, tower range, and tower approach temperature at
the design conditions. The corresponding water flow rate, air flow rate, and fan power must also
be specified. The model will account for tower performance in the “free convection” regime, when
the tower fan is off but the water pump remains on and heat transfer still occurs (albeit at a low
level). Basin heater operation and makeup water usage (due to evaporation, drift, and blowdown)
are also modeled.
The cooling tower seeks to maintain the temperature of the water exiting the cooling tower at
(or below) a setpoint. The setpoint temperature is defined by the setpoints placed on either the
tower outlet node or the loop’s overall setpoint node (typically set to the supply side outlet node).
The model checks to see if the outlet node has a setpoint placed on it and uses that if it does. If
the outlet node does not have a temperature setpoint then the model uses the loop-level outlet
node specified in the input field called Loop Temperature Setpoint Node Name in the PlantLoop or
CondenserLoop object. The model simulates the outlet water temperature in four successive steps:
• The model first determines the tower outlet water temperature with the tower fan operating
at maximum speed. If the outlet water temperature is above the setpoint temperature, the
fan runs at maximum speed.
• If the outlet water temperature with maximum fan speed is below the setpoint temperature,
then the model next determines the impact of “free convection” (water flowing through tower
with fan off). If the exiting water temperature based on “free convection” is at or below the
setpoint, then the tower fan is not turned on.
• If the outlet water temperature remains above the setpoint after “free convection” is modeled,
then the tower fan is turned on at the minimum fan speed (minimum air flow rate ratio) to
reduce the leaving water temperature. If the outlet water temperature is below the setpoint
at minimum fan speed, the tower fan is cycled on and off to maintain the outlet water setpoint
temperature.
• If the outlet water temperature remains above the setpoint after minimum fan speed is mod-
eled, then the tower fan is turned on and the model determines the required air flow rate and
corresponding fan speed to meet the desired setpoint temperature.
1016 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
defined within EnergyPlus as shown in Table 16.1. If the user specifies Tower Model Type =
CoolToolsUserDefined, then the user must enter a CoolingTowerPerformance:CoolTools object to
define the 35 coefficients that will be used by the CoolTools approach temperature correlation.
Similarly, the YorkCalc correlation has 27 terms with three independent variables:
Approach = Coef f (1) + Coef f (2)•T wb + Coef f (3)•T wb2 + Coef f (4)•T r+
Coef f (5)•T wb•T r + Coef f (6)•T wb2 •T r + Coef f (7)•T r2 +
Coef f (8)•T wb•T r2 + Coef f (9)•T wb2 •T r2 + Coef f (10)•LGRatio+
Coef f (11)•T wb•LGRatio + Coef f (12)•T wb2 •LGRatio+
Coef f (13)•T r•LGRatio + Coef f (14)•T wb•T r•LGRatio+
Coef f (15)•T wb2 •T r•LGRatio + Coef f (16)•T r2 •LGRatio+
(16.33)
Coef f (17)•T wb•T r2 •LGRatio + Coef f (18)•T wb2 •T r2 •LGRatio+
Coef f (19)•LGRatio2 + Coef f (20)•T wb•LGRatio2 +
Coef f (21)•T wb2 •LGRatio2 + Coef f (22)•T r•LGRatio2 +
Coef f (23)•T wb•T r•LGRatio2 + Coef f (24)•T wb2 •T r•LGRatio2 +
Coef f (25)•T r2 •LGRatio2 + Coef f (26)•T wb•T r2 •LGRatio2 +
Coef f (27)•T wb2 •T r2 •LGRatio2
where:
Approach is the approach temperature (◦ C) which is the outlet water temperature minus the
inlet air wet-bulb temperature
Tr is the range temperature (◦ C) which is the inlet water temperature minus the outlet water
temperature
Twb is the inlet air wet-bulb temperature (◦ C)
LGratio is the liquid-to-gas ratio which is the ratio of water flow rate ratio (FRwater) to air
flow rate ratio (FRair)
Coeff(#) are the correlation coefficients.
If the user selects Tower Model Type = YorkCalc, then the 27 coefficients derived for the
YorkCalc simulation model (York International Corp. 2002) are used and these coefficients are
already defined within EnergyPlus as shown in Table 16.1. If the user specifies Tower Model Type
= YorkCalcUserDefined, then the user must enter a CoolingTowerPerformance:YorkCalc object to
define the 27 coefficients that will be used by the YorkCalc approach temperature correlation.
16.1. COOLING TOWERS AND EVAPORATIVE FLUID COOLERS 1019
The approach temperature correlations for the CoolTools and YorkCalc simulation models are
valid for a range of conditions defined in Table 16.2. If the user defines their own model coefficients
(CoolingTowerPerformance:CoolTools or CoolingTowerPerformance:YorkCalc), then they must also
define in that same object the range of conditions for which the model is valid. For all of these
correlation variables, the program issues warnings if the actual values are beyond the minimum/-
maximum values specified for the correlation being used. For inlet air wet-bulb temperature and
water mass flow rate ratio, the values of these variables used in the calculation of approach tem-
perature are limited to be within the valid minimum/maximum range. For approach, range, and
liquid-to-gas ratio the warnings are issued if the values are beyond the specified minimum/maxi-
mum range but the actual values are still used. The warnings issued do not necessarily indicate a
poor estimate of tower performance at the condition(s) which caused the warning, but are provided
to identify conditions outside the defined correlation limits. Exceeding the defined limits by a small
amount may not introduce significant errors, but large deviations may be problematic. It is for this
reason that we recommend using a very broad range of cooling tower performance data (i.e., data
covering the entire range expected during the simulation) when generating user-defined coefficients
for the variable speed tower model.
The approach temperature correlation(s) used to simulate cooling tower heat rejection are based
on water and air flow rate “ratios” and are not directly dependent on the size of the tower or the
actual air and water flow rates through the tower. However, the model correlations are developed
based on a reference condition. For Model Types “CoolToolsCrossFlow” and “YorkCalc”, the
reference condition is a water flow rate of 0.000043 m3 /s per kW of heat rejected (2.4 gal/min per
ton of heat rejected) with 25.6◦ C (78◦ F) enter air wet-bulb temperature, 35◦ C (95◦ F) hot water
inlet temperature, and 29.4◦ C (85◦ F) cold water outlet temperature. The reference condition may
be different if the user defines tower model coefficients using CoolingTowerPerformance:CoolTools
or CoolingTowerPerformance:YorkCalc.
Due to the inherent reference condition used to generate the tower performance curves, the water
flow rate at the reference condition must be determined using the design performance information
specified by the user and the tower model’s approach temperature correlation. This is done by
1020 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
using the model’s approach temperature correlation (described earlier in this section) to calculate
the water flow rate ratio which yields the user-defined design approach temperature based on an air
flow rate ratio of 1.0 (FRair = 1.0), the design inlet air wet-bulb temperature, and the design range
temperature. The calculated approach temperature (using the model correlation) must satisfy the
following two equations:
where:
Twater,outlet,design is the design outlet water temperature (◦ C)
Twater,inlet,design is the design inlet water temperature (◦ C)
Twb,air,design is the design inlet air wet-bulb temperature (◦ C)
Tapproach,design is the design approach temperature (◦ C)
Trange,design is the design range temperature (◦ C)
F Rair is the air flow rate ratio (actual air flow rate divided by design air flow rate).
The water flow rate ratio used in the approach temperature correlation which satisfies these two
equations is the ratio of the design water flow rate (specified by the user) to the water flow rate
at the reference condition. This ratio is used to calculate the reference water volumetric flow rate,
which is then used throughout the simulation to determine the actual water flow rate ratio used in
the approach temperature correlation for each simulation time step.
V̇design
V̇ref erence = (16.36)
F Rwater,ref erence
where:
V̇ref erence is the water volumetric flow rate at the reference condition (m3 /s)
V̇design is the design water volumetric flow rate specified by the user (m3 /s)
F Rwater,ref erence is the design water flow rate divided by the reference water flow rate.
The cooling tower seeks to maintain the temperature of the water exiting the cooling tower at (or
below) a setpoint. The setpoint temperature is defined by the field “Condenser Loop Temperature
Setpoint schedule or reference” for the CondenserLoop object. The model simulates the outlet water
temperature in four successive steps:
• The model first determines the tower outlet water temperature with the tower fan operating
at maximum speed. If the outlet water temperature is above the setpoint temperature, the
fan runs at maximum speed.
• If the outlet water temperature with maximum fan speed is below the setpoint temperature,
then the model next determines the impact of “free convection” (water flowing through tower
with fan off). If the exiting water temperature based on “free convection” is at or below the
setpoint, then the tower fan is not turned on.
• If the outlet water temperature remains above the setpoint after “free convection” is modeled,
then the tower fan is turned on at the minimum fan speed (minimum air flow rate ratio) to
reduce the leaving water temperature. If the outlet water temperature is below the setpoint
16.1. COOLING TOWERS AND EVAPORATIVE FLUID COOLERS 1021
at minimum fan speed, the tower fan is cycled on and off to maintain the outlet water setpoint
temperature.
• If the outlet water temperature remains above the setpoint after minimum fan speed is mod-
eled, then the tower fan is turned on and the model determines the required air flow rate and
corresponding fan speed to meet the desired setpoint temperature.
For each simulation time step, the model first calculates the outlet water temperature with
the tower fan operating at maximum speed (FRair = 1.0). The calculated approach temperature
(using the correlations described above), inlet air wet-bulb temperature (weather data), and range
temperature are used to determine the tower outlet water temperature as follows:
where:
Twater,outlet,f anOF F is the tower outlet water temperature in free convection regime (◦ C)
Twater,inlet is the tower inlet water temperature (◦ C)
F racf reeconv is the fraction of tower capacity in free convection regime (user specified).
If the outlet water temperature in the free convection regime is below the setpoint temperature,
the tower fan is not turned on and the fan part-load ratio is set equal to 0. In addition, the air
flow rate ratio through the tower is assumed to be equal to the fraction of tower capacity in the
free convection regime.
In addition:
where:
F anP owerCurveObject is the name of fan power ratio as a function of air flow rate ratio curve
Pf an is the tower fan electric power (W)
Ef an is the tower fan electric consumption (J)
CurveOutput is the output of FanPowerCurveObject evaluated at the operating air flow rate
ratio (FRair )
Pf an,design is the design fan power at design (maximum) air flow through the tower (W)
TimeStepSys is the HVAC system simulation time step (hr).
Calculations are also made to estimate the electric power input to the tower basin heater. A schedule
may be used to disable the basin heater during regular maintenance periods or other time periods
(e.g., during summer). If a schedule is not provided, the basin heater is assumed to be available the
entire simulation time period. The basin heater operates when it is scheduled on, the outdoor air
dry-bulb temperature is below the basin heater setpoint temperature, and the cooling tower is not
active (i.e., water is not flowing through the tower). The user is required to enter a basin heater
capacity (Watts per degree Kelvin) and a heater setpoint temperature (◦ C) if they want to model
basin heater electric power.
P_heater_basin =0.0
IF ( WaterNotFlowingThroughTower ) THEN
IF ( Scheduleheater_basin is Defined) THEN
IF (CAPheater_basin > 0 AND Scheduleheater_basin = ON) THEN
P_heater_basin = MAX (0.0, CAP_heater_basin *( T_setpoint_basin -T_db_outdoor))
ENDIF
ELSE
IF (CAPheater_basin > 0) THEN
P_heater_basin = MAX (0.0, CAP_heater_basin *( T_setpoint_basin -T_db_outdoor))
ENDIF
ENDIF
ENDIF
where:
Pheater,basin is the tower basin heater electric power (W)
Eheater,basin is the tower basin heater electric consumption (J)
Tsetpoint,basin is the basin heater setpoint temperature (◦ C)
Tdb,outdoor is the outdoor air dry-bulb temperature (◦ C)
CAPheater,basin is the basin heater capacity (W/K)
Scheduleheater,basin is the basin heater schedule (schedule value > 0 means ON).
1024 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
16.1.2.6 References
ASHRAE 1999. HVAC1 Toolkit: A Toolkit for Primary HVAC System Energy Calculations. At-
lanta: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
Benton, D.J., Bowman, C.F., Hydeman, M., Miller, P. 2002. An Improved Cooling Tower
Algorithm for the CoolToolsT M Simulation Model. ASHRAE Transactions, Vol. 108, Part 1,
pp.760-768.
Bourdouxhe, J.P., M. Grodent, J. Lebrun and C. Silva. 1994. Cooling tower model devel-
oped in a toolkit for primary HVAC system energy calculation: part 1. Proceedings of the fourth
international conference on system simulation in buildings, Liege (Belgium), December 5-7, 1994.
Incropera, F.P. and D.P. DeWitt. 1981. Fundamentals of Heat Transfer. New York: John Wiley
& Sons.
Merkel, F. 1925. Verduftungskuhlung. VDI Forschungarbeiten, No 275, Berlin.
Rosaler, Robert C. 1995. Standard Handbook of Plant Engineering, 2nd Ed. New York, NY:
McGraw-Hill, pp. 6-36-37.
Scheier, L. 2013. Personal communication.
York International Corporation, 2002. “YORKcalcT M Software, Chiller-Plant Energy-
Estimating Program”, Form 160.00-SG2 (0502).
Then we simulate the performance of one cell with this flow rate per cell (calling the SimSim-
pleTower subroutine for single and two speed cooling tower objects). As we assume that each cell
is identical, the UA of one cell is calculated dividing the UA of the whole tower (obtained from the
input or from the auto sizing calculations). The air flow rate per cell is also equal to the one of the
whole tower divided by the number of cells operating:
U Acell
U Acell = (16.54)
ntot
ṁair,tot
ṁair,cell = (16.55)
n
At the end, the total fan power of the tower operating with a certain number of cells is given
by:
n
F anP ower = F anP owertot × (16.56)
ntot
If the cells operating do not meet the loads, we increase the number of cells if spare cells are
available and the water flow through each cell is within the user specified minimum and maximum
water flow rate fractions range. This is an iteration process.
where:
Tsat air,outlet is the saturated outlet air temperature (◦ C)
P syT satF nHP b is an EnergyPlus psychrometric function, returns saturation temperature given
enthalpy and barometric pressure
OutBaroPress is the outdoor barometric pressure (Pa)
ωsat air,outlet is the saturated outlet air humidity ratio (kgwater /kgdry air )
P syW F nT dbH is an EnergyPlus psychrometric function, returns humidity ratio given dry-bulb
temperature and enthalpy.
The makeup water quantity required to replenish the water lost due to evaporation is then
calculated as the product of the air mass flow rate and the difference between the entering and
leaving air humidity ratio divided by the density of water.
P ercentW atertoDrif t is the percent of design water flow rate lost to drift at the tower design
air flow rate
F Rair is the ratio of actual air flow rate to tower design air flow rate.
Blowdown is water flushed from the basin on a periodic basis to purge the concentration of
mineral scale or other contaminants. There are two ways that blowdown is calculated in Energy-
Plus. Blowdown water rates can be scheduled so that we have:.
If ScheduleBlowdown is defined, then:
Else:
where:
V̇blowdown,makeup is the makeup water usage due to blowdown (m3 /s)
ScheduleValueblowdown is the blowdown schedule value for the time step being simulated (m3 /s).
The second (and default) way that blowdown can be calculated is to assume that blowdown
water is continually introduced at a rate that will provide a constant concentration ratio. As water
evaporates it leaves behind minerals and the like causing the concentration of water impurities to
be higher in the tower than in the makeup water. Acceptable concentration ratios are in the range
of 3 to 5 depending on the purity of the make up water. Water lost as drift does not evaporate
and decrease the water needed for blowdown. Using the “Concentration Ratio” method, the rate
of blowdown can be calculated using:
V̇evaporation,makeup
V̇blowdown,makeup = − V̇drif t,makeup (16.66)
Rconcentration − 1
where Rconcentration is the concentration ratio or the ratio of solids in the blowdown water to
solids in the makeup water.
The tower makeup water consumption (m3 ) for each simulation time step is calculated as the
sum of the individual components of makeup water usage multiplied by the simulation time step in
hours and the conversion for hours to seconds (3600 sec/hr). Makeup water usage is only calculated
when the cooling tower is active and water is flowing through the cooling tower.
Vwater, makeup = V̇evaporation,makeup + V̇drif t,makeup + V̇blowdown,makeup · T imeStepSys · 3600 (16.67)
16.1.4.1 References
Robert C. Rosaler. 1995. Standard Handbook of Plant Engineering, 2nd Ed. McGraw-Hill, New
York, NY, pp 6-36-37.
Quereshi, B.A. and S.M.Zubair. 2007. Prediction of evaporation losses in evaporative fluid
coolers, Applied Thermal Engineering 27 pp. 520-527
1028 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
where ε is the heat exchanger effectiveness and the following equations define terms important
to this equation:
Ċmin
Cr = (16.69)
Ċmax
UA
NT U = (16.76)
Ċmin
η = N T U (−0.22) (16.77)
The first fluid is water and the second fluid is air entering the heat exchanger at temperature
Tdb,in and specific heat cpa . The heat exchanger is characterized by a single parameter, its overall
heat transfer coefficient-area product UA.
When the user selects the nominal capacity method, the UA is calculated as follows:
16.1. COOLING TOWERS AND EVAPORATIVE FLUID COOLERS 1029
The model inputs (other than the UA) and the fluid cooler load that it must meet are specified
at design conditions. Then the fluid cooler model converges to a UA value, using the regulafalsi
method that will enable it to meet the design fluid cooler load given at the specified inputs.
Q̇
Tdb,out = Tdb,in + (16.81)
Ċa
Q̇
Tw,out = Tw,in − (16.82)
C˙w
where:
Tw,in is the inlet water temperature (◦ C)
Tw,out is the outlet water temperature (◦ C)
Tdb,in is the dry-bulb temperature of the inlet air (◦ C)
Tdb,out is the dry-bulb temperature of the outlet air (◦ C).
16.1.5.4 Calculating the Actual Exiting Water Temperature and Fan Power
The previous section describes the methodology used for calculating the steady-state temperature
of the water leaving the fluid cooler. This methodology is used to calculate the exiting water
temperature with the fluid cooler fans operating (including low and high fan speed for the two-
speed fluid cooler). The exiting water temperature calculations use the fluid flow rates (water and
air) and the Nominal capacity information entered by the user for each regime.
The fluid cooler model seeks to maintain the temperature of the water exiting the fluid cooler
at (or below) a setpoint. The setpoint schedule is defined by the field “Loop Temperature Set-
point Node or reference” for the CondenserLoop object.
1030 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
The fluid cooler fans are turned on to reduce the exiting water temperature to the setpoint. The
model assumes that part-load operation is represented by a simple linear interpolation between two
steady-state regimes (e.g., Fluid cooler fans on for the entire simulation time step and fluid cooler
fans off for the entire simulation time step). Cyclic losses are not taken into account. If the outlet
water temperature is less than the set-point then the fraction of time for which the fluid cooler must
operate to meet the set-point is calculated by using the following equation:
Tset − Twout,of f
ω= (16.83)
Twout,on − Twout,of f
where:
Tset is the exiting water setpoint temperature (◦ C)
Twout,of f is the exiting water temperature with all fluid cooler fans off (◦ C)
Twout,on is the exiting water temperature with all fluid cooler fans on (◦ C).
The average fan power for the simulation time step is calculated by multiplying ω by the steady-
state fan power specified by the user.
The calculation method for the two-speed fluid cooler is similar to that for the single-speed
fluid cooler example described above. The model first calculates the steady-state exiting water
temperature with the fluid cooler fans at low speed. If the exiting water temperature at low fan
speed is below the setpoint temperature, then the average fan power is calculated based on the
result of previous equation and the steady-state, low speed fan power specified by the user. If low-
speed fan operation is unable to reduce the exiting water temperature below the setpoint, then the
fluid cooler fans’ speed is increased to high speed and the steady-state exiting water temperature is
calculated. If this temperature is below the setpoint, then a modified version of previous equation
is used to calculate runtime at high fan speed:
Tset − Twout,low
ω= (16.84)
Twout,high − Twout,low
where:
Tset is the exiting water setpoint temperature (◦ C)
Twout,low is the exiting water temperature with fluid cooler fans at low speed (◦ C)
Twout,high is the exiting water temperature with fluid cooler fans at high speed (◦ C).
The average fan power for the simulation time step is calculated for the two-speed fluid cooler
as follows:
2001). Modulating the outdoor ventilation air while maintaining proper indoor air quality has the
potential for large energy savings compared to constant rate ventilation systems that are typically
designed to provide outdoor ventilation air based on maximum anticipated occupancy.
EnergyPlus can model DCV by the ventilation rate procedure (VRP) defined in ASHRAE
Standard 62.1-2007/2010 for single and multiple path systems, and the indoor air quality procedure
(IAQP) defined in Standard 62. The VRP first calculates the breathing-zone outdoor air flow rate
based on two components – the zone occupant component and the zone floor area component, then
it calculates the zone supply outdoor air flow rate considering the zone air distribution effectiveness
and secondary recirculation (for mult-path systems only), and finally calculates the system outdoor
air flow rate considering the zone diversity and system ventilation efficiency. The user must include
the following five objects in their input data file in order to model DCV (using VRP or IAQP):
• AirLoopHVAC:OutdoorAirSystem to simulate the mixed air box of the air loop
• Controller:MechanicalVentilation with the DCV flag set to ‘Yes’ to determine the mini-
mum outdoor air flow rate to be provided by the mixed air box
• Controller:OutdoorAir to control the outside air flow rate introduced via the mixed air
box
• DesignSpecification:OutdoorAir to describe the outdoor air requirements for each zone
• DesignSpecification:ZoneAirDistribution to describe air distribution effectiveness and
secondary recirculation (for multi-path ventilation systems) for each zone
The outdoor air system (AirLoopHVAC:OutdoorAirSystem) is a subsystem of an AirLoopHVAC
which handles the mixed air portion of the primary air system: the system relief air, the outside
air inlet, and any components and controllers associated with the system relief air and outside air
streams. The inputs for this object are fully described in the EnergyPlus Input Output Reference.
Determining the outdoor air ventilation rate and introducing this ventilation via the mixed air box
are accomplished by the mechanical ventilation and outdoor air controller objects.
The VRP currently requires outdoor air ventilation rates to be determined based on the floor
area of each occupied zone plus the number of people in each zone. The number of people varies
based on the setting of the DCV flag in the Controller:MechanicalVentilation object. For using
occupancy at every time step, the DCV flag must be set to ‘Yes’. The outdoor air ventilation rate
can then be reset dynamically as operating conditions change (e.g., variations in occupancy). The
Controller:MechanicalVentilation object simplifies the procedure for calculating these outdoor air
ventilation requirements and resetting them based on varying occupancy levels. This is particularly
useful for large air distribution systems that serve a number of different zone types with varying
occupancy levels.
The IAQP (ASHRAE 2007) is a design procedure in which outdoor air intake and other system
design parameters are based on an analysis of contaminant sources, and contaminant concentration
targets. Although carbon dioxide is not considered as an indoor contaminant but is considered as
an indicator of indoor air quality in buildings, EnergyPlus uses IAQP to control carbon dioxide.
In addition, a generic contaminant may be introduced. The current IAQP in EnergyPlus allows
credit to be taken for controls that can be reliably demonstrated to result in indoor carbon dioxide
and generic contaminant concentrations equal to or lower that those achieved using the VRP. The
IAQP may also be used where the design is intended to attain specific target carbon dioxide and
generic contaminant levels.
1032 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
X
allzones
Vot = Voz,i (16.89)
i=1
For non 100% outdoor air multi-zone systems, the system outdoor air flow:
16.2. DEMAND CONTROLLED VENTILATION 1033
Figure 16.2: Zone Air Distribution Effectiveness Typical Values (Source: ASHRAE Standard 62.1-
2010)
1034 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
X
allzones X
allzones
Vou = (Rp,i × Pi × SchedF raci ) + (Ra,i × Ai × SchedF raci ) (16.92)
i=1 i=1
F a = Ep + (1 − Ep)·Er (16.97)
F b = Ep (16.98)
where:
Ep is the zone primary air fraction. For dual-fan dual-duct systems, the zone primary air is the
air from the cold duct. This can be expressed as: Ep = Vpz/Vdz,i
Er is the zone secondary recirculation fraction.
Single-path systems are special cases of multi-path systems where Er = 0, Ep = 1, Fa = Fb =
Fc = 1.0
The zone secondary recirculation fraction Er is determined by the designer based on system
configuration. For plenum return systems with secondary recirculation (e.g., fan-powered VAV with
plenum return) Er is usually less than 1.0, although values may range from 0.1 to 1.2 depending
upon the location of the ventilation zone relative to other zones and the air handler. For ducted
return systems with secondary recirculation (e.g., fan-powered VAV with ducted return), Er is
typically 0.0, while for those with system-level recirculation (e.g, dual-fan dual-duct systems with
ducted return) Er is typically 1.0. For other system types, Er is typically 0.75.
The program then calculates the minimum outdoor air flow fraction based on the information
provided in the object Controller:MechanicalVentilation and the maximum branch air flow rate as
follows:
where MechVentOutsideAirMinFrac is the outdoor air minimum fraction based on all zones
specified in the Controller:MechanicalVentilation object.
Controller:OutdoorAir controls the amount of outdoor ventilation air introduced via the mixed
air box based on several user inputs. The user can define the minimum outdoor air flow rate as a
percentage of the system’s supply air flow rate (e.g., for a variable-air volume system) or a fixed
minimum outdoor air flow rate (not as a percentage but a fixed value) (field MinimumLimit). DCV,
using the Controller:MechanicalVentilation object in conjunction with the Controller:OutdoorAir
object, allows a third option for setting the minimum outdoor air flow. Economizer operation can
also be specified to increase the outdoor air flow above the minimum flow rate to provide free cooling
when conditions permit (Controller:OutdoorAir, field Economizer Control Type).
EnergyPlus uses the largest outdoor air flow rate calculated by the various methods described
above when modeling system performance (as long this rate doesn’t exceed the maximum flow rate
specified for the main air loop branch or for the outdoor air controller itself).
The method used to calculate the outdoor ventilation air flow rate for each system simulation
time step is described in more detail below. The figure below schematically illustrates air flow paths
used in the calculation of outdoor air flow rate.
The minimum outdoor air flow rate is first calculated based on the minimum outdoor air flow
rate and the minimum outdoor air schedule value as defined by the user inputs for the object
Controller:OutdoorAir:
where:
ṁminOA is the minimum outdoor air flow rate for this time step (kg/s)
V̇minOA is the minimum outdoor air flow rate defined in Controller:OutdoorAir (m3 /s)
MinOAScheduleValue is the minimum outdoor air schedule value defined by the schedule iden-
tified in Controller:OutdoorAir
1036 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
ρstd is the standard air density (1.204 kg/m3 ) adjusted for the local barometric pressure (standard
barometric pressure corrected for altitude, ASHRAE 1997 HOF pg. 6.1).
The outdoor air minimum fraction is then calculated as the ratio of the minimum outdoor air
flow rate calculated above to the maximum air flow rate defined in the Branch statement for the
main air loop (converted to mass flow rate).
ṁminOA
OutAirM inF rac = (16.102)
ṁmax,branch
where ṁminOA is the maximum branch air volume flow rate times ρstd (kg/s).
The program then calculates the minimum outdoor air flow fraction (MechVentOut-
sideAirMinFrac) according to the VRP based on the information provided in the object
Controller:MechanicalVentilation and the maximum branch air flow rate.
The algorithm then uses the larger of these outdoor air minimum fractions in subsequent calcu-
lations, and also makes sure that the resulting fraction is between 0 and 1.
OutAirM inF rac = M AX (OutAirM inF rac, M echV entOutsideAirM inF rac) (16.103)
• Controller:OutdoorAir to control the outside air flow rate introduced via the mixed air
box
1038 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
The outdoor air mass flow rate provided by the air loop is calculated as below:
X
N
ṁOA = ṁOA,z,i × SchedF raci (16.112)
i
where:
ṁOA,z,i is the outdoor air mass flow rate for the ith zone as calculated according to section
Carbon Dioxide Prediction located elsewhere in this document.
SchedF raci is the Outdoor Air Schedule value for the zone, if specified in the corresponding
DesignSpecification:OutdoorAir object (defaults to 1.0)
N is the number of zones served by the air loop, which is provided in the input for a Con-
troller:MechanicalVentilation object.
• Controller:OutdoorAir to control the outside air flow rate introduced via the mixed air
box
For the i-th zone, the outdoor air mass flow rate provided by the air loop is calculated as below:
1. The required intake flow of outdoor air for the design zone population, Pz,i
DesignOutdoorAirF lowRatei
Vot−design,i = (16.114)
Ei
The Design Outdoor Air Flow Rate is determined in the DesignSpecification:OutdoorAir object.
2. The required intake flow of outdoor air when the zone is unoccupied i.e. Pz,i = 0
16.2. DEMAND CONTROLLED VENTILATION 1039
N
Cs−design,i = Co + (16.117)
(Vot−design,i /Pz,i )
When the field of Maximum Carbon Dioxide Concentration Schedule Name is entered, the
schedule value is used for Cs−design,i instead of the calculated value.
4. The target indoor CO2 concentration at Vot−min is either a user input in the object ZoneCon-
trol:ContaminantController or equal to the outdoor CO2 concentration. The default is outdoor
CO2 concentration.
Cs−min,i = Co (16.118)
When the indoor CO2 concentration equals Cs−design,i , Vot should equal Vot−design,i . When the
indoor CO2 concentration equals Cs−min,i , Vot should equal Vot−min,i . When the indoor CO2 con-
centration is between Cs−min,i and Cs−design,i , a controller should adjust outdoor air intake flow Vot
proportionally between Vot−min,i and Vot−design,i :
(Cs−actual,i − Cs−min,i )
Vot,i = Vot−min,i + (Vot−design,i − Vot−min,i ) (16.119)
(Cs−design,i − Cs−min,i )
where:
Rp,i is the required outdoor air flow rate per person ((m3 /s)/person)
Ra,i is the required outdoor air flow rate per unit area ((m3 /s)/m2 )
Pz,i is the design zone population (number of people)
SchedF raci is the outdoor Air Schedule value for the zone, if specified in the corresponding
DesignSpecification:OutdoorAir object (defaults to 1.0)
SchedP ropM ini is the Proportional Control Minimum Outdoor Air Flow Rate Schedule value
for the zone, if specified in the corresponding DesignSpecification:OutdoorAir object (defaults to
1.0). When ProportionalControlBasedOnDesignOccupancy is specified, number of people is equal
to the design occupancy times the current schedule value. When ProportionalControlBasedOnDe-
signOccupancy is specified, the number of people equals the design occupancy.
Az,i is the zone floor area (m2 )
Ei is the zone air distribution effectiveness
N is the CO2 generation rate specified in the People object ((m3 /s)/person)
Co is the CO2 concentration in the outdoor air (ppm)
Cs−design,i is the CO2 concentration in the space for the design conditions (ppm)
1040 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
1. “Carbon Dioxide Control Availability Schedule Name” input field in the ZoneCon-
trol:ContaminantController object must be greater than zero.
2. CO2 gain from people in the zone must be greater than zero.
3. “Outdoor air flow per person” and “Outdoor air flow per zone floor area” in the corresponding
“DesignSpecification:OutdoorAir” object must be greater than zero.
The Simplified Procedure (SP) introduced in ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2019 provides an alternative
way to determine the ventilation efficiency of a system (Ev ). The efficiency is calculated using
equation 16.120 when the occupant diversity, D, is less than 0.6 and equation 16.121 otherwise. Ev
is then used in the same manner as in the VRP to determine the system design outdoor air intake.
When set to autosize, the minimum (primary) air flow (or fraction) for these terminals will be
calculated using equation 16.122: AirTerminal:SingleDuct:VAV:NoReheat (Constant Minimum
Air Flow Fraction or Fixed Minimum Air Flow Fraction), AirTerminal:SingleDuct:VAV:Reheat
(Constant Minimum Air Flow Fraction or Fixed Minimum Air Flow Fraction), AirTermi-
nal:SingleDuct:SeriesPIU:Reheat, AirTerminal:SingleDuct:ParallelPIU:Reheat.
16.2.5 References
ASHRAE. 2007. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2007, Ventilation for acceptable indoor air quality.
Atlanta: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
ASHRAE. 2010. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2010, Ventilation for acceptable indoor air
quality. Atlanta: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
ASHRAE. 2019. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2019, Ventilation for acceptable indoor air
quality. Atlanta: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
ASHRAE. 2018. ASHRAE Guideline 36-2018, High-performance sequences of operation for
HVAC systems. Atlanta: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engi-
neers, Inc.
Emmerich, S.J. and A.K. Persily. 1997. Literature review on CO2 -based demand-controlled
ventilation. ASHRAE Transactions 103(2):229-243.
Schell, M.B., S.C. Turner, R.O. Shim. 1998. Application of CO2 -based demand controlled
ventilation using ASHRAE Standard 62-1989. ASHRAE Transactions 104(2):1213-1225.
Schell, M. and D. Int-Hout. 2001. Demand control ventilation using CO2 . ASHRAE Journal,
February.
Tdbsupin − Tdbsupout
εse = (16.124)
Todb − Towb
The saturation efficiency is determined from manufacturer’s data, and the least squares curve
fit is discussed in Curve Fitting Evaporative Media section.
Using the saturation efficiency (εse ) for the direct stage evaporative pad, the leaving dry-bulb
temperature can be determined directly. The evaporative process approximately follows a constant
wet-bulb line. Therefore, with the leaving dry-bulb temperature and assuming adiabatic heat
transfer across the direct stage, the outlet conditions for the direct stage are known.
The saturation efficiency of the direct evaporative cooler is a function of the pad geometry
and airflow rate. The pad geometry is constant throughout the simulation, but the airflow rate
can change from hour to hour when the evaporative cooler is used with an air economizer. The
saturation efficiency would then be determined from the flow for that hour with the geometry
of the direct evaporative cooler. This gives the dry-bulb temperature leaving the evaporative
cooler. Assuming adiabatic heat transfer across the direct stage, the evaporative process follows
the constant wet-bulb line or the constant enthalpy line on the psychrometric chart, therefore the
wet-bulb temperature is constant from inlet to outlet.
Some things that can cause departure from the ideal adiabatic saturation process in the direct
evaporative cooler are:
• makeup water entering the sump,
• friction from water re-circulation,
• heat transfer from surroundings,
• solar radiation (sun upon a cooler).
Thus, adiabatic saturation in evaporative cooling is only an approximation, however the adia-
batic saturation assumption in the rigid-media cooler is good, since the water recirculates rapidly
and approximates the wet-bulb temperature at steady state operation.
where Airvel is in meters per second and Depth is in meters. This curve fit is used for the rigid
media in the EvapCooler:Direct:CelDekPad and EvapCooler:InDirect:CelDekPad.
Figure 16.8: Secondary Air Process – Indirect Dry Coil Evap Cooler
16.3. EVAPORATIVE COOLERS 1047
media, given pad geometry and secondary airflow information. The heat transfer in the heat
exchanger can be determined with the effectiveness of the heat exchanger according.
QHx = εHx ∗ M in(CF Msec , CF Msupply ) ∗ ρair ∗ cp,air ∗ (Todb − Tdb,sec,out ) (16.127)
After the heat transfer for the heat exchanger has been determined, an energy balance is done on
the supply airside to determine the dry-bulb temperature leaving the indirect evaporative cooler.
This assumes all the energy for is provided by the primary air stream so the effectiveness value
includes the air-to-air effectiveness of the heat exchanger.
QHx
Tdb,sup,out = Tdb,sup,in − (16.128)
ρair ∗ cp,air ∗ CF Msupply
The wet-bulb temperature is determined from psychrometric routines using the leaving dry-
bulb temperature, humidity ratio, and barometric pressure, since humidity ratio is constant for the
supply air across the indirect stage. The effectiveness of the heat exchanger is determined from a
parameter estimation using manufacturer’s performance data. For the indirect evaporative cooler
it was found that a value of 0.67 represented reasonable default effectiveness.
Figure 16.10: Secondary Air Process – Indirect Wet Coil Evaporative Cooler
16.3. EVAPORATIVE COOLERS 1049
Tdbsecin − Tdbsecout
εse = (16.130)
Todb − Towb
where Tdb,sup,in = Tdb,sec,in for the indirect cooler. The maximum heat transfer possible would
be obtained if the supply stream was cooled all the way to the wet-bulb temperature. So the
efficiency of the indirect evaporative cooler is defined by:
(Tdb,sup,in − Tdb,sup,out )
εind = (16.131)
(Todb − Towb )
Using the combination of the effectiveness and saturation efficiency, the total efficiency of the
indirect stage can be expressed by:
Csup
εind = εHx εse (16.132)
Cmin
In many cases, Csup = Cmin and the efficiency of the indirect stage reduces to:
(Tdbsupin − Tdbsupout )
εind = (16.134)
(Todb − Towb )
Solving for Tdb,sup,out gives the leaving conditions of the supply air at a constant humidity ratio:
value was approximately 0.8 compared to the dry coil indirect value of approximately 0.65 (0.67 *
0.97). (The maximum efficiency for the dry coil indirect was determined at the condition where
flow through the evaporative pad in the secondary air stream approached zero, for a 12-inch thick
pad.) It should be noted again that over the operating life of the wet coil heat exchanger, the
mineral deposits that are left can decrease the effectiveness of the heat exchanger unless appropriate
maintenance has taken place. Therefore, if modeling an older system, the manufacturer’s data may
no longer describe the equipment effectiveness.
The thermodynamic process for the supply air is shown below, going from A to B to C. The
process from A to B is sensible cooling in the indirect stage. The process from B to C is simultaneous
heat and mass transfer following a constant enthalpy line. The air leaving the final stage has a
lower dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperature, and an increase in moisture from the direct stage.
Two stage evaporative coolers can be accomplished by putting the EvaporativeCooler:Direct:Cel-
DekPad, EvaporativeCooler:Indirect:CelDekPad, EvaporativeCooler:Indirect:WetCoil in series in
any combination the user desires in the supply air loop.
Figure 16.12: Thermodynamic Process for Supply Air Through Two Stage Evaporative Cooler
1052 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
load conditions, it can modulate so that the air leaving the cooler just meets a drybulb temperature
setpoint.
The indirect research special evaporative cooler (IEC) machine provides improved modeling
features needed for data center and other hybrid cooling applications. The new model includes
performance curves for variable effectiveness, fan power, and pump power. It is intended to be able
to model IEC machines that have 1) variable speed secondary fans, 2) variable speed pumps for
water recirculation and spraying, and 3) ability to operate in a dry mode. Such IEC machines can
modulate the cooling power during operation by varying either the secondary side fan speed or the
intensity of water spray or both. To simplify the model it is assumed that the device’s internal
controls are such that, when it is operating as a “Wet” evaporative cooler, secondary fan and spray
pump operation are linked together so that there is a one-to-one mapping between them at any
given part load situation. This allows formulating the fan and pump power performance curves to
be based on the same independent variable, secondary air flow fraction.
branch. “sec” is secondary purge air stream and is typically outdoor air. The model will set node
flow rates and “out_sec” state variables on the secondary outlet.
where:
εwb,op is the current operation effectiveness with respect to wet bulb temperature depression
εwb,design is the user input for effectiveness at design air flow rates and full spray power
fwb,mod is the normalized wet mode operation effectiveness modifier performance curve as a
function of flow fraction. The curve value describes how effectiveness varies at different flow rates.
When conditions are appropriate, this curve is numerically inverted to find a FlowRatio that just
meets a setpoint.
ṁsys is the primary air current time step mass flow rate (kg/s)
ṁsec is the secondary air current time step mass flow rate (kg/s).
The leaving primary air dry bulb temperature in wet operating mode is calculated as follows:
The secondary air entering wet-bulb temperature would be the loswest limit allowed, although
this temperature cannot be attained in most practical situations. This is checked as a limiting case.
Q̇HX
enahalpyout,sec = enthalpyin,sec + (16.140)
ṁsec
One approximation that can be made is the outlet condition of the temperature and humidity
ratio combination that produces the outlet enthalpy of the secondary air calculated above. A
conservative approach is that the secondary air leaves with water added at such a rate that it
results in the secondary air to leave at the same dry bulb temperature and all the total heat
transfer results in humidity ratio increases, i.e., latent heat transfer. Following this assumption the
secondary air outlet humidity ratio can be calculated in step 3.
Tdb,out,sec = Tdb,in,sec
HumRatout,sec = PsyWFnTbH Tdb,out,sec , enthalpyout,sec
Q̇HX /[(HumRatout,sec −HumRatin,sec )·hf g,in,sec ]
V̇water = ρwater,T db,in,sec (16.141)
or =
Q̇HX /[(enthalpyout,sec −enthalpyin,sec )]
V̇water = ρwater,T db,in,sec
properties for density and specific heat. The following steps are for checking and adjusting for
non-physical outcomes that could happen with low secondary flow rates.
Q̇HX
Tdb,out,sec = Tdb,in,sec + (16.145)
(ṁcp )sys,in
4. Recalculate heat transfer limit if imbalance found in step 3 using new secondary outlet drybulb
5. Recalculate leaving supply air dryblub using new heat transfer rate from step 4
Q̇HX
Tdb,out,sys = Tdb,in,sec + (16.148)
(ṁcp )sys,in
The IEC in dry and wet operating mode transfers no moisture to the primary system air, so the
humidity ratio remains the same:
Psec,f an is the secondary air fan electric power value at current secondary air flow rate (W)
Psec,f an,design is the secondary air fan electric power value at design air flow rate (W)
fsec,f an,mod is the secondary air fan power modifier normalized performance curve as a function
of secondary air flow fraction
ṁsec,design is the secondary air design mass flow rate (kg/s)
Recirculation and spray pump electric power is calculated using design pump electric power and
a normalized pump power modifier performance curve that describes how power varies as a function
of the secondary air flow fraction is given by:
• Tdb,evapM inLimit is the Evaporative Operation Minimum Limit Outdoor Drybulb Temperature,
user input. Shut down wet mode with outdoor temperature is lower than this limit, typically
shifting to dry mode.
• Twb,evapM axLimit is the Evaporative Operation Maximum Limit Outdoor Wetbulb Temperature,
user input. Shut down fan and pump and don’t operate when outdoor Wetbulb is higher than
this limit. The wet bulb is maybe warmer than the return air and attempting evaporative
cooling is wasteful.
• Tdb,evapM axLimit is the Dry Operation Maximum Limit Outdoor Drybulb Temperature, user
input. Shut down dry operation attempts and don’t operate secondary fan when outdoor
dry bulb is higher than this limit. The dry bulb is maybe warmer than the return air and
attempting to do heat exchange is wasteful.
2. Calculate leaving dry bulb for max cooling power available at full secondary air flow rate for
dry operation, Tdb,out,sys,dry,min
3. Check if dry operation limit (input field called Evaporative Operation Minimum Limit Out-
door Dry-Bulb Temperature) reached, Tdb,in,sec < Tdb,evapM inLimit
4. If dry limit not exceeded, then leaving dry bulb for max cooling power available at full
secondary air flow rate for wet operation, Tdb,out,sys,wet,min
16.3. EVAPORATIVE COOLERS 1057
5. Compare setpoint temperature needed to temperatures available, evaluate limits and choose
which case for operation is called for. The following table outlines the six cases in order of
increasing cooling power.
1058 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
Case Criteria
Off Tdb,in,sec < Tdb,out,setpoint or (Tdb,in,sec > Tdb,dryM axLimit and Twb,in,sec > Twb,evapM axL
Dry Op Modulated Tdb,in,sec < Twb,evapM inLimit ; Tdb,in,sec < Tdb,dryM axLimit Tdb,out,sys,dry,min < Tdb,out,setpo
Dry Op Max Tdb,in,sec > Tdb,evapM inLimit ; Tdb,in,sec < Tdb,dryM axLimit Tdb,out,setpoint < Tdb,out,sys,dry,m
Dry or Wet Op Modulated Tdb,in,sec > TevapM inLimit ; Tdb,in,sec < Tdb,dryM axLimit Twb,in,sec < Twb,evapM axLimit Tdb
Wet Op Modulated Tdb,in,sec > Tdb,evapM inLimit ; Twb,in,sec < Twb,evapM axLimit Tdb,out.sys,wet,min < Tdb,out,set
Wet Op Max Tdb,in,sec > Tdb,evapM inLimit ; Twb,in,sec < Twb,evapM axLimit Tdb,out,setpoint < Tdb,out,sys,dry
“Modulated” cases solve for a secondary flow rate using numerical method, such as root solver.
Residual is formulated by a difference between the dry bulb temperature leaving the cooler and
the setpoint. As the solver progress it varies flow rate on the secondary side until the setpoint is
met. For each iteration, a new effectiveness is calculated as a function of Flow Ratio. The new
flow is used for the (ṁcp )min term and the new effectiveness is used to calculate a result for leaving
drybulb. The numerical method is the same for dry and wet operation, only the functions will
use different curves and state variables to describe performance. The root solver solver can vary
secondary flow rate, V̇sec , to drive the following residual to zero:
Q̇Required
P LF = (16.157)
Q̇F ull
where P LF is the Part Load Fraction. When PLF is less than 1.0, it is assumed that the
cooler will deliver the desired temperature air (as long as it is less than the inlet; it doesn’t need
heating). The PLF is used along with secondary side flow fraction to modify the auxiliary fan
power when the fan power modifier curve is not specified and find when the unit will overcool.
Pf an = ∆P · V̇ · e · P LF · f fsec (16.158)
Water pump power is also derated using the PLF and f fsec .
A third air stream input to the cooler was implemented in order to allow mixing building exhaust
air with outdoor air on the purge/secondary side of the cooler. The assumption when relief/tertiary
air is used is that all of the available relief zone air is used and the remainder made up with outdoor
air. Moisture and energy balances are drawn to compute humidity ratio and enthalpy of mixed
secondary air. The volume is determined by the design volume flow rate (from secondary fan size).
Q̇IEC
V̇evap = (16.160)
ρwater hf g
where:
V̇evap is the volume flow rate of useful water evaporation (m3 /s)
hf g is the heat of vaporization of water (taken as 2,500,000 J/kg)
Q̇IEC is the rate of heat transfer of the indirect evaporator cooler or Q̇HX as shown in Equa-
tion 16.144 (W)
ρwater is the density of water (kg/m3 ).
Drift is water that leaves the secondary side as droplets and does not contribute to the evapo-
rative cooling process in a useful manner. It is calculated using a user input factor that describes
drift as a fraction of V̇evap .
V̇evap
V̇blowdown = − V̇drif t (16.162)
(Rconcentration − 1.0)
Figure 16.15: Research Special Indirect Evaporative Cooler Using Relief Air
2. Calculate full load performance using a part load fraction (PLF) = 1 and Equation 16.167.
RequiredOutput
P LF = (16.170)
FullOutput
ṁ (wout − win )
V̇evap = (16.172)
ρwater
where:
V̇evap is the volume flow rate of useful water evaporation (m3 /s)
wout is the humidity ratio of the air leaving the cooler (kg/kg)
win is the humidity ratio of air entering the cooler (kg/kg)
16.4. AIR SYSTEM FANS 1063
ṁ is the mass flow rate of air moving through the cooler (kg/s)
ρwater is the density of water (kg/m3 ).
Drift is water that leaves the cooler (and supply air duct) as droplets and does not contribute
to the evaporative cooling process in a useful manner. It is calculated using a user input factor
that describes drift as a fraction of V̇evap .
V̇evap
V̇blowdown = − V̇drif t (16.174)
(Rconcentration − 1.0)
16.4.2 Model
Each of the five fan models is a forward type: the model inputs describe the fan characteris-
tics and the conditions of the air at the fan inlet; the outputs are the fan electrical power con-
sumption and the conditions of the air at the fan outlet. The model algorithms and data for
Fan:ConstantVolume, Fan:VariableVolume, Fan:OnOff and Fan:ComponentModel are contained in
the Fans.cc and Fans.hh files in EnergyPlus. The source code for the Fan:SystemModel added for
version 8.7 is contained in the HVACFan.cc and HVACFan.hh files.
1064 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
For the Fan:SystemModel model (added for version 8.7), the user describes the fan by entering
values for the design pressure rise across the fan, the design volume flow rate, the design electric
power consumption, and the fan motor efficiency. The user also needs to specify the fraction of the
fan motor’s waste heat that will enter the air stream (usually 0 or 1). If the fan is indoors, the name
of a Zone and a fraction for the split between thermal radiation and convection can be entered so
that the portion of fan motor waste heat that does not enter the air stream can be added to the
thermal zone surrounding the fan. The user enters a choice for fan speed control method to be
either Continuous (for VAV) or Discrete (for constant volume, on-off, two-speed, or multi-speed).
A performance curve or lookup table defined separately can be referenced by the fan to describe the
variation in fan power as a function of flow rate. This curve is required for continuous speed control.
However, for discrete speed control the user has the option of directly entering a power modification
factor for each discrete speed and a curve is not necessary. For two- or multi-speed fans, the number
of speeds is entered and pairs of values for the flow fraction and power fraction at each speed level
are entered in increasing order. The design electric power consumption can be autosized using input
values for one of three available scaling factors: fan total efficiency, electric power per unit flow rate,
or electric power per unit flow rate per unit pressure. Except for these sizing and control features,
the fan (system) model itself is based on the original fan models (Fan:VariableVolume, Fan:OnOff,
and Fan:ConstantVolume) and uses the same basic mathematical formulation.
For the Fan:ConstantVolume, Fan:VariableVolume, and Fan:OnOff models, the user describes
the fan by entering values for the design pressure rise across the fan, the design volume flow rate, the
fan total efficiency, and the fan motor efficiency. The user also needs to specify the fraction of the
fan waste heat that will enter the air stream (usually 0 or 1). For the Fan:VariableVolume model, the
user must also enter the coefficients of a 4th order polynomial that relates the fan mass flow rate to
the fan power consumption.The independent variable is the volumetric flow fraction; the dependent
variable is the fan power part load ratio. For multi-speed fans, the user must enter a fan power ratio
as a function of speed ratio performance curve name. Multi-speed fans can only be simulated in
a parent object which allows multiple fan speeds (e.g., AirLoopHVAC:Unitary:Furnace:HeatCool,
ZoneHVAC:PackagedTerminalAirConditioner, etc.). An optional efficiency curve may also be used
when simulating multi-speed fans to adjust the fan total efficiency as the fan speed changes.
For the Fan:ComponentModel object, the user describes the fan in more detail, and also describes
the duct system characteristics as seen by the fan. In particular, the user specifies a pressure rise
curve with four coefficients that relates the fan total pressure rise to the volumetric flow through
the fan, the duct-static-pressure set-point, and the static pressure of the spaces surrounding the
ducts. If duct-static-pressure reset is used, the user enters a linear curve with two coefficients that
relates the pressure set-point to the volumetric flow through the fan. For the fan itself, the user
specifies the fan geometry (wheel diameter and outlet area), maximum efficiency, the Euler number
corresponding to the maximum efficiency, the maximum dimensionless flow, the names of four curves
with several coefficients that describe the variation of fan efficiency and dimensionless flow with the
Euler number in the normal and stall operation regions of the fan, and a sizing factor (applied to
the maximum flow through the fan). For the belt, the user specifies the maximum efficiency (or a
curve with five coefficients that defines the maximum efficiency as a function of maximum fan shaft
input power), three curves with three coefficients each that relate the belt part-load efficiency to belt
fractional output torque, the motor/fan pulley diameter ratio, the belt output torque capacity, and
a sizing factor (applied to the maximum output torque of the belt). For the motor, the user specifies
16.4. AIR SYSTEM FANS 1065
the maximum efficiency (or a curve with three coefficients that define the maximum efficiency as
a function of maximum belt input power), a curve with three coefficients that relate the motor
part-load efficiency to motor fractional output power, and a sizing factor (applied to the maximum
output power of the motor). For the variable-frequency-drive (VFD), the user specifies a curve with
three coefficients that relate the VFD part-load efficiency to motor fractional input power or to
motor fractional speed, and a sizing factor (applied to the maximum output power of the VFD).
16.4.2.2 Control
The models must decide whether the fan is on or off. The primary on/off trigger is the fan availability
schedule. This is an on/off schedule associated with each fan: a value of 1 indicates the fan is on;
a value of 0 indicates the fan is off. The fan schedule can be overruled by flags set by system
availability managers. If the flag TurnFansOn is true, a zero fan schedule value will be overridden
and the fan will be turned on. If the flag TurnFansOff is true the fan will be forced off. The inlet
air mass flow rate must be greater than zero for the fan to be on.
Generally the fan is a passive component: it accepts the mass flow on its inlet node, uses it
in its calculations of energy consumption and temperature rise, and passes it to the outlet node.
However the fan maximum and minimum airflow rates act as absolute limits on the airflow rate.
For multi-speed fans, the parent object determines the fan speed ratio (i.e., the selected speed
of the fan motor) and uses this value to determine flow rate and electric power consumption. For
a Fan:SystemModel operating with the Discrete choice for speed control, the fan model determines
the faction of time spent at the discrete speeds that bound it and will produce the average flow
requested by the parent object. Then the fan electric power consumption is determined for each
speed level and combined using a time-weighted average. For a fan operating with Continuous
speed control and a fan modeled with the Fan:OnOff object, the electric power is evaluated using
the power ratio performance curve at the (average) flow fraction requested by the parent object.
16.4.2.3 Simulation
For the Fan:SystemModel model based on design electric power consumption, the fan’s total effi-
ciency is determined at the beginning of the simulation using:
(V̇design,max · ∆P )
εtot,max = (16.175)
Q̇tot,design
For a fan with discrete speed control with more than one speed and input data for Speed x
Electric Power Fraction, the fan’s total efficiency at each speed x is determined and stored using:
mass flow rate using a design density of air that is adjusted for altitude above sea level and dry air
at 20°C drybulb.
ṁcur
ff low,cur = (16.186)
ṁdesign,max
The determination of electric power consumed at a flow fraction depends on if the speed control
method is discrete or continuous.
Discrete Speed Control
For the Fan:SystemModel using discrete speed control, with the number of fan speeds set at 1,
and the flow fraction is less than one, then the fan will be modeled as cycling between ”off” and
”on” over the timestep. The time fraction is equal to the flow fraction so that:
ṁ · ∆P
Q̇tot,elec = RT FOn · (16.188)
εtot · ρair
16.4. AIR SYSTEM FANS 1067
Similarly, for two-speed and multi-speed fans, the current flow fraction will be used to find the
run time fraction for each of the adjacent speed levels *x* and *x+1* that bracket the flow fraction
such that
(ṁcur · ∆P )
εtot,cur = (16.194)
(fpower,cur · Q̇tot,design · ρair )
Fan:OnOff Fan Model
The on/off fan model is similar to the simple fan model with the exception that the on/off fan
may cycle on and off during a simulation time step. The cycling rate of the fan is known as the
run time fraction. The calculation of run time fraction accounts for the part-load losses of other
equipment used in the HVAC system. A part-load factor (a.k.a. part-load ratio) is first calculated
for the fan as the ratio of the actual operating mass flow rate to the maximum fan mass flow rate.
The run time fraction is then calculated as the part-load factor divided by the part-load fraction.
The part-load fraction is determined by other HVAC equipment in the simulation (Ref. DX coil)
for use by this specific fan model.
ṁ
ff low = (16.195)
ṁmax
ff low
RT F = (16.196)
P LF
The total fan power is then calculated as the maximum fan power multipled by the run time
fraction.
The remaining calculations are the same as those described in the simple single-speed fan mode.
Multi-Speed Fan Model
The model used to simulate a multi-speed fan relies on the general fan laws to correct for speed
changes in the fan’s motor and the corresponding change in fan power and fan total efficiency. Two
performance curves are used to define the change in power and efficiency as shown below. The
power ratio curve must be used to simulate a multi-speed fan. The power ratio curve modifies the
fan power based on a change in fan speed according to the cubic fan law. Exponents other than
3 are allowed. The efficiency ratio curve is used to correct for changes in nominal efficiency at
alternate fan speeds. If either or both of these curves are not provided, the ratio is assumed to be
1.
The power ratio term is evaluated using an exponent performance curve. The form of the
exponent curve equation is shown below.
RT F
RT F = (16.202)
Nratio
ṁ∆P P owerRatio
Q̇tot = RT F (16.203)
εtot ρair Ef f iciencyRatio
Each of the performance curves described above may be used to model the performance of a
multi-speed fan motor, however, the power ratio curve must be used to envoke the multi-speed
simulation. These curves are used when the fan is used in an HVAC system having multiple flow
rates (i.e., different flow rates in cooling and heating mode). If an HVAC system operates at the
same speed in either cooling or heating mode, these curves are not required. When these curves
16.4. AIR SYSTEM FANS 1069
are not used, the associated ratio term in the equation above is assumed to be 1. The remaining
calculations are identical to the simple single-speed fan model described above.
Variable Speed Fan Model
The model for the variable speed fan is similar to the simple single-speed fan model except for
a part load factor that multiplies the fan power consumption.
∆Pf an · Qf an
ηf an = (16.207)
Hf an
where ∆Pf an is the fan pressure rise (Pa), Qf an is the fan flow at standard conditions (m3 /s),
and Hf an is the fan shaft power (W). Fan speed values also can be derived from the manufacturer’s
performance map using a similar software-based data extraction tool.
Fan pressure rise must be sufficient to overcome the air-handling system pressure drop, which
depends on duct static pressure, on duct and equipment leakage, and on pressure drops across duct
and duct-like elements (e.g., dampers, fittings), coils, and filters that are connected to the fan.
Duct and duct-like pressure drops increase approximately as the square of the flow through them.
However, pressure drops across coils and filters behave differently: they are proportional to the flow
raised to a power n, which can approach one for high-efficiency filters and wet coils (Liu et al. 2003,
Trane 1999).
The relation between system pressure drop and flow defines what is commonly called a “system
curve”. When system characteristics change, such as when the duct static pressure set point is
varied, a family of system curves results. The intersections of these curves with fan curves (e.g.,
power as a function of pressure rise and flow) on a pressure versus flow plot define one or more loci
of unique fan operating points. Each of these points has an associated fan efficiency, power, and
speed.
Fan Pressure Rise Model: To calculate fan pressure rise based on flow through the fan, Sherman
and Wray (2010) have developed a simple physics-based data-driven four parameter duct system
model for the purpose of simulating its system curve. The embodiment of the model for a fixed
outdoor air fraction that can be applied to constant- or variable-volume central air-handling systems
is:
p
∆Pf an,tot = Af pr Q2f an + Bf pr Qf an + Cf pr Qf an Psm − Po + Df pr (Psm − Po ) (16.208)
where ∆Pf an,tot is the fan total pressure rise (Pa), Qf an is the fan flow at standard conditions
3
(m /s), Psm is the duct static pressure set point (Pa), Po is the static pressure of the spaces
surrounding the ducts (Pa), and Af pr , Bf pr , Cf pr , and Df pr are constant coefficients that represent
different aspects of the fan pressure rise model as described below.
Fan static pressure rise is determined from the total pressure rise by subtracting the outlet
velocity pressure:
2
ρ Qf an
∆Pf an = ∆Pf an,tot − (16.209)
2 Af an,out
where Af an,out is the fan outlet area (m2 ) and ρ is the air density at the fan inlet (kg/m3 ).
The first term in Equation 16.208 looks like the common system curve in which the fan pressure
rise is proportional to the square of the fan flow, but here it also depends implicitly on supply and
return pressure losses, and in part on the fraction of the fan flow that is outdoor air (essentially
“leaks” into and out of the return side of the system). Very often it is the only term considered, but
that would only be correct with fixed-position dampers, no distribution system leakage, no linear
resistance components, and no duct static pressure control.
The second term accounts for significant flow resistances in the system where the pressure
difference is linearly proportional to the flow. Some filters and coils in the return may need this
16.4. AIR SYSTEM FANS 1071
Figure 16.16: Example Fan Performance Maps - Manufacturer’s Data from Loren Cook Company,
plus Derived Static Efficiency (Three-Dimensional and Contours) (Dashed Parabolic Curve is “Do
Not Select Line”)
1072 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
term to be adequately described. This term could be ignored if there are no linear components or
if their pressure drops are very small compared to the other terms.
The third term, which depends on the fan flow and square root of the supply duct pressure Psm ,
accounts in part for air leakage from the supply system when damper positions are fixed or are
changed independently of static pressure or fan flow. In this case, reducing or eliminating supply
leakage results in a different system curve. This, however, might be only a minor “correction” to the
simple system curves generally used. The third term is zero when VAV box dampers are modulated
to control flow. Consequently, with variable-position supply dampers, reducing or eliminating
supply leakage does not change the system curve.
The last term also accounts in part for leakage from the supply system when damper positions
are fixed or are changed independently of static pressure or fan flow. This term indicates that the
same fan pressure rise can be achieved by raising the duct pressure and closing dampers. The only
change in the system in such a case is that the leakage flow may increase. The coefficient for this
term is equal to one when the VAV box dampers are modulated to control flow. In both cases, this
term may be the most important “correction” to the simple system curves generally used, especially
at low flows.
In principle, especially for research applications of Energy Plus, the four individual fan pressure
rise coefficients can be determined using duct design calculation tools for the entire system (e.g.,
Right-CommDuct, UNI-DUCT, Ductsize, Varitrane Duct Designer, T-Duct). In practice, however,
especially for existing buildings, the necessary details may not be known sufficiently. In that case,
one can make active measurements at different combinations of fan flows, outside air fractions,
damper positions (if they are variable), and duct static pressures and then use non-linear system
identification techniques to fit the data and determine the coefficients. If passive measurements
can be made over a sufficiently long time so that a wide range of outside air settings, damper
positions, and fan flows is obtained, one could instead regress the data to find all of the parameters
in the equation. Unfortunately, there are no standardized test procedures available to draw upon,
even though some standards appear to be related (e.g., ASHRAE 1999, 2008). Consequently, field
test protocols need to be developed to determine the parameters for the new duct system model.
These protocols then need to be integrated into standardized data collection and analysis tools
such as Pacific Gas and Electric’s “Universal Translator” tool. The California Energy Commission
is funding such a project; data, procedures, and tools from this project will support the EnergyPlus
implementation of the fan and duct system models described here.
SPR Model: The model for duct-static-pressure reset (SPR) is based on a simple diagnostic
procedure and a linear correlation between duct static pressure and supply fan airflow (Federspiel
2004, 2005). The diagnostic method involves measuring the static pressure at the duct static
pressure sensor and the velocity pressure at the fan inlet (represents the fan flow) at multiple points
over the fan’s operating range, while the VAV box dampers attempt to control flow in response to a
constant thermostat setpoint. The goal of the test is to define the lowest duct static pressure where
all VAV boxes are still in control (dampers modulating). In the model, the correlation between Psm
and Qf an is as follows for Qf an,min ≤ Qf an ≤ Qf an,max :
(Qf an − Qf an,min )
Psm = Psm,min + (Psm,max − Psm,min ) ∗ = C1 + C2 ∗ Qf an (16.210)
(Qf an,max − Qf an,min )
where:
16.4. AIR SYSTEM FANS 1073
(Psm,max − Psm,min )
C2 = (16.212)
(Qf an,max − Qf an,min )
For Qf an < Qf an,min , Psm = Psm,min ; forQf an > Qf an,max , Psm = Psm,max .
Fan Efficiency and Shaft Input Power Model: A dimensionless parameter in the form of an Euler
number can be used to simplify the description of fan static efficiency variations:
∆Pf an ∗ Df4 an
Eu = (16.213)
ρ ∗ Q2f an
where ∆Pf an is the fan static pressure rise (Pa), Df an is the fan wheel outer diameter (m), ρ is
the air density at the fan inlet (kg/m3 ), and Qf an is the fan flow at standard conditions (m3 /s). Eu
is nominally the ratio of pressure forces across the fan to inertial forces at the fan wheel exit.
By plotting the normalized fan static efficiency (static efficiency / maximum static efficiency)
versus the logarithm base 10 of the normalized Euler number (Eu / Eu at maximum static effi-
ciency), the dimensionless performance of various fan sizes is very similar (as one might expect
from the “fan laws”), but so also is the dimensionless performance of different types of fans (e.g.,
single-inlet plenum fans, double-inlet housed centrifugal fans, mixed flow fans, vane axial fans, fans
with backward or forward curved blades). An example of this correlation for the “normal operation”
(non-stall) and stall regions of eight fans is shown in Figure 16.17.
This model uses a continuous function to represent the normalized fan efficiency (ηf an ) variation.
The normalized exponential-conditioned skew-normal functional relationship is:
ηf an (xf an ) e(−0.5∗Z12 )
[1 + |Z2 | • erf |Z
Z2 √2
2
|
= (16.214)
ηf an,max e(−0.5∗Z3 ) [1 + Z3 • erf |Z |
2
√3
|Z3 | 2
where:
af an = −2.732094 (16.219)
1074 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
Figure 16.17: Normalized Efficiency Curves for Eight Fans in Dimensionless Space *(BC = backward
curved, FC = forward curved; SI = single inlet, DI = double inlet)*
16.4. AIR SYSTEM FANS 1075
bf an = 2.273014 (16.220)
cf an = 0.196344 (16.221)
df an = 5.267518 (16.222)
In this case, the coefficient of determination R2 is 0.994. Also, the average and RMS differences
between the efficiency values based on extracted data and the fitted generic curve are, respectively,
about 0.5% and 1.4%; maximum differences are about ±9%.
If more accuracy is needed for a specific fan, a similarly shaped curve can be developed for that
fan (using extracted data, Equation 16.214, and least-squares regression techniques), segmented
into normal operation and stall regions with specific coefficients fitted for each region. Figure 16.18
shows an example, using the data from Figure 16.16.
Operating Region a b c d
Normal (Non-Stall) 0.072613 0.833213 0 0.013911
Stall -2.354091 2.117493 0 2.753264
In this case, the average and RMS differences between the efficiency values based on extracted
data and fitted specific curve (R2 is 0.999) are, respectively, about -0.1% and 0.3%; maximum
differences are about ±0.7%. Field tests are especially needed to determine the coefficients for
installed fans because fans are susceptible to “system effects” (e.g., inlet obstructions) that are not
included in the manufacturer test data (AMCA 1990a).
To determine fan efficiency and fan shaft power at a particular time step, first calculate the
fan pressure rise (∆Pf an ) using the time step fan flow (Qf an ) and Equation 16.208 (and also using
Equation 16.210 if there is SPR). Next, calculate Eu using Equation 16.213 and then xf an (log10 nor-
malized Eu), which is based on Eu and the specified Eumax (Eu at maximum efficiency) for the fan.
The corresponding normalized efficiency (ηf an (xf an )/etaf an,max ) is obtained using Equation 16.214.
The fan efficiency (ηf an (xf an )) therefore is:
ηf an (xf an )
ηf an (xf an ) = ηf an,max (16.223)
ηf an,max
The fan shaft input power (mechanical, W) is:
∆Pf an · Qf an
Hf an = (16.224)
ηf an (xf an )
Fan Shaft Speed and Torque Modeling: For rotating elements, power (H ) is the product of torque
τ and rotational speed ω, or conversely, torque is power divided by rotational speed τ = H/ω.
The Stein and Hydeman variable-frequency-drive (VFD) component model correlates VFD effi-
ciency as a linear function of VFD fractional output power (i.e., motor input power). Available data
for about 50 drives from Saftronics were apparently used to develop their model, but those data
represent VFD efficiency as a function of motor fractional speed (ωmotor /ωmotor,max , or nominally,
drive output frequency divided by maximum output frequency, if motor slip is ignored).
To make use of the available data, the Stein and Hydeman linear correlation must intrinsically
make an assumption that motor speed and torque have some fixed relationship. Although not
documented, their assumption might be the common belief that fractional torque (τ /τmax ) for a
motor is simply the square of its fractional speed. For fans serving duct systems with components
such as filters and coils, with relatively low pressure drops elsewhere in the system, and for systems
that have a non-zero controlled duct static pressure, this assumption may be inappropriate. Con-
sequently, to make use of the available data and to avoid such assumptions, one needs to know the
fraction of full speed at which fan components operate.
For the fan, dimensionless flow (φ) can be defined as (ASHRAE 1993):
Qf an
φ= (16.225)
ωf an · Df3 an
16.4. AIR SYSTEM FANS 1077
where ωf an is the fan speed (rad/s). This parameter can be calculated for each operating point
on the fan manufacturer’s performance map that represents fan speed as a function of flow and
fan pressure rise. To simplify the data representation to a single curve (as we have done for fan
efficiency), one can plot normalized dimensionless flow (dimensionless flow divided by maximum
dimensionless flow, (φ(xf an )/varphimax ) as a function of the log base 10 of the normalized Euler
(Eu) parameter (xf an ). Figure 16.19 shows an example plot derived from the manufacturer’s data
in Figure 16.16.
Figure 16.19: Example Normalized Dimensionless Flow Data for One Fan
The following equation describes the sigmoidal functional form for normalized φ:
φ (xf an )
= (Aspd + Bspd /((1 + e[(Cspd −xspd )/ Dspd ] )Espd ) (16.226)
φmax
where Aspd , Bspd , Cspd , Dspd , and Espd are coefficients for the fan. Separate sets of coefficients
for the normal operation and stall regions can be specified. For the curve shown in Figure 16.19,
these coefficients are:
For a generic centrifugal fan with backward-curved blades, the coefficients are:
For any operating point of flow (Qf an ) and fan pressure rise (∆Pf an ), one can calculate the cor-
responding Euler number (Eu) for the given fan, and then determine the corresponding normalized
dimensionless flow (φxf an /φmax ) from the sigmoidal dimensionless flow function (Equation 16.226).
With φxf an /φmax determined and knowing φmax for the fan, the dimensionless flow is:
φ (xf an )
φ (xf an ) = φmax (16.227)
φmax
With φxf an determined, the fan rotational speed (rad/s) is:
Qf an
ωf an = (16.228)
φ(xf an ) ∗ Df3 an
Fan shaft torque (N�m), which the belt drive must supply to the fan shaft, is then:
Hf an
τf an = (16.229)
ωf an
The fraction of full-load driven torque for the belt (τf an /τbelt,max ), which is typically called “belt
load”, is thus τf an divided by the belt torque capacity (τbelt,max ). For a particular belt type and
cross-section, belt torque capacity can be determined from manufacturer’s information such as a
shaft speed versus power chart.
Ignoring belt slip, motor shaft speed (ωmotor , rad/s) can then be determined using the fan speed
(ωf an ) and the motor/fan pulley diameter ratio (Dpulley,motor / Dpulley,f an ), which is typically called
the “drive” ratio:
ωf an
ωmotor = (16.230)
Dpulley,motor
Dpulley,f an
Belt, Motor, and Variable-Frequency-Drive Efficiency and Input Power Models – Overview: The
models for belt drives, motors, and VFDs that Stein and Hydeman included in their air-handling
system model represent maximum efficiency as a function of power input to the adjacent downstream
16.4. AIR SYSTEM FANS 1079
component (e.g., the power input to a fan shaft by a belt drive), but they do not include part-load
models. The part-load models are needed, because part-load efficiency for these components can
fall off rapidly at low load (e.g., to zero at zero load) and many systems operate occasionally (and
some much of the time) at low loads, in part because of current practices that result in substantial
oversizing of components.
Belt Efficiency and Input Power Model: Figure 16.20 shows three maximum efficiency (ηbelt,max )
curves for belts (low, medium, and high) as a function of maximum fan shaft torque. This set
of efficiency curves is based on belt drive loss data from AMCA Publication 203 (1990b), which
reportedly is an aggregation of data from over 400 tests.
To determine ηbelt,max if data for a specific belt are not available, first use the maximum fan
shaft input power (Hf an,max ) for the load spectrum to calculate the natural logarithm of belt power
capacity:
Figure 16.20: Belt Maximum Efficiency vs. Fan Shaft Power Input
The quardratic polynomial curves in Figure 16.20 and their coefficients are as follows:
Efficiency c1 c2 c3 c4 c5
Class (Loss)
High (Low -6.502E-2 2.475E-2 -6.841E-3 9.383E-4 -5.168E-5
Loss)
Medium -9.504E-2 3.415E-2 -8.897E-3 1.159E-3 -6.132E-5
(Medium
Loss)
Low (High -1.422E-1 5.112E-2 -1.353E-2 1.814E-3 -9.909E-5
Loss)
ηbelt (xbelt )
= abelt + bbelt · e(cbelt ·xbelt ) (16.235)
ηbelt,max
where xbelt = τbelt / τbelt,max
Belt efficiency therefore is:
ηbelt (xbelt )
ηbelt (xbelt ) = ηbelt,max (16.236)
ηbelt,max
Belt input power (mechanical, W) at the motor shaft is:
Hf an
Hbelt = (16.237)
ηbelt (xbelt )
16.4. AIR SYSTEM FANS 1081
Motor Efficiency and Input Power Model: Figure 16.22 shows three maximum efficiency
(ηmotor,max ) curves for motors (low, medium, and high) as a function of rated motor output power
(belt input power). This set of efficiency curves is based on maximum efficiency data in DOE’s
MotorMaster+ database (2003) from about 800 tests. It is provided for use in the absence of
manufacturer’s data.
Figure 16.22: Maximum Motor Efficiency vs. Belt Power Input (Motor Output)
To determine ηmotor,max if data for a specific motor are not available (e.g., as listed in Table 16.10),
first use the maximum belt input power (Hbelt,max ) for the load spectrum (multiplied by whatever
oversizing factor may be desired) to calculate the natural logarithm of belt power capacity:
16.4. AIR SYSTEM FANS 1083
The normalized part-load motor efficiency model is provided to modify the maximum efficiency
of the motor. This model is based on part-load data for motors from DOE’s MotorMaster+ database
(2003). To determine the normalized motor efficiency at part-load (ηmotor (xmotor )/ηmotor,max ), use
the motor fractional power output (xmotor = Hbelt / Hbelt,max ) as the fraction of motor output power in
Equation 16.240 and use coefficients from Table 16.10, or for a specific motor, determined from DOE
MotorMaster+ data or from manufacturer’s data. Figure 16.23 shows a graphical representation of
eight example curves defined by these equations and coefficients.
The example motor normalized efficiency curves (single rectangular hyperbola type 2) and their
coefficients as a function of motor load fraction in Figure 16.23 are determined from DOE Motor-
Master+ data and are as follows:
ηmotor (xmotor ) aP Lmotor · xmotor
= + cP Lmotor · xmotor (16.240)
ηmotor,max bP Lmotor + xmotor
Figure 16.24: VFD Efficiency vs. Fraction of Motor Full-Load Input Power (*Source: DOE 2008*)
1088 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
Figure 16.25: VFD Efficiency vs. Fraction of Full-Load Motor Speed (*Courtesy of Saftronics*)
16.4. AIR SYSTEM FANS 1089
(Qi + Q0 )(Pt,i + P0 × ρ
ρstd
)
Hi,ref = (16.249)
1000 × η0
where:
Qi is the fan air flow (m3 /s)
Pt,i is the fan total pressure (Pa)
ρ is the air density (kg/m3 )
ρstd is the standard air density (1.2 kg/m3 )
Q0 is 0.118 m3 /s
P0 is 100 Pa
η0 is 66%.
Reference fan transmission efficiency
For consistency, the reference fan is defined as one having a V-belt drive transmission, regardless
of the drive arrangement of the actual fan for which the FEI is calculated. The reference fan
transmission efficiency is calculated using the same equations as found in ANSI/AMCA Standard
207 for V-belt drives:
Hi,ref
etatrans,ref = 0.96( ).05 (16.250)
Hi,ref + 1.64
1090 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
ηmtr,ref = A·[log10 (Ht,ref )]4 +B ·[log10 (Ht,ref )]3 +C ·[log10 (Ht,ref )]2 +D·[log10 (Ht,ref )]1 +E (16.252)
A -0.003812 0
B 0.025834 0
C -0.072577 0
D 0.125559 0
E 0.850274 0.962
ηctrl,ref = 1 (16.253)
16.4.4 References
AMCA. 1990a. “Fans and Systems”. Publication 201-90. Arlington Heights, IL: Air Movement and
Control Association International.
AMCA. 1990b. “Field Performance Measurement of Fan Systems”. Publication 203-90. Arling-
ton Heights, IL: Air Movement and Control Association International.
ASHRAE. 1993. HVAC 2 Toolkit: Algorithms and Subroutines for Secondary HVAC System
Energy Calculations. Atlanta: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning
Engineers, Inc.
ASHRAE. 1999. “ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 120 Method of Testing to Determine Flow Re-
sistance of HVAC Ducts and Fittings”. Atlanta: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and
16.5. AIR SYSTEM COMPOUND COMPONENT GROUPS 1091
Figure 16.26: Schematic of the EnergyPlus Unitary System (Blow Through Configuration)
16.5. AIR SYSTEM COMPOUND COMPONENT GROUPS 1093
coordinate the operation of the various system components. The following sections describe the
flow of information within the model, as well as the differences between cycling and continuous
supply air fan operation.
16.5.1.3 Controls
There are three types of control types allowed to be specified in the unitary system which are
setpoint based, load based or a load based control method according to ASHRAE Standard 90.1.
Each control type is described in detail below.
The unitary system calculates the current sensible load using the temperature of the inlet node and
the System Node Setpoint Temp on the control node. If the control node is not the outlet node,
the desired outlet node temperature is adjusted for the current temperature difference between the
outlet node and the control node. Likewise, the current latent load is calculated using the humidity
ratio of the inlet node and the System Node Humidity Ratio Max on the control node. The controls
determine the required coil run-time fraction and dehumidification mode (if applicable) using the
steps outlined below.
where:
ṁT U M ax ControlledZone is the maximum air mass flow rate for the air loop’s supply inlet node
(terminal unit) for the control zone (kg/s)
ṁT U M ax Zone j is the maximum air mass flow rate for the air loop’s supply inlet node for the jth
zone (kg/s)
N umOf Zones is the number of zones, or number of air loop supply air inlet nodes for all zones
served by the air loop.
The unitary system component is able to model supply air fan operation in two modes: cycling
fan – cycling coil (i.e., AUTO fan) and continuous fan – cycling coil (i.e., fan ON). Fan:OnOff must
be used to model AUTO fan, while Fan:OnOff or Fan:ConstantVolume can be used to model fan
ON. The fan operation mode is specified using a supply air fan operating mode schedule where
schedule values of 0 denote cycling fan operation and schedule values other than 0 (a 1 is usually
used) denote continuous fan operation. Using this schedule, the unitary system fan may be cycled
with cooling or heating coil operation or operated continuously based on time of day (e.g., cycling
fan operation at night and continuous fan operation during the daytime). If the fan operating mode
schedule name field is left blank in the unitary system object, the unitary system assumes cycling
or AUTO fan mode operation throughout the simulation.
The unitary system operates based on the user-specified (or autosized) design supply air flow
rate(s). The ‘design’ supply air mass flow rate may be different for cooling, heating, and when no
cooling or heating is required and the fan operates continuously based on user-specified inputs.
Cooling Operation
16.5. AIR SYSTEM COMPOUND COMPONENT GROUPS 1095
If EnergyPlus determines that the unitary system must supply cooling to the control zone to
meet the zone air temperature setpoint, then the model computes the total sensible cooling load to
be met by the unitary system based on the control zone sensible cooling load and the fraction of
the unitary system air flow that goes through the control zone.
ControlZoneCoolingLoad
U nitarySystemCoolingLoad = (16.255)
ControlZoneAirF lowF raction
If the supply air fan operating mode schedule requests cycling fan operation, the model first
checks for the presence of an ecomomizer in the outside air system serving the unitary system’s
air loop (Ref. AirLoopHVAC:OutdoorAirSystem). If an outside air system is not present or if an
air-side economizer is not used, the unitary system’s compressor is used to meet the unitary system
cooling load. If an air-side economizer is used and is active (i.e., economizer controls indicate that
conditions are favorable to increase the outside air flow rate), the unitary system will try to meet
the cooling load by operating only the supply air fan. If the fan is able to satisfy the unitary system
cooling load, the compressor remains off for the entire simulation time step. If the operation of the
fan alone is unable to meet the entire cooling load, then the compressor is enabled and additional
calculations are performed to determine the compressor’s part-load ratio.
The model then calculates the unitary system’s sensible cooling energy rate delivered to the
zones being served when the system runs at full-load conditions and when the cooling coil is OFF.
If the supply air fan cycles with the compressor, then the sensible cooling energy rate is zero when
the cooling coil is OFF. However if the fan is configured to run continuously regardless of coil
operation, then the sensible cooling energy rate will probably not be zero when the cooling coil
is OFF. Calculating the sensible cooling energy rate involves modeling the supply air fan (and
associated fan heat), the cooling coil, and the heating and reheat coil (simply to pass the air
properties and mass flow rate from its inlet node to its outlet node). For each of these cases (full
load and cooling coil OFF), the sensible cooling energy rate delivered by the unitary system is
calculated as follows:
F ull Cool Output = (M ass F low Ratef ull load )(hout,f ull load − hcontrol zone )HR min − ∆sen,f ull load
(16.256)
N o Cool Output = (M ass F low Ratecoil of f )(hout,coil of f − hcontrol zone )HRmin − ∆sen,coil of f
(16.257)
where:
Mass Flow Ratef ull load is the air mass flow rate through unitary system at full-load conditions
(kg/s)
hcoil,f ull load is the enthalpy of air exiting the unitary system at full-load conditions (J/kg)
hcontrol zone is the enthalpy of air in the control zone where the thermostat is located (J/kg)
HRmin is the enthalpies evaluated at a constant humidity ratio, the minimum humidity ratio of
the unitary system exiting air or the air in the control zone
Mass Flow Ratecoil of f is the air mass flow rate through the unitary system with the cooling coil
OFF (kg/s)
hout,coil of f is the enthalpy of air exiting the unitary system with the cooling coil OFF (J/kg)
∆sen,f ull load is the sensible load difference between the system output node and the zone inlet
node at full-load conditions.
1096 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
(U nitarySystemCoolingLoad − N oCoolOutput)
P artLoadRatio = M AX 0.0, (16.260)
(F ullCoolOutput − N oCoolOutput)
Since the part-load performance of the cooling coil is frequently non-linear, and the supply air
fan heat varies based on cooling coil operation for the case of cycling fan/cycling coil (AUTO fan),
the final part-load ratio for the cooling coil compressor and fan are determined through iterative
calculations (successive modeling of the cooling coil and fan) until the unitary system’s cooling
output matches the cooling load to be met within the convergence tolerance. The convergence
tolerance is fixed at 0.001 and is calculated based on the difference between the load to be met and
the unitary system’s cooling output divided by the load to be met.
(U nitarySystemCoolingLoad − QU nitarySystem )
T olerance = 0.001 ≥ (16.261)
U nitarySystemCoolingLoad
where QU nitarySystem is the unitary system delivered sensible capacity (W).
If the unitary system has been specified with cycling fan/cycling coil (AUTO fan), then the
unitary system’s operating supply air mass flow rate is multiplied by PartLoadRatio to determine
the average air mass flow rate for the system simulation time step. In this case, the air conditions
at nodes downstream of the cooling coil represent the full-load (steady-state) values when the coil
is operating.
If the fan operates continuously (i.e., when the supply air fan operating mode schedule values
are NOT equal to 0), the operating air mass flow rate through the unitary system is calculated as
the average of the user-specified air flow rate when the cooling coil is ON and the user-specified air
flow rate when the cooling coil is OFF (user-specified supply air volumetric flow rates converted to
dry air mass flow rates).
where:
16.5. AIR SYSTEM COMPOUND COMPONENT GROUPS 1097
ṁHeatCoilON is the air mass flow rate through unitary system when the cooling coil is ON (kg/s)
ṁCoilOF F is the air mass flow rate through unitary system when no cooling or heating is needed
(kg/s).
In this case, the air conditions at nodes downstream of the cooling coil are calculated as the
average conditions over the simulation time step (i.e., the weighted average of full-load conditions
when the coil is operating and inlet air conditions when the coil is OFF).
Cooling Operation (multi or variable speed coils)
After the unitary system cooling load is determined as described in Equation 16.255 above, the
multi or variable speed cooling coil models calculations are described in this section.
The model calculates the unitary system’s sensible cooling energy rate delivered to the zones
being served when the system runs at full-load conditions at the highest speed and when the
DX cooling coil is OFF. If the supply air fan cycles with the compressor, then the sensible cooling
energy rate is zero when the cooling coil is OFF. However if the fan is scheduled to run continuously
regardless of coil operation, then the sensible cooling energy rate will not be zero when the cooling
coil is OFF. Calculating the sensible cooling energy rate involves modeling the supply air fan (and
associated fan heat) and the multi/variable speed DX cooling coil. The multi/variable speed DX
heating coil and the supplemental heating coil are also modeled, but only to pass the air properties
and mass flow rate from their inlet nodes to their outlet nodes. For each of these cases (full load at
highest cooling speed and DX cooling coil OFF), the sensible cooling energy rate delivered by the
unitary system is calculated as follows:
F ullCoolOutputHighest Speed = (ṁHighestSpeed )(hout,f ull load − hcontrol zone )HRmin − ∆sen,HighestSpeed
(16.263)
where Frac is the control zone air fraction with respect to the system mass flow rate.
If the unitary system’s sensible cooling rate at the highest speed (full load, no cycling) is insuf-
ficient to meet the entire cooling load, the controlled zone conditions will not be met. The reported
cycling rate and speed ratio are 1, and the speed number is set to the highest index number. If
the total sensible cooling load to be met by the system is less than the sensible cooling rate at the
highest speed, then the following steps are performed.
First, calculate the sensible cooling energy rate at Speed 1:
where:
ṁSpeed1 is the air mass flow rate through unitary system at Speed 1 (kg/s)
∆sen,Speed1 is th sensible load difference between the system output node and the zone inlet node
at full-load conditions at Speed 1.
ṁZone Inlet
∆sen,Speed1 = (hOut,f ull load − hZone Inlet )HRmin
F rac (16.268)
ṁZone Inlet
+ ṁSpeed1 − (hOut,f ull load − hControl Zone )HRmin
F rac
If the sensible cooling energy rate delivered by the unitary system at Speed 1 is greater or equal
to the sensible load, the cycling ratio (part-load ratio) for the unitary system is estimated.
|(CoolingCoilSensibleLoad)|
CyclingRatio =
F ullCoolingCoilCapacity (16.269)
= max 0.0, FU ullCoolOutput
nitarySystemCoolingLoad−AddedF anHeat
Speed1 −AddedF anHeatSpeed1
where:
AddedFanHeat is the generated supply air fan heat, which is a function of part load ratio and
as internal component cooling load (W)
AddedFanHeatSpeed1 is the generated supply air fan heat at Speed 1 for a part load ratio = 1
(W).
Since the part-load performance of the DX cooling coil is frequently non-linear,and the supply air
fan heat varies based on cooling coil operation for the case of cycling fan/cycling coil (AUTO fan),
the final part-load ratio for the cooling coil compressor and fan are determined through iterative
calculations (successive modeling of the cooling coil and fan) until the unitary system’s cooling
output matches the cooling load to be met within the convergence tolerance. The convergence
tolerance is fixed at 0.001 and is calculated based on the difference between the load to be met and
the unitary system’s cooling output divided by the load to be met.
(U nitarySystemOutputcycling − QU nitarySystem )
T olerance = 0.001 ≥ (16.270)
U nitarySystemCoolingLoad
where the UnitarySystemOutputCycling is the unitary system delivered sensible capacity for
Speed 1 operating at a specific cycling ratio (W).
where:
ṁU nitarySystem is the average air mass flow rate defined in the next section (kg/s)
hout is the enthalpy of air exiting the unitary system at part load conditions (J/kg)
Δcycling is the average sensible load difference between the system output node and the zone
inlet node.
ṁZoneInlet ṁZoneInlet
∆cycling = (hZoneInlet − hControlZone ) + ṁU nitarySystem − (hOut − hControlZone )
f rac f rac
(16.272)
where ṁZoneInlet is the air mass flow rate in the supply inlet node in the controlled zone (kg/s).
For this case where speed 1 operation was able to meet the required cooling load, the speed
ratio is set to zero and speed number is equal to 1.
If the unitary system’s cooling output at full load for Speed 1 is insufficient to meet the entire
cooling load, the Cycling ratio is set equal to 1.0 (compressor and fan are not cycling). Then the
cooling speed is increased and the delivered sensible capacity is calculated. If the full load sensible
capacity at Speed n is greater than or equal to the sensible load, the speed ratio for the unitary
system is estimated:
(U nitarySystemCoolingLoad − U nitarySystemOutputSpeedRatio )
T olerance = 0.001 ≥ (16.274)
U nitarySystemCoolingLoad
where UnitarySystemOutputSpeedn is the unitary system delivered sensible capacity between two
consecutive speeds at a specific speed ratio (W).
where AddedFanHeatSpeedRatio is the generated supply air fan heat at a specific speed ratio (W).
In this case, the reported cycling ratio is 1 and speed number is equal to n.
1100 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
Heating Operation
Calculations for heating operation are similar to those for cooling operation in most respects.
However, due to the inclusion of a supplemental heating coil, additional calculations are necessary
to properly meet the total heating load for the zones being served.
If EnergyPlus determines that the unitary system must supply heating to the control zone to
meet the zone air temperature setpoint, then the unitary system model computes the total sensible
heating load to be delivered to the zones being served based on the control zone sensible heating
load and the control zone airflow fraction.
ControlZoneHeatingLoad
U nitarySystemHeatingLoad = (16.279)
ControlZoneAirF lowF raction
The model then calculates the unitary system’s sensible heating energy rate delivered to the
zones being served when the system runs at full-load conditions and when the heating coil is
OFF (without supplemental heater operation in either case). If the supply air fan cycles with the
compressor, then the sensible heating energy rate is zero when the compressor is OFF. However
if the fan is scheduled to run continuously regardless of coil operation, then the sensible heating
energy rate will not be zero when the compressor is OFF. Calculating the sensible heating energy
rate involves modeling the supply air fan (and associated fan heat), the cooling coil (simply to pass
the air properties and mass flow rate from its inlet node to its outlet node), the heating coil, and the
supplemental heating coil (simply to pass the air properties and mass flow rate from its inlet node
to its outlet node). For each of these cases (full load and heating coil OFF, without supplemental
heater operation in either case), the sensible heating energy rate delivered by the unitary system is
calculated as follows:
F ull Heat Output = (M ass F low Ratef ull load )(hout,f ull load − hcontrol zone )HRmin − ∆sen,f ull load
(16.280)
N o Heat Output = (M ass F low Ratecoil of f )(hout,coil of f − hcontrol zone )HRmin − ∆sen,coil of f
(16.281)
where:
Mass Flow Ratef ull load is the air mass flow rate through unitary system at full-load conditions
(kg/s)
hout,f ull load is the enthalpy of air exiting the unitary system at full-load conditions (J/kg)
hcontrol zone is the enthalpy of air leaving the control zone (where thermostat is located) (J/kg)
HRmin are the enthalpies evaluated at a constant humidity ratio, the minimum humidity ratio
of the unitary system exiting air or the air leaving the control zone
Mass Flow Ratecoil of f is the air mass flow rate through the unitary system with the heating coil
OFF (kg/s)
hout,coil of f is the enthalpy of air exiting the unitary system with the heating coil OFF (J/kg)
∆sen,f ull load is the sensible load difference between the system output node and the zone inlet
node at full-load conditions.
1102 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
ṁZone Inlet
∆sen,f ull load = (hOut,f ull load − hZone Inlet )HRmin
F rac (16.282)
ṁZone Inlet
+ ṁf ull load − (hOut,f ull load − hControl Zone )HRmin
F rac
where:
Frac is the control zone air fraction with respect to the system mass flow rate
∆sen,coil of f is the sensible load difference between the system output node and the zone inlet
node with the heating coil OFF conditions.
ṁZone Inlet
∆sen,coil of f = (hOut,coil of f − hZone Inlet )HRmin
F rac (16.283)
ṁZone Inlet
+ ṁcoil of f − (hOut,coil of f − hControl Zone )HRmin
F rac
With the calculated sensible heating energy rates and the total sensible heating load to be met
by the system, the part-load ratio for the unitary system is estimated.
(U nitarySystemHeatingLoad − N oHeatOutput)
P artLoadRatio = M AX 0.0, (16.284)
(F ullHeatOutput − N oHeatOutput)
Since the part-load performance of the heating coil is frequently non-linear, and the supply air
fan heat varies based on heating coil operation for the case of cycling fan/cycling coil (AUTO fan),
the final part-load ratio for the heating coil compressor and fan are determined through iterative
calculations (successive modeling of the heating coil and fan) until the unitary system’s heating
output matches the heating load to be met within the convergence tolerance. The convergence
tolerance is fixed at 0.001 and is calculated based on the difference between the load to be met and
the unitary system’s heating output divided by the load to be met.
(U nitarySystemHeatingLoad − QU nitarySystem )
T olerance = 0.001 ≥ (16.285)
U nitarySystemHeatingLoad
where QU nitarySystem is the unitary system delivered sensible capacity (W).
If the unitary system’s heating coil output at full load is insufficient to meet the entire heating
load, PartLoadRatio is set equal to 1.0 (compressor and fan are not cycling) and the remaining
heating load is passed to the supplemental heating coil. If the unitary system model determines
that the outdoor air temperature is below the minimum outdoor air temperature for compressor
operation, the compressor is turned off and the entire heating load is passed to the supplemental
gas or electric heating coil. The unitary system exiting air conditions and energy consumption are
calculated and reported by the individual component models (fan, heating coil, and supplemental
gas or electric heating coil).
If the unitary system has been specified with cycling fan/cycling coil (AUTO fan), then the
unitary system’s operating supply air mass flow rate is multiplied by PartLoadRatio to determine
the average air mass flow rate for the system simulation time step. The air conditions at nodes
downstream of the heating coils represent the full-load (steady-state) values when the coils are
16.5. AIR SYSTEM COMPOUND COMPONENT GROUPS 1103
operating. If the fan operates continuously (i.e., when the supply air fan operating mode schedule
values are NOT equal to 0), the operating air mass flow rate through the unitary system is calculated
as the average of the user-specified air flow rate when the unitary system heating coil is ON and
the user-specified air flow rate when the unitary system heating coil is OFF (user-specified supply
air volumetric flow rates converted to dry air mass flow rates).
where:
ṁHeatCoilON is the air mass flow rate through unitary system when the heating coil is ON (kg/s)
ṁCoilOF F is the air mass flow rate through unitary system when no heating or cooling is needed
(kg/s).
In this case, the air conditions at nodes downstream of the heating coils are calculated as the
average conditions over the simulation time step (i.e., the weighted average of full-load conditions
when the coils are operating and inlet air conditions when the coils are OFF).
where:
ṁHighestSpeed is the air mass flow rate through unitary system at the highest heating speed (kg/s)
hout,f ull load is the enthalpy of air exiting the unitary system at full-load conditions (J/kg)
hcontrol zone is the enthalpy of air leaving the control zone (where thermostat is located) (J/kg)
HRmin are the enthalpies evaluated at a constant humidity ratio, the minimum humidity ratio
of the unitary system exiting air or the air leaving the control zone
ṁCoilOf f is the air mass flow rate through the unitary system with the heating coil OFF (kg/s)
1104 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
hout,coil of f is the enthalpy of air exiting the unitary system with the heating coil OFF (J/kg)
∆sen,f ull load is the sensible load difference between the system output node and the zone inlet
node at full-load conditions.
ṁZone Inlet
∆sen,HighestSpeed = − hZone Inlet )HRmin
(hOut,f ull load
F rac (16.289)
ṁZone Inlet
+ ṁHighestSpeed − (hOut,coil of f − hControl Zone )HRmin
F rac
where:
Frac is the control zone air fraction with respect to the system mass flow rate
∆sen,coilof f is the sensible load difference between the system output node and the zone inlet
node with the heating coil OFF conditions.
ṁZone Inlet
∆sen,coil of f = (hOut,coil of f − hZone Inlet )HRmin
F rac (16.290)
ṁZone Inlet
+ ṁcoil of f − (hOut,coil of f − hControl Zone )HRmin
F rac
If the unitary system’s DX heating coil output full load at the highest speed is insufficient to
meet the entire heating load, the remaining heating load is passed to the supplemental heating coil.
If the unitary system model determines that the outdoor air temperature is below the minimum
outdoor air temperature for compressor operation (specified by the user), the compressor is turned
off and the entire heating load is passed to the supplemental gas or electric heating coil. The unitary
system exiting air conditions and energy consumption are calculated and reported by the individual
component models (fan, DX heating coil, and supplemental gas or electric heating coil).
If the total heating load to be met by the system is less than the sensible heating rate at the
highest speed, then the following steps are performed.
First, calculate the sensible heating energy rate at Speed 1:
F ullHeatOutputSpeed1 = (ṁSpeed1 )(hout,f ull load − hcontrol zone )HRmin − ∆sen,Speed1 (16.291)
where:
ṁSpeed1 is the air mass flow rate through unitary system at Speed 1 (kg/s)
∆sen,Speed1 is the sensible load difference between the system output node and the zone inlet
node at full-load conditions at Speed 1.
ṁZone Inlet
∆sen,Speed1 = (hOut,f ull load − hZoneInlet )HRmin
F rac (16.292)
ṁZone Inlet
+ ṁSpeed1 − (hOut,coil of f − hControl Zone )HRmin
F rac
Second, if the sensible heating energy rate delivered by the unitary system at Speed 1 is greater
or equal to the sensible load, the cycling ratio (part-load ratio) for the unitary system is estimated.
16.5. AIR SYSTEM COMPOUND COMPONENT GROUPS 1105
|(HeatingCoilSensibleLoad)|
CyclingRatio =
F ullHeatingCoilCapacity (16.293)
U nitarySystemHeatingLoad−AddedF anHeat
= max 0.0, F ullHeatOutputSpeed1 −AddedF anHeatSpeed1
where:
AddedFanHeat is the generated supply air fan heat, which is a function of part load ratio and
as internal component heating load (W)
AddedFanHeatSpeed1 is the generated supply air fan heat at Speed 1 (part load ratio = 1) (W).
Since the part-load performance of the DX heating coil is frequently non-linear, and the supply
air fan heat varies based on heating coil operation for the case of cycling fan/cycling coil (AUTO fan),
the final part-load ratio for the heating coil compressor and fan are determined through iterative
calculations (successive modeling of the heating coil and fan) until the unitary system’s heating
output matches the heating load to be met within the convergence tolerance. The convergence
tolerance is fixed at 0.001 and is calculated based on the difference between the load to be met and
the unitary system’s heating output divided by the load to be met.
(U nitarySystemHeatingLoad − U nitarySystemOutputcycling )
T olerance = 0.001 ≥ (16.294)
U nitarySystemHeatingLoad
where UnitarySystemOutputcycling is the unitary system delivered sensible capacity for Speed 1
operating at a specific cycling ratio (W).
where
ṁU nitarySystem is the average air mass flow rate defined in the next section (kg/s)
hout is the enthalpy of air exiting the unitary system at part load conditions (J/kg)
∆cycling is the average sensible load difference between the system output node and the zone
inlet node.
ṁZoneInlet ṁZoneInlet
∆cycling = (hZoneInlet − hControlZone ) + ṁU nitarySystem − (hOut − hControlZone )
f rac f rac
(16.296)
where ṁZone Inlet is the air mass flow rate in the supply inlet node in the controlled zone (kg/s).
For this case where Speed 1 operation was able to meet the required heating load, the speed
ratio is set to zero and speed number is equal to 1.
Third, if the unitary system’s heating output at full load for Speed 1 is insufficient to meet the
entire heating load, the Cycling ratio (PartLoadRatio) is set equal to 1.0 (compressor and fan are
not cycling). Then the heating speed is increased and the delivered sensible capacity is calculated.
If the full load sensible capacity at Speed n is greater than or equal to the sensible load, the speed
ratio for the unitary system is estimated:
Although a linear relationship is assumed by applying the speed ratio to obtain the effective
capacity and air mass flow rate between speed n and n-1, the outlet node conditions are dependent
on the combined outputs and may not be linear. In addition, the supply air fan heat varies based
on heating coil operation for the case of cycling fan/cycling coil (AUTO fan). Therefore, the final
speed ratio for the heating coil compressor and fan are determined through iterative calculations
(successive modeling of the heating coil and fan) until the unitary system’s heating output matches
the heating load to be met within the convergence tolerance. The convergence tolerance is fixed at
0.001 and is calculated based on the difference between the load to be met and the unitary system’s
heating output divided by the load to be met.
(U nitarySystemHeatingLoad − U nitarySystemOutputSpeedRatio )
T olerance = 0.001 ≥ (16.298)
U nitarySystemHeatingLoad
where AddedFanHeatSpeedRatio is the generated supply air fan heat at a specific speed ratio (W).
In this case, the reported cycling ratio is 1 and speed number is equal to n.
• Coil:Cooling:Water
16.5. AIR SYSTEM COMPOUND COMPONENT GROUPS 1107
• Coil:Cooling:WaterDetailed
• Coil:Cooling:DX:SingleSpeed
Heating coils:
• Coil:Heating:Water
• Coil:Heating:Fuel
• Coil:Heating:Electric
• Coil:Heating:DX:SingleSpeed
Other coil types may be used when selecting the Single Zone VAV control method, however,
these coils will not be modeled using the Single Zone VAV load based control method and instead
will be modeled using the Load Based control method described in a previous section.
The example below shows two implementations of the Single Zone VAV model using the Air-
loopHVAC:UnitarySystem object as both air loop equipment serving multiple zones and as zone
equipment serving a single zone. Chilled and hot water coils are used with autosized limits on supply
air temperature. The supply air temperature limits are intended to reflect the model requirement
to allow low speed fan operation at zone loads less than or equal to 50% of the design load. The
zone cooling and heating loads identified in the figure are actual simulation data taken from the
zone sizing information representative of the control zones used for each system. Outdoor air loads
were eliminated for this example (i.e., Outdoor Air = 0).
Figure 16.27: Example of the EnergyPlus Unitary System Single Zone VAV Model
Supply air temperature limits are autosizable and calculated with respect to the zone tem-
peratures at the design cooling and heating peak load conditions. Once the temperature limits
are reached and the zone load continues to increase, the fan speed is increased while limiting the
maximum outlet air temperature up to the maximum fan speed. At this point, the maximum tem-
perature limits are ignored and the coils are allowed to provide excess temperatures when needed
to meet increasing loads. When a supplemental heating coil is used, this coil should be active
only when maximum fan speed is reached and will supplement any additional heating required to
meet the zone load. The supplemental heating coil also has no maximum temperature limit while
attempting to meet high heating loads.
1108 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
ControlZoneCoolingLoad
U nitarySystemCoolingLoad = (16.300)
ControlZoneAirF lowF raction
The unitary system’s sensible cooling load to be met and the full load cooling output are used
to calculate the sensible the part-load ratio iteratively based on user specified convergence criterion.
(U nitarySystemCoolingLoad − N oCoolOutput)
P artLoadRatio = M AX 0.0, (16.301)
(F ullCoolOutput − N oCoolOutput)
When the unitary system’s sensible cooling capacity meets the system sensible cooling load at
a given sensible part load ratio, then the Unitary system meets the controlled zone cooling setpoint
temperature. If a moisture (latent) load exists because the control zone humidity has exceeded the
setpoint, the total moisture load to be met by the unitary systems (UnitarySystemMoistureLoad)
is calculated based on the control zone moisture load and the control zone air flow fraction.
ControlZoneM oistureLoad
U nitarySystemM oistureLoad = (16.302)
ControlZoneAirF lowF raction
Then the LatentPartLoadRatio required to meet the high humidity setpoint is calculated as
follows:
16.5. AIR SYSTEM COMPOUND COMPONENT GROUPS 1109
(U nitarySystemM oistureLoad − N oLatentOutput)
LatentP artLoadRatio = M IN P LRM in ,
(F ullLatentOutput − N oLatentOutput)
(16.303)
The model uses the greater of the two part-load ratios, PartLoadRatio or LatentPartLoadRatio,
to determine the operating part-load ratio of the Unitary system’s DX cooling coil.
Figure 16.28: Supplemental heating coil load when predicted zone air temperature is above the
heating Setpoint
Figure 16.29: Supplemental heating coil load when predicted zone air temperature is below the
heating setpoint
16.5. AIR SYSTEM COMPOUND COMPONENT GROUPS 1111
QW asteHeat
Toutlet = Tinlet + (16.305)
Cp ṁhr
where:
Toutlet is the outlet node temperature of heat recovery (◦ C)
Tinlet is the inlet node temperature of heat recovery (◦ C)
QW asteHeat is the recoverable waste heat generated by its child objects (W)
Cp is the inlet node temperature of heat recovery (◦ C)
ṁhr is the mass flow rate of heat recovery (kg/s).
If the outlet node temperature is above the value of the Maximum Temp for Heat Recovery
field, the outlet node temperature is reset to the value of Maximum Temp for Heat Recovery.
Continuous Fan:
Cycling Fan:
ṁ = ṁon,1 P LR (16.311)
Note: the coil order shown here has been revised from previous versions of EnergyPlus to
configure the cooling coil upstream of the heating coil. This configuration provides uniformity with
all unitary equipment. However, for unitary HeatCool systems that do not use a reheat coil, the
heating coil can also be placed upstream of the cooling coil. This optional coil placement is retained
to allow compatibility with previous versions of EnergyPlus. For input files developed using previous
versions of EnergyPlus, it is recommended that the coil order be revised according to the figure
below.
While the furnace may be configured to serve multiple zones, system operation is controlled by a
thermostat located in a single “control” zone. One of the key parameters for the furnace component
is the fraction of the total system air flow that goes through the control zone. This fraction is
calculated as the ratio of the maximum air mass flow rate for the air loop’s supply inlet node for the
control zone (e.g., AirTerminal:SingleDuct:ConstantVolume:NoReheat, field = Maximum Air Flow
Rate, converted to mass flow) to the sum of the maximum air mass flow rates for the air loop’s
supply inlet nodes for all zones served by this air loop. The furnace module scales the calculated
1114 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
load for the control zone upward based on this fraction to determine the total load to be met by
the furnace. The module then proceeds to calculate the required part-load ratio for the system coil
and the supply air fan to meet this total load. The heating or cooling capacity delivered by the
furnace is distributed to all of the zones served by this system via the terminal units that supply
air to each zone. The supply air fraction that goes though the control zone is calculated as follows:
ṁT U M ax ControlZone
ControlZoneAirF low F raction = (16.313)
PZones
N umOf
ṁT U M ax Zone j
j=1
where:
ṁT U M ax ControlledZone is the maximum air mass flow rate for the air loop supply inlet node (ter-
minal unit) for the control zone (kg/s)
ṁT U M ax Zone j is the maximum air mass flow rate for the air loop supply inlet node for the jth
zone (kg/s)
N umOf Zones is the number of zones, or number of air loop supply air inlet nodes for all zones
served by the air loop.
The furnace component is able to model supply air fan operation in two modes: cycling fan
– cycling coil (i.e., AUTO fan) and continuous fan – cycling coil (i.e., fan ON). Fan:OnOff must
be used to model AUTO fan, while Fan:OnOff or Fan:ConstantVolume can be used to model fan
ON. The fan operation mode is specified using a supply air fan operating mode schedule where
schedule values of 0 denote cycling fan operation and schedule values other than 0 (a 1 is usually
used) denote continuous fan operation. Using this schedule, the furnace fan may be cycled with
cooling or heating coil operation or operated continuously based on time of day (e.g., cycling fan
operation at night and continuous fan operation during the daytime). If the fan operating mode
schedule name field is left blank in the furnace object, the furnace assumes cycling or AUTO fan
mode operation throughout the simulation.
The only output variables reported by the furnace object are the fan part-load ratio and the
compressor part-load ratio (HeatCool only). The fan part-load ratio is defined as the actual air
mass flow rate through the system for the time step divided by the design supply air mass flow rate
specified for the furnace (ṁactual / ṁdesign ). The furnace operates based on the user-specified (or
autosized) design supply air flow rate(s). The ‘design’ supply air mass flow rate may be different
for cooling, heating, and when no cooling or heating is required and the fan operates continuously
based on user-specified inputs (HeatCool only). For the HeatCool version, If alternate air flow rates
are specified for cooling, heating, and when no cooling or heating is required, the design supply
air mass flow rate is the maximum of these specified values. Also for the HeatCool version, the
compressor part-load ratio is reported as the ratio of the actual cooling load to the full-load sensible
capacity (see Equation 16.329). Reporting of other variables of interest for the furnace (heating
rate, cooling rate, energy consumption, etc.) is done by the individual system components (fan,
heating coil and DX cooling coil).
HeatCool configurations, as well as the differences between cycling and continuous supply air fan
operation. The last section describes the optional control of high zone humidity with a reheat coil
for the HeatCool configuration.
F ull Heat Output = (M ass F low Ratef ull load )(hout,f ull load − hcontrol zone )HRmin − ∆sen,f ull load
(16.315)
N o Heat Output = (M ass F low Ratecoil of f )(hout,coil of f − hcontrol zone )HRmin − ∆sen,coil of f
(16.316)
where:
Mass Flow Ratef ull load is the air mass flow rate through furnace at full-load conditions (kg/s)
hout,f ull load is the enthalpy of air exiting the furnace at full-load conditions (J/kg)
hcontrol zone is the enthalpy of air in the control zone where thermostat is located (J/kg)
HRmin are the enthalpies evaluated at a constant humidity ratio, the minimum humidity ratio
of the furnace exiting air or the air in the control zone
Mass Flow Ratecoil of f is the air mass flow rate through the furnace with the heating coil OFF
(kg/s)
hout,coil of f is the enthalpy of air exiting the furnace with the heating coil OFF (J/kg)
∆sen,f ull load is the ensible load difference between the system output node and the zone inlet
node at full-load conditions.
1116 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
where:
Frac is the control zone air fraction with respect to the system mass flow rate
∆sen,coil of f is the sensible load difference between the system output node and the zone inlet
node with the heating coil OFF conditions.
With the calculated sensible heating energy rates and the total sensible heating load to be met
by the system, the part-load ratio for the furnace is estimated.
ABS (F urnaceHeatingLoad − N oHeatOutput)
P artLoadRatio = M AX 0.0, M IN 1.0,
ABS(F ullHeatOutput − N oHeatOutput)
(16.319)
The part-load ratio calculated above is used to determine the required heating coil capacity as
Qheating coil = Qdesign ∗ P artLoadRatio where Qdesign is the nominal heating coil capacity as
specified in the heating coil object. If the fan cycles on and off with the heating coil (i.e., when the
supply air fan operating mode schedule values are equal to 0), then this part-load ratio is also used
to determine the operating mass flow rate of the furnace as
Since the part-load performance of the heating coil can be non-linear, and the supply air fan
heat varies based on heating coil operation for the case of cycling fan/cycling coil (AUTO fan),
16.5. AIR SYSTEM COMPOUND COMPONENT GROUPS 1117
the final part-load ratio for the heating coil and fan are determined through iterative calculations
(successive modeling of the heating coil and fan) until the furnace’s heating output matches the
heating load to be met within the heating convergence tolerance. The convergence tolerance is fixed
at 0.001 and is calculated based on the difference between the load to be met and the furnace’s
heating output divided by the load to be met.
F urnaceHeatingLoad − Qf urnace
T olerance ≡ ≤ 0.001 (16.323)
F urnaceHeatingLoad
If the furnace has been specified with cycling fan/cycling coil (AUTO fan), then the furnace’s
design air mass flow rate is multiplied by PartLoadRatio to determine the average air mass flow
rate for the system simulation time step. The air conditions at nodes downstream of the heating
coil represent the full-load (steady-state) values when the coil is operating. If the supply air fan is
specified to run continuously (fan ON), then the air mass flow rate remains at the furnace’s design
air mass flow rate. In this case, the air conditions at nodes downstream of the heating coil are
calculated as the average conditions over the simulation time step (i.e., the weighted average of
full-load conditions when the coil is operating and inlet air conditions when the coil is OFF).
For the case where the furnace is scheduled to operate with continuous supply air fan operation,
but no heating load is required to meet the setpoint temperature in the control zone, the supply
air fan model is still called to determine the fan exiting air conditions. The heating coil model is
also called, but for the case with no heating load the heating coil model simply passes the inlet air
conditions and mass flow rate from its inlet node to its outlet node. The air exiting the heating coil
is then sent to the direct air units for distribution to each zone served by the furnace, where the
zone heat balance is performed to determine the resulting zone air conditions. The furnace exiting
air conditions and energy consumption are calculated and reported by the individual component
models (fan and heating coil).
economizer is not used, the furnace’s compressor is used to meet the furnace cooling load. If an air-
side economizer is used and is active (i.e., economizer controls indicate that conditions are favorable
to increase the outside air flow rate), the furnace will try to meet the cooling load by operating only
the supply air fan. If the fan is able to satisfy the furnace cooling load, the compressor remains off
for the entire simulation time step. If the operation of the fan alone is unable to meet the entire
cooling load, then the compressor is enabled and additional calculations are performed to determine
the compressor’s part-load ratio.
The model then calculates the furnace’s sensible cooling energy rate delivered to the zones
being served when the system runs at full-load conditions and when the DX cooling coil is OFF. If
the supply air fan cycles with the compressor, then the sensible cooling energy rate is zero when
the cooling coil is OFF. However if the fan is configured to run continuously regardless of coil
operation, then the sensible cooling energy rate will probably not be zero when the cooling coil
is OFF. Calculating the sensible cooling energy rate involves modeling the supply air fan (and
associated fan heat), the DX cooling coil, and the heating coil (simply to pass the air properties
and mass flow rate from its inlet node to its outlet node). For each of these cases (full load and DX
cooling coil OFF), the sensible cooling energy rate delivered by the furnace is calculated as follows:
F ull Cool Output = (M ass F low Ratef ull load )(hout,f ull load − hcontrol zone )HRmin − ∆sen,f ull load
(16.325)
N o Cool Output = (M ass F low Ratecoil of f )(hout,coil of f − hcontrol zone )HRmin − ∆sen,coil of f
(16.326)
where:
Mass Flow Ratef ull load is the air mass flow rate through furnace at full-load conditions (kg/s)
hout,f ull load is the enthalpy of air exiting the furnace at full-load conditions (J/kg)
hcontrol zone is the enthalpy of air in the control zone (where thermostat is located) (J/kg)
HRmin are the enthalpies evaluated at a constant humidity ratio, the minimum humidity ratio
of the furnace exiting air or the air in the control zone
Mass Flow Ratecoil of f is the air mass flow rate through the furnace with the cooling coil OFF
(kg/s)
hout,coil of f is the enthalpy of air exiting the furnace with the cooling coil OFF (J/kg)
∆sen,f ull load is the sensible load difference between the system output node and the zone inlet
node at full-load conditions.
where:
Frac is the control zone air fraction with respect to the system mass flow rate
∆sen,coil of f is the sensible load difference between the system output node and the zone inlet
node with the heating coil OFF conditions.
With the calculated sensible cooling energy rates and the total sensible cooling load to be met
by the system, the part-load ratio for the furnace is estimated.
ABS (F urnaceCoolingLoad − N oCoolOutput)
P artLoadRatio = M AX 0.0, (16.329)
ABS (F ullCoolOutput − N oCoolOutput)
Since the part-load performance of the DX cooling coil is frequently non-linear (Ref: DX Cooling
Coil Model), and the supply air fan heat varies based on cooling coil operation for the case of cycling
fan/cycling coil (AUTO fan), the final part-load ratio for the cooling coil compressor and fan are
determined through iterative calculations (successive modeling of the cooling coil and fan) until the
furnace’s cooling output matches the cooling load to be met within the convergence tolerance. The
convergence tolerance is fixed at 0.001 and is calculated based on the difference between the load
to be met and the furnace’s cooling output divided by the load to be met.
F urnaceHeatingLoad − Qf urnace
T olerance ≡ ≤ 0.001 (16.330)
F urnaceHeatingLoad
where Qf urnace is the furnace delivered sensible capacity (W).
If the furnace has been specified with cycling fan/cycling coil (AUTO fan) and high humidity
control has not been specified, then the furnace’s operating supply air mass flow rate is multiplied
by PartLoadRatio to determine the average air mass flow rate for the system simulation time step.
The air conditions at nodes downstream of the cooling coil represent the full-load (steady-state)
values when the coil is operating. If a cycling fan is used and high humidity control has been
specified, the calculation of average air mass flow rate is based on the greater of the heating or
cooling part-load ratio (see following section on high humidity control). When the heating part-
load ratio is greater than the cooling part-load ratio, the air conditions at nodes downstream of the
cooling coil represent the weighted average of full-load conditions when the cooling coil is operating
and inlet air conditions when the cooling coil is off (i.e., the fan continues to operate due to a
heating requirement where the heating PLR is greater than the cooling PLR). If the supply air
fan is specified to run continuously (fan ON), then the air mass flow rate continues to operate at
the user-specified supply air mass flow rate when no cooling or heating is required. In this case,
the air conditions at nodes downstream of the cooling coil are calculated as the average conditions
over the simulation time step (i.e., the weighted average of full-load conditions when the coil is
operating and inlet air conditions when the coil is OFF). The furnace exiting air conditions and
energy consumption are calculated and reported by the individual component models (fan and DX
cooling coil).
the case of cycling fan mode when the high humidity control is specified as CoolReheat and the
heating part-load ratio is greater than the compressor part-load ratio, the air conditions at nodes
downstream of the cooling coil are calculated as the average conditions during the duration of fan
operation (i.e., the weighted average of full load conditions when the coil is operating and inlet air
conditions when the coil is off and the fan continues to operate to meet the heating load). For the
case where cycling fan mode is used and the heating part-load ratio is less than the compressor
part-load ratio, the air conditions at the nodes downstream of the cooling coil are simply the full
load (steady-state) values when the coil is operating. In addition, when high humidity control is
specified and the compressor operates, the furnace operates at the cooling air flow rate when a zone
heating load is present as determined by the zone thermostat.
High humidity control is specified as either None, MultiMode, or CoolReheat in the Dehumidi-
fication Control Type input field. MultiMode is specified when a heat exchanger is used to improve
the dehumidification performance of the cooling coil. The heat exchanger will be activated when
the sensible part-load ratio is insufficient to meet the zone latent load. CoolReheat is specified when
a DX cooling coil is used to over-cool the supply air stream in order to meet the zone latent load.
In this case, a reheat coil will ensure the zone temperature does not fall below the zone heating
temperature set point. When a heat exchanger is used in conjunction with a DX cooling coil and
CoolReheat is specified as the Dehumidification Control Type, the heat exchanger is “locked on”
to meet either the sensible or latent cooling load. If the dehumidification control type is selected
as None and a heat exchanger assisted cooling coil is used, the heat exchanger is “locked on” and
the air conditioner runs only to meet the sensible cooling load. Although a reheat coil is required
when CoolReheat is specified in the Dehumidification Control Type input field, this reheat coil may
optionally be present for the other Dehumidification Control Types (e.g., None and Multimode). If
the reheat coil is present and the dehumidification control type input is not specified as CoolReheat,
the reheat coil will not be active. This allows changing the dehumidification control option without
requiring a change in the unit’s coil configuration.
The model first calculates the PartLoadRatio required to meet the sensible cooling load as
described above (see Equation 16.329) to maintain the dry-bulb temperature setpoint in the control
zone. If a moisture (latent) load exists because the control zone humidity has exceeded the setpoint,
the total moisture load to be met by the HeatCool furnace (SystemMoistureLoad) is calculated based
on the control zone moisture load and the control zone air flow fraction. The model then calculates
the LatentPartLoadRatio required to meet the humidistat setpoint.
ABS (SystemM oistureLoad − N oLatentOutput)
LatentP artLoadRatio = M AX M inP LR,
ABS (F ullLatentOutput − N oLatentOutput)
(16.332)
where:
FullLatentOutput is the furnace’s latent cooling energy rate at full-load conditions (W)
NoLatentOutput is the furnace’s latent cooling energy rate with the cooling coil OFF (W)
MinPLR is the minimum part-load ratio, which is usually 0.0. For the case when the latent
capacity degradation model is used (Ref: DX Cooling Coil Model), this value is the minimum
part-load ratio at which the cooling coil will dehumidify the air.
16.5. AIR SYSTEM COMPOUND COMPONENT GROUPS 1121
The model uses the greater of the two part-load ratios, PartLoadRatio or LatentPartLoadRatio,
to determine the operating part-load ratio of the furnace’s DX cooling coil. As previously described,
iterations are performed to converge on the solution within the convergence tolerance.
Figure 16.31: Schematic for Blow Through Furnace with High Humidity Control
If the model determines that the LatentPartLoadRatio is to be used as the operating part-load
ratio of the furnace’s cooling coil, the reheat coil is used to offset the excess sensible capacity pro-
vided by the unit. The model first checks the sensible load that exists for the current simulation time
step (predicted zone temperature with no HVAC operation compared to the thermostat setpoint
temperatures). If a sensible cooling load or no sensible cooling or heating load exists (Figure 16.32),
the model calculates the difference between the sensible heating load required to reach or maintain
the heating dry-bulb temperature setpoint and the actual sensible cooling energy rate delivered by
the unit (with LatentPartLoadRatio). In this case, the reheat coil is used to offset the excess sensi-
ble cooling energy provided by the DX cooling coil (if any) that could have caused an overshoot of
the heating dry-bulb temperature setpoint. Note that when a humidistat is used and high humidity
control is required, the zone dry-bulb temperature will typically move toward the heating tempera-
ture setpoint when a high moisture (latent) load exists. If a heating load exists (Figure 16.33), the
1122 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
reheat coil is used to offset the entire sensible cooling energy rate of the DX cooling coil (to meet
the humidistat setpoint) and the heating coil is used to meet the entire heating load as described in
the HeatOnly configuration section above. Note that when a heating load exists and high humidity
control is required, the furnace operates at the user-specified cooling air flow rate for the entire
simulation time step. As with the fan, DX cooling coil, and heating coil, report variables associated
with reheat coil performance (e.g., heating coil energy, heating coil rate, heating coil gas or electric
consumption, heating coil runtime fraction, etc.) are managed in the reheat (heating) coil object.
Figure 16.32: Reheat Coil Load when Predicted Zone Temperature is Above Heating Setpoint
Figure 16.33: Reheat Coil Load when Predicted Zone Temperature is Below Heating Setpoint
Figure 16.34: Schematic of a Changeover Bypass VAV Unitary System with Draw Through Fan
The CBVAV unitary system conditions one or more zones and is controlled by thermostats
located in each zone (the use of a single humidistat is also allowed when using multi-mode DX
cooling coils). The CBVAV system operates to meet the zone sensible cooling or sensible heating
requirements as dictated by the thermostat schedule(s). The priority control input determines the
mode of operation and is specified as Cooling Priority, Heating Priority, or Zone Priority. If Cooling
Priority is specified, the system operates to meet the cooling load when any zone served by this
system (air loop) requires cooling. If Heating Priority is specified, the system operates to meet
the heating load when any zone requires heating. If Zone Priority is specified, the system operates
based on the maximum number of zones requiring either heating or cooling.
Once the operating mode is determined, the CBVAV model calculates a target supply air tem-
perature required to operate a single terminal unit at its maximum air flow rate. The remaining
1124 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
Figure 16.35: Schematic of Changeover Bypass VAV Unitary System with Blow Through Fan
terminal units will modulate as required to maintain the dry-bulb temperature in the zone they
are serving according to the thermostat schedule for their respective zone. The system air flow rate
(through the supply air fan, cooling coil and heat coil) remains constant during cooling operation,
heating operation, and no cooling/heating mode as specified by the user. Therefore, as the zone
terminal units modulate to reduce zone air flow rates, the excess system air flow is “bypassed” from
the bypass duct splitter node back to the bypass duct mixer node of the CBVAV system (see figures
above).
The CBVAV system is able to model supply air fan operation in two modes: cycling fan –
cycling coil (i.e., AUTO fan) and continuous fan – cycling coil (i.e., fan ON). A Fan:OnOff or
Fan:ConstantVolume is used in either case. Since the excess system air flow is bypassed while the
zone terminal units modulate, the supply air fan operates the entire simulation time step when
heating or cooling is required. For this reason, AUTO fan only allows the supply air fan to turn
off when no cooling or heating is required. If fan ON is specified, the supply air fan runs the entire
time the system is scheduled to operate (via its availability schedule). The mode of operation for
the supply air fan is specified through a fan operating mode schedule where a value of 0 in the
schedule indicates cycling fan mode and a value greater than 0 indicates continuous fan mode. If
the schedule is not provided, the supply air fan operating mode is considered to be continuous (fan
ON).
Output variables reported for the CBVAV system include the supply air fan part-load ratio, the
compressor part-load ratio, and the electric consumption of the CBVAV system. Additional output
variables report the total heating rate and total cooling rate provided by the CBVAV system. The
sensible and latent components for total system cooling and heating are also available as output
variables. Reporting of other variables of interest for the CBVAV system (DX coil cooling rate,
heating rate, crankcase electric power and energy, supply air fan electric power, etc.) is done by
16.5. AIR SYSTEM COMPOUND COMPONENT GROUPS 1125
the individual system components (fan, DX cooling coil, and heating coil).
specified by the user is then used to determine the operating mode for this simulation time step.
If Cooling Priority is specified and the total cooling requirement in all zones is not equal to zero,
then cooling is selected as the operating mode. If the total cooling requirement is equal to zero and
the total heating requirement is not equal to zero, then heating is selected as the operating mode.
If the total cooling requirement and total heating requirement are equal to zero then the zones are
allowed to float (no heating or cooling provided).
If Heating Priority is specified and the total heating requirement in all zones is not equal to
zero, then heating is selected as the operating mode. If the total heating requirement is equal to
zero and the total cooling requirement is not equal to zero, then cooling is selected as the operating
mode. If the total cooling requirement and total heating requirement are equal to zero then the
zones are allowed to float (no heating or cooling provided).
If Zone Priority is specified and the total number of zones requiring cooling is greater than the
total number of zones requiring heating, then cooling is selected as the operating mode. If the total
number of zones requiring heating is greater than the total number of zones requiring cooling, then
heating is selected as the operating mode. If the total number of zones requiring cooling is equal to
the total number of zones requiring heating, then the magnitude of the total cooling and heating
requirements for all zones sets the operating mode. In this case, if the magnitudes of the cooling and
heating requirements are zero, then the zones are allowed to float (no heating or cooing provided).
If the magnitudes of the cooling and heating requirements are non-zero and identical, then cooling
is selected as the operating mode.
i i QiZone
Ttarget = TZone + ; i = 1, n (16.337)
ṁizone,max Cp
i
Ttarget = M IN Ttarget ; i = 1, n (16.338)
where:
i
Ttarget is the target supply air temperature for zone i (◦ C)
i
Tzone is the air temperature in zone i (◦ C)
i
Qzone is the cooling or heating load for zone i where cooling loads are negative values and heating
loads are positive values (W)
Cp is the specific heat of supply air with coils off (J/kg-K)
ṁizone,max is the maximum terminal unit mass flow rate in zone i (kg/s)
Ttarget is the target supply (outlet) air temperature for the CBVAV system (◦ C).
The model then calculates the part-load ratio of the DX compressor required to meet the target
supply (outlet) air temperature. Since the part-load performance of the DX cooling coil is frequently
non-linear (Ref: Coil:Cooling:DX:SingleSpeed model), the actual part-load ratio for the cooling coil
compressor is determined through iterative calculations (successive modeling of the DX cooling coil
model) until the CBVAV system’s outlet air temperature (including on/off cycling effects of the DX
coil) matches the target supply (outlet) air temperature within a small temperature convergence
tolerance (1E-5◦ C).
Since the supply air fan operates continuously for each simulation time step (or is OFF for the
entire HVAC system time step), the air conditions at nodes downstream of the cooling coil are
calculated as the average conditions over the simulation time step (i.e., the weighted average of
coil’s outlet node conditions when the coil is operating and the coil’s inlet node conditions when
the coil is OFF).
i
Ttarget = M AX Ttarget ; i = 1, n (16.339)
1128 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
Iterative calculations (successive modeling of the DX heating coil model) are used to determine
the final heating coil part-load ratio to account for the non-linear performance of the DX heating
coil at part-load conditions.
When a gas or electric heating coil is used instead of a DX heating coil, the amount of heat
required by the coil is calculated based on the target supply (outlet) air temperature and the coil
inlet air temperature as follows:
where:
Qheating is the heating coil load (W)
Cp is the specific heat of heating coil inlet air (J/kg-K)
Tinlet,heatcoil is the heating coil inlet air temperature (◦ C).
where:
Tmin,cooling is the minimum outlet air temperature during cooling operation (◦ C)
Tmax,heating is the maximum outlet air temperature during heating operation (◦ C).
16.5. AIR SYSTEM COMPOUND COMPONENT GROUPS 1129
X
n
ṁsupply = ṁzone (16.345)
i=1
V̇mode is the user-specified system volumetric flow rate in cooling, heating, or no cooling or
heating mode (m3 /s)
ṁsystem,OA is the outdoor air mass flow rate introduced through the CBVAV system (kg/s)
V̇mode,OA is the user-specified outdoor air volumetric flow rate in cooling, heating, or no cooling
or heating mode (m3 /s).
Q̇total,cooling = 0.0
(16.351)
Q̇total,heating = Q̇total
where:
Q̇total,cooling is the output variable ‘Unitary System Total Cooling Rate, W’
Q̇total,heating is the output variable ‘Unitary System Total Heating Rate, W’.
In addition to heating and cooling rates, the heating and cooling energy supplied by the system
are also calculated for the time step being reported. The following example for total zone cooling
energy is representative of what is done for the sensible and latent energy as well as the heating
counterparts.
16.5. AIR SYSTEM COMPOUND COMPONENT GROUPS 1131
• Outside air volumetric air flow rate when no cooling or heating is needed
ṁT U M ax ControlZone
Control Zone Air F low F raction = (16.353)
PZones
N umOf
ṁT U M ax Zone j
j=1
where:
ṁT U M ax ControlledZone is the maximum air mass flow rate for the air loop’s supply inlet node
(terminal unit) for the control zone (kg/s)
ṁT U M ax Zone j is the maximum air mass flow rate for the air loop’s supply inlet node for the jth
zone (kg/s)
N umOf Zones is the number of zones, or number of air loop supply air inlet nodes for all zones
served by the air loop.
The heat pump component is able to model supply air fan operation in two modes: cycling fan
– cycling coil (i.e., AUTO fan) and continuous fan – cycling coil (i.e., fan ON). Fan:OnOff must be
used to model AUTO fan, while Fan:OnOff or Fan:ConstantVolume can be used to model fan ON.
The fan operation mode is specified using a supply air fan operating mode schedule where schedule
values of 0 denote cycling fan operation and schedule values other than 0 (a 1 is usually used)
denote continuous fan operation. Using this schedule, the furnace fan may be cycled with cooling
or heating coil operation or operated continuously based on time of day (e.g. cycling fan operation
at night and continuous fan operation during the day). If the fan operating mode schedule name
field is left blank in the heat pump object, the heat pump assumes cycling or AUTO fan mode
operation throughout the simulation.
The output variables reported by the heat pump object are fan part-load ratio and compressor
part-load ratio. Fan part-load ratio is defined as the actual air mass flow rate through the system
for the time step divided by the operating supply air mass flow rate specified for the heat pump
(ṁactual /ṁON ). The operating supply air mass flow rate may be different for cooling, heating, and
when no cooling or heating is required and the fan operates continuously. Compressor part-load ratio
is the actual load for the time step divided by the full-load sensible capacity (see Equation 16.359
or 16.367). Reporting of other variables of interest for the heat pump (heating rate, cooling rate,
energy consumption, etc.) is done by the individual system components (fan, DX cooling coil, DX
heating coil, and supplemental heating coil).
F ull Cool Output = (M ass F low Ratef ull load )(hout,f ull load − hcontrol zone )HRmin − ∆sen,f ull load
(16.355)
N o Cool Output = (M ass F low Ratecoil of f )(hout,coil of f − hcontrol zone )HRmin − ∆sen,coil of f
(16.356)
where:
Mass Flow Ratef ull load is the air mass flow rate through heat pump at full-load conditions,
(kg/s)
hout,f ull load is the enthalpy of air exiting the heat pump at full-load conditions (J/kg)
hcontrol zone is the enthalpy of air leaving the control zone where the thermostat is located (J/kg)
HRmin are the enthalpies evaluated at a constant humidity ratio, the minimum humidity ratio
of the heat pump exiting air or the air leaving the control zone
Mass Flow Ratecoil of f is the air mass flow rate through the heat pump with the cooling coil
OFF (kg/s)
hout,coil of f is the enthalpy of air exiting the heat pump with the cooling coil OFF (J/kg)
∆sen,f ull load is the sensible load difference between the system output node and the zone inlet
node at full-load conditions.
where:
Frac is the control zone air fraction with respect to the system mass flow rate
∆sen,coil of f is the sensible load difference between the system output node and the zone inlet
node with the heating coil OFF conditions.
With the calculated sensible cooling energy rates and the total sensible cooling load to be met
by the system, the part-load ratio for the heat pump is estimated.
ABS (Heat P ump Cooling Load − N oCoolOutput)
P artLoadRatio = M AX 0.0, (16.359)
ABS (F ullCoolOutput − N oCoolOutput)
Since the part-load performance of the DX cooling coil is frequently non-linear, and the supply
air fan heat varies based on cooling coil operation for the case of cycling fan/cycling coil (AUTO fan),
the final part-load ratio for the cooling coil compressor and fan are determined through iterative
calculations (successive modeling of the cooling coil and fan) until the heat pump’s cooling output
matches the cooling load to be met within the convergence tolerance. The convergence tolerance
is fixed at 0.001 and is calculated based on the difference between the load to be met and the heat
pump’s cooling output divided by the load to be met.
where:
ṁCoolCoilON is the air mass flow rate through heat pump when the cooling coil is ON (kg/s)
ṁCoilOF F is the air mass flow rate through heat pump when no cooling or heating is needed
(kg/s).
In this case, the air conditions at nodes downstream of the cooling coil are calculated as the
average conditions over the simulation time step (i.e., the weighted average of full-load conditions
when the coil is operating and inlet air conditions when the coil is OFF).
Heating Operation
1136 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
Calculations for heating operation are similar to those for cooling operation in most respects.
However, due to the inclusion of a supplemental heating coil, additional calculations are necessary
to properly meet the total heating load for the zones being served.
If EnergyPlus determines that the heat pump must supply heating to the control zone to meet
the zone air temperature setpoint, then the heat pump model computes the total sensible heating
load to be delivered to the zones being served based on the control zone sensible heating load and
the control zone airflow fraction.
F ull Heat Output = (ṁf ull load )(hout,f ull load − hcontrol zone )HRmin − ∆sen,f ull load (16.363)
where:
ṁf ull load is the air mass flow rate through heat pump at full-load conditions (kg/s)
hout,f ull load is the enthalpy of air exiting the heat pump at full-load conditions (J/kg)
hcontrol zone is the enthalpy of air leaving the control zone (where thermostat is located) (J/kg)
HRmin are the enthalpies evaluated at a constant humidity ratio, the minimum humidity ratio
of the heat pump exiting air or the air leaving the control zone
ṁcoil of f is the air mass flow rate through the heat pump with the heating coil OFF (kg/s)
hout, coil of f is the enthalpy of air exiting the heat pump with the heating coil OFF (J/kg)
∆sen,f ull load is the sensible load difference between the system output node and the zone inlet
node at full-load conditions.
where:
Frac is the control zone air fraction with respect to the system mass flow rate
16.5. AIR SYSTEM COMPOUND COMPONENT GROUPS 1137
∆sen,coil of f is the sensible load difference between the system output node and the zone inlet
node with the heating coil OFF conditions.
ABS (Heat P ump Heating Load − N oHeatOutput)
P artLoadRatio = M AX 0.0, (16.367)
ABS (F ullHeatOutput − N oHeatOutput)
Since the part-load performance of the DX heating coil is frequently non-linear (Ref: Single-
Speed Electric Heat Pump DX Air Heating Coil), and the supply air fan heat varies based on
heating coil operation for the case of cycling fan/cycling coil (AUTO fan), the final part-load ratio
for the heating coil compressor and fan are determined through iterative calculations (successive
modeling of the heating coil and fan) until the heat pump’s heating output matches the heating
load to be met within the convergence tolerance. The convergence tolerance is fixed at 0.001 and is
calculated based on the difference between the load to be met and the heat pump’s heating output
divided by the load to be met.
HeatP umpHeatingLoad − QHeatP ump
T olerance ≡ ≤ 0.001 (16.368)
HeatP umpHeatingLoad
where QHeatP ump is the heat pump delivered sensible capacity (W).
If the heat pump’s DX heating coil output at full load is insufficient to meet the entire heating
load, PartLoadRatio is set equal to 1.0 (compressor and fan are not cycling) and the remaining
heating load is passed to the supplemental heating coil. If the heat pump model determines that the
outdoor air temperature is below the minimum outdoor air temperature for compressor operation,
the compressor is turned off and the entire heating load is passed to the supplemental gas or
electric heating coil. The heat pump exiting air conditions and energy consumption are calculated
and reported by the individual component models (fan, DX heating coil, and supplemental gas or
electric heating coil).
If the heat pump has been specified with cycling fan/cycling coil (AUTO fan), then the heat
pump’s operating supply air mass flow rate is multiplied by PartLoadRatio to determine the average
air mass flow rate for the system simulation time step. The air conditions at nodes downstream of
the heating coils represent the full-load (steady-state) values when the coils are operating. If the
fan operates continuously (i.e., when the supply air fan operating mode schedule values are NOT
equal to 0), the operating air mass flow rate through the heat pump is calculated as the average
of the user-specified air flow rate when the heat pump heating coil is ON and the user-specified air
flow rate when the heat pump heating coil is OFF (user-specified supply air volumetric flow rates
converted to dry air mass flow rates).
where:
ṁHeatCoilON is the air mass flow rate through heat pump when the heating coil is ON (kg/s)
1138 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
ṁCoilOF F is the air mass flow rate through heat pump when no heating or cooling is needed
(kg/s).
In this case, the air conditions at nodes downstream of the heating coils are calculated as the
average conditions over the simulation time step (i.e., the weighted average of full-load conditions
when the coils are operating and inlet air conditions when the coils are OFF).
ABS (HeatP umpCoolingLoad − N oCoolOutput)
P artLoadRatio = M AX 0.0, (16.371)
ABS (F ullCoolOutput − N oCoolOutput)
When the heat pump’s sensible cooling capacity meets the system sensible cooling load at a given
sensible part load ratio, then the Heat pump meets the controlled zone cooling setpoint temperature.
If a moisture (latent) load exists because the control zone humidity has exceeded the setpoint, the
total moisture load to be met by the heat pumps (HeatPumpMoistureLoad) is calculated based on
the control zone moisture load and the control zone air flow fraction.
16.5. AIR SYSTEM COMPOUND COMPONENT GROUPS 1139
ControlZoneM oitureLoad
HeatP umpM oistureLoad = (16.372)
ControlZoneAirF lowF raction
Then, the LatentPartLoadRatio required to meet the high humidity setpoint is calculated as
follows:
ABS (HeatP umpM oistureLoad − N oLatentOutput)
LatentP artLoadRatio = M IN P LRM in ,
ABS (F ullLatentOutput − N oLatentOutput)
(16.373)
The model uses the greater of the two part-load ratios, PartLoadRatio or LatentPartLoadRatio,
to determine the operating part-load ratio of the Heat Pump’s DX cooling coil.
Figure 16.37: Supplemental heating coil load when predicted zone air temperature is above the
heating Setpoint
required, the heat pump operates at the user-specified cooling air flow rate for the entire simulation
time step. As with the fan, and DX cooling coil, report variables associated with supplemental
heating coil performance (e.g., heating coil energy, heating coil rate, heating coil gas or electric
energy, heating coil runtime fraction, etc.) are managed in the supplemental (heating) coil object.
Figure 16.38: Supplemental heating coil load when predicted zone air temperature is below the
heating setpoint
While the heat pump may be configured to serve multiple zones, system operation is controlled
by a thermostat located in a single “control” zone. One of the key parameters for the heat pump
component is the fraction of the total system airflow that goes through the control zone. This
fraction is calculated as the ratio of the maximum air mass flow rate for the air loop’s supply
inlet node for the control zone (e.g., AirTerminal:SingleDuct:ConstantVolume:NoReheat, field =
Maximum Air Flow Rate, converted to mass flow) to the sum of the maximum air mass flow rates
for the air loop’s supply inlet nodes for all zones served by this air loop. The heat pump module
scales the calculated load for the control zone upward based on this fraction to determine the total
load to be met by the heat pump. The module then proceeds to calculate the required cycling
ratio, speed ratio and speed number for the system coil and determines the supply air mass flow
rate to meet this total load based on the speed number. The cycling ratio is the ratio of the sensible
load (heating or cooling) to the steady-state capacity of the multispeed heat pump’s DX heating
or cooling coil at Speed 1 for the entire system time step. It is equivalent to the part load ratio for
a single speed DX coil. The value is between 0.0 and 1.0 when the system operates at its lowest
speed (Speed 1) and 1.0 when the multispeed heat pump operates at speeds above 1. The speed
ratio is the ratio of time in a system time step that the compressor is at rated speed between two
consecutive speed numbers ([Compressor Speed - Compressor speed at Speed i-1] / [Compressor
speed at Speed i - Compressor speed at Speed i-1]). The compressor speed ratio is between 0.0 and
1.0 when the speed number is above 1 and is 0.0 during Speed 1 operation. The speed number is
the lowest index number whose corresponding full-load sensible capacity at the given air mass flow
rate is greater than or equal to the sensible load (heating or cooling) in a system time step. The
heating or cooling capacity delivered by the heat pump is distributed to all of the zones served by
this system via the direct air units that supply air to each zone.
The heat pump component is able to model supply air fan operation in two modes: cycling fan
– cycling coil (i.e., AUTO fan) and continuous fan – cycling coil (i.e., fan ON). Fan:OnOff must
be used to model AUTO fan, while Fan:OnOff or Fan:ConstantVolume can be used to model fan
ON. The fan operation mode is specified using a supply air fan operating mode schedule where
schedule values of 0 denote cycling fan operation and schedule values other than 0 (a 1 is usually
used) denote continuous fan operation. Using this schedule, the supply air fan may be cycled with
cooling or heating coil operation or operated continuously based on time of day (e.g. cycling fan
operation at night and continuous fan operation during the day).
Several output variables are reported by the heat pump object including fan part-load ratio,
compressor part-load ratio, cycling ratio, speed ratio and speed number. Fan part-load ratio is
defined as the actual air mass flow rate through the system for the time step divided by the
operating supply air mass flow rate specified for the heat pump (ṁactual / ṁON ) at speed 1. Fan
part-load ratio is set to 1.0 when the heat pump operates at speeds above 1. The operating supply
air mass flow rate may be different for cooling, heating, and when no cooling or heating is required.
Compressor part-load ratio is the actual load for the time step divided by the full-load sensible
capacity (see Equation 16.382 or 16.399). If the defrost strategy is reverse cycle for a DX heating
coil, the compressor part-load ratio is the sum of the actual load and the defrost load divided by
the full-load sensible capacity. Therefore, the compressor part load ratio for the DX heating coil
may be greater than the cycling ratio. This heat pump object also reports the sensible, latent and
total cooling and heating rate, as well as the electricity consumption for the unit with separate
accounting of auxiliary electric consumption. Furthermore, five report variables related to waste
heat recovery are available if the user chooses to model this option.
16.5. AIR SYSTEM COMPOUND COMPONENT GROUPS 1143
F ullCoolOutputHighest Speed = (ṁHighestSpeed ) (hout,f ull load − hcontrol zone )HRmin − ∆sen,HighestSpeed
(16.376)
where:
ṁHighestSpeed is the air mass flow rate through heat pump at the highest cooling speed (kg/s)
hout,f ull load is the enthalpy of air exiting the heat pump at full-load conditions (J/kg)
hcontrol zone is the enthalpy of air leaving the control zone (where thermostat is located) (J/kg)
HRmin is the minimum humidity ratio of the heat pump exiting air or the air leaving the control
zone (kg/kg)
1144 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
ṁCoilOf f is the air mass flow rate through the heat pump with the cooling coil OFF (kg/s)
hout,coil of f is the enthalpy of air exiting the heat pump with the cooling coil OFF (J/kg)
∆sen,f ull load is the sensible load difference between the system output node and the zone inlet
node at full-load conditions.
ṁZone Inlet
∆sen,HighestSpeed = (hOut,f ull load − hZone Inlet )HRmin
F rac
(16.378)
ṁZone Inlet
+ ṁHighestSpeed − (hOut,f ull load − hControl Zone )HRmin
F rac
where:
Frac is the control zone air fraction with respect to the system mass flow rate
∆sen,coil of f is the sensible load difference between the system output node and the zone inlet
node with the cooling coil OFF conditions.
ṁZone Inlet
∆sen,coil of f = (hOut,coil of f − hZone Inlet )HRmin
F rac
(16.379)
ṁZone Inlet
+ ṁcoil of f − (hOut,coil of f − hControl Zone )HRmin
F rac
If the heat pump’s sensible cooling rate at the highest speed (full load, no cycling) is insufficient
to meet the entire cooling load, the controlled zone conditions will not be met. The reported cycling
rate and speed ratio are 1, and the speed number is set to the highest index number. If the total
sensible cooling load to be met by the system is less than the sensible cooling rate at the highest
speed, then the following steps are performed.
First, calculate the sensible cooling energy rate at Speed 1:
F ullCoolOutputSpeed1 = (ṁSpeed1 ) (hout,f ull load − hcontrol zone )HRmin − ∆sen,Speed1 (16.380)
where:
ṁSpeed1 is the air mass flow rate through heat pump at Speed 1 (kg/s)
∆sen,Speed1 is the sensible load difference between the system output node and the zone inlet
node at full-load conditions at Speed 1.
Second, if the sensible cooling energy rate delivered by the heat pump at Speed 1 is greater or
equal to the sensible load, the cycling ratio (part-load ratio) for the heat pump is estimated.
|(HeatingCoilSensibleLoad)|
CyclingRatio =
F ullHeatingCoilCapacity
|(HeatP umpHeatingLoad−AddedF anHeat)| (16.382)
= max 0.0,
|(F ullHeatOutputSpeed1 −AddedF anHeatSpeed1 )|
where:
16.5. AIR SYSTEM COMPOUND COMPONENT GROUPS 1145
AddedFanHeat is the generated supply air fan heat, which is a function of part load ratio and
as internal component cooling load (W)
AddedFanHeatSpeed1 is the generated supply air fan heat at Speed 1 for a part load ratio of 1
(W).
Since the part-load performance of the DX cooling coil is frequently non-linear,and the supply air
fan heat varies based on cooling coil operation for the case of cycling fan/cycling coil (AUTO fan),
the final part-load ratio for the cooling coil compressor and fan are determined through iterative
calculations (successive modeling of the cooling coil and fan) until the heat pump’s cooling output
matches the cooling load to be met within the convergence tolerance. The convergence tolerance
is fixed at 0.001 and is calculated based on the difference between the load to be met and the heat
pump’s cooling output divided by the load to be met.
where HeatPumpOutputCycling is the heat pump delivered sensible capacity for Speed 1 operating
at a specific cycling ratio (W).
HeatP umpOutputcycling = ṁHeatP ump (hout − hControl Zone )HRmin − ∆cycling (16.384)
where:
ṁHeatP ump is the average air mass flow rate defined in the next section (kg/s)
hout is the enthalpy of air exiting the heat pump at part load conditions (J/kg)
∆cycling is the average sensible load difference between the system output node and the zone
inlet node.
where ṁZone Inlet is the air mass flow rate in the supply inlet node in the controlled zone (kg/s).
For this case where speed 1 operation was able to meet the required cooling load, the speed
ratio is set to zero and speed number is equal to 1.
Finally, if the heat pump’s cooling output at full load for Speed 1 is insufficient to meet the
entire cooling load, the Cycling ratio is set equal to 1.0 (compressor and fan are not cycling). Then
the cooling speed is increased and the delivered sensible capacity is calculated. If the full load
sensible capacity at Speed n is greater than or equal to the sensible load, the speed ratio for the
heat pump is estimated:
(successive modeling of the cooling coil and fan) until the heat pump’s cooling output matches the
cooling load to be met within the convergence tolerance. The convergence tolerance is fixed at 0.001
and is calculated based on the difference between the load to be met and the heat pump’s cooling
output divided by the load to be met.
where HeatPumpOutputSpeedRatio is the heat pump delivered sensible capacity between two
consecutive speeds at a specific speed ratio (W).
If the fan operates continuously (i.e., when the supply air fan operating mode schedule values
are NOT equal to 0), the operating air mass flow rate through the heat pump is calculated as the
average of the user-specified air flow rate when the heat pump cooling coil is ON at Speed 1 and
the user-specified air flow rate when the heat pump cooling coil is OFF (user-specified supply air
volumetric flow rates converted to dry air mass flow rates).
where:
ṁHeatP ump is the average air mass flow rate through heat pump (kg/s)
ṁSpeed1 is the air mass flow rate through heat pump when cooling coil is ON at Speed 1 (kg/s)
ṁCoilOf f is the air mass flow rate through heat pump when no heating or cooling is needed
(kg/s).
In this case, the air conditions at nodes downstream of the cooling coils are calculated as the
average conditions over the simulation time step (i.e., the weighted average of full-load conditions
when the coil is operating and inlet air conditions when the coil is OFF).
16.5. AIR SYSTEM COMPOUND COMPONENT GROUPS 1147
where:
ṁHighestSpeed is the air mass flow rate through heat pump at the highest heating speed (kg/s)
hout, f ull load is the enthalpy of air exiting the heat pump at full-load conditions (J/kg)
hcontrol zone is the enthalpy of air leaving the control zone (where thermostat is located) (J/kg)
HRmin are the enthalpies evaluated at a constant humidity ratio, the minimum humidity ratio
of the heat pump exiting air or the air leaving the control zone
ṁCoilOf f is the air mass flow rate through the heat pump with the heating coil OFF (kg/s)
hout,coil of f is the enthalpy of air exiting the heat pump with the heating coil OFF (J/kg)
∆sen,f ull load is the sensible load difference between the system output node and the zone inlet
node at full-load conditions.
where:
Frac = Control zone air fraction with respect to the system mass flow rate
∆sen,coil of f = Sensible load difference between the system output node and the zone inlet node
with the heating coil OFF conditions
If the heat pump’s DX heating coil output full load at the highest speed is insufficient to meet
the entire heating load, the remaining heating load is passed to the supplemental heating coil. If the
heat pump model determines that the outdoor air temperature is below the minimum outdoor air
temperature for compressor operation (specified by the user), the compressor is turned off and the
entire heating load is passed to the supplemental gas or electric heating coil. The heat pump exiting
air conditions and energy consumption are calculated and reported by the individual component
models (fan, DX heating coil, and supplemental gas or electric heating coil).
If the total heating load to be met by the system is less than the sensible heating rate at the
highest speed, then the following steps are performed.
First, calculate the sensible heating energy rate at Speed 1:
F ullHeatOutputSpeed1 = (ṁSpeed1 ) (hout,f ull load − hcontrol zone )HRmin − ∆sen,Speed1 (16.397)
where:
ṁSpeed1 is the air mass flow rate through heat pump at Speed 1 (kg/s)
∆sen,Speed1 is the sensible load difference between the system output node and the zone inlet
node at full-load conditions at Speed 1.
16.5. AIR SYSTEM COMPOUND COMPONENT GROUPS 1149
Second, if the sensible heating energy rate delivered by the heat pump at Speed 1 is greater or
equal to the sensible load, the cycling ratio (part-load ratio) for the heat pump is estimated.
|(HeatingCoilSensibleLoad)|
CyclingRatio =
F ullHeatingCoilCapacity
|(HeatP umpHeatingLoad−AddedF anHeat)| (16.399)
= max 0.0,
|(F ullHeatOutputSpeed1 −AddedF anHeatSpeed1 )|
where:
AddedFanHeat is the generated supply air fan heat, which is a function of part load ratio and
as internal component heating load (W)
AddedFanHeatSpeed1 is the generated supply air fan heat at Speed 1 for a part load ratio of 1
(W).
Since the part-load performance of the DX heating coil is frequently non-linear (Ref: Single-
Speed Electric Heat Pump DX Air Heating Coil), and the supply air fan heat varies based on
heating coil operation for the case of cycling fan/cycling coil (AUTO fan), the final part-load ratio
for the heating coil compressor and fan are determined through iterative calculations (successive
modeling of the heating coil and fan) until the heat pump’s heating output matches the heating
load to be met within the convergence tolerance. The convergence tolerance is fixed at 0.001 and is
calculated based on the difference between the load to be met and the heat pump’s heating output
divided by the load to be met.
HeatP umpOutputcycling = ṁHeatP ump (hout − hControl Zone )HR min − ∆cycling (16.401)
where:
ṁHeatP ump is the average air mass flow rate defined in the next section (kg/s)
hout is the enthalpy of air exiting the heat pump at part load conditions (J/kg)
∆cycling is the average sensible load difference between the system output node and the zone
inlet node.
where ṁZone Inlet is the air mass flow rate in the supply inlet node in the controlled zone (kg/s).
For this case where speed 1 operation was able to meet the required heating load, the speed
ratio is set to zero and speed number is equal to 1.
Finally, if the heat pump’s heating output at full load for Speed 1 is insufficient to meet the
entire heatling load, the Cycling ratio (PartLoadRatio) is set equal to 1.0 (compressor and fan are
1150 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
not cycling). Then the heating speed is increased and the delivered sensible capacity is calculated.
If the full load sensible capacity at Speed n is greater than or equal to the sensible load, the speed
ratio for the heat pump is estimated:
QW asteHeat
Toutlet = Tinlet + (16.406)
Cp ṁhr
where:
Toutlet is the outlet node temperature of heat recovery (◦ C)
Tinlet is the inlet node temperature of heat recovery (◦ C)
QW asteHeat is the recoverable waste heat generated by its child objects (W)
Cp is the inlet node temperature of heat recovery (◦ C)
ṁhr is the mass flow rate of heat recovery (kg/s).
If the outlet node temperature is above the value of the Maximum Temp for Heat Recovery
field, the outlet node temperature is reset to the value of Maximum Temp for Heat Recovery.
16.5.7.2 Controls
The system calculates the current sensible load using the temperature of the inlet node and the
System Node Setpoint Temp on the control node. If the control node is not the outlet node, the
desired outlet node temperature is adjusted for the current temperature difference between the
outlet node and the control node. Likewise, the current latent load is calculated using the humidity
ratio of the inlet node and the System Node Humidity Ratio Max on the control node. The controls
determine the required coil run-time fraction and dehumidification mode (if applicable) using the
steps outlined below.
Figure 16.40: Schematic of Packaged DX Cooling Subsystem in Air Loop for a Blow-Thru Appli-
cation
16.5. AIR SYSTEM COMPOUND COMPONENT GROUPS 1153
in the desired outlet node temperature. For a variable-speed DX cooling coil, if the load is smaller
than the sensible capacity at the lowest speed, the coil run-time fraction is determined in the same
way as a single-speed DX cooling coil. Otherwise, its speed level and speed ratio between two
neighboring speeds are selected to match the load.
If the cooling coil type is specified as CoilSystem:Cooling:DX:CoolingHeatExchanganerAssisted
and the dehumidification control type is specified as CoolReheat, the heat exchanger is active during
this attempt to meet the sensible requirement.
This system does not need any plant specification and will provide the electric consumption
necessary to operate the compressor and the condenser fan.
16.5.8.2 Controls
The DX heating package system calculates how the coil should operate to meet current sensible
load using the temperature of the inlet node and the System Node Setpoint Temp on the outlet
node. The controls determine the required coil run-time fraction to meet the sensible requirement.
The Single-Speed Electric Heat Pump DX Air Heating Coil model is called with a part-load ratio
(PLR) of 1.0 to determine the full-load output of the coil. If the PLR is <1.0, a root solver iteration
routine is called to determine the coil run-time fraction which results in the desired outlet node
temperature. For a variable-speed DX heating coil, if the load is smaller than the heating capacity
at the lowest speed, the coil run-time fraction is determined in the same way as a single-speed DX
heating coil. Otherwise, its speed level and speed ratio between two neighboring speeds are selected
to match the load.
Figure 16.41: Schematic of a Desiccant Dehumidifier with Draw Through Regeneration Fan Place-
ment
Figure 16.42: Schematic of a Desiccant Dehumidifier in Blow Through Regeneration Fan Placement
1156 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
for the current humidity ratio difference between the process air outlet node and the control node.
If the humidity ratio of the process inlet air is greater than the target humidity ratio for the process
outlet air, then the dehumidifier operates to meet the target to the extent possible.
Once it is determined that the dehumidifier should operate, the components upstream of the
desiccant heat exchanger’s regeneration inlet are modeled. The actual components that are modeled
depend on the configuration specified by the user.
If the waste heat from the companion cooling coil is being used to heat the regeneration air, then
this model determines the temperature of the air leaving the cooling coil condenser. The user may
also specify a setpoint temperature for the regeneration air entering the desiccant heat exchanger
and an optional exhaust fan, which can impact the condenser leaving air temperature. For this
case, the exhaust fan is used to control the condenser leaving air temperature by boosting the air
flow rate through the condenser to meet the setpoint temperature (minus regeneration fan heat if
blow through fan placement).
Note: If the desiccant dehumidifier is OFF for a simulation time step but its companion cooling
coil is operating and is specified to provide regeneration air heating, then the exhaust fan operates
at the maximum air flow rate (i.e., this fan serves at the condenser fan for the companion cooling
coil system when regeneration air heating is specified, so the inputs for the companion cooling coil
object should not include the condenser fan energy since the condenser fan energy is modeled by
the Dehumidifier:Desiccant:SystemDesiccant Dehumidifier object).
The exhaust fan power is determined as follows:
If dehumidifier is operating:
ṁexhaust
P LRexhaust = ρStd V̇exhaust,max
(16.407)
Pexhaust = Pexhaust,max · ExhF anM odF ac
If dehumidifier is not operating, but companion coil is operating:
simulated. To the extent possible (e.g., if the heater is available to operate based on its availability
schedule and it has sufficient heating capacity), the regeneration air heater operates to raise its
outlet air temperature to the specified regeneration inlet air setpoint temperature.
With the inlet air conditions to the regeneration and process sides of the desiccant heat ex-
changer now known, the performance of the desiccant heat exchanger is modeled. If the desiccant
dehumidifier is specified with a companion cooling coil upstream of the heat exchanger’s process
inlet, then the model assumes that the dehumidifier operates at the same time as the companion
coil (same part-load ratio). If not, then the desiccant dehumidifier model calculates the fraction of
time it must operate to meet the process outlet air maximum humidity target (setpoint) using the
following equation:
wP roc,in −wmax,setpoint
DDP artLoadRatio = wP roc,in −wP roc,out,HXon
DDP artLoadRatio = max (0.0, DDP artLoadRatio) (16.410)
DDP artLoadRatio = min (1.0, DDP artLoadRatio)
where:
DDP artLoadRatio is the output variable ‘Dehumidifier Part Load Ratio’
wP roc,in is the process inlet air humidity ratio (kg/kg)
wmax,setpoint is the target humidity ratio (setpoint) for the process outlet air (kg/kg)
wP roc,out,HXon is the process outlet air humidity ratio when the desiccant heat exchanger operates
(kg/kg).
After all of the desiccant dehumidifier components are modeled at the appropriate part load
ratio, the water removal rate and water removed are calculated.
where:
ṁwater removed,P roc is the output variable ‘Dehumidifier Removed Water Mass Flow Rate, kg/s’
ṁP roc,in is the air mass flow rate at the process air inlet node (kg/s)
wP roc,out is the process outlet air humidity ratio (kg/kg)
mwater removed,P roc is the output variable ‘Dehumidifier Removed Water Mass, kg’.
16.5.9.3 References
ASHRAE. 2004. Chapter 22: Desiccant Dehumidification and Pressure-Drying Equipment. 2004
ASHRAE HVAC Systems and Equipment Handbook. Atlanta, GA: American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
Kosar, D. 2006. Dehumidification Enhancements, ASHRAE Journal, Vol. 48, No. 2, February
2006.
Kosar, D. et al. 2006. Dehumidification Enhancement of Direct Expansion Systems Through
Component Augmentation of the Cooling Coil. 15th Symposium on Improving Building Systems in
Hot and Humid Climates, July 24-26, 2006.
1158 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
" # " #
Qsens T db T wb T w,in V̇air V̇ w
= B1 + B2 + B3 + B4 + B5 + B6 (16.413)
Qsens,ref T ref T ref T ref V̇air,ref V̇ w,ref
" # " #
P owerc Twb T w,in V̇air V̇w
= C1 + C2 + C3 + C4 + C5 (16.414)
P owerc,ref Tref T ref V̇air,ref V̇w,ref
16.5. AIR SYSTEM COMPOUND COMPONENT GROUPS 1159
Figure 16.43: Source Side and Load Side Configuration of a BlowThru Water-To-Air Heat Pump
1160 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
Heating Mode:
" # " #
Qh Tdb T w,in V̇air V̇w
= E1 + E2 + E3 + E4 + E5 (16.415)
Qh,ref Tref T ref V̇air,ref V̇w,ref
" # " #
P owerh Tdb T w,in V̇air V̇w
= F1 + F2 + F3 + F4 + F5 (16.416)
P owerh,ref Tref T ref V̇air,ref V̇w,ref
Assuming no losses, the source side heat transfer rate for cooling and heating mode is calculated
as following:
16.5.10.4 High Humidity Control with WaterToAir HeatPump Equation Fit model
The specific configuration of the WaterToAir HeatPump with supplemental heating coil is shown
above (see Figure 16.43). This figure shows the fan placement when a blow through fan is specified.
If a draw through fan is specified, the fan is located between the heating coil and the reheat coil.
The system is controlled to keep the high relative humidity in the control zone from exceeding the
setpoint specified in the object ZoneControl:Humidistat. When high humidity control is specified
and the compressor operates, the heatpump always operates at the cooling air flow rate when a zone
heating load is present as determined by the zone thermostat. High humidity control is specified
as either None, or CoolReheat in the Dehumidification Control Type input field. CoolReheat is
specified when a DX cooling coil is used to over-cool the supply air stream in order to meet the zone
latent load. In this case, a supplemental heating coil will ensure the zone temperature does not
fall below the zone heating temperature set point. If the dehumidification control type is selected
as None, the WaterToAir HeatPump uns only to meet the sensible cooling load. A supplemental
heating coil is required for all dehumidification control types.
The model first calculates the PartLoadRatio required meeting the sensible cooling load. The
heatpump’s sensible cooling load is determined from the control zone sensible cooling load to the
cooling setpoint and the control zone air flow fraction to maintain the dry-bulb temperature setpoint
in the control zone:
ControlZoneCoolingLoad
HeatP umpCoolingLoad = (16.419)
ControlZoneAirF lowF raction
The heatpump’s sensible cooling load to be met and the full load cooling output are used to
calculate the sensible the part-load ratio iteratively based on user specified convergence criterion.
ABS (HeatP umpCoolingLoad − N oCoolOutput)
P artLoadRatio = M AX 0.0, (16.420)
ABS (F ullCoolOutput − N oCoolOutput)
When the heat pumps sensible cooling capacity meets the system sensible cooling load at a
given sensible part load ratio, then the Heat pump meets the controlled zone cooling setpoint
temperature. If a moisture (latent) load exists because the control zone humidity has exceeded
the setpoint, the total moisture load to be met by the heat pumps (HeatPumpMoistureLoad) is
calculated based on the control zone moisture load and the control zone air flow fraction.
ControlZoneM oitureLoad
HeatP umpM oistureLoad = (16.421)
ControlZoneAirF lowF raction
1162 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
Figure 16.44: Information Flow Chart for Water-to-Air Heat Pump Equation Fit Model (Tang
2005)
16.5. AIR SYSTEM COMPOUND COMPONENT GROUPS 1163
Then the LatentPartLoadRatio required to meet the high humidity setpoint is calculated as
follows:
ABS (HeatP umpM oistureLoad − N oLatentOutput)
LatentP artLoadRatio = M IN P LRM in ,
ABS (F ullLatentOutput − N oLatentOutput)
(16.422)
The model uses the greater of the two part-load ratios, PartLoadRatio or LatentPartLoadRatio,
to determine the operating part-load ratio of the Heat Pump’s DX cooling coil.
As previously described, iterations are performed to converge on the solution within the con-
vergence tolerance.
where:
ControlZoneCoolingLoad is the control zone sensible cooling load to the cooling setpoint (W)
ControlZoneM oistureLoad is the control zone moisture load to the dehumidifying relative
humidity setpoint (W)
ControlZoneAirF lowF raction =is the supply air fraction that goes though the control zone
FullLatentOutput is the Heat Pump’s latent cooling energy rate at full-load conditions (W)
NoLatentOutput is the Heat Pump’s latent cooling energy rate with cooling coil OFF (W)
P artLoadRatio is the heat pump’s part-load-ratio required to meet system sensible load
LatentP artLoadRatio is the heat pump’s part-load-ratio required to meet system moisture load
P LRM IN is the minimum part-load ratio, which is usually 0.0. For the case when the latent
capacity degradation model is used (Ref: DX Cooling Coil Model), this value is the minimum
part-load ratio at which the cooling coil will dehumidify the air.
When the predicted zone air temperature is above the heating setpoint and if there is a de-
humidification load, the supplemental heating coil load is required to offset the excess cooling as
shown in Figure 16.45. If the model determines that the LatentPartLoadRatio is to be used as
the operating part-load ratio of the heatpump’s cooling coil, the supplemental coil is used to offset
the excess sensible capacity provided by the unit. The model first checks the sensible load that
exists for the current simulation time step (predicted zone temperature with no HVAC operation
compared to the thermostat setpoint temperatures). If a sensible cooling load or no sensible cooling
or heating load exists (see Figure 16.45), the model calculates the difference between the sensible
heating load required to reach or maintain the heating dry-bulb temperature setpoint and the actual
sensible cooling energy rate delivered by the heat pump (with LatentPartLoadRatio). In this case,
thesupplemental heating coil is used to offset the excess sensible cooling energy provided by the
DX cooling coil (if any) that could have caused an overshoot of the heating dry-bulb temperature
setpoint. Note that when a humidistat is used and high humidity control is required, the zone
dry-bulb temperature will typically move toward the heating temperature setpoint when a high
moisture (latent) load exists.
If a heating load exists (Figure 16.46), the supplementalheating coil is used to meet the heating
coil load and at the same time offset the entire sensible cooling energy rate of the DX cooling coil (to
meet the humidistat setpoint). Note that when a heating load exists and high humidity control is
required, the heat pump operates at the user-specified cooling air flow rate for the entire simulation
time step. As with the fan, and DX cooling coil, report variables associated with supplemental
1164 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
Figure 16.45: Supplemental heating coil load when predicted zone air temperature is above the
heating Setpoint
heating coil performance (e.g., heating coil energy, heating coil rate, heating coil gas or electric
energy, heating coil runtime fraction, etc.) are managed in the supplemental (heating) coil object.
Figure 16.46: Supplemental heating coil load when predicted zone air temperature is below the
heating setpoint
ε = 1 − e−N T U (16.424)
16.6. WATER TO WATER HEAT PUMPS 1165
UA
NT U = (16.425)
(ṁC p )water/air
UA for the source side and the load side are two of the parameters estimated in the parameter
estimation procedure.
Additional model details and a discussion of the parameters and parameter estimation technique
are described in the following section on Water to Water Heat Pumps.
• Equation fit
• EIR-formulated
Detailed descriptions of the former two models are available in the references Tang and Jin. The
EIR formulation was added with EnergyPlus 9.1, based on the popular EIR formulation used in
the chiller model. This section describes the important details of the three models.
" # " #
P owerc T L,in T S,in V̇L V̇S
= B1 + B2 + B3 + B4 + B5 (16.427)
P owerc,ref T ref T ref V̇L,ref V̇S,ref
Heating Mode:
1166 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
" # " #
Qh T L,in T S,in V̇L V̇S
= C1 + C2 + C3 + C4 + C5 (16.428)
Qh,ref T ref T ref V̇L,ref V̇S,ref
" # " #
P owerh T L,in T S,in V̇L V̇S
= D1 + D2 + D3 + D4 + D5 (16.429)
P owerh,ref T ref T ref V̇L,ref V̇S,ref
Assuming no losses, the source side heat transfer rate for cooling and heating mode is calculated
as following;
where:
A1 − D5 are the equation fit coefficients for the cooling and heating mode
Tref is 283.15K
TL,in is the entering load side water temperature (K)
TS,in is the entering source side water temperature (K)
V̇L is the load side volumetric flow rate (m3 /s)
V̇S is the source side volumetric flow rate (m3 /s)
Qc is the load side heat transfer rate in cooling mode (W)
P owerc is the power consumption in cooling mode (W)
Qsource,c is the source side heat transfer rate in cooling mode (W)
Qh is the load side heat transfer rate in heating mode (W)
P owerh is the power consumption in heating mode (W)
Qsource,h is the source side heat transfer rate in heating mode (W).
If the load side heat transfer rate (Qc or Qh ) or power consumption (Powerc or Powerh ) are less
than or equal to zero, then the heat pump is turned off for that simulation time step, a warning is
issued, and the simulation continues.
The inlet conditions or variables are divided by the reference conditions. This formulation allows
the coefficients to fall into smaller range of values. Moreover, the value of the coefficient indirectly
represents the sensitivity of the output to that particular inlet variable. The reference conditions
used when generating the performance coefficients must be the same as the reference conditions
used later in the model. The reference temperature Tref is fixed at 283K. Temperature unit of
Kelvin is used instead of Celsius to keep the ratio of the water inlet temperature and reference
temperature positive value should the water inlet temperature drop below the freezing point.
For cooling mode, the reference conditions; reference load side volumetric flow rate, V̇L,ref ,
reference source side volumetric flow rate, V̇S,ref , P owerc,ref and reference source side heat transfer
rate, Qsource,c,ref are the conditions when the heat pump is operating at the highest cooling capacity
or reference cooling capacity, Qc,ref indicated in the manufacturer’s catalog. Note that the reference
conditions for heating mode might differ from the reference conditions specified for the cooling mode.
16.6. WATER TO WATER HEAT PUMPS 1167
The generalized least square method is used to generate the coefficients. This method utilizes
an optimization method which calculates for the coefficients that will give the least amount of
differences between the model outputs and the catalog data. A set of coefficients for the cooling
mode is generated which includes A1-A5 for load side heat transfer. The same procedure is repeated
B, C, and D coefficients. An information flow chart showing the inputs, reference conditions,
performance coefficients and outputs are shown in the figure below:
Figure 16.47: Information Flow Chart for Water-To-Water Heat Pump Equation Fit (Tang 2005)
1168 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
P V γ = Constant (16.433)
where P is pressure and V is specific volume.
Since the refrigerant vapor in the clearance volume as shown in the previous figure goes through
a re-expansion procedure, the mass flow rate of the compressor refrigerant is a decreasing function
of the pressure ratio.
PD P dis γ1
ṁ = 1 + C − C( ) (16.434)
ν suc P suc
where:
ṁ is the refrigerant mass flow rate
PD is the piston displacement
C is the clearance factor
Pdis is the discharge pressure
Psuc is the suction pressure
γ is the isentropic exponent.
• Piston displacement, PD
16.6. WATER TO WATER HEAT PUMPS 1169
• Clearance factor, C
• Loss factor used to define the electromechanical losses supposed to be proportional to the
theoretical power, η
• Superheat in ◦ C or F, �Tsh
Figure 16.49: Information Flowchart for Water-To-Water Heat Pump Parameter Estimation
Mmodel implementation (Jin 2002)
where:
TWiL is the entering water Load side temperature
16.6. WATER TO WATER HEAT PUMPS 1171
Where
Wcat is the catalog power consumption
W is the model power consumption
QLcat is the catalog load side heat transfer
QL is the model load side heat transfer.
Extrapolation beyond the catalog data grants the parameter estimation model an upper hand
in comparison with the equation fit and deterministic models. However, the detailed model is
computationally more intensive. Moreover, when the model is implemented within a transient
system simulation program, it may come across figures that are random and unplanned by the
manufacturer such as low water flow rates or extreme temperatures. This oddity may result in
unrealistic set of results.
16.6.2.3 References
Jin, Hui. 2002. Parameter Estimation Based Models of Water Source Heat Pumps. Phd. Thesis,
Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Oklahoma State University. (downloadable
from http://www.hvac.okstate.edu/)
Tang,C. C. 2005. Modeling Packaged Heat Pumps in Quasi-Steady State Energy Simulation
Program. M.S. Thesis. Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Oklahoma State
University. (downloadable from http://www.hvac.okstate.edu/)
1172 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
Figure 16.50: Flow diagram of EnergyPlus Water to Water Heat Pump implementation
16.6. WATER TO WATER HEAT PUMPS 1173
Murugappan, Arun. 2002. Implementing Ground Source Heat Pump and Ground Loop
Heat Exchanger Models in the EnergyPlus Simulation Environment, M.S. Thesis, Department
of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Oklahoma State University (downloadable from
http://www.hvac.okstate.edu/)
3. Evaluate the capacity modifier function using the source inlet temperature and the load side
setpoint temperature as the projected outlet temperature (fcap = f (Tout,load,set , Tin,src ))
4. Calculate available load side capacity using the reference value and the modifier (q̇load,avail =
q̇ref erence · fcap )
5. Calculate the part load ratio using the current plant-dispatched load (constrained between
q̇
zero and one) (P LR = q̇plant
avail
)
6. Calculate the actual operating load side heat transfer and the load side outlet temperature
(q̇load = q̇avail P LR, Tout,load = Tin,load ± ṁload
q̇load
Cp,load
)) – note the plus/minus refers to how
the value will be added in heating mode and subtracted in cooling mode. This is required
because the sign convention is not consistent and a positive value for calculated heat rate will
be obtained for both units under normal conditions.
1174 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
7. Evaluate power usage by evaluating the EIR curves using the source inlet temperature, actual
load side outlet temperature, and the current part load ratio (feir,t = f (Tout,load,set , Tin,src ),
feir,plr = f (P LR), P = Pref erence feir,t feir,plr )
8. Perform an energy balance on the unit to determine the source side heat transfer rate and
the source side outlet temperature (qsrc = qload ± P , Tout,src = Tin,src ± ṁsrcq̇src
Cp,src
) – again the
plus/minus refers to the different behavior between cooling and heating mode.
• Heat Pump (HP) type: the most general type that can be used for either cooling or heating,
but not simultaneously.
• Heat Recovery (HR) type: can deliver simultaneous heating and cooling to different zones
by transferring heat between the cooling and heating indoor units. This generally occurs in
the winter season in medium-sized to large-sized commercial buildings with a substantial core
such as computer rooms.
There are two alternative VRF models available in EnergyPlus to simulate the energy perfor-
mance of VRF:
cooled condenser equipment ( throughout this section, the term “condenser” refers to the outdoor
unit where the compressor is located. )
The figure below schematically depicts the AirConditioner:VariableRefrigerantFlow (VRF AC)
system. The outdoor unit is connected directly to the zone terminal units using a zone terminal unit
list (ref: ZoneTerminalUnitList). The VRF AC system conditions multiple zones and is controlled
by thermostats located in each zone. Zone terminal units operate to meet the zone sensible cooling
or sensible heating requirements as determined by the zone thermostat schedule.
When the heat pump does not operate to reclaim waste heat, the VRF AC system can only
operate in either cooling or heating mode. Based on the master thermostat priority control selection,
the operating mode is determined by polling the appropriate zone(s) served by the VRF HP system.
When the system is operating in cooling mode, the cooling coils will be enabled only in the terminal
units where zone cooling is required. When the system is operating in heating mode, the heating
coils will be enabled only in the terminal units where zone heating is required. Supply air fans will
continue to operate if the zone terminal unit’s fan operating mode is set to continuous fan.
When the heat pump does operate to reclaim waste heat, the VRF AC system can simulta-
neously cool and heat multiple zones. The heat pump will select an operating mode according to
the dominant load as reported by the zone thermostat(s). The calculation of the dominant load is
based on the master thermostat priority control selection and may either be based on individual
zone loads, the number of zones requiring cooling or heating, the master thermostat zone load, or
an operating mode schedule. The heat pump will operate in cooling mode, and provide waste heat
to zones with a heating load, when the dominant load among all zone terminal units is cooling. The
heat pump will operate in heating mode, and absorb heat from zones with a cooling load, when the
dominant load among all zone terminal units is heating.
The figure below shows the VRF AC terminal units with draw through fan placement. Blow
through fan placement can also be modeled by connecting the supply air fan inlet node to the
outside air mixer’s mixed air node if an outdoor air mixer is used or to the zone terminal unit
inlet node if an outdoor air mixer is not used. The variable refrigerant flow heat pump coordi-
nates the operation of these components and is modeled as a type of zone equipment where the
zone terminal units are specified in a zone equipment list (Ref. ZoneHVAC: EquipmentList and
ZoneHVAC:EquipmentConnections). The AirConditioner: VariableRefrigerantFlow object is not
specified in an air primary loop or a zone equipment list object.
The terminal unit is able to model supply air fan operation in two modes: cycling fan – cycling
coil (i.e., AUTO fan) and continuous fan – cycling coil (i.e., fan ON). Fan:OnOff must be used to
model AUTO fan, while Fan:OnOff or Fan:ConstantVolume can be used to model fan ON.
Output variables reported by the VRF AC object include the heat pump’s operating capacity
(cooling or heating), electric consumption, operating COP, defrost electric consumption, part-load
ratio (ratio of actual capacity to available capacity), runtime fraction (when cycling), cycling ratio
(actual compressor cycling rate), crankcase heater power, and other report variables associated with
an evaporative condenser. Report variables are also available to indicate the maximum available
terminal unit cooling or heating capacity (i.e., when the condensers available capacity is insufficient
to supply the capacity requested by all terminal units). Reporting of other variables of interest for
the VRF AC (fan electric power, DX coil cooling rate, DX coil heating rate, terminal unit total
cooling rate, etc.) is done by the individual system components (e.g., fan, DX cooling coil, DX
heating coil, and zone terminal unit). For convenience, the total cooling and heating coil capacities
(i.e., the coil loads) is also reported.
1176 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
Figure 16.51: Variable Refrigerant Flow Heat Pump (draw through fan placement)
16.7. VARIABLE REFRIGERANT FLOW HEAT PUMPS 1177
heat pump condenser. If the Condenser Type is WaterCooled, then the cooling capacity curve will
be function of weighted average cooling coil inlet air wet-bulb temperature and outdoor condenser
entering water temperature. The actual zone air wet-bulb temperature is used to calculate the
operating capacity of the individual zone cooling coils.
X
i
Q̇zone,total = Q̇zone(i) (16.439)
1
!
X
i
Q̇zone(i)
Twb,avg = (Twb,i ) (16.440)
1
Q̇zone,total
The operating capacity of the heat pump is calculated using a bi-quadratic equation using
a load-weighted average indoor wet-bulb temperature and outdoor dry-bulb temperature as the
independent variables.
The operating capacity of the terminal unit’s DX cooling coil is calculated using either a linear,
quadratic, or cubic curve. If more information is available to more accurately model the DX cooling
coil, a bi-quadratic curve may be used (i.e., if the performance of the DX cooling coil is also a
function of outdoor dry-bulb temperature).
where:
Twb,i is the wet-bulb temperature of the air entering the cooling coil in zone i (◦ C)
Twb,avg is the load-weighted average wet-bulb temperature of the air entering all operating cooling
coils (◦ C)
Q̇zone(i) is the total (sensible + latent) cooling load in zone i (W)
Q̇zone, total is the total (sensible + latent) cooling load in all zones (W)
CAP F THP,cooling is the heat pump Cooling Capacity Ratio Modifier (function of temperature)
CAP F Tcoil,cooling is the zone coil Cooling Capacity Ratio Modifier (function of temperature)
a − f are the equation coefficients for Cooling Capacity Ratio Modifier
Tc is the temperature of the air entering an air-cooled or evaporatively-cooled condenser (◦ C).
vary, the overall performance of the system may be described using two cooling capacity ratio
modifier curves (i.e., a separate curve at low and high outdoor temperatures) and a boundary curve
(i.e., the curve defining the separation at specific outdoor temperatures). If the Condenser Type
is WaterCooled, the cooling capacity and EIR modifier curves may be represented using the low
temperature curve input field only.
Figure 16.53: Performance Data for Variable Refrigerant Flow Air Conditioner Model
curve points, the boundary curve may have to be modified slightly to allow a smooth transition in
performance from the “low” to “high” temperature region. In this case, the boundary curves for
capacity and energy may be different.
A regression is then performed on the data to the left of the boundary curve to calculate the low
temperature cooling performance curve coefficients. A regression is also performed on the data to the
right of the boundary curve to create the high temperature cooling performance curve coefficients.
The model then uses the boundary curve to determine which performance curve (low or high) to use
during the simulation. For example, given a particular average indoor wet-bulb temperature, if the
boundary curve object calculates an outdoor dry-bulb temperature that is above the actual outdoor
dry-bulb temperature then the cooling capacity ratio function of low temperature performance curve
is used to determine AC system performance for that specific simulation time step. When creating
the boundary curve, be careful to make sure the low and high performance curves meet, as closely
as possible, at the boundary curve points (i.e., that discontinuities do not exist or are minimized
to the extent possible). Tabular data may also be used to specify performance and will usually
eliminate the need for dual performance curves.
P LRi = 1 (16.446)
1182 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
where Q̇cooling, T erminalU nits is the total terminal unit cooling requirement (sensible + latent) in
all zones (W).
The piping correction factor is then used to adjust the total zone cooling requirement to account
for piping losses in the air conditioner’s refrigeration piping system.
positive or negative value is used. The limits on the calculated cooling piping correction factor are
0.5 < Pcorrection,cooling < 1.
P
n
Q̇coil(i),cooling,rated
1
CRcooling = (16.449)
Q̇cooling,total,rated
The total demand on the heat pump condenser is then calculated as the quotient of the total
terminal unit cooling capacity and the cooling piping correction factor. The piping losses are fixed
throughout the simulation (i.e., these losses are not based on which terminal units are requesting
refrigerant).
The heat pump’s total available cooling capacity is then calculated as:
16.7.1.10 Heat-Recovery-Cooling-Capacity-Modifier
When operating in heat recovery mode, the heat pump’s available cooling capacity is typically
different than the available capacity when operating in cooling only mode. This modifier is used to
adjust the available cooling capacity using a fraction when heat recovery is active. This fraction is
based on a bi-quadratic equation with weighted average indoor temperature (i.e., the indoor terminal
units weighted average inlet temperatures) and outdoor temperatures used as the independent
terms.
This equation can be used to provide a constant fractional difference for available cooling capac-
ity in heat recovery mode (i.e., only a is non-zero) or a fractional term that varies with indoor and
outdoor conditions. With very limited performance data available at this time, it is recommended
that only the constant (a) term be used at this time. When the VRF system is not operating in
heat recovery mode, this fraction is set to 1. The available cooling capacity in heat recovery mode
is then:
Figure 16.56: Comparison of cooling only and heat recovery mode operation
operation, the available cooling capacity and power consumption are markedly different. Although
computer models do not typically simulate this type of transitional performance, efforts to model
this aspect of performance were included in the VRF AC heat recovery model. The initial heat
recovery cooling capacity fraction and heat recovery cooling capacity time constant are used to
model this transition period. The initial heat recovery cooling capacity fraction identifies the
fraction of available heat recovery mode cooling capacity at the start of the transition period, the
heat recovery cooling capacity time constant identifies the time needed to recover to 99% of the
steady-state value. This exponential model used for simulating the transition period can be turned
off by setting the initial heat recovery cooling capacity fraction to 1.
Q̇HR,avail,cooling = kcool Q̇HR,cooling,total + (1 − kcool ) Q̇HR,cooling,total 1 − e(−t/τc ) (16.456)
16.7. VARIABLE REFRIGERANT FLOW HEAT PUMPS 1187
Figure 16.57: Laboratory test identifies performance changes during transition period
where:
kcool is the fraction of steady-state capacity at beginning of heat recovery mode
t c is the time constant to reach steady-state operation, 5 time constants equals 99% of steady-
state capacity (hr)
QHR,avail,cooling is
the available cooling capacity in heat recovery mode (W)
−t/t
1 − e( c,cool ) is the multiplier used during the transition period from cooling mode to heat
recovery mode. This multiplier can be viewed using the report variable “VRF Heat Pump Heat
Recovery Status Change Multiplier” (ref: object Output:Variable).
The operating part-load ratio of the VRF system can then be calculated:
Q̇cooling,total
P LR = (16.457)
Q̇HR,avail,cooling
where P LR is the heat pump part-load ratio, report variable “VRF Heat Pump Part Load
Ratio”.
Note: for calculation purposes Q̇HR,avail,cooling is equivalent to Q̇HR,cooling,total when heat recovery
mode is not active.
The heat pump total available cooling capacity must be greater than or equal to the total cooling
capacity requested by the zone terminal units. When the total operating capacity of all terminal
unit’s will be greater than the available operating capacity of the heat pump condenser, one or more
of the terminal unit’s operating capacity must be reduced to the point where the sum of the indoor
terminal unit demand request plus piping losses is equal to the total available cooling capacity of
the outdoor condenser. At this point, the part-load ratio of the heat pump condenser will be equal
to 1.
1188 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
A maximum terminal unit cooling capacity limit is used to restrict the cooling capacity of each
indoor terminal unit. The capacity limit is equivalent to a maximum allowed operating capacity
for all zone terminal units. This limit is used to conserve energy between multiple indoor terminal
units and a single outdoor condensing unit. Assuming no terminal unit can provide more capacity
than can be delivered by the outdoor condenser, the terminal unit total cooling capacity calculation
previously discussed is revised as follows:
X
i
Q̇coil(i), cooling = M IN Q̇coil(i),cooling,total (P LR(i)) , CoolingCapacityLimit (16.458)
1
where:
P LR
CyclingRatio = (16.460)
P LRmin
a-c (d) are the coefficients for the quadratic (cubic) cycling ratio correlation curve equation.
The cycling ratio can be viewed using the report variable “VRF Heat Pump Cycling Ratio” (ref:
Output:Variable).
The cooling part-load ratio correlation should be normalized to a value of 1.0 when the cycling
ratio equals 1.0 (i.e., no efficiency losses when the heat pump runs continuously [PLR ≥ PLRmin ]
for the simulation time step). For cycling ratio values between 0 and 1 (0 ≤ CyclingRatio < 1), the
following rules apply:
16.7. VARIABLE REFRIGERANT FLOW HEAT PUMPS 1189
IF (P LR ≤ 1) T HEN
EIRF P LRcooling = a + b (P LR) + c (P LR)2 + d (P LR)3
(16.464)
ELSE
EIRF P LRcooling = e + f (P LR) + g (P LR)2 + h (P LR)3
16.7. VARIABLE REFRIGERANT FLOW HEAT PUMPS 1191
where:
EIRF P LRcooling is the cooling energy input ratio correction factor (function of part-load ratio)
a-d are the coefficient for cooling energy input ratio correlation when part-load ratio ≤ 1
e-h are the coefficient for cooling energy input ratio correlation when part-load ratio > 1.
The total power consumed by the heat pump condenser in cooling mode is based on the user
specified coefficient of performance (COP) and calculated as:
!
Q̇cooling,total,rated CAP F Tcooling
CoolingP ower = (EIRF Tcooling ) (EIRF P LRcooling ) (HP RT F )
COPcooling,ref erence
(16.465)
The cooling COP is then calculated as the ratio of the outdoor unit cooling capacity divided by
the total electric consumption rate of all components associated with the outdoor unit. Although
included in the equiation, defrost power is typically 0 during cooling mode operation.
Q̇cooling,total
COPcooling = (16.466)
CoolingP ower + PCrankCaseHeater + PEvapCoolerP ower + Pdef rost
where:
COPcooling is the operating coefficient of performance, report variable “VRF Heat Pump Cooling
COP”
CoolingPower is the operating electric consumption rate (W), report variable “VRF Heat Pump
Cooling Electric Power”
PCrankcaseHeater is the report variable for electric consumption rate of crankcase heater (W)
PEvapCoolerP ump is the report variable for electric consumption rate of evaporatively-cooled con-
denser water pump (W)
Pdef rost is the report variable for average defrost power for the simulation time step (W).
When operating in heat recovery mode, equations similar to those used for available cooling
capacity are used to model heating electric consumption rate.
This equation can be used to provide a constant fractional difference for cooling electric con-
sumption rate in heat recovery mode (i.e., only a is non-zero) or a fractional term that varies with
indoor and outdoor conditions. With very limited performance data available at this time, it is
recommended that only the constant (a) term be used at this time. When the VRF system is not
operating in heat recovery mode, this fraction is set to 1. The cooling electric consumption rate in
heat recovery mode is then:
P owerHR = kEIR, cool (CoolingP owerHR ) + (1 − kEIR, cool ) (CoolingP owerHR ) 1 − e(−t/τc, EIR, cool )
(16.469)
where:
1192 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
kEIR,cool is the fraction of steady-state cooling electric consumption rate at beginning of heat
recovery mode
τc,EIR,cool is the time constant to reach steady-state operation, 5 time constants equals 99% of
steady-state capacity (hr)
CoolingP
owerHR is the cooling electric consumption rate in heat recovery mode (W)
(−t/τc,EIR,cool )
1−e is the multiplier used during the transition period from cooling mode to
heat recovery mode. This multiplier can be viewed using the report variable “VRF Heat Pump
Heat Recovery Status Change Multiplier” (ref: Output:Variable).
CRheating,correction is the heating Combination Ratio capacity correction factor at rated conditions
a − d are the cubic equation coefficients for heating combination ratio correction factor
CRheating is the combination ratio in heating mode (total rated indoor terminal unit capacity
divided by the rated condenser heating capacity) (reported to eio file).
where:
Tdb,i is the dry-bulb temperature of the air entering the heating coil in zone i (◦ C
Tdb,avg is the weighted-average dry-bulb temperature of the air entering all operating heating
coils (◦ C
CAP F Theating is the heating Capacity Correction Factor (function of temperature)
a − f are the bi-quadratic equation coefficients
Tc is the wet-bulb temperature of the air entering an air-cooled condenser (◦ C.
The total terminal unit heating capacity required is the simple sum of the terminal unit capacity.
If the heat pump is off or there is no zone heating requirement, the terminal unit total heating
requirement will be zero. The heating coils capacity includes the impacts of fan heat and any
outdoor air provided to the zone.
i
X
Q̇heating,T erminalU nits = Q̇coil(i),heating,total (P LR(i)) (16.476)
1
where:
1194 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
Q̇heating,T erminalU nits is the heat pump’s outdoor condenser total zone heating requirement (W)
Q̇coil(i),heating,total is the zone terminal unit total heating capacity (W), report variable “Zone
VRF Air Terminal Total Heating Rate”.
The piping correction factor is then used to adjust the zone heating requirement to account for
piping losses in the AC refrigeration system.
or
where:
Pcorrection,heating is the piping correction factor in heating mode
a-f are the equation coefficients for piping correction factor in heating mode
g is the user specified piping correction factor for height in heating mode coefficient
PEQ,heating is the equivalent piping length for heating specified by the user (m)
PH is the user specified vertical height used for piping correction factor (m).
The heat pump’s total available heating capacity is then determined using the previously de-
scribed modifiers.
This equation can be used to provide a constant fractional difference for available heating capac-
ity in heat recovery mode (i.e., only a is non-zero) or a fractional term that varies with indoor and
outdoor conditions. With very limited performance data available at this time, it is recommended
that only the constant (a) term be used at this time. The available heating capacity in heat recovery
mode is then:
Q̇HR,avail,heating = kheat Q̇HR,heating,total +(1 − kheat ) Q̇HR,heating,total 1 − e(−t/τc,heat ) (16.482)
where:
kheat is the fraction of steady-state heating capacity at beginning of heat recovery mode
τc,heat is the time constant to reach steady-state operation, 5 time constants equals 99% of
steady-state capacity (hr)
HR,avail,heating is
Q the available heating capacity in heat recovery mode (W)
(−t/τc,heat )
1−e is the multiplier used during the transition period from heating mode to heat
recovery mode. This multiplier can be viewed using the report variable “VRF Heat Pump Heat
Recovery Status Change Multiplier” (ref: Output:Variable).
1196 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
Def rostEIRT empM odF ac = a+b (Twb,avg )+c(Twb,avg )2 +d (Tc )+e(Tc )2 +f (Twb,avg ) (Tc ) (16.483)
The heat pump condenser’s total heating load is then calculated as the quotient of the total
terminal unit capacity and the piping correction factor. Additional load due to defrost is also
included (see following section).
!
Q̇heating,T erminalU nits
Q̇heating,total = + Q̇def rost (16.484)
Pcorrection,heating
The heat pump’s total (gross) heating capacity is then calculated based on the capacity correc-
tion factor as a function of temperatures. The impact of defrost on total heat pump heating capacity
is also accounted for (see following section). The part-load ratio of the heat pump condenser can
then be calculated.
Q̇heating,total
P LR = (16.486)
Q̇HP,total
where:
Q̇HP,total is the heat pump total available heating capacity (W)
P LR is the heat pump part-load ratio
HCAPdef rost is the heating capacity correction factor for defrost mode.
As described for cooling operation, the available heating capacity of the heat pump is compared
to the requested heating capacity of all indoor terminal units. If the requested heating capacity of
all indoor terminal units is greater than the available heating capacity of the heat pump, one or
more of the indoor terminal unit’s capacity is limited such that the sum of the zone terminal unit
heating demand plus piping losses is equal to the available heat pump heating capacity (including
the impact due to defrost).
The electrical power consumed by the heat pump condenser is calculated based on the heat
pump’s nominal electric power consumption in heating mode and the actual operating conditions.
A performance correction factor is used to correct for off-design performance as follows:
Heating Part-Load Fraction Correlation (function of heat pump cycling ratio)
The part-load fraction correlation (function of heat pump cycling ratio) is a linear, quadratic or
a cubic curve with the independent variable being cycling ratio (part-load ratio / minimum part-
load ratio). The output of this curve is used in combination with the rated EIR and EIR modifier
16.7. VARIABLE REFRIGERANT FLOW HEAT PUMPS 1197
curves to give the “effective” EIR for a given simulation time step. The cycling ratio correlation
accounts for startup losses of the heat pump’s compression system.
where
P LR
CyclingRatio = (16.489)
P LRmin
The cycling ratio can be viewed using the report variable “VRF Heat Pump Cycling Ratio” (ref:
Output:Variable).
The cycling ratio correlation should be normalized to a value of 1.0 when the cycling ratio equals
1.0 (i.e., no efficiency losses when the compressor(s) run continuously for the simulation time step).
For cycling ratio values between 0 and 1 (0 ≤ CyclingRatio < 1), the following rules apply:
CyclingRatioF rac ≥ 0.7 and CyclingRatioF rac ≥ CyclingRatio
If CyclingRatioFrac < 0.7 a warning message is issued, the program resets the CyclingRatioFrac
value to 0.7, and the simulation proceeds. The runtime fraction of the heat pump is defined as
CyclingRatio/CyclingRatioFrac. If CyclingRatioFrac < CyclingRatio, then a warning message is
issued and the runtime fraction of the heat pump is limited to 1.0.
CyclingRatio
Heat P ump Runtime F raction (HP RT F ) = (16.490)
CyclingRatioF rac
The heat pump runtime fraction can be viewed using the report variable “VRF Heat Pump
Runtime Fraction” (ref: Output:Variable).
Since manufacturers data do not typically provide information defining the cycling losses of VRF
AC systems, a typical part-load fraction correlation for a conventional DX refrigeration system (e.g.,
residential or small commercial unit) may be substituted here as:
where EIRF Theating = heating energy input ratio correction factor (function of temperature)
(0-1).
Heating Energy Input Ratio Modifier (function of part-load ratio)
1198 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
IF (P LR ≤ 1) T HEN
EIRF P LRheating = a + b (P LR) + c (P LR)2 + d (P LR)3
(16.493)
ELSE
EIRF P LRheating = e + f (P LR) + g (P LR)2 + h (P LR)3
where:
EIRF P LRheating is the heating energy input ratio modifier (function of part-load ratio)
a-d are the coefficients for the heating energy input ratio modifier when part-load ratio ≤ 1
e-h are the coefficients for the heating energy input ratio modifier when part-load ratio > 1
The total power consumed by the heat pump condenser in heating mode is then calculated. A
correction for power consumed due to defrost is also included (see following section).
The total power consumed by the heat pump condenser in heating mode is based on the user
specified coefficient of performance (COP). A correction for power consumed due to defrost is also
included (see following section).
Q̇heating, total, rated CAP F Theating
HeatingP ower = COPheating,ref erence
(EIRF Theating ) (EIRF P LRheating )
(16.494)
∗ (HP RT F ) (EIRdef rost )
The heating COP is then calculated as the ratio of the outdoor unit heating capacity di-
vided by the total electric consumption rate of all components associated with the outdoor unit.
Evaporatively-cooled condenser pump power is typically 0 during heating mode operation.
This equation can be used to provide a constant fractional difference for heating electric con-
sumption rate in heat recovery mode (i.e., only *a* is non-zero) or a fractional term that varies
with indoor and outdoor conditions. With very limited performance data available at this time, it
is recommended that only the constant (a) term be used at this time. When the VRF system is not
operating in heat recovery mode, this fraction is set to 1.The available heating electric consumption
rate in heat recovery mode is then calculated as:
P owerHR = kEIR,heat (HeatingP owerHR )+(1 − kEIR,heat ) (HeatingP owerHR ) 1 − e(−t/τc,EIR,heat )
(16.498)
where:
kEIR,heat is the fraction of steady-state heating electric consumption rate at beginning of heat
recovery mode
τc,EIR,heat is the time constant to reach steady-state operation, 5 time constants equals 99% of
steady-state capacity (hr)
HeatingPower
HR is
the heating electric consumption rate in heat recovery mode (W)
−t/τ
1 − e( c,EIR,heat ) = The multiplier used during the transition period from heating mode to
heat recovery mode. This multiplier can be viewed using the report variable “VRF Heat Pump
Heat Recovery Status Change Multiplier” (ref: Output:Variable).
Q̇cooling,T erminalU nits + Q̇heating,T erminalU nits
COPoperating =
(OutdoorU nitP ower + PCrankcaseHeater + PEvapCoolerP ower + Pdef rost + PT U,f an + PT U,parasitic )
(16.499)
where:
OutdoorUnitPower is the cooling or heating electric consumption rate of outdoor unit (W)
PT U,f an is the electric consumption rate of all terminal unit fans (W)
PT U,parasitic is the electric consumption rate of all terminal unit parasitic electric (W).
The difference between the outdoor air humidity ratio (from the weather file) and the saturated
air humidity ratio at the estimated outdoor coil temperature is then calculated, and this value is
used as an indication of frost formation on the outdoor coil.
Compared with the empirical system curves based VRF-SysCurve model, the VRF-FluidTCtrl
model adheres to a physics-based development providing the ability to simulate the refrigerant loop
performance and consider the dynamics of more operational parameters. This is essential for the
representation of many enhanced control logics, e.g., the adjustment of superheating degrees during
low load operations. Furthermore, this model implements component-level curves rather than the
system-level curves, and thus requires much fewer curves as model inputs. The definition of VRF
performance data for simulation as part of ASHRAE Standard 205 will ensure VRF manufacturers
provide adequate data to create the required performance curves.
The main features of the VRF-FluidTCtrl model include:
• Introduction of separate curves for capacities and power inputs of indoor and outdoor units
instead of overall curves for the entire system.
• Allowing of variable evaporating and condensing temperatures in the indoor and outdoor units
under various operational conditions.
• Allowing of variable fan speed based on the temperature and zone load in the indoor unit.
These features enhance the simulation accuracy of the VRF system performance in both heating
and cooling modes, especially during low load operations. In addition, these features enable the
modeling of a multi-stage control strategy to adjust the system capacity during low load conditions,
as shown in Figure VRF-FluidTCtrl-1. Moreover, the VRF-FluidTCtrl model enables the potential
simulation of demand response of VRF systems by directly slowing down the speed of compressors
in the outdoor units with inverter technology.
Note that a number of calculation steps are coupled together in the VRF-FluidTCtrl model, for
instance, the piping loss calculation and the system performance calculation. More specifically, the
piping loss changes the operating conditions of the system, which may lead to a different control
strategy and thus in reverse affect the amount of piping loss. This makes it difficult to obtain an
analytical solution for a number of operational parameters (e.g., enthalpy of refrigerant entering
the indoor unit), and therefore numerical iterations are employed to address this problem (refer
to Figure VRF-FluidTCtrl-3 for more details). Therefore, the VRF-FluidTCtrl model can have a
longer execution time to perform the simulation than the VRF-SysCurve model.
The object connections for VRF-FluidTCtrl model is similar to those for VRF-SysCurve
model. The difference lies in the object used to describe a specific components. For
example, VRF-SysCurve model uses AirConditioner:VariableRefrigerantFlow object to de-
scribe the VRF outdoor unit performance, while in VRF-FluidTCtrl model the AirCondi-
tioner:VariableRefrigerantFlow:FluidTemperatureControl object is used.
1202 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
Figure 16.59: Multi-stage control strategy to adjust the system capacity during low load conditions
Figure 16.61: Schematic Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram for VRF Operation – Heating Mode
1204 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
Figure 16.62: Schematic Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram for VRF Operation – Cooling Mode
16.7. VARIABLE REFRIGERANT FLOW HEAT PUMPS 1205
The operation mode of the VRF system can therefore be determined from Qin,sensible .
Step 1.2: Calculate I/U required evaporator/condenser temperature
Evaluate the required coil surface air temperature Tf s and the required evaporator/condenser
refrigerant temperature Te,req /Tc,req for each indoor unit.
Assuming the coil air flow rate is at the maximum (Ga,rate ), the entering air temperature after
the indoor coil fan can be calculated for each indoor unit:
In the cooling mode, the superheating degree SH is given and thus the required evaporating
temperature T ereq for the associated indoor unit can be obtained:
Where
Ac , Bc , Cc are coefficients
SH is the superheating degrees for the indoor unit (◦ C)
SHref is the reference superheating degrees for the indoor unit (e.g., 3) (◦ C)
T ereq is the required evaporating temperature for a specific indoor unit (◦ C).
In the heating mode, the subcooling degree SC is given and thus the required condensing
temperature T creq for the associated indoor unit can be obtained:
where:
Ah , Bh , Ch are coefficients
SC is the subcooling degrees for the indoor unit (◦ C)
SCref is the reference subcooling degrees for the indoor unit (e.g., 5) (◦ C)
T creq is the required condensing temperature for a specific indoor unit (◦ C).
Step 1.3: Calculate effective evaporating /condensing temperature
There are two refrigerant temperature control strategies for the indoor unit: (1) ConstantTemp,
(2) VariableTemp.
• In the ConstantTemp strategy, Te and Tc are kept at constant values provided by the user.
• In the VariableTemp strategy, Te and Tc are determined using the equations below:
where:
T ereq,i is the required evaporating temperature for the ith indoor unit (◦ C)
T emin is the minimum evaporating temperature for the indoor unit (e.g. 3) (◦ C)
T emax is the maximum evaporating temperature for the indoor unit (e.g. 13) (◦ C).
In the heating mode:
where:
T creq,i is the required condensing temperature for the ith indoor unit (◦ C)
T cmin is the minimum condensing temperature for the indoor unit (e.g. 42) (◦ C)
T cmax is the maximum condensing temperature for the indoor unit (e.g. 46) (◦ C).
1208 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
where:
µ is the viscosity of the refrigerant within the pipe (Pa-s)
kv,i is the coefficients to calculate the refrigerant viscosity
THexout is the temperature of main loop refrigerant leaving indoor units, fg_t (Pe , hHexout ) (◦ C)
fg_t are functions calculating the temperature of superheating refrigerant.
Given hHexout and Pe = fs_p (Te ), the following dimensionless quantities describing the refrigerant
flow state can be obtained:
St = N u/Re/P r (16.524)
where:
Pe is the evaporating pressure (Pa)
Re is the Reynolds number
P r is the Prandtl number
N u is the Nusselt number
St is the Stanton number
µ is the viscosity of the refrigerant within the pipe (Pa-s)
fs_p are functions calculating the pressure of saturated refrigerant
fg_Cp are functions calculating the specific heat of superheating refrigerant
fg_λ are functions calculating the conductivity of superheating refrigerant.
Then the piping pressure loss ∆Ppipe can be obtained using the above dimensionless quantities:
∆Ppipe = 8×St×P r2/3 ×L/D ×fg_ρ (Pe , hHexout )×V 2 /2+H ×fg_ρ (Pe , hHexout )×9.80665 (16.525)
Ps = Pe − ∆Ppipe (16.526)
where:
fg_ρ are functions calculating the density of superheating refrigerant
D is the main pipe diameter (m)
H is the height difference between the outdoor unit node and indoor unit node of the main pipe
(m)
L is the main pipe length (outdoor unit to the first branch joint) (m)
Ps is the compressor suction pressure (Pa)
∆Ppipe is the pressure drop in the pipe (Pa)
V is the refrigerant flow velocity (m/s).
The suction saturated temperature Te′ (i.e., saturated vapor temperature corresponding to the
compressor suction pressure) can be obtained via refrigerant thermodynamic property equations:
1210 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
k3 = h × (D + 2 × Wi ) (16.530)
• Initialize outdoor unit SC with the reference value (from IDF input, e.g., 5◦ C)
• Initialize the compressor power Ncomp with the value calculated from the reference COP (e.g.,
3.5):
P
′ i Qin,total,i
Ncomp = (16.532)
COP
where:
Ncomp is the compressor power (W)
′
Ncomp is the assumed compressor power for the first iteration (W)
Qin,total,i is the total cooling load for zone i (W).
For the following iterations,
16.7. VARIABLE REFRIGERANT FLOW HEAT PUMPS 1211
• Initialize the compressor power Ncomp with the calculated value in the previous iteration
The heat rate released from the outdoor unit can be calculated by:
X
Qout = Qin,total,i + Ncomp + Qpipe (16.533)
i
where:
Qout is the heat rate released from the outdoor unit (W)
Qpipe is the heat loss through the pipe (W).
Step 2c.3: Calculate O/U effective condensing temperature
(1) Calculate the required coil surface air temperature Tf s ′ for the outdoor unit.
The temperature of the air leaving the outdoor unit Tout ′ can be calculated by:
T c = T creq (16.537)
where:
Ah , Bh , Ch are coefficients
SC is the subcooling degrees for the outdoor unit (◦ C)
SCref is the reference subcooling degrees for the outdoor unit (◦ C)
T creq is the required condensing temperature for the outdoor unit (◦ C)
T c is the effective condensing temperature (◦ C).
Step 2c.4: Calculate required Loading Index
Loading Index is used to describe the operational mode of the compressor system. The first
index represents minimal capacity operation, while the last index represents full capacity operation.
The required Loading Index can be calculated by the following procedures.
b. Find the rps range that covers the required evaporative capacity Qrps,modif y .
X
Qrps,modif y = Ccap,operation × ( Qin,total + Qpipe ) (16.540)
hEvapout,test − hEvapin,test
Ccap,enthalpy = (16.543)
hCompin,real − hEvapin,real
where:
Ccap,operation is the evaporative capacity correction factor, describing the operational difference
between test cases and real cases (i.e., SH and SC )
Ccap,density is the evaporative capacity correction factor, describing the variations of refrigerant
density at test conditions and real operational conditions
Ccap,enthalpy is the evaporative capacity correction factor, describing the variations of refrigerant
enthalpy at test conditions and real operational conditions
Gtot is the refrigerant flow rate in the main loop (kg/s)
hEvapin,real is the enthalpy of refrigerant entering the evaporators (IU) at real conditions (kJ/kg)
hEvapout,real is the average enthalpy of refrigerant leaving the evaporators (IU) at real conditions
(kJ/kg)
hEvapin,test is the enthalpy of refrigerant entering the evaporator at test conditions (i.e., SC at
test conditions (e.g., 5◦ C) and Tc) (kJ/kg)
hEvapout,test is the enthalpy of refrigerant leaving the evaporator at test conditions (i.e., SH at
test conditions (e.g., 8◦ C) and Te) (kJ/kg)
hCompin is the enthalpy of refrigerant entering the compressor (kJ/kg)
Qpipe is the heat loss through the pipe (W).
For example, if the required capacity is 8 kW, the rps range is 30 to 36.
c. Calculate the rps that meets the required capacity by interpolation. In the above example,
the resulting rps is 34.5 rps.
d. If the calculated rps is lower than the minimum rps (e.g. 18 rps ), go to Step 2c.5, otherwise
skip Step 2c.5 and directly go to Step 2c.6.
Step 2c.5: Modify evaporating temperature to further reduce outdoor unit capacity
If the calculated rps is lower than the minimum rps (e.g. 18 rps ), it means that the zone cooling
load is even lower than the system evaporative capacity corresponding to the minimum compressor
speed. In this situation, the evaporating temperature Te as well as the superheating degree SH is
modified to further reduce the outdoor unit capacity. More specifically:
b. Update Te ′ to meet the required evaporative capacity, using equations described in Step 2c.4a.
c. Update Te to meet the updated Te ′ . Note that due to the Te updates, the refrigerant state
and flow rate are changed and thus the piping loss analysis should also be repeated (Step
2c.1). So is the calculation of Ccap,operation (Step 2c.2 - 2c.3).
d. SH can be updated based on the updated Te , using the equations shown in Step 1.2.
a. Calculate the compressor power at a variety of loading index using the following equation.
The resulting table from the same example used above is shown below in Table 16.14.
1214 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
b. According to the rps range determined, calculate the compressor power Ncomp by interpolation.
In the above example, the compressor power is 1.155 kW.
(2) Compare the calculated Ncomp above with the initialized Ncomp ′ in Step 2c.2:
• If Ncomp ′ − Ncomp > δ then go to Step 2c.2 for a new round of iteration.
where:
µ is the viscosity of the refrigerant within the pipe (Pa-s)
kv,i are coefficients to calculate the refrigerant viscosity
have is the average refrigerant enthalpy within the pipes (kJ/kg)
Pave is the average refrigerant pressure within the pipes (Pa)
Tave is the average temperature of refrigerant leaving indoor units, which corresponds to Pave
and have (◦ C)
Given Pave and have , the following dimensionless quantities describing the refrigerant flow state
can be obtained:
St = N u/Re/P r (16.559)
where:
Re is the Reynolds number
P r is the Prandtl number
N u is the Nusselt number
St is the Stanton number
µ is the viscosity of the refrigerant within the pipe (Pa-s)
fgCp are functions calculating the specific heat of superheating refrigerant
fgλ are functions calculating the conductivity of superheating refrigerant.
Then, the piping pressure loss ∆Ppipe can be obtained using the above dimensionless quantities:
∆Ppipe = 8 × St × P r2/3 × L/D × fgρ (Pave , have ) × V 2 /2 − H × fgρ (Pave , have ) × 9.80665 (16.560)
where:
fgρ are functions calculating the density of superheating refrigerant
D is the main pipe diameter (m)
H is the height difference between the outdoor unit node and indoor unit node of the main pipe
(m)
L is the main pipe length (outdoor unit to the first branch joint) (m)
St is the Stanton number
Re is the Reynolds number
P r is the Prandtl number
16.7. VARIABLE REFRIGERANT FLOW HEAT PUMPS 1217
k3 = h × (D + 2 × Wi ) (16.564)
higher than the assigned tolerance (5%), a new round of iteration is performed using the calculated
hHexin .
Step 2h.2: Initialize O/U operation conditions
Similar to that in cooling mode, an iteration approach is designed to determine the energy
consumption of the compressor (Step 2h.2 to Step 2h.6).
For the first iteration,
• Initialize outdoor unit SH with the reference value (from IDF input, e.g., 1.5◦ C)
• Iinitialize the compressor power Ncomp with the value calculated from the reference COP (e.g.,
3.5):
P
′ i Qin,total,i
Ncomp = (16.567)
COP
where:
Ncomp is the compressor power (W)
′
Ncomp is the assumed compressor power for the first iteration (W)
Qin,total,i is the total heating load for zone i (W).
For the following iterations:
• Initialize the compressor power Ncomp with the calculated value in the previous iteration
where:
Qout is the heat rate extracted by the outdoor unit (W)
Qpipe is the heat loss through the pipe (W).
Step 2h.3: Calculate O/U effective evaporating temperature
(1) Calculate the required coil surface air temperature Tf s ′ for the outdoor unit.
The enthalpy of the air leaving the outdoor unit can be calculated by:
Ga,rate ′ is the volumetric flow rate of the air through the outdoor unit, at the rating conditions
(m3 /s)
Hf s ′ is the enthalpy of the air leaving the outdoor unit (kJ/kg)
Hin ′ is the enthalpy of the air entering the outdoor unit, i.e., outdoor air (kJ/kg)
Wo is the humidity ratio of the outdoor air (kg/kg)
ρo is the density of the outdoor air (kg/m3 ).
(2) Calculate required evaporating temperature for the outdoor unit T ereq and then the effective
evaporating temperature T e.
T e = T ereq (16.573)
where:
Ac ′ ,Bc ′ ,Cc ′ are coefficients
SH is the superheating degrees for the outdoor unit (◦ C)
SHref is the reference superheating degrees for the outdoor unit (◦ C)
T ereq is the required evaporating temperature for the outdoor unit (◦ C)
T e is the effective evaporating temperature (◦ C).
Step 2h.4: Calculate required compressor Loading Index
Calculate the required compressor Loading Index by the following procedures.
b. Find the rps range that covers the required evaporative capacity Qrps,modif y .
1220 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
X
Qrps,modif y = Ccap,operation × ( Qin,total + Qpipe − Ncomp ) (16.576)
hEvapout,test − hCondout,test
Ccap,enthalpy = (16.579)
hCompin,real − hCondout,real
where:
Ccap,operation is the evaporative capacity correction factor, describing the operational difference
between test cases and real cases (i.e., SH and SC)
Ccap,density is the evaporative capacity correction factor, describing the variations of refrigerant
density at test conditions and real operational conditions
Ccap,enthalpy is the evaporative capacity correction factor, describing the variations of refrigerant
enthalpy at test conditions and real operational conditions
hCondout,test is the enthalpy of refrigerant leaving the condensers (IU) at test conditions which
corresponds to SH at test conditions (e.g., 8◦ C) and T e) (kJ/kg)
hCondout,real is the average enthalpy of refrigerant leaving the condensers (IU) at real conditions
(kJ/kg)
hCompin,real is the enthalpy of refrigerant entering the compressor at real conditions which cor-
responds to SH and T e at real conditions (kJ/kg)
Qpipe is the heat loss through the pipe (W).
For example, if the required capacity is 8 kW, the rps range is 30 to 36 rps based on Table 3.
c. Calculate the rps that meets the need by interpolation. In the above example, the resulting
rps is 34.5 rps.
d. If the calculated rps is lower than the minimum rps (e.g. 18rps), go to Step 2h.5; otherwise,
skip Step 2h.5 and go to Step 2h.6.
Step 2h.5: Modify evaporating temperature to further reduce outdoor unit capacity
If the calculated rps is lower than the minimum rps (e.g. 18 rps), it means that the zone heating
load (indoor unit side) is so low that it leads to an evaporative capacity (outdoor unit side) which is
even lower than the system evaporative capacity corresponding to the minimum compressor speed.
In this situation, the evaporating temperature T e as well as the superheating degree SH is modified
to further reduce the outdoor unit capacity. More specifically:
a. Set rps at its minimum value (e.g., 18 rps).
b. Update T e to meet the required evaporative capacity, using equations described in Step 2h.4a.
c. SH for each indoor unit can be updated using the equations shown in Step 1.2.
It should be noted that, different from the corresponding step in the cooling mode (Step 2c.5), the
T e and SH updates in the heating mode do not affect the refrigerant state and flow rate calculations
(as shown in Step 2h.1). Therefore, the piping loss analysis does not need to be repeated here.
Step 2h.6: Calculate the compressor power
16.7. VARIABLE REFRIGERANT FLOW HEAT PUMPS 1221
a. Calculate the compressor power at a variety of Loading Index using the following equation.
The resulting table (Table 3.3) from the same example is shown below.
b. According to the rps range determined, calculate the compressor power Ncomp by interpolation.
In the above example, the compressor power is 1.155 kW.
(2) Compare the calculated Ncomp above with the initialized Ncomp ′ in Step 2h.2:
• If Ncomp ′ − Ncomp > δ then go to Step 2h.2 for a new round of iteration.
Tf s = Te + [Ac · SH 2 + Bc · SH + Cc ] (16.582)
where:
Te is the evaporating temperature decided in the outdoor unit calculations (◦ C)
Tf s is the coil surface temperature (◦ C)
SH is the superheating degrees decided in the outdoor unit calculations (◦ C).
3) Calculate the required air flow rate Ga for each indoor unit:
• If SH > 15◦ C, Set SH as 15◦ C. On/Off control strategy may be implemented when needed.
Tf s = Tc − [Ah · SC 2 + Bh · SC + Ch ] (16.586)
where:
Tc is the condensing temperature decided in the outdoor unit calculations (◦ C)
Tf s is the coil surface temperature (◦ C)
SC is the subcooling degrees decided in the outdoor unit calculations (◦ C).
16.7. VARIABLE REFRIGERANT FLOW HEAT PUMPS 1223
2) Calculate the required air flow rate Ga for each indoor unit:
• If SC > 20◦ C, Set SC as 20◦ C. On/Off control strategy may be implemented when needed.
liquid and discharge gas. To enable simultaneous cooling and heating, complex refrigerant manage-
ment loop and more system components are implemented, including one additional heat exchanger
in the outdoor unit (OU) and multiple Branch Selector (BS) Units. The two heat exchangers in the
outdoor unit can work at different evaporator/condenser combinations to enable specific operational
modes to handle diverse and changing indoor heating/cooling load requirements. The Four-Way
Directional Valves (FWV) and BS units enable the system to provide separate refrigerant piping
connections for different operational modes. This leads to varying refrigerant flow directions and
different control logics for various operational modes, and therefore specific algorithm is needed for
different major operational modes.
• Mode 1: Cooling load only. No heating load. Both OU heat exchangers operate as condensers.
• Mode 2: Simultaneous heating and cooling. The sum of the zone cooling loads and compressor
heat is much larger than the sum of the zone heating loads. Both OU heat exchangers operate
as condensers.
• Mode 3: Simultaneous heating and cooling. The sum of the zone cooling loads and compressor
heat is slightly larger than the sum of the zone heating loads. One OU heat exchanger operates
as a condenser while the other as an evaporator.
• Mode 4: Simultaneous heating and cooling. The sum of the zone cooling loads and compressor
heat is slightly smaller than the sum of the zone heating loads. One OU heat exchanger
operates as a condenser while the other as an evaporator.
16.7. VARIABLE REFRIGERANT FLOW HEAT PUMPS 1225
• Mode 5: Simultaneous heating and cooling. The sum of the zone cooling loads and compressor
heat is much smaller than the sum of the zone heating loads. Both OU heat exchangers operate
as evaporators.
• Mode 6: Heating load only. No cooling load. Both OU heat exchangers operate as evaporators.
Figure 16.66: System-level Heat Balance Diagram for the Six VRF-HR Operational Modes
The system-level heat balance diagram for all the six operational modes are shown in Fig-
ure 16.66. Note that the heat recovery loss (HR loss) only exists in Mode 3 and Mode 4, in which
the OU evaporator and condenser run simultaneously. In these modes, the following two items are
at similar levels: (a) sum of IU heating loads and IU condenser side piping loss, and (b) sum of
IU cooling loads, IU evaporator side piping loss and heat released by the compressor. Take Mode
3 for example, item (b) is higher than item (a), and therefore the system requires the operation
of OU condenser to release the extra heat to ensure the system-level heat balance. However, the
extra heat is at a relatively low level so that the system needs to release more heat than required
via OU condenser and meanwhile runs OU evaporator to ensure the heat balance as well as system
reliability. This leads to the presence of HR loss.
Take Mode 3 for instance, the system utilizes one OU heat exchanger as an evaporator and the
other as a condenser. The superheated refrigerant coming out of the compressor is divided into
two parts. One part passes through the OU condenser within which the refrigerant is condensed
and subcooled (segment 2-4’), while the other part passes through the IU condenser to satisfy the
indoor heating requirements (segment 3-4). Note that before entering the IU condenser, the second
part of the refrigerant flow passes through the main discharge gas pipe connecting the indoor and
outdoor units, where the refrigerant pressure drop and heat loss occurs. This leads to extra heating
load and a lower condensing temperature level at IU condenser than that at OU condenser. The
two parts of refrigerant leaving condensers are then expanded through expansion valves following
segment 4”-5/5’ and pass through the IU evaporator (segment 5-6) and OU evaporator (segment
5’-1’). Similarly to the refrigerant passing through the main discharge gas pipe, the refrigerant
leaving IU evaporators passes through the main suction gas pipe where the refrigerant pressure
drop and heat loss occurs (segment 6-1”). This leads to extra cooling load and a higher evaporating
temperature level at IU evaporator than that at OU evaporator. Finally, the refrigerant flow leaving
the OU evaporator and that leaving the main discharge gas pipe are combined (segment 1’/1”-1)
and enter the compressors for the next cycle. In this regard, the system provides simultaneous
heating and cooling to the indoor environment.
A number of operational parameters are controlled to ensure system heat balance and stable
and reliable system operation, including evaporating temperature levels, condensing temperature
levels, superheating and sub-cooling degrees, and the refrigerant flow rates at various components.
The operational control logics for various modes are different and therefore particular algorithm
needs to be designed for different operational modes in the new VRF-HR model.
Figure 16.67: Piping diagrams for the six VRF-HR operational modes
1228 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
Figure 16.68: Illustration of the six VRF-HR operational modes on Pressure-Enthalpy diagrams
16.7. VARIABLE REFRIGERANT FLOW HEAT PUMPS 1229
Figure 16.69: Schematic chart of the new VRF-HR algorithm: Simultaneous Heating and Cooling
Mode
1230 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
If there are only zone cooling loads and no zone heating loads, go to the VRF-HR Cooling Only
Mode, the algorithms of which is the same as those for the VRF-HP Cooling Mode. If there are
only zone heating loads and no zone cooling loads, go to the VRF-HR Heating Only Mode, the
algorithms of which is the same as those for the VRF-HP Heating Mode. Otherwise, go to the
VRF-HR Simultaneous Heating and Cooling Mode as described below.
Step 2: Calculate IU required evaporating temperature and/or the condensing tem-
perature Evaluate the required coil surface air temperature Tf s and then the required evaporator
refrigerant temperature Te,req for each indoor unit with cooling requirements. Likewise, evaluate the
required condenser refrigerant temperature Tc,req for each indoor unit with heating requirements.
(Refer to Step 1.2 in the VRF-FluidTCtrl-HP model for more details.)
Step 3: Calculate IU effective evaporating temperature Te and/or the condensing
temperature Tc There are two refrigerant temperature control strategies for the indoor unit: (1)
ConstantTemp, (2) VariableTemp.
• In the ConstantTemp strategy, Te and Tc are kept at constant values provided by the user.
• In the VariableTemp strategy, Te and Tc are determined using the required evaporating/con-
densing temperature calculated in Step 2.
At this step, the compressor suction saturated temperature Te′ (i.e., saturated vapor temperature
corresponding to compressor suction pressure) can be obtained using the calculated refrigerant
pressure drop ∆Ppipe .
Note that one key input of the IU evaporator side piping loss calculations is the enthalpy
of the refrigerant at IU evaporator inlets. It is assumed to be equal to the average enthalpy of
the refrigerant at IU condenser outlets, which is obtained in the IU condenser side piping loss
calculations.
(Refer to Step 2c.1 in the VRF-FluidTCtrl-HP model for more details.)
Step 6: Determine the operational mode for simultaneous heating and cooling op-
erations
As noted earlier, simultaneous heating and cooling operations include the following modes:
This section determines the operational mode based on the load requirements and operational
conditions:
a. Calculate the Loading Index LI1 satisfying IU cooling load (Refer to Step 2c.4 in the VRF-
FluidTCtrl-HP model for more details.)
b. Calculate the Loading Index LI2 satisfying IU heating load (Refer to Step 2h.4 in the VRF-
FluidTCtrl-HP model for more details.)
c. If LI1 ≤ LI2 , the system operates at Mode 5
d. If LI1 > LI2 and T e′ < To - Tdif f , the system operates at Mode 2 (To : outdoor air dry-
bulb temperature; Tdif f : a constant value representing the difference between OU evaporating
temperature and outdoor air temperature during simultaneous heating and cooling)
e. If LI1 > LI2 and T e′ ≥ To - Tdif f , the system operates at Mode 3 or 4 (these two modes can
be handled by one set of algorithms)
Step 7: OU operation analysis at Mode 5
If T e′ < To - Tdif f , perform the following procedures:
a. Select the compressor speed corresponding to LI2
b. Calculate the compressor power corresponding to LI2 and the previously obtained Tc and
′
T e (Refer to Step 2c.6 in the VRF-FluidTCtrl-HP model for more details.)
c. Calculate the evaporative capacity Captot,evap provided by the compressor at LI2 and the
previously obtained Tc and T e′ (Refer to Step 2c.4 in the VRF-FluidTCtrl-HP model for more
details.)
d. Calculate the OU evaporator load Capou,evap based on system-level heat balance
e. Obtain the OU fan flow rate ma ire vap corresponding to Capou,evap , and thus the fan power
(Refer to Step 2c.3 in the VRF-FluidTCtrl-HP model for more details.)
If T e′ ≥ To - Tdif f , perform the following procedures:
a. Select the compressor speed corresponding to LI1
b. Perform iterations between step b-i to identify the compressor Loading Index and power
consumption.
1232 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
16.7.5 References
R. Raustad. A variable refrigerant flow heat pump computer model in EnergyPlus, ASHRAE
Transactions (2013), 119 (1):1-9.
T. Hong, K. Sun, R. Zhang, R. Hinokuma, S. Kasahara, Y. Yura. Development and validation
of a new variable refrigerant flow system model in EnergyPlus, Energy Build. 117 (2015): 399–411.
T. Hong, R. Zhang, K. Sun. Development, Validation and Performance Evaluation of VRF Heat
Recovery Systems. LBNL Report, 2016.
1234 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
Figure 16.71: Schematic of the Sensible and Latent Air-to-Air Heat Exchanger
The sensible and latent air-to-air heat exchanger is typically used for exhaust or relief air heat
recovery. Heat exchanger performance can be specified to transfer sensible energy, latent energy or
both between the supply and exhaust air streams. The input requires no geometric data. Perfor-
mance is defined by specifying sensible and/or latent effectiveness at 75% and 100% of the nominal
(rated) supply air flow rate in both heating and cooling conditions (Table 16.15).
Parameter Conditions
Heating Cooling
Entering supply air temperature:
Dry-bulb 1.7°C (35°F) 35°C (95°F)
Wet-bulb 0.6°C (33°F) 26°C (78°F)
Entering exhaust air temperature:
16.8. HEAT EXCHANGERS 1235
Parameter Conditions
Heating Cooling
Dry-bulb 21°C (70°F) 24°C (75°F)
Wet-bulb 14°C (58°F) 17°C (63°F)
Note: Conditions consistent with the Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute’s
Standard 1060 (ARI 2001).
Heat exchange between the supply and exhaust air streams occurs whenever the unit is sched-
uled to be available (availability schedule) and supply/exhaust air flows are present. This heat
exchanger object can be used in conjunction with a conventional air-side economizer (i.e., spec-
ify an appropriate economizer control type in the Controller:OutdoorAir object), whereby heat
exchange is suspended whenever the air-side economizer is active (i.e., air flow is fully bypassed
around a fixed-plate heat exchanger or the rotation of a rotary heat exchanger is stopped). This
object is also able to suspend heat exchange for the purpose of providing free cooling operation
in the absence of a conventional air-side economizer (i.e., specify MinimumFlowWithBypass in the
Controller:Outside Air object). Suspension of heat exchange during economizer mode may be cus-
tomized as necessary using the economizer lockout field. Note that the Economizer Type must be
set to something other than NoEconomizer for this control interaction to function.
1236 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
Several methods of frost control are available to warm the heat exchanger core to prevent frost
formation. Available methods are preheat, exhaust only, exhaust air recirculation, and minimum
exhaust temperature. Preheat frost control uses a separate heater object placed in the supply inlet
air stream to keep the air temperature above the frost threshold temperature. All other frost control
methods are modeled within this heat exchanger object.
This heat exchanger object can also control the supply air outlet temperature to a setpoint when
a setpoint manager and temperature schedule are used. This temperature control is accomplished
through wheel speed modulation or bypassing supply air around the heat exchanger to maintain
the desired setpoint and avoid overheating or overcooling the supply air.
HXf lowratio − 0.75
εoperating,sensible = εsensible,75%f low + (εsensible,100%f low − εsensible,75%f low )
1 − 0.75
(16.588)
HXf lowratio − 0.75
εoperating,latent = εlatent,75% f low + (εlatent,100% f low − εlatent,75% f low ) (16.589)
1 − 0.75
where:
16.8. HEAT EXCHANGERS 1237
ṁcp,min
TSupAirOut = TSupAirIn + εoperating,sensible (TExhAirIn − TSupAirIn ) (16.591)
ṁcp,sup
•
!
m cp, min
ωSupAirOut = ωSupAirIn + εoperating,latent • (ωExhAirIn − ωSupAirIn ) (16.592)
m cp, sup
where:
ṁcp,min is the minimum heat capacity rate (W/K)
ṁcp,sup is the heat capacity rate of the supply air stream (W/K)
ṁcp,exh is the heat capacity rate of the exhaust air stream (W/K)
TSupAirOut is the supply air temperature leaving the heat exchanger (◦ C)
TSupAirIn is the supply air inlet temperature (◦ C)
TExhAirIn is the exhaust air inlet temperature (◦ C)
ωSupAirOut is the supply air humidity ratio leaving the heat exchanger (kg/kg)
ωSupAirIn is the supply air inlet humidity ratio (kg/kg)
ωExhAirIn is the exhaust air inlet humidity ratio (kg/kg).
Using the supply air outlet temperature and humidity ratio, the enthalpy of the supply air
leaving the heat exchanger is calculated.
If the predicted conditions of the supply air leaving the heat exchanger exceed the saturation
curve (>100% RH), then the temperature and humidity ratio of the air are reset to saturated
conditions (= 100% RH) at the enthalpy condition calculated above (hSupAirOut ).
Next, the sensible and total heat recovery rates of the heat exchanger are calculated:
Q̇Sensible
TExhAirOut = TExhAirIn + (16.596)
ṁcp,exh
Q̇T otal
hExhAirOut = hExhAirIn + (16.597)
ṁExhAir
times or if heat exchange is suspended to provide free cooling (economizer operation). None of this
electric power is assumed to contribute thermal load to either of the heat exchanger air streams.
At the end of each HVAC simulation time step, this object reports the sensible, latent and
total heat recovery rates for the overall unit as calculated above. The heat recovery rates are
reported separately for times when the supply air is heated and when it is cooled (Ref: Hea-
tExchanger:AirToAir:SensibleAndLatent in the EnergyPlus Input Output Reference). The heat
recovery electric power is also reported for each simulation time step. In addition to the heat recov-
ery rates and electric power, heating/cooling energy transferred to the supply air and the electric
energy consumption by the heat exchanger unit are calculated for the time step being reported as
follows:
Q̇T otalHeating is the output variable ‘Heat Exchanger Total Heating Rate, W’ which is equal to
Q̇T otal during times when the supply air enthalpy is increased
EHXU nit is the output variable ‘Heat Exchanger Electric Energy, J’
PHXU nit is the output variable ‘Heat Exchanger Electric Power, W’.
16.8.1.4 Preheat
One method to control frost formation is to preheat the cold outdoor (supply) air entering the heat
exchanger. When a preheat coil is used for frost control, a separate heating coil object must be placed
in the supply air stream at the inlet to the heat exchanger (Coil:Heating:Water, Coil:Heating:Electric
or Coil:Heating:Fuel). The preheat coil should be controlled to maintain a minimum supply air inlet
temperature thereby eliminating frost buildup on the heat exchanger core. When modeling preheat
frost control, specify “None” as the frost control method in the heat exchanger object. When model-
ing this heat exchanger as part of an air loop, refer to the objects AirLoopHVAC:OutdoorAirSystem
and SetpointManager:Scheduled the EnergyPlus Input Output Reference for additional information
on specifying a preheat coil and controlling its supply air temperature.This frost control method
is not currently available when this heat exchanger is being used as part of the compound object
ZoneHVAC:EnergyRecoveryVentilator.
airflow rates below 50% of nominal are allowed when this frost control is active and no warning
message is issued.
The user enters a threshold temperature, an initial defrost time fraction, and a rate of defrost
time fraction increase. When the temperature of the supply air (e.g., outdoor air) entering the heat
exchanger is equal to or below the specified threshold temperature, the fractional amount of time
that the supply air is bypassed around the heat exchanger core is determined from the following
equation:
XDef rostT ime = XInitial + XRateof Increase (TT hreshold − TSupAirIn ) (16.607)
where:
XDef rostT ime is the fractional time period for frost control (0 ≤ XDef rostT ime ≤ 1)
XInitial is the initial defrost time fraction
XRateof Increase is the rate of defrost time fraction increase (K−1 )
TT hreshold is the threshold temperature (◦ C)
TSupAirIn is the supply air inlet temperature (◦ C).
During the defrost time, supply air flow is fully bypassed around the heat exchanger core and
no heat transfer takes place. For the remainder of the time period, no air is bypassed and full
heat exchange is achieved. The average supply air flow bypassed around the heat exchanger core is
calculated as follows:
Q̇Sensible
TSupAirOut = TSupAirIn − (16.611)
ṁcp,sup
Q̇T otal
hSupAirOut = hSupAirIn − (16.612)
ṁSupAir
Q̇Sensible
TExhAirOut = TExhAirIn + (16.614)
ṁcp,exh
Q̇T otal
hExhAirOut = hExhAirIn + (16.615)
ṁExhAir
XDef rostT ime = XInitial + XRateof Increase (TT hreshold − TSupAirIn ) (16.617)
The air mass flow rate of the supply air leaving the heat exchanger unit is then calculated using
the defrost time fraction calculated above the mass flow rates of supply and exhaust air entering
the unit.
ṁSupAirOut = (1 − XDef rostT ime )ṁSupAirIn + XDef rostT ime ṁExhAirIn (16.618)
The model assumes that no heat exchange occurs during defrost, and the average supply supply
air conditions are simply a blend of the conditions when the unit is not in defrost and the exhaust
air inlet conditions during defrost operation:
(1 − XDef rostT ime )ṁSupAirIn TSupAirOut,N oDef rost + XDef rostT ime ṁExhAirIn TExhAirIn
TSupAirOut =
ṁSupAirOut
(16.619)
(1 − XDef rostT ime )ṁSupAirIn ωSupAirOut,N oDef rost + XDef rostT ime ṁExhAirIn ωExhAirIn
ωSupAirOut =
ṁSupAirOut
(16.620)
exchanger core is not reduced during defrost operation, the sensible and latent effectiveness are
therefore derated (for reporting purposes) in direct proportion to the fraction of time that frost
control is not active.
outlet air conditions are first calculated as if the heat exchanger is not in defrost mode (see Model
Description). If the resulting temperature of the exhaust air leaving the heat exchanger core is
below the specified threshold temperature, then the fractional defrost time is calculated as follows:
Q̇Sensible
TExhAirOut = TExhAirIn + (16.634)
ṁcp,exh
The error between the exhaust outlet temperature and the threshold temperature for frost
control and a new defrost time fraction are subsequently calculated.
TExhAirIn − TExhAirOut
XDef rostT ime = XDef rostT ime (16.636)
TExhAirIn − TT hreshold
End of iteration process:
The iteration process ends when the calculated error is within an error tolerance of 0.001. The
air streams passing through the heat exchanger core and bypassing the core through the bypass
damper are then blended together to provide the air conditions leaving the heat exchanger unit.
Finally the sensible, latent and total heat recovery rates are calculated along with the unit’s electric
power and electric consumption.
16.8. HEAT EXCHANGERS 1245
A conventional air-side economizer may be used in conjunction with this heat exchanger object.
The air-side economizer is specified through the use of an outside air controller (see object: Con-
troller:OutdoorAir). Specify the appropriate economizer control type, and provide the required
control points and air flow rates as defined in the outside air controller object. Energy transfer
provided by the heat exchanger will be suspended whenever free cooling is available (i.e., when the
air-side economizer is activated) and the user specified economizer lockout input is specified as Yes.
For plate heat exchangers, heat transfer is suspended by fully bypassing the supply and exhaust air
around the heat exchanger core. For rotary heat exchangers, air flows continue through the core
but it is assumed that heat exchanger rotation is stopped.
Heat exchange can also be suspended for the purposes of providing free cooling operation in the
absence of a conventional air-side economizer. In this case specify “MinimumFlowWithBypass” as
the economizer choice and again provide the required control points as defined in the outside air
controller object. Energy transfer provided by the heat exchanger will be suspended whenever free
cooling is available and the user specified economizer lockout input is specified as Yes, however the
supply air flow rate will remain at the minimum value specified in the outside air controller object.
Note that the Economizer Type must be set to something other than NoEconomizer for this control
interaction to function.
If economizer operation is not required, specify “NoEconomizer” as the economizer control type
in the outside air controller object. The heat exchanger will operate according to its availability
schedule and free cooling will not be provided. . If economizer operation is required and the heat
exchanger should not provide free cooling, specify the input for the heat exchanger’s economizer
lockout as No and heat recovery will remain active during economizer mode.
Heat recovery for this heat exchanger may also be suspended during a high humidity control
event (see object Controller:OutdoorAir) in a similar manner. Specifying Yes for economizer lockout
will also suspend heat recovery when high humidity control is activated. The default value for
economizer lockout is Yes and must be specifically entered as No to disable the economizer or high
humidity control lockout feature.
This heat exchanger object can also control the supply air outlet temperature to a setpoint to avoid
overheating or overcooling the supply air. This temperature control is accomplished through wheel
speed modulation or bypassing supply air around the heat exchanger. To model this temperature
control, the user must specify ‘Yes’ for the Supply Air Outlet Temperature Control field in this
heat exchanger object, and a separate setpoint manager (see object: SetpointManager:Scheduled)
and temperature schedule must be specified for the heat exchanger unit’s supply air outlet node.
This control strategy is typically used in conjunction with economizer operation (see object
Controller:OutdoorAir), and an example control profile is shown in the figure below. When the
outdoor air temperature falls to the specified maximum limit for economizer operation, heat ex-
change is suspended (air is fully bypassed around the heat exchanger core or heat exchanger rotation
is stopped). The figure below shows economizer operation being initiated based on outdoor tem-
perature but other triggers can be used (e.g. differential temperature [outdoor temperature with
respect to exhaust air temperature], single point enthalpy or differential enthalpy). Heat exchange
remains suspended until the outdoor temperature falls to the minimum temperature (temperature
1246 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
lower limit) for economizer control. The setpoint for the supply air outlet temperature control
should match the economizer temperature lower limit.
As the outdoor air temperature falls further below the setpoint for the supply air outlet temper-
ature (same as the economizer lower temperature limit), the heat exchanger bypass dampers will
modulate closed to maintain the desired supply air temperature for a plate heat exchanger. For
a rotary heat exchanger the rotary heat exchanger speed will gradually increase to maintain the
desired supply air temperature. Modulation of heat exchanger performance will continue until the
supply air temperature setpoint can no longer be maintained. This control will attempt to achieve
the desired temperature set point whether the heat exchanger is cooling or heating the supply air
stream. Care should be used to set the supply outlet air temperature set point to the desired value
for proper control.
Figure 16.72: Air to Air Heat Exchanger with Supply Air Temperature Control
Other types of temperature setpoint control may also be used. For example, the operation
described here is used to minimize heating energy and proper control of the supply air temperature
set point could also be used to minimize cooling energy or minimize both heating and cooling energy.
16.8.1.10 References
ARI. 2001. Rating Air-to-Air Heat Exchangers for Energy Recovery Ventilation Equipment. Ar-
lington, Virginia: Air-Conditioning & Refrigeration Institute.
ARI. 2003. Certified Product Directory for Air-to-Air Energy Recovery Ventilation Equipment.
Arlington, Virginia: Air-Conditioning & Refrigeration Institute.
16.8. HEAT EXCHANGERS 1247
The design inlet / outlet conditions determine a design effectiveness eff des . From the design capacity
flow ratio, the flow arrangement, and eff des , the NTU – effectiveness formulas give the NTUdes and
UAdes .
The time varying calculations proceed as follows. First, the UA is determined:
U A = U Ades (rhA + 1)/((ṁp,des Tp,des /ṁp Tp ).78 + rhA (ṁs,des Ts,des /ṁs Ts ).78 ) (16.637)
where des means design, p means primary, s means secondary, T is air stream temperature, and
ṁ is air stream mass flow rate. From the UA and the capacity flow ratio the NTU is determined:
N T U = U A/Cmin . Then the NTU – effectiveness formulas are used to calculate the effectiveness.
From the effectiveness and the inlet conditions, outlet condtions are determined.
A conventional air-side economizer may be used in conjunction with this heat exchanger object.
The air-side economizer is specified through the use of an outside air controller (see object: Con-
troller:OutdoorAir). Specify the appropriate economizer control type, and provide the required
control points and air flow rates as defined in the outside air controller object. Energy transfer
provided by the heat exchanger will be suspended whenever free cooling is available (i.e., when the
air-side economizer is activated) or high humidity control is active and the user specified economizer
lockout input is specified as Yes. For this flat plate heat exchanger, heat transfer is suspended
by fully bypassing the supply and exhaust air around the heat exchanger core. If the economizer
lockout is specified as No, the flat plate heat exchanger is operational even when economizer or high
humidity mode is active. The default value for economizer lockout is Yes and must be specifically
entered as No to disable the economizer or high humidity control lockout feature.
16.8.2.4 References
M. Wetter. 1999. Simulation Model: Air-To-Air Plate Heat Exchanger, LBNL-42354. This docu-
ment can be downloaded from http://simulationresearch.lbl.gov.
1248 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
EnergyPlus has another air-to-air heat exchanger object for modeling sensible and latent heat
transfer between two air streams that uses the input object HeatExchanger:AirToAir:SensibleAndLatent.
That heat exchanger model uses effectiveness values specified by the user to determine
exiting air conditions from each side of the heat exchanger. In contrast, the balanced
flow desiccant heat exchanger references a performance data type object (e.g., HeatEx-
changer:Desiccant:BalancedFlow:PerformanceDataType1) which defines the model equations,
user-specified model coefficients, and min/max limits for the model’s independent and dependent
variables.
16.8. HEAT EXCHANGERS 1249
2. Passes the process and regeneration air inlet conditions (e.g., dry-bulb temperature, humidity
ratio, air mass flow rate) to the associated performance data type object, and
3. Reports the total, sensible and latent cooling/heating rates and electric power based on the
results from the performance data type model that is specified.
While the desiccant heat exchanger object’s availability to provide heat exchange between the
two air streams is determined by the user-specified availability schedule, other objects that call
this heat exchanger object can also control its heat exchange during a simulation time step. Cur-
rently, this desiccant heat exchanger model can be referenced by two compound objects: Coil-
System:Cooling:DX:HeatExchangerAssisted and Dehumidifier:Desiccant:System, both of which are
used to provide enhanced dehumidification over conventional systems. If this heat exchanger is
referenced by a compound object, the compound object will control heat exchanger operation (i.e.,
tell the heat exchanger if heat exchange is needed or not for each simulation time step). Details for
how the compound objects control exchanger operation are described elsewhere in this document
(ref. CoilSystem:Cooling:DX:HeatExchangerAssisted and Dehumidifier:Desiccant:System).
This desiccant heat exchanger object may also be specified directly in a AirLoopHVAC
(air loop BranchList) or in an AirLoopHVAC:OutdoorAirSystem:EquipmentList without being
referenced by a compound object. If specified directly in a AirLoopHVAC loop or AirLoopH-
VAC:OutdoorAirSystem:EquipmentList, then the heat exchanger can be controlled to provide
heat exchange based on a maximum and/or minimum humidity setpoint placed on the process
air outlet node (ref. SetpointManagers). If no humidity setpoints are provided on this node,
then heat exchange will be provided whenever the heat exchanger is available to operate (via
its availability schedule) and there is a temperature and/or humidity ratio difference between
the two air streams. Further details regarding heat exchanger control via humidity setpoints on
the process air outlet node are described in the section for the associated data type object (e.g.,
HeatExchanger:Desiccant:BalancedFlow:PerformanceDataType1).
The balanced flow desiccant heat exchanger model first checks for three conditions to be true
before calling the specified performance data type model to calculate heat exchanger performance:
• Non-zero air mass flow rates on the process and regeneration inlet air nodes,
• If a compound object is calling this desiccant heat exchanger, it is requesting that heat
exchange be provided.
If any of these conditions is false, then heat exchange is suspended and the model simply passes
the air conditions on the process and regeneration air inlet nodes to the respective outlet air nodes.
In addition, the heat exchanger electric power is set to zero.
1250 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
If all of the above conditions are true, then heat exchange is active and the specified performance
data type model is called to calculate the process and regeneration outlet air conditions and heat
exchanger electric power. Immediately before this call to the performance data type model, a check
is made to determine if the operating air flow rates through the heat exchanger (i.e., the actual
air flow rates for the simulation time step) are equal (balanced flow). If a difference of more than
2% exists between the process and regeneration air flow rates at any time during the simulation, a
warning is issued.
After the specified performance data type model calculates the process/regeneration air outlet
conditions and heat exchanger electric power, the balanced flow desiccant heat exchanger model uses
that information to report overall performance. Specifically, the heat exchanger’s sensible, latent
and total heating and cooling rates are calculated for the process air side of the heat exchanger.
Since energy must be conserved, the same heating or cooling rates apply to the regeneration air
stream although they are opposite in heat transfer direction (e.g., a sensible cooling rate on the
process air side of the heat exchanger would indicate an equivalent sensible heating rate on the
regeneration air side).
IF Q̇Sensible > 0 Q̇SensibleHeating = Q̇Sensible (16.642)
IF Q̇Latent ≤ 0 Q̇LatentCooling = ABS Q̇Latent (16.643)
16.8. HEAT EXCHANGERS 1251
IF Q̇Latent > 0 Q̇LatentHeating = Q̇Latent (16.644)
IF Q̇T otal ≤ 0 Q̇T otalCooling = ABS Q̇T otal (16.645)
IF Q̇T otal > 0 Q̇T otalHeating = Q̇T otal (16.646)
At the end of each HVAC simulation time step, this object reports the sensible, latent and total
cooling/heating energy and electric consumption for the heat exchanger as follows:
ṁReg,in
RF V = (16.655)
ρstd Af ace
where:
Af ace is the heat exchanger face area (m2 )
Vf ace,nom is the nominal air volume flow rate specified for the heat exchanger (m3 /s)
v̇f ace,nom is the nominal air face velocity specified for the heat exchanger (m/s)
RF V is the face velocity of the regeneration (and process) air stream (m/s)
ṁReg,in is the mass flow rate of the regeneration air stream (kg/s)
ρStd is the density of air at standard temperature and pressure [dry air at 20◦ C] (m3 /kg).
The face velocity calculated each simulation time step is used in the empirical equations (see
‘Model Calculations’ below) and should be within the minimum and maximum velocity boundaries
specified for the model coefficients (see ‘Empirical Model Boundaries (Minimum and Maximum)‘
below). When the calculated air velocity exceeds one of the boundaries, a warning is issued and the
velocity is reset to the appropriate boundary value before being passed to the empirical equations for
calculating regeneration air outlet temperature and humidity ratio. If the user is confident in their
empirical model coefficients, the minimum and maximum velocity boundaries may be expanded
slightly (caution should be used here) to allow extrapolation of the empirical equations during the
simulation.
RW I PWI
RT O = B1+B2∗RW I+B3∗RT I+B4∗ +B5∗P W I+B6∗P T I+B7∗ +B8∗RF V
RT I PTI
(16.656)
where:
RT O is the regeneration outlet air dry-bulb temperature (◦ C)
RW I is the regeneration inlet air humidity ratio (kg/kg)
RT I is the regeneration inlet air dry-bulb temperature (◦ C)
P W I is the process inlet air humidity ratio (kg/kg)
P T I is the process inlet air dry-bulb temperature (◦ C)
RF V is the regeneration (and process) face velocity (m/s).
Similarly, the humidity ratio of the regeneration outlet air is defined using the same empirical
equation form; however, different coefficients are used as follows:
1254 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
RW I PWI
RW O = C1+C2∗RW I+C3∗RT I+C4∗ +C5∗P W I+C6∗P T I+C7∗ +C8∗RF V
RT I PTI
(16.657)
where RW O is the regeneration outlet air humidity ratio (kg/kg).
If the regeneration outlet air conditions exceed the saturation curve, RTO and RWO are reset
to saturated conditions (100% RH) at the enthalpy calculated based on the original RTO and RWO
values.
Once the regeneration outlet air conditions are determined as described above, the dry-bulb
temperature and humidity ratio differences across the regeneration side of the heat exchanger are
calculated.
EnergyPlus has an established convention for placing information on outlet air nodes. If the
air flow rate is continuous but the device only operates for a portion of the simulation time step,
then the average outlet conditions (temperature, humidity and enthalpy) are placed on the outlet
air node. If the air flow rate cycles on and off during the simulation time step, then the full load
outlet conditions are placed on the outlet air node along with the average air mass flow rate for the
simulation time step. To account for these cases, this model uses the following logic:
If FanOpMode is equal to CycFanCycComp or if RegAirInletIsOANode is true then:
!
Q̇Sensible,Reg
TP roc,out = TP roc,in − (16.668)
ṁP roc CpP roc,in
TP roc,out = Tsat
(16.671)
wP roc,out = P syW F nT dbH (TP roc,out , hP roc,out )
Heat recovery electric power is the electric consumption rate of the unit in watts. The nominal
electric power for the heat exchanger is specified in the input data file, and can be used to model
controls (transformers, relays, etc.) and/or a motor for a rotary heat exchanger. The model assumes
that this electric power is consumed whenever the heat exchanger operates. The electric power is
assumed to be zero for all other times. None of this electric power is assumed to contribute thermal
load to either of the heat exchanger air streams. As with the thermal performance of the heat
exchanger, the power used by the heat exchanger is also proportional to the heat exchanger part
load ratio.
Additional model checks occur by testing the regeneration and process inlet air relative hu-
midities. In this case, the process and regeneration inlet air relative humidities are calculated and
compared to the minimum/maximum values specified by the user. If the calculated relative hu-
midity exceeds the specified range at any point during the simulation when the heat exchanger is
operating, a warning message is issued but the simulation proceeds.
If the user is confident in their empirical model coefficients, the minimum and maximum inde-
pendent variable boundaries may be expanded (caution should be used here) to allow extrapolation
of the empirical equations during the simulation.
In addition to checking the inlet air conditions, the model allows the user to specify limits for
the regeneration air outlet conditions (RTO and RWO). If the calculated value for RTO or RWO
exceeds the minimum/maximum limits specified by the user, then the calculated value is reset to
the appropriate boundary (min/max) value and a warning message is issued.
This model also assumes that the performance of the desiccant heat exchanger (i.e., the output
of the empirical equations) conforms to the following two guidelines.
1. The regeneration outlet air temperature (RTO) is always less than or equal to the regeneration
inlet air temperature (TRegIn )
2. The regeneration outlet air humidity ratio (RWO) is always greater than or equal to the
regeneration inlet air humidity ratio (wRegIn )
When the calculated regeneration outlet air conditions do not follow these guidelines, a warning
is issued and the simulation proceeds.
Figure 16.74: Short Time Step g Function Curve as an Extension of Long Time Step g Function
Curves for Different Configuration of Boreholes (Eskilson 1987, Yavuzturk 1999).
16.8. HEAT EXCHANGERS 1259
the applying a line source model down to a time of t = 5rb2 /α. This time varies from 3-6 hours for a
typical borehole field. This is because the analytical line source model, based on which the Eskilson
model was developed, does not give a prompt increase in borehole wall temperature at r = rb . It
gives acceptable results only after the non-dimensional times of αt/rb2 > 5. But to model short time
responses of a borehole we need response factors which can give accurate results down to minutes.
In order to generate the long time-step response functions on the fly, EnergyPlus has two different
models that make two different approximations for the calculation of the response functions. The
first model uses uniform heat flux boundary conditions (UHFcalc model) – that is, it assumes
that all boreholes have the same uniform heat flux. The heat flux may vary over time, but it is
always uniform throughout the field. The second model uses uniform borehole wall temperatures
(UBHWTcalc model) – the heat flux will vary between boreholes and vary vertically for each
borehole.
Calculation of g-functions with uniform heat flux boundary conditions is simpler, but accu-
racy can decrease as the borehole-to-borehole interference increases. Consider a case with a large
rectangular borefield, say 9x16 boreholes – if there is a significant annual imbalance in the heat
rejection/heat extraction, the interior of the field will become thermally saturated, and the heat
flux in the interior of the field will decrease over time. See Spitler, et al. (2020) for an illustration.
The accuracy of using this approximation is discussed by Malayappan and Spitler (2013) with ap-
plication to sizing of ground heat exchangers. As shown there, use of the UHFcalc model tends
to overpredict the long-term temperature change for fields with significant borehole-to-borehole
interference and significant annual heat rejection/heat extraction. In general, the UBHWTcalc
model can be recommended for all applications, even though for a smaller numbers of boreholes the
UHFcalc model offers sufficient accuracy.
For the UHFcalc model, EnergyPlus builds the model developed by Marcotte & Pasquier(2009)
which uses a discretized line source model. The g-functions are generated using the following
equation. The boreholes are discretized into segments. The temperature response of each segment
on all other segments is then used to determine response factor for that particular geometry. The
model estimates surface effects by creating “imaginary” boreholes which are mirrored about the
ground surface.
′
d(ui ,uj )
Z ui2 Z ui2 erf c d(u ,u ) √
erf c 2 αt
1 XX √i j
N N
g= 2 αt
− (16.673)
2HT i=1 j=1 ui1 ui1
′
d(ui , uj ) d(ui , uj )
where:
N is the number of boreholes
HT is the length of borehole
α is the ground thermal diffusivity
t is the simulation time
u1 is the starting discretization point for borhole
u2 is the final discretization point for borehole
d(ui , uj ) is the distance between current point and point on other borehole
′
d(ui , uj ) is the distance between current point and point on other imaginary borehole.
For the UBHWTcalc model, EnergyPlus builds on the model developed by Cimmino (2018a,
2018b, 2019), with improvements (Cook and Spitler 2021) to reduce memory consumption and
increase speed. The general approach is similar to that of the UHFcalc model, but the heat flux is
1260 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
adjusted for each segment to enforce the uniform borehole wall temperature model. Additionally, the
methodology of Cimmino (UBHWTcalc) is a semi-analytical solution, so the solution is dependent
on the number of segments used. The number of segments are adaptively discretized to approximate
a uniform inlet fluid temperature (UIFT) g-function.
Cimmino (2015) introduced a UIFT g-function calculation that most closely matches physical
reality. As boreholes are usually plumbed in parallel, the entering fluid temperatures are approx-
imately uniform, and the actual distribution of heat within the field then depends on both the
heat transfer outside the borehole and the heat transfer within the borehole. Thus, the g-function
calculated with the UIFT boundary conditions depends on the flow rate and borehole thermal re-
sistance in addition to the geometric configuration of the boreholes. Like, the UBHWT g-function
calculation, the UIFT calculation also depends on the number of segments used – as the number of
segments used increases, the solution converges.
So, though it’s possible to find a converged solution for the UIFT g-function, it strictly speaking
only applies when the borehole thermal resistance and flow rate remain fixed. Both commonly
change during the system operation, as changing fluid temperatures affect the fluid properties.
Therefore, the UIFT solution might be thought of as having a range of g-functions that change
slightly with time. Therefore, in much the same way that radiation heat transfer within a zone
is modeled with simplified methods because the occupants are likely to move the furniture, the
UBHWT calculation can be used as a reasonable approximation to the UIFT calculation. As
shown by Spitler, et al. (2020) the UIFT g-function can closely match the UIFT g-function, with
considerably fewer segments. The number of segments required to closely approximate the UIFT
g-function varies with the number of boreholes and the borehole depth. Therefore, the UBHWT
model uses an adaptive discretization algorithm that uses a smaller number of segments than the
UIFT calculation. This provides excellent accuracy while requiring less computational time and
memory.
schematic. For example, to calculate the response of the aggregated load 1” (at the end of 730hrs.)
for the current time step (2193.733hrs) we apply a g-function at 1463.73hrs. The g-function for the
same block 1” at the previous time step, which occurred at 2193.25 hrs, would be at 1463.25hrs.
From the schematic it is also seen that for the other two aggregated monthly loads 2”, 3” the
g-function are applied at 733.73 hrs and 3.73 hrs for the current time-step and at 733.25 hrs and
3.25 hrs respectively for the previous time-step. The same scheme applies to hourly and sub-hourly.
Thus to estimate the time at which the past monthly, hourly or sub-hourly loads occur, we might be
tempted to store the simulation times at each time step for the entire simulation, storing load times
for the whole length of simulation for a multi year simulation with a variable short time step would
require a large amount of memory. But little consideration shows that it is not necessary. Since
the monthly and hourly loads occur at equal intervals of time 730hrs and 1hr respectively, the
g-functions can be estimated with the current simulation time and the time at which the load block
ends, which is a multiple of the monthly duration of the block size. Only the sub-hourly loads
require storage of simulation times.
For example from the schematic (Figure 16.76), for the sub hourly load 1, which occurred at the
end of 2193.25 a g-function at .48 hrs has to be applied and for the next load 2 a g-function at 0.34
hrs has to be applied. Since the time intervals are not even for the sub hourly loads, we need to
store the time steps at which those loads occurred. These times are required to estimate the time
elapsed between the current simulation time and the time at which the sub hourly loads occurred.
Thus, the algorithm keeps track of the sub hourly loads along with their time of occurrence for
a user-defined length of time during which the sub hourly calculations are made. The algorithm
also estimates the time weighted hourly load from their corresponding sub hourly loads as each
hour passes. The sub-hourly loads are time weighted because of the irregular intervals at which the
time-step occurs. This is also illustrated in Figure 16.76. The sub hourly loads 1,2 &3 occur for
varying length of time. The load 3 occurs for a longer duration than 1 and 2 in that order. This
implies that the load 3 has to be given more weight than 1 and 2. So the sub hourly loads for a
particular hour are multiplied by the length of their respective period of occurrence and averaged
over the hour. This is further explained by the schematic in Figure 2.3.
The bottom text in the boxes represents the magnitude of the sub hourly loads in W/m for each
time step. The duration of the occurrence of each time-step for the each block is shown below the
respective block. The first hourly load is given by the expression:
" #
(8.36 × .159) + (6.51 × .339) + (10.3 × .107)
q1 = = 7.993W /m (16.674)
+ (6.92 × .162) + (9.03 × .181) + (12 × .05)
Figure 16.76: Schematic Showing the Calculation of Hourly Load from the Sub Houly Loads.
1264 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
loads from 2191st to 2193rd hrs are superposed using the corresponding short time step g functions
values yielding the borehole temperature at the end of 2193rd hour. The sub-hourly variations for
the current hour are obtained, by superposing the sub-hourly loads. From the schematic, we see
there are two sub-hourly loads, 1 and 2. Thus the borehole temperature at the end of 2193.733 is
expressed as:
X3
q m − q m−1 t2193.733 − t730(m−1) rb
T2193.733 = Tground + g , (16.675)
m=1
2πkground ts H
2193
X
q n − q n−1 t2193.733 − tn−1 rb
+ g , (16.676)
n=2190
2πκ ground ts H
X
2193.733
qp − qp−1
t2193.733 − tp rb
+ g , (16.677)
p=2193
2πκground ts H
where:
q is the average monthly loads
q is the average hourly loads
Q is the sub-hourly loads
m is the index for monthly aggregated blocks
p is the array index for sub hourly loads
t is time
tp is the sub hourly time steps over the history period (here, the increment is not always unity).
Superposing the temperature responses of monthly (larger) blocks over the shorter, namely
the hourly and sub hourly, introduces some error in the borehole temperature calculation at the
beginning of every month. Yavuzturk and Spitler suggest a method to reduce the error in borehole
temperature prediction by using a minimum hourly history period during which only the short
time step superposition is carried out. In our model this idea is extended to sub hourly loads as
well. Thus a user specified minimum sub-hourly history period is included along with the minimum
hourly history period to model the sub-hourly variations. During this period only sub-hourly and
hourly superpositions are made. This guarantees that at any given time step the superposition of
temperature responses involves a minimum period of short time responses, which ensures a better
estimation of borehole temperature. For example, a minimum hourly history period of 96 hrs and
a minimum sub hourly history period of 5 hours would result in only 2 monthly aggregation blocks
(1” and 2”). The last monthly aggregation does not occur because neither of the minimum hourly
history period of 96 hours or sub-hourly history period of five hrs is met. So an hourly superposition
of the load is carried out for the third month until the minimum sub-hourly history period after
which sub hourly superposition is carried out. The equation becomes
X2
q m − q m−1 t2193.733 − t730(m−1) rb
T2193.733 = Tground + g , (16.678)
m=1
2πk ground t s H
2188
X
q n − q n−1 t2193.733 − tn−1 rb
+ g , (16.679)
n=1460
2πκground ts H
16.8. HEAT EXCHANGERS 1265
X
2193.733
qp − qp−1
t2193.733 − tp rb
+ g , (16.680)
p=2188
2πκground ts H
Yavuzturk and Spitler have done a detailed analysis on the effect of minimum hourly history
period. They found that a minimum hourly history period of 192 hrs for an annual simulation would
reduce the running time by 90%. They also found that for a 20-year simulation, the computation
time of the aggregated load scheme is just 1% of the non-aggregated load scheme.
1. Define monthly load blocks duration (mb) in hrs (generally 730 hrs) and the minimum hourly
history period and minimum sub hourly history period.
2. Read Borehole Geometry Parameters: number of boreholes, borehole length radius thickness
of the pipe etc. Read Ground and Fluid thermal properties: Ground conductivity, volumetric
specific heat capacity of the ground and heat carrier fluid. Read the short and long time-step
g-functions into arrays with their respective non-dimensionalized times.
3. Start Simulation from p = 1 to nts. Here “nts” is the number of time steps that have occurred
since the start of simulation. (Note that P in not a count of number of hour elapsed in the
simulation)
4. Compute the hourly loads as each hour passes. This is done by averaging the sub hourly
loads during the past hour. The monthly loads are calculated by averaging the hourly loads
during that month. This is done by summing the hourly loads during that monthly period
and dividing the sum by 730 hours NumMonths(the number of months used in aggregation
calculations) is set to the number of months of simulation (current number of aggregated load
blocks)
5. If the simulation time is less than the minimum sub hourly history period the borehole tem-
perature is estimated with no aggregation. Only sub hourly loads are superposed as given by
the following equation.
nts
X
qp − qp−1 tnts − tp rb
Tnts = Tground + g , (16.681)
p=1
2πκground ts H
6. If the simulation time is less than sum of minimum hourly history and sub hourly history
periods, then decomposed hourly aggregated loads are superposed using their corresponding
g function until the sub hourly history required. Then the sub hourly temperature differences
are found by superposing the decomposed sub hourly loads with their short time step g
functions. Average borehole temperature is found by superposing the hourly and sub hourly
temperature differences with the following equation
1266 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
X
nh−sh
q n − q n−1
tnts − tn−1 rb
X
nts
qp − qp−1
tnts − tp rb
Tnts = g , + g , (16.682)
n=1
2πκground ts H p=nts−sh
2πκground ts H
7. If the simulation time is greater then the sum of a monthly period, sub hourly history and
the hourly history period. Then monthly load aggregation is performed. Here if the difference
between the simulation time and product of a monthly block period and the current number
of monthly blocks is greater than the sum of the minimum hourly history and sub hourly
history periods then the average borehole temperature is found by the following equation.
P
calb h i
q m −q m−1 tnts −tmb[m−1] rb
Tnts = Tground + 2πκground
g ts
,H
m=1
P
nh−sh h i
q n −q n−1 tnts −tn−1 rb
+ 2πκground
g ts
,H (16.683)
n=nh−[calb(mb)+sh]
P
nts h i
qp −qp−1 tnts −tp rb
+ 2πκground
g ts
,H
p=nts−sh
8. If the difference between the simulation time and product of a monthly block period and
the current number of monthly blocks is less than the sum of the minimum hourly history
and sub hourly history periods, then NumMonths is set to one month less than the actual
number of months of simulation completed. The average borehole temperature is calculated
by superposing the long and time step temperature differences using the following equation.
P h
calb−1
q m −q m−1
tnts −tmb[m−1] rb
i
Tnts = Tground + 2πκground
g ts
,H
m=1
P
nh−sh h i
q n −q n−1 tnts −tn−1 rb
+ 2πκground
g ts
,H (16.684)
n=nh−[(calb−1)(mb)+sh]
P
nts h i
qp −qp−1 tnts −tp rb
+ 2πκground
g ts
,H
p=nts−sh
16.8.4.5 References
Claesson, J., G. Helström. 2011. Multipole method to calculate borehole thermal resistances in a
borehole heat exchanger. HVAC&R Research. 17(6), 895-911.
Cook, J. C. and J. D. Spitler. 2021. Faster computation of g-functions used for modeling of
ground heat exchangers with reduced memory consumption. Building Simulation 2021. Bruges,
Belgium, IBPSA.
Cimmino, M. (2015).“The effects of borehole thermal resistances and fluid flow rate on the g-
functions of geo-thermal bore fields.” International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 91:
1119-1127.
Cimmino, M. 2018a. “Fast calculation of the g-functions of geothermal borehole fields using sim-
ilarities in the evaluation of the finite line source solution.” Journal of Building Performance
Simulation 11(6): 655-668.
Cimmino, M. 2018b. pygfunction: an open-source toolbox for the evaluation of thermal. eSim 2018,
Montreál, IBPSA Canada.
Cimmino, M. 2019. “Semi-Analytical Method for g-Function Calculation of bore fields with series-
and parallel-connected boreholes.” Science and Technology for the Built Environment 25(8):
1007-1022.
Eskilson, P. 1987. Thermal Analysis of Heat Extraction Boreholes. Ph.D. Thesis, Department of
Mathematical Physics, University of Lund, Lund, Sweden.
Malayappan, V. and J. D. Spitler. 2013. Limitations of Using Uniform Heat Flux Assumptions in
Sizing Vertical Borehole Heat Exchanger Fields. Clima 2013. Prague (Czech Republic).
Spitler, J. D., J. C. Cook and X. Liu. 2020. A Preliminary Investigation on the Cost Reduction
Potential of Optimizing Bore Fields for Commercial Ground Source Heat Pump Systems. Pro-
ceedings, 45th Workshop on Geothermal Reservoir Engineering. Stanford, California, Stanford
University.
Spitler, J. D., J. C. Cook and X. Liu. 2020. FY20 Second Milestone Report for Advanced Techno-
Economic Model-ing for Geothermal Heat Pump Applications in Residential, Commercial, and
Industry Building, Oak Ridge Na-tional Laboratory.
Xu, X., J.D. Spitler. 2006. Modeling of Vertical Ground Loop Heat Exchangers with Variable
Convective and Thermal Mass of Fluid. Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on
Thermal Energy Storage-Ecostock 2006, Pomona, NJ.
Yavuzturk, C. 1999. Modeling of Vertical Ground Loop Heat Exchangers for Ground Source Heat
Pump Systems. Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Okla-
homa State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma.
1268 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
Yavuzturk, C., J.D. Spitler. 1999. A Short Time Step Response Factor Model for Vertical Ground
Loop Heat Exchangers. ASHRAE Transactions. 105(2):475-485.
16.8.5 GroundHeatExchanger:Slinky
This model reuses much of the same code including the load aggregation and temperature response
caluclations which are described above in the GroundHeatExchanger:Vertical model. As a result,
that section can also be used as reference material. This model is unique in that it generates it’s
own temperature response factor g-functions, rather than relying on the other software or data to
generate the g-functions. These are generated based on the work by Xiong et al. 2015.
(√ )
( √ )
Nring Nring ∫ ∫ ( √ ) erf c d (Pj , Pi )2 + 4h2 / 2 αt
∑ ∑ R 2π 2π erf c d (Pj , Pi ) /2 αt
gs (t) = − √ dωdφ (16.685)
4πNring d (P , P )
i=1 j=1 0 0 j i d (Pj , Pi )2 + 4h2
where:
d (Pii , Pj ) + d (Pio , Pj )
d (Pj , Pi ) = (16.686)
2
q
d (Pii , Pj ) = [x0i + (R − r) cos φ − x0j − R cos ω]2 + [y0i + (R − r) sin φ − y0j − R sin ω]2
(16.687)
q
d (Pio , Pj ) = [x0i + (R − r) cos φ − x0j − R cos ω]2 + [y0i + (R + r) sin φ − y0j − R sin ω]2
(16.688)
Z Z " √ √ #
X X
Nring Nring
R 2π 2π
erf c d (Pj , Pi ) /2 αt erf c d (Pj ′ , Pi ) /2 αt
gs (t) = − dωdφ
i=1 j=1
4πNring 0 0 d (Pj , Pi ) d (Pj ′ , Pi )
(16.689)
where:
d (Pii , Pj ) + d (Pio , Pj )
d (Pj , Pi ) = (16.690)
2
16.8. HEAT EXCHANGERS 1269
d (Pii , Pj ′ ) + d (Pio , Pj ′ )
d (Pj ′ , Pi ) = (16.691)
2
√
d (Pii , Pj ) = [x0i + (R − r) cos φ − x0j − R cos ω]2 + [y0i − y0j ]2 + [z0i + (R − r) sin φ − z0j − R sin ω]2 (16.692)
√
d (Pio , Pj ) = [x0i + (R + r) cos φ − x0j − R cos ω]2 + [y0i − y0j ]2 + [z0i + (R + r) sin φ − z0j − R sin ω]2 (16.693)
( ) √
d Pii , Pj ′ = [x0i + (R − r) cos φ − x0j − R cos ω]2 + [y0i − y0j ]2 + [z0i + (R − r) sin φ − z0j − 2h − R sin ω]2 (16.694)
( ) √
d Pio , Pj ′ = [x0i + (R + r) cos φ − x0j − R cos ω]2 + [y0i − y0j ]2 + [z0i + (R + r) sin φ − z0j − 2h − R sin ω]2 (16.695)
16.8.5.4 References
Xiong, Z., D.E. Fisher, and J.D. Spitler. 2015. Development and Validation of a Slinky(TM)
Ground Heat Exchanger Model. Applied Energy 141: 57-69.
Figure 16.77: Schematic of first and second improvements to the algorithm for computational
efficiency
16.8. HEAT EXCHANGERS 1271
A first order differential equation is solved in the model to calculate the pond temperature at each
time step. This type of heat rejecter is modeled as several circuits connected in parallel.
Rees (2002) implemented the model developed by Chiasson (1999) for the shallow ponds. The
model is based on the assumption that thermal gradients in shallow ponds are negligible, especially
during times of heat rejection. Using the lumped parameter approach, an overall energy balance
for the pond may be devised as:
dT
q in − q out = V ρC p (16.696)
dt
where:
q in is the heat transfer to the pond
q out is the heat transfer from the pond
V is the pond volume
ρ is the density of pond water
qin is the heat transfer to the pond
C p is the specific heat capacity of pond water
dT
dt
is the rate of change of temperature of the pond water.
The rate of change in average pond temperature is given as:
dT q solar + q thermal + q convection + q groundwater + q evaporation + q f luid
= (16.697)
dt V ρC p
where:
qsolar is the solar radiation heat gain to the pond
qthermal is the thermal radiation heat transfer at the pond surface.
qconvection is the convection heat transfer at the pond surface
1272 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
The model overall pond model consists in a number of sub-models which are enumerated below.
where:
ρ′ is the reflectance
τ is the transmittance of solar radiation by the pond surface and the subscript ‘a’ refers to the
absorbed component.
−µ′ d
τa = e cos θr (16.699)
and
1 1 − rpar 1 − r⊥ −µ′ d
τ= + e cos θr (16.700)
2 1 + rpar 1 + r⊥
where:
µ′ is the extinction coefficient for water
d is the pond depth
rpar represents the parallel component of unpolarized radiation and r⊥ represents the perpen-
dicular component of unpolarized radiation which are computed by Duffie and Beckman (1991)
as:
tan2 (θr − θ)
rpar = (16.701)
tan2 (θr + θ)
sin2 (θr − θ)
r⊥ = (16.702)
sin2 (θr − θ)
Finally, the amount of solar radiation absorbed by the pond (qsolar ) is expressed as:
where:
I is the solar radiation flux incident on the pond surface (here, the total reflectance is approxi-
mated by the beam reflectance)
Apond is the area of the pond surface.
The model also accepts solar radiation in the form of beam (Ib ) and diffuse (Id ) components, in
which case I is computed from:
I = Ib cos θ + Id (16.704)
where:
α is the thermal absorptivity
σ is the Stefan Boltzman constant.
1274 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
16.8.6.6 Total heat transfer to/from the heat exchanging fluid flowing in all spools or
coils in the pond
q f luid = U Apipe (T f luid − T pond )N circuit (16.710)
where:
U Apipe is the overall heat transfer coefficient expressed in terms of inside pipe area
16.8. HEAT EXCHANGERS 1275
16.8.6.7 References
Chiasson, A.D. 1999. Advances in modeling of groundsourceheat pump systems. Master’s the-
sis,Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK
Duffie, J.A., and W.A. Beckman. 1991. Solar engineering of thermal processes, 2d ed. New
York: John Wiley & Sons.
Hull, J.R., K.V. Liu, W.T. Sha, J. Kamal, and C.E. Nielsen. 1984. Dependence of ground heat
losses upon solar pond size and perimeter insulation—Calculated and experimental results. Solar
Energy 33(1): 25-33
Kishore, V.V.N., and V. Joshi. 1984. A practical collector efficiency equation for nonconvecting
solar ponds. Solar Energy 33(5): 391-395.
Rees, S.J., J.D. Spitler and X. Xiao, X 2002.Transient Analysis of Snow-melting System Perfor-
mance.ASHRAE Transactions.108(2):406-423.
X
M X
M X
k X
M
QS = X k,m T i,t−m+1 − Y k,m T o,t−m+1 + F m q i,t−m + W m q ′′ source,t−m+1 (16.712)
m=1 m=1 m=1 m=1
X
M X
M X
k X
M
TS = X k,m T i,t−m+1 − Y k,m T o,t−m+1 + F m q i,t−m + W m q ′′ source,t−m+1 (16.713)
m=1 m=1 m=1 m=1
1276 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
where:
Ts is the temperature of the node where the heat source or sink is present
QS is the surface heat balance
′′
qsource is the heat flux at the location of the heat source or sink
T is the temperature
i is the inside of the building element
o is the outside of the building element
t is the current time step
X, Y, F, W are conduction transfer functions.
The surface balance equation includes terms for incident solar energy, radiation heat transfer
from internal sources, linearized radiation between surfaces using the mean radiation temperature
concept and convection to the surrounding air.
The heat balance on the water loop is given by:
q = ṁcp (T wi − T wo ) (16.714)
where:
q is the heat transferred between the water loop and the building elements
ṁ is the mass flow rate of water
T wi is the inlet water temperature
T wo is the outlet water temperature.
From the second law of thermodynamics the maximum amount of heat transfer is:
ε = 1 − e−N T U (16.716)
where NTU is defined by:
UA
NT U = (16.717)
(ṁC p )water
and
U A = hπDL (16.718)
where h is the convection coefficient, D is the interior tube diameter, and L is the total length
of the tube.
The Colburn equation is used to define the Nusselt number Nu:
hD 4/5
Nu = = 0.023ReD P r1/3 (16.719)
k
where Pr is the Prandtl number, Re is the Reynolds number and k is the thermal conductivity
of the fluid.
4ṁ
ReD = (16.720)
πµD
16.8. HEAT EXCHANGERS 1277
(ṁcp )M in
RC = (16.725)
(ṁcp )M ax
NTU, or Number of Transfer Units, is calculated using:
UA
NT U = (16.726)
(ṁcp )M in
For a counter flow heat exchanger, effectiveness is calculated using:
1 − exp [−N T U (1 − RC )]
ε= (16.727)
1 − RC exp [−N T U (1 − Rc)]
1278 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
1 − exp [−N T U (1 + RC )]
ε= (16.728)
(1 + RC )
For a cross flow heat exchanger with both streams unmixed, effectiveness is calculated using:
N T U 0.22
ε = 1 − exp exp −RC N T U 0.78
−1 (16.729)
RC
For a cross flow heat exchanger with both streams mixed, the effectiveness is calculated using:
−1
1 RC 1
ε= + − (16.730)
1 − exp (−N T U ) 1 − exp (−RC N T U ) N T U
For a cross flow heat exchanger with the stream with the higher capacity mixed and the stream
with the lower capacity unmixed, the effectiveness is calculated using:
1
ε= {1 − exp [RC (exp (−N T U ) − 1)]} (16.731)
RC
For a cross flow heat exchanger with the stream with higher capacity unmixed and the stream
with lower capacity mixed, the effectiveness is calculated using:
1
ε = 1 − exp − [1 − exp (−RC N T U )] (16.732)
RC
Effectiveness values are always limited to be no higher than 1.0. The program code protects
from evaluating the exponential with operands that are too large or too small. Once the effectiveness
value is determined, the heat transfer rate is calculated using:
Q̇
TSupLoop,Out = TSupLoop,In − (16.734)
(ṁcp )SupLoop
Q̇
TDmdLoop,Out = TDmdLoop,In + (16.735)
(ṁcp )DmdLoop
The plant heat exchanger offers a number of control options for a wide variety of applica-
tions. This section documents the control decision logic. The general goal of the control is to
provide appropriate conditioning of the fluid at the Loop Supply Side connection. The basic con-
trol action is to request the appropriate flow rates for each side of the heat exchanger. For all of
the control modes, there is also an availability schedule that provides a level of supervisory control
to determine if the heat exchange is available to run at all. If the device is scheduled off, then zero
flow is requested for both connections. All the control modes can also use minimum and maximum
temperature limits. If the limits are used and either of the two inlet temperatures exceeds the
limit, the zero flow is requested for both connections.
16.8. HEAT EXCHANGERS 1279
UncontrolledOn. This control type is very simple. If scheduled on it requests the full design
flow rate on the Loop Supply Side connection. If the Loop Supply Side flow rate exceeds a small
tolerance, then the full design flow rate is requested for the Loop Demand Side connection.
OperationSchemeModulated. This control type uses the plant operation schemes. Any
of the various plant (or condenser) operation schemes (e.g. PlantEquipmentOperation:CoolingLoad
or PlantEquipmentOperation:HeatingLoad ). When the heat exchanger is called, the operation
scheme will pass a value for the load to be met. If the absolute value of the load is less than a
small tolerance (1 W), then zero flow is requested for both connections. If load is significant and
negative, then the heat exchanger will attempt to provide cooling. If the load is significant and
positive, then it will attempt to provide heating. The two inlet fluid temperatures are compared
and if their difference exceeds the minimum temperature difference and has the correct sign for
heating or cooling as needed, then the heat exchanger is turned “on.” The model requests the full
design flow rate on the Loop Supply Side connection. If the Loop Supply Side flow rate exceeds
a small tolerance, then a flow rate for the Loop Demand Side is found to attempt to meet the
load. The load value is converted to a target temperature for the fluid leaving the Loop Supply
Side connection. The target temperature is then used with the numerical method root solver to
solve for the flow rate.
OperationSchemeOnOff. This control type uses the plant operation schemes. Any of the
various plant (or condenser) operation schemes (e.g. PlantEquipmentOperation:CoolingLoad or
PlantEquipmentOperation:HeatingLoad). When the heat exchanger is called, the operation scheme
will pass a value for the load to be met. If the absolute value of the load is less than a small tolerance
(1 W), then zero flow is requested for both connections. If load is significant and negative, then the
heat exchanger will attempt to provide cooling. If the load is significant and positive, then it will
attempt to provide heating. The two inlet fluid temperatures are compared and if their difference
exceeds the minimum temperature difference and has the correct sign for heating or cooling as is
needed, then the heat exchanger is turned “on.” The model requests the full design flow rate on
the Loop Supply Side connection. If the Loop Supply Side flow rate exceeds a small tolerance,
then the full design flow rate is requested for the Loop Demand Side connection.
HeatingSetpointModulated. This control scheme uses a node setpoint. The two inlet fluid
temperatures are compared to see if their difference exceeds the minimum temperature difference
and has the correct sign for heating to be possible. The temperature setpoint on the reference
node is compared to the inlet temperature for the Loop Supply Side to see if heating is desired. If
heating is both desired and possible, then the heat exchanger is turned “on.” The model requests
the full design flow rate on the Loop Supply Side connection. If the Loop Supply Side flow rate
exceeds a small tolerance, then a flow rate for the Loop Demand Side is found to attempt to meet
the setpoint. The setpoint temperature is then used with the numerical method root solver to solve
for the flow rate.
HeatingSetpointOnOff. This control scheme uses a node setpoint. The two inlet fluid
temperatures are compared to see if their difference exceeds the minimum temperature difference
and has the correct sign for heating to be possible. The temperature setpoint on the reference
node is compared to the inlet temperature for the Loop Supply Side to see if heating is desired. If
heating is both desired and possible, then the heat exchanger is turned “on.” The model requests
the full design flow rate on the Loop Supply Side connection. If the Loop Supply Side flow rate
exceeds a small tolerance, then the full design flow rate is requested for the Loop Demand Side
connection.
CoolingSetpointModulated. This control scheme uses a node setpoint. The two inlet fluid
1280 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
temperatures are compared to see if their difference exceeds the minimum temperature difference
and has the correct sign for cooling to be possible. The temperature setpoint on the reference
node is compared to the inlet temperature for the Loop Supply Side to see if cooling is desired. If
cooling is both desired and possible, then the heat exchanger is turned “on.” The model requests
the full design flow rate on the Loop Supply Side connection. If the Loop Supply Side flow rate
exceeds a small tolerance, then a flow rate for the Loop Demand Side is found to attempt to meet
the setpoint. The setpoint temperature is then used with the numerical method root solver to solve
for the flow rate.
CoolingSetpointOnOff. This control scheme uses a node setpoint. The two inlet fluid
temperatures are compared to see if their difference exceeds the minimum temperature difference
and has the correct sign for cooling to be possible. The temperature setpoint on the reference node
is compared to the inlet temperature for the Loop Supply Side to see if cooling is desired. If cooling
is both desired and possible, then the heat exchanger is turned “on.” The model requests the full
design flow rate on the Loop Supply Side connection. If the Loop Supply Side flow rate exceeds a
small tolerance, then the full design flow rate is requested for the Loop Demand Side connection.
CoolingSetpointOnOffWithComponentOverride. This control scheme uses one of three
different control signals, a node setpoint, outdoor air drybulb temperature, or outdoor air wetbulb
temperature. The two inlet fluid temperatures are compared to see if their difference exceeds the
minimum temperature difference and has the correct sign for cooling to be possible. The control
signal is compared to the inlet temperature for the Loop Supply Side to see if cooling is desired. If
cooling is both desired and possible, then the heat exchanger is turned “on.” When the heat
exchanger is on, the remote chiller component is turned off. The model requests the full design
flow rate on the Loop Supply Side connection. If the Loop Supply Side flow rate exceeds a small
tolerance, then the full design flow rate is requested for the Loop Demand Side connection.
CoolingDifferentialOnOff. This control scheme is based on a simple temperature difference.
The two inlet fluid temperatures are compared to see if their difference exceeds the minimum
temperature difference and has the correct sign for cooling to be possible. If cooling is possible
then it is assumed to be desired and the heat exchanger is turned “on.” The model requests the full
design flow rate on the Loop Supply Side connection. If the Loop Supply Side flow rate exceeds a
small tolerance, then the full design flow rate is requested for the Loop Demand Side connection.
DualDeadbandSetpointModulated. This control scheme uses dual setpoints on a node.
The basic idea is that the heat exchanger will condition the Loop Supply Side connection to drive
its temperature into the deadband whenever its inlet temperature is outside the deadband. The
model expects dual temperature setpoints to be placed on the setpoint, for example using the object
SetpointManager:Scheduled:DualSetpoint.
The heat exchanger will operate to cool the Loop Supply Side fluid when the following three
conditions are all met:
1) the two inlet fluid temperatures are compared to see if their difference exceeds the minimum
temperature difference and has the correct sign for cooling to be possible,
2) the higher temperature setpoint on the reference node is compared to the inlet temperature
for the Loop Supply Side to see if their difference exceeds the minimum temperature difference
and has the correct sign for cooling to be possible, and
3) the higher temperature setpoint on the reference node is compared to the inlet temperature for
the Loop Demand Side to see if their difference exceeds the minimum temperature difference
and has the correct sign for cooling to be possible.
16.8. HEAT EXCHANGERS 1281
The heat exchanger will operate to heat the Loop Supply Side fluid when the following three
conditions are all met:
1) the two inlet fluid temperatures are compared to see if their difference exceeds the minimum
temperature difference and has the correct sign for heating to be possible,
2) the lower temperature setpoint on the reference node is compared to the inlet temperature for
the Loop Supply Side to see if their difference exceeds the minimum temperature difference
and has the correct sign for heating to be possible, and
3) the lower temperature setpoint on the reference node is compared to the inlet temperature for
the Loop Demand Side to see if their difference exceeds the minimum temperature difference
and has the correct sign for heating to be possible.
When the heat exchanger is turned “on,” the model requests the full design flow rate on the
Loop Supply Side connection. If the Loop Supply Side flow rate exceeds a small tolerance, then
a flow rate for the Loop Demand Side is found to attempt to meet the setpoint. The setpoint
temperature is then used with the numerical method root solver to solve for the flow rate.
DualDeadbandSetpointOnOff. This control scheme uses dual setpoints on a node. The
basic idea is that the heat exchanger will condition the Loop Supply Side connection to drive
its temperature into the deadband whenever its inlet temperature is outside the deadband. The
model expects dual temperature setpoints to be placed on the setpoint, for example using the object
SetpointManager:Scheduled:DualSetpoint.
The heat exchanger will operate to cool the Loop Supply Side fluid when the following three
conditions are all met:
1) the two inlet fluid temperatures are compared to see if their difference exceeds the minimum
temperature difference and has the correct sign for cooling to be possible,
2) the higher temperature setpoint on the reference node is compared to the inlet temperature
for the Loop Supply Side to see if their difference exceeds the minimum temperature difference
and has the correct sign for cooling to be possible, and
3) the higher temperature setpoint on the reference node is compared to the inlet temperature for
the Loop Demand Side to see if their difference exceeds the minimum temperature difference
and has the correct sign for cooling to be possible.
The heat exchanger will operate to heat the Loop Supply Side fluid when the following three
conditions are all met:
1) the two inlet fluid temperatures are compared to see if their difference exceeds the minimum
temperature difference and has the correct sign for heating to be possible,
2) the lower temperature setpoint on the reference node is compared to the inlet temperature for
the Loop Supply Side to see if their difference exceeds the minimum temperature difference
and has the correct sign for heating to be possible, and
3) the lower temperature setpoint on the reference node is compared to the inlet temperature for
the Loop Demand Side to see if their difference exceeds the minimum temperature difference
and has the correct sign for heating to be possible.
When the heat exchanger is turned “on,” the model requests the full design flow rate on the
Loop Supply Side connection. If the Loop Supply Side flow rate exceeds a small tolerance, then
the full design flow rate is requested for the Loop Demand Side connection.
1282 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
16.8.9 References
Strand, R.K. and C.O. Pedersen, 1997. Implementation of a Radiant Heating and Cooling Model
Into an Integrated Building Energy Analysis Program, ASHRAE Transactions v. 103, n. 1, pp
949-958, 1997.
Incropera, F.P. and D.P. DeWitt. 1981. Fundamentals of Heat Transfer. New York: John Wiley
& Sons.
Mills, A.F.1999. Heat Transfer, Second Edition. Prentice Hall. New Jersey.
Presentation by Taylor Engineering.
16.9.2.1 Model
The component model is a forward model: its inputs are its inlet conditions; its outputs are its
outlet conditions and its energy consumption. The inputs are the temperature, humidity ratio,
and mass flow rate of the inlet air stream, which are known; and the water addition rate (kg/s)
which is determined by the controller. The moisture mass balance and psychometric calculations
are identical for both gas and electric dry steam humidifiers. The only difference is how a heat
source (electric or gas) is used to generate the steam.
16.9.2.2 Controller
The controller first decides whether the humidifier is on or off. For the humidifier to be on:
• the inlet air humidity ratio must be less than the minimum humidity ratio setpoint.
If the humidifier is off, the water addition rate is set to zero. If the humidifier is on, the water
addition rate needed to meet the humidity setpoint is calculated.
16.9.2.3 Component
The inputs to the component model are the air inlet conditions and mass flow rate and the water
addition rate set by the controller. The outputs are the air outlet conditions. First the desired
water addition rate is checked against component capacity.
where:
Tout is the outlet air temperature (◦ C)
P syHF nT dbW is an EnergyPlus psychrometric function.
The humidity ratio at saturation at the outlet temperature is:
We now have the outlet conditions and the adjusted steam addition rate for the case where
the desired outlet humidity results in an outlet state above the saturation curve. The energy
consumption of the electric and gas steam humidifiers is calculated separately.
The electric steam humidifier electric consumption is given by:
where:
Wf an is the nominal fan power (W), a user input
Wstby is the standby power (W), a user input.
The gas steam humidifier performance calculation is done for fixed and variable entering water
temperature. The calculation procedure for fixed and variable entering water temperature are as
follows.
The gas steam humidifier gas consumption rate for fixed entering water temperature is given by:
ṁw,add
Q̇N G = QN G,nom (16.750)
ṁcap,nom
The actual gas use rate accounting for gas fired humidifier thermal efficiency variation with part
load ratio is given by:
ηrated
QN G = Q̇N G (16.751)
ηactual
_
Q NG
PLR = (16.753)
QNG,nom
where:
Ef f M odCurveV alue is the thermal efficiency modifier curve value as function of part load
ratio. This curve is generated from manufacturer’s part load performance data
P LR is the part load ratio
QN G,nom is the nominal or rated gas use rate, (Watts)
QN G is the actual gas use rate, (Watts)
ηrated is the nominal or rated thermal efficiency of gas fired steam humidifier
ηactual is the actual thermal efficiency of gas fired steam humidifier accounting for part load
performance.
1286 CHAPTER 16. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
ηrated
QN G = Q̇N G (16.757)
ηactual
where Tw,inlet is the temperature of water entering the gas steam humidifier(◦ C). This value
depends on the water source.
If the rated gas use rated input field is not autosized, then user specified thermal efficiency
will be overridden with a value calculated from user specified rated gas use rate, nominal capacity
(m3 /s) and design conditions as follows:
16.9.2.6 References
ASHRAE. 1993. HVAC 2 Toolkit: A Toolkit for Secondary HVAC System Energy Calculations.
Atlanta: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
ASHRAE. 2001. 2001 ASHRAE Handbook Fundamentals. Atlanta: American Society of Heat-
ing, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
Chapter 17
The following descriptions are grouped alphabetically (as much as possible) with some also having
additional tags of “Heat Balance”, “HVAC”, and “Plant”. With the integrated solution, these
designations signify where the effects of these models have their first impacts.
Main Sections:
1287
1288 CHAPTER 17. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
user can specify the heat gains and proportions for any type of equipment. Determining the gains
from lights, people and baseboard heat are slightly more complicated.
M assF lowRAi is the mass flow rate at i-th return node (kg/s)
M assF lowEx is the mass flow rate at the exhaust node (kg/s)
CpAir is the specific heat (J/kg)
The temperature arise at the exhaust node is a sum of all return node temperature rise:
X
n
QRetAiri
T empRetRise = (17.4)
i=1
(M assF lowRAi + M assF lowEx) ∗ CpAir
where:
T empRetRise is the temperature rise at the exhaust node due to added light heat gain (C)
QRetAiri is the added heat gain from return air fraction (W)
M assF lowRAi is the mass flow rate at the return node (kg/s)
M assF lowEx is the mass flow rate at the exhaust node (kg/s)
CpAir is the specific heat (J/kg)
n is the number of Lights objects with the same exhaust node
The original data was in I-P (Inch-Pound) units, but the following correlation is in SI (Systems-
International) units.
where:
M is the metabolic rate (W)
T is the air temperature (C)
S is the sensible gain (W).
1290 CHAPTER 17. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
Latent Gain is simply the total gain (metabolic rate) – sensible gain:
The function for sensible gain calculation is compared to the original data points in the following
figure. The radiant fraction of the sensible gain is a user input on the People object.
• VAirDesign is the air volume flow rate at design condition (m3 /s)
• VAirfLoadTAir is the air volume flow rate modifier function of TAirIn and SchCPULoading
• PCPUfLoadTAir is the CPU power input modifier function of TAirIn and SchCPULoading
• PFanfFlowFrac is the fan power input modifier function of air flow fraction
• RecircFracDesign is the recirculation fraction at design condition (◦ C)
• RecircfLoadTAir is the recirculation fraction modifier function of TAirSupply and SchCPU-
Loading
• UPSEfficDesign is the design electric power supply efficiency
• UPSEfficfPLR is the electric power supply efficiency function of part load ratio
• UPSLossFracToZone is the fraction of electric power supply losses to zone
17.1.4.5 Calculations
The design power input is first split into portions for the CPU (everything in the equipment except
the cooling fans) and the fan(s).
1292 CHAPTER 17. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
Using the air inlet temperature, the CPU power consumption, air flow rate, fan power consump-
tion, and power supply power consumption are calculated.
The convective heat gain to the zone and the air outlet temperature are then calculated. The
user specified fration of power supply losses are always added to the general zone heat balace
convective heat gain. For air node connection types AdjustedSupply and ZoneAirNode, the CPU
and fan power consumption are also added to the zone convective heat gain. For air connection
type RoomAirModel, the gains from the CPU and fan power consumption are added to the outlet
room air model node.
QAir = P CP U + P F an (17.19)
• The inputs of Air Inlet Connection Type, Design Recirculation Fraction and Recirculation
Function of Loading and Supply Temperature Curve Name are ignored.
• For multiple ITE objects defined for one zone, the same calculation method should apply. The
return air temperature of this zone would be set as the weighted average return temperature
of all ITE objects in this zone.
• Other return air heat gains from window or lights are not allowed.
• Apart from a single VAV terminal unit, other HVAC systems do not apply this method in the
ITE zone.
(Q2 − Q1) · (T 2 − T A)
Q = Q2 − (17.29)
(T 2 − T 1)
These temperature and capacity fields can be autosized based upon envelope, infiltration, and
ventilation loads. To autosize these fields, users may set a design zone heating temperature that is
assumed to be 20◦ C if blank.
The capacity at low temperature is the maximum capacity of the unit. It includes external
envelope conduction load, infiltration load, and ventilation load in a space where the unit serves.
The model first finds the lowest outdoor air temperature throughout design days included in the
simulation, and determines the conduction load through external envelope as:
(THtg − TH )
CapTH = CapTL (17.32)
(THtg − TL )
where:
CapTH is capacity at high temperature (W)
TH is high temperature (◦ C).
X
NS
QSIi = QSn · αi / Si · (1 − ρi ) (17.33)
i=1
If all surfaces in the room are opaque, the radiation is distributed in proportion to the
area*absorptance product of each surface. For surfaces which are transparent,
17.2. INDOOR SWIMMING POOL 1297
ρ i = 1 − αi − τ i (17.34)
That fraction of radiation represented by τi is lost from the zone.
The transmittance and absorptance of transparent surfaces (windows or glass doors) are cal-
culated as in section Window Calculation Module based on the optical properties of the window
material layers. The total absorptance of the window is computed for the interior shading de-
vice, the inside surface, and the outside surface for diffuse solar radiation incident from outside
the zone. Those absorptances are used for short wavelength radiation incident from inside the
zone. In most cases, this should not cause significant error. When movable insulation covers the
window, the radiation that would have been transmitted is absorbed at the outer surface of the
window (thermally equal to the inside surface of the insulation).
17.1.7 References
ASHRAE. 2001. Handbook of Fundamentals, pp 29.8-29.13, Atlanta: ASHRAE.
Carrier Air Conditioning Company. 1965a. Handbook of Air Conditioning System Design, pp
1-99 to 1-100. New York: McGraw Hill.
Carrier Air Conditioning Company. 1965b. Handbook of Air Conditioning System Design, pp
1-100, Table # 48. New York: McGraw Hill.
• The pool water is lumped together at the inside face of a surface and follows the standard
EnergyPlus heat balance methodology with some modifications based on the pool model
details described in this section.
• The pool itself must reference a surface that is specifically defined as a floor and it covers the
entire floor to which it is linked.
• The pool cannot by part of a low temperature radiant system (meaning that the construction
of the floor cannot have any embedded pipes for heating or cooling). In addition, the floor/pool
cannot be defined with any movable insulation or be defined as a ventilated slab.
• The pool/floor surface must use the standard CTF solution algorithm.
• The pool may be covered and the fraction covered is defined by user input. This value may
vary from 0.0 to 1.0.
1298 CHAPTER 17. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
• The pool cover has an impact on evaporation, convection, short-wavelength radiation, and
long-wavelength radiation. Each of these has a separate user input that reduces the heat
transfer parameter from the maximum achieved with a cover. While the cover percentage
is allowed to vary via a user schedule input, each individual parameter for these four heat
transfer modes is a fixed constant. For evaporation and convection, the factors simply reduce
the amount of heat transfer proportionally. For the radiation terms, the factors reduce the
amount of radiation that impacts the surface (pool) directly. The remaining radiation is
assumed to be convected off of the pool cover to the zone air.
• Pool water heating is achieved by defining the pool as a component on the demand side of a
plant loop.
• Makeup water replaces any evaporation of water from the pool surface and the user has control
over the temperature of the makeup water.
• The pool is controlled to a particular temperature defined by user input.
• Evaporation of water from the pool is added to the zone moisture balance and affects the
zone humidity ratio.
• The pool depth is small in comparison to its surface area. Thus, heat transfer through the
pool walls is neglected. This is in keeping with the standard assumption of one-dimensional
heat transfer through surfaces in EnergyPlus.
Detailed methods for estimating these heat losses and gains of the indoor swimming pools are
described in the subsections below.
where:
Qconv is the convective heat transfer rate (W/m2 )
h is the convection heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 -◦ C)
Tp is the pool water temperature (◦ C)
Ta is the air temperature over pool (◦ C).
When a cover is present, the cover and the cover convection factor reduce the heat transfer coef-
ficient proportionally. For example, if the pool is half covered and the pool cover reduces convection
by 50%, the convective heat transfer coefficient is reduced by 25% from the value calculated using
the above equation.
When a cover is present, the cover and the cover evaporation factor reduce the amount of evapo-
ration proportionally. For example, if the pool is half covered and the pool cover reduces convection
by 50%, the convective heat transfer coefficient is reduced by 25% from the value calculated using
the above equation. The value is converted to a latent gain (loss) through multiplication of the
evaporation rate by the heat of vaporization of water.
The user should be aware of two key assumptions built into the equations for calculating the
evaporation from the pool. First, when the activity factor is zero, no evaporation will take place.
Thus, activity factor is not the same thing as occupancy and should not be zero when there are no
people in the pool as that will completely eliminate evaporation. Second, when the cover evaporation
factor is zero, the cover will not reduce evaporation at all. A cover factor of 1.0 means that the
cover will completely block evaporation.
and a heat gain per person schedule for differing activities. These three parameters allow for the
calculation of a total heat gain from people during a given time. It is assumed that all of the heat
gain from people is via convection to the pool water.
mw · cp
(Tset − Told ) = Qcond + Qconv + Qlwrad + Qswrad + Qdamp + Qmuw + Qheater + Qevap (17.41)
∆t
where:
mw ·cp
∆t
(Tset − Told ) is the change in energy stored in the pool water
Qcond is the net conduction to/from the pool water to the floor
1302 CHAPTER 17. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
Qconv is the net convection between the pool water and the zone air
Qlwrad is the net long-wavelength radiation between the pool water/floor and the surrounding
surfaces as well as from internal heat gains
Qswrad is the net short-wavelength radiation to the pool water/floor from solar and internal heat
gains
Qdamp is the standard damping term used in the inside heat balance to avoid large swings in the
radiation balance that sometimes cause instability in the solution (see the standard heat balance
information for more details)
Qmuw is the net gain/loss from replacing water evaporated from the pool with makeup water
Qheater is the net heat added to the pool via the plant loop (controlled to maintain a setpoint
temperature as described above)
Qevap is the net heat loss due to evaporation of pool water to the zone air.
Details on each of these terms was either provided in previous parts of this section or in the
standard EnergyPlus heat balance discussion elsewhere in the Engineering Reference.
• Swimmers leaving the water feel chilly at lower relative humidity due to evaporation off the
body
• It is considerably more expensive (and unnecessary) to maintain 40% RH instead of 50% RH
17.2.15 References
ASHRAE (2011). 2011 ASHRAE Handbook – HVAC Applications. Atlanta: American Society of
Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc., p.5.6-5.9.
Janis, R. and W. Tao (2005). Mechanical and Electrical Systems in Buildings. 3rd ed. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc., p.246.
Kittler, R. (1989). Indoor Natatorium Design and Energy Recycling. ASHRAE Transactions
95(1), p.521-526.
Smith, C., R. Jones, and G. Löf (1993). Energy Requirements and Potential Savings for Heated
Indoor Swimming Pools. ASHRAE Transactions 99(2), p.864-874.
17.3 Pipes
17.3.1 Heat Transfer Pipes (Objects: Pipe:Indoor & Pipe:Outdoor)
17.3.1.1 Heat Loss and Time Delay in Pipes
The effects of heat loss and time delay in plant loop pipes exposed to air (Pipe:Indoor and
Pipe:Outdoor) can be modeled explicitly in EnergyPlus. Users can select the environment with
which the pipe transfers heat. Currently users have three options: ‘OutdoorAir’, ‘Zone’ and ‘Sched-
ule’. Simulation for each of the environments is similar except the way in which the heat transfer
between the pipe outer wall and the surrounding environment is calculated. When using the ‘Out-
doorAir’ option, the current outdoor dry-bulb temperature and wind velocity from the weather
file (or design day input) are used. When the environment is specified as ‘Zone’, the mean air
temperature and room air velocity of the corresponding zone are used.
In the case of a pipe in a zone, the heat loss or gain is accounted for in the pipe heat transfer
calculation and is also included in the zone air heat balance calculations. When the environment
is specified as ‘Schedule’, the user specifies a temperature and velocity schedule which will be used
to calculate the heat transfer.
1304 CHAPTER 17. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
Pipe heat transfer in EnergyPlus is simulated by discretizing the pipe length into a number
of nodes (20) and is an implementation of the model by Hanby et al. (2002). A control volume
drawn around a node in the pipe is shown in Figure 17.3. Three nodes are defined at each discrete
section of the pipe and represent the fluid, pipe wall and external environment. The fluid and pipe
have defined thermal capacitance (mass). The insulation around the pipe is currently modeled as
steady-state (no thermal mass), and so the effect of this resistance is accounted for within the hf
term in the following description. For the fluid, there is one-dimensional flow from each upstream
node.
The model is formulated from the heat balances on the fluid and wall nodes.
dTf,i
Mf,i CP,f = ṁCP,f (Tf,i−1 − Tf,i ) − hf Ai (Tf,i − Tw,i ) (17.42)
dt
dTw,i
Mw,i CP,w = hf Ai (Tf,i − Tw,i ) − he Ai (Tw,i − Te ) (17.43)
dt
where subscripts w, f and e denote the values for pipe wall, fluid and environment, respectively.
The current node is represented by a subscript of i, while the previous node is represented by i-1.
In the previous two equations, the terms are defined by:
M is the mass
Cp is the specific heat
ṁ is the mass flow rate of fluid in pipe
T is the Temperature
A is the heat transfer area
h is the film convective resistance
t is time.
17.3. PIPES 1305
The exterior film convective resistance is calculated based on either wind speed, room air velocity,
or a scheduled value based on the type of pipe heat transfer object. However, when the velocity gets
too low, natural convection must be modeled. This is handled within the program by having a lower
limit on the Nusselt number. For natural convection from a horizontal cylinder, a constant Nusselt
number is assumed based on information from Spang (referenced below). This Nusselt number
is 0.36. The Nusselt number used in calculating the exterior convection coefficient (Incropera
and Dewitt 1996) is the maximum of the Nusselt number from the forced convection coefficient
correlation and this natural convection Nusselt number (0.36).
In addition, the exterior resistance from the pipe wall inner surface to the environment will
include resistance values for the pipe wall itself and any insulation specified around the pipe. This
is treated as steady state value, so the simulation results are not affected by a change in insulation
specific heat. However, the resistance is calculated based on thermal conductivity and thickness
(using radial coordinate system), so the simulation results will vary with material conductivity
changes. Again, this resistance is added in series with the exterior surface film convective resistance
such that hf contains film and insulation resistance.
Approximating the derivatives using backward differencing enables these equations to be repre-
sented as simultaneous algebraic equations. For the fluid, at time step n, the heat balance is:
Mf,i CP,f
n
Tf,i − Tf,i
n−1 n
= ṁCP,f Tf,i−1 − Tf,i
n
− hf Ai Tf,i
n
− Tw,i
n
(17.44)
∆t
Rearranging gives:
n n n n−1
Tf,i [Mf,i CP,f + ṁCP,f ∆t + hf Ai ∆t] = ṁCP,f ∆tTf,i−1 + hf Ai ∆tTw,i + Mf,i CP,f Tf,i (17.45)
or:
n n n n−1
a1 Tf,i = a2 Tf,i−1 + a3 Tw,i + a4 Tf,i (17.46)
where:
Mw,i CP,w n
Tw,i − Tw,i
n−1 n
= hf Ai Tf,i − Tw,i
n
− he Ai Tw,i
n
− Ten (17.48)
∆t
Rearranging gives:
n n n−1
Tw,i [Mw,i CP,w + hf Ai ∆t + he Ai ∆t] = hf Ai ∆tTf,i + he Ai ∆tTen + Mw,i CP,w Tw,i (17.49)
or:
1306 CHAPTER 17. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
n n n n−1
b1 Tw,i = b2 Tf,i + b3 Te,i + b4 Tw,i (17.50)
where:
b1 = Mw,i Cp,w + hf Ai ∆t + he Ai ∆t
b2 = hf Ai ∆t
(17.51)
b3 = he Ao ∆t
b4 = Mw,i Cp,w
Substituting Equation 17.50 into Equation 17.46 gives an equation for the current fluid temper-
ature:
n n n n n−1
n−1
a1 Tf,i = a2 Tf,i−1 + a3 b2 Tf,i + b3 Te,i + b4 Tw,i /b1 + a4 Tf,i (17.52)
n 1 n n n−1
n−1
Tf,i = a2 Tf,i−1 + a3 b3 Te,i + b4 Tw,i /b1 + a4 Tf,i (17.53)
(a1 − a3 b2 /b1 )
The conduit is simulated by solving Equation 17.53 followed by Equation 17.46 for each of the
twenty cells in the model and incrementing the time step. The fluid temperature of the last node
is taken to be the pipe outlet temperature.
17.3.1.2 References
Hanby, V.I., Wright, J.A., Fletcher, D.W and Jones, D.N.T. 2002. Modeling the Dynamic Response
of Conduits. International Journal of HVACR&R, Vol.8, No.1. pp. 1-12.
Incropera, F.P. and Dewitt, D.P. 1996. Fundamentals of Heat Transfer, 4th Edition, pp. 369-370.
Spang, Bernhard. Correlations for Convective Heat Transfer. Chemical Engineers’ Resource
Page:
full length of the pipe. At each cross section, transient 2D Cartesian finite difference equations are
used, updating each node except the node centered on the pipe. Axial heat transfer is not modeled
in the soil. The large view of the outer Cartesian grid system is shown in Figure 17.4.
When the model encounters the pipe node, the existing model for Pipe:Interior and Pipe:Exterior
pipes is used. The finite difference temperatures neighboring the pipe, grid spacing and soil prop-
erties are used to create an average boundary temperature for the pipe along with a conductance
value. With a boundary temperature available and a conductance value mimicking the convection
coefficient, the simulation continues exactly as with the other pipe heat transfer objects. To avoid
redundancy, see the Pipe:Indoor or Pipe:Outdoor objects for a detailed description of the pipe
model.
17.3.2.3 Geometry
The model develops the pipe depth and ground thickness from the user-entered construction infor-
mation. The soil, pipe wall, and optional pipe insulation are entered as materials (with inherent
thicknesses). The soil is entered as a standalone material, while the pipe insulation (if applica-
ble) and the pipe wall should be given as a construction containing one or two materials. With
knowledge of each individual thickness, the pipe geometry is obtained. The pipe length and inside
diameter are the only additional geometry inputs.
17.3.2.5 References
Kusuda, T. & Achenbach, P. 1965. ‘Earth Temperature and Thermal Diffusivity at Selected Stations
in the United States’, ASHRAE Transactions Vol. 71, Part 1, pp. 61–75.
Piechowski, M. 1999. ‘Heat and Mass Transfer Model of a Ground Heat Exchanger: Theoretical
Development’, Energy Research 23 (7), pp. 571–588.
are connected as objects on the plant loop and are simulated as needed during loop convergence,
while the ground itself is only simulated once per system time step.
17.3.3.1 Approach:
17.3.3.2 General Development and Solution Scheme
A new heat transfer model is implemented to handle a diverse set of buried pipe conditions. The
model uses a dual-coordinate system approach to solve a finite volume domain in a computationally
efficient manner. The main idea behind the dual coordinate system technique is to focus the
computational effort to the region where it is most needed: near the pipe(s). To this end, a coarse
grid Cartesian coordinate system is used to solve the slow-moving ground heat transfer. Then,
within one of these cells, a radial coordinate system is configured around the pipe/insulation with
a specialized interface cell between the systems. Figure 17.5 shows an example of cells surrounding
a pipe, including the radial region in the near-pipe cell, while Figure 17.6 shows a zoomed-in view
of the near-pipe cell itself.
The ground heat transfer model can be set up in a fully-3D or quasi-3D manner. In either
case, there is a three-dimensional grid of Cartesian cells placed in the domain. In fully-3D mode,
the axial heat transfer is accounted for; in quasi-3D mode, the axial effects are ignored and the
result is essentially a set of 2D slices along the length of the domain. The determination of which
method will be utilized in the final model shall be based upon final testing and on a balance between
accuracy vs. computation time. This option could be left to the end-user, but this will likely be
unnecessary input overhead.
A fully implicit (and thus numerically stable) formulation is used to describe all cells, which
means an iteration loop must be implemented. In this solver, an outer iteration loop is used to bring
the entire domain to convergence, while an inner iteration loop is used over all the radial cells. This
is intended to focus the computational effort even further. The outer region may converge within
one or two iterations, while the “near-pipe” cells may take much more iteration. For this reason,
it does not make sense to iterate over the entire domain a large number of times.
Based on the application, an adiabatic boundary condition will also be implemented and em-
ployed on particular surfaces of the domain. For the case where a basement or under-slab region
is present, for example, an adiabatic boundary will represent the vertical line of symmetry.
• X, Y, Z mesh
– Mesh Layout
– Cell density
17.3. PIPES 1313
• Radial mesh
The Cartesian mesh uses a cell density parameter to define the number of cells to use in the
simulation. Instead of requiring a detailed specification of all cell regions in the domain, this one
parameter is used to specify a mesh density and is applied to all domain regions. The cell density
parameter represents the number of cells within any two domain partitions. A domain partition
is a basement wall or a pipe placed in the domain. Once these partitions are all laid out and
validated, the regions between them are populated with the number of cells specified in the cell
density parameter. Although this may lead to a variation of cell size within the domain, it is
assumed that this will help focus computational intensity in the domain. Of course, the number
of cells (cell density parameter) can be different for each of the X, Y, and Z directions to allow for
further fine tuning of the domain.
The Cartesian mesh is laid out in either a uniform or symmetric-geometric fashion. In the
former, the cells between any two domain partitions are equally sized. In the latter, the cells
are smaller near the partitions to again help fine-tuning computational intensity. If the latter is
selected, the amount of non-uniformity is specified by an additional parameter.
The radial coordinate system is always uniform for the soil cells, The two parameters to be
specified for this region are the cell count (the number of soil cells to be generated outside of
the pipe cell), and the radial mesh thickness (the radial distance from pipe outer wall to the cell
boundary). Each soil cell will then have a radial thickness equal to the radial mesh thickness
divided by the cell count.
17.3.3.8 References
Kusuda, T. & Achenbach, P. 1965. ‘Earth Temperature and Thermal Diffusivity at Selected Stations
in the United States’, ASHRAE Transactions Vol. 71, Part 1, pp. 61–75.
1314 CHAPTER 17. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
Allen, R.G., Walter, I.A., Elliott, R.L., Howell, T.A., Itenfisu, D., Jensen, M.E., Snyder, R.L.
2005. The ASCE standardized reference evapotranspiration equation. Reston, VA:American Society
of Civil Engineers. 59 p.
17.4 Pumps
The water pump is quite simply the component that drives the flow in plant and condenser loops.
How it reacts depends on several different conditions. In total, there are three different decision
variables, two of which are defined by user input. These three deciding factors are whether the
pump is constant or variable speed, whether the pump operation is continuous or intermittent, and
whether or not there is a load on the loop. The pump is simulated first on the supply side loop after
the demand side loop has determined what the demand on the loop will be. For further reference
look at sections Pump Control for Plant and Condenser Loops, Plant/Condenser Supply Side, and
Plant/Condenser Demand Side in the Plant Flow Resolver of this document.
• A Pump, if present, in the demand side of plant loop must be the first component of the inlet
branch.
Multiple branches add more complexity, but it is nothing more than continuity. If the pump is
putting out flow then it has to have a branch to flow down whether it is a chiller or a bypass. It can
be safer to add the bypass for a simulation. If the active machines require the flow the bypass will
17.4. PUMPS 1315
be dry. If performing a pressure simulation, and the flow goes through a machine which is off, the
pressure drop will be accounted for, but no heat transfer through the machine will be calculated.
If the user designates a pump that is operating continuously, the pump will run regardless of
whether or not there is a load. This may have the net effect of adding heat to the loop if no
equipment is turned on. If the pump operates intermittently, the pump will run at its capacity if
a load is sensed and will shut off if there is no load on the loop. If the pump is scheduled, the
schedule modifies the Rated Volumetric Flow Rate of the pump on a time basis. The default is that
the pump is ON and runs according to its other operational requirements.
Shown below is pseudo code for the calculation of the total efficiency of the pump and the actual
pumping efficiency when the motor efficiency is accounted for either variable or constant volume
pumps.
! Total Efficiency % = Rated Volume Flow Rate * Rated Pump Head / Rated Power Use
TotalEffic = PumpEquip(PumpNum)%NomVolFlowRate * &
PumpEquip(PumpNum)%NomPumpHead / &
PumpEquip(PumpNum)%NomPowerUse
! Calculated Pump Efficiency % = Total Efficiency % / Motor Efficiency %
PumpEquip(PumpNum)%PumpEffic = TotalEffic /
PumpEquip(PumpNum)%MotorEffic
P ump Head
P ump Electric P ower = P ump V olume F low Rate ∗ (17.54)
T otal Ef f iciency
Without the pressure simulation, the pump power is based on the rated value entered with
the pump object. For further information, see the input-output reference for Branch objects, and
PlantLoop/CondenserLoop objects; as well as the Plant/Condenser loop section of this engineering
reference.
constant volume pump is the Part Load Performance Curve.The fraction of full load power is
determined by the cubic equation:
The allowable mass flow rate range for the Differential pressure control is explained in the
Figure 17.7.
Figure 17.7: Allowable mass flow rate range for the Differential pressure control
! This adds the pump heat based on User input for the pump
! We assume that all of the heat ends up in the fluid eventually since this is a closed loop
! PumpHeattoFluid = ShaftPower*(1-PumpEquip(PumpNum)%PumpEffic) &
PumpHeattoFluid = ShaftPower + (Power - ShaftPower) &
* PumpEquip(PumpNum)%FracMotorLossToFluid
Node(OutletNode)%Temp = Node(InletNode)%Temp &
+ PumpHeattoFluid/(PumpMassFlowRate * LoopCp)
PumpEquip(PumpNum)%Power = Power
P umpHeatT oF luid = Shaf tP ower + (P umpP ower − Shaf tP ower) ∗ F racM otorLossT oF luid
(17.57)
where the pump motor efficiency is defined by the user input and the FracMotorLossToFluid is
the amount of heat generated by the pump motor that is added to the fluid loop (as opposed to
being lost to the environment where the pump is located). FracMotorLossToFluid is also a user
input.
Note that the shaft power relates to the increase in head through the pump. Since all of this
head is lost through the piping network due to frictional heat, this represents a heat gain by the
fluid throughout the network. For simplicity, this heat is added along with the heat resulting from
17.4. PUMPS 1319
the pump motor. The difference between the pump power and the shaft power is the inefficiency
of the pump—or the amount of energy input into the pump that the motor converts to heat rather
than mechanical energy. Some of this heat is added to the fluid being pumped. These two terms are
shown in the PumpHeatToFluid equation shown above. Since EnergyPlus Version 7, this heat is
added to the loop capacitance tank(s) rather than at the pump’s outlet and so the outlet temperatue
is equal to the inlet temperaure.
Figure 17.8: Ideal Loads Air System with and without plenum
17.5. IDEAL LOADS AIR SYSTEM 1321
17.5.2 Model
The ZoneHVAC:IdealLoadsAirSystem object is modeled as an ideal VAV terminal unit with variable
supply temperature and humidity. The supply air flow rate is varied between zero and the maximum
in order to satisfy the zone heating or cooling load, zone humidity controls, outdoor air requirements,
and other constraints, if specified.
• maximum supply air humidity ratio when in heating mode Wmax,humid (kg water/kg dry air)
• minimum supply air humidity ratio when in cooling mode Wmin,dehum (kg water/kg dry air)
All input data for the ZoneHVAC:IdealLoadsAirSystem is stored in the array Pur-
chAir. The model and data are encapsulated in the module PurchasedAirManager.
• Set the unit on/off flag UnitOn. The unit is off (UnitOn = False) if the unit availability
schedule value is ≤ 0; otherwise the unit is on (UnitOn = True). If the unit is on, the
calculation proceeds through the remaining steps. If the unit is off, the zone inlet node
conditions are set to the zone node condition, the inlet node mass flow rate is set to zero, and
the unit outputs are set to zero.
• Calculate the minimum outdoor air mass flow rate based on the specifications in the Design-
Specification:OutdoorAir object, if specified.
• Calculate the sensible and latent impact of the outdoor air flow relative to the zone conditions
– If outdoor air sensible impact is ≥ load to zone cooling setpoint and the current ther-
mostat type is not SingleHeatingSetPoint, then unit is in cooling mode
– If outdoor air sensible impact is < load to zone heating setpoint then unit is in heating
mode
– Else if neither condition is true, then unit is in deadband mode (provides outdoor air
but shuts off economizer and heat recovery and all humidity control options except
Humidistat option)
• If in cooling mode, simulate outdoor air economizer and adjust outdoor air mass flow rate
– If outdoor air flow rate exceeds applicable maximum flow rate (heating or cooling) then
reduce outdoor air mass flow rate, issue warning, and set supply air mass flow rate equal
to outdoor air mass flow rate
Else
17.5. IDEAL LOADS AIR SYSTEM 1323
– Calculate supply air mass flow rate required to meet zone sensible load at the applicable
(heating or cooling) supply temperature limit (Tmax,heating or Tmin,cooling )
– The recirculation air conditions are set equal to the zone return air node conditions; if
there is no return air node the recirculation air conditions are set equal to the conditions
at the zone node.
– The unit entering conditions are then:
If ṁs > ṁoa , then:
• Calculate the supply air temperature required to meet the zone sensible load at the supply
air mass flow rate, but limit to the applicable (heating or cooling) supply temperature limit
(Tmax,heating or Tmin,cooling )
• Calculate the supply humidity ratio based on the specified humidity control types, but limit
to the applicable (heating or cooling) supply humidity ratio limit
– DehumidCtrlType = None sets the supply air humidity ratio equal to the mixed air
humidity ratio.
– DehumidCtrlType = Humidistat, this will actively dehumidify to the humidistat dehu-
midification setpoint during cooling and deadband operation, and during heating oper-
ation if HumidCtrlType = Humidistat
1324 CHAPTER 17. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
• Check the applicable capacity limits (sensible heating and total cooling) and adjust supply
air temperature and humidity if needed.
• Set the zone inlet node conditions to the supply air mass flow rate, temperature, and humidity
ratio.
• If a zone return plenum is used, after all ideal loads systems that are connected to the plenum
are simulated, simulate the return plenum.
17.8 CentralHeatPumpSystem
17.8.1 Overview
The CentralHeatPumpSystem object simulates the performance of a central heat pump system
containing one or more chiller-heater objects. The main function of the object is to call relevant
calculation methods for the chiller-heater objects depending on their operating modes, and to cal-
culate temperatures at the outlet nodes and the total energy transfer. The object can be connected
to plant loops and a source loop (see Input-Output Reference document), and the node connections
are solely dependent on individual chiller-heaters’ operating modes. The central system receives
water flows from each plant and source loop and then distributes them to individual chiller-heaters
as requested. The conditioned water flows leaving the chiller-heaters are then returned to the sys-
tem, and in turn flow back to the plant loops and source loop to produce heating and cooling, or
exchange heat with the source loop.
in mode 3 do not exchange heat with source water. At least one of the chiller-heaters within the
system is in heat recovery mode during simultaneous cooling-heating mode. The system may be
only connected to both chilled water loop and hot water loop if all operating chiller-heaters are in
heat recovery mode.
The following nomenclature is used in the equations for this model shown below:
ṁcw,bypass is the chilled water bypass mass flow rate in the system (kg/s)
ṁhw,bypass is the hot water bypass mass flow rate in the system (kg/s)
ṁsrc,bypass is the source water bypass mass flow rate in the system (kg/s)
ṁcw,CH is the chilled water mass flow rate of ith chiller-heater’s evaporator [kg/s]
ṁhw,CH is the hot water mass flow rate of ith chiller-heater’s condenser (kg/s)
ṁsrc,CH is the source water mass flow rate of ith chiller-heater, which varies with operating modes
(kg/s)
ṁcw,sys is the chilled water mass flow rate of the system (kg/s)
ṁhw,sys is the hot water mass flow rate of the system (kg/s)
ṁsrc,sys is the source water mass flow rate of the system (kg/s)
Tcw,sys is the chilled water outlet temperature of the system (◦ C)
Thw,sys is the hot water outlet temperature of the system (◦ C)
Tsrc,sys is the source water outlet temperature of the system (◦ C)
Tcw,bypass is the mass-weighed bypass chilled water temperature in the system (◦ C)
Thw,bypass is the mass-weighed bypass hot water temperature in the system (◦ C)
Tsrc,bypass is the mass-weighed bypass source water temperature in the system (◦ C)
Tcw,CH is the mass-weighed chilled water outlet temperature from chiller-heaters (◦ C)
Thw,CH is the mass-weighed hot water outlet temperature from chiller-heaters (◦ C)
Tsrc,CH is the mass-weighed source water outlet temperature from chiller-heaters (◦ C)
Tcw,i is the chilled water inlet temperature of the system (◦ C)
Thw,i is the hot water inlet temperature of the system (◦ C)
Tsrc,i is the source water inlet temperature of the system (◦ C)
Tcw,out is the chilled water outlet temperature of ith chiller-heater (◦ C)
Thw,out is the hot water outlet temperature of ith chiller-heater (◦ C)
Tsrc,out is the source water outlet temperature of ith chiller-heater (◦ C).
The model reads node information and local variables of individual chiller-heaters. The nodes
and local variables vary with the operating modes as described above in order to calculate mass-
weighed temperatures. In the cooling-only mode, it calculates a mass-weighed chilled water tem-
perature (Tcw,CH ) and a source water temperature (Tsrc,CH ) as follows:
X
n
ṁcw,CH
Tcw,CH = Tcw,out (17.68)
CH=1
mcw,sys
X
n
ṁsrc,CH
Tsrc,CH = Tsrc,out (17.69)
CH=1
msrc,sys
In heating-only mode, it calculates a mass-weighed hot water temperature (Thw,CH ) and a source
water temperature (Tsrc,CH ) as follows:
X
n
ṁhw,CH
Thw,CH = Thw,out (17.70)
CH=1
mhw,sys
17.8. CENTRALHEATPUMPSYSTEM 1327
X
n
ṁsrc,CH
Tsrc,CH = Tsrc,out (17.71)
CH=1
msrc,sys
When all chiller-heaters are in heat recovery mode, it calculates a mass-weighed chilled water
temperature (Tcw,CH ) and hot water temperature (Thw,CH ) as follows:
X
n
ṁcw,CH
Tcw,CH = Tcw,out (17.72)
CH=1
mcw,sys
X
n
ṁhw,CH
Thw,CH = Thw,out (17.73)
CH=1
mhw,sys
In cooling or heating dominant simultaneous cooling-heating mode (mode 4 and 5), at least one
chiller-heater should be in heat recovery mode, and the other(s) are in either mode 4 or mode 5.
The system is connected to three loops such as chilled water loop, hot water loop, and source water
loop. The model thus calculates a mass-weighed chilled water temperature (Tcw,CH ), hot water
temperature (Thw,CH ), and source water temperature (Tsrc,CH ) as follows:
X
n
ṁcw,CH
Tcw,CH = Tcw,out (17.74)
CH=1
mcw,sys
X
n
ṁhw,CH
Thw,CH = Thw,out (17.75)
CH=1
mhw,sys
X
n
ṁsrc,CH
Tsrc,CH = Tsrc,out (17.76)
CH=1
msrc,sys
The model then calculates a mass-weighed temperature for the by-pass flows remained in the
system as follows:
ṁcw,bypass
Tcw,bypass = Tcw,i (17.77)
mcw,sys
ṁhw,bypass
Thw,bypass = Thw,i (17.78)
mhw,sys
ṁsrc,bypass
Tsrc,bypass = Tsrc,i (17.79)
msrc,sys
The outlet temperatures at each outlet node of the system are then determined as it sums both
mass-weighed temperatures up as follows:
The total heat transfer energy of the system is also calculated in the same manner as the
temperature calculations. The model simply sums all heat transfer energy of the chiller-heaters
depending on their operating modes.
17.9 ChillerHeaterPerformance:Electric:EIR
17.9.1 Overview
The object simulates the performance of a chiller-heater which can receive pre-cooled or pre-heated
water from the source loop, and provide cooling, heating, or simultaneous cooling-heating. The
object needs to work with the Central Heat Pump System object to be controlled properly. This
model does not simulate the thermal performance or the power consumption of associated pumps
or cooling towers. The Central Heat Pump System object holds the input/output nodes connection
of the chiller-heater and its control scheme, once the chiller-heater is properly referred.
FullLoadPwrclg is the reference full load power which is equal to EvapCapAvailclg / RefCOPclg
(W)
Tcond is either the entering or the leaving condenser water temperature depending on user input
for the condenser water independent variable: Tcond,l if “LeavingCondenser” is chosen or Tcond,e if
“EnteringCondenser” is chosen.
Tcond,e is the entering condenser water temperature (◦ C)
Tcond,l is the leaving condenser water temperature (◦ C)
Tcw,e is the entering chilled water temperature (W)
Tcw,l is the leaving chilled water temperature (W)
∆Tcw is the chilled water inlet and outlet temperature difference (◦ C)
∆Tcw,max is the maximum chilled water inlet and outlet temperature difference (◦ C).
The model sequentially calls each chiller-heater module in the order defined in the Central Heat
Pump System object. It then determines cooling load that each chiller-heater needs to meet and
water flow rates delivered to each chiller-heater. Once each chiller-heater is assumed to operate, it
determines cooling capacity and efficiency using user-supplied performance information.
Three performance curves are used in the calculation of cooling capacity and efficiency as follows:
2. Cooling mode electric input to cooling output ratio function of temperature curve (EIRFTclg )
3. Cooling mode electric input to cooling output ratio function of part load ratio curve
(EIRFPLRclg )
The Cooling Capacity Function of Temperature Curve (EvapCapFTclg ) represents the fraction
of the cooling capacity of the chiller-heater as it varies by temperature. The curve should have a
value of 1.0 at the reference conditions. The output of a bi-quadratic curve with the input variables
being the leaving chilled water temperature and either the entering or leaving condenser water
temperature is given by:
Q̇Evapclg
ṁcw = (17.89)
Cp,cw ∆Tcw,max
The chilled water mass flow rate calculated is then compared to the maximum available mass flow
rate for individual chiller-heaters. If the calculated one is bigger than the maximum, the model sets
the chilled water mass flow rate equal to the maximum. It then adjusts the temperature difference
based on the evaporator heat transfer rate and the maximum mass flow rate. If the adjusted
temperature difference also exceeds the maximum, the model finally adjusts the evaporator heat
transfer rate at the maximum temperature difference and mass flow rate as follows:
Q̇Evapclg
∆Tcw = (17.91)
ṁavail,cw Cp,cw
The temperature difference calculated is then compared to the maximum temperature differ-
ence allowed. If the calculated one is bigger than the maximum, the model sets the chilled water
temperature difference equal the maximum, and then adjusts the evaporator heat transfer rate at
the given conditions as follows:
The model then calculates the part-load ratio as the ratio of the evaporator heat transfer rate
to the available chiller-heater capacity as follows:
Q̇Evapc lg
P LRc lg = (17.93)
Q̇EvapAvailc lg
The part-load ratio calculated is set to be between the maximum of 1.0 and the minimum of
0.0 when it is out of the range. Once the part-load ratio is calculated the cycling ratio and false
loading rate can be obtained as follows:
P LRactual
CyclingRatio = (17.94)
P LRmin
CompP owerc lg = Ref F ullLoadP owerclg · EIRF Tc lg · EIRF P LRc lg · CyclingRatio (17.96)
The heat transfer rate for the chiller-heater condenser can then be computed as follows:
The total heat transfer energy by the evaporator and condenser can be calculated as follows:
Water consumption for the evaporative-cooled condenser is calculated using the difference in air
humidity level across the evaporative media and the condenser air mass flow rate:
not meet the plant loop chilled water setpoint temperature while the evaporator operates at the
full load capacity to produce heating at a constant water flow rate.
The model sequentially calls each chiller-heater module in the order of the definition in the
central heat pump system. It then determines heating load that each chiller-heater needs to meet
and water flow rates delivered to each chiller-heater. Once each chiller-heater is assumed to operate,
it determines heating capacity and efficiency using the following performance curves:
2. Heating mode electric input to cooling output ratio function of temperature curve (EIRFThtg )
3. Heating mode electric input to cooling output ratio function of part load ratio curve
(EIRFPLRhtg )
The output of a Heating Mode Cooling Capacity Function of Temperature curve with the input
variables being the leaving chilled water temperature and either the entering or leaving condenser
water temperature is given by:
Q̇Evaphtg
∆Tevap = (17.108)
ṁavail,evap Cp,evap
1334 CHAPTER 17. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
Once the part-load ratio is calculated the cycling ratio and false loading rate are computed by:
P LRactual
CyclingRatio = (17.109)
P LRmin
CompP owerhtg = F ullLoadP owerhtg · EIRF Thtg · EIRF P LRhtg · CyclingRatio (17.111)
The heat transfer rate of the chiller-heater condenser is then computed as follows:
Once condenser available heating capacity is determined, the model calculates current chiller-
heater’s condenser heat transfer rate based on the total heating load required a central heat pump
system to meet as well as available heating capacity of the chiller-heater. The maximum condenser
temperature difference between the entering hot water temperature (Thw,e ) and the leaving hot
water temperature (Thw,l ) obtained from the plant loop setpoint temperature can also be obtained.
It then calculates condenser water mass flow rate for variable flow control chiller-heaters and the
hot water temperature difference for constant flow control chiller-heaters, setting the cooling load
that each chiller-heater needs to meet equal the evaporator heat transfer rate.
As for variable flow control chiller-heaters, the condenser water mass flow rate is computed as
follows:
Q̇Condhtg
ṁhw = (17.113)
Cp,hw ∆Thw,max
The condenser water mass flow rate calculated is then compared to the maximum available
mass flow rate for individual chiller-heaters. If the calculated one is bigger than the maximum, the
model sets the condenser water mass flow rate equal the maximum. It then adjusts the hot water
temperature difference at the maximum mass flow rate. If the adjusted temperature difference also
exceeds the maximum, the model finally adjusts the condenser heat transfer rate at the maximum
allowable conditions as follows:
Q̇Condhtg
∆Thw = (17.115)
ṁavail,hw Cp,hw
The temperature difference calculated is then compared to maximum hot water temperature
difference. If the calculated one is bigger than the maximum, the model sets the hot water tem-
perature difference equal the maximum, and then adjusts the condenser heat transfer rate at the
given conditions as follows:
17.10. PLANT TEMPERATURE SOURCE COMPONENT 1335
17.9.3 References
Central Geothermal Systems, Applications Engineering Manual, Trane Company, April 2010, SYS-
APM009-EN.
The following descriptions are grouped alphabetically (as much as possible) with some also having
additional tags of “Heat Balance”, “HVAC”, and “Plant”. With the integrated solution, these
designations signify where the effects of these models have their first impacts.
Main Sections:
1336
18.1. RADIANT SYSTEM MODELS 1337
overcome the fact that the radiant system is both a zone heat balance element and a conditioning
system. Each of these issues will be addressed in the next several subsections.
∂ 2T 1 ∂T
2
= (18.1)
∂x α ∂t
where:
T is the temperature as a function of position and time
x is the position
t is the time
α is the thermal diffusivity of the layer material which is equal to ρckp
k is the thermal conductivity
ρ is the density
cp is the specific heat.
This equation is typically coupled with Fourier’s law of conduction that relates the heat flux at
any position and time to temperature as follows:
∂T (x, t)
q ′′ (x, t) = −k (18.2)
∂x
While analytical solutions exist for the single homogeneous layer shown in Figure 18.1, the
solution becomes extremely tedious for the multiple layered slab shown in Figure 18.2.
X
∞ X
∞
′′
qi,t = Xm Ti,t−m+1 − Ym To,t−m+1 (18.3)
m=1 m=1
where q” is heat flux, T is temperature, i signifies the inside of the building element, o signifies
the outside of the building element, and t represents the current time step.
1338 CHAPTER 18. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
While in most cases the terms in the series decay fairly rapidly, the infinite number of terms
needed for an exact response factor solution makes it less than desirable. Fortunately, the similarity
of higher order terms can be used to replace them with flux history terms. The new solution contains
elements that are called conduction transfer functions (CTFs). The basic form of a conduction
transfer function solution is shown by the following equation:
X
M X
M X
k
′′
qi,t = Xm Ti,t−m+1 − Ym To,t−m+1 + Fm q ′′ i,t−m (18.4)
m=1 m=1 m=1
where k is the order of the conduction transfer functions, M is a finite number defined by the order
of the conduction transfer functions, and X, Y, and F are the conduction transfer functions. This
equation states that the heat flux at the interior surface of any generic building element for which
the assumption of one dimensional conduction heat transfer is valid is linearly related to the current
and some of the previous temperatures at both the interior and exterior surface as well as some of
the previous flux values at the interior surface. A similar equation holds for the heat flux at the
exterior surface.
The final CTF solution form reveals why it is so elegant and powerful. With a single, rela-
tively simple equation, the conduction heat transfer through an element can be calculated. The
coefficients (CTFs) in the equation are constants that only need to be determined once. The only
storage of data required is the CTFs themselves and a limited number of temperature and flux
terms. The formulation is valid for any surface type and does not require the calculation or storage
of element interior temperatures.
As the next several sections will detail, there are two main methods for calculating conduction
transfer functions: the Laplace Transform method and the State Space method. Both methods
are well suited for the main focus of this research, the extension of conduction transfer functions to
1340 CHAPTER 18. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
d2 T (x, s) s
2
= T (x, s) (18.5)
dx α
dT (x, s)
q ′′ (x, s) = −k (18.6)
dx
The transformed equations are solved and then put in matrix form as shown below:
" # " #" #
T1 (s) A1 (s) B1 (s) T2 (s)
= (18.7)
q1 (s) C1 (s) D1 (s) q2 (s)
where:
T1 (s), T2 (s), q1 (s), and q2 (s) are the temperature and flux terms in the Laplace domain
p
A1 (s) = cosh ℓ1 s/α1 (18.8)
. p p
B1 (s) = 1 k1 s/ α1 sinh ℓ1 s/ α1 (18.9)
p p
C1 (s) = k1 s/α1 sinh ℓ1 s/ α1 (18.10)
p
D1 (s) = cosh ℓ1 s/α1 (18.11)
k1 is the thermal conductivity of the layer
α1 is the thermal diffusivity of the layer
ℓ1 is the thickness of the layer.
The 2 x 2 matrix consisting of A1 (s), B1 (s), C1 (s), and D1 (s) is called the transmission matrix
and contains all of the thermophysical properties of the layer necessary to calculate transient con-
duction heat transfer through it. It can easily be shown that a second layer could be characterized
in a similar way as:
" # " #" #
T2 (s) A2 (s) B2 (s) T3 (s)
= (18.12)
q2 (s) C2 (s) D2 (s) q3 (s)
where A2 (s), B2 (s), C2 (s), and D2 (s) are calculated using the properties of the second
layer. This can be substituted into Equation to provide insight how the extension to multilayered
slabs is achieved.
" # " #" #" #
T1 (s) A1 (s) B1 (s) A2 (s) B2 (s) T3 (s)
= (18.13)
q1 (s) C1 (s) D1 (s) C2 (s) D2 (s) q3 (s)
18.1. RADIANT SYSTEM MODELS 1341
Thus, for a multilayered element as shown in Figure 18.2, each separate layer has a transmission
matrix of Ai (s), Bi (s), Ci (s), and Di (s) associated with it. The form of the matrix equation for
the multilayered element is the same as the equation for a single layer:
" # " #" #
T1 (s) A (s) B (s) Tn+1 (s)
= (18.14)
q1 (s) C (s) D (s) qn+1 (s)
which relates the flux at either surface of the element to the temperature histories at both
surfaces. When the temperature histories are formulated as triangular pulses made up of simple
ramp functions, the roots of this equation can be found and result in response factors. The response
factors can be simplified as described above through the introduction of flux history terms to form
conduction transfer functions. A simplified method of finding the roots of the Laplace domain
equations is described by Hittle and Bishop (1983) and is used by the current version of BLAST.
Recently, another method of finding conduction transfer functions starting from a state space repre-
sentation has begun receiving increased attention (Ceylan and Myers 1980; Seem 1987; Ouyang and
Haghighat 1991). The basic state space system is defined by the following linear matrix equations:
d [x]
= [A] [x] + [B] [u] (18.17)
dt
where x is a vector of state variables, u is a vector of inputs, y is the output vector, t is time,
and A, B, C, and D are coefficient matrices. Through the use of matrix algebra, the vector of
state variables (x) can be eliminated from the system of equations, and the output vector (y) can
be related directly to the input vector (u) and time histories of the input and output vectors.
This formulation can be used to solve the transient heat conduction equation by enforcing a
finite difference grid over the various layers in the building element being analyzed. In this case, the
state variables are the nodal temperatures, the environmental temperatures (interior and exterior)
are the inputs, and the resulting heat fluxes at both surfaces are the outputs. Thus, the state space
representation with finite difference variables would take the following form:
1342 CHAPTER 18. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
T1
.
d ..
T1 " #
Tn .. Ti
= [A] . + [B] (18.19)
dt To
Tn
" # T1 " #
′′
q i . T i
′′
= [C] .. + [D] (18.20)
q o To
Tn
where T1 , T2 , …, Tn−1 , Tn are the finite difference nodal temperatures, n is the number of nodes,
Ti and To are the interior and exterior environmental temperatures, and qi′′ and qo′′ are the heat
fluxes (desired output).
Seem (1987) shows that for a simple one layer slab with two interior nodes as in Figure 18.3 and
convection at both sides the resulting finite difference equations are given by:
dT1 T2 − T1
C = hA (To − T1 ) + (18.21)
dt R
dT2 T1 − T2
C = hA (Ti − T2 ) + (18.22)
dt R
addition, the resulting matrix form has more physical meaning than complex functions required by
the Laplace transform method. The current version of EnergyPlus uses the state space method for
computing CTFs.
The accuracy of the state space method of calculating CTFs has been addressed in the liter-
ature. Ceylan and Myers (1980) compared the response predicted by the state space method to
various other solution techniques including an analytical solution. Their results showed that for
an adequate number of nodes the state space method computed a heat flux at the surface of a
simple one layer slab within 1% of the analytical solution. Ouyang and Haghighat (1991) made a
direct comparison between the Laplace and state space methods. For a wall composed of insulation
between two layers of concrete, they found almost no difference in the response factors calculated
by each method.
18.1.1.5 Extension of Time Series Solutions to Include Heat Sources and Obtain In-
ternal Temperatures
18.1.1.6 Laplace Transform Formulation
Degiovanni (1988) proposed two methodologies for including sources or sinks in the Laplace Trans-
form Formulation. The first method shows how a source that varies as a function of time and
location can be incorporated. The resulting equations involve some fairly complicated terms in-
cluding spatial derivatives.
The second method that will be analyzed in more detail involves the addition of a source or
sink at the interface between two layers. The derivation of the necessary equations is begun by
analyzing the simple two layer element shown in Figure 18.4.
Figure 18.4: Two Layer Example for Deriving the Laplace Transform Extension to Include Sources
and Sinks
For the first layer, it was determined that in the Laplace domain:
18.1. RADIANT SYSTEM MODELS 1345
This equation bears a striking resemblance to Equation 18.16. If the source term in Equa-
tion 18.35 is dropped, then the equation is identical to Equation 18.16. This result conforms with
the superposition principle which was used to develop the conduction transfer functions from the
summation of a series of triangular pulses or ramp sets. Now, the effect of the heat source is simply
added to the response to the temperature inputs.
While Equation 18.35 is correct for any single or multilayered element, the first term in the heat
source transmission matrix does not appear to match the compactness of the other terms in the
matrix equation. It can be shown (see Strand 1995: Equations 32 through 42 which detail this
derivation) that the heat source transmission term for a two-layer problem reduces to:
" # " D(s) #" # " B (s) #
−1 2
q1 (s) B(s) B(s) T 1 (s) B(s)
= 1 −A(s) + B1 (s) [qsource (s)] (18.36)
q3 (s) B(s) B(s)
T3 (s) B(s)
If this is extended to a slab with n layers and a source between the m and m+1 layers, the
general matrix equation for obtaining heat source transfer functions using the Laplace transform
method is:
" # " D(s) #" # " b̄(s) #
−1
q1 (s) T1 (s)
= B(s)1
B(s)
−A(s) + B(s)
b(s) [qsource (s)] (18.37)
qn+1 (s) B(s) B(s)
Tn+1 (s) B(s)
where:
" # " #
A (s) B (s) Y
n
Ai (s) Bi (s)
= (18.38)
C (s) D (s) i=1
Ci (s) Di (s)
" # " #
a (s) b (s) Ym
Ai (s) Bi (s)
= (18.39)
c (s) d (s) i=1
Ci (s) Di (s)
" # " #
ā (s) b̄ (s) Yn
Ai (s) Bi (s)
= (18.40)
c̄ (s) d¯(s) i=m+1
Ci (s) Di (s)
At first glance, the terms in the heat source transmission matrix may appear to be reversed. It
is expected that only the layers to the left of the source will affect q1 (s), but the presence of b̄ (s)
in the element
multiplied by qsource (s) to obtain q1 (s) seems to be contradictory. In fact, the entire
term, b̄ (s) B (s) , must be analyzed to determine the effect of qsource (s) on q1 (s). In essence, the
appearance of b̄ (s) removes the effects of the layers to the right of the source from B(s) leaving
18.1. RADIANT SYSTEM MODELS 1347
only the influence of the layers to the left of the source. The form displayed by Equation 18.37 is,
however, extremely convenient because the terms in the heat source transmission matrix have the
same denominators, and thus roots, as the terms in the temperature transmission matrix. Thus,
the same roots that are calculated for the CTFs can be used for the QTFs, saving a considerable
amount of computer time during the calculation of the transfer functions.
Once Equation 18.37 is inverted from the Laplace domain back into the time domain, the
combined CTF–QTF solution takes the following form:
X
M X
M X
k X
M
′′ ′′
qi,t = Xm Ti,t−m+1 − Ym To,t−m+1 + Fm q i,t−m + Wm qsource,t−m+1 (18.41)
m=1 m=1 m=1 m=1
This relation is identical to Equation 18.4 except for the presence of the QTF series that takes
the heat source or sink into account.
dT1 T2 − T1
C = hA (To − T1 ) + + qsource A (18.42)
dt R
dT2 T1 − T2
C = hA (Ti − T2 ) + (18.43)
dt R
Figure 18.5: Two Node State Space Example with a Heat Source
18.1. RADIANT SYSTEM MODELS 1349
on qo′′ , it does have an indirect influence through the nodal network. The same would hold for the
influence of qsource .
If this analysis is extended to a finite difference network with n nodes, the corresponding matrix
equations can be shown to be:
T1
.
d ..
T1 To
Tn .
= [A] .. + [B] Ti (18.48)
dt
Tn qsource
" # T1 To
′′
q i .
= [C] .. + [D] Ti (18.49)
q ′′ o
Tn qsource
The influence of the heat source is also confirmed by the final solution form, which is identical
to the Laplace transform result shown in Equation 18.41 As with the Laplace solution method, the
state space method results in a set of QTFs that relate the heat source at the current time step and
several previous time steps to the current heat flux at the surface of the element.
Other similarities between the two solution methods are evident. It is interesting to note
that as with the Laplace method there is no alteration of the CTFs calculated by the state space
method. Thus, the principle of superposition is still valid. Furthermore, the introduction of the
source term did not substantially increase the computing effort required to calculate the additional
transfer functions. In the Laplace method, this was shown by the common roots, B(s), shared by
both the CTFs and the QTFs. In the state space method, it can be noted that the A matrices in
Equations 18.25 and 18.46 are identical. Since the state space method requires the inversion and
the exponentiation of the A matrix only, the additional QTF terms will not require a substantial
amount of additional computing time for their calculation.
and outside face of the surface is that the temperature across the surface is the same at all
points or that the surfaces are still isothermal. The point of this is so that once the conduction
transfer functions are calculated that the the surface heat balance formulations remain the
same as any other surface that is using a one-dimensional assumption in EnergyPlus.
• The domain being modeled for a two-dimensional approach goes from one face of the sur-
face to the other face as a one-dimensional model. In the second dimension, perpendicular
to the main direction of heat transfer, the domain goes from the line that goes through the
tubing to the line of symmetry at the mid-point between adjacent tubing. The perpendicular
distance for this domain is given by the tubing spacing user input in the ConstructionProp-
erty:InternalHeatSource object. This tubing spacing is halved to determine the perpendicular
distance for the solution domain.
• While the number of nodes used for each layer of a construction is determined by the thermo-
physical properties of the material for the layer to maintain solution stability, the number of
nodes in the perpendicular direction is fixed for all layers of the construction. Currently in
EnergyPlus, the number of nodes in the perpendicular direction is fixed at 7. This number was
chosen as a result of testing with an evaluation version of one of the precedessor programs of
EnergyPlus. This number of nodes was a balance between accuracy requirements and solution
speed. Because the speed of the process required to calculate conduction transfer functions
increases greatly as the number of nodes used in the model increases, increasing the number
of nodes in the perpendicular direction too much will result in an unacceptible increase in the
time required to calculate the conduction transfer functions.
• The heat source or sink is applied evenly over the entire node where the user defines the
location of the source through the ConstructionProperty:InternalHeatSource input. For cal-
culating the conduction transfer functions, the model ignores the presence of the tubing and
fluid and simply assumes that the entire layer consists of the appropriate material as defined
by the Construction:InternalSource input. The radiant model does take into account heat
transfer between the material and the fluid being circulated through the system.
• The location of the heat source and the calculation of an additional point that can be used for
controlling the slab (see next section) are defined by input provided in the ConstructionProp-
ery:InternalHeatSource input. The location of the tubing where heat is added or subtracted
from the slab is always defined at one side of the solution domain. The location of the ad-
ditional user temperature request is controlled by both the fields for the location of the user
temperature request (between two layers) and the perpendicular direction for this tempera-
ture. This temperature can then be used for controlling a radiant system. (See section on
Low Temperature Radiant System Controls for more information about controlling a
radiant system.
These assumptions are applied to a low temperature radiant system within EnergyPlus and
their impact can be seen in the next three diagrams. First, one can see the symmetry inherent in
a low temperature radiant system in Figure 18.6 below.
Given the lines of symmetry in Figure 18.6, the solution domain can be narrowed down to what
is shown in Figure 18.7 below.
Once the solution domain has been set, a network of nodes can be applied to this solution domain
for the State Space method using the assumptions given above. An example of this is shown in
18.1. RADIANT SYSTEM MODELS 1351
Figure 18.6: Cross Section of a Low Temperature Radiant System with Planes of Symmetry
Figure 18.8 below. Note that in EnergyPlus there are actually 7 nodes in perpendicular direction,
not 5 as shown in this figure.
As mentioned in the figure above, the source or sink is applied at a node along the left side of
this solution domain and the depth established by user input. The number of nodes in the main
direction of heat transfer for each layer of the construction is calculated in the same manner as
for a standard layer with 1-D heat conduction. The number of nodes chosen for the perpendicular
direction is set to 7 in EnergyPlus as a balance between calculation accuracy and solution speed.
Figure 18.7: Two-Dimensional Solution Domain for a Low Temperature Radiant System
18.1. RADIANT SYSTEM MODELS 1353
Figure 18.8: Two-Dimensional Node Example for a Low Temperature Radiant System
1354 CHAPTER 18. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
X
M X
M X
k X
M
′′ ′′
q1,t = Xk,m T1,t−m+1 − Yk,m T3,t−m+1 + Fm q 1,t−m + Wm qsource,t−m+1 (18.50)
m=1 m=1 m=1 m=1
A similar equation could be written for the response of the first layer in absence of any source
term and is given by:
X
M X
M X
k
′′
q1,t = xk,m T1,t−m+1 − yk,m T2,t−m+1 + fm q ′′ 1,t−m (18.51)
m=1 m=1 m=1
While the current temperature at the interface is not known, presumably the previous values
of this parameter will be known. In addition, the temperatures and the flux histories at surface
1 are also know. The unknowns in Equation 18.51 are the current heat flux at surface 1 and the
temperature at surface 2. However, Equation 18.50 does define the current value of the heat flux at
surface 1 based on temperature, heat flux, and heat source histories. Thus, if this value is used in
Equation 18.51, the only remaining unknown in this equation is the current temperature at surface
2, the surface where the heat source or sink is present. Rearranging Equation 18.51 provides an
equation from which the temperature at the source location may be calculated:
X
M X
M −1 X
k+1
T2,t = X̄k,m T1,t−m+1 − Ȳk,m T2,t−m + F̄m q ′′ 1,t−m+1 (18.52)
m=1 m=1 m=1
where the new coefficients are obtained from the standard conduction transfer functions for the
first layer via the following equations:
xk,m
X̄k,m = (m = 1, · · · , M ) (18.53)
y1
yk,m+1
Ȳk,m = (m = 1, · · · , M − 1) (18.54)
y1
1
F̄1 = (18.55)
y1
fm−1
F̄m = (m = 2, · · · , k + 1) (18.56)
y1
This system for backing out an internal temperature through the use of a second, rearranged
CTF equation is valid regardless of whether the Laplace transform or state space method is utilized
18.1. RADIANT SYSTEM MODELS 1355
to calculate the CTFs and QTFs. The state space method, however, offers a more direct method
of obtaining an internal temperature through its definition as an additional output variable.
Consider again the state space example shown in Figure 18.5. Two output variables were defined
for this example: qi′′ and qo′′ . The temperature of the node where the source is present can also
be defined as an output variable through the identity equation:
T1 = T1 (18.57)
When this equation for T1 is added to Equation 18.47, the resulting output matrix equation for
the heat flux at both surfaces and the internal temperature is:
q ′′ i 0 −h " # 0 h 0 Ti
′′ T1
q o = h 0 + −h 0 0 To (18.58)
T2
T1 1 0 0 0 0 qsource
The only difference between this relation and Equation 18.47 is the presence of T1 on both the
right and left hand side of the equation. The dual role of T1 as a state variable and an output
parameter may seem to contradict the goal of the state space method of eliminating the state
variables. However, due to the flexibility of the formulation, nodal temperatures can be extracted
in the same manner that any other output quantity would be obtained. For an element with n
layers, Equation 18.58 becomes:
q ′′ i T1 Ti
′′ ..
q o = [C] . + [D] To (18.59)
Ts Tn qsource
where Ts is the temperature of the node where the heat source or sink is present. The transfer
function equation for the calculation of Ts that results from Equation 18.59 is identical in form to
Equation 18.41:
X
M X
M X
k X
M
Ts,t = xk,m Ti,t−m+1 − yk,m To,t−m+1 + fm Ts,t−m + wm qsource,t−m+1 (18.60)
m=1 m=1 m=1 m=1
Instead of the flux at either side of the element characterized as a function of temperature, flux,
and source history terms, the temperature at the source location is related to source and temperature
histories including histories of Ts . The validity of these internal temperature calculation methods
as well as heat source transfer functions in general will be discussed in the next chapter.
Once the transient nature of the system is accounted for, one must then turn to the next
difficult issue: controls. Controls are problematic for almost any simulation program. The
problem is not whether something can be simulated because typically a simulation program
offers the ability to experiment with many different control strategies. Rather, the problem
is typically the diversity of controls that are implemented and keeping the controls that can
be simulated up to date. EnergyPlus offers two different flow control schemes: variable flow
(ZoneHVAC:LowTemperatureRadiant:VariableFlow) and constant flow/variable temperature
(ZoneHVAC:LowTemperatureRadiant:ConstantFlow). The control strategies are different enough
that they were developed as separate system types. More details of the controls are described
below.
The controls for variable flow low temperature radiant systems within EnergyPlus are fairly
simple though there is some flexibility through the use of schedules. The program user is allowed
to define a setpoint temperature as well as a throttling range through which the system varies
the flow rate of water (or current) to the system from zero to the user defined maximum flow
rate. The flow rate is varied linearly with the flow reaching 50% of the maximum when the
controlling temperature reaches the setpoint temperature. Setpoint temperatures can be varied on
an hourly basis throughout the year if desired.
The controlling temperature can be the mean air temperature, the mean radiant temperature,
the operative temperature of the zone, the outdoor dry-bulb temperature, the outdoor wet-bulb
temperature, the surface inside face temperature, or the surface interior temperature. The choice
of controlling temperature is left to the user’s discretion and set by input as described in the Input
Output Reference. For radiant system controls, the operative temperature is calculated as the
average of MAT and MRT. The surface inside face temperature is the temperature of the surface in
which the radiant system is embedded at the inside face (the side facing the zone being conditioned).
When the user opts to control the radiant system on the surface interior temperature, this
temperature is inside the slab itself, and its location is defined using input that describes the con-
struction of the slab (ConstructionProperty:InternalHeatSource–see the Input Output Reference for
more details). Note that this user defined temperature still must be at the interface between two
layers, but this is easy to overcome by splitting any material into two separate layers. When the
user elects to perform a two-dimensional solution, an additional input parameter in the Construc-
tionProperty:InternalHeatSource object allows the user to chose the location of the user requested
temperature in the direction perpendicular to the main direction of heat transfer. This location
can be in-line with the hydronic tubing, at the mid-point between two adjacent pipes, or at any
node/point in between. Due to the State Space method and a fixed number of nodes in the direction
(currently seven), the user’s decimal input for location between one side of the solution domain and
the other is converted to a specific node. However, this does allow the user quite a bit of flexibility
in the solution and also defining a point on the interior of a radiant system that can be used for
controlling a radiant system.
Since flow rate is varied in a variable flow radiant system, there is no explicit control on the inlet
water temperature or mixing to achieve some inlet water temperature in a hydronic system. How-
ever, the user does have the ability to specify on an hourly basis through a schedule the temperature
of the water that would be supplied to the radiant system. Graphical descriptions of the controls for
the low temperature radiant system model in EnergyPlus are shown in Figure 18.9 for a hydronic
system. In a system that uses electric resistance heating, the power or heat addition to the system
varies in a manner similar to mass flow rate variation shown in Figure 18.9.
In the constant flow/variable temperature systems, the controls are also considered piecewise
18.1. RADIANT SYSTEM MODELS 1357
linear functions, but in this case the user selects both the control temperatures and the water
temperatures via schedules. This offers greater flexibility for defining how the radiant system
operates though it may not model every situation. Figure 18.10 shows how the “desired” inlet
water temperature is controlled based on user schedules. The user has the ability to specify
the high and low water and control temperature schedules for heating and cooling (separately;
a total of eight temperature schedules). Note that this inlet temperature is a “desired” inlet
temperature in that there is no guarantee that the system will provide water to the system at that
temperature. The model includes a local loop that attempts to meet this demand temperature
through mixing and recirculation. Finally, the control temperature options are the same for a
constant flow/variable temperature system as they are for the variable flow and electric radiant
systems: mean air temperautre, mean radiant temperature, operative temperature, outdoor dry-
bulb temperature, outdoor wet-bulb temperature, surface inside face temperature, and surface
interior temperature.
The constant flow (variable temperature) low temperature radiant system model is actually a
combination of mixing valves, a pump (constant speed, but the maximum flow can be modified by
a schedule), and the radiant system (surface, panel, or group of surfaces/panels). This is connected
to the main loop through the standard inlet connections as shown in Figure 18.11. The system
controls determine the desired inlet temperature and system flow rate while loop controls determine
1358 CHAPTER 18. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
the flow rate and temperature of the loop. Note that pump heat also factors into the model through
a simple constant speed pump model and user input.
There are four possible conditions (separate for heating and cooling). First, if the loop has
adequate temperature and flow to meet system requests, then the model sets the radiant system
inlet temperature and controls to the desired values based on the controls and simulates. This is
the best condition and recirculation and bypass amounts are adjusted accordingly based on radiant
system outlet temperatures. Second, if the loop temperature is adequate but the loop flow rate
is less than the radiant system flow rate, we may or may not be able to meet the desired inlet
temperature since recirculation might lower the temperature below the desired temperature. In
this second case, the model first simulates the radiant system with the desired conditions and then
resimulates it to solve for the actual inlet temperature (see later in this section) if it cannot achieve
the desired inlet temperature. Third, if the loop flow is greater than the radiant flow but the
temperature of the loop is not adequate, then there is no amount of mixing that will solve this
problem. All of the radiant flow comes from the loop and the loop temperature (after pump heat
addition) becomes the radiant system inlet regardless of the temperature controls. Finally, if both
the temperature and the flow of the loop are inadequate, then the model simply solves for the actual
radiant system inlet temperature and does not try to meet the controls (merely tries to get as close
as physically possible given the loop conditions).
Figure 18.11: Variable Temperature Low Temperature Radiant System Component Details
One remaining challenge is the merging of the low temperature radiant system model with an
integrated building simulation program. In the past, most simulation programs have simulated the
building envelope, the space conditioning systems, and the central plant equipment in three separate
steps. While this had some advantages and was partly due to a lack of computing capacity, the
large drawback for this arrangement is that there is no feedback from the space conditioning system
or central plant response to the building conditions. Thus, if the system or plant was undersized,
it was reported as an “unmet load” and does not affect the temperatures experienced within the
1360 CHAPTER 18. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
building. IBLAST, a predecessor (Taylor 1991) to EnergyPlus, resolved this issue by integrating all
three major components of a building simulation and thus allowing feedback between the equipment
and the building envelope.
This integration was not a trivial task and required that the systems be simulated at shorter
time steps in some cases to maintain solution stability. In essence, the system simulation will
shorten its time step whenever it senses that conditions are changing too rapidly. While this is
effective in maintaining solution stability, it can present problems for a radiant system. The radiant
system has either a direct or an indirect impact on the surfaces within a building. So, it must be
simulated with the building envelope. Yet, it is also a space conditioning system that must act on
the space like any other system and thus must also be simulated at the system time step, which
can be less than the building time step and can also vary within EnergyPlus.
This issue was handled using a multi-step approach. In EnergyPlus, the heat balance is always
simulated first. When this happens, the radiant system is temporarily shut-off to find how the
building would respond if there was no heat source/sink. Then, as the system and plant are
simulated at multiple shorter time steps, the radiant system is allowed to operate per the controls
specified by the user. Flow rate is allowed to vary at each system time step, and the radiant system
model is simulated at each time step as if the current flow rate was being used throughout the entire
zone time step. This means that each time the heat source/sink in the radiant system is varied
during the system simulation the zone heat balance must be recomputed to see what the reaction
of the rest of the zone is to this change in the conditions of one (or more) of the surfaces.
In reality, this is not physically correct because each change in the flow rate throughout the
system simulation will have an impact on the system time steps remaining before the heat balance
is simulated during the next zone time step. Yet, other approaches to solving the mismatch between
the system and the zone response of radiant systems are not feasible. One could force the system
to run at the same time step as the zone, but this could result in instabilities in other types of
systems that might be present in the simulation. On the other hand, one could try to force the
zone to run at the shorter time steps of the system, but this could lead to instability within the
heat balance due to limits on the precision of the conduction transfer function coefficients.
Despite the fact that the simulation algorithm described above may either over- or under-predict
system response dependent on how the system has been controlled in previous system time steps,
it is reasonable to expect that the effect of these variations will balance out over time even though
it might lead to slightly inaccurate results at any particular system time step. The long-term
approach is also in view in the final simulation step at each zone time step. After the system
has simulated through enough system time steps to equal a zone time step, the radiant system
will rerun the heat balance using the average heat source/sink over all of the system time steps
during the past zone time step. This maintains the conservation of energy within the heat balance
simulation over the zone time steps and defines more appropriate temperature and flux histories at
each surface that are critical to the success of a conduction transfer function based solution. A
graphical picture of this somewhat complex multiple step simulation is shown in Figure 18.12.
flow rate (determined by the control algorithm) are known and that the remaining parameters must
be calculated. However, the heat balance equations require the heat transferred to the building
element from the water loop in order to calculate the heat transferred from the element to the
building environment.
Even though systems defined by this model can vary somewhat, the same characteristic link
between the system variables exist. For modeling purposes, the overall water/slab system can
be thought of as a heat exchanger. While in principle there are two alternative heat exchanger
methodologies, it is more convenient to use the effectiveness-NTU method in this case.
Several assumptions will be incorporated into the heat exchanger analysis. It is assumed that
the building element that contains the hydronic loop is stationary and that its temperature along the
length of the tubing is constant. The latter part of this assumption stems from assumptions made
in both the one and two dimensional heat source transfer function derivations. In either case, the
source was added at a single node that was characterized by a single temperature. For consistency,
this assumption must be made again in the heat exchanger analysis. Another assumption for the
current EnergyPlus model is that the fluid in the tubing is water. Additionally, it is assumed that
the thermal properties of the water do not vary significantly over the length of the tubing and that
the water flows at a constant flow rate. Finally, the temperature at the inside surface of the water
tubing is assumed to be equal to the temperature at the source location. In other words, it is
assumed that the water tubing itself has no appreciable effect on the heat transfer process being
modeled.
Using these assumptions and the effectiveness-NTU heat exchanger algorithm, several equations
can be defined which establish the relationship between the heat source and the water tempera-
tures. First, a heat balance on the water loop results in:
ε = 1 − e−N T U (18.64)
where NTU is defined by:
18.1. RADIANT SYSTEM MODELS 1363
UA
NT U ≡ (18.65)
(ṁcp )water
EnergyPlus includes two possible methods for calculating the heat exchange between the circu-
lating fluid and the rest of the system and these are controlled by user input: ConvectionOnly and
ISOStandard. Both are described in more detail below.
ConvectionOnly Heat Transfer Model. In this model, the water tubes were assumed to
have no effect on the heat transfer process. So, the only term present in the overall heat transfer
coefficient, UA, is a convection term. Thus, the equation for UA is:
U A = h (πDL) (18.66)
where h is the convection coefficient, D is the interior tube diameter, and L is the total length
of the tube.
The convection coefficient can be obtained from internal flow correlations that relate the Nusselt
dimensionless number to other flow properties. For laminar flow in a tube of constant surface
temperature, the Nusselt number is defined by:
hD
N uD = = 3.66 (18.67)
k
where k is the thermal conductivity of the water.
For turbulent internal flow, the Colburn equation can be used to define the Nusselt number:
hD 4/5
N uD = = 0.023ReD P r1/3 (18.68)
k
where Pr is the Prandtl number of water and ReD is the Reynolds number which is defined by:
4ṁ
ReD = (18.69)
πµD
The parameter m is the absolute viscosity of water. For internal pipe flow, the flow is assumed
to be turbulent for ReD ≥ 2300.
ISOStandard Heat Transfer Model. In this model, the convection between the fluid and
the tubes and the conduction resistance of the tubes themselves are assumed to have an impact on
the overall heat transfer. The method used in EnergyPlus for this model is based on ISO Standard
11855-2(2012) which is entitled “Building environment design — Design, dimensioning, installation
and control of embedded radiant heating and cooling systems — Part 2: Determination of the
design heating and cooling capacity”. The key equations from the ISO Standard are summarized
in Appendix B of Standard 11855-2 and are outlined below.
In ISO Standard 11855-2, the heat convection for turbulent flow between the circulating fluid
and the inside wall of the tube is characterized by the following equation:
0.87
W 0.13 Dout − Din
Rconv = (18.70)
8π ṁL
where W is the tube separation in the direction perpendicular to the main heat transfer direction,
Dout is the outside tube diameter, Din is the inside tube diameter, ṁ is the fluid mass flow rate in
the tube, and L is the tube length.
1364 CHAPTER 18. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
W ln DDout
Rtube = in
(18.71)
2πktube
where ktube is the thermal conductivity of the tube material.
Finally, the U-value for this model is calculated using:
1
U= (18.72)
Rconv + Rtube
This U-value is then used in Equation 18.65 to calculate NTU in the heat exchanger formulation
shown above.
Knowledge of the flow conditions allows Equations 18.63 through 18.69 to be calculated. This
essentially eliminates ε as an unknown. The controls and the plant define the water mass flow
rate and the inlet water temperature, leaving two equations (Equations 18.61 and 18.62) and three
unknowns. The third equation that can be used in conjunction with Equations 18.61 and 18.62 is
Equation 18.60, which is the CTF/QTF equation for the temperature at the source location.
Knowing the inlet water temperature and water mass flow rate, the calculation procedure is
somewhat involved and requires, in addition to Equations 18.60, 18.61, and 18.62, the use of a
modified form of Equation 18.41. Equation 18.41 is the standard conduction transfer function
formula for a building element with an embedded source/sink of heat. In EnergyPlus, the surface
flux on the left hand side of the equation is replaced with a surface heat balance:
Surf ace
X X X X
M M k M
′′
Heat = X T
k,m 1,t−m+1 − Y T
k,m 3,t−m+1 + F q
m 1,t−m + Wm qsource,t−m+1
m=1 m=1 m=1 m=1
Balance
(18.73)
The surface heat balance includes terms for incident solar energy, radiation heat transfer from
internal heat sources such as lights and electrical equipment, radiation between surfaces using
Hottel’s Gray Interchange concept, and convection to the surrounding air. The presence of the
surface temperature in the heat balance does not pose any problems since Equation 18.73 will
be rearranged to solve for this temperature. Since the radiation heat balance is dependent on
conditions at the other surfaces, an iteration loop is required to provide a more accurate estimate of
the radiative exchange within the building. This is not the case with the mean air temperature. An
assumption of the heat balance is that the mean temperature of the surrounding air is equal to the
final air temperature of the previous time step. Using this estimate in the heat balance avoids a
second iterative loop around the radiative iteration loop.
Thus, the terms of the heat balance on the left hand side of the equation have been set with
the only unknown quantity being Ti , the inside surface temperature at the current time step. On
the right hand side of Equation 18.73, most of the terms are already defined since they depend on
known values from previous time steps (temperature, flux, and source histories). The only terms
which are not defined are the inside surface temperature (Ti ), outside surface temperature (To ), and
internal heat source/sink (qsource ) of the current time step.
The outside surface temperature will depend on the type of environment to which it is ex-
posed. For example, if the surface is a slab on grade floor, the outside surface temperature is
18.1. RADIANT SYSTEM MODELS 1365
defined as ground temperature and does not require an outside surface heat balance. If the el-
ement is an interior surface which has both surfaces exposed to the same air space, the outside
surface temperature is redefined to be equal to the inside surface temperature. In cases where
the outside surface temperature is not simply defined such as a surface exposed to the exterior
environment, a heat balance similar to Equation 18.73 is required to define the outside surface
temperature. However, to again avoid iteration, the heat balance equation for the outside surface
assumes that conditions at the inside surface were the same as the previous time step. In most
cases, since the influence of the current inside surface temperature on the outside surface temper-
ature is very small, this is a valid assumption. In cases were the inside surface temperature has
a significant effect, an approximate inside surface heat balance which defines the inside surface
temperature is used. This approximate inside balance uses mean air and radiant temperatures
from the previous time step.
At this point in the simulation algorithm then, all of the terms in Equation 18.73 have been
defined except the value at the current time step of the inside surface temperature and the heat
source/sink. Thus, Equation 18.73 can be rewritten in a simpler form:
X
M X
M X
k X
M
Ts,t = xk,m Ti,t−m+1 − yk,m To,t−m+1 + fm Ts,t−m + wm qsource,t−m+1 (18.75)
m=1 m=1 m=1 m=1
Ts = C3 + C4 q + C5 (C1 + C2 q) (18.77)
When this equation is combined with Equation 18.62, the heat source, which results from a
known water inlet temperature, can be shown to be:
Twi − C3 − C1 C5
q= 1 (18.78)
ε(ṁcp )
+ C4 + C2 C5
water
1366 CHAPTER 18. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
With both q and Twi known, it is a trivial matter to calculate Two andTs from Equations 18.74
and 18.76 , respectively. Even though the coefficients in Equation 18.78 are fairly complex, the
final equation relating the heat source directly to inlet water temperature is compact and does not
require any iteration. As with flux control, once the heat source/sink is defined, the inside surface
heat balance can be performed to determine the surface temperatures.
It should be noted that Equations 18.74 through 18.78 are a slight simplification of the actual
implementation in EnergyPlus. The development shown above follows the heat balance conventions
that assume previous values of the inside temperature to calculate the outside temperature. This, in
reality, is not necessary and since the radiant system can be significantly influenced by the delay that
such an assumption might cause, the initial implementation of radiant systems in EnergyPlus used a
development (shown below) that does not lag either the inside or the outside surface temperature. In
effect, we can establish three basic equations for the temperature at the inside and outside surface
as well as at the location of the heat source/sink:
Tsource = Ck + Cl q ′′ (18.82)
where:
Ci (Ca + Cb Cd ) + Cj (Cd + Ce Ca )
Ck = Cg + (18.83)
1 − Ce Cb
18.1. RADIANT SYSTEM MODELS 1367
Ci (Cc + Cb Cf ) + Cj (Cf + Ce Cc )
Cl = Ch + (18.84)
1 − Ce Cb
Combining this with heat exchanger analysis as shown above, we eventually arrive at the fol-
lowing equation to relate the flux to the slab to the water inlet temperature and mass flow rate:
Twater,in − Ck
q ′′ = Cl
(18.85)
A
+ ε(ṁcp1)
water
which includes all of the inside and outside heat balance terms (“hidden” in the Ck and Cl
coefficients). Once the flux to the slab is known, the remaining terms of interest (outlet water
temperature, inside and outside surface temperatures, etc.) can be calculated using the relatively
simpler equations shown above.
Note that the above development is valid for both the hydronic (variable flow) low temperature
radiant system and for constant flow (variable temperature) low temperature radiant systems where
the inlet temperature is known (based on controls). However, when due to loop conditions and
the presence of recirculation, it is not possible to know the inlet temperature to the radiant system
without simulating it, we must either iterate or perform more mathematics to arrive at the inlet
temperature. The implementation in EnergyPlus chose to avoid iteration and solved for the inlet
temperature as shown in the next paragraphs.
The previous equation combines with the following equation which is valid for an surface in the
current radiant system:
_ j cp (Twater,in −Twater,out,j )
qj =m (18.86)
where qj is the heat transfer to the jth surface in the radiant system, ṁj is the mass flow rate
only to this surface, and Twater,out,j is the outlet temperature for the jth surface. Combining the
previous two equations results in:
εj (Twater,in − Ck,j )
(Twater,in −Twater,out,j ) = εj ṁj cp Cl,j
(18.87)
1+ A
If for each surface in the radiant system, we let:
εj
Cm,j = εj ṁj cp Cl,j
(18.88)
1+ A
then the previous equations because the slightly less complex:
ṁloop P umpHeat
LoopT erm = Tloop,in + (18.93)
ṁsystem ṁsystem cp
ṁrecirc X
RecircT erm = FlowFractionj Twater,out,j (18.94)
ṁsystem j
ṁrecirc X
T wiCoef f = 1 − [FlowFractionj (1 − Cm,j )] (18.95)
ṁsystem j
Once the actual water inlet temperature is calculated with this equation, it is then possible to
calculate individual outlet temperatures for each surface, the overall outlet temperature, and finally
all of the necessary flow and loop quantities. This procedure avoids iteration but is somewhat
complex to follow. However, this second mathematical process is only needed for select cases of the
constant flow radiant system when the inlet temperature is not known explicitly. With the proper
establishment of input data, it can be avoided.
NOTE: In some “low-energy” applications, it is possible that during cooling mode the elevated
water temperatures may result in a heat source (or net heating) to the radiant system. To avoid
heating the slab when cooling is desired, EnergyPlus performs a temperature limit check. If heating
would result during cooling mode or cooling during heating mode, the model will cut-off the flow
rate until the inlet water temperature will produce the proper effect.
are similar in form to the equation promoted by Fanger (1970). The input parameters for the high
temperature radiant heater model are shown below.
0.25
4
Qheater→person
Tradiant = TM RT + (18.96)
σAperson
HIGH TEMP RADIANT SYSTEM,! Program keyword for high temp. radiant heaters
Zone 1 Radiant Heater, ! Zone name
Radiant Operation, ! Availability schedule
SHOP ZONE, ! Zone name (name of zone system is serving)
10000, ! maximum power input (in Watts)
GAS, ! type of heater (either gas or electric)
0.85, ! combustion efficiency (ignored for elec. heaters)
0.75, ! fraction radiant
0.05, ! fraction latent
0.05, ! fraction lost
OPERATIVE, ! temperature control type (MAT, MRT also possible)
2.0 , ! heating throttling range (in C)
Heating Setpoints, ! schedule of heating setpoint temperatures
0.05, ! fraction of radiant energy to people
Zn001:Flr001, 0.75, ! surface/fraction of radiant energy incident on it
Zn001:Wall001, 0.05, ! surface/fraction of radiant energy incident on it
Zn001:Wall002, 0.05, ! surface/fraction of radiant energy incident on it
Zn001:Wall003, 0.05, ! surface/fraction of radiant energy incident on it
Zn001:Wall004, 0.05; ! surface/fraction of radiant energy incident on it
The input for the high temperature radiant heater has two additive relationships that are as-
sumed. First, the fractions of radiant, convective, latent, and lost heat must sum to unity. The
user is required to enter the fractions radiant, latent, and lost with the remainder assumed to be
convective energy. The fraction latent is added to the latent energy balance and will affect moisture
levels within the zone. The fraction lost is assumed to have no impact on the energy balance of
the zone and is assumed to be lost or vented to the exterior environment.
The second additive relationship is within the distribution of the radiant fraction. This energy is
distributed to people and to the surfaces within the zone. The sum of all of these distribution frac-
tions (the last six lines of input shown above) must sum to unity. Note that each high temperature
radiant heater is allowed to distribute energy to up to 20 surfaces and that radiant energy placed
on a surface using these distribution fractions is assumed to be completely absorbed. Thus, the
distribution fractions should also take into account any differences in long wavelength absorptivity
among the surfaces.
Several things should be noted about the fraction of heat that is radiated directly to people. This
parameter is somewhat sensitive and will have a direct impact on the thermal comfort models. This
is exactly the intent of the high temperature radiant heaters; however, one must use caution when
determining this fraction since overestimation of this number might lead to predictions of thermal
comfort where in fact it does not exist. In addition, this fraction of radiant energy to people does
not have a direct impact on any of the surface heat balances. The thermal comfort energy balance
is completely separate from and has no bearing on the zone air or the surface heat balances. Thus,
in order to not “lose” this amount of energy from the perspective of the zone air or the surface
heat balances, the model assumes that any radiation from the high temperature radiant heater that
1370 CHAPTER 18. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
is incident directly on people is accounted for in the thermal comfort model using Equation 18.96
but is also assumed to be added to the zone air heat balance via convection from people to the
surrounding air. This guarantees that the people within the space feel the direct radiative effect
of the heaters and that this quantity of energy is not “lost” within the heat balance routines.
Many of the control and integration aspects of the high temperature radiant system model in
EnergyPlus are very similar to the low temperature radiant system model. The controls are the
same as shown in “Figure 18.9. Variable Flow Low Temperature Radiant System Controls” where
the amount of heat generated by the radiant heater varies as a function of the difference between the
controlling and the setpoint temperatures. As with the low temperature radiant system, the con-
trolling temperature is allowed to be the mean air, the mean radiant, or the operative temperature,
and the setpoint temperature is allowed to vary hourly based on a user defined schedule. (Oper-
ative temperature for radiant system controls is the average of MAT and MRT.) Also, since the
high temperature radiant heater has a direct impact on the surfaces within a zone, the surface
heat balances are recalculated to determine an approximate response to the radiation from the
heater. A final “average” heat balance calculation is done after all of the system time steps have
been simulated to maintain continuity within the surface heat balances. The algorithm shown in
“Figure 18.12. Resolution of Radiant System Response at Varying Time Steps is also used for high
temperature radiant heaters.
• Water is flowing through a pipe and that the water has a known inlet temperature defined by
the plant loop. The outlet water temperature is unknown and must be calculated as part of
the simulation process.
• No information regarding the shape or material of the chilled ceiling panel is required as this
is intended to be a simple model only.
• The air conditions of the space are known quantities and though the presence of this sys-
tem will potentially impact this temperature, it will be assumed that the air temperature is
“constant” for the time step in question.
• The entity being modeled is essentially a heat exchanger with flowing water on one side and
air on the other.
• Since the water is changing temperature but the air is “not”, we effectively have a similar sort
of heat exchanger formulation as the low temperature radiant heating system, but here the
water temperature varies while the air temperature is “constant”. Thus, an effectiveness-NTU
18.1. RADIANT SYSTEM MODELS 1371
heat exchanger formulation is best and allows the calculation of total heat gain to the panel
and outlet water temperature.
• The total net heat loss to the zone is determined using a user defined coefficient to calculate
a zone temperature. This “fraction” radiant parameter defines what portion of the zone
temperature is based on the zone MRT with the remainder determined by the zone MAT.
While this user defined coefficient remains constant throughout the simulation in keeping with
the simple nature of this model, it is not the same as defining a fixed radiant/convective split
since this will vary with changing MRT and MAT. More information on this is given below.
• The load met by the system is included in the zone air heat balance just as with any other
system. The impact of the system includes the convective load, the radiant gain that is
distributed to people (assumed that it is converted into a convective loss), and the increased
convection loss from the zone surfaces.
• The radiant loss/gain is distributed to the surfaces as per the radiant surface list that lists
which surfaces the radiant cooling panel will interact with and what fraction of radiation each
surface will “see”. This is similar to the existing radiant-convective baseboard model and
these fractions are user inputs.
• The model is an HVAC level model but interacts with the zone heat balances much like the
radiant system and radiant/convective baseboard models.
• Controls are based on controlling water flow rate (like the hydronic radiant system) to meet
the thermostatic setpoint temperature of the unit with control types options including MAT,
MRT, OpTemp, ODB, or OWB much like the low temperature radiant systems. Controls
based on standard air system thermostatic controls are also possible.
• In the event that condensation is predicted on the surface of a panel, the model uses the
same condensation control options as the low temperature radiant system. These include:
ignoring the problem and allowing the simulation to continue, shutting the system down
when condensation is predicted, and a variable response that tries to keep the system running
at a lower output while avoiding condensation conditions.
• In order to avoid any violations of the Second Law of Thermodynamics or heating by the
system, the cooling panel will be shut off if the inlet water temperature is above the zone
temperature.
the cooling panel is exposed, ṁ is the mass flow rate of the water, cp is the specific heat of the
water, Twi is the inlet water temperature and Two is the outlet water temperature.
The maximum amount of heat transfer that is possible according to the Second Law of Ther-
modynamics is:
ε = 1 − e−N T U (18.100)
and NTU is defined by:
UA
NT U = (18.101)
(mcp )water
The above equations will be used to model the performance of the panel within EnergyPlus and
also to obtain a “design” UA value for the panel.
Calculating the UA value of a cooling panel or coming up with a relationship for such a term is
not a simple matter. However, most devices are either rated or tested by the manufacturer under
certain conditions. From this rating information, a UA value can be calculated. The EnergyPlus
model requests rating information (inlet water temperature, mass flow rate, “air” temperature, and
panel output under rating conditions) and then uses it to calculate a UA value that is used to model
the performance of the panel.
The development of the method for estimating the panel UA value uses the same equations
shown above but simply with the purpose of calculating UA rather than the performance of the
device, i.e. determining the output of the panel. The method for estimating the UA value of the
panel begins with the panel rating data that includes the following values:
To find UA, first rearrange the equations above to make NTU a function of effectiveness as
follows:
ε = 1 − e−N T U (18.102)
18.1. RADIANT SYSTEM MODELS 1373
N T U = − ln (1 − ε) (18.103)
where ε = Qr /qm ax and qmax is calculated using design conditions. This leads to:
Qr
N T U = − ln 1 − (18.104)
(ṁr cp )water (Trwi − Trz )
Finally, substituting the definition of NTU as shown above, one can obtain an equation for UA
that is calculated directly from the rated values that the user supplies:
Qr
U A = − (ṁr cp )water ln 1 − (18.105)
(ṁr cp )water (Trwi − Trz )
This UA value is used by the simple model to calculate the output of the radiant cooling panel
based on the current water inlet temperature and mass flow rate as well as the space temperature
(combination of air and radiant temperature) as described below.
18.1.3.4 Algorithm Details: Zone Temperature for Radiant Panel Output and “Frac-
tion Radiant” Input
The output from the panel will be based on the mean air temperature (MAT) and the mean radiant
temperature (MRT) from the space. These two temperatures are combined to create a “zone”
temperature that is used in the model to calculate the radiant cooling panel output. As shown in
the previous section, a UA value is calculated using rated conditions. This UA value is assumed to
be constant and used in conjunction with the effectiveness-NTU method described in the previous
section to determine the output of the panel based on water inlet temperature, water mass flow
rate, and space conditions. The space conditions take into account both the mean air temperature
and the mean radiant temperature via the following equation:
Tz = xr M RT + (1 − xr )M AT (18.106)
where xr is the “Fraction Radiant” for the radiant cooling panel that the user provides.
This is then used in the equation for qmax above to calculate the maximum possible panel
output. Knowing UA and knowing what the water mass flow rate for the system is based on
controls, the NTU parameter can be calculated. Once NTU is calculated, the effectiveness can be
computed and used with the maximum possible panel output to calculated the actual panel output
(q) from:
q = εqmax (18.107)
Thus, the modeling equation to find the panel output is:
−U A
q = 1−e (ṁcp )
water (ṁcp )water (Twi − Tz ) (18.108)
Using the results of the above equation, the outlet water temperature can also be calculated
using a rearranged form of the water loop heat balance equation given at the beginning of this
section.
There has been some concern expressed that the “Fraction Radiant” value (xr ) used to calculate
the zone temperature (Tz ) is difficult to estimate and that the correct modeling of the performance
1374 CHAPTER 18. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
of certain models, particularly the high temperature radiant heater, are highly dependent on having
a good estimate for this value. The high temperature radiant heater is a high output device that is
highly radiant and the control of these high output devices can be difficult to simulate. The radiant
cooling panels discussed here are generally not high output devices. A reasonable estimate for xr
generally falls within a range of 0.6-0.7 when calculating Tz above. While this value could vary
for different scenarios, choosing a value within this range should be a reasonable approximation of
the performance of a radiant cooling panel and should not result in significant inaccuracies in the
model.
18.1.4 References
Ceylan, H.T. and G.E. Myers. 1980. Long-time solutions to heat conduction transients with
time-dependent inputs. ASME Journal of Heat Transfer, Volume 102, Number 1, pp. 115-120.
Degiovanni, A. 1988. Conduction dans un “mur” multicouche avec sources: extension de la
notion de quadripole. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, Volume 31, Number 3,
pp. 553-557.
Fanger, P.O. 1970. Thermal Comfort-Analysis and Applications in Environmental Engineering,
Danish Technical Press, Copenhagen.
Hittle, D.C. 1981. Calculating building heating and cooling loads using the frequency re-
sponse of multilayered slabs. Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering,
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign and Technical Manuscript E-169, United States Army
Construction Engineering Research Laboratory, Champaign, IL.
Hittle, D.C. and R. Bishop. 1983. An improved root-finding procedure for use in calculating
transient heat flow through multilayered slabs. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer,
Volume 26, Number 11, pp. 1685-1693.
Hottel, H.C. and A.F. Sarofim. 1967. Radiative Transfer, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Incropera, F.P. and D.P. DeWitt. 1985. Introduction to Heat Transfer. New York: John
Wiley & Sons.
Lee, J. and R.K. Strand. 2001. “An Analysis of the Effect of the Building Envelope on Thermal
Comfort using the EnergyPlus Program”, submitted for publication in the proceedings of the 2001
ACSA (Association of Collegiate Schools of Architecture) Technology Conference, Austin, TX.
Liesen, R.J. and C.O. Pedersen. 1997. “An Evaluation of Inside Surface Heat Balance Models
for Cooling Load Calculations”, ASHRAE Transactions, Volume 103, Part 2.
Maloney, D. 1987. “Development of a radiant heater model and the incorporation of thermal
comfort considerations into the BLAST energy analysis program”, M.S. thesis, University of Illinois
at Urbana-Champaign, Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering.
McClellan, T.M. and C.O. Pedersen. 1997. “Investigation of Outside Heat Balance Models for
Use in a Heat Balance Cooling Load Calculation Procedure”, ASHRAE Transactions, Volume 103,
Part 2.
Pedersen, C.O., D.E. Fisher, and R.J. Liesen. 1997. “Development of a Heat Balance Procedure
for Cooling Loads”, ASHRAE Transactions, Volume 103, Part 2.
Pedersen, C.O., D.E. Fisher, J.D. Spitler, and R.J. Liesen. 1998. Cooling and Heating Load
Calculation Principles, ASHRAE.
Seem, J.E. 1987. Modeling of heat transfer in buildings. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Wisconsin-
Madison.
18.2. REFRIGERATION EQUIPMENT 1375
Strand, R.K., and C.O. Pedersen. 1994. “Analytical verification of heat source transfer func-
tions”, First Joint Conference of International Simulation Societies, Zürich, Switzerland.
Strand, R.K. 1995. “Heat source transfer functions and their application to low temperature
radiant heating systems”, Ph.D. dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Depart-
ment of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering.
Strand, R.K. and C.O. Pedersen. 1997. “Implementation of a Radiant Heating and Cooling
Model into an Integrated Building Energy Analysis Program”, ASHRAE Transactions, Volume
103, Part 1.
Strand, R.K. and C.O. Pedersen. 2001. “Modularization and Simulation Techniques for Heat
Balance Based Energy and Load Calculation Programs: the Experience of the ASHRAE LOADS
Toolkit and EnergyPlus”, International Building Performance Simulation Association, Conference
Proceedings of Building Simulation 2001, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
Taylor, R.D., C.O. Pedersen, D. Fisher, R. Liesen, and L. Lawrie. 1991. “Impact of simultane-
ous simulation of building and mechanical systems in heat balance based energy analysis programs
on system response and control”, International Building Performance Simulation Association, Con-
ference Proceedings of Building Simulation 1991, Nice, France.
• calculate the electric consumption of refrigerated cases and walk-in coolers connected to a
compressor rack
• determine the impact of refrigerated cases and walk-in coolers on zone cooling and dehumid-
ification loads (i.e., case credits), including the effects of HVAC duct configuration
• calculate the electric consumption and COP of the compressor rack, and the electric and
water (if applicable) consumption related to cooling the compressor rack’s condenser.
• determine the total amount of heat rejected by the compressor rack’s condenser and store
this information for use by waste heat recovery models (e.g., using Desuperheater heating
coil (object: Coil:Heating:Desuperheater) as an air reheat coil for high humidity control in a
supermarket)
The case and walk-in models account for nearly all performance aspects of typical supermarket
refrigeration equipment. Refrigerated case and walk-in performance are based on the combined
effects of evaporator load, fan operation, lighting, defrost type, and anti-sweat heater operation.
Optional air and water heating coils can be modeled to reclaim available waste heat (superheat)
from the compressor rack.
The user has two options when describing the balance of the system. Energy used to cool the
condenser is simulated in both approaches. The simplest option is to use a compressor rack object,
combining the compressors and condenser into a single unit with the performance determined by
1376 CHAPTER 18. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
the heat rejection environment and the total case load. An example schematic of a compressor rack
system is shown in Figure 18.13 below.
A detailed refrigeration system object models compressor and condenser performance separately.
The detailed refrigeration system also includes the ability to transfer refrigeration load from one
system to another using subcoolers, cascade condensers, and secondary loops. An example schematic
of the detailed refrigeration system is shown in Figure 18.14 below. Subcooler #2 is shown twice
on Figure 18.14 because it represents a liquid suction heat exchanger. This type of subcooler
uses the cool suction gas to subcool the warmer condensed liquid. Subcoolers #1 and #3 on
Figure 18.14 represent mechanical subcoolers. These subcoolers are used to subcool the condensate
on a lower-temperature system using the cold liquid refrigerant from a higher temperature system.
On this example, only subcoolers #1 and #2 would be defined as a part of the refrigeration system.
However, subcooler #3 would place a refrigerating load, similar to the load of a refrigerated case,
on the system.
• a fluid, such as a brine or glycol solution, is cooled in a secondary evaporator and is then
circulated to chill the refrigerated cases and walk-ins, and
• a refrigerant, such as CO2 , is partially evaporated in the refrigerated cases and walk-ins in a
liquid-overfeed circuit, and then condensed in a secondary evaporator.
The first two classes of secondary loops are modeled using Refrigeration:System objects
with Refrigeration:Condenser:WaterCooled and Refrigeration:Condenser:Cascade objects, respec-
tively. Figure 18.14 shows how cascade condensers and secondary evaporators are treated as
18.2. REFRIGERATION EQUIPMENT 1377
a refrigeration load on a primary detailed system. The second two classes are modeled with a
Refrigeration:SecondarySystem object described later in this section.
The compressor rack, detailed and secondary refrigeration systems, refrigerated case, and
other component models are described below. The optional air and water heating coils
are described elsewhere in this document (Ref. objects Coil:Heating:Desuperheater and
Coil:WaterHeating:Desuperheater).
For condenser heat rejection to the outdoors, condenser cooling can be modeled as dry air
cooling, wet evaporative cooling, or water loop cooling. Using evaporative cooling rather than
dry air cooling will allow for more efficient condenser heat rejection based on the entering air
approaching the wet-bulb temperature rather than the dry-bulb temperature. Analyses under
the International Energy Agency’s (IEA) Heat Pumping Programme Annex 26 indicates that this
measure can improve refrigeration system efficiency by up to 10% (IEA 2003). The use of an
evaporative-cooled condenser requires a water pump and, optionally, a basin sump water heater (to
protect against freezing). Makeup water will also be required to replace that lost by evaporation. In
colder climates, some evaporative-cooled condensers are drained for the winter months and run as
dry air units. This scenario can be modeled by using an optional evaporative condenser availability
schedule.
The simulation of the evaporative cooled condenser utilizes an effective air dry-bulb tempera-
ture that is assumed to be the result of evaporation of water in the air stream (similar to object
EvaporativeCooler:Direct:CelDekPad). As discussed below, this effective temperature is used by
performance curves that are a function of temperature. While some designs of evaporative coolers
use water film cascading across the condenser coil for evaporative cooling, the current model uses the
effective temperature method as a surrogate for the more complex water film on coil calculations.
If the condenser heat rejection is specified as water cooled, an appropriate plant water loop
must be defined by the user (see documentation on Plant/Condenser Loops for additional details
about plant loops). This will include defining cooling supply components, such as pumps, water
storage tanks, and cooling towers, as well as related branches, nodes, and connectors. The heat
rejection from the refrigeration condenser is modeled as a cooling demand, which is satisfied by
heat extraction devices (e.g., water tank and cooling tower) on the cooling supply side of a water
loop. An example of such an arrangement is shown in Figure 18.15.
where:
COPoperating is the compressor coefficient of performance at actual operating conditions (W/W)
COPdesign is the compressor coefficient of performance at design conditions (W/W)
COP f T emp is the output of the normalized “Compressor Rack COP as a Function of Temper-
ature Curve” (dimensionless).
Because the COP curve is defined only as a function of the condensing temperature, it is im-
portant that this curve definition corresponds to the lowest evaporating temperature served by the
compressor rack. The air temperature used to evaluate the “Compressor Rack COP as a Function
of Temperature Curve” depends on where the compressor rack’s condenser is located (Heat Rejec-
tion Location). When modeling condenser heat rejected directly to a zone (typical of a stand-alone
packaged refrigerated case with integral condenser located in a building zone), the zone air dry-bulb
temperature is used to calculate the change in compressor COP from the design value. If more than
one refrigerated case and no walk-ins are attached to a compressor rack that rejects its condenser
heat to a zone, then all cases served by this rack must reside in the same zone. When modeling
a compressor rack serving at least one walk-in, OR with condenser heat rejected to outdoors, the
refrigerated cases and walk-ins connected to this rack may be located in different zones. If the con-
denser type is specified as “Air Cooled”, the outdoor air dry-bulb temperature is used to evaluate
the “Compressor Rack COP as a Function of Temperature Curve.” If the condenser type is specified
as “Evap Cooled”, the air temperature leaving the condenser is related to the effectiveness of the
evaporative cooling system. If the evaporative process were 100% effective, the effective tempera-
ture of air leaving the evaporative media would equal the air wet-bulb temperature. However, the
efficiency of the direct evaporative process is typically less than 100%, and the effective temperature
leaving the condenser is determined by:
Q̇case is the evaporator load for each refrigerated case connected to the rack (W)
Q̇walkin is the refrigeration load for each walk-in connected to the rack (W).
The heat reclaim heating coil is able to transfer a fixed percentage of this total amount
of rejected energy (not to exceed 30%) and use it to heat air and water. Refer to objects
Coil:Heating:Desuperheater and Coil:WaterHeating:Desuperheater for a complete description of
how these coils are modeled.
NOTE: When modeling a heat reclaim coil, the heat rejection location in the Refrigera-
tion:CompressorRack object must be “Outdoors”. If the compressor rack heat rejection location is
“Zone”, the total amount of waste heat available for reclaim (e.g., by a desuperheater heating coil)
is set to zero by the compressor rack object and the simulation proceeds.
where:
Q̇Zone,heating is the output variable “Refrigeration Compressor Rack Zone Sensible Heating Rate”
(W)
RAF is the return air factor for each case connected to the rack (Ref. Figure 18.16)
Q̇HV AC,heating is the output variable “Refrigeration Compressor Rack Return Air Sensible Heat-
ing Rate” (W).
If the HVAC system is off for a simulation time step (no return air mass flow), the rack condenser
heat normally attributed to the HVAC return is set equal to zero and all condenser heat energy is
applied to the zone air heat balance.
If, however, walk-in cooler(s) are also served by this compressor rack, no condenser heat is
rejected to the HVAC return air. For walk-in cooler(s), the user must specify the zone that accepts
the condenser heat rejection (because walk-ins can exchange heat with multiple zones). In that
case:
Qcondenser
ṁ = (18.117)
cp · (Tout − Tin )
where:
ṁ is the mass flow in the water loop
Qcondenser is the heat rejected by the condenser
cp is the specific heat of water
Tout is the desired water outlet temperature
Tin is the return water inlet temperature.
The desired water outlet temperature is specified using a schedule, subject to a maximum water
outlet temperature (input specified). The maximum temperature is typically defined by constraints
on the refrigerant loop pressures and temperatures. The desired mass flow in the water loop to
meet the temperature schedule is also compared to the user-supplied maximum flow rate. If the
desired mass flow is greater than the maximum allowed flow, the flow rate is set to the maximum
value and the resulting water outlet temperature is determined.
The return water inlet temperature is a function of the cooling system defined by the user. A
minimum return water temperature may need to be taken into consideration to prevent lowering
the resulting refrigerant condensing pressure to the point that refrigerant expansion valve operation
becomes impaired. When ambient conditions produce low temperature warnings based on the
minimum return water temperature, an outlet temperature setpoint control may need to be placed
on the water heat sink object (e.g., cooling tower) to keep the return water temperature above the
minimum.
If the water loop flow is constant (i.e., driven by a constant speed pump), then the outlet water
temperature will vary with the amount of heat rejected by the condenser. Using the equation
above, the resulting water outlet temperature is calculated as
Qcondenser
Tout = + Tin (18.118)
cp · ṁ
are not running), but rather runs continuously. However, if the evaporative condenser availability
schedule is set such that evaporative cooling is not available (e.g., during very cold months to avoid
freezing), then the pump power consumption will be zero during that period.
where:
Pbasinheater is the electric power demand for basin heater in current time step (W)
Pheatercapacity is the electric heater capacity as a function of differential temperature (W/K)
Tsetpoint is the setpoint temperature below which the heater turns on (◦ C)
TOutDb is the outdoor air dry-bulb temperature (◦ C).
A default value for the basin heater capacity of 200 W/K has been established based on manu-
facturer data.
Q̇case = Q̇walls + Q̇rad + Q̇inf,sens + Q̇inf,lat + Q̇lights + Q̇as + Q̇def + Q̇f an + Q̇restock (18.121)
where:
Q̇case is the total load on the refrigerated case evaporator (W)
Q̇walls is the heat transfer through case walls due to the difference between the refrigerated case
operating dry-bulb temperature and the zone air dry-bulb temperature (W)
Q̇rad is the radiant heat transfer to the refrigerated case (W)
18.2. REFRIGERATION EQUIPMENT 1385
Q̇inf,sens is the sensible heat transfer by air infiltration to the refrigerated case through the air
curtain or via door openings (W)
Q̇inf,lat is the latent heat transfer by air infiltration to the refrigerated case through the air
curtain or via door openings (W)
Q̇lights is the lighting heat load (W)
Q̇as is the anti-sweat heater load (W)
Q̇def is the defrost heat load (W)
Q̇f an is the fan heat load (W)
Q̇restock is the sensible load on the refrigerated case due to restocking of products that are at a
higher temperature than the case (W).
The model assumes that these load components are known for a refrigerated case at rated
ambient air conditions (typically 23.9◦ C [75◦ F] and 55% relative humidity) and the specified case
operating temperature. A combination of user input curves and fixed correlations (defined within
EnergyPlus) adjust for case performance at off-rated conditions. Several of the load components are
typically provided by the case manufacturer (e.g., total rated load, fan, lighting, anti-sweat heater,
and defrost loads). The remaining load components are not usually provided by the manufacturer
and must be estimated (heat conduction through case walls, radiation heat transfer, sensible/latent
air infiltration, and restocking).
For estimating the latent air infiltration load, the model requires that the user provide the
latent heat ratio (LHR) for the refrigerated case at rated conditions. Research results are available
to provide guidance in selecting this value (ASHRAE 2002, Howell 1993a, Howell 1993b). The rated
LHR for refrigerated cases typically ranges from 0.1 to 0.3 depending on case configuration (e.g.,
glass door reach-in versus multi-deck open case) and case operating temperature.
The case loads due to wall heat conduction, radiation, and sensible air infiltration are estimated
by the model as a single lumped value (sensible case credits). The sensible case credits are calculated
by subtracting the known loads at rated conditions (fan, lighting, anti-sweat heater, defrost and
latent case credits) from the rated total cooling capacity of the case which is provided by the case
manufacturer (Q̇case,rated ).
Using these assumptions and the schedule inputs provided by the user, the refrigerated case
evaporator load components in Equation 18.121 are determined for each simulation time step. The
variation in certain loads with respect to changes in ambient air temperature and/or humidity
(e.g., latent and sensible case credits, defrost load, and anti-sweat heater load) are factored into the
calculation based on user-provided inputs or by the model itself.
Whenever the total heat load on the case is greater than the available evaporator capacity, such
as during defrost (when the evaporator capacity is set to zero) or restocking, the load is accumulated
to be met during subsequent time steps. This accounts for the energy required to bring the case
back down to the rated operating temperature even though the rise in case temperature during
defrost or restocking is not explicitly modeled. Following defrost, it may take multiple time steps
to meet this accumulated load.
The specific calculations for case evaporator load components and electric power for these loads
(as applicable) are provided below.
case, and the fraction of time that the case is not being defrosted. For cases with hot-gas or electric
defrost (with or without temperature termination), the fan is disabled during the entire scheduled
defrost drip-down time period. The evaporator fan operates continuously for off-cycle defrost or no
defrost.
Q̇f an = Pf an (18.123)
strategies can be simulated with this model: constant, linear variation with ambient relative hu-
midity or dewpoint temperature, and a theoretical model that determines the minimum anti-sweat
heater power required to maintain the case surface just above the temperature where condensation
would occur. Additionally, anti-sweat heater performance can be disregarded if the type of refrig-
erated case does not warrant its use. For the control strategies described below (except “None”
and “Constant Method”), the model does not allow the anti-sweat heater power to be less than
the minimum power nor greater than the case anti-sweat heater power specified by the user. Each
anti-sweat heater control type is described in detail below.
18.2.3.3.1 None
Used for refrigerated cases that do not require an anti-sweat heater.
Q̇as = 0 (18.126)
where Q̇as is the anti-sweat heater load on the case evaporator (W).
case operating temperature, and the rated ambient dewpoint temperature (calculated by the model
using the rated ambient temperature and rated ambient relative humidity entered by the user).
′ Tdp,air − Tcase
Pas = P as (Lcase ) (18.129)
Tdp,rated − Tcase
where:
Tdp,air is the dewpoint temperature of the ambient (zone) air (◦ C)
Tdp,rated is the rated ambient dewpoint temperature (◦ C)
Tcase is the case operating temperature (◦ C).
(Tdp,rated − Tcase )
Rcase = (18.131)
P′ Tdp,rated −Tdb,rated
as
Hcase
− Rair
The remainder of the anti-sweat heater energy (1 - Fas ) is a heating load to the zone where the
case is located, which is discussed further in section Sensible Case Credits below.
2
3
Def rostRatio = e + f (RHair ) + g RHair + h RHair (18.139)
For type Dewpoint Method:
2 3
Def rostRatio = i + jTdp,air + kTdp,air + lTdp,air (18.140)
where:
RHrated is the rated ambient relative humidity (%)
RHair is the relative humidity of the ambient (zone) air (%)
Tcase is the case operating temperature (◦ C)
Tdp,air is the dewpoint temperature of the ambient (zone) air (◦ C)
a, …, l is the user-defined coefficients using a cubic curve object (Curve:Cubic).
The user specifies the defrost energy correction curve type and the name of the cubic curve
object (Curve:Cubic) that defines the curve coefficients. Representative curve coefficients for curve
type “Case Temperature Method” are provided in Table 18.1.
18.2. REFRIGERATION EQUIPMENT 1391
As mentioned above, the refrigerated case evaporator is turned off while it is being defrosted.
Heat gains during defrost must be removed once the defrost period (drip-down schedule) has ended.
The model assumes that heat gains due to defrost heater operation are at least partially offset
by converting accumulated frost to liquid water (condensate) which drains from the case. Frost
accumulation during each simulation time step is estimated by the model using the actual latent
heat transfer to the refrigerated case and the heat of vaporization plus the heat of fusion for water.
The model assumes that frost is not accumulated on the evaporator during the defrost drip-down
time period.
!
Q̇case,rated (Lcase ) (RT Frated ) (LHRrated ) (LatentRatio) (tzn )
F rost = F rost+ (1 − SCHdef rost,dripdown )
(hf + hf g )
(18.141)
where:
F rostis the amount of accumulated frost on the case evaporator (kg)
Q̇case,rated is the case rated total cooling capacity per unit length (W/m)
Lcase is the case length (m)
RT Frated is the runtime fraction of the refrigerated case at rated conditions
LHRrated is the latent heat ratio of the refrigerated case at rated conditions
LatentRatio is the ratio of actual latent load to rated latent load on the case, based on latent
case credit curve (see section Latent Case Credits below)
tzn is the duration of zone simulation time step (s)
hf g is the heat of vaporization of water (assumed constant at 2,498,000 J/kg)
hf is the heat of fusion of water (335,000 J/kg)
SCHdef rost,dripdown is the defrost drip-down schedule value (0 to 1).
During defrost (SCHdefrost), the model assumes that the hot gas, hot brine, or electric heater
energy directly contributes to melting the frost (heat of fusion of water). Defrost energy not
attributed to melting frost from the evaporator coil results in a heat load on the refrigerated case
evaporator (Q̇def ). When the defrost drip-down time period ends, this defrost energy heat load
is added to the actual case load (up to the maximum evaporator capacity) until the total defrost
energy heat load is removed (which may take several simulation time steps).
1392 CHAPTER 18. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
h i
Q̇ccsens,rated = Q̇case,rated (RT Frated ) (1 − LHRrated ) − P ′ lights,std (Fl ) − P ′ as (Fas ) − P ′ f an,std Lcase
(18.144)
where:
Q̇ccsens,rated is the sensible case credits at rated conditions (W)
Q̇case,rated is the case rated total cooling capacity per unit length (W/m)
RT Frated is the runtime fraction of the refrigerated case at rated conditions
LHRrated is the latent heat ratio of the refrigerated case at rated conditions
P ′ lights,std is the standard case lighting power per unit length (W/m)
Fl is the fraction of lighting energy to case
P ′ as is the case anti-sweat heater power per unit length (W)
Fas is the fraction of anti-sweat heater energy to case
P ′ f an,std is the standard case fan power per unit length (W/m)
Lcase is the case length (m).
For every simulation time step, the rated sensible case credits are then adjusted to account for
variations at off-rated ambient air temperatures. The model also allows the user to define a case
credit fraction using a schedule object. This case credit fraction can be useful for modeling cases
that operate differently during specific time periods. For example, metal or plastic coverings may
be installed on refrigerated display cases during unoccupied hours which would significantly reduce
case credits (e.g., air infiltration) compared to occupied hours when the coverings are removed. If
the user does not define a case credit fraction schedule, then the fraction is assumed to be 1 for the
entire simulation.
18.2. REFRIGERATION EQUIPMENT 1393
Tdb,air − Tcase
Q̇ccsens = Q̇ccsens,rated (SCHcc ) (18.145)
Tdb,rated − Tcase
where:
Q̇ccsens is the sensible case credits adjusted for ambient temperature and case credit fraction
(W)
Tdb,air is the dry-bulb temperature of the ambient (zone) air (◦ C)
Tcase is the case operating temperature (◦ C)
Tdb,rated is the rated ambient (zone) dry-bulb temperature (◦ C)
SCHcc is the case credit fraction (schedule value, 0 to 1).
The sensible case credits calculated above are considered heat loads on the refrigerated case
evaporator. The net impact of the case credits on the surrounding zone includes adjustment for
the portion of the lighting and anti-sweat heater power that does not directly contribute to the case
evaporator load. Sensible case credits are negative values when heat is removed from the zone load.
Q̇inf,lat = −Q̇cclat = Q̇case,rated (LHRrated ) (RT Frated ) (SCHcc ) (LatentRatio) Lcase (18.147)
1394 CHAPTER 18. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
where:
Q̇inf,lat is the latent load on the refrigerated case evaporator at current ambient conditions (W)
Q̇cclat is the latent case credit impact on zone load, negative for dehumidification (W)
Q̇case,rated is the case rated total cooling capacity per unit length (W/m)
LHRrated is the latent heat ratio of the refrigerated case at rated conditions
RT Frated is the runtime fraction of the refrigerated case at rated conditions
SCHCC is the case credit fraction (schedule value, 0 to 1)
LatentRatio is the ratio of actual latent load to rated latent load on the case, based on latent
case credit curve
Lcase is the case length (m).
Latent load on the refrigerated case evaporator will vary with ambient humidity levels. There-
fore, the refrigerated case model allows the user to specify a latent case credit curve to adjust
case credits based on ambient humidity, and the user can select from three curve types: Case
Temperature Method, Relative Humidity Method, or Dewpoint Method.
If CurveType is Case Temperature Method:
LatentRatio = 1 − (RHrated − RHair ) m + nTcase + oTcase
2 3
+ pTcase (18.148)
Else if CurveType is RH Method:
2
3
LatentRatio = q + r (RHair ) + s RHair + t RHair (18.149)
Else if CurveType is Dewpoint Method:
2 3
LatentRatio = u + vTdp,air + wTdp,air + xTdp,air (18.150)
where:
RHrated is the rated ambient relative humidity (%)
RHair is the relative humidity of the ambient (zone) air (%)
Tcase is the case operating temperature (◦ C)
Tdp,air is the dewpoint temperature of the ambient (zone) air (◦ C)
m, …, x is the user-defined coefficients using a cubic curve object (Curve:Cubic).
The user specifies the latent case credit curve type and the name of the cubic curve object
(Curve:Cubic) that defines the curve coefficients. Representative curve coefficients for curve type
“Case Temperature Method” are provided in Table 18.2.
Figure 18.16: Return Air Factor Versus Under Case HVAC Return Air Fraction
Since under case return ducts reduce the temperature and humidity of the air being recirculated
to the HVAC system, this can impact HVAC system performance. Figure 18.16 shows the rela-
tionship that is used by the refrigerated case model to determine the fraction of case credits that
directly cool and dehumidify the HVAC system return air. This fraction, referred to as the Return
Air Factor (RAF), is a function of the fraction of the HVAC system return air that comes from
under the cases. The remaining fraction of the case credits (1-RAF) becomes part of the overall
zone air energy balance. If the HVAC system is off for a simulation time step (no return air mass
flow), the sensible and latent case credits normally attributed to the HVAC return are set equal
to zero (even though they get calculated and reported here as non-zero values) and all case credit
energy is applied to the zone air heat balance.
Q̇case,actual
LFcase = (18.155)
Q̇case,rated
control the lights, defrost, and heater operation. Just as for cases, unmet refrigeration loads are
accumulated to be met the following time step. This usually occurs during defrost and restocking.
QInf iltration = QF ullF low · F actorDoorOpen · F actorF low · (1 − F actorP rotection ) (18.160)
QF ullF low = 0.221∗ADoor (hZoneAir −hAirW alkIn )ρAirW alkIn (1−ρZoneAir /ρAirW alkIn )0.5 (g∗HDoor )0.5 F actorDensity
(18.161)
1398 CHAPTER 18. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
X
QW alkInSensT ot = QW alkInSensZn +QLight +QF an +QHeater +QDef rost +QStocking +QF loor (18.172)
X
∆F rostT ot = ∆F rostZn (18.174)
where QLight , QF an , QHeater , QStocking , and QDef rost are described below.
18.2.4.3 Defrost
The defrost types available for the walk-in model include none, off-cycle, electric, and hot-fluid.
Defrosts are started according to scheduled times and can be ended either by schedule or by tem-
perature termination. Dripdown schedules are used to keep the cooling coil off long enough to drain
any condensate from the system.
For defrost types none and off-cycle, the refrigeration load on the walk-in due to defrost is
zero. For off-cycle, the walk-in refrigeration capacity is set to zero during the drip-down scheduled
time.
The energy required for hot-fluid defrost is assumed to be reclaimed from the compressor exhaust
(for detailed systems, this energy appears as a credit against the heat rejection needed at the
condenser). The energy used by electric defrost is available as an output variable.
If the defrost cycle is controlled by the schedule, the refrigeration load placed upon the walk-in is
calculated as the product of the defrost capacity and the defrost schedule. The load is then reduced
according to the amount of accumulated ice melted during that time step.
QDef rost = CapacityDef rost · SCHDef rost − ∆f rost · ∆hIceM elt /∆time (18.179)
where:
QDef rost is the refrigeration load imposed by defrost heat (W)
CapacityDef rost is the rated defrost power (W)
SCHDef rost is the scheduled value between 0 and 1 for the current time step
∆f rost is the amount of frost melted during time step (kg)
∆hIceM elt is the heat of fusion for ice (J/kg)
∆time is the time step (s)
If the defrost is controlled by temperature termination, the defrost cycle is assumed to end when
all the ice is melted. However, we need to recognize not all defrost heat goes to melt ice. Some
of the defrost heat goes to raising the temperature of the coil mass to greater than 0C, and some
18.2. REFRIGERATION EQUIPMENT 1401
is transferred to the walk-in environment as some of the coils are defrosted before others. The
user enters a ‘defrost energy fraction’ to specify the portion of the defrost energy that goes directly
to melting ice. The default for defrost energy fraction is 0.7 for electric defrost and 0.3 for warm
fluid defrost.( Baxter, V. D., Mei, V.C., 2002) For this type of defrost control, the model calculates
the amount of energy available to melt the ice in each time step. The accumulated amount of ice
is then reduced accordingly. When all the ice is melted, the defrost schedule value is set to zero
and no further defrost load is placed upon the walk-in cooler. If the defrost schedule ends before
the ice is melted, the schedule is used and the ice continues to accumulate until the next defrost
cycle. The refrigeration capacity is kept at zero until the end of the drip-down schedule. Until the
accumulated ice is melted, the defrost heat load upon the walk-in is:
Bruce Nelson has provided a useful description of the Unit Load Factor approach.(Nelson, B.I.,
2010)
*“One well-known method used to calculate the sensible cooling capacity of evaporators is the
effectiveness method.(Kays,* W.M., A.L. London, 1964) Heat exchanger effectiveness is defined
as the ratio of the actual amount of heat transferred to the maximum possible amount of heat that
could be transferred with an infinite area. This method is extremely useful because cooling capacity
can be calculated directly knowing only the dimensional characteristics of the coil and the initial
temperature difference (entering air temperature minus the evaporating temperature). This initial
temperature difference is referred to as “DT1” … in the refrigeration industry. Sensible cooling
capacity is calculated as follows:
1402 CHAPTER 18. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
For a given size of coil operating with constant airflow rate, the effectiveness can be considered
constant over the small op- erating temperature ranges typical of refrigeration applications, and
therefore, capacity can be considered to be proportional to the ratio of DT1. Hence, if evaporator
coil sensible capac- ity is known for a given DT1, then capacity at a new initial temperature difference,
DT1*, can be found by multiplying the original capacity by the ratio DT1*/DT1.”
where:
qsens is the cooling capacity (sensible only) (W)
ṁ is the mass flow rate of air (kg/s)
cp is the specific heat capacity of moist air (J/kg-◦ C)
ε is the effectiveness ( = (Tcoil,inlet - Tcoil,exit )/(Tcoilinlet - Tevap )
Tcoil,inlet is the dry-bulb air temperature entering the coil (◦ C)
Tevap is the average refrigeratnt evaporating temperature (◦ C)
Tcoil,exit is the dry-bulb air temperature leaving the coil (◦ C)
DT1 is the initial temperature difference (◦ C).
Using this approach, the manufacturer specifies the Unit Load Factor in terms of sensible ca-
pacity per degree of temperature difference.
The total capacity is the sum of the sensible and latent capacity. The sensible heat ratio (SHR)
is the sensible heat transfer divided by the total (sensible plus latent) heat transfer. Again, from
Nelson, (Nelson, B.I., 2010)
The mass transfer process is much more “thermally effective” than the sensible heat transfer
process, that is, the heat flux through the evaporator surfaces during the mass transfer process is
extremely high.(AHRI, 2001) Consequently, if the surface effectiveness of the coil were to remain
constant, the increase in the evaporator cooling capacity during combined sensible and latent cooling
would be equal to the sensible cooling capacity divided by the SHR… However, the increase in heat flux
through the fin surfaces has the effect of decreasing fin efficiency and overall surface effectiveness
due to an increase in the fin surface temperature gradient.7 The result is a slightly lower total cooling
capacity.
qsens
Qideal = (18.183)
SHR
qsens
SHR = (18.184)
Qtotal
where:
Qideal is the cooling capacity (total) if fin efficiency and total effectiveness were constant (W)
QT otal is the cooling capacity (total), actual.
The total capacity is therefore a function of the sensible heat ratio, which is a function of the
total capacity, and they are both, of course a function of the psychometrics of the air flowing through
the chiller. This is handled with a two step estimation process.
18.2. REFRIGERATION EQUIPMENT 1403
where:
∆T is the temperature difference between the inlet air and the average evaporating temperature
(◦ C)
∆T M ax is the maximum temperature difference specified by the user (◦ C)
SCHCoil is the coil availability schedule
hCoil,exit is the enthalpy of air at the coil exit
hCoil,inlet is the enthalpy of air at the coil inlet
PBarometric is the barometric air pressure (Pa).
The “Correction” function must be obtained from the chiller manufacturer. Some curves typical
of ammonia chillers have been published (see, for example, Fig. 2 in (Nelson, B.I., 2010)). A default
linear approximation of this curve is provided as an input option.
Five standard rating conditions have been defined in a European rating system. The capacity is
reported at the rating condition as either the “Nominal” or “Standard” capacity. The “Nominal”
capacity includes both latent and sensible loads and the “Standard” capacity includes sensible loads
only. “Wet Coil Factors” are provided with the ratings to translate between the two, along with a
chart giving the impact of Air Inlet Temperature on the Wet Coil Factor. The user identifies the
rating condition used and whether the capacity input is “Nominal” or “Standard”. These rating
factors, along with the air inlet temperature and evaporating temperature are used to calculate the
actual cooling capacity.
W etCoilF actor(TCoil,inlet ) ∆T
QTotal = QNominal × × (18.186)
W etCoilF actor(StandardCondition) ∆TRated
Some manufacturers are beginning to provide more comprehensive performance information. For
these air chillers, the manufacturers specify a Rated Total Capacity at a given inlet air relative hu-
midity. A table or set of curves is then provided to calculate the total capacity QT otal , as a function
of the inlet air temperature and relative humidity, and the average evaporating temperature.
1404 CHAPTER 18. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
3. explicitly calculates the amount of superheat available for reclaim in an optional air or water
heating coil,
4. allows the suction temperature to rise when the case loads are less than the design loads, thus
improving compressor efficiency,
5. allows the transfer of loads from one system to another, including cascade condensers and
secondary systems typically used to reduce the amount of refrigerant inventory in the primary
system, and mechanical subcoolers typically used to transfer a part of the refrigeration load
from a lower-temperature system to a more efficient higher-temperature system,
6. allows the use of liquid suction heat exchangers which will improve the cycle efficiency for
some refrigerants,
18.2. REFRIGERATION EQUIPMENT 1405
9. does not assume that the compressor and condenser capacity is sufficient to meet the case
loads, but carries unmet load over to the next time step,
10. provides optional suction piping heat gain for comparison to distribution piping heat gain for
secondary systems. [Note, these piping heat gains are also reflected in the zone heat balance.
This piping heat gain is not to be confused with the pressure change in the suction piping,
even though this pressure change is typically expressed in terms of an change in the saturated
suction temperature].
P P P
Q̇T ransf er = Q̇CascadeCondenser + Q̇SecondaryLoop + Q̇M echanicalSubcooler
P P P P (18.190)
Q̇Ref rigeration = Q̇Case + Q̇W alkIn + Q̇T ransf er + Q̇P ipeHeatGain
This two step process is repeated twice to ensure that all the energy transfers among systems
are balanced.
Suction piping heat gain is an optional element in the load calculation. Typically, the suction
pipe heat gain is small compared to the other loads. However, when comparing DX systems to
secondary systems, this portion of the total load can be very different. (Hinde, D., et al. 2009)
To calculate the pipe heat gain load, the user must first calculate the U-value and area for the
suction piping. The U-value is the total conductance from the inside skin coefficient to the outside
skin coefficient. This value must be multiplied by the area to provide the “sum of the UA in
W/C,” required in the input.
1406 CHAPTER 18. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
where:
ṁ is the mass flow rate of refrigerant (kg/s)
18.2. REFRIGERATION EQUIPMENT 1407
Figure 18.17: State Points and Energy Flows for Detailed Refrigeration System
1408 CHAPTER 18. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
Refering to Figure 18.18 for a two-stage system with a shell-and-coil intercooler, the performance
of the intercooler is modeled with a “Shell-and-Coil Intercooler Effectiveness”, defined as follows:
T4 − T5a
η= (18.194)
T4 − T3
where η is the shell-and-coil intercooler effectiveness, T 4 is the inlet temperature of the liquid
refrigerant at Location 4, T 5a is the outlet temperature of the liquid refrigerant at Location 5a,
and T 3 is the saturated refrigerant temperature within the intercooler shell. Valid values for the
effectiveness range from 0.0 to 1.0. An effectiveness of zero indicates that no heat is transferred
from the refrigerant in the shell-side of the intercooler to the liquid refrigerant in the coil-side of
the the intercooler, and thus, there is no change in the temperature of the liquid refrigerant from
Location 4 to Location 5a. An effectiveness of 1.0 indicates that the temperature of the liquid
exiting the coil-side of the intercooler at Location 5a is equal to the temperature of the saturated
refrigerant in the shell-side of the intercooler. The user may specify a value for the intercooler
effectiveness and a default value of 0.8 is used if no value is specified. Furthermore, it is assumed
that saturated vapor refrigerant exits the shell-and-coil intercooler at Location 9.
For the flash intercooler shown in Figure 18.19, it is assumed that saturated liquid exits the
intercooler at Location 3a and saturated vapor refrigerant exits the intercooler at Location 7.
The two-stage compression refrigeration system may include an optional mechanical subcooler
or liquid-suction subcooler. These subcoolers cool the liquid refrigerant which exits the intercooler
before the refrigerant enters the thermal expansion valve. Further details regarding the modeling
of mechanical and liquid-suction subcoolers may be found in the “Subcoolers” section.
Hrej ∝ AirVelocityN
Air Velocity ∝ Hrej 1/N (18.200)
1/N
Hrej
Air Volume Ratio = Hrej Rated
where N is 0.633 for turbulent air flow over cylinders (ASHRAE 2005).
The Air Volume Ratio is limited by a minimum value, which may be specified by the user. The
default for this value is 0.2.
Four fan curves are built into the condenser fan model to represent four types of fan control, as
shown in Figure 18.20. (Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory and Resource Dynamics, April 2003)
For a fixed-speed fan, the air flow is reduced through either the use of dampers or by cycling
the fan on and off.
For a cycling fan, the power variation with air flow volume is approximately linearabove the
minimum air volume ratio as shown in the following equation for the option “FixedLinear”:
For a fixed speed fan with damper (corresponding to the option “Fixed”), the shape of the power
fraction curve is as shown above, and calculated using:
C3
(Tcondense − Twetbulb ) = C1 + C2 HRCF + + C4 Twetbulb (18.207)
HRCF
or:
C3
Tcondense = C1 + C2 HRCF + + (1 + C4 ) Twetbulb (18.208)
HRCF
Where:
HrejRated
HRCF = (18.209)
Hrej
C1 , C2 , C3 , and C4 are coefficients determined by regression from manufacturer’s data.
Figure 18.21 shows a comparison between this equation form, which produced an adjusted R2
of 0.998 and a maximum residual of 0.7◦ C, for one manufacturer of evaporative condensers. Data
from two other manufacturers showed similar agreement with this parameterization.
Again, the condensing temperature is not allowed to fall below the system’s minimum allowed
condensing temperature. Just as with an air-cooled condenser, the air flow through the condenser
is controlled to maintain this minimum condensing temperature and the air velocity reduction is a
function of the decreased capacity (Manske, 1999). For an evaporative condenser, relevant capacity
is not the amount of heat rejected, but the rated capacity at that reduced air flow. That decreased
rated capacity must first be calculated based upon the specified minimum condensing temperature.
Using Equation 18.208, the specified condensing temperature is used to calculate the reduced HRCF,
which is used with the current heat rejection to calculate the “reduced Rated Heat Rejection”.
1/N
Reduced Rated Heat Rejection
Air V olume Ratio = (18.212)
HrejRated
where N = exponent for evaporative condensers, set to 0.76 (Manske, 1999).
The water consumption for an evaporative condenser is calculated based upon the air flow rate,
the total heat rejection, and the heat rejection environment. The amount of water consumption
also includes the amount of water that is purged to reduce the concentration of contaminants. The
purge water is estimated as proportional to the heat rejection, at a rate of 5.0E-10 m3 /s per Watt
of heat rejection (B.A.C., 2007). (This value, which corresponds to 3 gal./min. per 100 tons, is
slightly more conservative than the value quoted by ASHRAE, 2004.) For the compressor racks,
the condenser effectiveness was input as a function of the environmental wetbulb temperature. For
the detailed evaporative condenser, the input data instead describes the capacity as a function of
environmental conditions and loading. From that data, the water evaporation is calculated using
the effectiveness corresponding to a fully loaded condenser. When the condenser is operating outside
the bounds of the manufacturer’s data, the effectiveness is limited to a maximum value of 0.9.
Hrej
η = V̇air,rated ρair (hT condense,sat −hair,in )
Tair,out is the air temperature leaving the condenser, psychometric function of saturated air at
the enthalpy leaving the condenser and the barometric pressure
V̇evaporation is the volumetric rate of water evaporation in the condenser (m3 /s)
ωair,out is the humidity ratio (kgwater /kgdry air ) of the air leaving the condenser, psychometric
function of Tair,out and the barometric pressure
ωair,in is the humidity ratio (kgwater /kgdry air ) of the air at environmental conditions
ρwater is the density of water evaluated at the environmental wetbulb temperature (kg/m3 )
V̇purge is the volumetric rate of water purged in the condenser (m3 /s)
V̇makeup is the volumetric rate of water makeup in the condenser (m3 /s).
The source of the makeup water may be specified as a water storage tank. If not specified, the
makeup water is assumed to come from the building mains (Ref. Water Mains Temperatures).
An evaporative condenser can be scheduled, using the Evaporative Condenser Availability Sched-
ule described previously, so that it operates in a dry mode for a portion of the year. This is important
in climates subject to freezing weather in order to avoid excessive ice formation on the condenser
surfaces and surroundings. (The Availability Schedule is the correct way to model the use of evapo-
rative condensers in cold climates. However, some users may take a single input description and use
it to model a building with a refrigeration system in a variety of climates. To avoid modeling the
use of evaporative coolers in freezing weather, the code includes a cutout to switch to dry operation
whenever the outdoor drybulb temperature drops below 4◦ C.) Dry operation can also reduce water
use when the dry heat rejection capacity of the equipment is sufficient to meet the load during times
of the year when the outside drybulb temperature is reduced. In dry operation, the condenser heat
rejection capacity is approximately one third of the rated wetted heat rejection capacity(Manske,
2000). In dry operation, the condensing temperature is estimated by using the same four-factor
equation, but using the air drybulb temperature instead of the wetbulb temperature and using the
reduced heat rejection capacity factor.
HRCF wetoperation
HRCFdryoperation = 3.0
C3 (18.214)
Tcondense,dryoperation = C1 + C2 HRCFdryoperation + HRCFdryoperation
+ (1 + C4 ) Tdrybulb
Figure 18.22: A cascade condenser is used to reject heat from a low-temperature detailed refriger-
ation system to a higher-temperature detailed refrigeration system
that cascade condenser (which should be greater than or equal to the secondary system’s specified
minimum condensing temperature). If the condensing temperature control type is ‘float’, the con-
densing temperature is allowed to float according to the minimum required evaporating temperature
for other loads served by the primary system.
For fixed control:
where:
Tcondense,rated is the rated condensing temperature for the cascade condenser (◦ C)
ΔTapproach is the rated approach temperature difference for the cascade condenser (∆◦ C)
Tevap,min is the evaporating temperature required to meet other loads on the primary system
◦
( C).
The approach temperature difference (the difference between the condensing and evaporating
temperatures) in the cascade condenser, is held constant at the rated value. That is, the approach
temperature difference is not varied according to the load on the condenser.
For cases and walk-ins served by cascade condensers, energy needed for hot brine or hot gas
defrost is reclaimed from the primary system. The refrigeration load the cascade condenser places
upon the primary system is classified as a ‘transfer load’, because it transfers load from one system
to another. This load is the sum of all case and walk-in loads served by the secondary system, any
suction piping heat gains on the secondary loop, plus the secondary loop’s compressor power. The
18.2. REFRIGERATION EQUIPMENT 1419
same name (Ref. Refrigeration:Condenser:Cascade, field “Name”) used to identify the condenser in
the secondary loop is used to identify the transfer load on the primary system.
X X X X
Q̇Cascade = Q̇Case + Q̇Walkin + Q̇Compressor + Q̇PipeHeatGain (18.217)
where:
Q̇Cascade is the total refrigeration load the cascade condenser places upon the primary system
(W)
Q̇Case is the case load on the secondary loop (W)
Q̇W alkin is the walk-in load on the secondary loop (W)
Q̇Compressor is the power input to a compressor on the secondary loop (W)
Q̇P ipeHeatGain is the heat gain in secondary loop suction pipe (W).
Even though a cascade condenser is considered to be a part of a secondary loop,
that loop is described with the Refrigeration:System object, not with the object, Re-
frigeration:SecondarySystem, described below.
18.2.6.5 Subcoolers
Subcooler objects (Refrigeration:Subcooler) reduce the temperature of the liquid refrigerant after it
leaves the condenser and before it reaches the thermal expansion valve, corresponding to state point,
3b, on Figure 18.17. The detailed refrigeration system permits the use of two type of subcoolers,
mechanical and liquid suction. A mechanical subcooler is used to transfer refrigeration load from a
lower-temperature system to a higher-temperature system. For example, the compressors that are
used to provide cooling for dairy products could be used to subcool the refrigerant in another system
that is serving frozen food cases. For the system providing the cooling, the mechanical subcooler acts
like another refrigerated case load. For the system receiving the cooling, the mechanical subcooler
reduces the enthalpy of the refrigerant from point 3a to point 3b on Figure 18.17, and thus reduces
the required refrigerant flow rate. Mechanical subcooler performance is defined by the controlled
temperature of the subcooled liquid as follows:
increase the superheat of the gas returning to the compressor, as shown by the difference between
state points 1a and 1b in Figure 18.17:
∆TDesign
ηLSHX = TLiquidDesign −TV aporDesign
Q̇ = ṁCp,liquid ηLSHX (T3a − T1a )
Q̇
(18.219)
T1b = T1a + ṁCp,vapor
h3b = h3a − Q̇
ṁ
where:
ηLSHX is the subcooler effectiveness
cp,vapor is the specific heat of saturated vapor at the evaporating temperature (J/kg-◦ C)
∆TDesign is the design liquid temperature difference (∆◦ C)
TLiquidDesign is the design liquid inlet temperature (◦ C)
TV aporDesign is the design vapor inlet temperature (◦ C).
If a system is subcooled by both a mechanical subcooler and a liquid subcooler, the liquid
subcooler will follow the mechanical subcooler and those points labeled ‘3a’ in the liquid suction
equations would correspond to the points labeled ‘3b’ in the mechanical subcooler equations, that
is, the inlet of the LSHX would be the outlet of the mechanical subcooler.
Any one system can be cooled (i.e., have energy removed between points ‘3a’ and ‘3b’) by at
most one liquid suction heat exchanger and one mechanical subcooler. However, a system can pro-
vide cooling to multiple mechanical subcoolers. For example if a building had one high temperature
refrigeration system (perhaps cooling fresh produce) and three low temperature systems (perhaps
cooling frozen foods and meat), each of the three low temperature systems could include a me-
chanical subcooler with the refrigeration energy for all three absorbed by the one high-temperature
system. For the compressors and condenser on the high-temperature system, these three mechan-
ical subcoolers would represent a load very similar to that of the refrigerated cases served by that
system.
where:
Q̇P ipeHeatGain is the heat load on the detailed refrigeration system due to suction pipe heat gains
(W)P
U A is the sum of the product of the conductance times the surface area for the suction piping
◦
(W/ C).
18.2. REFRIGERATION EQUIPMENT 1421
For both types of secondary loops, the primary refrigeration system absorbs the load by providing
cold refrigerant that evaporates in the secondary evaporator. We classify this secondary load as
a ‘transfer load’ because it transfers load from one ‘system’ to another. (Cascade condenser loads
are also considered transfer loads.) Just as with any DX refrigeration evaporator, the variable
load from the secondary system is served by varying the primary system refrigerant flow to the
1422 CHAPTER 18. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
evaporator side of the secondary evaporator. Unmet load will be carried over to the next time
step anytime the load on the secondary condenser/evaporator exceeds the rated capacity for the
specified temperatures. (A warning will be generated if the total unmet energy grows excessively
large.) The main differences between the single-phase secondary loop model and the two-phase
secondary loop model lie in the definition and performance of the secondary evaporator and the
way input data is processed to define evaporator capacity.
For a brine system, the secondary loop capacity is matched to the case and walk-in load by
varying the brine flow rate. (Throughout this section, ‘brine’ will be used when referring to the
secondary loop heat transfer fluid for systems where the secondary circulating fluid remains in
the liquid state.) When selecting the brine loop design parameters, it is important to consider the
performance trade-off between pumping energy and the temperature difference, or range, in the heat
exchanger. The circulating fluid selection is also critical in determining the performance of brine
loop, with large variations caused by differences in viscosity and density (which impact pumping
power requirements) and specific heat (which determines the required fluid flow rate). (Kazachki,
G. S., and Hinde, D. K., 2006, Faramarzi, R. T., and Walker, D. H. 2004, ASHRAE. 2006c)
For a secondary loop to accommodate a two-phase secondary coolant, additional hardware is
required and the system control mode changes. A separator/receiver is required to separate the
wet mixture of liquid and gas returning from the refrigeration load, as shown in Figure 18.24. (In
the following discussion, we will refer to the secondary fluid in a liquid-overfeed system as CO2 .) In
Figure 18.25, which focuses in on the secondary loop alone, the gaseous CO2 moves via thermosiphon
effect to the secondary evaporator, where heat is absorbed by the primary system to condense the
CO2 , which then returns via gravity flow to the separator/revceiver. The liquid CO2 is pulled from
the bottom of the separator/receiver and pumped to the load. The term ‘liquid overfeed ratio’ refers
to the ratio of the total pumped mass flow rate (at the point labeled “1” on Figure 18.25) of CO2
to the mass rate of CO2 evaporated at the load (vapor portion of the flow at the point labled “5”
on Figure 18.25). With a variable flow rate(obtained with either a variable-speed pump or multiple
constant-speed pumps), the liquid overfeed ratio is maintained at or above the specified value. With
18.2. REFRIGERATION EQUIPMENT 1423
a constant flow rate (obtained by specifying a single constant-speed pump), the liquid overfeed ratio
will vary to match the capacity of the variable refrigeration load.(Hinde et al 2009) Even though a
greater amount of CO2 is circulated than is evaporated, the pumping power requirements are still
much less than those for a single-phase secondary coolant.
If the defrost type for any of the cases or walkins on the secondary loop is ‘HotBrine’ or ‘HotGas’,
the defrost energy is assumed to come from the hot compressed gas leaving the compressors on the
primary system, as shown in Figure 18.23 and Figure 18.24.(Minea, V. 2007) Therefore, the amount
of heat rejected by the condenser for that primary system is reduced by the amount needed for
defrost. Some research has shown that the defrost times for cases and walk-ins defrosted using hot
brine can be significantly shorter than defrost times for electric or hot gas.(Terrell, W. J. Jr., 1999)
The user should consider this factor when describing the input data for cases and walk-ins served
by a secondary loop.
CapacityAtM axV olF low = F lowM axV ol ∗ η ∗ (CpBrine ∗ DensityBrine ) ∗ (TBrineInRated − TEvapDesign )
(18.230)
where:
F lowM axV ol is the maximum loop volume flow, limited by either the pump rating or the heat
exchanger rating (m3 /s)
CapacityAtM axV olF low is the secondary loop capacity corresponding to the maximum loop flow
rate (W)
CapacityM ax is the maximum secondary evaporator capacity (W).
18.2.7.3 Secondary Loop Distribution Piping and Receiver Shell Heat Gains
Distribution piping and receiver shell heat gains are optional elements in the load calculation. Typi-
cally, the distribution pipe and receiver shell heat gains are small compared to the other loads. How-
ever, when comparing direct expansion systems to secondary systems, this portion of the total load
can be very different. (Hinde, D., et al. 2009) To calculate the pipe heat gain load, the user must
first calculate the U-value and area for the distribution piping. The U-value is the total conductance
from the inside skin coefficient to the outside skin coefficient. This value must be multiplied by the
piping external surface area to provide the sum of the UA required in the input. Note that these
piping and receiver shell heat gains are also reflected in the zone heat balance, similar to the zone
cooling credits provided by refrigerated cases.
X
Q̇P ipeHeatGain = U A(Tzone − −TBrineAverage ) (18.234)
where:
Q̇P ipeHeatGain is the heat load on the secondary loop due to pipe heat gains, output variable
“Refrigeration
P Secondary Loop Pipe Heat Gain Rate” (W)
U A is the sum of the product of the conductance times the surface area for the piping (W/◦ C).
The receiver shell heat gains are calculated in the same manner.
1426 CHAPTER 18. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
P owerP umpRated = F lowRatedP umpV ol ∗ HeadRated /(Ef f iciencyP umpImpeller ∗ Ef f iciencyP umpM otor )
(18.235)
where:
P owerP umpRated is the total pumping power for the secondary loop at rated conditions (W)
HeadRated is the pressure drop through the entire secondary loop circulation at rated conditions,
including at the pumps, the chiller, supply and return piping, and through the case and walk-in
coils (pipes are typically sized to produce a total head ranging from 0.25E6 to 0.3E6 Pa (ASHRAE
2006c) (Pa)
Ef f iciencyP umpImpeller is the pump impeller efficiency
Ef f iciencyP umpM otor is the pump motor efficiency.
The pump impeller efficiency is assumed to be 78%. (ASHRAE 2006c) The pump motor effi-
ciency is assumed to be 85%.(ITT 2009) If a semi-hermetic motor is specified, all the pump power
is translated to heat within the fluid. The total heat load placed upon the loop by the pumps is
therefore:
Q̇P ump = A(LFP ump )3 + B(LFP ump )2 + C (LFP ump ) + D × PowerPumpRated × RatioPowertoHeat
(18.237)
where LFP ump is the ratio of total flow needed to the total flow specified at full load design
conditions.
The user may also specify multiple constant-speed pumps. Multiple pumps, or pump staging,
are often used to reduce the total pumping power requirements while still providing the capacity
and constant pressure drop needed to meet peak design loads.(Faramarzi, R. T., and Walker, D.
H. 2004) When multiple pumps are specified, the flow rate provided by one pump is compared to
the flow rate needed to meet the refrigeration load on the loop during that time step. If that flow
rate is insufficient, another pump is added, and the process is continued until the needed flow rate
is met or all the pumps are included. The incremental power for each pump is added to determine
the total pump power for the loop. Each pump is assumed to operate at full load if it is needed at
all. A bypass is assumed to carry any fluid flow not needed to meet the load. An iterative solution
18.2. REFRIGERATION EQUIPMENT 1427
is required for the total pump load on the heat exchanger because the flow rate is determined by
the load, which includes the pump power that is determined by the necessary flow rate. For the
first estimate, the pump power load is assumed to be zero.
P P
Q̇Ref rigeration = Q̇Case + Q̇W alkIn
P
Q̇T otalSecondary = Q̇Ref rigeration + Q̇P ump + Q̇P ipe and Receiver Shell heat gains (18.238)
Q̇T otalSecondary
FlowNeeded = ηCp,Brine ρBrine (TBrineOutRated −Tevap )
where:
Q̇Refrigeration is the output variable “Refrigeration Secondary Loop Load Heat Transfer Rate”
(W)
Q̇TotalSecondary is the total load the secondary loop transfers to the primary system, output
variable “Refrigeration Secondary Loop Total Heat Transfer Rate” (W)
Q̇Pump is hte pump power, function of FlowN eeded , output variable “Refrigeration Secondary
Loop Pump Electric Power” (W)
F lowN eeded is the flow rate needed to meet the loop refrigeration load, , output variable “Refrig-
eration Secondary Loop Volume Flow Rate” (m3 /s).
The needed flow rate is used to determine the number of pumps required and the total pumping
power, which produces a new estimate for the total load. A few iterations converge upon the final
secondary loop load for each time step. The total load on the heat exchanger is therefore the sum
of the refrigeration loads, any pipe heat gains, and the portion of the pump power that is absorbed
by the circulating fluid.
• At least one refrigeration load object which may include any combination of the following:
– Refrigeration:Case,
– Refrigeration:WalkIn,
– Refrigeration:CaseAndWalkInList (may include both cases and/or walk-in cooler names),
• At least one Refrigeration:Compressor object (multiple compressors are entered using a Re-
frigeration:CompressorList),
Output variables are available to describe the total heat exchange between all the refrigeration
objects and the zones containing these objects.
At least one refrigeration load object must be defined which may be one of two types of loads,
including a refrigerated display case and a walk-in cooler, (Ref. Refrigeration:Case, and Refrigera-
tion:WalkIn). If multiple loads are served by the same system, the user should use the refrigerated
case and walk-in list object available to assign all cases and walk-ins cooled directly by this system
(Ref. Refrigeration:CaseAndWalkInList).
The name of at least one compressor must be defined and a list object is available if the
system is served by more than one compressor (Ref. Refrigeration:Compressor and Refrigera-
tion:CompressorList).
Heat is rejected to the outdoors via an air-cooled gas cooler (Ref. Refrigeration:GasCooler:AirCooled).
The Refrigeration:TranscriticalSystem object coordinates the energy flows between the other
refrigeration objects and is used to set system parameters.
The inputs for the refrigeration system object, in addition to the names of the other refrigeration
objects described above, include a name for this system, the minimum condensing temperature, and
the refrigeration system working fluid. Optional input fields are also provided for users seeking to
keep track of refrigerant inventory and suction pipe heat gains.
Figure 18.27: Pressure-Enthalpy (*p-H*) Diagram for the Transcritical CO$_{2}$ Booster Refrig-
eration Cycle.
then passes through the suction line heat exchanger where the refrigerant is heated, exiting at Lo-
cation 14. The carbon dioxide is finally compressed to the gas cooler pressure level at Location 15
and heat is rejected to the surroundings in the gas cooler between Locations 15 and 1.
z = C1 + C2 tss + C3 tsd + C4 t2ss + C5 tss tsd + C6 t2sd + C7 t3ss + C8 t2ss tsd + C9 tss t2sd + C10 t3sd (18.239)
where z is either power consumption (W) or cooling capacity (W) and Cx are the corresponding
correlation coefficients.
For transcritical operation, the power consumption (in Watts) of a CO2 compressor, W, is a
function of the saturated suction temperature and the gas cooler pressure, pgc (Pa), as follows (Ge
and Tassou 2011):
W = C1 + C2 tss + C3 pgc + C4 t2ss + C5 tss pgc + C6 p2gc + C7 t3ss + C8 t2ss pgc + C9 tss p2gc + C10 p3gc (18.240)
The cooling capacity (in Watts) of a transcritical CO2 compressor, Q, is a function of the
saturated suction temperature and the gas cooler outlet enthalpy, hgo (J/kg), as follows (Ge and
Tassou 2011):
18.2. REFRIGERATION EQUIPMENT 1431
Q = C1 + C2 tss + C3 hgo + C4 t2ss + C5 tss hgo + C6 h2go + C7 t3ss + C8 t2ss hgo + C9 tss h2go + C10 h3go (18.241)
The correlation coefficients, Cx , are obtained either directly from CO2 compressor manufacturers
or from cubic curve fits performed on their published CO2 compressor performance data. For
convenience, correlation coefficients for CO2 compressors from several manufacturers have been
included in the EnergyPlus refrigeration compressor coefficient database.
The rated values for the cooling capacity and power consumption from the manufacturer include
a specified amount of subcooling before the thermal expansion valve and a certain amount of
superheat in the suction gas. Adjustments must be made to these rated values to reflect the
actual subcooling and superheat conditions. Actual subcooling is determined by the condenser’s
rated subcooling and by the subcooling provided by optional subcoolers. The actual superheat
is determined by the refrigerated case superheat (usually set to ensure that there is no liquid in
the suction lines leading to the compressors), set here at 10◦ C, and the effect from any optional
subcoolers. See the section, “Detailed Refrigeration Systems”, for a description of the compressor
corrections.
Once the corrected capacity is calculated for each compressor, the compressors are dispatched
one at a time until the system load is met. The last compressor dispatched is assumed to run at
full load for the fraction of the time step necessary to meet the load. That is, the model neglects
compressor cycling losses at part-load conditions. If the capacity available from all the compressors
is less than the sum of the case loads for that time period, the unmet load is accumulated to be met
in succeeding time steps. If this accumulated unmet load becomes too great, a warning message is
generated.
Figure 18.28: COP of CO2 Transcritical Cycle vs. Discharge Pressure at Different Gas Cooler Exit
Temperatures (Sawalha 2008).
18.2. REFRIGERATION EQUIPMENT 1433
where pgc is the optimum gas cooler pressure (Pa) and Tamb (◦ C) is the ambient temperature
surrounding the gas cooler. The corresponding gas cooler exit temperature, Tgco (◦ C), is determined
as follows:
from the definition of heat exchanger effectiveness given above. In EnergyPlus, the default value
of heat exchanger effectiveness is 0.4.
Thermodynamic Properties of CO2
Modeling of transcritical CO2 booster refrigeration cycles requires the thermodynamic prop-
erties of CO2 in the saturated (liquid and vapor), superheated and supercritical regions. The
refrigerant properties database within EnergyPlus includes saturated, superheated and supercriti-
cal thermodynamic data for CO2 , including temperature, pressure, density, enthalpy and specific
heat.
18.2.9 References
AHRI, 2001. Standard 410, Forced-Circulation Air-Cooling and Air-Heating Coils, Section 6.2.1,
Air-Conditioning Heating & Refrigeration Institute
ARI. 2003. Standard for Remote Mechanical-Draft Evaporatively-Cooled Refrigerant Con-
densers, Standard 490, Air-Conditioning & Refrigeration Institute, Arlington, VA
ARI. 2004. Standard for Performance Rating of Positive Displacement Refrigerant Compressors
and Compressor Units, Standard 540, Air-Conditioning & Refrigeration Institute, Arlington, VA
ARI. 2005. Standard for Performance Rating of Remote Mechanical-Draft Air-Cooled Refriger-
ant Condensers, Standard 460, Air-Conditioning & Refrigeration Institute, Arlington, VA
ARI. 2007. Standard for Performance Rating of Water-Cooled Refrigerant Condensers, Remote
Type, Standard 450, Air-Conditioning & Refrigeration Institute, Arlington, VA
ASHRAE. 2002. Refrigeration Handbook, Chapter 47. Atlanta: American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
ASHRAE. 2004. HVAC Systems and Equipment Handbook, Atlanta: American Society of Heat-
ing, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
ASHRAE. 2006a. Refrigeration Handbook, Chapter 2. Atlanta: American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
ASHRAE. 2006b. Refrigeration Handbook, Chapter 44. Atlanta: American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
ASHRAE. 2006c. Refrigeration Handbook, Chapter 4. Atlanta: American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
ASHRAE. 2006d. Refrigeration Handbook, Chapter 13. Atlanta: American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
ASHRAE. 2009. Fundamentals Handbook, Chapter 1. Atlanta: American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
ASHRAE. 2009b. Fundamentals Handbook, Chapter 2. Atlanta: American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
B.A.C. 2007. Baltimore AirCoil Company Product and Application Handbook, Volume II,
Baltimore, MD
Baek, J.S., Groll, E.A., and Lawless, P.B. 2005. Theoretical Perfromance of Transcritical Carbon
Dioxide Cycle with Two-Stage Compression and Intercooling. Proceedings of the Institution of
Mechanical Engineers, Part E: Journal of Process Mechanical Engineering 219, 187-195.
Baxter, V. D., Mei, V.C. 2002.Warm Liquid Defrosting Technology For Supermarket Display
Cases, P.S. Hrnjak, Ed., International Conference New Technologies in Commercial Refrigeration,
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, July 22-23, 2002
18.2. REFRIGERATION EQUIPMENT 1435
Chen, Y., and Gu, J. 2005. The Optimum High Pressure for CO2 Transcritical Refrigeration
Systems with Internal Heat Exchangers. International Journal of Refrigeration 28(8), 1238-1249.
Evans, J. 2008. Chapter 15, Minimising Energy Consumption Associated with Chilling, Re-
frigerated Storage and Cooling Systems in the Food Industry. In Handbook of Water and Energy
Management in Food Processing. Cambridge: Woodhead Publishing Limited.
Faramarzi, R. T., and Walker, D. H. 2004. Investigation of Secondary Lop Supermarket Re-
frigeration Systems, prepared for California Energy Commission Public Interest Energy Research
Program, prepared by Southern California Edison and Foster-Miller, PIER 500-04-013
Ge, Y., and Tassou, S. 2011. Performance Evaluation and Optimal Design of Supermarket Re-
frigeration Systems with Supermarket Model “Supersim”, Part I: Model Description and Validation.
International Journal of Refrigeration 34(2), 527-539.
Gosney, W.B., Olama, G.A.-L. 1975. Heat and Enthalpy Gains through Cold Room Door-
ways, Proceedings of the Institute of Refrigeration, vol. 72, pp 31-41
Henderson, H.I. and Khattar, M. 1999. Measured Impacts of Supermarket Humidity Level on
Defrost Performance and Refrigerating System Energy Use. ASHRAE Transactions 105(1), 508-520.
Atlanta: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
Hinde, D., Zha, S., and Lan, L. 2009. Carbon Dioxide in North American Supermarkets,
ASHRAE Journal, Atlanta: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning En-
gineers, Inc.,February 2009
Howell, R.H. 1993. Effects of Store Relative Humidity on Refrigerated Display Case Perfor-
mance. ASHRAE Transactions 99(1), 667-678. Atlanta: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating
and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
Howell, R.H. 1993. Calculation of Humidity Effects on Energy Requirements of Refrigerated
Display Cases. ASHRAE Transactions 99(1), 679-693. Atlanta: American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
IEA Heat Pump Centre. 2003. Advanced Supermarket Refrigeration/Heat Recovery Systems
Vol. 1 - Executive Summary, Report HPP-AN26-2, April.
ITT. 2009. Goulds Pumps Industrial Products Moter Terms
Kauf, F. 1998. Determination of the Optimum High Pressure for Transcritical CO2 -Refrigeration
Cycles. International Journal of Thermal Sciences 38(4), 325-330.
Kays, W.M., A.L. London, 1964, compact Heat Exchangers, Second Edition, Chap. 2, pp 15-24,
McGraw-Hill Book Company
Kazachki, G. S., and Hinde, D. K. 2006, Secondary Cooplant Systems for Supermarkets,
ASHRAE Journal, Atlanta: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning
Engineers, Inc., September 2006
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory and Resource Dynamics, Improving Fan Systrem Performance,
A Sourcebook for Industry, DOE/GO-102003-1294, April 2003
Lee, T-S., Liu, C-H., and Chen, T-W. 2006. Thermodynamic Analysis of Optimal Condens-
ing Temperature of Cascade-Condenser in CO2 /NH3 Cascade Refrigeration Systems, International
Journal of Refrigeration 29 (2006) 1100-1108, Elsevier Ltd.
Liao, S., and Zhao, T. J. 2000. A Correlation of Optimal Heat Rejection Pressures in Trans-
critical Carbon Dioxide Cycles. Applied Thermal Engineering 20(9), 831-841.
Manske, K.A., 2000. Performance Optimization of Industrial Refrigeration Systems, M.S.Thesis
Mechanical Engineering, Solar Energy Laboratory, University of Wisconsin-Madison.
Minea, V. 2007. Supermarket Refrigeration System with Completely Secondary Loops,
ASHRAE Journal, Atlanta: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning
1436 CHAPTER 18. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
18.3.2 Scheduled
The input object SetpointManager:Scheduled provides the simplest setpoint manager that allows
the user to specify a seasonal (or other) scheduled reset, for example, of the supply air temperature
setpoint.
End If
Otherwise
Tset = 0.5(Tset,atOAlow + Tset,atOAhigh)
End IF
Tset will be applied to the node or nodes specified in the SetpointManager:OutdoorAirReset object
input.
• If there is no zone heating load, then the setpoint is set at the specified minimum supply air
temperature.
• If there is a zone heating load and the zone supply mass flow rate is less than 0.001 kg/s,
then the setpoint is set at the specified maximum supply air temperature.
• If there is a zone heating load and the zone supply mass flow rate is greater than 0.001 kg/s,
then the setpoint is set calculated as follows:
SetP oint = ZoneT emp + ZoneLoadtoHeatSP /(CpAir ∗ ZoneM assF low) (18.256)
where:
SetPoint is the setpoint temperature applied to the specified setpoint node(s)
ZoneTemp is the current zone temperature
18.3. SETPOINT MANAGERS 1439
ZoneLoadtoHeatSP is the zone heating load (Report Variable ” Zone Predicted Sensible Load
to Heating Setpoint Heat Transfer Rate [W]“)
CpAir is the specific heat of zone supply air
ZoneMassFlow is the zone supply air mass flow rate.
• If there is no zone cooling load, then the setpoint is set at the specified maximum supply air
temperature.
• If there is a zone cooling load and the zone supply mass flow rate is less than 0.001 kg/s,
then the setpoint is set at the specified minimum supply air temperature.
• If there is a zone cooling load and the zone supply mass flow rate is greater than 0.001 kg/s,
then the setpoint is set calculated as follows:
SetP oint = ZoneT emp + ZoneLoadtoCoolSP /(CpAir ∗ ZoneM assF low) (18.257)
where:
SetPoint is the setpoint temperature applied to the specified setpoint node(s)
ZoneTemp is the current zone temeprature
ZoneLoadtoCoolSP is the zone cooling load (Report Variable “Zone Predicted Sensible Load to
Cooling Setpoint Heat Transfer Rate [W]”)
CpAir is the specific heat of zone supply air
ZoneMassFlow is the zone supply air mass flow rate.
Q̇l
ωsa = ωsp + (18.259)
ṁ
where:
ωsa is the maximum supply air humidity ratio setpoint (kg H2 O/kg air)
Q̇l is the control zone latent load calculated by Zone Control:Humidistat (kg H2 O/s)
ṁ is the control zone mass flow rate (kg/s).
All setpoint managers are executed at the beginning of the simulation time step. Therefore, the
calculated setpoint is based on the resulting control zone air temperature and air mass flow rate for
the previous simulation time step.
18.3. SETPOINT MANAGERS 1441
The maximum supply air humidity ratio setpoint is placed on the node(s) specified in the input
for this object (using node property Humidity Ratio Maximum).
The following calculations are used to determine the new setpoint value (SetPoint):
OAF raction = OAInN odeM assF lowRate/M ixedOutN odeM assF lowRate (18.264)
SetP oint = ReturnInV alue + (Ref N odeSetP oint − ReturnInV alue)/OAF raction (18.265)
Depending on the specified control variable type, the setpoints and conditions may be humidity
ratio (max or min) or temperature. Note that zero is not allowed as the computed setpoint humidity
ratio, because zero is used as a special value to indicate that no humidification or dehumidification
is needed. If the reference humidity ratio setpoint value is zero, the zero value will be passed
directly to the setpoint Node(s).
Note that for cooling Q̇z < 0. The lowest Tset,z is chosen as Tset . Tset is constrained to be less
than or equal to the maximum setpoint temperature (user input) and greater than or equal to the
minimum setpoint temperature (user input). If the sum of the zone cooling loads is very small, the
setpoint temperature is set to the maximum. Tset will be applied to the node or nodes specified in
the SetpointManager:Warmest object input.
Note that for heating Q̇z > 0. The highest Tset,z is chosen as Tset . Tset is constrained to be less
than or equal to the maximum setpoint temperature (user input) and greater than or equal to the
minimum setpoint temperature (user input). If the sum of the zone heating loads is very small, the
setpoint temperature is set to the minimum. Tset will be applied to the node or nodes specified in
the SetpointManager:Coldest object input.
18.3. SETPOINT MANAGERS 1443
Q̇z
Tset,z = Tz + (18.270)
Cp,air ṁz,min
Flow First:
Q̇z
Tset,z = Tz + (18.271)
Cp,air ṁz,max
where ṁz,min is the minimum air flow rate to the zone produced by reducing the capacity of the
supply fan or by reducing the opening of the damper in the terminal box, if present, and ṁz,max is
the design air flow rate to the zone.
Note that for cooling Q̇z < 0. The lowest Tset,z is chosen as Tset . Tset is constrained to be
less than or equal to the maximum setpoint temperature (user input) and greater than or equal to
1444 CHAPTER 18. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
the minimum setpoint temperature (user input). If the unconstrained value of Tset is less than the
minimum setpoint temperature and there are no VAV terminal boxes, the fan capacity is increased
so as to meet the zone cooling loads with the constrained value of Tset :
X X
ṁf an = ṁz,min = Q̇z /[Cp,air · (Tset − Tz )] (18.272)
z z
This is more likely to occur in the ‘Temp First’ case. If the sum of the zone cooling loads is
very small, the setpoint temperature is set to the maximum. Tset will be applied to the node or
nodes specified in the SetpointManager:WarmestTemperatureFlow object input.
END IF
!, !
X
T otZones X
T otZones
TZ = ṁZj •Cpj • TZj ṁZj •Cpj (18.274)
j=1 j=1
where:
TSP is the average supply air setpoint temperature (◦ C)
N umControlZones is the number of controlled zones (i.e., zones that contain thermostat ob-
jects) served by the air loop
Q̇Zj is the sensible heating load required to reach the zone air temperature setpoint for the j th
controlled zone at current time step (W)
ṁZj is the air mass flow rate being supplied by the air loop to the j th controlled zone, lagged by
one HVAC simulation time step (kg/s)
Cpj is the specific heat of supply air for the jth controlled zone (J/kg-K)
TZj is the air node temperature for the j th controlled zone (◦ C)
TZ is the average zone air node temperature weighted by the heat capacity rate of the supply
air streams for the controlled zones served by the air loop (◦ C)
T otZones is the total number of zones served by the air loop.
Note that for heating Q̇Zj > 0. The average supply air setpoint temperature T̄SP is constrained
to be less than or equal to the maximum setpoint temperature (user input) and greater than or equal
to the minimum setpoint temperature (user input). If the sum of the zone sensible heating loads is
extremely small (i.e., no heating load), the setpoint temperature is set to the minimum. T̄SP will be
18.3. SETPOINT MANAGERS 1445
END IF
!, !
X
T otZones X
T otZones
TZ = ṁZj •Cpj • TZj ṁZj •Cpj (18.276)
j=1 j=1
Note that for cooling Q̇Zj < 0. The average supply air setpoint temperature TSP is constrained
to be less than or equal to the maximum setpoint temperature (user input) and greater than or equal
to the minimum setpoint temperature (user input). If the sum of the zone sensible cooling loads is
extremely small (i.e., no cooling load), the setpoint temperature is set to the maximum. TSP will be
applied to the setpoint node or nodes specified in the SetpointManager:MultiZone:Cooling:Average
object.
P
N umControlZones
Q̇l,Zj
j=1
ωSP = ωZ + (18.277)
P
N umControlZones
ṁZj
j=1
END IF
1446 CHAPTER 18. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
P
T otZones
ṁZj ωZj
j=1
ωZ = (18.278)
P
T otZones
ṁZj
j=1
where:
ωSP is the average supply air minimum humidity ratio setpoint (kg H2 O/kg air)
N umControlZones is the number of controlled zones (i.e., zones that contain humidistat objects
with humidifying setpoint schedule) served by the air loop
Q̇lZj is the latent (humidification) load required to reach the zone air humidifying setpoint for
the j th controlled zone at current time step (kg H2 O/s)
ṁZj is the air mass flow rate being supplied by the air loop to the j th controlled zone, lagged by
one HVAC simulation time step (kg/s)
ωZj is the air node humidity ratio for the jth controlled zone (kg H2 O/kg air)
ωZ is the average zone air node humidity ratio weighted by supply air mass flow rate for the
controlled zones served by the air loop (kg H2 O/kg air)
T otZones is the total number of zones served by the air loop.
Note that a positive latent load means humidification is required. The average supply air
minimum humidity ratio setpoint ωSP is constrained to be less than or equal to the maximum
setpoint humidity ratio (user input) and greater than or equal to the minimum setpoint humidity
ratio (user input). If the sum of the zone latent humidification loads is extremely small (i.e., no
humidification load), the humidity ratio setpoint is set to the minimum. ωSP will be applied to
the setpoint node or nodes specified in the SetpointManager:MultiZone:MinimumHumidity:Average
object. A humidification component (e.g., an electric humidifier) placed upstream of this node can
then use the humidity ratio setpoint to control its moisture addition rate.
All setpoint managers are executed at the beginning of the simulation time step. Therefore, the
calculated setpoint is based on the resulting zone air node humidity ratios and supply air mass flow
rates for the previous simulation time step.
P
N umControlZones
Q̇l,Zj
j=1
ωSP = ω̄Z + (18.279)
P
N umControlZones
ṁZj
j=1
END IF
18.3. SETPOINT MANAGERS 1447
P
T otZones
ṁZj ωZj
j=1
ωZ = (18.280)
P
T otZones
ṁZj
j=1
Note that a negative latent load means dehumidification is required. The average supply air
maximum humidity ratio setpoint ωSP is constrained to be less than or equal to the maximum
setpoint humidity ratio (user input) and greater than or equal to the minimum setpoint humidity
ratio (user input). If the sum of the zone latent dehumidification loads is extremely small (i.e., no
dehumidification load), the humidity ratio setpoint is set to the maximum. ωSP will be applied to
the setpoint node or nodes specified in the SetpointManager:MultiZone:MaximumHumidity:Average
object. A dehumidification component (e.g., an desiccant dehumidifier) placed upstream of this node
can then use the humidity ratio setpoint to control its moisture removal rate. In the case of a chilled
water coil which is used for both temperature and high humidity control, this setpoint manager
works in conjunction with a Controller:WaterCoil object to determines the minimum supply air
temperature required to meet both the temperature (sensible) and humidity (latent) load in the
control zone (ref: Controller:WaterCoil).
ωSP M in is the user-specified supply air minimum humidity ratio setpoint (kg/kg)
ωSP M ax is the user-specified supply air maximum humidity ratio setpoint (kg/kg).
Note that a positive latent load means humidification is required. The supply air minimum hu-
midity ratio setpoint ωSP is constrained to be less than or equal to the maximum setpoint humidity
ratio (user input) and greater than or equal to the minimum setpoint humidity ratio (user input).
If the humidification load for all zones in the air loop is extremely small (i.e., no humidification
load), the humidity ratio setpoint is set to the user input minimum value. ωSP will be applied to
the setpoint node or nodes specified in the SetpointManager:MultiZone:Humidity:Minimum object.
A humidification component (e.g., an electric humidifier) placed upstream of this node can then use
the humidity ratio setpoint to control its moisture addition rate.
END IF
Note that a negative latent load means dehumidification is required. The supply air maximum
humidity ratio setpoint ωSP is constrained to be less than or equal to the maximum setpoint humid-
ity ratio (user input) and greater than or equal to the minimum setpoint humidity ratio (user input).
If the dehumidification load for all zones in the air loop is extremely small (i.e., no dehumidification
load), the humidity ratio setpoint is set to the user input maximum value. ωSP will be applied to
the setpoint node or nodes specified in the SetpointManager:MultiZone:Humidity:Maximum object.
A dehumidification component (e.g., an desiccant dehumidifier) placed upstream of this node can
then use the humidity ratio setpoint to control its moisture removal rate. In the case of a chilled
water coil which is used for both temperature and high humidity control, this setpoint manager
works in conjunction with a Controller:WaterCoil object to determines the minimum supply air
temperature required to meet both the temperature (sensible) and dehumidification (latent) load
in the control zone (ref: Controller:WaterCoil).
18.3. SETPOINT MANAGERS 1449
where:
GroundTemp is the current ground temperature (Ref: Site:GroundTemperature:BuildingSurface)
(C)
GroundTemp_Surface is the current surface ground temperature (Ref: Site:GroundTemperature:Shallow)
(C)
GroundTemp_Deep = Current deep ground temperature (Ref: Site:GroundTemperature:Deep)
(C)
GroundTemp_FC = Current ground temperature defined F or C factor method (Ref:
Site:GroundTemperature:FCfactorMethod) (C)
MinSetPoint, MaxSetPoint and Offset are specified by the user as the input in object Setpoint-
Manager:FollowGroundTemperature.
where:
C1-C5 are the curve coefficients
OaWb is the outside air wetbulb for current timestep (◦ C)
TwrDsnWB is the tower design inlet Air Wet-Bulb Temperature (◦ C)
WPLR is the weighted PLR which is equal to ChillerCoolingLoadThisTimestep / Nomi-
nalChillerCapacity
NF is the normalized condenser water flow per unit of tower capacity (m3 /W-s) which is equal
to Design Tower Flow Rate / Design Tower Capacity (typically at 5.382E-8 m3 /s, i.e., 3 gpm/ton)
MinDsnWB is compared against the design tower wetbulb. This curve is usually a function
of Weighted PLR and NF. So if NF is constant at 5.382E-8 m3 /s (3 gpm/ton), the curve can be
depicted as follows:
The second boundary curve is given by:
where:
C1-C5 are the curve coefficients
MinDsnWB is from first boundary equation (◦ C)
TwrDsnWB is the tower design inlet Air Wet-Bulb Temperature (◦ C)
WPLR is the weighted PLR which is equal to ChillerCoolingLoadThisTimestep / Nomi-
nalChillerCapacity
NF is the normalized condenser water flow per unit of tower capacity (m3 /W-s) which is equal
to Design Tower Flow Rate / Design Tower Capacity (typically at 5.382E-8 m3 /s, i.e., 3 gpm/ton)
MinActualWb is compared against this time step’s outside air wet bulb. This curve is usually a
function of MinDesignWB, WeightedRatio and TwrDesignWB. So if TwrDesignWB is constant at
25.6◦ C (78◦ F), and NF = 5.382E-8 m3 /s (3 gpm/ton), the curve can be depicted as follows:
The Optimized Condenser Entering Water Temperature is calculated with this equation:
where:
C1-C5 are curve coefficients
OaWB is at this timestep’s outside air wetbulb (◦ C)
TwrDsnWB is the tower design inlet Air Wet-Bulb Temperature (◦ C)
18.3. SETPOINT MANAGERS 1453
The optimized condenser entering water temperature is calculated but is not necessarily used
each timestep. If OptCondEntTemp does not fall within the bounds established by MinDsnWB and
MinActualWb, then the value from the Default Condenser Entering Water Temperature Schedule
is used for the Condenser Entering Water Set Point instead.
• Use average tower conditions in the curves for the independent variables related to the towers
• Make sure the setpoint is applied to either the condenser supply outlet node or use a node
list to apply it to each tower outlet node
chiller-tower optimization scheme uses a search algorithm to find the ideal optimal setpoint at
a given timestep. This requires resimulating HVAC systems at each timestep until finding an
“optimal” condenser water entering setpoint (OptSetpoint) which gives the minimum total chiller,
cooling tower, chilled water pump and condenser water pump power consumption (TEC). The
OptSetpoint falls between realistic minimum and maximum boundaries, which are set by the user.
The minimum boundary is determined based on the minimum lift (user input) and evaporator
leaving water temperature. The maximum boundary is specified by the user. It is assumed that
a single minimum point exists between these boundaries. The following steps are used to find
“optimal” setpoint:
1. Set an initial setpoint value for the iteration to a user-defined maximum condenser entering
water temperature (Toptset1 ) and calculate TEC.
2. Decrease the setpoint value by 1◦ C (Toptset2 = Toptset1 –1◦ C) and calculate TEC.
3. Compare the TEC in Step 1 (TEC1 ) and TEC in Step 2 (TEC2 ), i.e., (dTEC1 = TEC1 –TEC2 ).
4. If dTEC1 is negative, stop the iteration and set the “optimal” setpoint to Toptset1 .
5. If dTEC1 is positive, Decrease the setpoint value by 1◦ C and calculate TEC. Compare the
TECs and repeat this step (i.e., dTECN = TECN –TECN +1 ) until either ToptsetN +1 reaches
to the minimum boundary value or dTECN becomes negative.
6. If ToptsetN reaches to the minimum boundary value and still dTECN is positive, set the
“optimal” setpoint to ToptsetN +1 .
7. If TECN becomes negative, decrease ToptsetN −1 by 0.2◦ C and calculate TEC. Compare the
TECs and repeat this step (i.e., dTECM = TECM –TECM +1 ) until dTECM becomes negative.
Then set the “optimal” setpoint to ToptsetM +1 .
• SetpointManager:ReturnTemperature:ChilledWater, and
• SetpointManager:ReturnTemperature:HotWater
allow for controlling the temperature of the water (or a different fluid defined for the plant) that
is returning back to the plant supply equipment. In a typical chilled water loop configuration, this
is essentially controlling the temperature of the water entering the chiller. In a typical hot water
loop configuration, this is essentially controlling the temperature of the water entering the boiler.
The target return temperature can be specified by:
18.3.26.1 Operation
The setpoint manager senses conditions on two named nodes, which should correspond to a central
plant’s supply side inlet and outlet nodes, the return and supply nodes, respectively. The tempera-
ture and flow rate information is used in a series of calculations in order to determine a setpoint to
specify on the supply outlet node which will in turn provide the target desired return temperature
on the supply inlet node. The calculations are summarized for a chilled water loop here:
3. Assuming that this load will be the same moving forward, we can calculate what supply
temperature we should target in order to meet the desired return temperature.
4. So retrieve the current target return temperature, Tret,target , either from a schedule or constant
value.
For a chilled water loop, the user-specified minimum is the default setpoint used in cases of no-
load or negative-load. In a hot-water loop the user-specified maximum is used for these situations.
Also, in a hot-water loop the sign of the demand will be reversed.
Note the control is working properly, maintaining a return temperature around the target of 12
degrees where possible. Since the load profile is a typical -smooth- profile, the control is also much
smoother. This should be a good representation of the capabilities of this setpoint manager.
For jagged load profiles, if tight control is highly important, choosing a smaller timestep (~1
minute) is recommended. For normal building profiles, the typical range of timesteps (~15 minute)
should be fully satisfactory.
collector by other surfaces, such as nearby buildings or trees, is also taken into account. Likewise,
the collector surface can shade other surfaces, for example, reducing the incident radiation on the
roof beneath it.
(q/A)
η= (18.290)
Isolar
where:
q is the useful heat gain
A is the gross area of the collector
Isolar is the total incident solar radiation.
Notice that the efficiency h is only defined for Isolar > 0.
An energy balance on a solar collector with double glazing shows relationships between the
glazing properties, absorber plate properties, and environmental conditions.
q 4
Tabs − Tg2
4
Tabs − Tg2 Tabs − Tair
= Isolar τg1 τg2 αabs − − − (18.291)
A Rrad Rconv Rcond
where:
τg1 is the transmittance of the first glazing layer
τg2 is the transmittance of the second glazing layer
αabs is the absorptance of the absorber plate
Rrad is the radiative resistance from absorber to inside glazing
Rconv is the convective resistance from absorber to inside glazing
Rcond is the conductive resistance from absorber to outdoor air through the insulation
Tabs is the temperature of the absorber plate
Tg2 is the temperature of the inside glazing
Tair is the temperature of the outdoor air.
The equation above can be approximated with a simpler formulation as:
q
= FR [Isolar (τ α) − UL (Tin − Tair )] (18.292)
A
where:
FR is an empirically determined correction factor
(τ α) is the product of all transmittance and absorptance terms
UL is the overall heat loss coefficient combining radiation, convection, and conduction terms
Tin is the inlet temperature of the working fluid.
Substituting this into Equation 18.290,
(Tin − Tair )
η = FR (τ α) − FR UL (18.293)
Isolar
A linear correlation can be constructed by treating FR (τ α) and -FR UL as characteristic constants
of the solar collector:
1460 CHAPTER 18. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
(Tin − Tair )
η = c0 + c1 (18.294)
Isolar
Similarly, a quadratic correlation can be constructed using the form:
(τ α)
Kτ α = (18.296)
(τ α)n
Additional testing determines the incident angle modifier as a function of incident angle θ. This
relationship can be fit to a first-order, linear correlation:
1
K τ α = 1 + b0 −1 (18.297)
cos θ
or a second-order, quadratic correlation:
2
1 1
Kτ α = 1 + b 0 − 1 + b1 −1 (18.298)
cos θ cos θ
The incident angle modifier coefficients b0 and b1 are usually negative, although some collec-
tors have a positive value for b0 . Both first- and second-order incident angle modifier equation
coefficients are listed in the Directory of SRCC Certified Solar Collector Ratings.
The SRCC incident angle modifier equation coefficients are only valid for incident angles of 60
degrees or less. Because these curves can be valid yet behave poorly for angles greater than 60
degree, the EnergyPlus model cuts off collector gains for incident angles greater than 60 degrees.
For flat-plate collectors, the incident angle modifier is generally symmetrical. However, for
tubular collectors the incident angle modifier is different depending on whether the incident angle
is parallel or perpendicular to the tubes. These are called bi-axial modifiers. Some special
flat-plate collectors may also exhibit this asymmetry. The current model cannot yet handle two
sets of incident angle modifiers. In the meantime it is recommended that tubular collectors be
approximated with caution using either the parallel or perpendicular correlation.
Incident angle modifiers are calculated separately for sun, sky, and ground radiation. The net
incident angle modifier for all incident radiation is calculated by weighting each component by the
corresponding modifier.
Ibeam Kτ α,beam + Isky Kτ α,sky + Ignd Kτ α,gnd
Kτ α,net = (18.299)
Ibeam + Isky + Ignd
18.4. SOLAR COLLECTORS 1461
For sky and ground radiation the incident angle is approximated using Brandemuehl and Beck-
man’s equations:
(Tin − Tair )
η = FR Kτ α,net (τ α)n − FR UL (18.303)
Isolar
18.4.1.5 References
ASHRAE. 1989. ASHRAE Standard 96-1980 (RA 89): Methods of Testing to Determine the
Thermal Performance of Unglazed Flat-Plate Liquid-Type Solar Collectors. Atlanta: American
Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
ASHRAE. 1991. ASHRAE Standard 93-1986 (RA 91): Methods of Testing to Determine the
Thermal Performance of Solar Collectors. Atlanta: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating
and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
Duffie, J. A., and Beckman, W. A. 1991. Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes, Second
Edition. New York: Wiley-Interscience.
Solar Rating and Certification Corporation. 2004. Directory of SRCC Certified Solar Collector
Ratings, OG 100. Cocoa, Florida: Solar Rating and Certification Corporation.
1462 CHAPTER 18. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
dTp
mp Cp = A · [(τ α)e · It − hpw (Tp − Tw ) − Ut (Tp − Ta )] (18.306)
dt
18.4. SOLAR COLLECTORS 1463
dTw
mw Cw = A · [hpw (Tp − Tw ) − Ub (Tw − TOSC ) − Us (Tw − Ta )] − ṁw Cw (Tw − Twi ) (18.307)
dt
where:
mp Cp is the thermal capacity of the absorber surface, J/◦ C
A is the collector gross area, m2
(τ α)e is the transmittance-absorptance product of the absorber plate and cover system
It is the total solar irradiation (W/m2 )
hpw is the convective heat transfer coefficient from absorber plate to water (W/m2 -K)
Ut is the overall heat loss coefficient from absorber to the ambient air (W/m2 -K)
Tp is the absorber plate average temperature (◦ C)
Tw is the collector water average temperature (◦ C)
Ta is the ambient air temperature (◦ C)
mw Cpw is the thermal capacity of the water mass in the collector (J/◦ C)
Us is the area-weighted conductance of the collector side insulation (W/m2 -K)
Ub is the conductance of the collector bottom insulation (W/m2 -K)
Tosc is the outside temperature of bottom insulation determined from the other side condition
model (◦ C)
Twi is the entering makeup or mains water temperature (◦ C)
ṁw Cw is the water capacity flow through the collector (W/◦ C).
The other side condition model boundary condition represented by the Tosc , allows us to apply a
realistic outside boundary condition for a collector mounted on a building roof. This also accounts
for the shading impact of the collector on the under-laying surface (roof). On the other hand if
ambient air boundary condition is specified, then the collector does not shade the underlying surface
it is mounted on.
The two energy balance equation can be written as non-homogeneous first order DE with con-
stant coefficients. The initial conditions for these equations are the absorber plate average temper-
ature and the collector water average temperature at previous time steps.
dTp
= a1 Tp + a2 Tw + a3 (18.308)
dt
dTw
= b1 Tp + b2 Tw + b3 (18.309)
dt
a3 = A · (τ α)e · It + A · Ut Ta (18.312)
Ignoring the thermal mass of the collector cover, a steady state heat balance equations are
formulated for each cover that allow us to determine cover temperatures. The cover surface heat
balance representation is shown in Figure 18.37 below.
The steady state cover heat balance equation is given by:
αc1 It + hr, c1−a Ta + hc, c1−a Ta + hr, c2−c1 Tc2 + hc, c2−c1 Tc2
Tc1 = (18.325)
hr, c1−a + hc, c1−a + hr, c2−c1 + hc, c2−c1
αc2 It + hr, c2−c1 Tc1 + hc, c2−c1 Tc1 + hr, p−c2 Tp + hc, p−c2 Tp
Tc2 = (18.326)
hr, c2−c1 + hc, c2−c1 + hr, p−c2 + hc, p−c2
where:
αc is the weighted average solar absorptance of covers 1 and 2
hr,c1−a is the adjusted radiation heat transfer coefficient between cover 1 and the ambient air
(W/m2 -K)
hc,c1−a is the convection heat transfer coefficient between cover 1 and the ambient (W/m2 -K)
hr,c2−c1 is the radiation heat transfer coefficient between covers 1 and 2 (W/m2 -K)
hc,c2−c1 is the convection heat transfer coefficient between covers 1 and 2 (W/m2 -K)
hr,p−c2 is the radiation heat transfer coefficient between covers 2 and the absorber plate (W/m2 -
K)
1466 CHAPTER 18. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
hc,p−c2 is the convection heat transfer coefficient between covers 2 and the absorber plate (W/m2 -
K)
qLW R,1 is the longwave radiation exchange flux on side 1 of the collector cover (W/m2 )
qCON V,1 is the convection heat flux on side 1 of the collector cover (W/m2 )
qLW R,2 is the longwave radiation exchange flux on side 2 of the collector cover (W/m2 )
qCON V,2 is the convection heat flux on side 2 of the collector cover (W/m2 )
qsolar,abs is the net solar radiation absorbed by the collector cover (W/m2 )
R is the thermal resistance for each section along the heat flow path (m2 K/W).
ICS Solar Collectors are commonly mounted on building heat transfer surfaces hence the collectors
shade the underlying heat transfer surface and require a unique boundary condition that reflects
the air cavity environment created between the bottom of the collector surface and the underlying
surface. The other side condition model that allows us to estimate the other side temperature, Tosc ,
can be determined based on steady state heat balance using the known collector water temperature
at the previous time step.
Ignoring thermal mass of the collector bottom insulation, steady state surface heat balance can
be formulated on the outer plane of the collector bottom surface facing the cavity as shown in
Figure 18.38. The heat balance equation on the outer plane of the collector bottom surface is given
by:
Substituting the equations for each term in the above equation yields:
UL (Tw − Tosc ) + hc, cav (Ta, cav − Tosc ) + hr, cav (Tso − Tosc ) = 0 (18.328)
Gr = gβv (Tp − Tw ) L3c ν 2 (18.334)
Pr = ν/α (18.335)
hw = N u · k/ Lc (18.337)
where:
θ is the angle of inclination of the collector to the vertical (radians)
g is the gravitation force constant, 9.806 (m/s2 )
Tr is the reference properties where the thermo-physical properties are calculated (◦ C)
Lc is the characteristic length for the absorber plate (m)
k is the thermal conductivity of water at reference temperature (W/m-K)
ν is the kinematic viscosity of water at reference temperature (m2 /s)
α is the thermal diffusivity of water at reference temperature (m2 /s)
βv is the volumetric expansion coefficient (1/K) evaluated at Tv, Tv = Tw+0.25(Tp-Tw)
Nu is the Nusselt number calculated for water properties at the reference temperature
Gr is the Grashof number calculated for water properties at the reference temperature
Pr is the Prandtl number calculated for water properties at the reference temperature.
The various radiation and convection heat transfer coefficients are given by the following equa-
tions. The convection heat transfer coefficients between the covers and the absorber plate are
estimated from the empirical correlation for the Nusselt number for air gap between two parallel
plates developed by Hollands et al. (1976) is:
( )
1.6 Ra cos β 1/3
1708(sin 1.8β) 1708
N ua = 1 + 1.44 1 − 1− + −1 (18.338)
Ra cos β Ra cos β 5830
hc = N u · k/ L (18.339)
σ (Tp + Tc2 ) Tp2 + Tc2
2
hrp−c2 = (18.340)
1/εp + 1/εc2 − 1
2 2
σ (Tc1 + Tc2 ) (Tc1 + Tc2 )
hrc1−c2 = (18.341)
1/εc1 + 1/εc2 − 1
18.4. SOLAR COLLECTORS 1469
The long wave radiation exchange coefficients between the outer collector cover and the sky and
ground referencing the ambient air temperature for mathematical simplification are given.
2
Fs εc1 σ (Tc1 + Ts ) (Tc1 + Ts2 ) (Tc1 − Ts )
hrc1−s = (18.342)
(Tc1 − Ta )
Fg εc1 σ (Tc1 + Tg ) Tc12
+ Tg2 (Tc1 − Tg )
hrc1−g = (18.343)
(Tc1 − Ta )
−1
1 1
Us = + (18.348)
ULs (As /A) hcomb
where:
εc1 is the thermal emissivity of collector cover 1
εc2 is the thermal emissivity of collector cover 2
Fs is the view factor from the collector to the sky
Fg is the view factor from the collector to the ground
Tc1 is the temperature of collector cover 1, (K)
Tc2 is the temperature of collector cover 2, (K)
Ts is the sky temperature, (K)
Tg is the ground temperature, (K)
k is the thermal conductivity of air (W/m K)
L is the air gap between the covers (m)
β is the inclination of the plates or covers to the horizontal (radians)
Vw is the wind speed (m/s)
ULb is the user specified bottom heat loss conductance (W/m2 -K)
ULs is the user specified side heat loss conductance (W/m2 -K)
Ab is the collector bottom heat transfer area (m2 )
As is the collector side area (m2 )
hcomb is the combined conductance from the outer cover to the ambient air (W/m2 -K).
Transmittance-Absorptance Product
1470 CHAPTER 18. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
The transmittance-absorptance product of solar collector is determined using ray tracing method
for any incident angle (Duffie and Beckman, 1991). This requires optical properties of the cover
and absorber materials and the the transmittance-absorptance product for any incident angle is
given by:
τα
(τ α)θ = (18.349)
1 − (1 − α) ρd
The transmittance of the cover system for single and two cover are given by:
" #
1 τ1 · τ2 τ1 · τ2
τ= + (18.350)
2 1 − ρ1 ρ2 ⊥ 1 − ρ1 ρ2 ∥
" #
1 τ · ρ2 · τ1 τ · ρ2 · τ1
ρ= ρ1 + + ρ1 + (18.351)
2 τ2 ⊥ τ2 ∥
The effective transmittance, reflectance and absorptance of a single cover are given by:
( " #)
τa 1 − r⊥ 1 − r⊥2 1 − r∥ 1 − r∥2
τ= + (18.352)
2 1 + r⊥ 1 − (r⊥ τa )2 1 + r∥ 1 − r∥ τa 2
(" # " 2 2 #)
1 (1 − r⊥ ) τa r⊥
2 2
1 − r ∥ τa r∥
ρ= r⊥ + + r∥ + 2 (18.353)
2 1 − (r⊥ τa )2
1 − r∥ τ a
(1 − τa ) 1 − r⊥ 1 − r∥
α= + (18.354)
2 1 − r⊥ τa 1 − r∥ τ a
The transmittance of the cover system with absorption only considered t a , is defined as:
KL
τa = exp − (18.355)
cos θ2
−1 n1
θ2 = sin sin θ1 · (18.356)
n2
The reflectance of un-polarized radiation on passing from medium 1 with reflective index n1 to
medium 2 with reflective index n2 is given by:
sin2 (θ2 − θ1 )
r⊥ = (18.357)
sin2 (θ2 + θ1 )
tan2 (θ2 − θ1 )
r∥ = (18.358)
tan2 (θ2 + θ1 )
The sky and ground reflected diffuse radiations average equivalent incident angles are approxi-
mated by Brandemuehl and Beckman correlation (Duffie and Beckman, 1991) as follows:
where:
τ is the transmittance of the cover system
τ1 is the transmittance of the cover 1
τ2 is the transmittance of the cover 2
α is the absorptance of the absorber plate
ρd is the diffuse reflectance of the inner cover
L is the thickness of a cover material (m)
K is the extinction coefficient of a cover material (m−1 )
θ1 is the angle of incidence (degrees)
θ2 is the angle of refraction (degrees)
r⊥ is the parallel component of reflected un-polarized radiation
r∥ is the perpendicular component of reflected un-polarized radiation
β is the slope of the collector (degrees)
θsd is the equivalent incident angle for sky diffuse solar radiation (degrees)
θgd is the equivalent incident angle for ground diffuse solar radiation (degrees).
The integral collector storage unit thermal performance parameters are calculated as follows:
dTw
QStored = mw Cw (18.362)
dt
18.4.3 References:
Duffie, J.A., and W.A. Beckman. 1991. Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes, 2d ed. New York:
John Wiley & Sons.
Kumar, R. and M.A. Rosen. Thermal performance of integrated collector storage solar water
heater with corrugated absorber surface. Applied Thermal Engineering: 30 (2010) 1764–1768.
Fujii, T., and H. Imura. Natural convection heat transfer from aplate with arbitrary inclination.
International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer: 15(4), (1972), 755-764.
Qtherm
Tout = Tin + (18.366)
ṁcp
where:
Tout is the temperature of the working fluid leaving the PV/T
Tin is the temperature of the working fluid entering the PV/T
ṁ is the entire mass flow of the working fluid through the PV/T
cp is the specific heat of the working fluid.
For air-based systems, the value of Tout is then compared to the temperature setpoint on the
outlet node. If Tout exceeds the desired outlet temperature, Tset,out , then a bypass fraction is
calculated to model a modulating bypass damper using:
18.4. SOLAR COLLECTORS 1473
(Tset,out − Tout )
fbypass = (18.367)
(Tin − Tout )
When the PVT themal collector is controlled to be “on,” in cooling mode, and working fluid is
flowing, the model calculates the outlet temperature based on the inlet temperature and the heat
radiated and convected to the ambient using a heat balance on the outside face of the collector:
where:
Q̇LW R is the net rate of long wavelength (thermal) radiation exchange with the air, night sky,
and ground. See the section “External Longwave Radiation” in the Outside Surface Heat Balance,
for full discussion of how this modeled in EnergyPlus using linearized radiation coefficients.
Q̇conv is the net rate of convective flux exchange with outdoor air. See the section “Exterior/Ex-
ternal Convection” in the Outside Surface Heat Balance, for full discussion of how this modeled in
EnergyPlus. The surface roughness is assumed to be “very smooth.”
The simple model assumes that the effective collector temperature, Tcol , is the average of the
working fluid inlet and outlet temperatures so that we can make the following substitution:
Substituting and solving for Tcol we obtain the following model for collector temperatures during
a (possible) cooling process :
2ṁcp Tin + Asurf factiv (hr,gnd Tgnd + hr,sky Tsky + hr,air Tair + hc,ext Tair )
Tcol = (18.370)
2ṁcp + Asurf factiv (hr,gnd + hr,sky + hr,air + hc,ext )
Then the outlet temperature can be calculated and heat losses determined. However, the model
allows only sensible cooling of the air stream and limits the outlet temperature to not go below the
dewpoint temperature of the inlet.
PVT collectors have a design volume flow rate for the working fluid that is autosizable. For
air-based systems used as pre-conditioners, the volume flow rate is sized to meet the maximum
outdoor air flow rate. For water-based systems on the supply side of a plant loop, each of the PVT
collectors are sized to the overall loop flow rate. For water-based systems on the demand side of a
plant loop, the collectors are sized using a rule-of-thumb for typical flow rates per unit of collector
area. This rule-of-thumb is based on a constant factor of 1.905x10−5 m3 /s-m2 that was developed
by analyzing SRCC data set for conventional solar collectors (see data set SolarCollectors.idf) and
averaging the ratio for all 171 different collectors.
18.4.4.2 References
Charalambous, P.G., Maidment, G.G., Kalagirou, S.A., and Yiakoumetti, K., Photovoltaic thermal
(PV/T) collectors: A review. Applied Thermal Engineering 27 (2007) 275-286.
Zondag, H.A. 2008. Flat-plate PV-Thermal collectors and systems: A review. Renewable and
Sustainable Energy Reviews 12 (2008) 891-959.
1474 CHAPTER 18. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
The perforated absorber plate is treated as a heat exchanger and modeled using a traditional ef-
fectiveness formulation. The heat exchanger effectiveness, εHX , is determined from correlations
derived from small-scale experiments. Two correlations available in the literature are implemented
in EnergyPlus. The first is based on research by Kutscher at the National Renewable Energy
Laboratory. The second is based on the research by Van Decker, Hollands, and Brunger at the Uni-
versity of Waterloo. Because both correlations are considered valid, the choice of which correlation
to use is left to the user.
Kutscher’s (1994) correlation encompasses surface convection between the collector and the incom-
ing outdoor air stream that occurs on the front face, in the holes, and along the back face of the
collector. The correlation uses a Reynolds number based on the hole diameter as a length scale and
the mean velocity of air as it passes through the holes as the velocity scale:
Vh D
ReD = (18.371)
ν
where:
Vh is the velocity through the holes (m/s)
D is the hole diameter (m)
ν is the kinematic viscosity of air (m2 /s).
The correlation is a function of Reynolds number, hole geometry, the free stream air velocity,
and velocity through the holes:
18.4. SOLAR COLLECTORS 1475
( )
−0.01895 D
P
− 20.62t
×e Re D D
(18.375)
where:
Vs P
Res = (18.376)
v
U∞ P
Rew = (18.377)
v
Vh P
Reb = (18.378)
v
Vs is the average suction velocity across the front face of the collector (m/s)
t is the collector plate thickness (m).
1476 CHAPTER 18. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
Ta,HX − Tamb
εHX = (18.379)
Ts,coll − Tamb
where:
Ta,HX is the temperature of the air leaving the collector and entering the plenum (◦ C)
Ts,coll is the temperature of the collector’s absorber plate (◦ C)
Tamb is the temperature of the ambient outdoor air (◦ C).
By rewriting Equation 18.379 to solve for Ta,HX , we see that the temperature of the heated
outdoor air entering the plenum can be determined once the collector surface temperature is known:
′′ ′′ ′′ ′′ ′′ ′′
qαsol + qLW R,Env + qconv,wind − qHX + qLW R,plen + qsource = 0 (18.381)
where:
′′
qαsol is absorbed direct and diffuse solar (short wavelength) radiation heat flux.
′′
qLW R,Env is net long wavelength (thermal) radiation flux exchange with the air and surroundings.
′′
qconv,wind is surface convection flux exchange with outdoor air under high wind and rain condi-
tions. Note that this term is usually assumed to be zero in UTSC model development but we add
the term to allow for deteriorated performance of the UTSC under poor conditions.
′′
qHX is heat exchanger flux from collector to incoming outdoor air.
′′
qLW R,plen is net long wavelength (thermal) radiation flux exchange with the outside face of the
underlying surface(s).
′′
qsource is a source/sink term that accounts for energy exported out of the control volume when
the collecter’s absorber plate is a hybrid device such as a photovoltaic panel.
While the heat balance on the passive collector surface control volume is:
18.4. SOLAR COLLECTORS 1477
′′ ′′ ′′ ′′ ′′ ′′
qαsol + qLW R,Env + qconv,Env + qLW R,plen + qconv,plen + qsource = 0 (18.382)
where:
′′
qconv,Env is the surface convection flux exchange with outdoor air
′′
qconv,plen is the surface convection flux exchange with plenum air.
All terms are positive for net flux to the collector except the heat exchanger term, which is taken
to be positive in the direction from collector to incoming air stream. Each of these heat balance
components is introduced briefly below.
′′
qconv = hco (Tair − To ) (18.383)
where hco is the convection coefficient. This coefficient will differ depending on whether or
not the UTSC is active or passive. When the UTSC is passive, hco is treated in the same way
as an outside face with ExteriorEnvironment conditions. When the UTSC is active, the special
suction airflow situation of a transpired collector during operation means that hco is often zero
because the suction situation can eliminate mass transport away from the collector. However when
the winds are high, the strong turbulence and highly varying pressures can cause the suction flow
′′
situation to breakdown. Therefore, we include the qconv,wind term in the heat balance and use a
special coefficient hc,wind to model this lost heat transfer. In addition, when it is raining outside,
we assume the collector gets wet and model the enhanced surface heat transfer using a large value
for hc,wind .
′′
qconv = hcp (Tair − To ) (18.385)
where hcp is the convection coefficient. This coefficient is taken as zero when the UTSC is
operating because of the suction airflow situation. When the UTSC is off, the value for hcp is
obtained from correlations used for window gaps from ISO (2003) standard 15099.
Substituting these models into Equation 18.381 and solving for Ts,coll yields the following equa-
tion when the UTSC is active (“on”):
( )
ṁc ṁc
Is α + hr,atm Tamb + hr,sky Tsky + hr,gnd Tamb + hr,plen Tso + hc,wind Tamb + Ap Tamb − Ap (1 − εHX ) Tamb + q ′′ source
Ts,coll = ( )
ṁc
hr,atm + hr,sky + hr,gnd + hr,plen + hc,wind + Ap εHX
(18.386)
and substituting into Equation 18.381 yields the following equation when the UTSC is passive
(“off”):
(Is α + hco Tamb + hr,atm Tamb + hr,sky Tsky + hr,gnd Tamb + hr,plen Tso + hc,plen Ta,plen + q ′′ source )
Ts,coll =
(hco + hr,air + hr,sky + hr,gnd + hr,plen + hc,plen )
(18.387)
where:
Is is the incident solar radiation of all types (W/m2 )
α is the solar absorptivity of the collector
hr,atm is the linearized radiation coefficient for the surrounding atmosphere (W/m2 -K)
Tamb is the outdoor drybulb from the weather data, also assumed for ground surface (◦ C)
hr,sky is the linearized radiation coefficient for the sky (W/m2 -K)
Tsky is the effective sky temperature (◦ C)
hr,gnd is the linearized radiation coefficient for the ground (W/m2 -K)
hr,plen is the linearized radiation coefficient for the underlying surface (W/m2 -K)
hc,wind is the convection coefficient for the outdoor environment when the UTSC is active and
winds are high or it is raining (W/m2 -K)
Tso is the temperature of the outside face of the underlying heat transfer surface (◦ C)
ṁ is the air mass flow rate when in active mode (kg/s)
cp is the specific heat of air at constant pressure (J/kg-K)
A is the area of the collector (m2 )
hco is the convection coefficient for the outdoor environment (W/m2 -K)
hc,plen is the convection coefficient for the surfaces facing the plenum (W/m2 -K)
Ta,plen is the air drybulb for air in the plenum and entering the outdoor air system (◦ C).
1480 CHAPTER 18. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
ṁvent = ρ–_
Vtot (18.392)
where:
ρ is the density of air (kg/m3 )
18.4. SOLAR COLLECTORS 1481
_
– tot = _
V – wind + _
V – thermal is the total volumetric flow rate of air ventilating in and out of the
V
3
plenum (m /s)
_
– wind = Cv Ain U∞
V (18.393)
q
_
– thermal = CD Ain
V 2g∆HN P L (Ta,plen − Tamb ) /Ta,plen (if Ta,plen > Tamb ) (18.394)
q
_
– thermal = CD Ain
V 2g∆HN P L (Tamb − Ta,plen ) /Tamb (if Tamb > Ta,plen and U T SC vertical)
(18.395)
where:
Cv is the effectiveness of the openings that depends on opening geometry and the orientation
with respect to the wind. ASHRAE HoF (2001) indicates values ranging from 0.25 to 0.6. In the
UTSC model, this value is available for user input and defaulted to 0.25.
CD is the discharge coefficient for the opening and depends on opening geometry. In the UTSC
model, this value is available for user input and defaulted to 0.65.
Mass continuity arguments lead to modeling the area of the openings as one half of the total
area of the holes, so we have:
Aσ
Ain = (18.396)
2
g is the gravitational constant taken as 9.81 (m/s2 ).
∆HN P L is the height from midpoint of lower opening to the Neutral Pressure Level. This is
taken as one-fourth the overall height of the UTSC if it is mounted vertically. For tilted collectors,
the nominal height is modified by the sine of the tilt. If the UTSC is mounted horizontally (e.g. on
the roof) then the ∆HN P L is taken as the gap thickness of the plenum.
If the UTSC is horizontal and Tamb > Ta,plen , then –_
Vthermal = 0 because this is a stable situation.
The UTSC can be defined such that it has multiple underlying heat transfer surfaces. The
centroid heights for each surface are area-weighted to determine the average height for use in the
local wind calculation.
the convection correlation for forced air developed by McAdams (1954) as published by ASHRAE
HoF (2001):
ṁ cp (Ta,HX − Tamb )
η= (18.404)
Isc A
Note that the efficiency η is only defined for Isolar > 0.
18.4.5.22 References
Kutscher, C.F. 1994. Heat exchange effectiveness and pressure drop for air flow through perforated
plates with and without crosswind. Journal of Heat Transfer. May 1994, Vol. 116, p. 391. American
Society of Mechanical Engineers.
Van Decker, G.W.E., K.G.T. Hollands, and A.P. Brunger. 2001. Heat-exchange relations for
unglazed transpired solar collectors with circular holes on a square of triangular pitch. Solar Energy.
Vol. 71, No. 1. pp 33-45, 2001.
ISO. 2003. ISO 15099:2003. Thermal performance of windows, doors, and shading devices –
Detailed calculations. International Organization for Standardization.
1486 CHAPTER 18. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
18.5.2 Scheduled
The input object AvailabilityManager:Scheduled provides the simplest availability manager. The
sole input for this manager is a schedule name. If the current schedule value is > 0.0, the availability
status flag is set to CycleOn; otherwise it is set to ForceOff.
18.5.3 Scheduled On
An alternative to the AvailabilityManager:Scheduled object is the AvailabilityManager:ScheduledOn
that is used specifically to turn equipment on while other availability managers may be used to turn
the equipment off. The sole input for this manager is a schedule name. If the current schedule value
is > 0.0, the availability status flag is set to CycleOn; otherwise it is set to NoAction.
• Cycling run time in seconds; used to calculate a stop time (in time steps since the start of
the current run period) once the status has become Cycle On.
If the fan schedule current value is > 0 or the applicability schedule value is ≤ 0 , AvailStatus
= NoAction.
If the program is in warmup, the start time stop time are reset to the current time.
Otherwise:
1. If current time (in time steps since the start of the run period) is greater than the start time
and less than the stop time, AvailStatus = CycleOn (or CycleOnZoneFansOnly if the control
type is Cycle On Any – Zone Fans only) for CyclingRunTimeControlType = CyclingRun-
TimeControlType = FixedRunTime, or CyclingRunTimeControlType = ThermostatWithMin-
imumRunTime but for CyclingRunTimeControlType = Thermostat the availability status is
determined based on the zone air and the thermostat setpoint temperature difference and the
tolerance limits.
2. If the current time equals the stop time and the CyclingRunTimeControlType = CyclingRun-
TimeControlType = FixedRunTime, or CyclingRunTimeControlType = ThermostatWithMin-
imumRunTime, AvailStatus = NoAction and the fan schedule will determine if the system
is on. For CyclingRunTimeControlType = Thermostat the availability status is determined
based on the zone air and the thermostat setpoint temperature difference and the tolerance
limits, and the fan schedule will determine if the system is on.
3. If the current time is greater than the stop time, the manager can potentially cycle the
system on for CyclingRunTimeControlType = FixedRunTime, CyclingRunTimeControlType
= Thermostat, or CyclingRunTimeControlType = ThermostatWithMinimumRunTime.
(a) For control types CycleOnAny and CycleOnAnyZoneFansOnly the manger looks at each
zone served by the air loop and detects whether the zone temperature at the thermostat is
greater than the cooling setpoint plus ½Ttol or less than the heating setpoint minus ½Ttol .
If it is, AvailStatus is set to CycleOn (or CycleOnZoneFansOnly). If not, AvailStatus is
set to NoAction.
(b) For control type CycleOnControlZone, the manager does the same check just for the
control zone or zone list.
(c) For control type CycleOnAnyCoolingOrHeatingZone, the manager checks the cooling
setpoint for the cooling control zone or zone list and sets AvailStatus to CycleOn, then
it checks the heating setpoint for the heating control zone or zone list and sets Avail-
Status to CycleOn. If the AvailStatus is still NoAction, then the manager checks the
heating setpoint for the heating zone fans only zone or zone list and sets AvailStatus
to CycleOnZoneFansOnly). If none of these checks are true then AvailStatus is set to
NoAction.
(d) For control type CycleOnAnyCoolingZone, the manager checks the cooling setpoint for
the cooling control zone or zone list and sets AvailStatus to CycleOn. If none of these
checks are true then AvailStatus is set to NoAction.
(e) For control type CycleOnAnyHeatingZone, the manager checks the heating setpoint for
the heating control zone or zone list and sets AvailStatus to CycleOn. If the AvailStatus
is still NoAction, then the manager checks the heating setpoint for the heating zone fans
only zone or zone list and sets AvailStatus to CycleOnZoneFansOnly). If none of these
checks are true then AvailStatus is set to NoAction.
18.5. SYSTEM AVAILABILITY MANAGERS 1489
(f) For control type CycleOnAnyHeatingZoneFansOnly, the manager checks the heating
setpoint for the heating zone fans only zone or zone list and sets AvailStatus to CycleOn-
ZoneFansOnly). If none of these checks are true then AvailStatus is set to NoAction.
4. Lastly if the new status is CycleOn the start time is reset to the current time and the stop
time is reset. When this availability manager is specified for a zone component then the only
allowed control types are StayOff and CycleOnControlZone.
• A ventilation delta T;
If the fan schedule current value is > 0 or the applicability schedule value is ≤ 0 or if the program
is in warmup, AvailStatus = NoAction.
Otherwise, the manager performs 3 limit checks.
1. If for all the zones connected to the air loop the room temperature at the thermostat of any
zone is greater than the ventilation temperature schedule value, this check is true.
2. If for all the zones connected to the air loop the room temperature at the thermostat of any
zone is less than the ventilation low limit temperature, this check is true.
3. If the difference between the control zone room temperature at the thermostat and the outside
temperature is greater than the specified night venting delta T, this check is true.
If 1) and 3) are true and 2) is false, the status is set to CycleOn; otherwise the status is NoAc-
tion. If the status is CycleOn this manager sets some additional values in the AirLoopControlInfo
data structure (a flag is set to indicate night ventilation is occurring and a flag is set to indicate
that the air system flow rate has been specified by a manager) and in the AirLoopFlow data
structure (the system flow fraction is specified). The night ventilation flag indicates to the fan
that it should use alternate performance characteristics if they have been specified in a FanPerfor-
mance:NightVentilation object.
1490 CHAPTER 18. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
As shown by the following pseudo code, there is no applicability schedule for this manager. Also,
this manager always returns a status of CycleOn or ForceOff, never NoAction.
DeltaT = Thot node – Tcold node
If DeltaT > = DeltaTon then
AvailStatus = CycleOn
Else if DeltaT < = DeltaTof f then
AvailStatus = ForceOff
Else
AvailStatus remains in its previous state.
End If
In pseudo code:
If Tsensed node > = Tu then
AvailStatus = ForceOff
Else
AvailStatus = NoAction
End If
In pseudo code:
If Tsensed node > = Tu then
AvailStatus = CycleOn
Else
AvailStatus = NoAction
End If
If the applicability schedule exists and has a current value of < = 0, the manager returns an
availability status of NoAction.
Otherwise, as shown by the following pseudo code:
If Tsensed node < = Tl then
AvailStatus = ForceOff
Else
AvailStatus = NoAction
End If
In pseudo code:
If Tsensed node < = Tl then
AvailStatus = CycleOn
Else
AvailStatus = NoAction
End If
1492 CHAPTER 18. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
• This availability manager is called before the program estimates (predicts) the cooling or
heating load that needs to be met by the cooling/heating systems for the simulation time step.
On the other hand, the other availability managers are called after the system cooling/heating
load prediction. The main reason for calling AvailabilityManager:HybridVentilation early is
that this manager determines whether natural ventilation is allowed or not, and the loads
from natural ventilation are used to predict system loads.
• This availability manager has its own control schedule and does not work in tandem with
AvailabilityManager:Scheduled.
When natural ventilation is allowed, the control then checks the temperature difference between
the zone temperature and the temperature setpoint(s) in the controlled zone based on the specified
temperature control type (four available temperature control types) to make a final decision:
Single Heating Setpoint:
If the zone temperature is below the setpoint, then the initial decision is overridden and natural
ventilation is not allowed. This is intended to avoid overcooling a space, which could result in
additional heating load.
Single Cooling Setpoint:
If the zone temperature is above the setpoint, then the initial decision is overridden and natural
ventilation is not allowed. This is intended to avoid overheating a space, which could result in
additional cooling load.
Single Heating Cooling Setpoint:
Since this temperature control type requires only a single setpoint, natural ventilation is not
allowed. A recurring warning message is issued.
Dual Setpoint with DeadBand:
If the zone temperature is beyond the deadband, the initial decision is overridden and natural
ventilation is not allowed. This is intended to avoid either overcooling a space, which could result in
additional heating load when the zone temperature is below the heating setpoint, or overheating a
space, which could result in additional cooling load when the zone temperature is above the cooling
setpoint.
This control mode checks whether the outdoor air enthalpy is between the Minimum Outdoor
Enthalpy and Maximum Outdoor Enthalpy specified. If the outdoor enthalpy is between the two
values then natural ventilation is allowed, else natural ventilation is not allowed.
When natural ventilation is allowed, the control then checks the temperature difference between
the zone temperature and the temperature setpoint(s) in the controlled zone based on the specific
temperature control type to make a final decision. This procedure is the same as defined above for
the temperature control mode.
Single Heating Setpoint:
If the zone temperature is below the setpoint, then the initial decision is overridden and natural
ventilation is not allowed. This is intended to avoid overcooling a space, which could result in
additional heating load.
Single Cooling Setpoint:
If the zone temperature is above the setpoint, then the initial decision is overridden and natural
ventilation is not allowed. This is intended to avoid overheating a space, which could result in
additional cooling load.
Single Heating Cooling Setpoint:
Since this temperature control type requires only a single setpoint, natural ventilation is not
allowed. A recurring warning message is issued.
Dual Setpoint with DeadBand:
If the zone temperature is beyond the deadband, then the initial decision is overridden and
natural ventilation is not allowed. This is intended to avoid either overcooling a space, which
could result in additional heating load when the zone temperature is below the heating setpoint,
1494 CHAPTER 18. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
or overheating a space, which could result in additional cooling load when the zone temperature is
above the cooling setpoint.
This control mode checks whether the outdoor air dewpoint temperature is between the Minimum
Outdoor Dew-Point and Maximum Outdoor Dew-Point specified. If the outdoor dewpoint temper-
ature is between the two values then natural ventilation is allowed, else national ventilation is not
allowed.
When natural ventilation is allowed and a humidistat is available in the controlled zone, the
control then checks the humidity ratio difference between the zone air humidity ratio and humidistat
setpoint in the controlled zone to make a final decision. It should be pointed out that the humidistat
object provides the setpoint of relative humidity, the value of relative humidity has to be converted
into the setpoint of humidity ratio using the actual zone air temperature for comparison. Since the
humidistat only provides a single value for relative humidity, there are two possible scenarios:
If the actual zone air humidity ratio is below the humidity ratio setpoint and the controlled
zone needs humidification as the first scenario, then the initial decision is overridden and natural
ventilation is not allowed. This is intended to avoid dehumidifying a space, which could result in
additional humidification load.
If the actual zone air humidity ratio is above the humidity ratio setpoint and the controlled zone
needs dehumidification as the second scenario, then the initial decision is overridden and natural
ventilation is not allowed. This is intended to avoid humidifying a space, which could result in
additional dehumidification load.
This control mode checks whether the zone air operative temperature is between the lower and
upper adaptive comfort 80% acceptability limits or not. If the zone air operative temperature is
between the lower and upper limits, then natural ventilation is allowed, else natural ventilation is
not allowed.
This control mode checks whether the zone air operative temperature is between the lower and
upper adaptive comfort 90% acceptability limits or not. If the zone air operative temperature is
between the lower and upper limits, then natural ventilation is allowed, else natural ventilation is
not allowed.
This control mode checks whether the zone air CO2 concentration level is above the CO2 setpoint
or not. If the zone air CO2 concentration level is above the setpoint, the control checks availability
of HVAC system. If available, The available status will be ForceOn. If not available, natural
ventilation will be allowed.
18.5. SYSTEM AVAILABILITY MANAGERS 1495
18.5.13.2 Algorithms
There are a few algorithms to predict the start time for the HVAC system. Among these algorithms
following are the promising ones that can be implemented in a simulation environment.
by this factor to calculate the actual number of hours before occupancy are needed to start the
HVAC system.
2
ti = a0 + a1 Tz,i + a2 Tz,i (18.405)
For preheating time:
18.5. SYSTEM AVAILABILITY MANAGERS 1497
(Tz,i −Tunocc )
wi = 1000− (Tocc −Tunocc ) (18.407)
where Tunocc and Tocc are setpoint temperatures during unoccupied (setback) and occupied pe-
riods, respectively.
Coefficients a0 , a1 , a2 (and a3 ) are separately calculated for heating and cooling operation and
are updated from the optimum times from last three days thus; these coefficients carry history and
adapt the trend from previous days.
The optimum time for past days is determined using:
q(i−1)
topt,(i−1) = k(i−1) ∆t − ∆t 1 − (18.408)
qmax
where:
k are the time steps required for recovery
∆t is the time-step
topt,(i−1) is the recovery time on (i-1)th day
q(i−1) is the energy extracted or added during last time step
qmax is the maximum capacity of the equipments.
Chapter 19
The following descriptions are grouped alphabetically (as much as possible) with some also having
additional tags of “Heat Balance”, “HVAC”, and “Plant”. With the integrated solution, these
designations signify where the effects of these models have their first impacts.
Main Sections:
• Thermal Comfort
• Trombe Walls
• Water Thermal Tanks
• Water Systems
• Zone Controls
• Zone Equipment and Zone Forced Air Units
1498
19.1. OCCUPANT THERMAL COMFORT 1499
The Air Temperature (Ta ), a direct environmental index, is the dry-bulb temperature of the
environment. It is calculated using either the mean air temperature for the zone in question or the
air temperature calculated by some of the more detailed zone air models available in EnergyPlus.
The Mean Radiant Temperature (Tr ) is a rationally derived environmental index defined as the
uniform black-body temperature that would result in the same radiant energy exchange as in the
actual environment. This value can be calculated in several ways as outlined in the Mean Radiant
Temperature Calculation section later in this document. The Relative air velocity (v) a direct
environmental index is a measure of the air motion obtainable via a hot wire or vane anemometers.
The Water vapor pressure in ambient air (Pa ) is a direct environmental index.
The physiological variables that influence the conditions of thermal comfort include:
where the Skin Temperature (Tsk ), the Core Temperature (Tcr ) and the Sweat Rate are physi-
ological indices. The Skin Wettedness (w) is a rationally derived physiological index defined as the
ratio of the actual sweating rate to the maximum rate of sweating that would occur if the skin were
completely wet.
One more consideration is important in dealing with thermal comfort - the effect of asymmetrical
heating or cooling. This could occur when there is a draft or when there is a radiant flux incident
on a person (which is what is of primary interest to us here). Fanger (1967) noted that the human
regulatory system is quite tolerant of asymmetrical radiant flux. A reasonable upper limit on the
difference in mean radiant temperature (Tr ) from one direction to the opposing direction is 15◦ C.
(ASHRAE 1984). This limit is lower if there is a high air velocity in the zone.
Sensation Description
3 Hot
2 Warm
1 slightly warm
0 neutral
-1 slightly cool
-2 cool
-3 cold
The most notable models have been developed by P.O. Fanger (the Fanger Comfort Model), the
J. B. Pierce Foundation (the Pierce Two-Node Model), and researchers at Kansas State University
(the KSU Two-Node Model). Berglund (1978) presents a detailed description of the theory behind
these three models.
Note for all Thermal Comfort reporting: Though the published values for thermal comfort
“vote” have a discrete scale (e.g. –3 to +3 or –4 to +4), the calculations in EnergyPlus are carried
out on a continuous scale and, thus, reporting may be “off the scale” with specific conditions
encountered in the space. This is not necessarily an error in EnergyPlus – rather a different
approach that does not take the “limits” of the discrete scale values into account.
The main similarity of the three models is that all three apply an energy balance to a person and
use the energy exchange mechanisms along with experimentally derived physiological parameters to
predict the thermal sensation and the physiological response of a person due to their environment.
The models differ somewhat in the physiological models that represent the human passive system
(heat transfer through and from the body) and the human control system (the neural control of
1502 CHAPTER 19. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
shivering, sweating and skin blood flow). The models also differ in the criteria used to predict
thermal sensation. However, all three models use information from the People statement and
the thermal comfort model is selected via the People statement in a user’s input file. Scheduled
parameters such as the activity level, work efficiency, air velocity, and clothing insulation level
all have a direct bearing on the thermal comfort models. For more information on the input of
these parameters, see the People statement in the EnergyPlus Input/Output Reference. For more
information on how each individual thermal comfort model uses these parameters, please consult
the next several sections.
surface of the clothing, the heat loss by water vapor diffusion through the skin, the heat loss by
evaporation of sweat from the skin surface, the latent and dry respiration heat loss and the heat
transfer from the skin to the outer surface of the clothing. The model assumes that the person is
thermally at steady state with the interior environment.
M =L (19.2)
Qdry = Qc + Qr (19.5)
Qr = 3.96 ∗ f (l ) ∗ [(0.01 ∗ T (a )) 4
− (0.01 ∗ T (a )) 4
] (19.7)
In the EnergyPlus source code, Qdry , Qc and Qr are calculated using the following equations,
respectively:
DryHeatLoss = ConvHeatLoss + RadHeatLoss
ConvHeatLos = CloBodyRat*Hc*(CloSurfTemp - AirTemp)
RadHeatLoss = 3.96*CloBodyRat*[(0.01*AbsCloSurfTemp)**4 - (0.01*AbsRadTemp)**4]
The Pierce model thermally lumps the human body as two isothermal, concentric compartments,
one representing the internal section or core (where all the metabolic heat is assumed to be gener-
ated) and the other representing the skin. This allows the passive heat conduction from the core
compartment to the skin to be taken into account. The boundary line between the two compart-
ments changes with the skin blood flow rate per unit skin surface area (SKBF in L/h•m2 ) and is
described by α – the fraction of total body mass attributed to the skin compartment (Doherty and
Arens 1988).
environment at 50% relative humidity and uniform temperature (Ta = MRT) where the subjects
would experience the same physiological strain as in the real environment.
In the latest version of the model, it is suggested that the classical Fanger PMV be modified by
using ET* or SET* instead of the operative temperature. This gives a new index PMV* which is
proposed for dry or humid environments. It is also suggested that PMV* is very responsive to the
changes in vapor permeation efficiency of the occupants clothing.
Qdry = Qc + Qr (19.24)
TSENS = .68175*(AvgBodyTemp-AvgBodyTempLow)
TSENS = 4.7*(AvgBodyTemp-AvgBodyTempLow)/(AvgBodyTempHigh-AvgBodyTempLow)
DISC = 5.*(EvapHeatLossRegSweat-EvapHeatLossRegComf)
/(MaxEvapHeatLoss-EvapHeatLossRegComf-DiffHeatLoss)
h = hc + hr (19.51)
√
hc = 8.3 v (19.52)
In EnergyPlus, these two equations for TSV in cold and warm environments, respectively, show
up as:
TSV = -1.46153*VasoconstrictFac + 3.74721*VasoconstrictFac**2
- 6.168856*VasoconstrictFac**3
TSV = (5. - 6.56*(RelHum - 0.50))*SkinWetFac
The KSU model’s TSV was developed from experimental conditions in all temperature ranges
and for clo levels between 0.05 clo and 0.7 clo and for activities levels ranging from 1 to 6 mets
(Berglund 1978).
Adaptive Comfort Model
Adaptive comfort model, intended for use in naturally ventilated buildings, determines the
acceptability of indoor conditions given the monthly mean outdoor air temperature and the indoor
operative temperature. This is used as an index for occupant adaptation to outdoor conditions, and
determines the acceptability of indoor conditions. The model also accounts for people’s clothing
adaptation in naturally conditioned spaces by relating the acceptable range of indoor temperatures
to the outdoor climate, so it is not necessary to estimate the clothing values for the space. No
humidity or air-speed limits are required when this option is used. This section summarizes the
adaptive comfort models based on the ASHRAE Standard 55-2010 and CEN 15251. Details are
available in the two standards.
Adaptive Comfort Model Based on ASHRAE Standard 55-2010
In ASHRAE Standard 55, the monthly mean outdoor air temperature, used in the adaptive
comfort model, is defined as the simple running average of the previous thirty daily average outdoor
air temperatures.
The model defines two comfort regions: 80% Acceptability, and 90% Acceptability. If the
monthly mean outdoor air temperature is not within the specified domain of 10.0 to 33.5C, the
model is not applicable.
The central line of the model (shown in red), or comfort temperature, is defined as
29
α= (19.72)
30
Tod−i is defined as the daily average temperature of the ith previous day.
19.1. OCCUPANT THERMAL COMFORT 1519
Figure 19.1: Acceptable operative temperature ranges for naturally conditioned spaces (ASHRAE
Standard 55-2010)
Note that the weather file must be a standard .epw containing a full year of data.
The comfort regions for 80% and 90% acceptability are symmetric about the central line.
For 90% Acceptability Limits:
determines the acceptability of indoor conditions. The model also accounts for people’s clothing
adaptation in naturally conditioned spaces by relating the acceptable range of indoor temperatures
to the outdoor climate, so it is not necessary to estimate the clothing values for the space. No
humidity or air-speed limits are required when this option is used. The model defines three comfort
regions: Category I (90%) Acceptability, Category II (80%) Acceptability, and Category III (65%)
Acceptability. If Trm is not within the specified domain of 10.0 to 30.0C, the model is not applicable.
Figure 19.3: Acceptable operative temperature ranges for naturally conditioned spaces (CEN
EN15251-2007)
For 10◦ C < Trm < 15◦ C, the comfort temperature of the lower boundaries of the comfort regions
is Tcomf = 23.75◦ C. That is, the lower boundaries are constant according to the same ranges above:
For Category I, 90% Acceptability Limits:
α = 0.8 (19.84)
where Icl is the clothing insulation value and ta(out,6) is the outdoor air temperature measured
at 6 o’clock in the morning. Figure 19.5 illustrates the proposed clothing insulation model.
In Figure 19.4, clothing insulation schedule for a fixed model (blue) typically used in energy
simulation software and for the clothing model based on outdoor air temperature measured at 6
o’clock. Climate data for Chicago O’hare International Airport has been used.
The dynamic predictive clothing insulation model is implemented into EnergyPlus for realistic
energy simulation. Addenda A to ASHRAE 55 with the clothing model has been approved by the
ASHRAE committee and the chance to be included in ASHRAE 55-2013 is high.
19.1. OCCUPANT THERMAL COMFORT 1523
19.1.7.1 References
Schiavon S, Lee KH. 2013. Dynamic predictive clothing insulation models based on outdoor air
and indoor operative temperatures. Building and Environment. Volume 59, 250-260. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2012.08.024 (link to the journal) http://escholarship.org/uc/item/
3338m9qf (link to the freely available pre-print version)
Lee KH, Schiavon S. 2013. Influence of three dynamic predictive clothing insulation models on
building energy use, HVAC sizing and thermal comfort. Submitted to Journal. http://escholarship.
org/uc/item/3sx6n876 (link to the freely available pre-print version)
Tr = Tr−avg (19.89)
where the standard MRT is calculated using the following equation summed over all zone sur-
faces:
P
ϵi Ai Ti
Tr−avg = P (19.90)
ϵi Ai
In the surface weighted option, the radiant temperature is the average temperature of the
modified zone averaged MRT and the temperature of the surface that a person is closest to.
is replaced by still air (0.1 m/s), and the average air temperature and radiant temperature are
adjusted according to the cooling effect (CE). The CE of the elevated air speed is the value that,
when subtracted equally from both the average air temperature and the mean radiant temperature,
yields the same SET under still air as in the first SET calculation under elevated air speed.
The following is a formal description of this process. To define the CE, we assert that it satisfies
the following:
Where vr is the relative air velocity caused by body movement, and vankle is the air speed at 0.1
m above the floor.
This equation is only applicable for vr < 0.2m/s . And the subject’s metabolic rate and clothing
level should be kept below 1.3 met and 0.7 clo, respectively. PPD at ankle draft will be set to -1.0
if if these conditions are not met.
It should be noted that the metrics only measures the predicted percentage dissatisfied on the
sensation of draft. P P DAD levels at various air speeds and thermal sensations are depicted in
Figure 19.6
19.1.11 References
ASHRAE. 1984. “High Intensity Infrared Radiant Heating”, 1984 Handbook of Systems and Equip-
ment, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta, GA,
Chapter 18.
ASHRAE. 1985. “Physiological Principles for Comfort and Health,” 1985 Handbook of Funda-
mentals, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta, GA,
Chapter 8.
ASHRAE. 1993. “Physiological Principles and Thermal Comfort”, 1993 ASHRAE Handbook of
Fundamentals, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta,
GA, Chapter 8.
ASHRAE. 2010. “Standard 55-2010 – Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occu-
pancy (ANSI approved)”, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engi-
neers, Atlanta, GA.
19.2. TROMBE WALLS 1529
ASHRAE. 2017. “Standard 55-2017 – Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occu-
pancy (ANSI approved)”, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engi-
neers, Atlanta, GA.
Azer, N.Z., Hsu, S. 1977. “The prediction of Thermal Sensation from Simple model of Human
Physiological Regulatory Response”, ASHRAE Trans., Vol.83, Pt 1.
Berglund, Larry. 1978. “Mathematical Models for Predicting the Thermal Comfort Response
of Building Occupants”, ASHRAE Trans., Vol.84.
Doherty, T.J., Arens, E. 1988. “Evaluation of the Physiological Bases of Thermal Comfort
Models”, ASHRAE Trans., Vol.94, Pt 1.
Du Bois, D. and E.F. 1916. “A Formula to Estimate Approximate Surface Area, if Height and
Weight are Known”, Archives of internal Medicine, Vol.17.
CEN. 2007. “Standard EN15251 Indoor environmental input parameters for design and as-
sessment of energy performance of buildings addressing indoor air quality, thermal environment,
lighting and acoustics”. Bruxelles: European committee for Standardisation.
Fanger, P.O. 1970. Thermal Comfort-Analysis and Applications in Environmental Engineering,
Danish Technical Press, Copenhagen.
Fanger, P.O. 1986. “Radiation and Discomfort”, ASHRAE Journal. February 1986.
Fanger P.O. 1967. “Calculation of Thermal Comfort: Introduction of a Basic Comfort Equa-
tion”, ASHRE Trans., Vol.73, Pt 2.
Fountain, Marc.E., Huizenga, Charlie. 1997 “A Thermal Sensation Prediction Tool for Use by
the Profession”, ASHRAE Trans., Vol.103, Pt 2.
Gagge, A.P., Stolwijk, J. A. J., Nishi, Y. 1970. “An Effective Temperature Scale Based on a
Simple Model of Human Physiological Regulatory Response”, ASHRAE Trans., Vol.70, Pt 1.
Gagge, A.P., Fobelets, A.P., Berglund, L. G. 1986. “A Standard Predictive Index of Human
Response to the Thermal Environment”, ASHRAE Trans., Vol.92, Pt 2.
Hsu, S. 1977. “A Thermoregulatory Model for Heat Acclimation and Some of its Application”,
Ph. D. Dissertation, Kansas State University.
Int-Hout, D. 1990. “Thermal Comfort Calculation / A Computer Model”, ASHRAE Trans.,
Vol.96, Pt 1.
ISO. 1983. “Determination of the PMV and PPD Indices and Specification of the Conditions
for Thermal Comfort”, DIS 7730, Moderate Thermal Environment, 1983.
Liu S., Schiavon S., Kabanshi A., Nazaroff W.W. 2017. P̈redicted percentage dissatisfied with
ankle draft,̈ Indoor Air, Vol.27.
wall parameters and allows the freedom to explore unusual configurations. On the other hand,
this approach puts more of a burden on the user to be sure that all parts of the Trombe wall are
correctly specified; otherwise unexpected results may be obtained.
To simulate the Trombe wall, a very narrow zone is coupled to the desired surface via an interzone
partition. The depth of the zone corresponds to the size of the air space usually 18mm to 150mm
(¾” to 6”). In most cases the Trombe zone will be a sealed zone with no ventilation. The exterior
wall of the Trombe zone contains a single or double-pane window. Optimally, the window covers
nearly all of the wall area and has a very high transmissivity to allow the maximum amount of solar
flux into the Trombe zone. Frames and dividers can be defined as usual for the window. The interior
wall is usually constructed of very thick masonry materials with a solar absorber surface as the
innermost layer of the wall. The absorber is a selective surface material with very high absorptivity
and very low emissivity, e.g. copper with a special black surface treatment. It is important to make
sure the Solar Distribution field in the Building object is set to FullInteriorAndExterior so that
the majority of the solar flux is directed on the absorber surface and not just on the very small
area of the Trombe zone floor. The Zone Inside Convection Algorithm for the Trombe’s Zone
object should also be set to TrombeWall to correctly model the air space. As is the case for all
interzone partitions, the wall construction of the adjoining zone must be the mirror image of the
wall construction in the Trombe zone. Finally, an overhang is optionally attached to the Trombe
zone to control the amount of seasonal sun exposure. Since the user selects all of the Trombe wall
parameters in the input file, there is considerable freedom to experiment with different materials,
sizes, and configurations.
For a sealed or unvented Trombe wall, the Zone Inside Convection Algorithm field in the Zone
object should be set to “TrombeWall”. This algorithm correctly calculates the convection coeffi-
cients for a narrow sealed vertical cavity based on the ISO 15099 standard. Refer to the “Trombe
Wall Algorithm” subsection (under Interior Convection, above) for a complete description of the al-
gorithm. The EnergyPlus modeling approach for the sealed passive Trombe wall has been validated
with experimental data (Ellis 2003).
For a naturally ventilated Trombe wall, there is no built-in algorithm for calculating the correct
convection coefficients on the inside of the cavity walls. One option is to use the “Detailed”
convection algorithm. This algorithm takes into account some natural convection effects but is
intended for a normal sized room. Therefore, some error may be incurred when used with a narrow
cavity. Another option is to use the SurfaceProperty:ConvectionCoefficients object to schedule
coefficients that have been determined beforehand by the user.
19.2.1.2 Results
The resulting temperature profiles for winter and summer design days are plotted below.
19.2.1.3 References
Ellis, Peter G. 2003. Development and Validation of the Unvented Trombe Wall Model in Energy-
Plus, Master’s Thesis, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
ISO 15099. 2000. “Thermal Performance of Windows, Doors, and Shading Devices-Detailed
Calculations”. International Standards Organization, Draft, July 18, 2000.
For the active Trombe wall, there is no built-in algorithm for calculating the correct convection
coefficients due to forced convection on the inside of the cavity walls. One approach is to use the
SurfaceProperty:ConvectionCoefficients object to schedule coefficients that have been determined
beforehand by the user.
19.2.2.2 Results
The resulting temperature profile for the winter design day is plotted below. The plot for the
summer design day is not shown because it is identical to Figure 19.9 above since the fan is not
scheduled to operate in the summer.
dT
ρV cp = qnet (19.100)
dt
where:
ρ is the density of water
19.3. WATER THERMAL TANKS (INCLUDES WATER HEATERS) 1535
qnet = qheater + qoncycpara + qof f cycpara + qoncycloss + qof f cycloss + quse + qsource (19.102)
where:
qheater is the heat added by the heating element or burner
qoncycpara is the heat added due to on-cycle parasitic loads (zero when off)
qof f cycpara is the heat added due to off-cycle parasitic loads (zero when on)
qoncycloss is the heat transfer to/from the ambient environment (zero when off)
qof f cycloss is the heat transfer to/from the ambient environment (zero when on)
quse is the heat transfer to/from the use side plant connections
qsource is the heat transfer to/from the source side plant connections
qoncycloss and qof f cycloss are defined as:
mCp dT = qheater + qoncyc + qof f cyc + U Aoncyc (Tamb − T ) + U Aof f cyc (Tamb − T )
dt
(19.107)
+εuse ṁuse Cp (Tuse − T ) + εsource ṁsource Cp (Tsource − T )
" !#
dT 1 qheater + qoncyc + qof f cyc + U Aoncyc Tamb + U Aof f cyc Tamb
dt
= mCp
+εuse ṁuse Cp Tuse + εsource ṁsource Cp Tsource (19.108)
h i
−1
+ mCp
(U Aoncyc + U Aof f cyc + εuse ṁuse Cp + εsource ṁsource Cp ) T
dT
= a + bT (19.109)
dt
where:
!
1 qheater + qoncyc + qof f cyc + U Aoncyc Tamb + U Aof f cyc Tamb
a= (19.110)
mcp +εuse ṁuse cp Tuse + εsource ṁsource cp Tsource
−1
b= (U Aoncyc + U Aof f cyc + εuse ṁuse cp + εsource ṁsource cp ) (19.111)
mcp
The solution to the differential equation can be written in terms of a and b as:
a a
T (t) = + Ti ebt − (19.112)
b b
where
T(t) = temperature of the tank water at time t
Ti = initial temperature of the tank water at time t = 0
However, if b = 0, the solution instead is:
T (t) = at + Ti (19.113)
Since the control algorithm must sometimes calculate the time needed to reach a specified
temperature, the equations above can also be rearranged to solve for t.
a
1 /b + Tf
t = ln a (19.114)
b /b + Ti
or, if b = 0:
Tf − Ti
t= (19.115)
a
where Tf is the final temperature of the tank water at time t.
In the special case where b = 0 and a = 0, and Tf ̸= Ti , the time t is infinity.
1538 CHAPTER 19. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
• Ambient Relative Humidity = 50% (used for heat pump water heaters)
For heat pump water heaters, the water heater tank’s heating element and water heater tank
parasitic loads are disabled and the user-defined water heating capacity, energy use, and parasitic
loads for the heat pump are used to calculate Recovery Efficiency and Energy Factor.
The simulated test procedure performs six equal draws of approximately 0.041 m3 (10.7 gal) in
each of the first six hours of the simulation. Each draw occurs over the first timestep of the hour.
The Recovery Efficiency is calculated when the water heater recovers to the setpoint after the
first draw.
m1 cp (57.2 − 14.4)
RE = (19.116)
E1
where:
m1 is the water mass of the first draw
cp is the specific heat of water
E1 is the fuel energy consumed until the setpoint is recovered (including parasitics).
Note: When the standards rating for a heat pump water heater is calculated, the fuel energy
consumed refers to the total energy consumed by the heat pump compressor, evaporator fan, con-
denser pump, and parasitic loads. It is assumed that the parasitic loads for a heat pump water
heater do not contribute to heating the water (ref. Heat Pump Water Heater).
The Energy Factor is calculated at the end of the 24-hour simulation period.
19.3.1.5 References
10CFR430. Title 10, Code of Federal Regulations, Part 430 - Energy Conservation Program for
Consumer Products, Appendix E to Subpart B - Uniform Test Procedure for Measuring the Energy
Consumption of Water Heaters.
19.3. WATER THERMAL TANKS (INCLUDES WATER HEATERS) 1541
WaterHeater:HeatPump:* WaterHeater:*
PumpedCondenser Pumped
PumpedCondenser VariableSpeed
WrappedCondenser Wrapped
WaterHeater:HeatPump:* WaterHeater:*
Mixed Stratified
Pumped X X
Wrapped X
Numerous configurations of tank location, inlet air source, and DX coil compressor location
can be modeled. The DX coil compressor may be located in a zone, outdoors, or the ambient
1542 CHAPTER 19. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
temperature surrounding the compressor may be scheduled. The location of the compressor controls
the operation of its crankcase heater. The water heater tank location is specified in the water heater
tank object and is independent of the compressor location. In addition, the inlet air configuration
may be specified in one of several ways. The heat pump water heater air coil and fan assembly
may draw its inlet air from the zone and outdoor air using an optional mixer and splitter assembly
as shown in the first figure below. When used, the mixer and splitter air streams are controlled
by a single inlet air mixer schedule. When the HPWH draws its inlet air solely from a zone, the
mixer/splitter assembly is not required as shown in the second figure below. In this case, the inlet
air to the evaporator and fan assembly is made up entirely of zone air and the heat pump outlet
air is directed back to the zone. The final figure illustrates a HPWH that draws its inlet air solely
from outdoors and exhausts its outlet air outdoors as well. Each of these configurations may also
be connected to a plant hot water loop (via the water heater tank use nodes).
Figure 19.12: Schematic of a heat pump water heater using optional mixer/splitter nodes
Note: The water heater tank location shown in the figures above is completely independent of
the heat pump water heater’s inlet air configuration and its compressor location. The water heater
tank may be located outdoors, in a zone, or the ambient temperature surrounding the tank can be
scheduled as described in the mixed water heater section below.
Figure 19.13: Schematic of a Heat Pump Water Heater with Inlet Air from a Zone
Figure 19.14: Schematic of a Heat Pump Water Heater with Inlet Air from Outdoors
1544 CHAPTER 19. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
• the water heater tank setpoint temperature is greater than or equal to the heat pump com-
pressor cut-in temperature,
• the inlet air dry-bulb temperature to the evaporator/fan assembly is less than the Minimum
Inlet Air Temperature for Heat Pump Compressor Operation (as specified by the user in the
HPWH input object), or
• the HPWH setpoint temperature is greater than or equal to the Maximum Temperature Limit
(specified in the Water Heater:Mixed object).
Otherwise, simulation of the heat pump water heater is based on its current mode of operation.
This mode of operation is either floating (heat pump compressor is off and tank water temperature
has not fallen below the heat pump compressor cut-in temperature) or heating (tank water tem-
perature dropped below the compressor cut-in temperature on a previous time step but was unable
to reach the compressor setpoint temperature). Each mode is handled differently and they will be
discussed separately.
If the heat pump water heater is using the stratified tank model, then there is more than one
value for the tank temperature. The model includes input for where the heat pump controls detect
the temperature. The input data in the associated WaterHeater:Stratified includes up to two heights
in the tank where the temperature is measured and a weight associated with each. The associated
stratified tank nodes are selected based on these heights. When the heat pump model needs to
evaluate the tank temperature of a stratified tank, it evaluates the temperature at the tank nodes
associated with these locations.
THP, cut−in − Ttank,f loat
P LR = M IN 1.0, M AX 0.0, (19.125)
Ttank,initial − Ttank,f loat
where:
P LR is the part-load ratio of the heat pump water heater compressor
Ttank,f loat is the tank temperature in float mode when heating capacity is set to zero (◦ C)
Ttank,initial is the tank temperature at the beginning of the simulation time step (◦ C).
Since the pump and fan are assumed to cycle on and off with the heat pump compressor, the
average condenser water (for pumped condensers only) and evaporator air mass flow rates for the
simulation time step are calculated based on the PLR calculated above:
nodes are used, the HPWH model splits the heat pump outlet air mass flow rate with exhaust air
flow equaling the outdoor air flow, and the balance of the outlet air being sent to the zone supply
air node (i.e., ensures that the heat pump water heater does not contribute to zone pressurization
or depressurization). Calculations of heat pump water heating capacity, energy use, air-side per-
formance, and water-side temperature difference are performed in the associated DX Coil object.
See the engineering reference section for the Coil:WaterHeating:AirToWaterHeatPump object for
details.
Heat P ump W ater Heater On−Cycle P arasitic Electric P ower (W ) = Pparasitic,on (P LR)
(19.131)
dT
mcp = qnet (19.135)
dt
where:
m is the mass of water
cp is the specific heat of water
T is the temperature of water
t is the time
qnet is the net heat transfer rate.
The difference for the stratified model is that it must solve the energy balance on n number of
nodes simultaneously. Node 1 is at the top of the water tank and node n is at the bottom of the
water tank.
dTn
m n cp = qnet,n (19.136)
dt
where:
mn is the mass of water for node n
cp is the specific heat of water
Tn is the temperature of water for node n
t is the time
qnet,n is the net heat transfer rate for node n.
It will be advantageous for the numerical solution to rearrange the nodal differential equation
into the form
dT
= aT + b (19.137)
dt
The net heat transfer rate qnet is the sum of gains and losses due to multiple heat transfer
pathways. Each term is defined as described below and separated into the part that is multiplied
by the current node temperature (a term) and everything else (b term).
kAn+1 kAn−1
qcond,n = (Tn+1 − Tn ) + (Tn−1 − Tn ) (19.143)
Ln+1 Ln−1
where:
k is the fluid thermal conductivity of water (0.6 W/m-K)
An+1 is the shared surface area between node n and node n+1
Ln+1 is the distance between the center of mass of node n and n+1
Tn+1 is the temperature of node n+1
An−1 is the shared surface area between node n and node n-1
Ln−1 is the distance between the center of mass of node n and n-1
Tn−1 is the temperature of node n-1.
Separating into a and b terms yields:
an = − kAn+1
Ln+1
kAn−1
+
Ln−1
kAn+1
(19.144)
bn = T
Ln+1 n+1
+ kA n−1
T
Ln−1 n−1
1550 CHAPTER 19. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
an = −εsource ṁsource cp
(19.147)
bn = εsource ṁsource cp Tsource
an = −εuse ṁuse cp
(19.148)
bn = εuse ṁuse cp Tuse
dTn
= aTn + b (19.153)
dt
Where a is a constant and b can be a function of either time or the temperature of adjacent
nodes. If b is assumed to be constant, the solution of the differential equation is readily solved.
Since b is not generally constant a reasonable approximation can be made by assuming b is equal
to its average value over the sub timestep.
Solving the differential equation yields the following solution for the temperature of a node at
the end of a sub timestep.
b b
Tf inal = Tinitial + ea∆t − (19.154)
a a
Where b is a function of the average temperature as calculated by
b = b(Tavg )
(Tinitial − ab )(ea∆t −1) (19.155)
Tavg = a∆t
− b
a
The solution is obtained by separating the qnet terms described above into their respective a and
b parts, solving for Tf inal and Tavg , recalculating b using the new average temperatures and iterating
until the temperatures converge, at which point temperature inversions are resolved and controls
decisions are made before moving on to the next sub timestep.
amount of time until a control decision (19.3.3.2.2) will need to be made. The sub timestep is then
selected to approach the time of the control decision.
First, the temperature difference required for a heater to turn on or off for each control node
is calculated by determining the difference between its setpoint temperature and the current tem-
perature if the heater is on or its cut in temperature and current temperature if the heater is off.
The minimum of the temperature differences is selected as the maximum allowable nodal temper-
ature change dTmax . The time until that temperature change occurs is estimated for each node by
rearranging 19.153 to solve for dt.
dTmax
dt = (19.156)
aT + b
Finally, the minimum of the nodal dt values is used as the sub timestep unless it is outside the
allowable bounds or it will extend beyond the end of the timestep. In those cases, the sub timestep
is adjusted to fit within the bounds.
1. Use and source inlet flow rates are applied to the inlet nodes
Before each sub timestep is calculated, the following evaluations are made:
1. Thermostatic controls for heater 1 and heater 2 are evaluated to determine if the heater
elements should turn on or off
2. Node 1 temperature is compared against the maximum limit to determine if venting is neces-
sary
3. Adjoining node temperatures are compared to determine if there are any temperature inver-
sions for which the inversion mixing rate should be used.
4. Source inlet temperatures for the desuperheater are recalculated and applied to the inlet nodes
using the heat rate calculated in the system time step loop
The solution continues looping through all substeps until the system time step is completed.
19.3.3.3 References
Duffie, J., and W. Beckman. 1980. Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes. John Wiley & Sons.
Newton, B. 1995. Modeling of Solar Storage Tanks. Master’s Dissertation, University of
Wisconsin-Madison.
• Peak Draw. The volume is determined from the loop design flow rate. The water heater is
positioned on the supply side of a plant loop. After the plant sizing routines have run, the
model obtains the design flow rate for all components on the demand side. The tank volume
is then: V = V̇loop.des ∗ tdraw
• Residential HUD-FHA Minimum. The volume is determined from a set of rules defined
in Table 19.10. This is from Chapter 48 of 1999 ASHRAE Handbook HVAC Applications,
Americal Society of Heating Refrigeration and Air-conditioning Engineeers, Atlanta GA. (also
used in the Building America Benchmark).
Residential HUD-FHA Minimum DHW Storage and Burner Capacity (ASHRAE 1999)
# Bedrooms 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 4 5 6
# Bathrooms All ≤ 1.5 2-2.5 ≥3 ≤ 1.5 2-2.5 ≥3 ≤ 1.5 2-2.5 ≥3 All All
Gas
Storage (gal) 20 30 30 40 30 40 40 40 40 50 50 50
Burner 27 36 36 36 36 36 38 36 38 38 47 50
(kBtu/hr)
Electric
Storage (gal) 20 30 40 50 40 50 50 50 50 66 66 80
Burner (kW) 2.5 3.5 4.5 5.5 4.5 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.5
• Per Person. The tank volume is determined by summing the design level of people in the
model and multiplying by a user-entered volume per person factor.
• Per Floor Area. The tank volume is determined by summing the floor area in all the zones
in the model and multiplying by a user-entered volume per floor area factor.
• Per Unit. The tank volume is determined by multiplying a user-entered volume per unit and
a user-entered number of units.
• Per Solar Collector Area. The tank volume is determined by summing the collector area in
all the hot water solar collectors in the model and multiplying by a user-entered volume per
collector area factor.
• Peak Draw. The heater capacity is determined from the tank volume, assumed start and
finish temperatures and a user defined time for recovery. The heater capacity is then:
1554 CHAPTER 19. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
• Residential HUD-FHA Minimum. The heater capacity is determined from a set of rules
defined by the table above. This is from 1999 ASHRAE Handbook HVAC Applications,
Americal Society of Heating Refrigeration and Air-conditioning Engineeers, Atlanta GA. (also
used the Building America Benchmark).
• Per Person. The heater capacity is determined by summing the design level of people in the
model and using a user-entered factor for recovery capacity per person. The heater capacity
is then:
• Per Floor Area. The heater capacity is determined by summing the floor area in all the zones
in the model and using a user-entered factor for recovery capacity per floor area. The heater
capacity is then:
• Per Unit. The heater capacity is determined from a user-entered Recovery Capacity per unit
and a user-entered number of units. The heater capacity is then:
• Per Solar Collector Area. The water heater is assumed to be used for solar hot water storage
and the heater capacity is set to zero.
2. Rainwater Collection
3. Groundwater Well
Water mains temperatures are a function of outdoor climate conditions and vary with time of
year. A correlation has been formulated to predict water mains temperatures based on two weather
inputs:
These values can be easily calculated from annual weather data using a spreadsheet.
The correlation was developed by Craig Christensen and Jay Burch and is described in Hendron
et al. (2004). The correlation is:
Tmains = (Tout,avg + 6) + ratio ∗ (∆Tout,maxdif f /2) ∗ SIN (0.986 ∗ (day − 15 − lag) − 90) (19.165)
where:
TTmains is the water mains temperature (◦ F)
TTout,avg is the average annual outdoor air temperature (◦ F)
∆Tout,maxdif f is the maximum difference in monthly average outdoor air temperatures (◦ F)
day is Julian day of the year (1-365)
ratio is equal to 0.4 + 0.01 * (Tamb,avg - 44)
lag is equal to 35 - 1.0 * (Tamb,avg - 44) (◦ F).
For the Chicago-O’Hare TMY2 weather file, Tout,avg = 9.69◦ C and ∆Tout,maxdif f = 28.1◦ C. The
resulting water mains temperature profile is graphed in Figure 19.15.
19.4.1.1 References
Hendron, R., Anderson, R., Christensen, C., Eastment, M., and Reeves, P. 2004. “Development
of an Energy Savings Benchmark for All Residential End-Uses”, Proceedings of SimBuild 2004,
IBPSA-USA National Conference, Boulder, CO, August 4 - 6, 2004.
• WaterUse:Equipment
• WaterUse:Connections
The WaterUse:Equipment object simulates all different types of water end uses. The Wa-
terUse:Connections object manages multiple pieces of water equipment with a common supply and
return, internally providing the services of a splitter and a mixer. The WaterUse:Connections
object also allows water consuming equipment to be simulated in a closed plant loop by supplying
makeup water from the water mains.
can be thought of as a way to simulate occupant behavior; a person at a sink will adjust the hot
and cold flow rates to get the overall water flow and temperature that is desired.
The two equations above are easily solved to calculate the necessary hot and cold flow rates
needed to attain the target conditions.
Ttarget − Tcold
ṁhot = ṁtarget (19.168)
Thot − Tcold
∆E = Q∆t (19.171)
where:
Q is the heating rate
cp is the specific heat of water
∆E is the heating energy
∆t is the time step interval.
All heating is assigned to “Purchased Heating”.
A second set of variables is tied to the specifics of the water equipment which describe the heat
and mass transfer processes that occur as the water passes through the zone. These variables might
include the velocity of the water in the zone air, the surface area of water exposed to the zone air,
the dwell time of water in the zone, and possibly others. The complexity of these variables cannot
be easily cast into a generalized EnergyPlus input object. Consider that in a shower, the velocity
of water droplets is increasing as they fall, and the surface area of the spray is increasing. How
does one even determine the surface area of the spray at any point?
The approach taken here is to utilize the first set of initial condition variables and forego the
overly-complex second set. The initial conditions can be used to calculate a maximum possible
change in sensible and latent energy between the entering water conditions and the leaving wa-
ter conditions at an infinite time later. Sensible and latent energy are calculated separately and
represent the maximum heat gain, respectively, that could be added to the zone air. The user
simply specifies a fraction of the maximum heat gain for sensible and latent that is actually added
to the zone air. The fraction is specified with a schedule to account for different modes of opera-
tion. The split between sensible and latent will vary depending on the type of equipment that is
to be modeled. Typically, both fractions should be small numbers.
The maximum sensible heat gain rate is calculated by assuming that all of the water flow is
allowed to cool to the zone dry-bulb temperature. The actual sensible zone heat gain rate is found
by multiplying the maximum by the user fraction.
The change in leaving water conditions has implications for drainwater heat recovery and storage
tank conditions.
If plant-coupled, Ṁhot is compared to the maximum flow rate available in the plant loop (after
the first HVAC iteration). If Ṁhot > Ṁhot,max , the actual flow rate is reset to equal the maximum:
Ṁhot = Ṁhot,max . New hot and cold flow rates, ṁ′hot,i and ṁ′cold,i , at the equipment level are then
recalculated, decreasing the hot flow rate and increasing the cold flow rate in order to still meet the
target flow rate.
Ṁhot,max
α= (19.185)
Ṁhot
P
ṁdrain,i tdrain,i
i
Tdrain = (19.189)
Ṁdrain
In the case of no drainwater heat recovery, the subsystem wastewater temperature, Twaste , is
equal to the drainwater temperature, Tdrain . (For drainwater heat recovery, see below.) The
wastewater temperature and flow rate are propogated to the reclamation water storage tank, if
specified.
∆E = Q∆t (19.191)
where:
Q is the heating rate
cp is the specific heat of water
∆E is the heating energy
∆t is the time interval.
The heating rate and energy for the WaterUse:Connections is the sum of the values for its
constituent water equipment objects. If the WaterUse:Connections object is stand-alone, all heat-
ing is assigned to “Purchased Heating” by the individual water equipment objects. If the Wa-
terUse:Connections object is coupled to a plant loop, all heating is supplied by the plant loop
equipment.
local water use equipment. In the “plant and equipment” configuration, the preheated water is
split between both of the previous configurations. This is the only configuration where the flow
rate is equal on both sides of the heat exchanger.
The new variables added here are defined as:
Ṁrecovery is the makeup water mass flow rate in the heat exchanger
Trecovery is the water temperature leaving the heat exchanger
Tmakeup =is the cold makeup water temperature supplied to various flows.
Another step is inserted into the solution method:
For the “equipment” and “plant and equipment” configurations, the solution requires iteration
to solve because the preheated water leaving the heat exchanger is connected to the cold water
supply water, creating a feedback loop.
Cmin
Rc = (19.196)
Cmax
where Rc is the heat capacity ratio.
The effectiveness ε is then calculated for the given type of heat exchanger. For the “ideal” heat
exchanger, ε = 1.
1568 CHAPTER 19. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
Figure 19.19: Water Use Connections Subsystem with Drainwater Heat Recovery
19.5. ZONE CONTROLS 1569
For the “counterflow” and “crossflow” heat exchangers, the effectiveness is calculated using the
effectiveness-NTU method, where:
UA
NT U = (19.197)
Cmin
For the “counterflow” heat exchanger:
NT U
ε= , if Rc = 1 (19.198)
1 + NT U
1 − EXP (−N T U (1 − Rc ))
ε= , if Rc < 1 (19.199)
1 − Rc EXP (−N T U (1 − Rc ))
For the “crossflow” heat exchanger:
N T U 0.22
ε = 1 − EXP EXP −Rc N T U 0.78
−1 (19.200)
Rc
The heat recovery rate is then calculated.
For the Uncontrolled case as shown in the pseudo code below, no heating or cooling requirement
is calculated for the system to meet.
CASE (0)
! Uncontrolled Zone
LoadToHeatingSetPoint = 0.0
19.5. ZONE CONTROLS 1571
LoadToCoolingSetPoint = 0.0
ZoneSysEnergyDemand(ZoneNum)%TotalOutputRequired = 0.0
For the Single Heating Setpoint as shown in the pseudo code below, there would be a heating
only thermostat. The setpoint can be scheduled and varied throughout the simulation but only
heating is allowed with this control type.
CASE (SingleHeatingSetPoint)
! Determine zone load based on
! Qload + Qsys = 0 and Qsys = mCp(Tsys-Tzone)
! System Load Sign Convention:
! - -> Cooling required to reach setpoint
! + -> Heating required to reach setpoint
LoadToHeatingSetPoint = (TempDepZnLd(ZoneNum) *
TempZoneThermostatSetPoint(ZoneNum) –
TempIndZnLd(ZoneNum))
IF ((ZoneSysEnergyDemand(ZoneNum)%TotalOutputRequired - 1.0) < 0.0) THEN
DeadBandOrSetback(ZoneNum) = .TRUE.
ENDIF
For the Single Cooling Setpoint there would be a cooling only thermostat. The setpoint can be
scheduled and varied throughout the simulation but only cooling is allowed with this control type.
CASE (SingleCoolingSetPoint)
LoadToCoolingSetPoint = (TempDepZnLd(ZoneNum) *
TempZoneThermostatSetPoint(ZoneNum) –
TempIndZnLd(ZoneNum))
ZoneSysEnergyDemand(ZoneNum)%TotalOutputRequired = LoadToCoolingSetPoint
IF ((ZoneSysEnergyDemand(ZoneNum)%TotalOutputRequired + 1.0) > 0.0) THEN
DeadBandOrSetback(ZoneNum) = .TRUE.
ENDIF
For the Single Heat Cool Setpoint there would be a cooling only thermostat there would be
a heating and cooling thermostat. The setpoint can be scheduled and varied throughout the
simulation for both heating and cooling. With this control type only 1 setpoint profile is needed or
used.
CASE (SingleHeatCoolSetPoint)
LoadToHeatingSetPoint = (TempDepZnLd(ZoneNum) *
TempZoneThermostatSetPoint(ZoneNum) –
TempIndZnLd(ZoneNum))
LoadToCoolingSetPoint = (TempDepZnLd(ZoneNum) *
TempZoneThermostatSetPoint(ZoneNum) –
TempIndZnLd(ZoneNum))
! Possible combinations:
! 1/ LoadToHeatingSetPoint > 0 & LoadToCoolingSetPoint > 0 –> Heating required
! 2/ LoadToHeatingSetPoint > 0 & LoadToCoolingSetPoint < 0 –> Not Feasible
! 3/ LoadToHeatingSetPoint < 0 & LoadToCoolingSetPoint < 0 –> Cooling Required
! 4/ LoadToHeatingSetPoint < 0 & LoadToCoolingSetPoint > 0 –> Dead Band Operation
IF (LoadToHeatingSetPoint > 0.0 .AND. LoadToCoolingSetPoint > 0.0) THEN
ZoneSysEnergyDemand(ZoneNum)%TotalOutputRequired = LoadToHeatingSetPoint
ZoneSetPoint = ZoneThermostatSetPointLo(ZoneNum)
1572 CHAPTER 19. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
the zone can be controlled by a weighted mixture of radiant and air temperatures (rather than just
zone air temperatures).
In EnergyPlus, operative temperature, TOP , is defined as:
The control is accomplished using the load to setpoint formulation that is fundamental to HVAC
system control in EnergyPlus. Although real systems will not know the loads and operate on
temperature-based control, EnergyPlus needs to be able to function at zone timesteps up to one
hour and this is too long of a timeframe for true temperature-based zone control. Load-based control
is an important method of determining the average HVAC system response to zone conditions over
the time step. For operative temperature control, the same methods and routines are used for
calculating loads to setpoints but the setpoints are shifted to emulate operative temperature control
rather than air temperature control.
The user-defined setpoint for TOP is an input in degrees Celsius. TM RT is continually modeled
by the full zone heat balance method and includes all the interactions between thermal loads and
HVAC systems. A new setpoint for the zone’s Tdrybulb is obtained for each zone timestep by
rearranging the definition of TOP to put Tdrybulb on the left hand side.
TOP,setpoint − γTM RT
Tdrybulb,setpoint = (19.206)
(1 − γ)
This adjustment to the target zone air drybulb temperature is made every timestep for every
zone immediately after the setpoints are obtained from the schedule.
Reference: J. Niu and J. Burnett. 1998. Integrating Radiant/Operative Temperature
Controls into Building Energy Simulations. ASHRAE Transactions Vol. 104. Part 2. page
210. ASHRAE. Atlanta, GA.
1574 CHAPTER 19. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
where:
∆TOvercoolRange,M AX is the maximum overcool range for the zone air (◦ C)
∆TOvercoolRange is a user input for the overcool range for the zone air (◦ C)
∆TSetpoints is the temperature difference between the cooling and heating setpoints (◦ C).
If a single cooling setpoint thermostat is being modified by this control, the maximum overcool
range is equal to the user-defined overcool range.
The extent that the zone air relative humidity exceeds the user-entered dehumidifying relative
humidity setpoint is given by:
The actual cooling setpoint reduction (overcooling) is calculated for the condition when the zone
air relative humidity exceeds the dehumidifying setpoint (i.e., ∆ϕ >0), as described below:
19.5. ZONE CONTROLS 1575
19.5.5 Humidistat
The input object ZoneControl:Humidistat provides a way for the zone to be controlled to a single
relative humidity setpoint schedule, or dual humidity schedules (humidifying and dehumidifying
with deadband). The schedules consist of relative humidities, expressed as a percentage (0-100), to
be used for the zone moisture prediction calculation. Only one control statement can be specified
for each zone. Individual relative humidity values can be defined for every time step, thus giving
the user a full range of flexibility. For a single setpoint humidistat, if the control relative humidity
is below the calculated load and the equipment specified can humidify then that equipment will
try and meet the requirement. The opposite is true if the calculated value is above the setpoint
and the equipment can dehumidify. For a dual setpoint humidistat, if the zone relative humidity is
below the humidifying relative humidity setpoint and the equipment specified can humidify then
that equipment will try and meet the zone’s humidification load. The opposite is true if the zone
relative humidity is above the dehumidifying relative humidity setpoint and the equipment can
dehumidify.
If the ZoneControl:Humidistat is used by a furnace or unitary system then no other
objects are required. The signal from the humidistat is used directly by that compo-
nent. If the Zone Control:Humidistat is used to control a Humidifier or used in con-
junction with the Controller:Simple object with control variable “TemperatureAndHumidi-
tyRatio”, then either the “SetpointManager:SingleZone:Humidity:Minimum”, “SetpointMan-
ager:MultiZone:Humidity:Minimum”, “SetpointManager:SingleZone:Humidity:Maximum” or
“SetpointManager:MultiZone:Humidity:Maximum” objects are required to determine a setpoint
for those components to meet for the single setpoint humidistat. For a dual setpoint humidistat, a
1576 CHAPTER 19. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
pairs are directly related. The schedule defines the type of thermal comfort control that is to be
used during for each simulation time step. Valid control types are shown in Table 19.13.
If the schedule referenced in the ZoneControl statement has a value of 4 for a particular time step,
this indicates that during that time step “ThermostatSetpoint:ThermalComfort:Fanger:DualSetpoint”
control is to be used. The specific “ThermostatSetpoint:ThermalComfort:Fanger:DualSetpoint”
control object to be used is specified in the list of thermal comfort control type/name pairs. Then
the specific thermal comfort control type objects reference the thermal comfort PMV setpoint
schedule to be used. Because only one thermal comfort control can be specified for each thermal
comfort control type in a ZoneControl statement, there are only four pairs possible in a particular
ZoneControl type/name list. This is because individual thermal comfort controls can be defined
for specific times, thus giving the user a full range of flexibility. Since putting in the name of
the thermal comfort control type directly in the schedule would be very cumbersome, the thermal
comfort control types are assigned a number which is used in the schedule profile.
For more information see ZoneControl:Thermostat:ThermalComfort in the InputOutput Refer-
ence and Zone Fanger Thermal Comfort in the Engineering Documentation.
For the no thermal comfort control (uncontrolled) case, the control will revert to thermostat
control if specified. If the thermal comfort control is specified as “uncontrolled” for a particular
period and thermostat control is not specified in the input, then conditions will float.
For the ThermostatSetpoint:ThermalComfort:Fanger:SingleHeating case there would be a heat-
ing only thermal comfort setpoint temperature. The setpoint is calculated based on the selected
thermal comfort model and varied throughout the simulation but only heating is allowed with this
thermal comfort control type.
CASE (Single Thermal Comfort Heating Setpoint:Fanger)
TempControlType(ZoneNum) = SingleHeatingSetpoint
TempZoneThermostatSetPoint(ZoneNum) = Calculated Zone Setpoint from Fanger heating
setpoint PMV
For the ThermostatSetpoint:ThermalComfort:Fanger:SingleCooling case there would be a cool-
ing only thermal comfort setpoint temperature. The setpoint is calculated based on the selected
thermal comfort model and varied throughout the simulation but only cooling is allowed with this
thermal comfort control type.
CASE (Single Thermal Comfort Cooling Setpoint:Fanger)
TempControlType(ZoneNum) = SingleCoolingSetPoint
TempZoneThermostatSetPoint(ZoneNum) = Calculated Zone Setpoint from Fanger cooling
setpoint PMV
For the ThermostatSetpoint:ThermalComfort:Fanger:SingleHeatingOrCooling there would be
heating and cooling thermal comfort zone control objects. The setpoint is calculated based on the
selected thermal comfort model and varied throughout the simulation for both heating and cooling.
With this thermal comfort control type only 1 setpoint profile is needed or used.
CASE (Single Thermal Comfort Heating Cooling Setpoint:Fanger)
TempControlType(ZoneNum) = SingleHeatCoolSetPoint
TempZoneThermostatSetPoint(ZoneNum) = Calculated Zone Setpoint from Fanger heating
and cooling setpoint PMV
For ThermostatSetpoint:ThermalComfort:Fanger:DualSetpoint there would be heating and cool-
ing thermal comfort control objects. For this case both a heating and cooling setpoint can be
calculated based on the selected thermal comfort model for any given time period. The thermal
comfort setpoint temperature can be varied throughout the simulation for both heating and cooling.
CASE (Dual Thermal Comfort Setpoint with Deadband:Fanger)
TempControlType(ZoneNum) = DualSetPointWithDeadBand
ZoneThermostatSetPointLo(ZoneNum) = Calculated Zone Setpoint from Fanger heating
setpoint PMV
ZoneThermostatSetPointHi(ZoneNum) = Calculated Zone Setpoint from Fanger cooling
setpoint PMV
19.6. ZONE EQUIPMENT AND ZONE FORCED AIR UNITS 1579
19.6.1.2 Model
The air distribution function is encapsulated in the module ZoneAirEquipmentManager. The object
and module function only to invoke the individual air terminal unit simulations.
19.6.1.4 Calculation
There is no calculation associated with ZoneHVAC:AirDistributionUnit.
19.6.2.2 Model
The mixer uses the equations for adiabatic mixing of two moist air streams. Namely, dry air mass
balance, water mass balance, and enthalpy balance. For inlet side mixer connection, the primary
air and outlet air flow rates are known, and the condition of the primary and secondary air streams
are also known. The mass balance yields the secondary air mass flow rate, and the outlet conditions
1580 CHAPTER 19. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
are determined from enthalpy and water mass balance. For the supply side mixer connection, the
primary and secondary air stream conditions and flow rates are known so the outlet condition and
flow rate is calculated.
19.6.2.4 Calculation
The following equations for the mixing of two moist air streams are used:
where:
ṁda is the dry air mass flow rate (kg/s)
h is the specific enthalpy (J/kg)
T is the temperature (◦ C)
W is the humidity ratio (kg of water/kg of dry air).
For a mixer unit connected to the inlet side of a ZoneHVAC equipment, the outlet air mass flow
rate has been set by the zone HVAC equipment. The air mass flow rate of one of the inlets - the
primary air from the central system - is also known. So the air mass balance equation is used to
obtain the secondary air mass flow rate.
The inlet conditions - specific enthalpy and humidity ratio - for both inlet air streams are known.
Now that both inlet air streams’ mass flow rate is known, the enthalpy and water mass balance
equations are used to get the outlet conditions.
For a mixer unit connected to the supply side of a ZoneHVAC equipment, the conditions and
flow rates of the primary air and secondary air streams are known, are taken from the inlet nodes’
data. The balance equations are then used to calculate the outlet flow rate and conditions.
19.6.2.6 References
See Chapter 1, page 1.17 of the 2013 ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals.
duct−space = C3 · V̇duct
V̇leak = C1 · ∆p0.5 (19.218)
where:
1582 CHAPTER 19. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
• the average duct pressure approximates the pressure drop across the duct;
Effects of Constant Pressure Upstream and Variable Flow and Pressure Downstream
Commonly VAV systems maintain a constant static pressure at some point in the duct system
upstream of the VAV terminal units. That is, airflow rate will vary depending on the cooling
requirement, but a constant pressure will be maintained at the static pressure sensor. Consequently,
the leakage flow for a leak upstream of the VAV boxes will be approximately constant. Or to put
it another way, the leakage fraction will vary in proportion to the flow rate.
For leaks downstream of the VAV terminal units, the airflow through the duct and the pressure
in the downstream duct will vary as the box damper modulates in response to the differential
between the room temperature and the thermostat setpoint. In this case, the situation is similar
to the constant flow case: for an orifice-like leak, the pressure difference across the leak will vary
linearly with the air speed (or flow rate); i.e., the leakage fraction will be approximately constant.
SDLM
For SDLM, our leakage model is then:
• for leaks upstream of the terminal units, the leakage flow rate will be constant;
• for leaks downstream of the terminal units, the leakage fraction will be constant.
This model assumes, in addition to the assumptions given above, that the VAV system is con-
trolled to a constant static pressure setpoint. In EnergyPlus, SDLM is not currently applicable to
systems using static pressure reset. Using SDLM would require knowledge of static pressure as a
function of system air flow rate.
Both inputs are leakage fractions. Input (1) is the leakage fraction at design flow rate, which
together can be used to determine the constant leakage flow rate upstream of the VAV boxes; this
leakage fraction varies with the flow rate. Input (2) is a fixed leakage fraction and is constant as
the flow rate varies.
19.6. ZONE EQUIPMENT AND ZONE FORCED AIR UNITS 1583
19.6.3.4 Implementation
The various zone mass flow rates are related in the following manner.
where:
ṁs,us is the constant zone supply air mass flow rate upstream of the leaks (kg/s)
ṁtu is the air mass flow rate through the terminal unit (kg/s)
ṁlk,us is the upstream leakage air mass flow rate (kg/s)
ṁlk,ds is the downstream leakage air mass flow rate (kg/s)
ṁs,us,max is the maximum upstream supply air mass flow rate (program input) (kg/s)
ṁs,z is the supply air mass flow rate delivered to the zone (kg/s)
F racus is the design upstream leakage fraction (program input)
F racds is the constant downstream leakage fraction (program input)
ṁtu is calculated in the VAV terminal unit model in the usual manner: the mass flow rate is
varied to meet the zone load. The limits on the mass flow rate variation are set by the ṁM axAvail
and ṁM inAvail values stored at the terminal unit’s air inlet node. To account for upstream leakage
the maximum air mass flow rate available is reset to:
Downstream leakage must also be accounted for because not all of ṁtu will reach the zone. This
is done by having ṁtu meet an adjusted zone load:
1
Q̇z,adjusted = Q̇z (19.225)
1 − F racds
where Q̇z (W) is the actual zone load (met by ṁs,z ) and Q̇z,adjusted is the load used in the VAV
terminal unit model to obtain ṁtu .
Once ṁtu is known, all the other flow rates can be calculated. ṁs,us is assigned to the air
distribution unit’s air inlet node and ṁs,z is assigned to the unit’s air outlet node. Thus, air mass
flow is not conserved through the unit: the two air leakage flow rates disappear. These two vanished
flow rates are stored in the air distribution unit data structure. When the downstream return air
plenum mass and energy balances are calculated, the leakage flow rate data is accessed and added
back in as inlets to the return air plenum. Thus, the overall air system preserves a mass balance.
1584 CHAPTER 19. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
19.6.3.5 References
Wray, C.P. 2003. “Duct Thermal Performance Models for Large Commercial Buildings”, Lawrence
Berkeley National Laboratory Report to the California Energy Commission. LBNL-53410.
Wray, C.P. and N.E. Matson. 2003. “Duct Leakage Impacts on VAV System Performance in
California Large Commercial Buildings”, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Report to the
California Energy Commission. LBNL-53605.
Wray, C.P., R.C. Diamond, and M.H. Sherman. 2005. “Rationale for Measuring Duct Leakage
Flows in Large Commercial Buildings”. Proceedings – 26th AIVC Conference, Brussels, Belgium,
September. LBNL-58252.
19.6.4.2 Model
The 4 pipe fan coil unit is modeled as a compound component consisting of 4 sub-components: an
outdoor air mixer, a fan, a cooling coil, and a heating coil. In terms of EnergyPlus objects these
are:
1. OutdoorAir:Mixer
2. Fan:ConstantVolume
3. Coil:Cooling:Water, Coil:Cooling:Water:DetailedGeometry, or
CoilSystem:Cooling:Water:HeatExchangerAssisted
4. Coil:Heating:Water or Coil:Heating:Electric
The unit is a forward model: its inputs are defined by the state of its inlets: namely its 2 air
streams – recirculated and outdoor air. The outputs of the model are the conditions of the outlet air
stream: flow rate, temperature and humidity ratio. The unit data and simulation are encapsulated
in the module FanCoilUnits.
and inlet chilled water node. The individual components comprising the fan coil must also be input
and connected together properly. Specifically the outdoor air mixer mixed air node must be the
same as the fan inlet node; the fan outlet node must be the same as the cooling coil air inlet node;
the cooling coil air outlet node must be the same as the heating coil air inlet node; and the heating
coil air outlet node must be the same as the unit air outlet node; the outdoor air mixer inlet nodes
must match the unit inlet nodes; and the outdoor air mixer relief node must match the unit relief
node.
The user needs to also specify (unless the unit is autosized) various maximum flow rates: the
supply air flow rate, the outdoor air inlet flow rate, the maximum (and minimum) chilled water
flow rate, and the maximum (and minimum) hot water flow rate. Heating and cooling convergence
tolerances need to be specified or defaulted. And there is an on/off availability schedule for the
unit.
All the input data for the fan coil unit is stored in the array FanCoil.
19.6.4.4 Calculation
Given the needed inputs, the output is calculated in subroutine Calc4PipeFanCoil. The temper-
ature, humidity ratio and flow rate of the recirculated and outdoor air streams are taken from
the inlet air nodes The inlet hot and chilled water flow rates have been set by local controllers –
temperatures are taken from the inlet water nodes. Then:
The load met (sensible cooling or heating) is calculated and passed back to the calling routine:
Q̇tot,out = ṁ · (P syHF nT dbW (Tout , Wout ) − P syHF nT dbW (Tin, Win )) (19.229)
Continuous Fan
ṁ = ṁon,1 PLR
(19.235)
ṁw = ṁw,max PLR
where:
SRn is the speed ratio of the fan coil unit at speed n
P LR is the part load ratio of the fan coil uni at speed 1
ṁ is the average mass flow rate of supply air (kg/s)
ṁon,n−1 is the mass flow rate of supply air at fan speed level n-1 (kg/s)
ṁon,n is the mass flow rate of supply air at fan speed level n (kg/s)
ṁof f is the mass flow rate of supply air when the coils are off (kg/s)
ṁw is the average mass flow rate of chilled or hot water (kg/s)
ṁw,max is the maximum or full mass flow rate of chilled or hot water (kg/s)
SystemLoad is the system load to be met by the fan coil unit (W)
F ullLoadOutputn−1 is the fully load fan coil unit output at fan speed level n-1 (W)
F ullLoadOutputn is the fully load fan coil unit output at fan speed level n (W).
This control method assumes that a simulation sizing run is performed to determine the zone
design sensible cooling and heating load Q̇z,design .
For fan coil units, the limit used to determine if reduced zone loads are met with reduced fan
speed is the fan coil’s Low Speed Supply Air Flow Ratio input.
1588 CHAPTER 19. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
Figure 19.20: Single-Zone VAV Fan Control for Fan Coil Units
19.6.5.2 Model
The window air conditioner is modeled as a compound component consisting of 3 sub-components:
an outdoor air mixer, a fan, and a DX coil. In terms of EnergyPlus objects these are Out-
doorAir:Mixer, Fan:ConstantVolume or Fan:OnOff, and Coil:Coolilng:DX:SingleSpeed or CoilSys-
tem:Cooling:DX:HeatExchangerAssisted. The unit is a forward model: its inputs are defined by the
state of its inlets: namely its 2 air streams – recirculated and outdoor air. The outputs of the model
are the conditions of the outlet air stream: flow rate, temperature and humidity ratio. The model
is also an averaged model: the performance of the unit is averaged over the time step. That is, the
unit is assumed to cycle on/off during the time step and this on/off cycling is averaged over the
simulation time step. The unit data and simulation are encapsulated in the module WindowAC.
19.6.5.4 Calculation
Given the needed inputs, the output is calculated in subroutine CalcCyclingWindowAC. The tem-
perature, humidity ratio and flow rate of the recirculated and outdoor air streams are taken from
the inlet air nodes. The part load ratio is specified by the calling routine. Then
• The outdoor air mixer is simulated (Call SimOAMixer);
• For blow-through fan position:
– the fan is simulated (Call SimulateFanComponents);
– the coil is simulated (Call SimDXCoil or SimHXAssistedCoolingCoil).
For draw-through fan position, the simulation order of the fan and coil is reversed. Note that
data is never explicitly passed between the sub-components. This is all handled automatically by
the node connections and the data stored on the nodes.
1590 CHAPTER 19. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
Q̇sens,out = ṁ · (P syHF nT dbW (Tout , Win ) − P syHF nT dbW (Tin , Win )) (19.238)
Q̇total,out = ṁ · (P syHF nT dbW (Tout , Wout ) − P syHF nT dbW (Tin , Win ) (19.239)
where PsyHFnTdb is the EnergyPlus function giving enthalpy as a function of temperature and
humidity ratio.
Figure 19.21: Schematic of a Packaged Terminal Air Conditioner with Draw Through Fan Placement
coils and the supply air fan to meet the cooling/heating requirements. The heating or cooling
energy provided by the PTAC is delivered to the zone via the zone air inlet node.
The PTAC is able to model supply air fan operation in two modes: cycling fan – cycling coil (i.e.,
AUTO fan) and continuous fan – cycling coil (i.e., fan ON). Supply air fan operation is coordinated
with the use of a supply air fan operating mode schedule. Schedule values of 0 denote cycling fan
operation (AUTO fan). Schedule values other than 0 denote continuous fan operation (fan ON).
Fan:OnOff must be used to model AUTO fan (i.e. if schedule values of 0 occur in the supply air fan
operating mode schedule), while Fan:OnOff or Fan:ConstantVolume can be used to model fan ON
(i.e. if schedule values of 0 do not occur in the supply air fan operating mode schedule). The supply
air fan operating mode schedule specified for the PTAC overrides the operating mode specified in
the DX cooling coil object.
Output variables reported by the PTAC object include the supply air fan part-load ratio, the
air conditioner’s part-load ratio (cooling or heating), and the electric consumption of the PTAC.
Additional output variables report the total zone heating rate and the total zone cooling rate
provided by the air conditioner. The sensible and latent components of zone cooling are also
available as output variables. Reporting of other variables of interest for the PTAC (DX coil
cooling rate, coil heating rate, crankcase heater power, fan power, etc.) is done by the individual
system components (fan, DX cooling coil and heating coil).
balance to determine if cooling or heating is required to meet the thermostat setpoints, excluding
any impacts from PTAC operation. PTAC performance is then modeled with all heating/cooling
coils off but the supply air fan operates as specified by the user. If the zone air heat balance plus
the impact of PTAC operation with coils off results in no requirement for heating or cooling by the
PTAC coils, or if the PTAC is scheduled off (via its availability schedule), then the PTAC coils
do not operate and the air conditioner’s part-load ratio output variable is set to 0. If the model
determines that cooling or heating is required and the PTAC is scheduled to operate, the model
calculates the average air flow rate through the unit and the part-load ratio of the cooling and
heating coils in order to meet the thermostat setpoint temperature.
The remainder of this section describes the calculations performed during the latter situation,
when cooling or heating coil operation is required. For any HVAC simulation time step, the PTAC
can only be cooling or heating, not both. Because the PTAC cycles its coil(s) on and off to meet
the required load, the coil(s) operate for a portion of the time step and are off for the rest of the
time step. If the user specifies continuous fan operation (i.e. supply air fan operating mode schedule
value is greater than 0), then the supply air fan continues to operate at a user-specified flow rate
even during periods when the coils cycle off. If the user specifies AUTO fan operation (i.e. supply
air fan operating mode schedule value is equal to 0), then the supply air fan cycles on and off with
the coils. The model accounts for these variations in air flow through the PTAC within a simulation
time step when it determines the total cooling or heating energy delivered to the zone, the average
supply air conditions and air flow rate, and the energy consumed by the air conditioner.
Q̇cooling,max = (ṁSA,f ull load ) (hout,f ull load − hzone air )HRmin (19.240)
Q̇cooling,min is the minimum PTAC sensible cooling rate with cooling coil OFF (W)
ṁSA,coil of f is the supply air mass flow rate with the cooling coil OFF (kg/s)
hout,coil of f is the enthalpy of air exiting the PTAC with the cooling coil OFF (J/kg).
With the calculated PTAC sensible cooling rates and the zone sensible cooling load to be met,
the compressor part-load ratio for the PTAC is approximately equal to:
ABS Q̇zone,cooling − Q̇cooling,min
P artLoadRatio = M AX 0.0, (19.242)
ABS Q̇cooling,max − Q̇cooling,min
where:
P artLoadRatio is the compressor part-load ratio required to meet the zone load
Q̇zone,cooling is the required zone sensible cooling rate to meet setpoint (W).
Since the part-load performance of the DX cooling coil is frequently non-linear (Ref: DX Cooling
Coil Model), and the supply air fan heat varies based on cooling coil operation for the case of cycling
fan/cycling coil (AUTO fan), the actual part-load ratio for the cooling coil compressor and fan are
determined through iterative calculations (successive modeling of the individual PTAC component
models) until the PTAC’s cooling output (including on/off cycling effects) matches the zone cooling
load requirement.
If the PTAC has been specified with cycling fan/cycling coil (AUTO fan), then the user-defined
supply air flow rate during cooling operation (volumetric flow rate converted to mass flow rate) is
multiplied by the final PartLoadRatio value to determine the average supply air mass flow rate for
the HVAC system simulation time step. For this case, the air conditions (temperature, humidity
ratio and enthalpy) at nodes downstream of the cooling coil represent the full-load (steady-state)
values when the coil is operating. If the supply air fan is specified to run continuously (fan ON),
then the supply air mass flow rate is calculated as the average of the air mass flow rate when
the compressor is on and the air mass flow rate when the compressor is off. In this case, the air
conditions at nodes downstream of the cooling coil are calculated as the average conditions over the
simulation time step (i.e., the weighted average of full-load conditions when the coil is operating and
mixed inlet air conditions when the coil is OFF). Additional discussion regarding the calculation of
the average supply air flow and supply air conditions is provided later in this section.
Q̇heating,max = (ṁSA,f ull load ) (hout,f ull load − hzone air )HRmin (19.243)
ABS Q̇zone,heating − Q̇heating,min
P artLoadRatio = M AX 0.0, (19.245)
ABS Q̇heating,max − Q̇heating,min
where:
P artLoadRatio is the heating coil part-load ratio required to meet the zone load
Q̇zone,heating is the required zone sensible heating rate to meet setpoint (W).
Iterative calculations (successive modeling of the individual PTAC component models) are used
to determine the final heating part-load ratio to account for the non-linear performance of the
heating coil at part-load conditions and the variation in supply air fan heat for the case of cycling
fan/cycling coil (AUTO fan). If heating coil operation at full load is unable to meet the entire zone
heating load (e.g., the heating coil capacity is insufficient or the coil is scheduled OFF), the air
conditioner’s part-load ratio is set to 1 to meet the zone heating load to the extent possible.
• Coil:Cooling:DX:SingleSpeed
Heating coils:
• Coil:Heating:Water
• Coil:Heating:Fuel
• Coil:Heating:Electric
Other coil types may be used when selecting the Single Zone VAV control method, however,
these coils will not be modeled using the Single Zone VAV load based control method and instead
will be modeled using the Load Based control method described in a previous section.
Figure 19.22 shows two implementations of the Single Zone VAV model using the Zone-
HVAC:PackagedTerminalAirConditioner and ZoneHVAC:PackagedTerminalHeatPump objects
serving a single zone. The supply air temperature limits are autosized. The supply air temperature
19.6. ZONE EQUIPMENT AND ZONE FORCED AIR UNITS 1595
limits are intended to reflect the model requirement to allow low speed fan operation at zone loads
less than or equal to 50% of the design load. The zone cooling and heating loads identified in
the figure are actual simulation data taken from the zone sizing information representative of the
control zones used for each system. If the load on the unit is zero the air flow rate remains at the
minimum. If the zone load is greater than 50% of the design load, the air flow rate increases to
allow more capacity up to the point where the maximum supply air flow rate is achieved. When
supplemental heaters are active, the air flow rate will be at the maximum. The figure on the left
has a 24◦ C cooling and 18◦ C heating set point temperature. The figure on the right, 23.5◦ C and
22.5◦ C, respectively.
Figure 19.22: Example of the EnergyPlus Packaged Terminal Unit Single Zone VAV Model
Supply air temperature limits are autosizable and calculated with respect to the zone tem-
peratures at the design cooling and heating peak load conditions. Once the temperature limits
are reached and the zone load continues to increase, the fan speed is increased while limiting the
maximum outlet air temperature up to the maximum fan speed. At this point, the maximum tem-
perature limits are ignored and the coils are allowed to provide excess temperatures when needed
to meet increasing loads. When a supplemental heating coil is used, this coil should be active
only when maximum fan speed is reached and will supplement any additional heating required to
meet the zone load. The supplemental heating coil also has no maximum temperature limit while
attempting to meet high heating loads.
where:
ṁSA,avg is the average supply air mass flow rate during the time step (kg/s)
ṁSA,coil on is the supply air mass flow rate when the coil is ON (kg/s)
PartLoadRatio is the part-load ratio of the coil (heating or cooling)
ṁSA,coil of f is the supply air mass flow rate when the coil is OFF (kg/s)
ṁOA,avg is the average outdoor air mass flow rate during the time step (kg/s)
ṁOA,coil on is the average outdoor air mass flow rate when the coil is ON (kg/s)
ṁOA,coil of f is the average outdoor air mass flow rate when the coil is OFF (kg/s).
The supply air and outdoor air flow rates when the DX cooling coil or the heating coil is ON
are specified by the user (i.e., supply air volumetric flow rate during cooling operation, supply air
volumetric flow rate during heating operation, outdoor air volumetric air flow rate during cooling
operation, and outdoor air volumetric air flow rate during heating operation) and are converted
from volumetric to mass flow rate. If the user has specified cycling fan operation (i.e. supply air
fan operating mode schedule value is equal to 0), then the supply air and outdoor air mass flow
rates when the coil is OFF are zero. If the user has specified constant fan operation (i.e. supply air
fan operating mode schedule value is greater than 0), then the user-defined air flow rates when no
cooling or heating is needed are used when the coil is OFF.
There is one special case. If the supply air fan operating mode schedule value specifies constant
fan operation and the user also specifies that the supply air volumetric flow rate when no cooling
or heating is needed is zero (or field is left blank), then the model assumes that the supply air and
outdoor air mass flow rates when the coil is OFF are equal to the corresponding air mass flow rates
when the cooling or heating coil was last operating (ON).
When the supply air fan cycles on and off with the PTAC coils (AUTO fan), the calculated outlet
air conditions (temperature, humidity ratio, and enthalpy) from the heating coil or the DX cooling
coil at full-load (steady-state) operation are reported on the appropriate coil outlet air node. The
air mass flow rate reported on the air nodes is the average air mass flow rate proportional to the
part-load ratio of the coil (see Average Air Flow Calculations above).
When the supply air fan operates continuously while the PTAC coils cycle on and off (fan ON),
the air mass flow rate reported on the air nodes is the average air mass flow rate proportional to
the part-load ratio of the coil (see Average Air Flow Calculations above). Since the air flow rate
can be different when the coil is ON compared to when the coil is OFF, then the average outlet air
conditions from the heating coil or the DX cooling coil are reported on the appropriate coil outlet
air node.
For hot water or steam coils, the water or steam mass flow rate is also proportional to the
part-load ratio of the coil regardless of the supply air fan operating mode. Refer to the sections in
the document that describe the heating and DX cooling coils for further explanation on how they
report their outlet air (and water or steam) conditions.
19.6. ZONE EQUIPMENT AND ZONE FORCED AIR UNITS 1597
Figure 19.23: Schematic of a Packaged Terminal Heat Pump (Draw Through Fan Placement)
The PTHP conditions a single zone and is controlled by a thermostat located in that zone. The
PTHP operates to meet the zone sensible cooling or sensible heating requirements as dictated by
the thermostat schedule. The model calculates the required part-load ratio for the heat pump’s coils
and the supply air fan to meet the cooling/heating requirements. The heating or cooling energy
provided by the PTHP is delivered to the zone via the zone air inlet node.
The PTHP is able to model supply air fan operation in two modes: cycling fan – cycling coil
(i.e., AUTO fan) and continuous fan – cycling coil (i.e., fan ON). Fan:OnOff must be used to model
AUTO fan, while Fan:OnOff or Fan:ConstantVolume can be used to model fan ON.
Output variables reported by the PTHP object include the supply air fan part-load ratio, the
compressor part-load ratio, and the electric consumption of the PTHP. Additional output variables
report the total zone heating rate and the total zone cooling rate provided by the heat pump. The
19.6. ZONE EQUIPMENT AND ZONE FORCED AIR UNITS 1599
sensible and latent components of zone cooling are also available as output variables. Reporting
of other variables of interest for the PTHP (DX coil cooling rate, DX coil heating rate, crankcase
heater power, fan power, etc.) is done by the individual system components (fan, DX cooling coil,
DX heating coil, and supplemental heating coil).
Q̇cooling,max = (ṁSA,f ull load ) (hout,f ull load − hzone air )HRmin (19.252)
1600 CHAPTER 19. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
Q̇heating,max = (ṁSA,f ull load ) (hout,f ull load − hzone air )HRmin (19.255)
19.6. ZONE EQUIPMENT AND ZONE FORCED AIR UNITS 1601
where:
Q̇heating,max is the maximum PTHP sensible heating rate with DX heating coil ON (W)
Q̇heating,min is the minimum PTHP sensible heating rate with DX heating coil OFF (W).
With the calculated PTHP sensible heating rates and the zone sensible heating load to be met,
the compressor part-load ratio for the PTHP is approximately equal to:
ABS Q̇zone,heating − Q̇heating,min
P artLoadRatio = M AX 0.0, (19.257)
ABS Q̇heating,max − Q̇heating,min
where:
P artLoadRatio is the compressor part-load ratio required to meet the zone load
Q̇zone,heating is the required zone sensible heating rate to meet setpoint (W).
Iterative calculations (successive modeling of the individual PTHP component models) are used
to determine the final heating part-load ratio to account for the non-linear performance of the
DX heating coil at part-load conditions and the variation in supply air fan heat for the case of
cycling fan/cycling coil (AUTO fan). If DX heating coil operating at full load is unable to meet the
entire zone heating load (e.g., the DX heating coil capacity is insufficient or the coil is scheduled
OFF, or the outdoor temperature is below the PTHP’s minimum outdoor dry-bulb temperature
for compressor operation), the supplemental heating coil is activated to meet the remaining zone
heating load to the extent possible.
The average supply air and outdoor air mass flow rates through the heat pump for the HVAC
simulation time step are calculated based on the part-load ratio of the DX cooling coil or DX heating
coil (whichever coil is operating) as follows:
Refer to the sections in the document that describe the DX heating and DX cooling coils for
further explanation on how they report their outlet air conditions.
QT otalCooling is the output variable ‘Packaged Terminal Heat Pump Total Zone Cooling Energy’
(J)
TimeStepSys is the HVAC system simulation time step (hr).
" # " #
Qsens Tdb Twb Tw,in V̇air V̇w
= B1 + B2 + B3 + B4 + B5 + B6 (19.265)
Qsens,ref Tref Tref Tref V̇air,ref V̇w,ref
" # " #
P owerc Twb Tw,in V̇air V̇w
= C1 + C2 + C3 + C4 + C5 (19.266)
P owerc,ref Tref Tref V̇air,ref V̇w,ref
Heating Mode:
19.6. ZONE EQUIPMENT AND ZONE FORCED AIR UNITS 1605
Figure 19.24: Source Side and Load Side Configuration of a Zone WaterToAir Heat Pump
1606 CHAPTER 19. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
" # " #
Qh Tdb Tw,in V̇air V̇w
= E1 + E2 + E3 + E4 + E5 (19.267)
Qh,ref Tref Tref V̇air,ref V̇w,ref
" # " #
P owerh Tdb Tw,in V̇air V̇w
= F1 + F2 + F3 + F4 + F5 (19.268)
P owerh,ref Tref Tref V̇air,ref V̇w,ref
Assuming no losses, the source side heat transfer rate for cooling and heating mode is calculated
as following;
where:
A1 − F 5 are equation fit coefficients for the cooling and heating mode
Tref is 283K
Tw,in is the entering water temperature (K)
Tdb is the entering air dry-bulb temperature (K)
Twb is the entering air wet-bulb temperature (K)
V̇air is the load side air volumetric flow rate (m3 /s)
V̇w is the source side water volumetric flow rate (m3 /s)
Qtotal is the total cooling capacity (W)
Qsens is the sensible cooling capacity (W)
P owerc is the power consumption in cooling mode (W)
Qsource,c is the source side heat transfer rate in cooling mode (W)
Qh is the total heating capacity (W)
P owerh is the power consumption in heating mode (W)
Qsource,h is the source side heat transfer rate in heating mode (W).
The inlet conditions or variables are divided by the reference conditions. This formulation allows
the coefficients to fall into smaller range of values. Moreover, the value of the coefficient indirectly
represents the sensitivity of the output to that particular inlet variable. The reference conditions
used when generating the performance coefficients must be the same as the reference conditions
used later in the model. The reference temperature Tref is fixed at 283K. Temperature unit of
Kelvin is used instead of Celsius to keep the ratio of the water inlet temperature and reference
temperature positive should the water inlet temperature drop below the freezing point.
For cooling mode, the reference conditions; reference load side air volumetric flow rate V̇air,ref ,
reference source side water volumetric flow rate V̇w,ref , reference sensible capacity (Qsens,ref ) and
reference power input (P owerc,ref ) are the conditions when the heat pump is operating at the highest
cooling capacity or reference cooling capacity (Qtotal,ref ) indicated in the manufacturer’s catalog.
Note that the reference conditions for heating mode might differ from the reference conditions
specified for the cooling mode.
19.6. ZONE EQUIPMENT AND ZONE FORCED AIR UNITS 1607
1. Water removal curve (function of inlet air temperature and relative humidity)
2. Energy factor curve (function of inlet air temperature and relative humidity)
• The water removal modifier curve is a biquadratic curve with two independent variables: dry-
bulb temperature and relative humidity of the air entering the dehumidifier. The output of this
curve is multiplied by the Rated Water Removal to give the water removal rate at the specific
entering air conditions at which the dehumidifier is operating (i.e., at temperature/relative
humidity different from the rating point conditions). If the output of this curve is negative,
then a warning message is issued and it is reset to 0.0.
1608 CHAPTER 19. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
Figure 19.25: Information Flow Chart for Water-to-Air Heat Pump Equation Fit Model (Tang
2005)
19.6. ZONE EQUIPMENT AND ZONE FORCED AIR UNITS 1609
where:
Tin is the dry-bulb temperature of the air entering the dehumidifier (◦ C)
RHin is the relative of the air entering the dehumidifier (%, 0-100).
• The energy factor modifier curve is a biquadratic curve with two independent variables: dry-
bulb temperature and relative humidity of the air entering the dehumidifier. The output of
this curve is multiplied by the Rated Energy Factor to give the energy factor at the specific
entering air conditions at which the dehumidifier is operating (i.e., at temperature/relative
humidity different from the rating point conditions). If the output of this curve is negative,
then a warning message is issued and it is reset to 0.0.
• The part load fraction (PLF) correlation curve is a quadratic or a cubic curve with the inde-
pendent variable being part load ratio (PLR = water removal load to be met / dehumidifier
steady-state water removal rate). The part load ratio is divided by the output of this curve
to determine the dehumidifier runtime fraction. The part load fraction correlation accounts
for efficiency losses due to compressor cycling.
or
water removal load to be met
P LR = part − load ratio = (19.275)
dehumidif ier steady − state water removal rate
The part load fraction correlation should be normalized to a value of 1.0 when the part load
ratio equals 1.0 (i.e., no efficiency losses when the dehumidifier runs continuously for the simulation
timestep). For PLR values between 0 and 1 (0 < = PLR < 1), the following rules apply:
P LF ≥ P LR (19.277)
If PLF < 0.7 a warning message is issued, the program resets the PLF value to 0.7, and the
simulation proceeds. The runtime fraction of the dehumidifier is defined as PLR/PLF. If PLF <
PLR, then a warning message is issued and the runtime fraction of the dehumidifier is set to 1.0.
Mechanical dehumidifier typically have long runtimes with minimal compressor cycling. So, a
typical part load fraction correlation might be:
The Zone Dehumidifier Part-Load Ratio (output variable) is then calculated, with the result
constrained to be from 0.0 to 1.0:
water removal load to be met
P LR = , 0.0 ≤ P LR ≤ 1.0 (19.281)
ṁwater,ss
The steady-state and average electrical power consumed by the dehumidifier are calculated next
using the following equations:
ṁwater,avg = ṁwater,ss (P LR) = Zone Dehumidif ier Removed W ater M ass F low Rate (19.285)
The Zone Dehumidifier Sensible Heating Rate (output variable) is calculated as follows:
ṁair,avg is the average air mass flow rate through dehumidifier (kg/s)
V̇air,rated is the rated air flow rate (user input) (m3 /s)
ρair is the density of air at 26.7◦ C , 60% RH and local barometric pressure (kg/m3 ).
The dry-bulb temperature and humidity ratio of the air leaving the dehumidifier are calculated
as follows:
Pdehumid,ss + ṁwater,ss hf g
Tout = Tin + (19.289)
ρair V̇air,rated Cp
ṁwater,avg
wout = win − (19.290)
ṁair,avg
where:
Tout is the zone dehumidifier outlet air temperature which represents the outlet air temperature
when the dehumidifier is operating (◦ C)
Tin is the inlet air dry-bulb temperature (◦ C)
Cp is the heat capacity of air (J/kg)
win is the inlet air humidity ratio (kg/kg)
wout is the outlet air humidity ratio (kg/kg)
If the dehumidifier does not operate for a given HVAC simulation time step, then the outlet air
dry-bulb temperature and humidity ratio are set equal to the corresponding inlet air values.
Since the sensible heating rate impacts the zone air heat balance on the following HVAC time
step and is passed to the heat balance via an internal variable, the dry-bulb temperature of the
dehumidifier’s HVAC outlet air node (System Node Temperature) will always be set equal to the
dehumidifier’s HVAC inlet air node temperature. Therefore, when the dehumidifier operates the
Zone Dehumidifier Outlet Air Temperature (output variable) will not be equal to the System Node
Temperature for the dehumidifier’s HVAC outlet node.
Finally, the following additional output variables are calculated:
ṁwater,avg
V̇water,avg = (19.296)
ρwater
Figure 19.27: Schematic of the Energy Recovery Ventilator:Stand Alone compound object
This compound object models the basic operation of supply and exhaust air fans and an air-to-
air heat exchanger. The stand alone ERV operates whenever the unit is scheduled to be available
(Availability schedule). The stand alone ERV object can be used in conjunction with an economizer
feature whereby heat exchange is suspended whenever free cooling is available (i.e., air flow is fully
bypassed around a fixed-plate heat exchanger or the rotation of a rotary heat exchanger is stopped).
To model a stand alone ERV connected to a single zone, the input data file should include the
following objects:
1614 CHAPTER 19. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
• ZoneHVAC:EnergyRecoveryVentilator
• HeatExchanger:AirToAir:SensibleAndLatent
• SetpointManager:Scheduled (if supply air outlet temperature control is used, Ref. HeatEx-
changer:AirToAir:SensibleAndLatent)
• ZoneHVAC:EquipmentConnections
• ZoneHVAC:EquipmentList
• OutdoorAir:NodeList
based on the inputs specified in the heat exchanger object. The supply air and exhaust air fans are
then modeled to determine the final conditions of the air streams exiting the stand alone energy
recovery ventilator. The heat exchanger and fan models are described in detail elsewhere in this
document (reference: HeatExchanger:AirToAir:SensibleAndLatent and Fan:OnOff).
The sensible heat transfer rate to the zone by the stand alone ventilator is then calculated as
follows:
hExhaustInlet is the enthalpy of the air being exhausted from the zone through the ventilator
(J/kg)
HRmin is the enthalpies evaluated at a constant humidity ratio, the minimum humidity ratio of
the supply air outlet or the exhaust air inlet.
Since each of these energy transfer rates can be calculated as positive or negative values, individ-
ual reporting variables are established for cooling and heating and only positive values are reported.
The following calculations are representative of what is done for each of the energy transfer rates:
IF (Q̇T otal < 0.0 ) THEN
19.6.11.1 Controls
There are three choices for control methods.
ZoneTemperatureDeadbandOnOffCycling. This control method operates the cooler unit
in a manner similar to how a normal, real-world themostat operates. The control uses input for
throttling temperature range, ∆Tthrottle , the most recent result for zone air node temperature, Tzone ,
and the current cooling setpoint temperature, Tset . The controller also stores the history of whether
19.6. ZONE EQUIPMENT AND ZONE FORCED AIR UNITS 1617
or not the unit was operating during the previous timestep to model hysteresis control where the
unit retains its mode when it passes through the throttling range (to avoid short cycling).
The following algorithm is used to determine if the unit will operate.
If [Tzone < (Tset − 0.5 ∗ ∆Tthrottle )] is true, then do not operate cooler unit.
If [Tzone > (Tset + 0.5 ∗ ∆Tthrottle )] is true, then operate the cooler unit (at full speed).
If zone air temperature is within the throttling range, (Tset − 0.5∆Tthrottle ) < Tzone <
(Tset + 0.5∆Tthrottle ), then continue to operate the cooler if it was running during the previous
timestep and do not operate the cooler if it was not running during the previous timestep.
Whenever the unit is operating, it runs at the full design air mass flow rate regardless if the fan
is constant or variable speed but the unit cycles to meet the current cooling load.
ZoneCoolingLoadOnOffCycling. This control method operates the cooler similar to how
a thermostat would behave, but instead of using temperatures it uses the predicted zone load to
cooling setpoint. The control uses input for the threshold value for a load that is considered
a significant, Q̇thresh , and the result from the Predictor for the zone’s load to cooling setpoint,
h . The following algorithm
Q̇CoolLoad i is used to determine if the unit will operate.
If Q̇CoolLoad ≤ Q̇thresh is true, then do not operate cooler unit.
h i
If Q̇CoolLoad > Q̇thresh is true, then operate the cooler unit (at full speed).
Whenever the unit is operating, it runs at the full design air mass flow rate regardless if the fan
is constant or variable speed but the unit cycles to meet the current cooling load.
ZoneCoolingLoadVariableSpeedFan. This control method also operates the cooler using
the predicted zone load to cooling setpoint but instead of on/off cycling, it modulates the fan speed
to meet the cooling load. This control method is only applicable to cooler units with variable speed
supply fans. The control uses input for the threshold value for a load that is considered a significant,
Q̇thresh , and the result from the Predictor for the zone’s cooling load to setpoint, Q̇CoolLoad . The
following
h algorithm is usedi to determine if the unit will operate.
If Q̇CoolLoad ≤ Q̇thresh is true, then do not operate cooler unit.
h i
If Q̇CoolLoad > Q̇thresh is true, then operate the cooler unit.
When the unit operates, the model first operates the unit at the highest fan speed, a fan speed
ratio of 1.0, and determines the sensible cooling provided by the unit to the zone, Q̇F ullOutput . If
Q̇F ullOutput ≤ Q̇CoolLoad , then the unit operates at full fan speed because the cooler cannot meet
the entire zone cooling load. If Q̇F ullOutput
> Q̇CoolLoad , then
the model solves for a fan speed ratio
between 0.0 and 1.0 that satisfies Q̇Output − Q̇CoolLoad < 0.01 using the non-linear numerical
method called root solver.
The input object ZoneHVAC:HybridUnitaryHVAC provides a model for hybrid unitary HVAC sys-
tems – packaged forced air equipment with multiple discrete operating modes. Equipment in this
category may utilize a wide variety technologies including, but not limited to: indirect evaporative
cooling, desiccant dehumidification, heat recovery, vapor compression, adsorption, or ventilation
cooling. Each hybrid system packages multiple technologies into a single integrated system. There
1618 CHAPTER 19. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
are a multitude of unique hybrid system architectures, and each unique system may have numerous
unique operating modes.
ZoneHVAC:HybridUnitaryHVAC is a black-box model designed to allow empirical representa-
tion of a wide variety of hybrid unitary systems. The model does not require information about
internal system architecture, however it requires extensive data to describe the performance of a
product in every operating mode. The model is intended for forced air equipment and can represent
unitary systems that consume electricity, water, and up to two additional fuel types.
19.6.12.2 Model
ZoneHVAC:HybridUnitaryHVAC will operate to provide cooling, heating, ventilation, humidifica-
tion, or dehumidification for a zone. A ZoneHVAC:HybridUnitaryHVAC object is assigned to a
zone using ZoneHVAC:EquipmentList and ZoneHVAC:EquipmentConnections. The object must
be assigned a supply air node (which must be a zone inlet node), a return air node (which must be
a zone outlet node), and an outdoor air node. In the case when the hybrid system modeled does
not utilize either return air or outdoor air, a return air node and an outdoor air node must still be
assigned. The resulting mass flow rate on those nodes will be zero.
The zone sensible cooling or heating load is determined in each time step according to temper-
ature set points specified in a ZoneControl:Thermostat object. The zone humidification or dehu-
midifaction load is determined in each time step according to relative humidity set points specified
in a ZoneControl:Humidistat object (Ref: Zone Controls). The intended zone ventilation rate is
specified in a DesignSpecification:OutdoorAir object (Ref: Design Outdoor Air Calculation).
The performance of a hybrid system is not directly given as a result of the loads and the
environmental conditions. A hybrid system may have numerous discrete operating modes, within
which other variables may be adjusted in fine intervals. There may be many settings in which a
hybrid system could feasibly operate at a given time. Therefore, ZoneHVAC:HybridUnitaryHVAC
is structured as a constrained optimization problem that is solved in each time step. The feasible
settings are the unique combinations of operating mode, outdoor air fraction, and supply air mass
flow rate that satisfy constraints. In each time step the hybrid model will choose to operate at one
or more settings so as to best satisfy the sensible load, latent load, and scheduled ventilation rate
while minimizing resource consumption.
Inequality constraints for the optimization include the ranges of indoor and outdoor psychromet-
ric conditions within which each mode is allowed to operate, and the allowable ranges for supply air
temperature and absolute humidity generated by the system. These inequality constraints are spec-
ified directly as inputs to each ZoneHVAC:HybridUnitaryHVAC object. The scheduled ventilation
rate, the zone sensible load, and the zone latent load act as soft inequality constraints.
EnergyPlus simulations occur on user defined time steps, accordingly, the hybrid system may
operate in multiple settings within each time step. The portion of each time step spent in a setting
is described as the part runtime fraction for that setting. If no combination of settings and part
runtime fractions will satisfy all of the soft constraints the system will choose the combination of
settings and part runtime fractions that most nearly satisfies all soft constraints.
During any time step that the combination of settings can satisfy all of the soft constraints
with part runtime fractions that sum to less than one, the system will operate in a standby mode
(Mode 0) for the remainder of the timestep. If the indoor and outdoor psychrometric conditions are
beyond the constraints that limit each operating mode, or if no setting will satisfy the constraints
on supply air temperature and absolute humidity, the system will operate in standby mode (Mode
19.6. ZONE EQUIPMENT AND ZONE FORCED AIR UNITS 1619
0).
19.6.12.4 Calculation
The constrained optimization problem solved in each time step can be stated explicitly as:
19.6.12.4.1 Minimize:
Ẇresource (t) = f (TOSA (t), ωOSA (t), TRA (t), ωRA (t),
[modei (t), ṁSAi (t), OSAFi (t), RFi (t)]N
i=1 ) (19.310)
Since the model may select multiple settings within each time step, the outputs reported are
weighted averages of the outputs determined for each setting independently.
Intensive output variables are determined as a supply air mass weighted time step average.
Supply air temperature is determined as a supply air mass weighted time step average:
PN
RFi (t) · ṁSAi (t) · TSAi (t)
TSA (t) = i=1PN (19.324)
i=1 RFi (t) · ṁSAi (t)
Supply air humidity ratio is determined as a supply air mass weighted time step average:
PN
RFi (t) · ṁSAi (t) · ωSAi (t)
ωSA (t) = i=1PN (19.325)
i=1 RFi (t) · ṁSAi (t)
Outdoor air fraction is determined as a supply air mass weighted time step average:
19.6. ZONE EQUIPMENT AND ZONE FORCED AIR UNITS 1621
PN
RFi (t) · ṁSAi (t) · OAFi (t)
OAFSA (t) = i=1
PN (19.326)
i=1 RFi (t) · ṁSAi (t)
Extensive output variables are determined as time weighted time step averages.
Supply air mass flow rate is determined as a time weighted time step average of the supply air
mass flow rate in each setting:
PN
RFi (t) · ṁSAi (t)
ṁSA (t) = i=1PN (19.327)
i=1 RFi (t)
System electric power, fan power, fuel consumption, and water consumption are determined as
time weighted time step averages of each resource use in each setting.
PN
RFi (t) · Ẇresource (t)
Ẇresource (t) = i=1 PN (19.328)
i=1 RF i (t)
In this way, calculations of cooling capacity and other metrics can proceed according to typical
functions at the time step scale. For example:
and:
λṁSA (t)
Q̇SystemLatent (t) = ωRA (t) + OAF (ωOA (t) − ωRA (t)) − ωSA (t) (19.330)
1 + ωSA(t)
and:
ṁSA (t)
Q̇SystemSensible (t) = (Cp,RA (t) − Cp,SA (t)) TRA (t) − TSA (t) (19.331)
2
and:
ṁSA (t)
Q̇ZoneLatent (t) = λ (ωRA (t) − ωSA (t)) (19.332)
1 + ωSA(t)
where:
• Q̇SystemSensible (t) is the system sensible cooling capacity for time step
• Q̇SystemLatent (t) is the system latent cooling capacity for time step
• Q̇SystemSensible (t) is the zone sensible cooling capacity for time step
1622 CHAPTER 19. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
• Q̇ZoneLatent (t) is the zone latent cooling capacity for time step
• ṁSA (t) is the time weighted average supply air mass flow rate for time step
• Cp,RA (t) is the specific heat capacity of return air for time step
• Cp,OA (t) is the specific heat capacity of outdoor air for time step
• Cp,SA (t) is the supply air mass weighted average specific heat capacity of supply air for time
step
• OAF (t) is the supply air mass weighted average outdoor air fraction for time step
• TSA (t) is the supply air mass weighted average supply air temperature for time step
• ωRA (t) is the return air humidity ratio for time step
• ωOA (t) is the outdoor air humidity ratio for time step
• ωSA (t) is the supply air mass weighted average supply air humidity ratio for time step.
19.6.13.1 Controls
While the control of the heating coil is similar to the fan coil units and the unit ventilator, the
overall control of the unit heater is much different. There are four different modes in which a unit
heat can operate based on the user input:
OFF: In this mode, the unit has been scheduled off. All flow rates are set to zero, and the
temperatures are set to zone conditions.
NO LOAD OR COOLING/”NO” for “Supply Air Fan Operation During No Heating” input
field : In this mode, the unit is available, but there is no heating load. With “No” specified for
19.6. ZONE EQUIPMENT AND ZONE FORCED AIR UNITS 1623
“Supply Air Fan Operation During No Heating” and the supply fan operating mode schedule value
of 0, the fan will only run when there is a heating load. Since there is no heating load in this mode
and the fan is in cycling operating mode, all flow rates are set to zero, and the temperatures are
set to zone conditions. Since the unit heater is designed only to provide heating, the presence of a
cooling load signifies that the unit should not be running.
NO LOAD OR COOLING/”YES” for “Supply Air Fan Operation During No Heating”
input field: In this mode, the unit is available and the fan is controlled to be running continuously.
For OnOff fan type the supply fan operating mode schedule value should be greater than 0. If it is
scheduled to be available and the supply fan operating mode schedule value is greater than 0, then
the fan runs and circulates air to the space. While no direct heating is provided, any heat added
by the fan is introduced into the space with the circulation of the air. If the fan is scheduled off,
the fan will not run (this is identical to “NO” control with no load).
With “Yes” specified for “Supply Air Fan Operation During No Heating”, and the supply fan
operating mode schedule value is 0 (for onOff fan type), then supply fan will not run. Since there
is no heating load in this mode and the fan is in cycling mode, all flow rates are set to zero. This
control mode allows to schedule the supply fan operation by specifying different operating modes
during the day regardless of the heating load.
HEATING: In this mode, the unit and fan are on/available, and there is a heating load. The
heating coil is modulated (constant fan speed) to meet the heating load. When the fan is not
cycling then the control of the heating coil and its flow rate is identical to the fan coil unit. The
flow rate of air through the unit is controlled by the user input and schedules. In the case of OnOff
fan the fan cycles with heating coil if the current timestep supply fan operating mode schedule
value is 0, or the supply fan runs continuously for the entire timestep if the current timestep fan
operating mode schedule value is greater than 0. When the fan is cycling the average supply air
flow rate is proportional to the heating load at current time step, or else when the fan is scheduled
to run continuously the fan supplies the maximum flow rate specified.
AirTerminal:SingleDuct:Mixer, then the above three node name input fields are not required and
must be left blank. In the later case the Unit Ventilator node connection to the zone air exhaust
node and the zone air inlet node are described in AirTerminal:SingleDuct:Mixer object. In general,
the unit ventilator input is very similar to the fan coil unit input, and the unit is connected to a
hot water loop (demand side) through its hot water coil and to a chilled water loop (demand side)
through its cooling coil.
rate as defined by the user. Since a coil is not present to further condition the supply air, the zone
simply receives whatever temperature air results from the outdoor air controls.
HEATING/NO COIL/FIXED TEMPERATURE: The unit is on, there is a heating load,
no heating coil is present or it has been scheduled off, and fixed temperature has been specified.
The unit ventilator tries to use outdoor air as best as possible to meet the temperature goal. If it
cannot meet this goal because the temperature goal is not between the zone return temperature
and the outdoor air temperature, then the unit ventilator will either use the maximum or minimum
outdoor air flow rate.
HEATING/NO COIL/FIXED AMOUNT: The unit is on, there is a heating load, no
heating coil is present or it has been scheduled off, and fixed amount control has been specified.
The unit ventilator fixes the outdoor air flow rate as defined by the user and sets the maximum and
minimum outdoor air flow rate to be equal in order to avoid the variation of outdoor air flow rate
between the maximum and minimum values. Since a coil is not present to further condition the
supply air, the zone simply receives whatever temperature air results from the outdoor air controls.
HEATING/WITH COIL/VARIABLE PERCENT: The unit is on, there is a heating
load, and variable percent control is specified. The outdoor air fraction is set to the minimum
outdoor air fraction (schedule based), and the heating coil is activated. The heating coil attempts
to meet the remaining load on the zone being served by the unit ventilator.
HEATING/WITH COIL/FIXED AMOUNT: The unit is on, there is a heating load, a
heating coil is present and is scheduled on, and fixed amount control has been specified. The unit
ventilator fixes the outdoor air flow rate as defined by the user and sets the maximum and minimum
outdoor air flow rate to be equal in order to avoid the variation of outdoor air flow rate between
the maximum and minimum values. The heating coil then attempts to meet any remaining zone
heating load.
COOLING/NO COIL/VARIABLE PERCENT: The unit is on, there is a cooling load,
no coil is present or it has been scheduled off, and variable percent outdoor air control type has been
specified. In this case, the variable percent outdoor air controls what happens with the outdoor
air. If the outside temperature is greater than the return temperature, then the outdoor air is set
to the minimum as defined by the user input. If the outdoor air temperature is less than the return
temperature from the zone, then the outdoor air is varied up to the maximum flow rate to try to
meet whatever cooling load is present. Since a coil is not present to further condition the supply
air, the zone simply receives whatever temperature air results from the outdoor air controls.
COOLING/NO COIL/FIXED TEMPERATURE: The unit is on, there is a cooling load,
no cooling coil is present or it has been scheduled off, and fixed temperature has been specified.
The unit ventilator tries to use outdoor air as best as possible to meet the temperature goal. If it
cannot meet this goal because the temperature goal is not between the zone return temperature
and the outdoor air temperature, then the unit ventilator will either use the maximum or minimum
outdoor air flow rate in the same fashion as the variable percent outdoor air control.
COOLING/NO COIL/FIXED AMOUNT: The unit is on, there is a cooling load, no
cooling coil is present or it has been scheduled off, and fixed amount control has been specified.
The unit ventilator fixes the outdoor air flow rate as defined by the user and sets the maximum and
minimum outdoor air flow rate to be equal in order to avoid the variation of outdoor air flow rate
between the maximum and minimum values. Since a coil is not present to further condition the
supply air, the zone simply receives whatever temperature air results from the outdoor air controls.
COOLING/WITH COIL/VARIABLE PERCENT: The unit is on, there is a cooling
load, a coil is present and is scheduled on, and variable percent outdoor air control type has been
1626 CHAPTER 19. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
specified. In this case, the variable percent outdoor air controls what happens with the outdoor
air. If the outside temperature is greater than the return temperature, then the outdoor air is set
to the minimum as defined by the user input. If the outdoor air temperature is less than the return
temperature from the zone, then the outdoor air is varied up to the maximum flow rate to try to
meet whatever cooling load is present. The coil then attempts to meet any remaining zone load.
COOLING/WITH COIL/FIXED TEMPERATURE: The unit is on, there is a cooling
load, a cooling coil is present and is scheduled on, and fixed temperature has been specified. The
unit ventilator tries to use outdoor air as best as possible to meet the temperature goal. If it cannot
meet this goal because the temperature goal is not between the zone return temperature and the
outdoor air temperature, then the unit ventilator will either use the maximum or minimum outdoor
air flow rate in the same fashion as the fixed temperature outdoor air control for the “no coil”
conditions. The cooling coil then attempts to meet any remaining zone load.
COOLING/WITH COIL/FIXED AMOUNT: The unit is on, there is a cooling load, a
cooling coil is present and is scheduled on, and fixed amount control has been specified. The unit
ventilator fixes the outdoor air flow rate as defined by the user and sets the maximum and minimum
outdoor air flow rate to be equal in order to avoid the variation of outdoor air flow rate between
the maximum and minimum values. The cooling coil then attempts to meet any remaining zone
cooling load.
Note: the unit ventilator controls are strictly temperature based and do not factor humidity
into the equation (not an enthalpy economy cycle but rather a simple return air economy cycle). In
addition, temperature predictions are not strict energy balances here in the control routine though
in the mixing routine an energy balance is preserved.
19.6.15.1 Overview
As described previously, the terminal units operate to satisfy a heating or cooling load in a zone
based on a zone thermostat temperature set point (Zone Control:Thermostatic). Each simulation
time step, EnergyPlus performs a zone air heat balance to determine if cooling or heating is required
to meet the zone thermostat set points, excluding any impacts from zone terminal unit operation.
Terminal unit performance is then modeled with all heating/cooling coils off but the supply air
fan operates as specified by the user. If the zone air heat balance plus the impact of terminal unit
operation with coils off results in no requirement for heating or cooling by the terminal unit coils,
or if the terminal unit is scheduled off (via its availability schedule), then the terminal unit coils
19.6. ZONE EQUIPMENT AND ZONE FORCED AIR UNITS 1627
do not operate and the terminal unit’s part-load ratio output variable is set to 0. If the model
determines that cooling or heating is required and the terminal unit is scheduled to operate, the
model calculates the part-load ratio of the cooling and heating coils in order to meet the thermostat
set point temperature.
The following sections describe the performance calculations for cooling-mode and heating-mode.
modeling the terminal unit, and the average air flow rate for each simulation time step is reported
on the inlet/outlet air nodes of the various VRF terminal unit components in proportion to the
calculated cycling ratio of the heat pump condenser. If the compressor does not cycle for a specific
simulation time step then the heating or cooling air flow rate as specified by the user is assumed
for the entire time step.
The average supply air and outdoor air mass flow rates through the terminal unit for the HVAC
simulation time step are calculated based on the cycling ratio of the heat pump condenser as follows:
volumetric to mass flow rate. If the user has specified cycling fan/cycling coil operation (i.e. supply
air fan operating mode schedule value is equal to 0), then the supply air and outside air mass flow
rates when the coil is OFF are zero. If the user has specified constant fan/cycling coil operation
(i.e. supply air fan operating mode schedule value is greater than 0), then the user-defined air flow
rates when no cooling or heating is needed are used when the coil is OFF.
There is one special case. If the supply air fan operating mode schedule value specifies constant
fan operation and the user also specifies that the supply air volumetric flow rate when no cooling
or heating is needed is zero (or field is left blank), then the model assumes that the supply air and
outside air mass flow rates when the coil is OFF are equal to the corresponding air mass flow rates
when the cooling or heating coil was last operating (ON).
may be compared directly to the report variables for predicted zone loads (ref: Output:Variable,
e.g., Zone Predicted Sensible Load to Setpoint Heat Transfer Rate).
Since each of these energy transfer rates can be calculated as positive or negative values, individ-
ual reporting variables are established for cooling and heating and only positive values are reported.
The following calculations are representative of what is done for each of the energy transfer rates:
IF (Q̇T otal < 0.0 ) THEN
The ventilated slab system has been implemented in a fashion that is similar to the “unit
ventilator” system in EnergyPlus. The unit ventilator is a system that allows the user to bring in
outdoor air (ventilation) that may or may not be tempered with a heating or cooling coil as shown
the left side of Figure 19.30. The air can be delivered to the slab only (Figure 19.31), to the slab
then to the space(Figure 19.32), and to several slabs in different areas in series (Figure 19.33). The
model essentially combines the functionality of the low temperature radiant system (using air as a
transport medium rather than water) and the unit ventilator. In some cases, the system may not
meet all the zone heating and cooling load because it is operated not by setpoint of the zone but
control temperature range and coil outlet air temperature set by user input.**Note that no coils
are shown in Figure 19.33 for diagram simplicity but the implementation of the system shown in
Figure 19.33 includes coils as in Figure 19.31 and Figure 19.32.
Figure 19.31: Model with Air Delivered to Slab (Slab Only Mode)
Figure 19.32: Zone Supply Model using Ventilated Slab (Slab and Zone mode)
19.6. ZONE EQUIPMENT AND ZONE FORCED AIR UNITS 1635
Figure 19.33: Multiple Slabs model with Several Zones (Series Slabs Mode)
1636 CHAPTER 19. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
that interact with this surface. The ventilated slab will participate in the surface heat balances by
exchanging radiation with other surfaces in the zone and in the air heat balances via convection to
the zone air. So, the ventilated slab is handled identically to the low temperature radiant systems
with respect to the zone and air heat balances. This information is valid for all of the systems
shown in the figures above.
Figure 19.32 shows that the air, instead of being circulated through the slab and then sent back
to the ventilation portion of the system, gets circulated through the space after it gets sent through
the slab. When this system is selected in EnergyPlus, it will have an additional impact on the zone
air heat balance because air will be introduced into the space at conditions different than the zone
air. Thus, it will have an energy impact on the air directly through the circulation of air from the
slab to the zone and then back to the ventilated slab system. It will still have an impact on the
slab surface convection and radiation as with the other systems.
For more information on the impact on the zone and air heat balances by the ventilated slab
system, please consult the low temperature radiant system documentation and the EnergyPlus code.
19.6.17 CoolTower
19.6.17.1 Overview
The Cool Tower (object ZoneCoolTower:Shower) is available for modeling a cooltower (which is
sometimes referred to as s wind tower or a shower cooling tower) which is a component that is
intended to model a passive downdraught evaporative cooling (PDEC) that is designed to capture
the wind at the top of a tower and cool the outdoor air using water evaporation before delivering
it to a space. The air flow in these systems is natural as the evaporation process increases the
density of the air causing it to fall through the tower and into the space without the aid of a fan.
A cooltower typically consists of a water spray or an evaporative pad, a shaft, and a water tank
or reservoir. Wind catchers to improve the wind-driven performance at the top of the tower are
optional. Water is pumped over an evaporative device by water pump which is the only component
consumed power for this system. This water cools and humidifies incoming air and then the cool,
dense air naturally falls down through shaft and leaves through large openings at the bottom of
cooltowers.
The shower cooling tower shown in Figure 19.34 is controlled by a schedule and the specification
of maximum water flow rate and volume flow rate as well as minimum indoor temperature. The
actual flow rate of water and air can be controlled as users specify the fractions of water loss and
flow schedule. The required input fields include effective tower height and exit area to obtain the
temperature and flow rate of the air exiting the tower. A schedule and rated power for the water
pump are also required to determine the power consumed. The component typically has a stand-
alone water system that is not added to the water consumption from mains. However, users are
required to specify the water source through an optional field, the name of water supply storage
tank, in case any water comes from a water main.
The cooltower model employing a model of the inertial shower cooling tower is intended to
establish the actual mass flow rate of the air that leaves the cooltower and the evaporation rate
consumed during the processes within the cooltower. Like infiltration, ventilation, and earth tubes,
the air is assumed to be immediately mixed with the zone air. The determination of simultaneous
heat and mass transfer that occurs during natural evaporative cooling in cooltower is complicated.
Therefore, some assumptions have been made to obtain the conditions of the air and water. All
19.6. ZONE EQUIPMENT AND ZONE FORCED AIR UNITS 1637
cooltowers are executed at the start of each time step called by HVAC manager, and the conditions
of air temperature and humidity ratio in the zone will be corrected with any other air that enters
the zone.
All temperatures in the following descriptions are in degrees C, mass flow rates are in kg/s, and
volume flow rates are in m3 /s.
19.6.18 Earthtube
The earth tube model (input object ZoneEarthtube) provides a simple earth tube model that uses
a complex ground heat transfer model to establish the temperature of the soil at the depth of the
earth tube. The following information defines the basis for the model including the assumptions
and mathematical equations. It supplements the information for the ZoneEarthtube input object
given in the Input/Output Reference for EnergyPlus.
Input Requirements
Assumption(s)
• Soil temperature in the pipe vicinity is uniform after the particular distance from the center
of the pipe(thickness of the annulus), so that pipe surface temperature is uniform after the
distance ‘r’ from the center of the pipe, where ‘r’is the pipe radius.
19.6. ZONE EQUIPMENT AND ZONE FORCED AIR UNITS 1641
• The temperature profile in the pipe vicinity is not affected by the presence of the pipe, so
that pipe surface temperature is uniform at axial direction.
Wind velocity (m/s), u, is the annual average value. This is calculated from EnergyPlus
weather data by averaging individual wind velocity values of the whole year. The convective heat
transfer coefficient at the soil surface (W/m2 -◦ C), hs , is function of wind speed u. According to
McAdams(1954), hs can be approximated by the following correlation (Krarti, 1995):
he = hs (1 + 0.0168af ) (19.362)
hr = hs (1 + 0.0168ara f ) (19.363)
where a is equal to 103 Pa/◦ C.
Average air temperature (◦ C), Tma , is also calculated from EnergyPlus weather data by averaging
individual air temperature values of the whole year.
The appropriate value of hemispherical emittance of the ground surface, ε is 0.93~0.96. Radia-
tion constant (W/m2 ), ∆R, depends on soil radiative properties, air relative humidity, and effective
sky temperature. An appropriate value of ∆R according to Krarti (1995) is 63 W/m2 .
The absorption coefficient, β, depends on the soil absorptance and shading condition. The
coefficient β is approximately equal to one minus the soil surface albedo. Albedo depends on soil
cover and moisture content. Albedo = 0.1 corresponds to wet soils, albedo = 0.2 to moderate soils,
and albedo = 0.3 to dry soils.
Average solar radiation (W/m2 ), Sm , is determined from EnergyPlus weather data by averaging
individual global horizontal solar radiation values of the whole year.
The fraction of evaporation rate, f, also depends mainly on the soil cover and the soil moisture
level. Based on the results reported by Penman, it is recommended to estimate the fraction f
as follows. For bare soil, f is directly proportional to soil moisture content. For instance, f = 1
corresponds to saturated soils, f = 0.6~0.8 to wet soils, f = 0.4~0.5 to moist soils, f = 0.1~0.2 to arid
soils. For dry soils, f = 0, since no evaporation occurs. For covered soils, the fraction f is obtained
by multiplying 0.7 by the value of f for bare soil depending on the soil moisture content (Krarti,
1995).
Relative humidity, ra , is also calculated from EnergyPlus weather data by averaging individual
relative humidity values of the whole year.
The soil thermal diffusivity (m2 /s), αs , and conductivity (W/m-◦ C), ks , varies with the density
and moisture content. From Table 3.3, pg. 26 of ASHRAE’s Ground Source Heat Pumps–Design
of Geothermal Systems for Commercial and Institutional Buildings, 1997, the following values are
recommended under different conditions.
1642 CHAPTER 19. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
The following information is also available for reference from Table 3.3, pg. 34.6 of the ASHRAE
Applications Handbook, 2015.
Annual angular frequency, w, is equal to 1.992 x 10−7 rad/s and the dampening depth (m), D,
is calculated from the following equation:
r
2αs
D= (19.364)
w
The value of δ is evaluated as follows:
1+i
δ= (19.365)
D
The amplitude of the air temperature (◦ C), Tva , can be evaluated from EnergyPlus weather data
by dividing the difference between the maximum and minimum air temperature value of the whole
year by two. Similarly, amplitude of the solar radiation (W/m2 ), Sv , can also be determined from
weather data by dividing the difference between the maximum and minimum solar radiation value
of the whole year by two.
Phase angle between the insolation and the air temperature (rad), φI , is calculated by sub-
tracting insolation phase angle from air temperature phase angle. Phase angle of insolation and air
temperature is the point from the beginning of the year at which the insolation and air temperature
respectively reaches the minimum value among the whole year.
19.6. ZONE EQUIPMENT AND ZONE FORCED AIR UNITS 1643
Phase constant of the air (sec), t0a , is the time elapsed from the beginning of the year at which
the air temperature reaches the minimum value in the year.
By using all the input parameters and variables described above, average soil surface temperature
(◦ C), Tm , amplitude of the soil surface temperature variation (◦ C), As , phase constant of the soil
surface (sec), t0 , and phase angle difference between the air and soil surface temperature (rad), Φs ,
can be evaluated as follows:
1
Tm = [hr Tma − ε∆R + βSm − 0.0168hs f b (1 − ra )] (19.366)
he
hr Tva − βSv eiϕI
As =
(he + δks )
(19.367)
ϕs
t0 = t0a + (19.368)
w
hr Tva − βSv eiϕI
ϕs = −Arg (19.369)
(he + δks )
(Note: Tm , As , and t0 are calculated by the CalcSoilSurfTemp program and are inputs to
EnergyPlus. The remainder of this section describes what has been implemented in EnergyPlus.)
The symbols || || and Arg denote the modulus and the argument of a complex number respec-
tively. In order to calculate As and Φs , the complex number under consideration can be rearranged
into the following form:
hr Tva −βSv eiϕI (he + kDs )(hr Tva −βSv cos ϕI )+ kDs (−βSv sin ϕI )
he +δks
= 2 2
(he + kDs ) +( kDs )
(he + kDs )(−βSv sin ϕI )− kDs (hr Tva −βSv cos ϕI ) (19.370)
+i 2 2
(he + kDs ) +( kDs )
Assuming a homogeneous soil of constant thermal diffusivity, the temperature at any depth z
and time t can be estimated by the following expression:
" 1/2 # ( " 1/2 #)
π 2π z 365
Tz,t = Tm − As exp −z cos t − t0 − (19.371)
365αs 365 2 παs
In this expression, the unit of time, t, and phase constant of the soil surface, t0 , should be
converted into days. Similarly, the unit of soil thermal diffusivity, αs , should also be converted into
m2 /days.
By integrating the expression with respect to depth, the average temperature of a vertical soil
profile ranging between depth z1 and z2 (◦ C) can be determined as follows:
{ [ ] [ ]}
As 2π 2π
Tz1 ,z2 ,t = Tm + √ e−γz1 cos (t − t0 − z1 L − 45.6) − e−γz2 cos (t − t0 − z2 L − 45.6) (19.372)
(z2 − z1 ) γ 2 365 365
where:
1
L = (365/παs )1/2 (19.374)
2
As the final step with regard to the heat transfer between soil and earth tube system, thermal
conductivity of air (W/m-◦ C), kair , and kinetic viscosity of air (m2 /s), υ, should calculated first:
N ukair
hc = (19.377)
2r1
2r1 Va
Re = (19.380)
ν
ν
Pr = (19.381)
αair
where r1 is inner pipe radius (m) and Va is average pipe air velocity (m/s).
After determining the convective heat transfer coefficient, Rc , Rp and Rs are respectively calcu-
lated as follows:
1
Rc = (19.382)
2πr1 hc
1 r1 + r2
Rp = ln (19.383)
2πkp r1
1 r1 + r2 + r3
Rs = ln (19.384)
2πks r1 + r2
where Rc is thermal resistance due to convection heat transfer between the air in the pipe and
the pipe inner surface (m-◦ C/W), Rp is thermal resistance due to conduction heat transfer between
the pipe inner and outer surface (m-◦ C/W), and Rs is thermal resistance due to conduction heat
transfer between the pipe outer surface and undisturbed soil (m-◦ C/W). In addition, r2 is pipe
thickness (m), r3 is distance between the pipe outer surface and undisturbed soil (m), and L is pipe
length (m).
Finally, the heat transfer between the soil and the air inside the pipe is equal to the amount of
heat losses as air flows along the pipe (Jacovides and Mihalakakou, 1995).
19.6. ZONE EQUIPMENT AND ZONE FORCED AIR UNITS 1645
Rt = Rc + Rp + Rs (19.387)
where Ut is overall heat transfer coefficient of the whole earth tube system (W/m-◦ C), Ta (y) is
air temperature of the pipe at the distance y from the pipe inlet (◦ C), and ma is mass flow rate
of ambient air through pipe (kg/s). Ca is specific heat of air (J/kg-◦ C) and Rt is total thermal
resistance between pipe air and soil (m-◦ C/W).
Initial condition of inlet air temperature is equal to the ambient air temperature. Outlet air
temperature is finally evaluated by solving the heat transfer equation above.
19.6.18.1 References
Krarti M., Lopez-Alonzo C., Claridge D. E. and Kreider J. F. 1995. Analytical model to predict
annual soil surface temperature variation. Journal of Solar Energy Engineering 117, 91~99
Labs K. In: Cook J., editor. 1989. Passive cooling. Cambridge Massachusetts, London, England:
MIT Press
Al-Ajmi F., Loveday D. L. and Hanby V. I. 2005. The Cooling Potential of Earth-air Heat
Exchangers for Domestic Buildings in a Desert Climate, Building and Environment
Necati Ozisik M. 1885. Heat transfer: A basic approach, McGraw-Hill Book Company
Jacovides C. P. and Mihalakakou G. 1995. An Underground Pipe Systems as an Energy Source
for Cooling/Heating Purposes. Renewable Energy 6, pp.893~900
• Discharge coefficient,
textbfAssumptions
• The inlet temperature of the air channel in the thermal chimney is equal to the room air
temperature.
• The discharged amount of interior air induced by the thermal chimney is replaced by the
outdoor air infiltration.
The mathematical model currently available for thermal chimneys has the capability to handle
the thermal chimney having only one inlet. In other words, it is unlikely that thermal chimneys with
multiple inlets due to multiple stories utilizing the common thermal chimney can be mathematically
modeled without computational fluid dynamics. Therefore, if the thermal chimney to be modeled
has multiple inlets, it will be assumed that it will have only one inlet. For this assumption, the user
will be required to specify the relative ratio of air flow rates passing through each inlet to compute
the overall length of the thermal chimney (m), L, overall room air temperature (K), Tr , and overall
cross sectional area of air channel inlet (m2 ), Ai , as follows:
L1 r1 E1 + L2 r2 E2 + L3 r3 E3 + · · · + Ln rn En
L= (19.388)
r1 E1 + r2 E2 + r3 E3 + · · · + rn En
r1 + r2 + r3 + · · · + rn = 1 (19.391)
After merging the multiple inlets into a single inlet condition based on the description above,
the following algorithm which is widely used is employed for the modeling of the thermal chimney.
The key output parameter in the thermal chimney model is the enhanced amount of natural
ventilation rate caused by the presence of a thermal chimney. In order to determine the enhanced
ventilation, the discharge air temperature from a thermal chimney should be calculated, which, in
turn, should be computed based on the information on the absorber wall temperature, glass cover
temperature and the vertical air temperature distribution within the thermal chimney. Among
them, energy balances for the absorber wall and the glass cover are carried out using the existing
19.6. ZONE EQUIPMENT AND ZONE FORCED AIR UNITS 1649
algorithm currently available in EnergyPlus, which has the similar approach to the Trombe wall. On
the other hand, the vertical air temperature distribution and the resultant discharge air temperature
of the thermal chimney are computed using the separate thermal chimney algorithm described in
the following paragraphs.
Once the glass cover temperature and the absorber wall temperature are computed using the
existing modeling algorithm in EnergyPlus, the energy balance for the fluid (air inside the thermal
chimney) can be expressed as:
ṁCp dTf
hwf (Tw − Tf ) = hgf (Tf − Tg ) + (19.392)
w dx
where m is the total mass flow rate of the air (kg/s), Cp is the specific heat of air (J/kg-◦ C), w
is the width of the absorber wall (m) and x is the elemental length of the absorber wall (m).
Since the initial condition of inlet air temperature in this differential equation is equal to the
room air temperature (i.e. x = 0, Tf,i = Tr ), the outlet air temperature, Tf o , can be finally evaluated.
Finally, the total air flow rate caused by the thermal chimney (m3 /s), Q, can be evaluated from
the following expression:
v
u Tf o −Tr
u 2( )gL
Q = Cd Ao t Tr
(19.393)
(1 + Ar )2
Ar = Ao /Ai (19.394)
where Cd is the discharge coefficient, Ao and Ai is the cross sectional areas of air channel outlet
and inlet (m2 ), respectively, Tf o is the outlet air temperature (K), Tr is the room air temperature
(K) and L is the total length of the thermal chimney (m).
Since multiple inlets are merged into a single inlet in the beginning, the air flow rate passing
through each inlet due to the existence of the thermal chimney can be finally determined as follows:
Q1 = Qr1 , Q2 = Qr2 , Q3 = Qr3 , ���, Qn = Qrn
where Qn is the air flow rate passing through nth inlet (m3 /s) and rn is the relative ratio of air
flow rate passing through nth inlet.
The discharged amount of interior air from each zone caused by the presence of the thermal
chimney is assumed to be replaced by the outdoor air infiltration.
Model Nomenclature
Variable Description
Ai cross sectional area of air channel inlet (m2 )
Ao cross sectional area of air channel outlet (m2 )
Cd discharge coefficient
Cp specific heat of air (J/kg-◦ C)
En room air specific enthalpy corresponding to nth inlet (J/kg)
g acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s2 )
19.6. ZONE EQUIPMENT AND ZONE FORCED AIR UNITS 1651
Model Nomenclature
hgam convective heat transfer coefficients between the glass and am-
bient air (W/m2 -◦ C )
hgf convective heat transfer coefficients between the glass and the
fluid (W/m2 -◦ C )
hiw convective heat transfer coefficients between absorber wall inner
surface and the room air (W/m2 -◦ C )
hwf convective heat transfer coefficients between the absorber wall
and the fluid (W/m2 -◦ C )
hwind The convective heat transfer coefficient due to the wind (W/m2 -
◦
C)
Hsr incident solar radiation on vertical surface (W/m2 )
kair thermal conductivity of air (W/m-◦ C)
L total length of the thermal chimney (m)
M mass flow rate of the air (kg/s)
rn relative ratio of air flow rate passing through nth inlet
Sg solar radiation absorbed by the glass cover (W/m2 )
Sw solar radiation absorbed by the absorber wall (W/m2 )
Tam ambient air temperature (K)
Tf fluid temperature averaged over the entire length of the thermal
chimney (K)
Tf i inlet air temperature of the thermal chimney (K)
Tf o outlet air temperature of the thermal chimney (K)
Tg glass cover temperature (K)
Tr room air temperature (K)
Ts surface temperature (K)
Tw absorber wall temperature (K)
T∞ fluid temperature (K)
u wind speed (m/s)
Uw Overall heat transfer coefficient from the room air and the ab-
sorber wall (W/m2 -◦ C )
w width of the absorber wall (m)
x elemental length of the absorber wall (m)
αg absorptance of glass cover
αw absorptance of absorber wall
β air volumetric coefficient of expansion (K−1 )
εg emissivity of the glass cover
1652 CHAPTER 19. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
Model Nomenclature
σ Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.67x10 -8 W/m2 K4 )
τ transmittance of the glass cover
ν kinematic viscosity of air (m2 /s)
19.6.19.1 References
N. K. Bansal, R. Mathur and M. S. Bhandari, Solar Chimney for enhanced Stack Ventilation,
Building and Environment, 28, pp.373-377, 1993
K. S. Ong, A Mathematical Model of a Solar Chimney, Renewable Energy, 28, pp.1047-1060,
2003
N. K. Bansal, R. Mathur and M. S. Bhandari, A Study of Solar Chimney Assisted Wind Tower
System for Natural Ventilation in Buildings, Building and Environment, 29, pp.495-500, 1994
J. Marti-Herrero and M. R. Heras-Celemin, Dynamic Physical Model for a Solar Chimney, Solar
Energy, 81, pp. 614-622, 2007
M. M. Aboulnaga and S. N. Abdrabboh, Improving Night Ventilation into Low-rise Buildings in
Hot-arid Climates Exploring a Combined Wall-roof Solar Chimney, Renewable Energy, 19, pp. 47-
54, 2000
19.6.21 Controls
Three input parameters control the operation of the zone outdoor air unit. The unit control type
has two options: neutral or temperature. If the temperature control type is selected, the user must
also provide a high and low air temperature control schedule. The algorithm for controlling the
zone outdoor air unit is dependent on these parameters which are used as described below.
Neutral Control. If the user selects neutral control, the intent is to provide additional
outside air to the zone without imposing any additional thermal load on the zone or any other
19.6. ZONE EQUIPMENT AND ZONE FORCED AIR UNITS 1653
systems serving the zone. In other words, the unit will attempt to provide air to the zone at the
zone mean air temperature. Mathematically, this means:
Tout = TM AT (19.395)
where:
Tout is the outlet temperature of the zone outdoor air unit
TM AT is the mean air temperature of the zone being served by the unit.
It should be noted that to avoid excessive iteration that the zone mean air temperature that is
used is the mean air temperature from the previous time step. This will result in a slight lagging
that may introduce a slight thermal load, but this should be minimal.
Temperature Control. If the user selects temperature control, the intent is to limit the
outlet temperature of the unit for either heating or cooling or both or perhaps to provide uncon-
ditioned air to the space. The algorithm used to determine the outlet temperature of the unit
is as follows. When the outdoor air temperature is at or below the low air temperature control
schedule value, the outlet temperature is set to the low air temperature control schedule value and
any heating equipment included in the unit description and available will attempt to provide enough
heating to produce an outlet temperature equal to the low temperature schedule value. When the
outdoor air temperature is at or above the high air temperature control schedule value, the outlet
temperature of the unit is set to the high air temperature control schedule value and any cooling
equipment included in the unit description and available will attempt to provide enough cooling
to produce an outlet air temperature equal to the high temperature schedule value. When the
outdoor air temperature is between the high and low temperature values, the unit will not provide
any conditioning of outdoor air and will simply deliver it to the zone. Mathematically, this can be
summarized as:
1654 CHAPTER 19. SIMULATION MODELS – ENCYCLOPEDIC REFERENCE
Thigh if Toa ≥ Thigh
Tout = Toa if Tlow < Toa < Thigh (19.396)
Tlow if Toa ≤ Tlow
where:
Tout is the outlet temperature of the zone outdoor air unit
Toa is the outside air temperature
Thigh is the high control air temperature schedule value
Tlow is the low control air temperature schedule value.
If the user wishes to provide “unconditioned” air all of the time, the high and low control
temperature values can be set very high and very low, respectively, to always force the unit to
provide unconditioned air. The same effect can also be realized by not specifying any conditioning
components (such as coils) in the unit. The user can also limit the device to cooling only by
specifying a low control temperature schedule with extremely low values. Conversely, the user can
limit the device to heating only by specifying a high control temperature schedule with extremely
high values. The user can also limit the equipment specified as part of the device to either cooling
or heating components to get similar effects. In essence, the temperature control provides a variety
of options in a single control type through the use of the high and low control temperature schedules.
ṁ∆P
Q̇f an = (19.399)
etot ρair
Q̇f an
hout = hin + (19.400)
ṁ
This section discusses on-site generation, electric storage, and power conversion models related
to serving the facility with electric power. EnergyPlus is usually predicting the electric energy
consumed in a building and its HVAC equipment over time. If this electric power all comes directly
from the grid and the building has no power conversion devices (such as a transformer, inverter,
battery, generators, solar panels etc.) then only some basic accounting is needed and none of the
additional models described here are really needed. The device models in this section are for when
the electric power service system supplying the facility has some added equipment that is considered
part of the building being modeled. The purpose of electric power service modeling in EnergyPlus
is to account for the energy performance of such equipment at each timestep of the building and
HVAC simulation. The building and HVAC simulation provides a current prediction of the electric
load required by the facility and the electric power service simulation uses that information. This
is simplified power system model with the only goal being to account for power losses (in Watts)
and energy consumed (in Joules) by key devices in the balance of system including:
Transformer : a building may have transformers and they are not 100% efficient. A facility may
own its own transformer and have high voltage utility grid connection. An on-site generation
system might have an isolation transformer. The EnergyPlus model meters electric losses as
a function of the power going through each transformer.
Fuel-fired generators : a building may have generators that consume one type of energy resource
(natural gas, diesel, etc.) and generate electricity. These generators need supervisory control
to determine when and how hard to run the engine. The generators may be used for cogen-
eration and include connections to a hot water plant in the HVAC models. The generator
models determine the efficiency as fuels are converted to electric power and heat.
Renewable generators : a building may have wind turbines or solar photovoltaic panels. The
generator models determine the efficiency as wind and sun are converted to electricity.
Inverters : the direct current generated by solar photovoltaic or discharged from storage may need
to be converted from DC to AC by an inverter. The EnergyPlus models meter electric losses
as a function of the power going through each inverter.
1656
20.1. WHOLE-FACILITY ELECTRIC SERVICE 1657
Storage : a building may have on-site electric storage and it is not 100% efficient. Storage can be
used to adjust utility demand profile or store on-site renewables.
There is no explicit modeling of voltage and current between devices, just basic power and energy
exchanges. There is no modeling of power loss in conductors and distribution panels throughout
the building. There is no modeling of short term power draws as for a motor start – power levels
are modeled as single-valued averages for the entire system timestep (1 minute or longer).
• Pprod,conversion is the power loss by converting between different voltages or AC and DC,
from meter PowerConversion:ElectricityProduced which are metered as negative values that
decrease the amount of electricity produced.
The electric load center manager sums all of the building and system electric loads and provides
operating schemes for the generators. The electric load center objects are operated in the order they
are defined in the input data file (IDF), and generators are dispatched sequentially in the order they
are specified within the list referenced by each load center object. The electricity produced from
photovoltaic arrays and wind turbines is handled somewhat separately and is always run rather than
being dispatched by supervisory control. What is not provided by the on-site generation equipment,
and electric storage units, is met by (purchasing) off-site electricity. It is possible to prescribe a
set of ElectricLoadCenter:Distribution objects with inconsistent or conflicting operating schemes,
so users need to be careful.
of the electric power request to the generator; however, the cogenerator model may determine
that actual performance varies from this nominal value at different times in the simulation when
operating conditions differ from those used for the nominal ratio.
For all generator operating schemes except Baseload, a total electric load reduction target (or
thermal load converted to electrical equivalent) is established for the load center based on the
specific operating scheme. The load center then requests that its generators operate, one-by-one in
the order specified in the generator list, until the target is met or exceeded. Generators that are not
scheduled as ‘available’ for the simulation time step are not called to operate. The requested power
demand to be met by each generator is the smaller of the nominal ‘rated’ electric power output (as
specified in the ElectricLoadCenter:Generators object) or the remaining total electric load reduction
target for the load center. After each electric generator is requested to operate, the actual electric
power delivered by the generator, which may be greater than or less than the requested amount
due to inputs specified in the generator performance model (e.g., Generator:CombustionTurbine,
Generator:MicroTurbine, etc.), is used to update the remaining total electric power target for the
other generators associated with this load center.
Most of the operating schemes will sequentially load the available electric load centers and gen-
erators. EnergyPlus can accept multiple “ElectricLoadCenter:Distribution” objects with different
operating schemes. Because of this, there are two levels of reporting, one for the whole building
and a second for each load center. The whole-building results are managed with the internal meters
for the entire model. The individual load-center results are summed for those generators connected
to a particular load center. The total electricity purchased is reported both in power and energy
units. This value is positive when the amount of energy is purchased from the utility. This value
can be negative when the total electricity produced is greater than the facility electrical needs. The
excess will either be available for storage or to sell back to the electric utility company.
The order of input objects (ElectricLoadCenter:Distribution) in the input file is significant and
used to structure how generators are dispatched with the first load centers and generators managed
before the later ones. Therefore, load centers listed earlier in the file effectively have a higher
priority.
A configuration with AC generators with on-site electrical storage is selected with the keyword
“AlternatingCurrentWithStorage” and is shown in Figure 20.2.
20.2.5 Inverters
EnergyPlus includes three models for converting Direct Current (DC) electrical power into Alter-
nating Current (AC) electrical power. The DC power into the inverter, PDC−in , is converted to AC
power out, PAC−out , of the inverter using:
20.2.6 Converter
EnergyPlus includes a model for converting Alternating Current (AC) electric power into Direct
Current (DC) electric power. This device is used to charge DC electric storage devices with AC
drawn from the main panel. Although the physical device may be a two-way inverter, the modeling
is separated so that the converter appears on its own in the modeling. The AC power into the
converter, PAC,in , is converted to DC power out, PDC,out , of the converter using:
is needed to run the facility. This is mainly appropriate for island operation. This is the intended
legacy behavior before version 8.5. This scheme does not draw from the main panel to charge,
so we have Pdraw = 0.0. The value for Pf eed is determined from the whole-facility total electric
power demand. (When there is more than one load center in the model, it is actually the portion
of the total that remains after previous load centers have been simulated.) This requested feed in
rate is adjusted to be increased by any power conversion losses that may occur in an inverter or a
transformer. This adjusted feed in request is used for Pf eed .
If Pgen > Pf eed , then we have charging:
Pcharge,design , a charge modification schedule fsched,charge , a design discharge rate Pdischarge,design , and
a discharge modification schedule fsched,discharge . The scheduled power flows will be used to deter-
mine charging and discharging as long as other limits on rates or state of charge are not triggered.
The schedules should be arranged to only charge or only discharge at a given time.
If charging, we have:
Pstor−draw · ∆t
stor = Qstor −
Qt+∆t t
(20.21)
εdraw
where ∆t is the length of the system time step in seconds.
The storage device has an availability schedule. If it is not available then no power can be drawn
or stored. The state of charge minimum and maximum that are passed into the storage model are
used to decide if the device can be further charged or discharged. The separate control limits allow
modeling battery preservation strategies where the full capacity of the storage device is not really
used.
1668 CHAPTER 20. ON-SITE GENERATION, POWER CONVERSION, AND STORAGE
The gross electric power drawn and stored includes losses in the form of heat. These thermal
losses are calculated from the user-specified efficiencies for charging and drawing and gross electric
power stored and drawn. The thermal (heat) losses are included in a zone heat balance if the user
specifies a thermal zone. A user-defined radiative split is used to divide thermal losses into radiation
and convection portions. If no zone is specified, then the thermal losses are simply disregarded (e.g.,
rejected to outdoors and do not impact the zone air heat balance).
20.2.9 Electrical Storage – Kinetic Battery Model with Cycle Life Es-
timation
The Kinetic Battery Model (KiBaM) (object: ElectricLoadCenter:Storage:Battery) was originally
developed by Manwell and McGowan (1993) for use in time series performance models of hybrid
energy systems. The model is called kinetic because it is based on a chemical kinetics process to
simulate the battery charging and discharging behavior. The model, with different improvements
and modifications, has been incorporated into the software Hybrid2 and HOMER as the electrical
storage module of hybrid and distributed power systems. In 2005, KiBaM was implemented as a
stand-alone application in support of the European Union Benchmarking research project (Bindner
et al. 2005). The model is intended to represent technologies such as Pb-acid that encounter
significant rate or kinetic limitations.
The Kinetic Battery Model assumes that the battery charge is distributed over two tanks: an
available-charge tank and a bound-charge tank. The tank for available charges can supply electrons
directly to the load, whereas the tank for chemically bound charges can only supply electrons to
the available-charge tank. At any time, the total charge q in the battery is the sum of the available
charge (q1 ) and bound charge (q2 ). That is:
q = q1 + q2 (20.22)
Based on the governing equations on the change of charge in both tanks (Manwell and McGowan
1993), the battery capacity can be related to a constant charge/discharge current (I ) as the following
equation:
qmax k · c · t
qmax (I) = (20.23)
1− e−kt + c(kt − 1 + e−kt )
where:
qmax (I) is the maximum capacity (Ah) at charge or discharge current I
qmax is the maximum capacity (Ah) at infinitesimal current
t is the charge or discharge time (hr), defined by t = qmaxI (I)
k is a constant coefficient (hr−1 )
c is the parameter indicating the ratio of available charge capacity to total capacity.
Assuming that a constant current is used in any time step for charging and discharging, the
available charge (q1 ) and bound charge (q2 ) at any time step are given by:
where:
q1,0 is the available charge at the beginning of time step (Ah)
q2,0 is the bound charge at the beginning of time step (Ah)
q0 is the total charge at the beginning of time step (Ah) or q0 = q1,0 + q2,0
∆t is the length of time step (hr).
KiBaM views the battery as a voltage source in series with an electric resistance (Figure 20.7).
The internal resistance is assumed to be constant and the open circuit voltage varies with current
and state of charge.
The battery’s open circuit voltage is modeled in the same form for charging and discharging,
but with different coefficients. The open circuit voltage in charging (Ec ) and in discharging (Ed )
can be respectively expressed as:
C c Xc
Ec = E0,d + Ac Xc + (20.26)
Dc − Xc
C d Xd
Ed = E0,c + Ad Xd + (20.27)
Dd − Xd
where:
E0,c is the open circuit voltage for a fully charged battery
E0,d is the open circuit voltage for a fully discharged battery
Ac , Cc , Dc are the constant parameters for charging
Ad , Cd , Dd are the constant parameters for discharging
1670 CHAPTER 20. ON-SITE GENERATION, POWER CONVERSION, AND STORAGE
V = E − IR (20.29)
where R is the battery internal resistance in Ohms; the current is positive for discharging and
negative for charging.
Given desired power in/out of the battery, the desired charge or discharge current can be calcu-
lated from the basic power equation: P = V I. In this calculation, iteration is needed to ensure the
electric current has converged and the battery operation satisfies all specified technical constraints
such as maximum discharge current and charge rate limit.
KiBaM assumes that battery life is a primary function of charge/discharge cycles. One cycle is
defined as the process of starting from a certain state of charge (SOC), the battery is discharged
to a lower SOC and then recharged back to the starting SOC. It is regarded that the magnitude of
cycle plays more important than the average of SOC during the cycle. This means that in terms
of the impact on battery life, the cycle from 90% to 70% and then recharge back to 90% of SOC
is equivalent to another cycle from 50% to 30% and then recharge back to 50% of SOC. Battery
life in terms of the number of cycles is predicted as a function of the cycle range measured by the
fractional depth of discharge. A double exponential equation is used to capture the damage to
batteries due to cycling. The equation takes the following form where the coefficients need to be
derived from battery test data via curve fitting.
where:
D is the fractional battery damage. For example, a value of 0.5 at the end of simulation means
that half of the battery life is used up after the length of the simulation period.
CF,i is the number of cycles to failure for the i-th cycle range
20.2. ELECTRIC LOAD CENTER DISTRIBUTION MANAGER 1671
Ni is the total number of cycles over the simulation with the i-th cycle range
It needs to be noted that the temperature effects on battery performance and battery self-
discharge are not supported in the current model.
20.2.9.1 References
Bindner H., Cronin T., Lundsager P., Manwell J.F., Abdulwahid U., and Baring-Gould I. 2005.
Lifetime Modeling of Lead Acid Batteries. Riso National Laboratory, Roskilde, Denmark.
Downing S. D. and Socie D. F. 1982. Simple rainflow counting algorithms, International Journal
of Fatigue, 1982.
Manwell J. F. and McGowan J. G. 1993. A lead acid battery storage model for hybrid energy
systems, Solar Energy 50(5): 399- 405.
The parameters Vo , K,a, and B are dependent on battery chemistry and can be obtained from the
manufacturer’s voltage vs charge-removed curves. Default values are included in the Lithium-Ion
NMC model with the parameter values obtained from (Tremblay 2007). The voltage model does not
incorporate temperature effects, but the impact of temperature is indirectly implemented through
battery capacity which is coupled with the thermal model.
1672 CHAPTER 20. ON-SITE GENERATION, POWER CONVERSION, AND STORAGE
q = q − I∆t (20.36)
The battery is only allowed to charge and discharge to the user defined maximum and minimum
state of charge. Capacity relates to the battery energy through voltage as shown below.
E = qV (20.37)
The power is related to battery energy and voltage as follows.
∆E V ∆q
P = IV = = (20.38)
∆t ∆t
−t
QLi
max = d0 b0 − b1 t − b2 N − b3 1 − exp( )
1/2
(20.39)
τb3
where t is the calendar time in days, N is the total number of charge/discharge cycles over the
battery’s lifetime, and τb3 is an experimentally determined constant. Battery temperature affects
the available maximum capacity at the current time instant as well as the rate of charge degradation.
The parameter d0 captures the effect of the former as shown in Equation 20.40.
Equation 20.40.
2 2 #
Ea,d0 ,1 1 1 Ea,d0 ,2 1 1
d0 = d0,ref · exp − − − (20.40)
Rug Tbat Tref Rug Tbat Tref
The other parameters b1 , b2 , and b3 model the capacity degradation and are functions of battery
temperature, state of charge, open circuit voltage, negative electrode voltage, and maximum depth
of discharge. For example, the equation used to compute the parameter b1 is in Equation 20.41.
Eab1 1 1 αab1 · F Uneg Uref
b1 =b1,ref · exp − · − · exp − · − ·
Rug Tbatt Tref Rug Tbatt Tref (20.41)
exp γ · (DoDmax ) βb1
Eab2 1 1
b2 =b2,ref · exp − · − (20.42)
Rug Tbatt Tref
Eab3 1 1 αab3 · F Voc Vref
b3 =b3,ref · exp − · − · exp − · − ·
Rug Tbatt Tref Rug Tbatt Tref (20.43)
exp (1 + θ · (DoDmax ))
During the second half of the battery life cycle degradation is dominated by the charge discharge
cycles. The battery capacity during this period is expressed as shown below.
q
Qneg
max = (c20 − 2c2 c0 N ) (20.44)
As in the case with the calendar life degradation, the parameters c0 and c2 were determined exper-
imentally.
The description of the model parameters, and constants can be found in (Smith, 2017), and the
corresponding values can be found in (Mishra, 2020).
20.2.10.5 References
N. DiOrio et al. Technoeconomic modeling of battery energy storage in SAM. Tech. rep. National
Renewable Energy Lab. (NREL), Golden, CO (United States), 2015.
K. Smith et al. “Life prediction model for grid-connected Li-ion batteryenergy storage system”. In:
2017 American Control Conference (ACC). IEEE. 2017, pp. 4062–4068.
O. Tremblay, L.-A. Dessaint, and A.-I. Dekkiche. “A generic battery modelfor the dynamic simu-
lation of hybrid electric vehicles”. In: 2007 IEEE Vehicle Power and Propulsion Conference. Ieee.
2007, pp. 284–289.
P. P. Mishra et al. “Analysis of degradation in residential battery energystorage systems for rate-
based use-cases”. In: Applied Energy 264 (2020), p. 114632.
1674 CHAPTER 20. ON-SITE GENERATION, POWER CONVERSION, AND STORAGE
where:
T L(t) is the total energy loss at time t (W)
LL(t) is the load loss at time t (W)
P (t) is the per unit load at time t
fT (t) is the temperature correction factor for the load loss at time t.
The per unit load at time t is calculated as:
20.2. ELECTRIC LOAD CENTER DISTRIBUTION MANAGER 1675
Load(t)
P (t) = (20.46)
SB
where:
Load(t) is the transformer load at time t (W)
SB is the transformer nameplate rating (VA).
The temperature correction factor at time t is calculated as (NEMA 2002):
R(t) Rref
fT (t) = Ldc ∗ + Leddy ∗ (20.47)
Rref R(t)
where:
Ldc is the per unit load loss due to electrical resistance
Leddy is the per unit load loss due to eddy currents
R(t) is the winding electrical resistance at time t
Rref is the winding electrical resistance at the full load reference conditions.
The ratio of winding electrical resistance is calculated as:
Load(t)
η(t) = (20.50)
Load(t) + N L + LL(t)
The above procedure describes how to calculate the total transformer energy losses based on the
no load loss and load loss at rated conditions. The transformer model also supports the case when
the nominal transformer efficiency is given. In this case, the user needs to provide the nameplate
efficiency and the corresponding per unit load, the maximum efficiency and the corresponding per
unit load, and the reference conductor temperature at which the nameplate efficiency is measured.
Given these information, both no load loss and load loss at rated conditions can be derived as below.
The nameplate efficiency can be expressed as:
SB ∗ Pnp
ηnp = (20.51)
SB ∗ Pnp + N L + LL ∗ Pnp
2 ∗f
T,np
1676 CHAPTER 20. ON-SITE GENERATION, POWER CONVERSION, AND STORAGE
where:
ηnp is the nameplate efficiency
SB is the nameplate rating (VA)
Pnp is the per unit load at which the nameplate efficiency is measured
fT,np is the applied temperature correction factor for the nameplate efficiency.
Maximum efficiency generally occurs when the load loss is equal to the no-load loss. Because
the no-load loss does not vary with the load on the transformer, the following relationship can be
established:
N L = LLmax,η = LL ∗ Pmax,η
2
∗ fT,max−η (20.52)
where:
Pmax,η is the per unit load at which the maximum efficiency is obtained
fT,max−η is the applied temperature correction factor for the maximum efficiency.
Transformers typically have close per unit loads for the nameplate efficiency and the maximum
efficiency. Therefore, it is reasonable to assume that the applied temperature correction factors are
equal at those two efficiencies. This implies that:
2
LLnp LL ∗ Pnp 2 ∗ fT,np Pnp
= = (20.53)
LLmax,η LL ∗ Pmax,η 2 ∗ fT,max−η Pmax,η
Rearranging Equation 20.53 and combining it with Equation 20.52 leads to:
2 2
Pnp Pnp
LLnp = LLmax,η ∗ = NL ∗ (20.54)
Pmax,η Pmax,η
Combining Equations 20.51 and 20.54, we can obtain the no load loss as:
SB ∗ Pnp ∗ (1 − ηnp )
NL = 2 (20.55)
Pref
ηnp ∗ 1 + P max,η
Substitute NL into Equation 20.52, we can calculate the load loss at rated conditions as:
NL NL
LL = = (20.56)
fT,max−η ∗ Pmax,η
2 fT,np ∗ Pmax,η
2
Since both no load and load losses at rated conditions are known, the total energy losses in a
transformer at time t can then be calculated according to Equation 20.45.
20.2.11.1 References:
Barnes, PR., JW. Van Dyke, BW. McConnell, and S. Das. 1996. Determination Analysis of
Energy Conservation Standards for Distribution Transformer, ORNL-6847. Oak Ridge National
Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN.
Barnes, PR., S. Das, BW. McConnell, and JW. Van Dyke. 1997. Supplement to the “Deter-
mination Analysis” (ORNL-6847) and Analysis of the NEMA Efficiency Standard for Distribution
Transformer, ORNL-6925. Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN.
NEMA. 2002. NEMA Standards Publication TP 1-2002: Guide for Determining Energy Effi-
ciency for Distribution Transformers. National Electrical Manufactures Association, Rosslyn, VA.
20.3. PHOTOVOLTAIC ARRAYS 1677
Mathematical Description
Variable
P Electrical power produced by photovoltaics (W)
Asurf Net area of surface (m2 )
factiv Fraction of surface area with active solar cells
1678 CHAPTER 20. ON-SITE GENERATION, POWER CONVERSION, AND STORAGE
Mathematical Description
Variable
GT Total solar radiation incident on PV array (W/m2 )
η cell Module conversion efficiency
η invert DC to AC conversion efficiency
Mathematical Description
variable
β Slope of PV array (degrees)
γ Empirical PV curve-fitting parameter
εγ Semiconductor bandgap (eV)
ηc Module conversion efficiency
µisc Temperature coefficient of short-circuit current (A/K)
µvoc Temperature coefficient of open-circuit voltage (V/K)
θ Angle of incidence for solar radiation (degrees)
τα Module transmittance-absorptance product
τ αnormal Module transmittance-absorptance product at normal incidence
GT Total radiation incident on PV array
GT,beam Beam component of incident radiation
GT,dif f Diffuse component of incident radiation
GT,gnd Ground-reflected component of incident radiation
GT,N OCT Incident radiation at NOCT conditions
GT,ref Incident radiation at reference conditions
I Current
IL Module photocurrent
IL,ref Module photocurrent at reference conditions
Io Diode reverse saturation current
Io,ref Diode reverse saturation current at reference conditions
Isc Short-circuit current
Isc,ref Short-circuit current at reference conditions
Imp Current at maximum power point along IV curve
Imp,ref Current at maximum power point along IV curve, reference condi-
tions
IAM Dimensionless incidence angle modifier
K Boltzmann constant (J/K)
NP Number of modules in parallel in array
NS Number of modules in series in array
Ns Number of individual cells in module
P PV output power
Pmax PV output power at maximum power point along IV curve
Q Electron charge constant
Rs Module series resistance (Ω)
1680 CHAPTER 20. ON-SITE GENERATION, POWER CONVERSION, AND STORAGE
Mathematical Description
variable
Rsh Module shunt resistance (Ω)
Tc Module temperature (K)
Tc,N OCT Module temperature at NOCT conditions (K)
Tc,ref Module temperature at reference conditions (K)
UL Array thermal loss coefficient
V Voltage
Vmp Voltage at maximum power point along IV curve
Vmp,ref Voltage at maximum power point along IV curve, reference condi-
tions
Voc Open-circuit voltage
Voc,ref Open-circuit voltage at reference conditions (V)
GT
IL = IL,ref (20.60)
GT,ref
The reference insolation Gref is nearly always defined as 1000 W/m2 . The diode reverse satu-
ration current Io is a temperature dependent quantity:
3
Io Tc
= (20.61)
Io,ref Tc,ref
Equation 20.59 gives the current implicitly as a function of voltage. Once Io and IL are found
from Equations 20.60 and 20.61, Newton’s method is employed to calculate the PV current. In
addition, an iterative search routine finds the current (Imp ) and voltage (Vmp ) at the point of
maximum power along the IV curve.
Calculating IL,ref , Io,ref , γ, and Rs
The Idf specification for the PV model include several values which must be read from manufac-
turers’ PV module catalogs. The manufactures’ values are used to determine the equivalent circuit
characteristics IL,ref , Io,ref , γ, and Rs . These characteristics define an equivalent circuit that is em-
ployed to find the PV performance at each timestep, as described previously. This section describes
the algebra and calculation algorithms used to solve for the four equivalent circuit characteristics.
Three of these values, IL,ref , Io,ref , and γ may be isolated algebraically. The first step is to sub-
stitute the current and voltage into Equation 20.59 at the open-circuit, short circuit, and maximum
power conditions:
q Voc,ref
0 = IL,ref − Io,ref exp Voc,ref − 1 − (20.62)
γkTc,ref Rsh
qIsc,ref Rs Isc,ref Rs
Isc,ref = IL,ref − Io,ref exp −1 − (20.63)
γkTc,ref Rsh
1682 CHAPTER 20. ON-SITE GENERATION, POWER CONVERSION, AND STORAGE
q Vmp,ref + Imp,ref Rs
Imp,ref = IL,ref − Io,ref exp (Vmp,ref + Imp,ref Rs ) − 1 − (20.64)
γkTc,ref Rsh
In each case the “-1” term is/may be dropped to simplify the algebra. This approximation has
little influence on the right side of the equations since because the magnitude of Io is very small,
generally on the order of 10−6 A. Some rearrangement then yields the following three expressions
which isolate IL,ref , Io,ref , and γ:
q Vmp,ref − Voc,ref + Imp,ref Rs
γ= (20.66)
I
kTc,ref ln 1 − Imp,ref
sc,ref
I
Io,ref = sc,ref (20.67)
qVoc,ref
exp γkTc,ref
At this point an additional equation is needed in order to determine the last unknown parameter.
Taking the analytical derivative of voltage with respect to temperature at the reference open-
circuit condition derives the fourth equation. This analytical value is matched to the open-circuit
temperature coefficient, a catalog specification:
∂Voc γk Isc,ref Tc µisc qε
= µvoc = ln + − 3+ (20.68)
∂Tc q Io,ref Isc,ref AkTc,ref
where:
γ
A= (20.69)
Ns
The “TRNSYS PV model” uses an iterative search routine in these four equations to calculate
the equivalent circuit characteristics. The first step is to set upper and lower bounds for the series
resistance parameter Rs : physical constraints require the Rs value to lie between 0 and the value
such that γ = Ns . The initial guess for Rs is midway between these bounds. γ and Io,ref are
found from Equations 20.66 and 20.67, while Equation 20.65 gives a trivial solution for IL,ref . The
model then employs Equation 20.68 to compare the analytical and catalog values for mvoc . When
all other variables are held constant, the analytical value for mvoc increases monotonically with
series resistance (Townsend 1989). If the analytical voltage coefficient is less than the catalog value,
the lower bound for Rs is reset to the present guess value. Likewise, the upper bound is set to
the current value if the calculated mvoc is too large. After resetting the upper or lower bound for
Rs , a new guess value is found by averaging the bounds. This procedure repeats until Rs and γ
converge. Note that for IL,ref , Io,ref, , γ, and Rs are assumed to be constant and are calculated only
on the first call in the simulation. Alternatively, the user may enter a known series resistance by
entering a positive value in the IDF. In this case the iterative routine described above is skipped
and Equations 20.65, 20.66, and 20.67 find IL,ref , Io,ref, , and γ directly from the given value of Rs .
20.3. PHOTOVOLTAIC ARRAYS 1683
1 − τηαc
Tc = Ta + (20.70)
GT τ α/UL
If the user specifies the “Decoupled Ulleberg Dynamic” mode for calculating cell tempera-
ture, then a method developed by Ulleberg is used:
−U L
Tcell |t = Tambient + Tcell |t−1 − Tambient ∗ e Cap ∆t (20.71)
In other words, the cell temperature is a function of the privious cell temperature and the
thermal capacity of the PV module material.
If the user specifies “Integrated Surface Outside Face” for this parameter, then the tem-
perature result from EnergyPlus’s modeling of surfaces is used for the cell temperature. Also the
energy exported from the surface as electricity becomes a sink in the internal source modeling for
the heat transfer surface.
If the user specifies “Integrated Transpired Collector” for this parameter, then the temper-
ature result for the unglazed transpired collector surfaces is used for the cell temperature. Also the
energy exported from the collector surface as electricity is deprecated using a source term in the
collector’s temperature modeling.
If the user specifies “Integrated Exterior Vented Cavity” for this parameter, then the
temperature result for the exterior cavity is used for the cell temperature. Also the energy exported
from the baffle surface as electricity is deprecated using a source term in the baffle’s temperature
modeling.
discussed in PV Section 1 are multiplied by NP or NS to find values for the entire array. This
approach neglects module mismatch losses.
With the above equations, and the assumption that the panels operate at the maximum power
point, it is a direct calculation to determine DC power production. The performance of an array
of identical modules is assumed to be linear with the number of modules in series and parallel.
The inverter efficiency is applied linearly to derate the energy production. The inverter capacity
forms a limit for power production from a PV generator. A ‘load’ is passed the PV array acting as
a generator and various trivial calculations compare PV production to this load. If the PV array
is associated with a surface that is associated with a zone, then if the zone has any multipliers
associated with it, electricity production will be multiplied accordingly.
20.3.2.2 References
Duffie, John A. and William A. Beckman. 1991. Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes. New
York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc..
Eckstein, Jürgen Helmut. 1990. Detailed Modeling of Photovoltaic Components. M. S. Thesis –
Solar Energy Laboratory, University of Wisconsin, Madison: 1990.
Ulleberg, Øystein. HYDROGEMS Component Library for TRNSYS 15 User Manual, Institute
for Energy Technology, Kjeller, Norway
Mathematical Description
variable
Isc Short-circuit current (A)
Imp Current at the maximum-power point (A)
Ix Current at module V = 0.5 Voc , defines 4th point on I-V curve
Ixx Current at module V = 0.5 (Voc + Vmp ), defines a 5th point on the
I-V curve
Voc Open-circuit voltage (V)
Vmp Voltage at maximum-power point (V)
Pmp Power at maximum-power point (W)
fd Fraction of diffuse irradiance used by module
Ns Number of cells in series in a module’s cell-string
Np Number of cell-strings in parallel in module
k Boltzmann’s constant, 1.38066E-23 (J/K)
q Elementary charge, 1.60218E-19 (coulomb)
Tc Cell temperature inside module (◦ C)
δ(Tc ) ‘Thermal voltage’ per cell at temperature Tc , approximately 1 volt
for a typical 26-cell crystalline silicon module
Ee ‘Effective’ solar irradiance
Eb Beam solar irradiance
Edif f Diffuse solar irradiance
C 0 , C1 Empirical coefficients relating Imp to Ee , C0 + C1 = 1 (both dimen-
sionless)
C 2 , C3 Empirical coefficients relating Vmp to Ee (C2 dimensionless, C3 is
1/V)
C 4 , C5 Empirical coefficients relating Ix to Ee , C4 + C5 = 1 (both dimen-
sionless)
C6 , C7 Empirical coefficients relating Ixx to Ee C6 + C7 = 1 (both dimen-
sionless)
n Empirically determined ‘diode factor’ for individual cells
AMa Absolute Air Mas
AOI Solar angle-of-incidence (degrees) from normal
f1 (AMa ) Empirical polynomial function used to relate short-circuit current to
the solar spectrum via air mass
f2 (AOI) Empirical polynomial function used to relate short-circuit current to
the solar angle-of-incidence
a0 , a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 Empirical coefficients for f1 (AMa ) polynomial
1686 CHAPTER 20. ON-SITE GENERATION, POWER CONVERSION, AND STORAGE
Mathematical Description
variable
b0 , b 1 , b 2 , b 3 , Empirical coefficients for f2 (AOI) polynomial
b4 ,b5 ,b6
To Reference cell temperature for rating, typically fixed at 25◦ C
Isco Short circuit current at reference conditions
Impo Max power point current at reference conditions
Vmpo Voltage at max power at reference conditions
Voco Open circuit voltage at reference conditions
Ixo Current at V = 0.5 Voc and at reference conditions
Ixxo Current at V = 0.5 (Vmp + Voc) and at reference conditions
αIsc Normalized temperature coefficient for Isc (1/◦ C)
αImp Normalized temperature coefficient for Imp (1/◦ C)
β V oc (Ee ) Temperature coefficient for module open-circuit-voltage as function
of Ee
β V oco Temperature coefficient for module open-circuit-voltage at reference
conditions
mβ V oco Coefficient for irradiance dependence of open-circuit-voltage-
temperature coefficient, often zero (V/◦ C)
β V mp (Ee ) Temperature coefficient for module maximum-power-voltage as a
function of E
β V mpo Temperature coefficient for module maximum-power-voltage at ref-
erence conditions
mβ V oco Cofficient for irradiance dependence of maximum-power-voltage-
temperature coefficient, often zero (V/◦ C)
Tm PV module temperature at back suface (◦ C)
Ta Ambient outdoor drybulb temperature (◦ C)
E Solar irradiance incident on module surface (W/m2 )
WS Wind speed at standard 10-m height (m/s)
a Empirical coefficient relating module temperature at low wind and
high solar irradiance
b Empirical coefficient relating module temperature decrease with in-
creasing wind speed
Tc Temperature of solar cell inside module (◦ C)
Eo Reference solar irradiance (1000 W/m2 )
∆T Temperature difference between Tc and Tm at Eo (◦ C), (This is d(Tc)
in the Sandia database)
20.3. PHOTOVOLTAIC ARRAYS 1687
Isc = Isco · f1 (AMa ) · {(Eb · f2 (AOI) + fd · Edif f ) /Eo } · {1 + αIsc · (Tc − To )} (20.72)
Imp = Impo · Co · Ee + C1 · Ee2 · {1 + αImp · (Tc − To } (20.73)
Vmp = Vmpo + C2 · Ns · δ (Tc ) · ln (Ee ) + C3 · N3 · {δ (Tc ) · ln (Ee )}2 + βV mp (Ee ) · (Tc − To ) (20.75)
Ix = Ixo · C4 · Ee + C5 · Ee2 · {1 + (αIsc ) · (Tc − To )} (20.77)
Ixx = Ixxo · C6 · Ee + C7 · Ee2 · 1 + (αImp ) · (Tc − To) (20.78)
where:
Tm = E · ea+b·W S + Ta (20.85)
E
Tc = Tm + · ∆T (20.86)
Eo
1688 CHAPTER 20. ON-SITE GENERATION, POWER CONVERSION, AND STORAGE
With the above equations, and the assumption that the panels operate at the maximum power
point, it is a direct calculation to determine DC power production. The performance of an array
of identical modules is assumed to be linear with the number of modules in series and parallel.
The inverter efficiency is applied linearly to derate the energy production. The inverter capacity
forms a limit for power production from a PV generator. A ‘load’ is passed the PV array acting as
a generator and various trivial calculations compare PV production to this load. If the PV array
is associated with a surface that is associated with a zone, then if the zone has any multipliers
associated with it, electricity production will be multiplied accordingly.
The equation above for Tm is used to predict back-of-module temperature when the mode
‘SANDIA RACK’ is selected. This would be appropriate for most rack mounted PV installations.
If the user selects ‘EPLUS INTEGRATED’ then the back-of-module temperature is obtained from
the outside face surface temperature calculated by the full complement of Heat Balance models
using Conduction Transfer Functions that is native to EnergyPlus. And energy exported from
the surface is accounted for using a source/sink term that is lagged from the previous timestep
(pingpong).
20.3.3.2 References
King, D.L., Boyson, W.E., Kratochvil J.A. 2003. Photovoltaic Array Performance Model. Sandia
National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM 87185, November 2003 currently in DRAFT
Barker, G. 2003 (unknown). Predicting Long-Term Performance of Photovoltaic Arrays. Sub-
mitted as deliverable for NREL subcontract LAX-1-30480-02. Currently in DRAFT
Davis, M.W., Fanney, A.H., and Dougherty B.P. 2002. Measured Versus Predicted Performance
of Building Integrated Photovoltaics. from the conference Solar 2002, Sunrise on the Reliable Energy
Economy, June 15-19, 2002, Reno, NV. Available from NIST website.
King, D.L. 1996. Photovoltaic Module and Array Performance Characterization Methods for
All System Operating Conditions. Sandia National Laboratory. Albuquerque, NM 87185
20.3.4 PVWatts
The PVWatts model was developed by NREL to calculate the energy production of a grid-connected
PV system based on a few simple inputs. It was originally developed and maintained for the
System Advisor Model software and is also available as a stand-alone web API. It is implemented
as Generator and Inverter objects in EnergyPlus rather than as a photovoltaic performance object
because the inputs are more high-level than Generator:Photovoltaic. Full details of the PVWatts
model are explained in PVWatts Version 5 Manual.
20.3.4.1 References
Dobos, Aron P. PVWatts Version 5 Manual. National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO
80401, September 2014. https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy14osti/62641.pdf
20.4. GENERATORS 1689
20.4 Generators
20.4.1 Internal Cumbustion Engine
The engine-driven generator model was originally developed for the BLAST program and was
subsequently adapted for use in EnergyPlus. The model uses the following set of equations all of
which are quadratic fits to the PLR (Part Load Ratio) of the generator. The coefficients must be
derived from manufacturers data.
Finally heat recovered from the lube oil and the water jacket are accounted for as follows:
A second curve fit calculates the exhaust temperature (C) by multiplying the exhaust tem-
perature (C) for a particular part load by a correction factor based on the deviation from design
temperature.
Texhaust = c1 + c2 P LR + c3 P LR2 ∗ d1 + d2 ∆T + d3 ∆T 2 (20.98)
The exhaust gas temp is used if a stack heat exchanger is used to recover waste heat from the
exhaust. This temperature is the inlet temperature to the heat exchanger which is modeled in a
UA-effectiveness form:
Where the design minimum exhaust temperature is a user input to the model and the exhaust
mass flow rate and the UA are fit from manufacturers data as follows:
where:
PElec,F ull Load is the full load electrical power output (W)
PElec,Ref is the reference electrical power output, user input (W)
P owerF T empElev is the user-defined Electric Power Modifier Curve (function of temperature
and elevation) evaluated at the current combustion air inlet temperature and elevation
Ta,i is the combustion air inlet temperature (◦ C)
Elev is the elevation (m). This value obtained from the Location object or the weather file.
The full load electrical power output of the generator is then checked against the minimum and
maximum full load electrical power outputs specified by the user:
ElecEf fOperating = ElecEf fRef,LHV (ElecEf f iciencyF T emp) (ElecEf f iciencyF P LR) (20.113)
where:
ElecEf f iciencyF T emp is the user-defined Electrical Efficiency Modifier Curve (function of
temperature) evaluated at the current combustion air inlet temperature
ElecEf f iciencyF P LR is the user-defined Electrical Efficiency Modifier Curve (function of part-
load ratio) evaluated at the current operating part-load ratio
ElecEf fOperating is the electrical efficiency at the current operating conditions
20.4. GENERATORS 1693
ElecEf fRef,LHV is the reference electrical efficiency (LHV [lower heating value] Basis), user
input.
The fuel energy consumption rate (LHV Basis) is then calculated as follows:
PElec,Operating
Q̇F uel,LHV = (20.114)
ElecEf fOperating
where Q̇F uel,LHV is the fuel energy consumption rate, LHV basis (W).
If ElecEf fOperating is equal to zero, then POperating and Q̇F uel,LHV are set to zero. The fuel mass
flow rate is then calculated:
Q̇F uel,LHV
ṁf uel = (20.115)
LHV ∗ 1000
where:
ṁf uel is the mass flow rate of fuel being consumed by the generator (kg/s), report variable
“Generator <FuelType> Mass Flow Rate [kg/s]”
LHV = Fuel Lower Heating Value, user input (kJ/kg).
The ancillary power is calculated next using the user-specified ancillary power and ancillary
power modifier curve. The ancillary power modifier curve is a quadratic function with the gener-
ator’s fuel mass flow rate as the independent variable. If an ancillary power modifier curve is not
specified in the input file, the modifier is assumed to be 1.0 and the ancillary power will be constant
throughout the simulation.
PElec,P roduced
ElecEf fOperating,LHV = (20.122)
Q̇F uel,LHV
be restricted by other plant components (e.g., pump). If the Heat Recovery Water Flow Operating
Mode is set to Internal Control, then the requested water flow when the generator operates is
determined by the Reference Heat Recovery Water Flow Rate and a flow rate modifier curve.
If PlantControl:
ṁw = V̇w,ref ρw (20.126)
If InternalControl:
2 2
HeatRecFlowFTempPow = e1 + e2 Tw,i + e3 Tw,i + e4 Pnet + e5 Pnet + e6 Tw,i Pnet (20.127)
The actual (operating) thermal power is then calculated using the steady-state thermal power
and three modifier curves:
1696 CHAPTER 20. ON-SITE GENERATION, POWER CONVERSION, AND STORAGE
HeatRecRateF P LR = or (20.133)
2 3
= g1 + g2 (P LR) + g3 (P LR) + g4 (P LR)
2
= k1 + k2 TP LR + k3 TP LR
ExhF lowF P LR = or (20.139)
= k1 + k2 TP LR + k3 TP2 LR + k4 TP3 LR
where:
ṁExhAir is the exhaust air mass flow rate (kg/s)
ṁExhAir,Ref is the reference Exhaust Air Mass Flow Rate, user input (kg/s)
ExhF lowF T emp is the user-defined Exhaust Air Flow Rate Modifier Curve (function of tem-
perature) evaluated at the current combustion air inlet temperature. This multiplier is assumed to
be 1.0 if a modifier curve name is not specified in the input.
ExhF lowF P LR is the user-defined Exhaust Air Flow Rate Rate Modifier Curve (function of
part-load ratio) evaluated at the current operating part-load ratio. This multiplier is assumed to
be 1.0 if a modifier curve name is not specified in the input.
ρa,i is the density of the combustion inlet air (kg/m3 )
ρa,Ref is the density of combustion inlet air at reference conditions (kg/m3 ).
In an analogous fashion, the exhaust air temperature is calculated using the Nominal (reference)
Exhaust Air Outlet Temperature and two modifier curves.
PT hermal,Operating
T hermalEf fOperating,LHV = (20.146)
Q̇F uel,LHV
where:
ET hermal,P roduced is the report variable “Generator Produced Thermal Energy” (J)
T hermalEf fOperating,LHV is the report variable “Generator Thermal Efficiency LHV Basis”.
20.4.4 Micro-Cogenerator
The input object Generator:MicroCHP provides a model that is a direct implementation of a model
developed by IEA Annex 42 – The Simulation of Building-Integrated Fuel Cell and Other Cogener-
ation Systems (FC+COGEN-SIM). Annex 42 was formed as a working group within the Interna-
tional Energy Agency (IEA) program on Energy Conservation in Buildings and Community Systems
(ECBCS). A full description of the model specification can be found in the report by Subtask B
of FC+COGEN-SIM with the title “Specifications for Modelling Fuel Cell and Combustion-Based
Residential Cogeneration Device within Whole-Building Simulation Programs.” The “Micro CHP”
model in EnergyPlus is the one referred to as “A Generic Model for Combustion-based Residential
Cogeneration Devices.”
The Micro CHP model is a straightforward empirical model with the exception that it is dy-
namic with respect to thermal heat recovery where performance is cast as a function of engine
temperature. It is also dynamic with respect to possible warm up and cool down periods that may
affect the ability of the generator to deliver the requested power. The relevant model equations
are:
(
ṁt+∆t if dṁf uel /dt ≤ (dṁf uel /dt)max
ṁt+∆t
f uel =
f uel,demand
(20.152)
ṁtf uel,demand ± (dṁf uel /dt)max if dṁf uel /dt > (dṁf uel /dt)max
dTeng
[M C]eng = U AHX (Tcw,p − Teng ) + U Aloss (Troom − Teng ) + qgen,ss (20.155)
dt
dTcw,o
[M C]cw = [ṁcp ]cw (Tcw,i − Tcw,o ) + U AHX (Teng − Tcw,o ) (20.156)
dt
where:
ηe is the steady-state, part load, electrical conversion efficiency of the engine
ηq is the steady-state part load, thermal conversion efficiency of the engine
ṁcw is the mass flow rate of plant fluid through the heat recovery section (kg/s)
Tcw,i is the bulk temperature of the plant fluid entering the heat recovery section (◦ C)
Tcw,o is the bulk temperature of the plant fluid leaving the heat recovery section (◦ C)
Pnet,ss is the steady-state electrical output of the system (W)
qgross is the gross heat input into the engine (W)
qgen,ss is the steady-state rate of heat generation within the engine (W)
LHVf uel is the lower heating value of the fuel used by the system (J/kg or J/kmol)
Ṅf uel is the molar fuel flow rate (kmol/s)
ṁf uel is the mass fuel flow rate (kg/s)
ṁair is the mass flow rate of air thru the engine (kg/s)
[M C]eng is the thermal capacitance of the engine control volume (W/K)
Teng is the temperature of the engine control volume (◦ C)
U AHX is the effective thermal conductance between the engine control volume and the cooling
water control volume (W/K)
U Aloss is the effective thermal conductance between the engine control volume and the sur-
rounding environment (W/K)
Troom is the air temperature of the surrounding environment (◦ C)
[M C]cw is the thermal capacitance of the encapsulated cooling water and heat exchanger shell
in immediate thermal contact (J/K)
[ṁcp ]cw is the thermal capacity flow rate associated with the cooling water (W/K).
The functional forms for ηe and ηq are 2nd order trivariate polynomials with all of the cross
terms.
EnergyPlus solves these for state values for the engine mass temperature, Teng , and the outlet
plant node, Tcw,o , in the following manner. The last two equations are interrelated but otherwise
ordinary differential equations with the general form:
dT
= a + bT (20.157)
dt
1700 CHAPTER 20. ON-SITE GENERATION, POWER CONVERSION, AND STORAGE
For timesteps where the generator switches from warm up mode to normal mode in the middle
of the timestep, part load ration values are calculated for the portion of the time step that the
generator is in normal operation.
The engine and heat recovery thermal conditions are modeled for all modes so, for example, an
engine that is off but still warm could provide some hot water recovery.
The engine model can use an arbitray fuel mixture that is defined by the user – see the entry
for Generator:FuelSupply.
20.4.4.1 References
Kelly, N. and A. Ferguson. 2007. A Generic Model Specification for Combustion-based Residential
Cogeneration Devices. In Specifications for Modelling Fuel Cell and Combustion-Based Residential
Cogeneration Device within Whole-Building Simulation Programs. I. Beausoleil-Morrison and N.
Kelly editors. Draft report of Annex 42 of the International Energy Agency ECBCS.
The Annex 42 Fuel Cell model is characterized as a “grey box” empirical model where a
mixture of thermodynamic principles and empirical performance maps are used to model the
cogeneration performance of a fairly complex device with many individual subsystems. In En-
ergyPlus, the individual subsystems are separate into individual input objects such as Genera-
tor:FuelCell:PowerModule or Generator:FuelCell:ExhaustGasToWaterHeatExchanger. The result-
ing model is relatively complex requiring on the order of one hundred inputs. The model is not for
the faint of heart; this model is far more involved than most component models in building simula-
tion. This stems from the fact that fuel cell cogenerators are complicated devices that interact with
the built environment in a number of ways. Fuel cells could drawn in gas/fuel, air, and water with
as many as six separate streams. In addition to electricity and heated water, they also give off heat
in the form of convection and radiation and exhaust air out of the zone. The devices may take a
long time to start up and include storage to follow loads rather than attempt to vary the power the
fuel cell. The fuel cell model allows examining system level interactions over annual timeframes
that include all the important interactions with a building’s energy and comfort systems.
The Annex 42 fuel cell model is described more thoroughly in the references (see below). Here
we provide a summary of the relevant model equations which are taken from the Annex 42 model
specification. The first equation is the main energy balance for the fuel cell power module (includes
the fuel reformation and fuel cell stacks). This energy balance is used to model the enthalpy of the
product gases that leave the fuel cell power module.
h
P h i P h i i
Ṅi · ĥi − ∆f ĥoi + Ṅi · ĥi − ∆f ĥoi + Ṅliq−water · ĥ − ∆f ĥo − ∆f ĥoH2 O,f g
i f uel i air H2 O,liq
+Ḣdilution−air−in + Ṅf ueli· LHVf uel + Pel,ancillaries−AC
P h
= Pel + Ṅi · ḧi − ∆f ĥoi + qs−cool + qskin−loss + Ḣdilution−air−out
i F CP M −cg
(20.165)
The remaining equations describe various terms and the balance of systems. The electrical
efficiency is modeled using:
Z
εel = ε0 + ε1 · Pel + ε2 · Pel2 · [1 − Nstops · D] · 1 − (M AX( dt − tthreshold , 0.0)) · L (20.166)
or
" #−1
1 1
(U A)ef f = + + FHX (20.178)
(hA)gas (hA)water
where FHX is an adjustment factor and:
!n
Ṅgas
hgas = h0gas (20.179)
0
Ṅgas
!m
Ṅwater
hwater = h0water · 0
(20.180)
Ṅwater
! !2
ṄH2 O ṄH2 O
ṄH2 O−cond = (Tcond−threshold − Twater,in ) · hxl,1 · + hxl,2 · (20.182)
Ṅaux−mix Ṅaux−mix
qs−cool = [r0 + r1 (Tstack − Tstack
o
)] · 1 + r2 Pel + r3 Pel2 (20.187)
" #−1
1
(U A)s−cogen = + Fs−cogen (20.188)
(hA)s−cogen
!ns
Ṅs−cogen
hs−cogen = h0s−cogen · 0
(20.189)
Ṅs−cogen
20.4.5.1 References
Beausoleil-Morrison, I., A. Schatz, and F. Marechal. 2006. A model for simulating the thermal
and electrical production of small-scale solid-oxide fuel cell cogeneration systems within building
simulation programs. HVAC & R Research. Amer. Soc. Heating, Ref. Air-Conditioning Eng. Inc.
Atlanta, GA.
Beausoleil-Morrison, I., A. Weber, F. Marechal, and B. Griffith. 2007. Specifications for Mod-
elling Fuel Cell Cogeneration Devices within Whole-Building Simulation Programs. In Specifi-
cations for Modelling Fuel Cell and Combustion-Based Residential Cogeneration Device within
Whole-Building Simulation Programs. I. Beausoleil-Morrison and N. Kelly editors. Draft report
of Annex 42 of the International Energy Agency ECBCS.
Gas phase thermochemistry calculations and data are programmed into EnergyPlus to handle
the set of constituents listed in the table below. The relevant properties of each fuel constituent,
i, are calculated as a function of temperature using the Shomate equation:
2 3 4
T B T C T D T E
ĥi − ∆f ĥoi = A· + · + · + · − T
+ F − H (20.191)
1000 2 1000 3 1000 4 1000 1000
where:
ĥi is the enthalpy (J/kmol)
∆f ĥoi is the molar enthalpy at the standard state (J/kmol)
T is the temperature of the gas (K)
A, B, C, D, E, F, H are the coefficients for the Shomate equation.
The lower heating value (LHV) of a fuel mixture is calculated from the molar fractions using:
X
LHVf uel = (χi · LHVi ) (20.192)
i
where:
h y i
LHVi = ∆f ĥoCx Hy − x · ∆f ĥoCO2 − · ∆f ĥoH2 O (20.193)
2
x is the number of carbon atoms
y is the number of hydrogen atoms.
Similarly, the higher heating value (HHV) of the fuel mixture is calculated using:
X
HHVf uel = (χi · HHVi ) (20.194)
i
where:
h y y i
HHVi = −x·
∆f ĥoCx Hy − · ∆f ĥH2 O + · ∆f ĥH2 O − Hliq
o
∆f ĥoCO2 o
(20.195)
2 2
The Shomate coefficients used in EnergyPlus are listed in Table 20.5. Data source “NIST”
indicates the data were directly from Chemistry WebBook. Data source “CHEMKIN” indicates
the data were developed by curve fitting library data for the CHEMKIN commercial program (which
uses the Gorden-McBride polynomial rather than the Shomate formulation).
Table 20.5: Shomate Coefficients used in EnergyPlus
Constituent A B C D E F H Source
Constituent A B C D E F H Source
20.4.6.1 References
Beausoleil-Morrison, I., A. Weber, F. Marechal, and B. Griffith. 2007. Specifications for Modelling
Fuel Cell Cogeneration Devices within Whole-Building Simulation Programs. In Specifications for
Modelling Fuel Cell and Combustion-Based Residential Cogeneration Device within Whole-Building
Simulation Programs. I. Beausoleil-Morrison and N. Kelly editors. Report of Annex 42 of the
International Energy Agency ECBCS.
NIST. 2003. Chemistry WebBook, National Institute of Standards and Technology Standard
Reference Database Number 69, March 2003 Release, .
Gordon S. and B.J. McBride. 1971. Computer program for calculation of complex chemical
equilibrium composition, rocket performance, incident and reflected shocks and Chapman-Jouguet
detonations. NASA SP-273.
called by the HVAC manager, and the electric load will be corrected with electricity from the wind
turbine. The model calculates electricity production that both HAWTs and VAWTs produce from
general mathematical equations. The model then passes the electricity to the electric load center
in EnergyPlus at each HVAC system time step. The electric load center then determines the whole
building electrical demand, deducting the power output by wind turbine along with any power
production by photovoltaic components from the total electrical demand requested in the building.
Excessive production of electricity greater than needed from wind turbine along with photovoltaic
components is either sold or stored as the user specifies.
Note that the wind speed factor Fv of 1.0 is assigned, if the user does not input the local wind
conditions or the weather data file is not attached to the simulation.
The local air density can be obtained by using EnergyPlus psychrometric functions as follows:
VZ = W indSpeedAt(Z) (20.202)
The local wind speed at the rotor height (VLocal ) at the location is thus:
VZ
VLocal = (20.203)
Fv
The tip speed ratio (TSR) can be obtained as:
ωR
λ= (20.204)
VLocal
The model assumes the simple approximation, if any of empirical power coefficient parameters
is not input. The power production of wind turbine is directly obtained from the kinetic energy
equation:
1 3
PW = ρLocal AR VLocal Cp,max (λ, θ) (20.208)
2
Here, the model defines PW as rated power output at the rated wind speed, if either the power
production of wind turbine or local wind speed is greater than the rated power or rated wind speed,
respectively. The power coefficient in this particular case is thus recalculated as:
PW
Cp = 3
(20.209)
0.5ρLocal AVLocal
The overall power production that includes conversion loss and delivery loss is thus:
P = ηPW (20.210)
Figure 20.9: Flow velocities and force diagram of a single blade airfoil (Adapted from Mazharul
Islam et al., 2008)
If tip speed ratio at the time step is greater than the maximum tip speed ratio, the model
estimates actual rotor speed at the time step as:
ωR = λVLocal (20.211)
1710 CHAPTER 20. ON-SITE GENERATION, POWER CONVERSION, AND STORAGE
The model then employs general mathematical expressions for the aerodynamic analysis of
straight-bladed Darrieus-type VAWTs to predict the power production by VAWTs. Assuming quasi-
steady state, the induced wind speed (Va ) on the rotor is defined as:
2
Va = VLocal (20.212)
3
The chordal velocity (Vc ), normal velocity (Vn ), and relative flow velocity (W ) as shown in
figure above can be expressed as:
Vc = ωR + Va cos θ (20.213)
Vn = Va sin θ (20.214)
p
W = Vc2 + Vn2 (20.215)
The expression for the non-dimensional angle of attack α with no consideration of blade pitch
is:
−1 sin θ
α = tan (20.216)
(ωR/ VLocal )/(Va / VLocal ) + cos θ
The tangential and normal force coefficients, respectively, are expressed as:
Q = N Fta (20.223)
The power production of wind turbine is thus:
20.4. GENERATORS 1711
PW = Qω (20.224)
The model also defines PW as the rated power output at the rated wind speed, if either the
power production of wind turbine or local wind speed is greater than the rated power.
The overall power production delivered from a wind turbine system is thus:
P = ηPW (20.225)
20.4.7.7 References
Siegfried Heier. 2006. Grid Integration of Wind Energy Conversion Systems, Second Edition.
Wiley, Chap. 2, pp.31-44.
Mazharul Islam, David S.K. Ting and Amir Fartaj. 2008. Aerodynamic Models for Darrieus-type
Sraight-bladed Vertical Axis Wind Turbines. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, Volume
12, pp.1087-1109.
ASHRAE. 2005. Handbook of Fundamentals, pp 16.3-16.4, Atlanta: ASHRAE.
Chapter 21
The following section describes the use of performance curves and lookup tables. Each of these
objects may be used in any valid input field where a performance curve name is required.
Performance curves are used directly to simulate the performance of HVAC equipment. The
curves are typically created by performing a regression analysis on tabular data for a particular
equipment performance metric. The regression analysis determines the equation coefficients which
are the primary input to all performance curve objects. Performance tables are similar to per-
formance curves in that they are meant to replicate a particular performance curve. Input to
performance tables are made up of data pairs, the same data pairs that would be used to create
performance curve coefficients. Performance tables can be interpolated using up to a 4th order
polynomial equation for one independent variable tables or using a 2nd order polynomial for two
independent variable tables. A regression analysis can be performed on performance tables when
the simulation is instructed to use the regression analysis during the simulation (i.e., ride the curve).
In addition, a performance curve object is created that can be used in future simulations and can
be written to the eio file. The performance curve is written to the eio file only when the diagnostics
flag is set to DisplayAdvancedReportVariables (ref. Output:Diagnostics, DisplayAdvancedReport-
Variables;). Lookup tables are similar to performance tables in that tabular data is used for input,
however, the input 1) is more compact, 2) a regression analysis may only be performed for one and
two independent variable cases, and 3) the tabular data can be read from an external file.
Performance curves and data tables are created using empirical data that are derived from
information gathered through observation, experience, or experimental means. Once a curve or table
object is defined, these objects can be used to generically describe HVAC equipment performance.
Performance curves and performance tables may be used interchangeably in Energyplus objects as
required.
y = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + a3 x3 + ... + an xn (21.1)
1713
1714 CHAPTER 21. PERFORMANCE CURVES AND LOOKUP TABLES
z = a00 + a10 x + a01 y + a11 xy + a21 x2 y + a12 xy 2 + a22 x2 y 2 ... + anm xn y m (21.2)
In EnergyPlus, the result of an equation, the dependent variable, represents the response a
system or component has given an input (the independent variable) to the system or component
model. This response represents the equipment performance related to the mechanism that causes
this change (e.g., the change in capacity or power based on a conditional change in temperature,
part-load ratio, or other phenomenon). A variety of performance curves are available to describe
the most common forms of engineering equations. The coefficients (a-z) in the following equations
are entered in the associated curve object to define a specific phenomenon. Minimum and maximum
limits may be applied to both the independent and the dependent variables as necessary.
y = a + bx (21.3)
y = a + bx + cx2 (21.4)
y = a + bxc (21.7)
21.1. PERFORMANCE CURVES 1715
z = a + bx + cx2 + dy + ey 2 + f xy (21.10)
T otCapT empM odF ac = a + b (Twb,i ) + c(Twb,i )2 + d (Tc,i ) + e(Tc,i )2 + f (Twb,i ) (Tc,i ) (21.12)
where:
Twb,i is the wet-bulb temperature of the air entering the cooling coil (◦ C)
Tc,i (or Tdb,i ) is the dry-bulb temperature of the air entering an air-cooled condenser (◦ C).
Given the data set shown in Figure 21.1, each of the independent variables would be calculated
according to the fundamental equation above (i.e., the T, T2 , and cross-product terms would be
multiplied out). The data would be converted to degrees celcius and the cooling capacity would
be converted to Watts. The data would also be normalized using the ARI rating point shown as
highlighted in Figure 21.2.
The fundamental equation would be used to determine the number of independent variables
and also the form of the equation. Given the example described here, the spreadsheet would be
set up to look like the equation as shown in the following table. A regression analysis could then
1716 CHAPTER 21. PERFORMANCE CURVES AND LOOKUP TABLES
be performed on the data set. The first five columns are the independent variables and the last
column is the dependent variable. A spreadsheet tool is selected to perform the regression analysis,
and the coefficients are calculated and displayed in the spreadsheet.
The regression analysis and summary statistical output is shown below. The equation coefficients
are shown highlighted. In this example, the equation coefficents are: a = 0.757382, b = 0.014666,
c = 0.000459, d = -0.00095, e = -6.7E-05, and f = -0.00015. These coefficients would be entered in
a Curve:BiQuadratic object and used to describe the cooling capacity as a function of temperature
for the DX cooling coil model. Minimum and Maximum values from the tabular data are entered
as Min/Max values for the curve object. The values may be relaxed slightly with care to allow
extrapolation as needed. A performance table may be used to automatically perform the regression
analysis as described in the following section.
Curve:Biquadratic ,
CoolCapFTExample , !- Name
1718 CHAPTER 21. PERFORMANCE CURVES AND LOOKUP TABLES
A lookup table can be specified to use either linear or cubic interpolation independently for each
dimension (input variable). For performance points outside the defined grid space, an extrapolation
method–constant or linear–can be set independently for each dimension. Finally, each axis can have
specified boundaries beyond which extrapolation is not permitted.
µ = (x − x0 ) / (x1 − x0 )
Economics Calculations
• ComponentCost:LineItem
• ComponentCost:Adjustments
• ComponentCost:Reference
22.1.1.1 General
The line item subtotal, L, is calculated by multiplying the number of units, N, by the Cost-per-Each,
Pe :
L = N ∗ Pe (22.1)
1721
1722 CHAPTER 22. ECONOMICS CALCULATIONS
22.1.1.2 Construction
This line item type is called “Construction” but is used to estimate the costs of surfaces in the
model. The Construction attribute of Surface objects is useful for categorizing surfaces. The
number of units, N, is determined by summing the Area, A, of Surface objects that have the type of
construction specified in the Item Name field. Surfaces are screened to eliminate any duplicates
that may exist for interior partitions creating a list of 1 to m unique surfaces. If a surface is
associated with a Zone, then zone multiplier, MZ , and list multipliers, MG , are applied (these are
usually defaulted to 1).
X
m
N= (A ∗ MZ ∗ MG ) (22.2)
1
The line item subtotal, L, is calculated by multiplying the number of units (actually units of
are here), N (m2 ) by the Cost-per-Area, Pa , ($/m2 ):
L = N ∗ Pa (22.3)
L = N ∗ Pe (22.4)
If cost per kilowatt is greater than 0.0 then the number of units, N, is the number of kilowatts
of total, rated, cooling capacity. This will be based on all the DX:Coils in the model if Item Name
is set to the wildcard (*) and will be that of the named coil if set to a valid coil name. Then the
line item subtotal, L, is calculated by multiplying the number of units, N, by the Cost-per-kilowatt,
PkW :
L = N ∗ PkW (22.5)
If Cost per kilowatt per coefficient-of-performance is greater than 0.0 then the number
of units, N, is the number of kilowatts of total, rated, cooling capacity multiplied by the nominal
coefficient of performance (COP) of the DX:Coils. This will be based on all the DX:Coils in the
model if Item Name is set to the wildcard (*) and will be that of the named coil if set to a valid
coil name. Then the line item subtotal, L, is calculated by multiplying the number of units, N, by
the Cost-per-kilowatt-per-COP, PkW −COP :
22.1.1.4 Coil:Heating:Fuel
Fuel-fired heating coil costs can be estimated in one of three ways: per-each, per-kW, per-kW-
COP. The program determines which method to use based on there being non-zero values in
appropriate input fields.
If cost per each is greater than 0.0 then the number of units, N, is the number of heaters. This
will be 1 if the Item Name is the name of a specific heater described elsewhere. If the name is
set to the wildcard (*) then this will equal the total number of Coil:Heating:Fuel objects in the
model. Then the line item subtotal, L, is calculated by multiplying the number of units, N, by the
Cost-per-Each, Pe :
L = N ∗ Pe (22.7)
If Cost per kilowatt is greater than 0.0 then the number of units, N, is the number of kilowatts
of total, rated, heating capacity. This will be based on all the Coil:Heating:Fuel objects in the
model if Item Name is set to the wildcard (*) and will be that of the named coil if set to a valid
coil name. Then the line item subtotal, L, is calculated by multiplying the number of units, N, by
the Cost-per-kilowatt, PkW :
L = N ∗ PkW (22.8)
If Cost per kilowatt per coefficient-of-performance is greater than 0.0 then the number
of units, N, is the number of kilowatts of total, rated, heating capacity multiplied by the theo-
retical efficiency of the heater(s). (Here we are treating gas heating efficiency as a Coefficient
of Performance (COP)). This will be based on all the Coil:Heating:Fuel objects in the model if
Item Name is set to the wildcard (*) and will be that of the named coil if set to a valid coil
name. Then the line item subtotal, L, is calculated by multiplying the number of units, N, by the
Cost-per-kilowatt-per-COP, PkW −COP :
22.1.1.5 Chiller:Electric
Electric chiller costs can be estimated in one of three ways: per-each, per-kW, per-kW-COP. The
program determines which method to use based on there being non-zero values in appropriate input
fields.
If cost per each is greater than 0.0 then the number of units, N, is the number of chillers. This
will be 1 if the Item Name is the name of a specific coil described elsewhere. Then the line item
subtotal, L, is calculated by multiplying the number of units, N, by the Cost-per-Each, Pe :
L = N ∗ Pe (22.10)
If Cost per kilowatt is greater than 0.0 then the number of units, N, is the number of kilowatts
of total, rated, cooling capacity for the specified chiller. Then the line item subtotal, L, is calculated
by multiplying the number of units, N, by the Cost-per-kilowatt, PkW :
L = N ∗ PkW (22.11)
1724 CHAPTER 22. ECONOMICS CALCULATIONS
If Cost per kilowatt per coefficient-of-performance is greater than 0.0, then the number
of units, N, is the number of kilowatts of total, rated, cooling capacity multiplied by the nominal
coefficient of performance (COP) of the chiller. This will be based on the named chiller (if set to a
valid coil name). Then the line item subtotal, L, is calculated by multiplying the number of units,
N, by the Cost-per-kilowatt-per-COP, PkW −COP :
22.1.1.6 Daylighting:Controls
The costs of controllers for harvesting daylight are determined by the number of reference
points. The cost for each controller, Pe , are input. The of units, N, is determined from the
number of daylight reference points in all the zones if the Item Name is the wildcard (*). If
Item Name is set to a valid Zone name then N is the number of daylight reference points in just
that zone (zones can have more than one daylight controllers). Then the line item subtotal, L, is
calculated by multiplying the number of units, N, by the Cost-per-Each, Pe :
L = N ∗ Pe (22.13)
22.1.1.7 Shading:Zone:Detailed
Shading surfaces need to be handled separately because they do not have the Construction at-
tribute. The Item Name must be set to a valid name for a Shading:Zone:Detailed object
defined elsewhere in the file. The number of units, N, is determined from the area of the named
surface multiplied by zone multiplier, MZ , and list multipliers, MG :
N = A ∗ MZ ∗ Mg (22.14)
The line item subtotal, L, is calculated by multiplying the number of units, N (m2 ) by the
Cost-per-Area, Pa , ($/m2 ):
L = N ∗ Pa (22.15)
22.1.1.8 Lights
The cost of electric lighting systems can be modeled in two ways: per-each and per-kW. The
program determines which method to use based on there being non-zero values in appropriate
input fields. The Item Name must be the name of a valid Zone defined elsewhere in the input.
If cost per each is greater than 0.0, then the number of units, N, is the number lighting systems
in the zone and is assumed to be 1. Then the line item subtotal, L, is calculated by multiplying
the number of units, N, by the Cost-per-Each, Pe :
L = N ∗ Pe (22.16)
If Cost per kilowatt is greater than 0.0 then the number of units, N, is the number of kilo-
watts in the design level for electric lighting systems defined in Lights objects associated with the
zone. The Item Name must be the name of a valid Zone defined elsewhere in the input. N is
22.1. COMPONENT COSTS 1725
then the sum of all the Lights associated with the named Zone. Then the line item subtotal, L, is
calculated by multiplying the number of units, N, by the Cost-per-kilowatt, PkW :
L = N ∗ PkW (22.17)
22.1.1.9 Generator:Photovoltaic
The costs of simple photovoltaic power systems can be modeled using cost per kilowatt. The number
of units, N, is the nominal rated peak power of the photovoltaic panels. The photovoltaic generator
must be modeled using the PhotovoltaicPerformance:Simple input object which is a very simplistic
model and does not include input for the nominal rated peak power of the system. Therefore a
peak power is calculated using the usual 1000 W/m2 of incident solar radiation, Gp , multiplied by
the active solar cell area, A and the efficiency, E, and converted to units of kilowatts.
Gp ∗ A ∗ E
N= (22.18)
1000.0
Where, the cell area A is calculated by multiplying the area of the surface associated with
the simple photovoltaic system and the active area fraction defined in the PhotovoltaicPerfor-
mance:Simple. Then the line item subtotal, L, is calculated by multiplying the number of units, N,
by the Cost-per-kilowatt, PkW :
L = N ∗ PkW (22.19)
22.1.2 Adjustments
Various adjustments are available to model total project costs from the component costs modeled
using individual line items. These adjustments are provided to allow propagating how changes in
component costs are amplified by things like design fees, profit, bonding, and taxes.
The subtotal of individual line items, SL , is obtained by summing all line item subtotals, L:
X
SL = L (22.20)
For the reference building, SL , is user input (typically from a prior run of baseline building
model).
The subtotal for miscellaneous construction costs (typically those costs not explicitly included
as line items), Sm , are calculated by multiplying the Miscellaneous Cost Model (per Square
Meter), Cm , by the total conditioned floor area, Ac :
Sm = Ac ∗ Cm (22.21)
The subtotal for the amount that the construction costs should be altered because of regional
differences in material and labor costs (e.g. when using national average data), Sr , is determined
by multiplying the Regional Adjustment Factor, Rf , by the sum of SL and Sm :
SC = SL + Sm + Sr (22.23)
The Design and Engineering Fee Fraction, Fd , is the fraction of construction costs, Sc , at-
tributable to costs associated with architectural and engineering services needed for the project. The
subtotal for costs associated with these fees, SD , are determined by multiplying SC by Fd :
SD = Sc ∗ FD (22.24)
The Contractor Fee Fraction, Fc , is the fraction of construction costs, Sc , attributable to
costs associated with the contractor’s profit that should be included in the project. The subtotal
for costs associated with contracting, SP , are determined by multiplying SC by Fd :
SP = Sc ∗ FC (22.25)
The Contingency Fraction, FS , is the fraction of construction costs, Sc , which should be
included in a cost estimate to provide for contingencies (perhaps related to errors and uncertainty
in the estimate and project). The subtotal for contingency costs, SS , are determined by multiplying
SC by FS :
SS = Sc ∗ FS (22.26)
The Permits, Bonding, Insurance Fraction, FB , is the fraction of construction costs, Sc ,
which should be included in a cost estimate to provide for things like taxes, bonding, insurance,
and permits. The subtotal for these extra costs, SB , are determined by multiplying SC by FB :
SB = Sc ∗ FB (22.27)
The Commissioning Fee Fraction, FCX , is the fraction of construction costs, Sc , which should
be included in a cost estimate to provide for commissioning the building systems. The subtotal for
these extra costs, SCX , are determined by multiplying SC by FCX :
T = SL + Sm + Sr + SD + SP + SS + SB + SCX (22.29)
The normalized total cost estimate, C, is calculated by dividing T by the total conditioned floor
area, Ac :
T
C= (22.30)
AC
22.1.3 Comparisons
The capability of comparing the current cost estimate to that of a reference building is provided
because is common to consider the marginal increases in costs associated with applying different
energy design measures. EnergyPlus calculates and reports the difference between the current model
and a reference case for all the subtotals and totals discussed above. The reported differences are
the reference values subtracted from the current value.
22.2. TARIFF COMPUTATION 1727
• UtilityCost:Tariff
• UtilityCost:Qualify
• UtilityCost:Charge:Simple
• UtilityCost:Charge:Block
• UtilityCost:Ratchet
• UtilityCost:Variable
• UtilityCost:Computation
This section builds upon the discussion that appears in the Input Output Reference under the
heading “EnergyPlus Economics.” The actual computation of monthly utility bills is not difficult
since it is mostly consists of multiplying energy consumptions or demands by the price on a per
unit basis and adding different bill components. The implementation in EnergyPlus becomes more
complex since the objects were crafted to allow a great deal of flexibility in specifying a utility
tariff while, at the same time, being as simple as possible.
The following discussion on variables and hierarchies is based on the text that appears in the
Input Output Reference.
If you have ever done any computer programming, you can think of a variable as an array. Many
of the names used in the utility bill calculation portion of EnergyPlus are names of variables. In the
case of the UtilityCost:Charge objects, the name of the object is also used as a name of a variable.
In many of today’s utility rates, the charges for energy or demand are broken into distribution
and supply charges. To allow for this, more than one charge may to be defined for a particular
category. The variables assigned to the same category are added together.
The categories are combined in the hierarchy shown in Figure 22.1.
Any charges included in the EnergyCharges category are added together. The EnergyCharges,
DemandCharges and ServiceCharges are added together to form the Basis. The Basis, Adjustments
and Surcharges are added together to form the Subtotal. The Subtotal and Taxes are added together
to be the Total. The total represents the total monthly charges on that tariff for the energy source
used. The combining of categories together is performed automatically unless the user specifies
the UtilityCost:Computation. In addition, each category, which is also a variable, may be used as
a source. For example, a tax that is 5% of the subtotal would be shown as:
UtilityCost:Charge:Simple ,
TaxOfFivePercent , ! Charge Variable Name
TariffExample1 , ! Tariff Name
Subtotal , ! Source Variable
Annual , ! Season
Taxes , ! Category Variable Name
0.05; ! Cost Per Unit Value (or Variable)
totals of each category are shown in the output reports and it organizes the charges in the monthly
calculations in a logical way that fits almost all tariffs. If no categorization is desired, theoretically,
all charges could be assigned to the Total category. The categories themselves are simply variable
names. Charges may also be assigned to the “NotIncluded” category if the result of the charge is
used as an intermediate calculation and should not be included in the Total.
The objects that create variables are:
• UtilityCost:Qualify
• UtilityCost:Charge:Simple
• UtilityCost:Charge:Block
• UtilityCost:Ratchet
• UtilityCost:Variable
• Calculate, for each node, the in-degree of that node (ie, now many edges end up there). Store
these in array D.
• Repeat:
Of course in this case “node” has nothing to do with EnergyPlus nodes but is just describing one
of the formulas in a DAG. This is just one of several different methods to solve a DAG. The general
method for solving a DAG is called a topological sort. The algorithm used in EnergyPlus is one of
the simplest methods available and is appropriate given the number of dependencies. More efficient
algorithms are known but are probably only appropriate for much larger number of dependencies.
One important note, if after the algorithm is exercised, and some of the formulas still have a
count on the number of dependencies, it must be the result of a circular dependency and an error
condition is flagged in the ERR file.
The objects have specific variables that are used as inputs and outputs, and thus the outputs
are dependent on the inputs, are shown in Table 22.2.
In addition, the hierarchy shown in the first diagram in this section also represents dependencies
that are included when determining the order of computation.
The resulting order of computation is shown at the bottom of the economics report.
• LifeCycleCost:Parameters
22.3. LIFE-CYCLE COST COMPUTATIONS 1731
• LifeCycleCost:RecurringCosts
• LifeCycleCost:NonrecurringCost
• LifeCycleCost:UsePriceEscalation
• LifeCycleCost:UseAdjustment
The computation of life-cycle costs is broken into three main routines which are described below.
22.3.1 ExpressAsCashFlows
Step 1. If the input file has ComponentCost:* items, then create an additional instance of a nonre-
curring cost to hold the total.
Step 2. Get the costs for each resource that has non-zero utility costs.
Step 3. Compute the inflation on a monthly basis. For cases where the inflation approach is constant
dollars, the inflation is set to 1.0 for all months. For current dollar analyses, compute the
inflation rate on a monthly basis. Just using 1/12 of the annual inflation is almost correct but
introduces a small error so instead the inverse of the formula 4-32 from Newnan (Engineering
Economic Analysis Ninth Edition by Donald Newnan, Ted Eschenbach, and Jerome Lavelle):
M onthly Inf lation F actor(jM onth) = (1 + inf lationP erM onth)( jM onth − 1) (22.32)
Step 4. Put the nonrecurring, recurring, and utility costs into a monthly array for the entire length
of the study period.
Step 5. Multiply the monthly costs by the monthly inflation which was set to 1.0 for constant dollar
analyses.
Step 6. Multiply the monthly costs for resources with use adjustments.
Step 8. Based on the base date, accumulate the monthly costs into yearly costs.
1732 CHAPTER 22. ECONOMICS CALCULATIONS
22.3.2 ComputePresentValue
Step 1. For each year of the study compute the discount factor (SPV) using the following formula:
Step 2. Compute the present value for each month by multiply the monthly costs by the discount
factor for each year.
22.3.3 ComputeTaxAndDepreciation
Step 1. Depending on the depreciation method selected the depreciation factors are set to various
constants. Depreciation factors are based on IRS Publication 946 for 2009 “How to Depreciate
Property.” The MACRS values are based on Modified Accelerated Cost Recovery System GDS
for 3, 5, 7, 10 year property are based on 200% depreciation method shown in Appendix A of
IRS Publication 946 using half year. 15 and 20 are based on 150% (Chart 1 of IRS Publication
946). For Straight Line depreciation GDS is used for 27 years (actually 27.5) 31 years (actually
31.5 years) and 39 years using mid month. For 40 years ADS is used (chart 2) Table A-1 is
used for 3, 4, 5, 10, 15 and 20 years. Table A-6 is for 27 years. Table A-7 for 31 years. Table
A-7a for 39 years. Table A-13 for 40 years. These years are a classification of property and
should not be confused with the length of the study. For 27 years, 31 years, 39 years and 40
years the June value was used. All references in this paragraph are to IRS Publication 946.
Step 3. For each year the taxable income is the grand total of all costs minus the depreciated capital
costs.
Step 4. Taxes are the taxable income times the tax rate.
Special Modules/Reporting
1733
1734 CHAPTER 23. SPECIAL MODULES/REPORTING
factor for each fuel (natural gas, electricity, fuel oil, diesel, or coal). In future versions, users will be
able to schedule how the emissions factors by time of day, month, season and year. For electricity,
the mix of generation fuel sources—whether utility, state or regional—is used to adjust the emission
factors. If a user has emissions factors specific to the building site and equipment, these can be
entered directly. There are no default emissions factors.
Figure 23.2: Example Annual Total Carbon Equivalent for Major Greenhouse Gases
1736 CHAPTER 23. SPECIAL MODULES/REPORTING
The resulting carbon equivalents by fuel type are shown in the output of the program along
with the individual gas pollutants.
Efficiency Ratio
(J/J)
Ratio of Heat Input to Electricity Outputa 2.253
Efficiency Ratio
(J/J)
Lead (Pb) 0e
a: Data based on 1999 data from *eGRID* version 2.01 (EPA 2003a).
b: Data based on 1998-2000 average data in DOE (2002).
c: Data based on tier emissions report for criteria air pollutants in EPA (2003b).
d: PM is the sum of all particulate matter including PM10 and PM2.5. PM10 and
PM2.5 stand for particles smaller than 10 and 2.5 microns, respectively.
e: No data.
IEA (2003) contains carbon dioxide (CO2 ) emissions factors for electricity generation by country
and region. Carbon dioxide (CO2 ) is responsible for over 60% of the anthropogenic greenhouse effect
(UNEP 2002). Because only limited greenhouse gas emissions factors and data (other than CO2 )
is available for other countries, an interim method for estimating emission factors would be to
compare the CO2 emission factor for the particular country from IEA (2003) and match it to the
state with the closest CO2 emission factor in Table 23.10—using the other emissions factors for that
state. Since the Kyoto Protocol (UNFCCC 1997) requires each country to report emissions of the
major greenhouse gases [carbon dioxide (CO2 ), methane (CH4 ), and nitrous oxide (N2 O)] as well
as ozone-depleting substances [hydrofluorocarbons (HFC), perfluorocarbons (PFC), and sulphur
hexafluoride (SF6 )] and all energy consumption in their annual ‘national communication’, more
complete emission factors for a larger number of countries should become available over the next
few years. More information and other resources for calculating emissions factors are available in
IPCC (2000, 1997).
23.1.6 References
Crawley, Drury B. 2003. “Impact of Climate Change on Buildings,” in Proceedings of the CIB-
SE/ASHRAE International Conference 2003, September 2003, Edinburgh, Scotland. London,
England: CIBSE.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 2001. Climate Change 2001: The Scientific
Basis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 2000. Good Practice Guidance and Uncertainty
Management in National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, Paris, France: IPCC/OECD/IEA.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 1997. Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National
Greenhouse Gas Inventories, J.T. Houghton, L.G. Meira Filho, B. Lim, K. Treanton, I. Mamaty,
Y. Bonduki, D.J. Griggs and B.A. Callender (editors). Paris, France: IPCC/OECD/IEA.
International Energy Agency. 2003. CO2 Emissions from Fuel Combustion 1971-2001 (2003)
– 2003 Edition. Paris, France: IEA.
Liesen, Richard J. 1997. Atmospheric Pollution Prediction in a Building Energy Simulation
Program, April 1997, BLAST Support Office, Department of Mechanical Engineering. Champaign,
Illinois: University of Illinois.
Stroot, Peter J., Robert J. Nemeth, & Donald F. Fournier. 1996. Pollution Reduction Through
Energy Conservation, REEP Model. Champaign, Illinois: U S Army Construction Engineering
Research Laboratory.
Torcellini Paul A, Nicholas Long, and Ronald D. Judkoff. 2004. “Consumptive Water Use
for U.S. Power Production,” in ASHRAE Transactions, Volume 110, Part 1. Atlanta, Georgia:
ASHRAE.
United Nations Environment Programme. 2002. Climate Change Information Kit. Châtelaine,
Switzerland: UNEP.
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. 1997. Kyoto Protocol to the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Bonn, Germany: UNFCCC.
U.S. Department of Energy. 2004. Monthly Energy Review. Washington, DC: Energy Infor-
mation Administration, U S Department of Energy.
U.S. Department of Energy. 2002. Updated State-level Greenhouse Gas Emission Coefficients
for Electricity Generation 1998-2000. April 2002, Energy Information Administration, Office of
1754 CHAPTER 23. SPECIAL MODULES/REPORTING
Integrated Analysis and Forecasting, Energy Information Administration. Washington, DC: U.S.
Department of Energy.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2003a. eGRID Emissions and Generation Resource
Integrated Database, May 2003, Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2003b. AirData, Tier Emissions Report - Criteria Air
Pollutants, 1999 data, May 2003. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1998a. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors,
AP-42, Fifth Edition, Volume I: Stationary Point and Area Sources, Chapter 1 External Combustion
Sources, Supplement D, July 1998. Research Triangle Park, North Carolina: U. S. Environmental
Protection Agency.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1998b. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Fac-
tors, AP-42, Fifth Edition, Volume I: Stationary Point and Area Sources, Chapter 1 External
Combustion Sources, Supplement E, September 1998. Research Triangle Park, North Carolina: U.
S. Environmental Protection Agency.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1996. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors,
AP-42, Fifth Edition, Volume I: Stationary Point and Area Sources, Chapter 1 External Com-
bustion Sources, Supplement B, October 1996. Research Triangle Park, North Carolina: U. S.
Environmental Protection Agency.
corresonding zones.
The Estimated Cooling Peak Load Components and Estimated Heating Peak Load Components
subtables of the Zone Component Loads Summary report contain values that are estimated and are
not part of the normal heat balance algorithms used in the rest of EnergyPlus. In particular, the
column described as Sensible-Delayed represents an estimate of the sensible load contributed at the
peak time based on radiant contributions from various load components that have radiant portions
in previous timesteps. The focus of this section will be on the Sensible-Delayed column.
The columns labeled Sensible-Instant, Sensible-Return Air, and Latent are directly computed
for people, lights, equipment, refrigeration, water use equipment, HVAC equipment losses, power
generation equipment, infiltration, zone ventilation and interzone mixing. For example, Lights
objects have inputs for the fractions of the gains that are to return air, radiant, visible and the
remainder is convected. In this case, the fraction to return air is reported in the Sensible Return
Air column and the fraction that is convected is reported in the Sensible-Instant column.
At the time of the peak load, each surface in the zone is contributing a convective heat loss or
heat gain depending on the inside surface temperature.
The radiant portion of the internal heat gains from lighting, equipment, and incident solar are
radiantly transmitted to the surfaces of the zone. The heat from these radiant gains is stored in the
surfaces and retransmitted back into the zone over time as convective gains to the zone. By the time
the heat is retransmitted, it is impossible to know the contribution of each possible radiant gain
from past time steps on that surface into the convective gain for that timestep. The temperature
change of the surface includes the impact of all of these radiant gains as well as any heat transfer
through the surface.
To disaggregate the delayed affect of zone radiant (delayed) portions of the peak load, a pulse
of radiant internal loads is used to determine custom radiant to convective decay curves for heating
and cooling, essentially replicating part of the method used for Radiant Time Series (see Chapter
18 of ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals 2009) to isolate the delayed impacts of internal loads.
This is performed during the zone sizing routines.
The response of each surface to a pulse of radiant heat is used to estimate the peak load
components for solar gains and the radiant portion of internal gains. Subtracting these for each
surface then leaves the peak load component from conduction through the surfaces. The approach
is described in more detail below:
1) When zone sizing is performed for cooling or heating, the heat convected from each opaque
surface for each timestep during sizing day is saved to an array.
2) For each type of internal gain, HVAC equipment gain, and solar energy entering the zone,
the radiant and convective portions are saved for every timestep during sizing. In addition,
for each type of radiant gain, the amount that lands on each surface in the zone is saved for
evergy timestep during sizing.
3) An additional “pulse sizing” run is performed for cooling and heating during zone sizing that
includes an additional small, single timestep, pulse of radiant-only heat for each zone but
is otherwise the same as a normal zone sizing simulation. This is equivalent to adding an
ElectricEquipment object that is scheduled for a single timestep and is 100% radiant heat.
The heat convected from each opaque surface for each timestep during sizing is saved to an
array. This run is not used for sizing, but just to gather the impact of the pulse of radiant
heat.
1756 CHAPTER 23. SPECIAL MODULES/REPORTING
4) For each surface, a “decay curve” is developed by subtracting the results from the normal
sizing (1) from the “pulse” sizing run (3). This represents the delay in converting incoming
radiant heat into convected heat for each surface in the zone. The graphs below show the
decay curves for an exterior wall (RIGHT-1) and an interior wall (SB23) for a test file.
5) Using the internal and solar gain results saved from the normal sizing period in step (2), for
each timestep prior to and including the time of the peak load during the sizing day, the decay
curve is applied to each radiant gain on each surface for each timestep to generate a predicted
delayed load component for the internal and solar gains for each timestep that comprise the
peak load (based on Timesteps in Averaging Window). Timesteps just before the peak have
much larger impacts than those just a few timesteps before the peak. These results will be
the radiant portion of the load for each type of internal and solar gain.
6) The difference between the sum of the predicted convective loads from internal and solar
gains from step (5) and the total convective loads for that surface for the timesteps that
comprise the peak load from step (1) is assumed to be the load from heat transfer through
that surface. This is essentially subtracting out the radiant portions of the internal and solar
gains on each surface for the sizing day.
23.2. COMPONENT LOADS SUMMARY 1757
• IntGainTypeOf_People
• IntGainTypeOf_Lights
• IntGainTypeOf_ElectricEquipment
• IntGainTypeOf_ElectricEquipmentITEAirCooled
• IntGainTypeOf_GasEquipment
• IntGainTypeOf_HotWaterEquipment
• IntGainTypeOf_SteamEquipment
• IntGainTypeOf_OtherEquipment
• IntGainTypeOf_RefrigerationCase
• IntGainTypeOf_RefrigerationCompressorRack
• IntGainTypeOf_RefrigerationSystemAirCooledCondenser
• IntGainTypeOf_RefrigerationSystemSuctionPipe
• IntGainTypeOf_RefrigerationSecondaryReceiver
• IntGainTypeOf_RefrigerationSecondaryPipe
• IntGainTypeOf_RefrigerationWalkIn
• IntGainTypeOf_RefrigerationTransSysAirCooledGasCooler
• IntGainTypeOf_RefrigerationTransSysSuctionPipeMT
23.2. COMPONENT LOADS SUMMARY 1759
• IntGainTypeOf_RefrigerationTransSysSuctionPipeLT
• IntGainTypeOf_WaterUseEquipment
• IntGainTypeOf_WaterHeaterMixed
• IntGainTypeOf_WaterHeaterStratified
The gains from “HVAC Equipment Losses” which are gains to the zone due to the location of
the equipment within the zone include:
• IntGainTypeOf_ZoneBaseboardOutdoorTemperatureControlled
• IntGainTypeOf_ThermalStorageChilledWaterMixed
• IntGainTypeOf_ThermalStorageChilledWaterStratified
• IntGainTypeOf_PipeIndoor
• IntGainTypeOf_Pump_VarSpeed
• IntGainTypeOf_Pump_ConSpeed
• IntGainTypeOf_Pump_Cond
• IntGainTypeOf_PumpBank_VarSpeed
• IntGainTypeOf_PumpBank_ConSpeed
• IntGainTypeOf_PlantComponentUserDefined
• IntGainTypeOf_CoilUserDefined
• IntGainTypeOf_ZoneHVACForcedAirUserDefined
• IntGainTypeOf_AirTerminalUserDefined
• IntGainTypeOf_PackagedTESCoilTank
• IntGainTypeOf_FanSystemModel
• IntGainTypeOf_SecCoolingDXCoilSingleSpeed
• IntGainTypeOf_SecHeatingDXCoilSingleSpeed
• IntGainTypeOf_SecCoolingDXCoilTwoSpeed
• IntGainTypeOf_SecCoolingDXCoilMultiSpeed
• IntGainTypeOf_SecHeatingDXCoilMultiSpeed
• IntGainTypeOf_GeneratorFuelCell
• IntGainTypeOf_GeneratorMicroCHP
• IntGainTypeOf_ElectricLoadCenterTransformer
• IntGainTypeOf_ElectricLoadCenterInverterSimple
• IntGainTypeOf_ElectricLoadCenterInverterFunctionOfPower
• IntGainTypeOf_ElectricLoadCenterInverterLookUpTable
• IntGainTypeOf_ElectricLoadCenterStorageBattery
The ReportSurfaceHeatBalance routine in the HeatBalanceSurfaceManger module gathers the
shortwave radiant heat gain from lighting and fenestration solar gains on each surface. In the same
module, the CalcHeatBalanceInsideSurf routine gathers the surface by surface convection for both
the normal and pulse zone sizing times along with the net radiation on the surface during the
normal zone sizing times. In addition, a routine called GatherComponentLoadSurfAbsFact gathers
the factors used in distributing the radiant heat from a zone to each surface (TMULT and ITABSF).
The SizingManager module repeats the zone sizing portion of the procedure when this report
is requested. The pulse occurs at 10am during the zone sizing simulations. The 10am time was
chosen after some testing that looked at pulses at different times of the day. It is important that
the pulse occurs while the system is running and stable not during start up hours. In addition,
the plus timing needs to be early enough that the duration of the resulting decay curve can be
appropriate applied to as many timesteps as possible during the peak day.
The following subroutines in the OutputReportTabular module produce the report:
• ComputeLoadComponentDecayCurve
• GatherComponentLoadsSurface
• GatherComonentLoadsHVAC
• WriteLoadComponentSummaryTables
• GetDelaySequences
• MovingAvgAtMaxTime
• ComputeTableBodyUsingMovingAvg
The ComputeLoadComponentDecayCurve routine determines the heating and cooling decay
curves using the following (for cooling but repeated also for heating):
TimeOfPulse = radiantPulseTimestep (ZoneNum ,CoolDesSelected)
DO TimeStep = TimeOfPulse , NumOfTimeStepInHour* 24
IF ( radiantPulseReceived(surfNum ,CoolDesSelected) .NE. 0.0) THEN
diff = loadConvectedWithPulse (surfNum ,TimeStep ,CoolDesSelected)
- loadConvectedNormal (surfNum ,TimeStep ,CoolDesSelected)
decayCurveCool(surfNum , TimeStep - TimeOfPulse + 1) = -diff /
radiantPulseReceived (surfNum ,CoolDesSelected)
ELSE
decayCurveCool(surfNum , TimeStep - TimeOfPulse + 1) = 0.0
END IF
END DO
23.3. OUTPUT:TABLE:ANNUAL 1761
The ComputeTableBodyUsingMovingAvg routine applies the decay curve to the load compo-
nents. It does the following for the heating and cooling sizing period that was selected and for each
zone and each surface in the zone
a. Determine the heat gain on the surface of people, equipment, hvac losses, power generation
and long wave light radiation.
b. For each time step backwards from the current timestep, estimate the delayed convected heat
from people, equipment, HVAC losses, power generation, lighting long wave radiation, lighting
short wave radiation, and fenestration solar by multiplying the decay curve with the value
determined from (a).
c. Accumulate the values on a zone basis
d. Determine the remaining convective heat from surfaces that are not from these gains and
remove the net surface radiation (output variable Surface Inside Face Convection Heat Gain
Rate)
e. Store the estimated values in a sequence to be later averaged over the averaging window.
23.3 Output:Table:Annual
No special algorithms were employed to implement the Output:Table:Annual object.
For heat transfer via air flow, both the sensible and latent heat emissions are calculated and
reported.
(1) Gas-powered combustion unit: Fuel generated heat - fuel heat supply
(2) Condensing unit:
a. Air-cooled: cooling rate + electric power of condenser fan and compressor
b. Water-cooled: total heat transfer rate with outdoor air
Detailed calculation of HVAC rejected heat varies with different HVAC object groups and com-
ponent types, as summarized in Table 23.14.
There are several types of components for which the heat rejection is not clearly defined. The
following are not included in the heat emissions report:
• User defined systems have a variety of possible sources of heat emission including outdoor
air relief for exhaust or a condenser outlet for heat rejection. These parts can be counted by
tracing the condensing unit linked to the air connection inlet and outlet (for user defined zone
HVAC and plant component).
• For user defined coil, this part depends on how the coil is designed and equipped. We do not
count this in report.
By summing up these components, the heat emissions are calculated and reported from buildings
by systems and components as well as in total.
if the humidity were some other value in the shade. The HI measures the temperature feels like to
the human body when relative humidity is combined with the air temperature. HI is widely used
in the United States. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) uses HI as an
indicator to assess heat stress [2]. This has important considerations for the human body’s comfort.
When the body gets too hot, it begins to perspire or sweat to cool itself off. If the perspiration is
not able to evaporate, the body cannot regulate its temperature. When the atmospheric moisture
content (i.e. relative humidity) is high, the rate of evaporation from the body decreases. In other
words, the human body feels warmer in humid conditions. The opposite is true when the relative
humidity decreases because the rate of perspiration increases.
Table 1 developed by U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) is used
to look up the heat index by temperature (◦C) and relative humidity (%) [3]. The HI effects on
human health are categorized at five levels: Safe, Caution, Extreme caution, Danger and Extreme
danger, defined in Table 23.15 and color coded in Figure 23.6.
The computation of the heat index is a refinement of a result obtained by multiple regression
analysis carried out by Lans P. Rothfusz and described in a 1990 National Weather Service (NWS)
Technical Attachment (SR 90-23) [4-5]. The calculation is based on degree Fahrenheit.
The regression equation of Rothfusz is
HI = c1 + c2 T + c3 R + c4 T R + c5 T 2 + c6 R2 + c7 T 2 R + c8 T R2 + c9 T 2 R2 (23.8)
where
HI = heat index (expressed as an apparent temperature in degrees Fahrenheit),
T = ambient dry-bulb temperature (in degrees Fahrenheit),
R = relative humidity (percentage value between 0 and 100),
c1 = -42.379,
1768 CHAPTER 23. SPECIAL MODULES/REPORTING
c2 = 2.04901523,
c3 = 10.14333127,
c4 = -0.22475541,
c5 = -0.00683783,
c6 = -0.05481717,
c7 = 0.00122874,
c8 = 0.00085282,
c9 = -0.00000199.
If the RH is less than 13% and the temperature is between 80 and 112 °F, then the following
adjustment is subtracted from HI:
23.5.1.2 Humidex
The humidex (short for humidity index) is an index number used by Canadian meteorologists
to describe how hot the weather feels to the average person, by combining the effect of heat and
humidity. The term humidex was first coined in 1965 [6]. The humidex is a nominally dimensionless
quantity (though generally recognized by the public as equivalent to the degree Celsius) based on
the dew-point temperature [7].
The Humidex effects on human health are categorized at five levels: Little to no discomfort,
Some discomfort, Great discomfort; avoid exertion, Dangerous and Heat stroke imminent, defined
in Table 23.16 and color coded in Figure 23.7.
The humidex (H) formula is:
5 1
5417.7530∗( 273.16 − 273.15+T
1
)
H = Tair + (6.11 ∗ exp dew − 10) (23.12)
9
Where,
H = the Humidex,
1770 CHAPTER 23. SPECIAL MODULES/REPORTING
Standard Effective Temperature (SET) is a model of human response to the thermal environment.
Developed by A.P. Gagge and accepted by ASHRAE in 1986, SET is also referred to as the Pierce
Two-Node model [8]. Its calculation is similar to PMV because it is a comprehensive comfort index
based on heat-balance equations that incorporate personal factors of clothing and metabolic rate. Its
fundamental difference is it takes a two-node method to represent human physiology in measuring
skin temperature and skin wettedness. ASHRAE 55-2010 defines SET as ”the temperature of an
imaginary environment at 50% relative humidity, < 0.1 m/s [0.33 ft/s] average air speed, and mean
radiant temperature equal to average air temperature, in which total heat loss from the skin of an
imaginary occupant with an activity level of 1.0 met and a clothing level of 0.6 clo is the same as
that from a person in the actual environment, with actual clothing and activity level” [9].
LEED Pilot Credit IPpc100 - Passive Survivability and Back-up Power During Disruptions -
defines “Livable conditions” as SET between 54 °F and 86 °F. The credit requires buildings to
maintain safe thermal conditions in the event of an extended power outage or loss of heating fuel,
or provide backup power to satisfy critical loads. Accumulated SET-days and SET-hours are metrics
to measure thermal safety and temperatures. The SET-days and SET-hours are degree-days and
degree-hours in Celsius/Fahrenheit degrees based on the indoor SET.
LEED Passive Survivability defines the Thermal Safety Temperatures for Path 2 using the SET:
• Cooling: Not to exceed 9 °F SET-days (216 °F SET-hours) above 86 °F for residential build-
ings. (SI Metric: Not to exceed 5 ◦C SET-days (120 ◦C SET-hours) above 30 ◦C SET for
residential buildings.)
• Cooling: Not to exceed 18 °F SET-days (432 °F SET-hours) above 86 °F SET for non-
residential buildings. (SI etric: Not to exceed 10 ◦C SET-days (240 ◦C SET-hours) above
30 ◦C SET for non-residential buildings.)
• Heating: Not to exceed 9 °F SET-days (216 °F SET-hours for all buildings. (SI Metric: Not
to exceed 5 ◦C SET-days (120 ◦C SET-hours) below 12 ◦C SET-hours for all buildings.)
EnergyPlus calculates and reports SET as a time-step report variable when Pierce method
is chosen as the People’s thermal comfort model. The aggregated the SET-Hours and the SET-
OccupantHours (at zone level) for both cooling and heating are reported under the Annual Thermal
Resilience Summary. The tables also include the longest continuous unmet time duration in hours
and the start time of their occurrences (first occurrence if multiple time slots have the same dura-
tion).
1772 CHAPTER 23. SPECIAL MODULES/REPORTING
• 100 lux – This level of light is sufficient for lifts, corridors and stairs. Areas that are transitory
for occupants and don’t require any detailed work. Warehouse areas and bulk stores will also
require this minimal light level.
• 300 lux – Assembly areas, like village halls require at least 300 lux.
• 500 lux – Retail spaces should have this as a minimum light level, as should general office
spaces. This level should be suitable for prolonged work on computers, machinery and reading.
• More than 500 lux – If you have an area where intricate work is being carried out, then very
high lux values may be needed. Where fine detailed work is being carried out, anything up
to 2,000 lux can be used – this is usually only necessary in fairly unusual circumstances.
To activate the indoor illuminance calculation in EnergyPlus, users need to define the Day-
lighting:Controls and the Daylighting:ReferencePoint objects, even if no daylighting controls
are actually implemented in the building simulation model.
The Annual Visual Resilience summary reports the Hours and OccupantHours of each illumi-
nance level for each zone and the whole building.