Physics Class11th All Chapters (Theory)

Physics
NEET Class 11th

01
UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS,
& BASIC MATHEMATICS
UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS & BASIC MATHEMATICS 8
Chapter 01
Units and Measurements

1. Fundamental and Derived Units
Physical quantity: Any quantity which can be measured is 1.3 Derived Physical Quantities
called a physical quantity. Physical quantities which are dependent on other physical
Examples: length, weight, time etc. quantities are called derived physical quantity.
For Example:
Fig. 1.1
1.1 Type of Physical Quantities
1.4 Derived Physical Quantities

Examples:
● Acceleration = length/time2
● Density = mass/ length3
● Volume = length3
● Force = mass (length)/time2
1.2 Fundamental Physical Quantities ● Momentum = mass. length/time
Physical quantities which are independent of other physical ● Pressure = mass/length.time2
quantities are called fundamental physical quantity. These
are the quantities we take as fundamental quantities.
1.5 How to Measure a Physical Quantity
• For measuring a physical quantity, we have to compare it
Quantity with some reference, we call it a unit.
• A unit is a standard amount of a physical quantity.
Length Example: In old times people used to measure length by
hand span or foot span.
Mass
Time
Electric Current
Temperature
Fig. 1.2
Amount of Substance Let’s measure the length of a book using our hand span.
In this case the unit for measurement is the hand span.
Luminous Intensity But the length of hand span varies from person to person.
So, everyone will get a different result for measuring the
same object.
UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS & BASIC MATHEMATICS
So, there was a need of standardisation of units. 1.8 Need of System of Units
What if everyone uses a unit of their choice for every
measurement.
For Example:
Fig. 1.3
1.6 Standard Units
Some of the standard units:
For measuring length: metre, centimetre, foot etc.
For measuring weight: kilogram, gram, pound etc. If everyone decides to have his own way of measurement,
then it will not be possible to come to the correct conclusion.
Thus, a well-defined, universally accepted system must be
developed.
Fig. 1.4 1.9 System of Units

1.7 Expressing Measurement of Physical A system of units is a complete set of units which is used to
Quantity measure all kinds of fundamental and derived quantities.
Let’s see examples of some of the major system of units
Suppose we measure length of a rod and write
Length = 28
By this expression we didn't get any idea about the size of
rod it can be anything like
28 m
28 mm
28 km
28 foot or 28 steps
So, we should always express a measurement with the unit
of measurement.
Fig. 1.6
1.10 The SI System of Units

Earlier different systems of units were used in different
countries.
So, there was a need for an internationally accepted system
of units.
Fig. 1.5 Here comes the “International System of Units” or SI.
NOTE: Currently it is the most popular system of units worldwide.
In the SI system there are 7 base units and 2 supplementary
We always write a measurement of physical quantity as units.
its magnitude multiplied by its unit.
If we measure a physical quantity in more than one unit then

the multiplication of magnitude and unit is a constant.
If magnitude of a physical quantity is
= n1 in the u1 unit and n2 in u2 unit.
Physical Quantity = n1u1 = n2u2
1.11 Fundamental Units: A

= sr
r2
Quantity Name of Units Symbol
2. Dimensions
Length Meter m
Dimensions of a physical quantity are the powers to which
the fundamental units must be raised in order to get the unit
Mass Kilogram kg of the derived quantity.
Time Second s
Fundamental quantity Dimension
Electric Current Ampere A
Mass [M]
Temperature Kelvin K
Length [L]
Amount of Substance Mole mol

Time [T]
Luminous Intensity Candela Cd

Current [A]
1.12 Supplementary Units: Temperature [K]
Amount of substance [mol]

Quantity Name of Units Symbol
Luminous intensity [cd]

Plane angle Radian rad
Solid angle Steradian sr 2.1 Writing Dimensions of Physical

Quantities
1.13 Plane Angle Velocity =
displacement length
=
time time
 dimension of velocity =  LT
1 −1

change in velocity length
Acceleration ( a ) = =
( time )
2
time
Fig. 1.7  Dimension of acceleration =  LT

1 −2

s length
 = rad Force = Mass  Acceleration = Mass 
( time)
2
r
 Dimension of force =  M 1 LT
1 −2

1.14 Solid Angle However, there are some quantities such as dimension of
angle,
arc length  L 
Dimension of angle = = 
radius L
i.e., L = 0
defining all fundamental quantities are zero.
Fig. 1.8
2.2 How do Dimensions Behave in Joule is SI unit of energy and erg is the CGS unit of energy.
Dimensional formula of energy is [ML2T-2]
Mathematical Formulae? a = 1, b = 2, c = - 2.
Rule 1: All terms that are added or subtracted must have the SI CGS
same dimensions. M 1 = 1kg = 1000 g M 2 = 1g
L1 = 1m = 100 cm L2 = 1cm
T1 = 1s T2 = 1s
n1 = 1( Joule ) n2 = ? ( erg )
a b c
Fig. 1.9  M   L  T 
n2 = n1  1   1   1 
Rule 2: Dimensions obey rules of multiplication and  M 2   L2   T2 
division. This equation can be used to find the numerical value in
AB the second or new system of units.
D= 1 2 −2
C 1000  100  1 
= 1     
A = ML0T −2  , B = M 0 L−1T 2  , C = ML−2T 0   1   1  1 
Given
 ML0T −2    M 0 L−1T 2  = 1 103 104 = 107
 D =  1 joule = 107 erg.
 ML−2T 0 
  D = M

1−1 0−1+2 −2+2
L T 
2.5 Checking the Dimensional
  D = M
 LT 
0 1 0
Consistency of Equations
Principle of Homogeneity of Dimensions:
2.3 Dimensional Analysis For an equation to be valid, the dimensions on the left side
Dimensional analysis is a tool to find or check relations must match the dimensions on the right side, It is then
among physical quantities by using their dimensions. dimensionally correct. Checking this is the basic way of
By using dimensional analysis, we can performing dimensional analysis.
1. Convert a physical quantity from one system of units to Let’s check that the second equation of motion is correct or
another. not.
2. Check the dimensional consistency of equations 1
s = ut + at 2
3. Deduce relation among physical quantities. 2
s = distance = length =  L
2.4 Converting a Physical Quantity from length
One System of Unit to Another. ut =  time = length =  L
time
If u1 and u2 are the units of measurement of a physical length
at 2 =  ( time ) = length =  L
2
quantity Q and n1 and n2 are there corresponding magnitude,
( time )
2
then Q = n1u1 = n2u2
Let M1, L1 and T1 be the fundamental units of mass, length  L =  L +  L
and time in one system: and M2, L2, T2 be corresponding If an equation is dimensionally incorrect, it must be wrong.
units in another system. If the dimensional formula of On the other hand, dimensionally correct equations may or
quantity be M a LbT c  then may not be correct.
 
Let’s take an example to make it simple for you.
 
u1 = M1 L1 T1 
a b c
and u2 = M 2a L2bT2c  If I say the area of a circle = 2 x radius2
Q = n1  M1a L1bT1c  = n2 M 2a L2bT2c  - this is dimensionally correct (both sides have dimensions
[L2])
a b c
 M   L  T  - but it is wrong, as constant should be ‘π’ and not '2'
n2 = n1  1   1   1 
 M 2   L2   T2 
This equation can be used to find the numerical value in the
second or new system of units.
Let us convert one joule into erg.
2.6 Deducing Relation among the

Physical Quantities
The method of dimensions can sometimes be used to deduce
relation among the physical quantities.
For this, we should know the dependence of the physical
quantity on other quantities and consider it as a product type
of the dependency.
Let’s find the time period of a pendulum by using Fig. 1.10
dimensional analysis. The period of oscillation of the simple
pendulum depends on its length (𝑳𝑳), mass of the bob
(𝒎𝒎)
and acceleration due to gravity (𝒈𝒈).
Time period T  ma g b Lc
 T = kma g b Lc
Where k is dimensionless constant. Fig. 1.11
By considering dimensions on both sides, 3.1 Rules for Determining Significant
1 a b 1 c
M L T  = M
0 0 1
   LT
   L 
−2
Figures
Rule 1: Every non-zero digit in a reported measurement is
 M 0 L0T 1  = M
 L T 
a b +c −2b
assumed to be significant.
Comparing both sides Example:
a =01 24.7 meters, no. of significant figures = 3
b=−
2 0.743 meters, no. of significant figures = 3
1 714 meters, no. of significant figures = 3
c=
2
−
1 1 Rule 2: Zeros appearing between non-zero digits are
L
T = km0 g 2 L2 = k significant.
g Example:
70003 meters, no. of significant figures = 5
2.7 Limitations of Dimensional Analysis 40.79 meters, no. of significant figures = 4
1. Dimensionless quantities cannot be determined by this 1.503 meters, no. of significant figures = 4
method.
2. Constant of proportionality cannot be determined by this Rule 3: Left most zeros appearing in front of non-zero digits
method. They can be found either by experiment (or) by are not significant
theory. Example:
3. This method is not applicable to trigonometric, 0.0073 meters, no. of significant figures
logarithmic and exponential functions. =2
4. In some cases, the constant of proportionality also 0.423 meters, no. of significant figures
possesses dimensions. In such cases, we cannot use this =3
system. 0.000099 meters, no. of significant figures = 2
5. If one side of the equation contains addition or
subtraction of physical quantities, we cannot use this NOTE:
method to derive the expression.
Left most zeros act as place holders. By writing the
measurements in scientific notation, we can eliminate
3. Significant Figures such place holding zeros.
The significant figures are normally those digits in a
measured quantity which are known reliably plus one Left most zeros appearing in front of non-zero digits are not
additional digit that is uncertain. significant
In this case a student takes reading 4.57 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚. 0.0073 meter = 7.3×10−3 meter
Here the digits 4 and 5 are certain and the 0.423 meter = 4.23×10−1 meter
digit 7 is an estimate. 0.000099 meter = 9.9×10−5 meter
As the power of ten does not contribute to significant Last significant digit is 5 and preceding
figures, thus even by changing units the number of digit is 4 which is even. So, the answer is 1.4
significant digits will remain the same.
Example:
Rule 4: Zeros to the right of the last non-zero digit (trailing Round off 147.5 to 3 significant figures.
zeros) in a number with the decimal point are significant if Last significant digit is 5 and preceding
they are within the measurement or reporting resolution. digit is 7 which is odd. So, the answer is 148
4. Errors
Example: 1.200 has four significant figures (1, 2, 0, and 0)
if they are allowed by the measurement resolution.
What is an error?
Rule 5: The trailing zeros in a number without decimal An error is a mistake of some kind causing an error in your
point are not significant example, 010100 has 3 SF. But if results, so the result is not accurate.
the number comes from some actual measurement, then the
trailing zeros become significant example: m = 100 kg has 3 4.1 Types of Errors
SF
Errors can be divided into two main classes
● Random errors
3.2 Significant Figures in Calculations ● Systematic errors
Rules for arithmetical operations with significant figures
Rule I: In addition, or subtraction the number of decimal 4.2 Random Errors
places in the result should be equal to the number of decimal Random error has no pattern. One minute your readings
places of that term in the operation which contain lesser might be too small. Next, they might be too large. You can’t
number of decimal places. predict random error and these errors are usually
e.g., 12.587-12.5 = 0.087 = 0.1 (⸪ second term contain unavoidable.
lesser i.e., one decimal place) ● Random errors cannot be rectified but can be minimized.
Rule II: In multiplication or division, the number of SF in ● Random errors can be reduced by taking a lot of
the product or quotient is same as the smallest number of SF readings, and then calculating the average (mean).
in any of the factors. e.g., 2.4 × 3.65 = 8.8 Two main causes of random error are
So, let’s read about rounding off. ● Human errors
● Faulty technique
3.3 Rounding Off
Rule 1: If the last significant digit(d) < 5 then drop it. 4.3 Causes of Random Errors
Example: 1.H uman Error
Round off 12.3 to 2 significant figures. Example:
Last significant digit is 3 < 5
So, the answer is 12.
Rule 2: If the last significant digit(d) > 5, then increase the

preceding digit by 1 and drop ‘d’.
Example:
Round off 14.56 to 3 significant figures.
Last significant digit is 6 > 5
So, the answer is 14.6. Fig. 1.12
Rule 3: If the last significant digit(d) = 5, then look at the Way of taking reading 2 is best, 1
preceding digit. and 3 give the wrong readings.
(i) If the preceding digit is even, drop ‘d’. This is called a parallax error.
(ii) If the preceding digit is odd then increase the preceding 2. Faulty Technique
digit by 1 and drop ‘d’. Using the instrument wrongly
Example:
Round off 1.45 to 2 significant figures.
• If someone have a habit of taking measurements always

from above the reading, then due to parallax you will get
a systematic error and all the readings will be deviated
from actual reading.
Fig. 1.13
4.4 Systematic Errors

Systematic error is a consistent, repeatable error associated
with faulty equipment or a flawed experiment design. These Fig. 1.16
errors are usually caused by measuring instruments that are
incorrectly calibrated. Now, Let’s learn about some common terms used during,
• These errors cause readings to be shifted one way (or the measurements and error analysis
other) from the true reading.
4.6 Accuracy and Precision
4.5 Causes of Systematic Errors Accuracy is an indication of how close a measurement is to
Example: the accepted value.
1.Z ero error • An accurate experiment has a low systematic error.
• There is no weight, and the weighing machine is not Precision is an indication of the agreement among a
showing zero. number of measurements.
• A precise experiment has a low random error.
Fig. 1.17
Fig. 1.14 4.7 Calculation of Errors

For calculation purpose we divide the errors in three types
2. Faulty Instrument • Absolute error
Example:
• Relative error
• If a ruler is wrongly calibrated, or if it expands, then all
• Percentage error
the readings will be too low
4.8 Absolute Errors

The magnitude of the difference between the individual
measurement and the true value of the quantity is called the
absolute error of the measurement.
Absolute error is denoted by a and it is always taken
positive.
Fig. 1.15
3. Personal Error
Example:
For Example:
Let’s say, values obtained in several measurements are 𝑎1,
𝑎2, 𝑎3, …,𝑎𝑛
If true value is not available, we can consider arithmetic
mean as true value.
a + a + a + ... + an
amean = 1 2 3
n
Fig. 1.19
Absolute Errors in measurements =
Least count of this scale is 1 mm
a1 = a1 − amean
a2 = a2 − amean 4.12 Least Count Error
... ... ... When a measurement falls between two divisions, then error
... ... ... due to approximate measurement made by the observer is
called least count error.
an = an − amean
Mean Absolute Error
4.13 Propagation of Errors
a1 + a2 + a3 + ... + an
amean =
n
So, we show the measurement by amean  amean
4.9 Relative Errors

The relative error is the ratio of the mean absolute error
amean to the mean value amean of the quantity measured.
a
Relative error = mean
amean
When the relative error is expressed in percent, it is called
the percentage error (δ).
Fig. 1.20
a
Percentage error  = mean 100% 4.14 Errors of a Sum or a Difference
amean
When two quantities are added or subtracted, the absolute
error in the final result is the sum of the absolute errors in
4.10 Range of Uncertainty the individual quantities.
Range of uncertainty is reported as a nominal value plus or Measured value of physical quantity 𝐴𝐴 and 𝐵𝐵 is
minus an amount called the tolerance or percent tolerance. respectively 𝐴𝐴 ± Δ𝐴𝐴 and 𝐵𝐵 ± Δ𝐵𝐵
If a Physical Quantity 𝑍𝑍 = 𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵 or
𝑍𝑍 = 𝐴𝐴 − 𝐵𝐵
Then Maximum possible Error in Z
𝑍𝑍 = Δ𝐴𝐴 + 𝛥𝛥𝐵𝐵
Fig. 1.18 4.15 Errors of a Multiplication or

Division
NOTE: Measured value of physical quantity 𝐴𝐴 and 𝐵𝐵 is
respectively 𝐴𝐴 ± Δ𝐴𝐴 and 𝐵𝐵 ± Δ𝐵𝐵
2% of 120 = 2.4
120 - 2.4 = 117.6 If a Physical Quantity 𝑍𝑍 = 𝐴𝐴 ✕ 𝐵𝐵 or
120 + 2.4 = 122.4 𝑍𝑍 = 𝐴𝐴/𝐵𝐵
Then maximum relative error in 𝑍𝑍,
Z A B
4.11 Limit of Reading or Least Count = +
Z A B
The limit of reading of a measurement is equal to the
smallest graduation of the scale of an instrument.
4.16 Error of a Measured Quantity

Raised to a Power
The relative error in a physical quantity raised to the power
k is the k times the relative error in the individual quantity.
Measured value of physical quantity 𝐴𝐴 and 𝐵𝐵 is
respectively
𝐴𝐴 ± Δ𝐴𝐴 and 𝐵𝐵 ± Δ𝐵𝐵
If a Physical Quantity 𝑍𝑍 = 𝐴𝐴2
Fig. 1.21
Then maximum relative error in 𝑍𝑍,
Z
Z = A A + AA = 2 AA By this diagram we can easily say that at no real value of
In general, if 𝑍 = 𝐴𝑝 𝐵𝑞 𝐶𝑟 time, the ball is at height H1. We might will not have a
Then maximum relative error in 𝑍, diagram every time though.
For finding out if a quadratic equation has a real solution or
Z A B C not, we shall use the ’DISCRIMINANT’.
=p +q +r
Z A B C
5.1 Discriminant of a Quadratic
Basic Mathematics Equation
Discriminant of a quadratic ax 2 + bx + c = 0 equation is
5. Quadratic Equation represented by D.
A quadratic equation is an equation of second degree, D = b 2 − 4ac
meaning it contains at least one term that is squared. −b  b 2 − 4ac
The standard form of quadratic equation is The roots are given by x =
2a
ax 2 + bx + c = 0 where a  0
• If D < 0, No real roots for given equation.
The solution of the above quadratic equation is the values of
variable ‘x’ which will satisfy it. It basically has two
solutions ( x1 and x2 )
If we try to calculate time when football is at height H, then
we will observe that we will get two answers
Fig. 1.22
• If D > 0, Two distinct real roots
Fig. 1.21
t1 - While going up
t2 - While coming down
What if we take a height which is greater than maximum
height covered by ball, and we are trying to find the time?
Fig. 1.23
−b  b 2 − 4ac
• The roots are given by x =
2a
• If D = 0, Equal and real roots. Then we will get only one

root
Fig. 1.24
Fig. 1.27
b
• The roots are given by −
2a Equation of graph: y = mx + c
m = tan 
b   90
i. Sum of roots = x1 + x2 = −
a m = +ve
c
ii. Product of roots = x1 x2 = (iv) Straight line graph
a
D
iii. Difference of the roots = x1 − x2 =
a
6. Basic Graph
(i) Straight line graph
Fig. 1.28
Equation of graph: y = mx + c
m = tan 
  90
Fig. 1.25
(v) Parabola graph
Equation of graph: y = mx − c
(ii) Straight line graph
Fig. 1.29
Equation of graph: x = ky
2
Fig. 1.26 (vi) Parabola graph
Equation of graph: y = mx
(iii) Straight line graph
Fig. 1.30
Equation of graph: x = −ky (xi) Ellipse graph

2
(vii) Parabola graph
Fig. 1.35
Fig. 1.31
x 2 y2
Equation of graph: y = kx
2 Equation of graph: + =1
a 2 b2
(viii) Parabola graph (xii) Exponential Decay graph
Fig. 1.32
Equation of graph: y = −kx

2
Fig. 1.36
− kx
(ix) Rectangular Hyperbola graph Equation of graph: y = e
(xiii) sin graph:
Fig. 1.33
Equation of graph: xy = cons tan t

Fig. 1.37
1
x
y
Max value of Graph Min value of the graph
(x) Circle graph
1 at 90, 450 etc. −1 at 270, 630 etc
• y = sin x
• The roots or zeros of y = sin x is at the multiples of 180
• The sin graph passes the x-axis as sin x = 0.
• Period of the sine function is 360
Fig. 1.34
Equation of graph: x + y = a
2 2 2
(xiv) cos graph:
Fig. 1.38 Fig. 1.40

• y = tan x
Max value of Graph Min value of the graph • The tangent graph has an undefined amplitude as the
curve tends to infinity
It also has a period of 180o.
1 at 0, 360, 720 −1 at 180, 540, 900
• y = cos x
• sin (x + 90) = cos x
7. Binomial Expansion
• The y = cos x graph is obtained by shifting the y = sin x, An algebraic expression containing two terms is called a
90 units to the left binomial expression.
• Period of the cosine function is 360 −1  1
For example, ( a + b ) , ( a + b ) , ( 2x − 3y ) ,  x +  etc. are
3
 y
There are a few similarities between the sine and cosine binomial expressions.
graphs they are: Binomial Theorem
• Both have the same curve which is shifted along the x- n ( n − 1) n −2 2
( a + b ) = a n + na n −1b1 + a b + ........,
n
axis.
2 1
• Both have an amplitude of 1
• Have a period of 360o n ( n − 1) 2
(1 + x ) = 1 + nx + x + ........
n
2 1
The combined graph of sine and cosine function can be Binomial Approximation
represented as follows: If x is very small, compared to 1, then terms containing
higher powers of x can be neglected so (1 + x )  1 + nx
n
8. Componendo Dividendo
Method
p a p+q a+b
If = then =
q b p−q a −b
Fig. 1.39
9. Logarithmic and
Exponential Function
Common formulae:
(xv) tan graph: • log mn = log m + log n
The tan function is completely from sin and cos function. The
m
function here goes between negative and positive infinity, • log = log m − log n
crossing through y = 0 over a period of 180 n
• log mn = n log m
• loge m = 2.303log10 m
10. Trigonometry and

To convert an angle from radian to degree multiply it by
180
Geometry 
10.1 Angle 10.2 Trigonometrical Ratios (or T ratios)

Consider a revolving line OP. Let two fixed lines XOX’ and YOY’ intersect at right angles
to each other at point O. Then,
Fig. 1.41
Suppose that it revolves in anticlockwise direction starting Fig. 1.43

from its initial position OX. The angle is defined as the
amount of revolution that the revolving line makes with its (i) Point O is called origin.
initial position. (ii) XOX’ is known as X-axis and YOY’ as Y-axis.
From fig. the angle covered by the revolving line OP is (iii) Portions XOY, YOX’, X’OY’ and Y’OX are called I, II,
 = POX III and IV quadrants respectively.
The angle is taken positive if it is traced by the revolving Consider that the revolving line OP has traced out angle 
line in anticlockwise direction and is taken negative if it is (in I quadrant) in anticlockwise direction. From P, draw
covered in clockwise direction. perpendicular PM on OX. Then, side OP (in front of right
1 = 60’ (minute) angle) is called hypotenuse, side MP (in front of angle ) is
1’ = 60” (second) called opposite side or perpendicular and side OM (making
 angle  with hypotenuse) is called adjacent side or base.
1 right angle = 90 (degrees) also 1 right angle = rad
2 The three sides of a right-angled triangle are connected to
One radian is the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by each other through six different ratios, called trigonometric
an arc of the circle, whose length is equal to the radius of the ratios or simply T-ratios:
180 sin  =
perpendicular MP
= cos  =
base
=
OM
circle. 1 rad =  57.3
 hypotenuse OP hypotenuse OP
perpendicular MP base OM
tan  = = cot  = =
base OM perpendicular MP
hypotenuse OP hypotenuse OP
sec  = = cos ec = =
base OM perpendicular MP
It can be easily proved that:
1 1 1
Fig. 1.42 cos ec = sec  = cot  =
sin  cos  tan 
To convert an angle from degree to radian multiply it by sin  + cos  = 1
2 2
1 + tan  = sec 
2 2
1 + cot 2  = cos ec2

180
Table: The T-ratios of a few standard angles ranging from 0 to 360
Angle (in Degrees) 0 30 45 60 90 180 270 360
    3
Angle (in Radians) 0  2
6 4 3 2 2
1 1 3
sin 0 1 0 −1 0
2 2 2
3 1 1
cos 1 0 −1 0 1
2 2 2
1
tan 0 1 3  0  0
3
1
cot  3 1 0  0 
3
2
cos ec  2 2 1  −1 
3
2
sec 1 2 2  −1  1
3
10.3 Four Quadrants and ASTC Rule  n 

(iii) Trigonometric function of an angle  +   will be
In first quadrant, all trigonometric ratios are positive.  2 
In second quadrant, only sin and cosec are positive. changed into co-function if n is odd and sign of trigonometric
In third quadrant, only tan and cot are positive. function will be according to value of that function in
In fourth quadrant, only cos and sec are positive. quadrant.
 
sin  +   = + cos 
 2 
 
sin  −   = + cos 
2 
 
cos  +   = −sin 
2 
  
cos  −   = + sin 
2 
 
tan  +   = − cot 
Fig. 1.44  2 
 
tan  −   = + cot 
NOTE: 2 
(iv) Trigonometric function of an angle – (negative angles)
sin ( −) = −sin 
Remember as Add Sugar To Coffee or After School To
College.
cos ( − ) = + cos 
10.4 Trigonometrical Ratios of General tan ( −) = − tan 

Angles (Reduction Formulae)
(i) Trigonometric function of an angle ( 2n +  ) where n = 0, 10.5 A few important trigonometric
1, 2, 3, …. will be remain same. formulae
sin ( 2n +  ) = sin  sin ( A + B) = sin A cos B + cos Asin B
cos ( 2n + ) = cos  sin ( A − B) = sin A cos B − cos Asin B
tan ( 2n + ) = tan  tan ( A + B) =
tan A + tan B
1 − tan A tan B
 n 
(ii) Trigonometric function of an angle  +   will remain sin 2A = 2sin A cos A
 2 
2 tan A
same if n is even and sign of trigonometric function will be tan 2A =
according to value of that function in quadrant. 1 − tan 2 A
sin (  −  ) = + sin  cos ( A + B) = cos A cos B − sin Asin B
cos (  −  ) = − cos  cos ( A − B) = cos A cos B + sin Asin B
tan (  − ) = − tan  tan A − tan B
tan ( A − B) =
sin (  +  ) = − sin  1 + tan A tan B
cos 2A = cos2 A − sin2 A
sin ( 2 − ) = − sin 
cos2A = 2cos2 A −1 = 1 − 2sin2 A
tan (  +  ) = + tan  A A
1 + cos A = 2 cos 2 , 1 − cos A = 2sin 2
cos (  +  ) = − cos  2 2
cos ( 2 −  ) = + cos 
tan ( 2 − ) = − tan 
10.6 Range of Trigonometric Functions
Fig. 1.45 Fig. 1.46
P 2. Volume of a cube = (side)3

As sin  = and P  H so −1  sin   1 4 3
H 3. Volume of a sphere = r (r = radius)
B 3
As cos  = and B  H so −1  cos   1
H 4. Volume of a cylinder = r 2 (r = radius and is length)
P 1
As tan  = so −  tan    5. Volume of a cone = r 2 h (r = radius and h, is height)
B 3
Remember: − a 2 + b2  a sin  + b cos   a 2 + b2
22
Note:  = = 3.14; 2 = 9.8776  10 and
10.7 Small Angle Approximation 7
If  is small, then sin   , cos 1 & tan   . Here  1
= 0.3182  0.3.
must be in radians. 
11.Basic Geometry 12.Scalars and Vectors

11.1 Formulae for Determination of Area:
1. Area of a square = (side)2 12.1 What is a Scalar?
2. Area of rectangle = length × breadth A scalar is a quantity that is fully described by a magnitude
1
3. Area of a triangle = ( base  height ) only. It is described by just a number.
2
1 Examples:
4. Area of trapezoid = (distance between parallel sides) × Speed, volume, mass, temperature, power, energy, time, etc.
2
(sum of parallel sides)
5. Area enclosed by a circle = r2 (r = radius) 12.2 What is a Vector?
6. Surface area of a sphere = 4r2 (r = radius) Vector is a physical quantity which has magnitude as well as
7. Area of a parallelogram = base × height direction and follows the rule of vector addition.
8. Area of curved surface of cylinder Vector quantities are important in the study of physics.
= 2r ( r = radius and = length )
Examples:
9. Area of ellipse = ab (a and b are semi major and semi Force, velocity, acceleration, displacement, momentum, etc.
minor axes respectively)
10. Surface area of a cube = 6 (side) 2
12.3 Representation of Vectors
11. Total surface area of cone = r2 + r where • A vector is drawn as an arrow with a head and a tail.
r = r r 2 + h 2 = lateral area • The magnitude of the vector is often described by the
length of the arrow.
11.2 Formulae for Determination of • The arrow points in the direction of the vector.
Volume:
1.V olume of a rectangular slab = length × breadth × height =
abt
Fig. 1.47
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Units and Measurements & Basic Mathematics
• Vectors can be defined in two dimensional or three-

dimensional space
How to write a vector?
Vectors are generally written with an arrow over the
top of the letter. (Ex: a )
AB = a
Magnitude:
AB = a Fig. 1.49
x
 xˆ =
x
It must be carefully noted that any two-unit vectors must not
be considered as equal, because they might have the same
magnitude, but the direction in which the vectors are taken
might be different
Fig. 1.48
12.4 Properties of Vectors

Vectors are mathematical objects, and we will now study some
of their mathematical properties.
(1). Equality of vectors
Two vectors are equal if they have the same magnitude and the
same direction.
(2). Negative Vector
A negative vector is a vector that has the opposite direction to Fig. 1.50
the reference positive direction but same magnitude.
• A unit vector is a vector that has a magnitude of 1.
• Any vector can become a unit vector
a on dividing it by the
12.5 Types of Vectors vector's magnitude.
1. Zero Vector • Unit vector in the direction of is â .
2. Unit Vector
3. Position Vector | a | =| b | =| c | = 1
4. Co-initial Vector
5. Like and Unlike Vectors
6. Coplanar Vector
7. Collinear Vector
8. Displacement Vector
12.6 Zero Vector:

• A zero vector is a vector when the magnitude of the vector
is zero and the starting point of the vector coincides with
the terminal point.
• In other words, a vector AB coordinates of the point A are Fig. 1.51
the same as that of the point B then the vector is said to be
a zero vector and is denoted by O. a | a | =1  a → i
12.7 Unit Vector: b |b | =1  b → j

A vector which has a magnitude of unit length is called a unit
c | c | =1  c → k
vector.
Suppose if x is a vector having a magnitude x then the unit
vector is denoted by x̂ in the direction of the vector x and has
the magnitude equal to 1.
12.12 Collinear Vectors:

Vectors which lie along the same line are known to be
collinear vectors.
12.13 Displacement Vector:

If a point is displaced from position A to B, then the
displacement AB represents a vector AB which is known as
the displacement vector.
Fig. 1.52
12.14 Multiplication of Vectors with Scalar
12.8 Position Vector:
If O is taken as reference origin and P is an arbitrary point in • When a vector is multiplied by a scalar quantity, then the
space, then the vector OP is called as the position vector of the magnitude of the vector changes in accordance with the
point. magnitude of the scalar and the direction of the vector
Position vector simply denotes the position or location of a depends on whether scalar quantity is positive or negative.
point in the three-dimensional Cartesian system with respect • Suppose we have a vector a, then if this vector is
to a reference origin. multiplied by a scalar quantity k, then we get a new vector
with magnitude as ka and the direction depends on
whether k is positive or negative.
12.15 Multiplication of Vectors with

Real Numbers
Fig. 1.53
12.9 Co-initial Vector:

The vectors which have the same starting point are called co-
initial vectors.
Fig. 1.55
NOTE:
Multiplying the vector with a negative number inverts the
direction of vector.
Now let us understand visually the scalar multiplication of the

vector.
Fig. 1.54 Let us take the values of ‘k’ to be = 2, 3, -3, -1/2 and so on.
The vectors AB and AC are called co-initial vectors as they

have same starting point.
12.10 Like and Unlike Vectors: Fig. 1.56

The vectors having the same direction are known as like
vectors. On the contrary, the vectors having the opposite 12.16 Position Vector
direction with respect to each other are termed to be unlike A vector representing the straight-line distance and the
vectors. direction of any point or object with respect to the origin, is
called position vector.
12.11 Coplanar Vectors:
Three or more vectors lying in the same plane or parallel to the
same plane are known as coplanar vectors.
Fig. 1.57
OP = xi + y j
Fig. 1.60
OP = x 2 + y 2 = r = r
OP = xi + y j
12.17 Displacement Vector OP = x 2 + y 2 = r = r
A vector representing the straight-line distance and the
direction of any point or object with respect to another point is OA = xi  r cos  = OA
called displacement vector.
OB = yi  r sin  = OB
OB
tan  =
OA
OA = xiˆ
OB = yiˆ = AD
Fig. 1.58
OC = zkˆ = DP
In ODP
OP = x1 i + y1 j
OP = OD + DP = xiˆ + yjˆ + zkˆ
OQ = x 2 i + y 2 j
PQ = OQ − OP
= ( x 2 − x1 ) i + ( y2 − y1 ) j
PQ = ( x2 − x1 ) + ( y2 − y1 )
2 2
Fig. 1.61
r = xi + y j + zk
Fig. 1.59 | r | = x 2 + y2 + z 2
r
OP = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = r = r r= → unit vector along r
|r|
OA = xiˆ, is the component of vector r in X-axis
12.18 Components of a Vector
In physics, when you break a vector into its parts, those parts OB = yjˆ, is the component of vector r in Y-axis
OC = zkˆ, is the component of vector r in Z-axis
are called its components.
Typically, a physics problem gives you an angle and a
magnitude to define a vector
12.19 Finding a Unit Vector (2D/3D) 13.2 Both Addition and Subtraction can
• We have already studied about it in previous classes. Just be shown as:
to recall: a
• Unit vector in the direction of is â
Fig. 1.62 Fig. 1.65
It will be more clear by solving some problems pertaining

13.3 Polygon Law of Vector Addition
2D/3D cases.
It states that if number of vectors acting on a particle at a time
are represented in magnitude and direction by the various sides
of an open polygon taken in same order, their resultant vector
13. Rules of Vector Algebra

R is represented in magnitude and direction by the closing side
of polygon taken in opposite order. In fact, polygon law of
vectors is the outcome of triangle law of vectors.
Fig. 1.63
Can we add these vectors directly as (8 m + 6 m) = 14 m ?

(a) Yes Fig. 1.66
(b) No
Sol: We add vectors considering their directions. R = A+ B +C + D + E
So, now we will learn about the addition of vectors. OA + AB + BC + CD + DE = OE
13.1 Triangle Law of Vector Addition 13.4 Polygon Law of Vector Addition
• Resultant of two unequal vectors cannot be zero.
• Resultant of three coplanar vectors may or may not be zero.
• Resultant of three non-coplanar vectors cannot be zero,
minimum number of non-coplanar vectors whose sum can
be zero is four.
• Polygon law should be used only for diagram purpose for
calculation of resultant vector (For addition of more than 2
Fig. 1.64 vectors), we use components of vector.
• Minimum no. of coplanar vector for zero resultant is 2 (for
equal magnitude) & 3 (for unequal magnitude).
13.5 Addition of Vectors

Adding Vectors Analytically
SCAN CODE
r1 = x1 i + y1 j y-axis. So, resolving vectors into components along common

axes makes it easier to add them. Now that the components of
r 2 = x 2 i + y2 j R are known, its magnitude and direction can be found.
r = r1 + r 2
( ) (
= x1 i + y1 j + x 2 i + y 2 j )
= x1 i + y1 j + x 2 i + y 2 j = x1 i + x 2 i + y1 j + y 2 j
= ( x1 + x 2 ) i + ( y1 + y2 ) j
13.6 Addition of Vectors: Components

Step 1: Identify the x-and y-axes that will be used in the
problem. Fig. 1.69
Step 3: To get the magnitude R of the resultant, use the

Pythagorean theorem.
R = Rx2 + Ry2
Step 4: To get the direction of the resultant.

R 
 = tan −1  y 
Fig. 1.67  Rx 
Then, find the components of each vector to be added along

the chosen perpendicular axes. Use the equations Ax = A cos𝜃,
Ay = A sin𝜃 to find the components. In figure, these
components are Ax, Ay, Bx and By.
The angles that vectors A and B make with the x-axis are 𝜃A
and 𝜃B. respectively.
Step 2: Find the components of the resultant along each axis
by adding the components of the individual vectors along that
axis. That is, as shown in figure, Fig. 1.70
Rx = Ax + Bx
and Ry = Ay + By
13.7 Parallelogram Law of Vector
Addition
Fig. 1.71
Fig. 1.68
Suppose the magnitude of a = a and that of b = b .
ALWAYS REMEMBER: What is the magnitude of a + b and what its direction?
A Vector can be changed either by changing its Suppose the angle between a and b is 𝜃.
magnitude or direction or by changing both of them.
components along the same axis, say the x-axis, are vectors
along the same line and, thus, can be added to one another like
ordinary numbers. The same is true for components along the
Fig. 1.72
SCAN CODE
It is easy to say from fig. that

AD2 = ( AB + BE ) + ( DE )
2 2
= ( a + b cos ) + ( b sin  )
2 2
= a 2 + 2ab cos  + b 2
Thus, the magnitude of is
a 2 + b2 + 2ab cos  Fig. 1.75
Its angle with a is 𝛼 where,
DE b sin  13.10 Change in Vectors
tan  = =
AE a + b cos 
13.8 Some Properties of Vector Addition
Fig. 1.76
Fig. 1.73
Fig. 1.77
14.Product of Two Vectors

Fig. 1.74 • A vector can be multiplied by another but may not be
divided by another vector.
• There are two kinds of products of vectors used broadly
13.9 Subtraction of Vectors in physics and engineering.
• Subtracting vectors algebraically • One kind of multiplication is a scalar multiplication of
a = ax i + ay j two vectors. Taking a scalar product of two vectors
results in a number (a scalar), as its name indicates.
b = bx i + by j
• Scalar products are used to define work and energy
( ) (
a − b = a + −b = ax i + a y j + −bx i − by j ) relations.
• For example, the work that a force (a vector) performs on
= ( ax − bx ) i + ( ay − by ) j an object while causing its displacement (a vector) is
• Subtracting vectors geometrically defined as a scalar product of the force vector with the
displacement vector.
• A quite different kind of multiplication is a vector
multiplication of vectors. Taking a vector product of two
vectors returns a vector, as its name suggests.
• Vector products are used to define other derived vector
quantities.
SCAN CODE
• For example, in describing rotations, a vector quantity

called torque is defined as a vector product of an applied
force (a vector) and its distance from pivot to force (a
vector).
• It is important to distinguish between these two kinds of
vector multiplication because the scalar product is a scalar Fig. 1.81
quantity and a vector product is a vector quantity.

• = , a b = 0
14.1 Scalar Product or Dot Product 2
14.2 Properties of Dot Product

a  b = a b cos 
b  a = b a cos 
a Fig. 1.78
Dot product of vector and b is denoted by a  b

a  b = a b cos 
0  
• Dot product gives us a scalar quantity. Fig. 1.82
a b
• Angle between vectors, cos  = • Dot product is commutative.
a b
b  a = a b
• Dot product is distributive over addition or subtraction.
( )
a b  c = a b  ac
• When vectors are given in component form,
A = Ax iˆ + Ay ˆj and B = Bx iˆ + By ˆj
( )(
A  B = Ax iˆ + Ay ˆj  Bx iˆ + By ˆj )
• We know that, î  î = ˆj  ˆj = 1 and î  ˆj = ˆj  î = 0
Fig. 1.79
 A  B = Ax Bx + Ay + By
• When  = 0, • Thus, for 3D, when
a  b = a b cos  = a b A = A x î + A y ˆj + A z kˆ and B = Bx î + B y ˆj + Bz kˆ
a  b is maximum A  B = A x B x + A y B y + A z Bz
14.3 Application of Dot Product in

Physics
Work done (W): It is defined as the scalar product of the
( )
Fig. 1.80
force F , acting on the body and the Displacement ( s )
• When  =  , produced.
a  b = a b cos  = − a b Thus W = F  s
Instantaneous power (P): It is defined as the scalar product
a  b is minimum.
( )
of force F and the instantaneous velocity ( v ) of the body.
Thus P = F  v
Magnetic flux (𝜙): The magnetic flux linked with a surface

( )
is defined as the scalar product of magnetic intensity B
( )
and the area A vector. Thus  = B  A
Note: As the scalar product of two vectors is a scalar

quantity, so work, power and magnetic flux are all scalar
quantities.
Fig. 1.85
14.4 Cross Product of Two Vectors
a  b = a b sin  nˆ 0    180 ( )
b  a =| b || a | sin  −n
ab
n= 14.6 Properties of Vector Product
ab
• Vector product is anti - commutative i.e., A  B = −B  A
n̂ is the unit vector in direction normal to the a and b
• Vector of two parallel or antiparallel vectors is a null
vector. Thus
A  B = ABsin ( 0 or 180 ) nˆ = 0
• Vector product of a vector with itself is a null vector.
A  A = AA sin 0 n = 0
i  i = j j = k  k = 0
Fig. 1.83
• The magnitude of the vector product of two mutually
It is also called Vector Product. perpendicular vectors is equal to the product of their
• Vector product is distributive over addition i.e., magnitudes.
( )
A B+ C = AB+ AC | A  B | = ABsin 90 = AB
• Sine of the angle between two vectors. If 𝜃 is the angle
between two vectors A and B , then
14.5 Direction of Cross Product | A  B | = | A || B | sin 
Right Hand Thumb Rule: Curl the fingers of the right hand in
such a way that they point in the direction of rotation from AB
sin  =
vector a to b through the smaller angle, then the stretched A B
thumb points in the direction of a  b • If n̂ is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane of vectors
AB
A and B , then n =
| AB |
• Vector product of orthogonal unit vectors
î  ˆj = k,
ˆ ˆj  kˆ = î, kˆ  î = ˆj
ˆj  î = −k,
ˆ kˆ  ˆj = −î, î  kˆ = −ˆj
Fig. 1.84
Direction of a  b
Direction of b  a
Fig. 1.86
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• Dimension
Summary Dimensions of a physical quantity are the powers to
which the fundamental units must be raised in order to
• Any quantity which can be measured is called a physical get the unit of derived quantity.
quantity.
• Dimensional analysis is a tool to find or check relations
• Fundamental Unit: among physical quantities by using their dimensions.
By using dimensional analysis, we can
1.C onvert a physical quantity from one system of unit to
Quantity Name of Units Symbol another.
2.C heck the dimensional consistency of equations
Length Meter m 3.D educe relation among physical quantities.
• Limitations of Dimensional Analysis

Mass Kilogram kg
• In some cases, the constant of proportionality also
possesses dimensions. In such cases, we cannot use this
Time Second s system.
• If one side of the equation contains addition or
Electric Current Ampere A subtraction of physical quantities, we cannot use this
method to derive the expression.
Temperature Kelvin K
• Systematic Errors
Systematic error is a consistent, repeatable error
Amount of Substance Mole mol
associated with faulty equipment or a flawed experiment
design. These errors are usually caused by measuring
Luminous Intensity Candela Cd instruments that are incorrectly calibrated.
• These errors cause readings to be shifted one way (or the
other) from the true reading.
• Supplementary Units:
• Causes of Systematic Errors
1.Z ero Error
Quantity Name of Units Symbol Example:
• There is not any weight, and the weighing machines
Plane angle Radian rad are not showing zero.
Solid angle Steradian sr
• System of Units:
2. Faulty Instrument
Example:
• If a ruler is wrongly calibrated,
or if it expands, then all the
readings will be too low
(or all too high). • Binomial Expansion

A binomial is a polynomial with two terms.
There are a few similarities between the sine and cosine
graphs. They are:
• Both have the same curve which is shifted along the
x-axis.
• Both have an amplitude of 1.
• Have a period of 360o or 2𝜋𝜋 radians.
• Vectors
• Scalar and Vector
3. Personal Error • Representation and Properties of Vectors
Example: • Types of Vectors
If someone have a habit of taking measurements
always from above the reading, then due to parallax • Negative Vector:
you will get a systematic error and all the readings A negative vector is a vector that has the opposite
will be too high. direction to the reference positive direction.
• Types of Vectors
(i) Zero Vector
(ii) Unit Vector
(iii) Position Vector
(iv) Co-initial Vector
(v) Like and Unlike Vectors
(vi) Coplanar Vector
(vii) Collinear Vector
(viii) Displacement Vector
• A unit vector is a vector that has a magnitude of 1.
Now, let’s learn about some common terms used • Any vector can become a unit vector on dividing it by
during, measurements and error analysis. the vector's magnitude.
• A vector representing the straight-line distance and the
• Accuracy and Precision direction of any point or object with respect to the origin,
• Accuracy is an indication of how close a is called position vector.
measurement is to the accepted value.
• An accurate experiment has a low systematic error. • Polygon Law: It states that if number of vectors acting
Precision is an indication of the agreement among a on a particle at a time are represented in magnitude and
number of measurements. direction by the various sides of an open polygon taken
in same order, their resultant vector R is represented in
• A precise experiment has a low random error
magnitude and direction by the closing side of polygon
taken in opposite order.
• Quadratic Equation • Addition of Vectors Components:

A quadratic equation is an equation of second degree, To get the magnitude R of the resultant, use the
meaning it contains at least one term that is squared. Pythagorean theorem:
The standard form of quadratic equation is
R = Rx2 + Ry2
ax 2 + bx + c = 0 where a  0
To get the direction of the resultant.
• Discriminant of a Quadratic Equation: R 
 = tan −1  y 
Discriminant of a quadratic ax 2 + bx + c = 0 equation  Rx 
is represented by D.
D = b 2 − 4ac
−b  b 2 − 4ac
The roots are given by x =
2a
a  b = a b sin nˆ 0    180

n̂ is the unit vector in direction normal to the a and b
• Properties of Cross Product:

• Addition of vectors: Law of Parallelogram of vector • Vector product is anti - commutative i.e.,
addition. Thus, the magnitude of A  B = −B  A
a + b is a 2 + b2 + 2ab cos  • Vector product is distributive over addition i.e.,
( )
A B+ C = AB+ AC
• Vector of two parallel or antiparallel vectors is a null
vector. Thus
A  B = ABsin ( 0 or 180 ) nˆ = 0
• Vector product of a vector with itself is a null vector.
A  A = AA sin 0 n = 0
DE bsin 
Its angle with a is 𝛼 where tan  = = • i  i = j j = k  k = 0
AE a + bcos 
• (a  b) = − ( b  a )
• Vector Subtraction:
• a  ( b + c) = a  b + a  c
a = ax i + ay j
b = bx i + b y j • i  i = j j = k  k = 0
( ) (
a − b = a + −b = a x i + a y j + −b x i − b y j ) • i j = k j  i = −k
• j k = i k  j = −i
= ( a x − bx ) i + ( a y − b y ) j
• k i = j ik = −j
• Scalar Product or Dot Product
a  b = a b cos  • If a = a1 i + a 2 j + a 3 k and = b1 i + b 2 j + b3 k, then
i j k
0
• Dot product gives us a scalar quantity. a  b = a1 a2 a3
• Angle between vectors, b1 b2 b3
a b
cos  = = ( a 2 b3 − a3b2 ) i − ( a1b3 − a3b1 ) j + ( a1b2 − a 2 b1 ) k
a b
• Dot product is commutative.

ba = a b
• Dot product is distributive over addition or subtraction.
( )
a b  c = a b ac
• Cross Product:
Dimensional Formulae of Physical Quantities

Relationship with other physical Dimensional
S. No. Physical quantity Dimensions
quantities formula
1. Area Length × breadth [L2] [M0L2 T0]
2. Volume Length × breadth × height [L3] [M0L3 T0]
[M]/[L3] or
3. Mass density Mass/volume [ML3T0]
[ML3]
4. Frequency 1/time period 1/[T] [M0L0T1]
5. Velocity, speed Displacement/time [L]/[T] [M0LT1]
6. Acceleration Velocity/time [LT1]/[T] [M0LT2]
7. Force Mass × acceleration [M][LT2] [MLT2]
8. Impulse Force × time [MLT2][T] [MLT1]
9. Work, Energy Force × distance [MLT–2][L] [ML2T–2]
10. Power Work/time [ML2T–2]/[T] [ML2T–3]
11. Momentum Mass × velocity [M][LT1] [MLT1]
12. Pressure, stress Force/area [MLT2]/[L2] [ML1T–2]
Change in dim ension

13. Strain [L]/[L] [M0L0T0]
Original dim ension
 ML1T 2 
14. Modulus of elasticity Stress/strain [ML1T2]
 M 0 L0 T 0 
15. Surface tension Force/length [MLT2]/[L] [ML0T2]
16. Surface energy Energy/area [ML2T2]/[L2] [ML0T2]

17. Velocity gradient Velocity/distance [LT–1]/[L] [M0L0T1]
18. Pressure gradient Pressure/distance [ML–1T2]/[L] [M1L2T2]
19. Pressure energy Pressure × volume [ML1T2][L3] [ML2T2]
 MLT 2 
20. Coefficient of viscosity Force/area × velocity gradient [ML1T1]
 L2   LT 1 / L 
Angle, Angular
21. Arc/radius [L]/[L] [M0L0T0]
displacement
Trigonometric ratio
22. Length/length [L]/[L] [M0L0T0]
 sin , cos , tan , etc.
23. Angular velocity Angle/time [L0]/[T] [M0L0T1]

65
Physics
Class 11th NEET
02
MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE
Motion In a Straight Line
Important Terms
1. Mechanics 3. While Studying this
It is the branch of Physics, which deals with the study of
motion of physical objects. Mechanics can be broadly Chapter
classified into following branches • We will treat the object as Point mass object
• An object can be considered as a point mass object if
1.1 Statics during the course of motion, it covers distances much
It is the branch of mechanics, which deals with the study of greater than its own size.
physical objects at rest. • We shall confine ourselves to the study of rectilinear
motion
1.2 Kinematics • Rectilinear motion is the study of motion of objects
It is the branch of mechanics, which deals with study of along a straight line.
motion of physical bodies without taking into account the
4. Position, Distance &
factors, which causes motion.
Displacement
1.3 Dynamics
It is the branch of mechanics, which deals with the study of 4.1 Position
motion of physical bodies taking into account the factors • Position of an object is always defined with respect to
which causes motion. some reference point which we generally refer to as
origin.
2. States of Objects
2.1 Rest 4.2 Distance
• An object is said to be at rest if it does not change its • It is the actual path traversed by the body during the
position with respect to the surrounding. course of motion
• The white board in the classroom is at rest with respect • SI unit is ‘m’.
to the classroom • Dimension is [M0L1T0]
2.2 Motion
• An object is said to be in motion if it changes its 4.3 Displacement
position with respect to the surrounding. • It is the shortest path joining initial and final position
• When we walk, run or ride a bike we are in motion of the object.
with respect to the ground. • SI unit is ‘m’
• Dimension is [M0L1T0]
NOTE: • It is a vector quality.
Rest and Motion are relative
Rest and motion depend upon the observer. The Table 2.1: Difference between Distance &
object in one situation may be at rest whereas Displacement
the same object in another situation may be in Distance Displacement
motion. For Example, the driver of a moving car
It is the actual path It is the difference
is in motion with respect to an observer standing
on the ground whereas, the same driver is at rest traversed by the between the initial and
with respect to the man (observer) in the object during the the final positions
passenger’s seat. course of motion. x = x 2 – x1 where,
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Motion in a Straight line
x 2 and x1 are final

6. Average velocity and
and initial position
respectively. Average Speed
It is a scalar
It is a vector quantity. 6.1 Average Velocity
quantity.
• It is defined as the change in position or displacement
The distance
travelled by an object
The displacement of an ( x ) divided by the time intervals ( t ) in which the
object may be positive, displacement occurs.
during the course of
negative or, zero
motion is never • SI unit of velocity is m/s, although km/hr is used in
during the course of
negative or zero and many everyday applications
motion.
is always positive • Dimension is [M0L1T-1]
NOTE: 6.2 Average Speed

The distance travelled is never less than • It is defined as the total path length travelled divided
displacement (in magnitude). by the total time interval during which the motion has
Displacement  Distance . taken place.
• SI unit is m/s.
• Dimension [M0L1T-1]
NOTE:
If the motion of an object is along a straight line
and in the same direction, the magnitude of 7. Instantaneous Velocity and
displacement is equal to the total path length. In
that case, the magnitude of average velocity is Instantaneous Speed
equal to the average speed. This is not always
the case. 7.1 Instantaneous Velocity
The average velocity tells us how fast an object • It is velocity at an instant of time t. The velocity at an
has been moving over a given interval but does instant is defined as the limit of the average velocity as
not tell us how fast it moves at different instants the time interval t becomes infinitesimally small.
of time during that interval. x
• Instantaneous velocity = lim = dx/dt
t → 0 t
5. Scalar and Vector • The quantity on the right-hand side of equation is the
differential coefficient of x with respect to t and is
Quantities •
denoted by dx/dt.
It is the rate of change of position with respect to time
5.1 Scalar Quantities at that instant.
The physical quantities which have only magnitude but no • SI unit is m/s
direction, are called scalar quantities. • Dimension is [M0L1T-1]
Example: - mass, length, time, distance, speed, work,
temperature. 7.2 Instantaneous Speed
• Instantaneous speed or speed is the magnitude of
5.2 Vector Quantities velocity at any particular instant of time.
The physical quantities which have magnitude as well as • SI unit is m/s
direction, are called vector quantities. • Dimension is [M0L1T-1]
Example: - displacement, velocity, acceleration, force,
momentum, torque
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Table 2.2: Difference between Speed & Velocity • Like velocity, acceleration can also be positive,
negative or zero.
Speed Velocity
It is defined as the total It is defined as the change
path length travelled in position or
NOTE: -
divided by the total displacement divided by We will restrict ourselves to the study of
time interval during the time intervals, in constant acceleration for this chapter. In this
which the motion has which displacement case average acceleration equals the constant
taken place. occurs of. value of acceleration during the interval.
It is a scalar quantity. It is a vector quantity.

It is always positive It may be positive, 9. Kinematics Equations:
during the course of the negative or zero during
motion. the course of the motion.
9.1 Equations of Uniformly Accelerated
It is greater than or Motion
It is less than or equal to If a body starts with velocity (u) and after time t its velocity
equal to the magnitude
the speed. changes to v, if the uniform acceleration is a and the
of velocity.
distance travelled in time t in s, then the following relations
are obtained, which are called equations of uniformly
8. Acceleration accelerated motion.
(i) v = u + at
8.1 Average Acceleration 1
(ii) S = ut + at 2
• The average acceleration over a time interval is 2
defined as the change of velocity divided by the time 2 2
(iii) v = u + 2as
(v − v ) (iv) Distance travelled in nth second
interval: a = 2 1 where, v2 and v1 are velocities
( t 2 − t1 ) a
Sn = u + ( 2n − 1)
at time t2 & t1. 2
• It is the average change of velocity per unit time. If a body moves with uniform acceleration and velocity
• SI unit is m/s2. changes from u to v in a time interval, then the velocity at
• Dimension is [M0L1T-2].
the mid point of its path
(u 2
+ v2 )
.
2
8.2 Instantaneous Acceleration
• Instantaneous acceleration is defined in the same way
as the instantaneous velocity:
10. Vertical Motion Under
a = lim
v
Gravity
t → 0 t
If an object is falling freely (u = 0) under gravity, then
= dv / dt
equations of motion
(for very small interval of time dt)
(i) v = u + gt
• SI unit is m/s2
1
• Dimension is [M0L1T-2] (ii) h = ut + gt 2
2
• When the acceleration is uniform, obviously,
(iii) v2 = u2 + 2gh
instantaneous acceleration equals the average
acceleration over that period.
NOTE:
• Since velocity is a quantity having both magnitude and
If an object is thrown upward then g is replaced
direction, a change in the velocity may involve either
by – g in above three equations. It thus follows
or both of these factors.
that
• Acceleration, therefore, may result from a change in
(i) Time taken to reach maximum height
the speed (magnitude), a change in direction or
T=u/g
changes in both.
(ii) Maximum height reached by the body
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h max = u 2 / 2g Graphically it is tangent of curve on given point.

(iii) A ball is dropped from a building of height
h and it reaches after t seconds on earth. From
the same building if two ball are thrown (one
upwards and other downwards) with the same
velocity u and they reach the earth surface after
t1 and t2 seconds respectively, then
t = t1 t 2
(iv) When a body is dropped freely from the top
of the tower and another body is projected
horizontally from the same point, both will reach
the ground at the same time. Fig. 2.2
dy
= slope of tangent on curve between y and x at one
11. Calculus
dx
point. Mathematically that is called differentiation of y with
11.1 Differentiation of a Function respect to x =
dy
If we say y as a function of x then we write dx
y = f (x)
x = Independent variable
y = Dependent variable.
In physics we study variation of a quantity y with respect to
quantity x and we also study rate at which y changes when x
changes.
In physics, first we will study the linear motion of an object

where position of object is represented by x which changes
with time t, then
Fig. 2.1 and that is equal to velocity (magnitude of velocity)

dx
One simple way to see variation of y with x v=
dt
y
Rate of change of y with change in x = v=
dx
x dt
y Above expression will give speed.
Graphically one can see that = tan 
x Similarly, when velocity changes with time then we say
Now let’s say x1 approaches to x2 then x → 0 or it will dv
= a  acceleration
be very-very small, we write it dx. In that way, y approaches dt
to y2 and y → 0 , written as dy. So, so, we can define
dy Velocity  that is rate of change of position with respect
Rate of change of y with respect to x = (at one point)
dx to t.
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Acceleration
respect to t.
 that is rate of change of velocity with
12. Increasing and Decreasing
Function
Tips:
If x = f ( t ) 12.1 Increasing Function
Suppose y = f (x) and if x is increasing, y also increases,
dx
v= = x = f (t ) then the function is increasing function. There are two types
dt
of possible graphical variations.
dv d  dx  d 2 x
a= =  = = x = f  ( t )
dt dt  dt  dt 2
11.2 Standard Rules and Formulae of

Differentiation:
1. y = x n y = nx n −1
2. y = c  y = cx 0 y = 0
3. y = sin x y = cos x
4. y = cos x y = − sin x
5. y = tan x y = sec 2 x
Fig 2.3
6. y = cot x y = − cosec 2 x 2  1
1  tan 2  tan 1
7. y = n ( x ) y=
x dy dy
8. y = e x y = ex  
dx 2 dx 1
9. y = a x y = ax n (x) If slope is increasing that mean first derivative is also
d2 y
increasing, so second derivative should be +ve, 0
Rules dx 2
1. y = f1 ( x ) + f 2 ( x ) y = f1 ( x ) + f 2 ( x )
2. y = cf ( x ) y = cf  ( x )
3. y = f1 ( x ) f 2 ( x ) y = f1 ( x ) f 2 ( x ) + f1 ( x ) f 2 ( x )
f1 ( x ) f 2 ( x ) f1 ( x ) − f1 ( x ) f 2 ( x )
4. y = y=
f2 ( x ) f 2 ( x ) 
2
11.3 Chain Rule

If y = f(z) and z = f(x), then differentiation of y with respect
to x can be given by: Fig. 2.4
dy dy dz 2  1
= f '(z)  f '(x ) =   tan 2  tan 1
dx dz dx
dy dy
 
dx 2 dx 1
If slope decreasing that means first derivative is decreasing
that means second derivative will be negative.
d2 y
0
dx 2
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NOTE: 13.1 Applications in Physics:

(i) Increasing graph with decreasing slope will 1.
be Concave downward.
(ii) Increasing graph, with increasing slope will
be Concave upward.
13. Decreasing Graphs

On increasing value of x, y decreases.
There also two types of graphs.
Fig. 2.7
2.
Fig. 2.5

1  2 
2
 tan 2  tan 1
d2 y
Slope is negative but increasing so 0
dx 2
dy d2 y Fig. 2.8
 0, 2  0
dx dx NOTE:
If the graph is parabola, then second derivative
will be constant
x = at 2 + bt + c if a  0
x = 2at + b x  0 and constant
x = 2a if a  0
x  0 and constant
So if acceleration is constant then x and t graph
will be parabola.
(ii) Increasing graph, with increasing slope will
be Concave upward.
Fig. 2.6
1  2
tan 1  tan 2
Slope decreasing and negative so second derivative is
negative.
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14. Maxima Minima of a dy

dx
0
Function d2 y
=0
dx 2
16. Integration
Integration of a function. Let y = f (x) Area of shaded region
of curve is dA = ydx. Total area bounded by curve y = f (x)
x = x2 x2
A=  dA =  dA
x = x1 x1
That is called area of graph with integration from x1 to x 2 .

x1 = lower limit of integration
Fig. 2.9
x 2 = upper limit of integration
Maxima
(Condition to locate and check point of maxima)
dy
=0
dx
d2 y
0
dx 2 x
1
where x1 is the point of maxima.

Minima
(Condition to locate and check point to minima)
Fig 2.11
dy
=0 x2
dx
d2 y
 ydx = Definite Integral
x1
0
dx 2 x
2
where x1 is the point of maxima.

 ydx = Indefinite Integral (without limit)
Integration is reverse process of differentiation in which we
find a function for which the given function is the derivative
15. Point of Inflexion of function.
Concavity change at A is known as the point of inflexion.
16.1 Formulae
x n +1
1.  x n dx = +c
n +1
1
2.  dx = n ( x ) + c
x
3.  sin xdx = − cos x + c
4.  cos xdx = sin x + c
5.  tan xdx = n ( sec x ) + c
6.  e x dx = e x + c
Fig. 2.10
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16.2 Rule of Integration

1.  dx = x + c
2.  cf ( x ) dx = c  f ( x ) dx
3.  f ( x ) + g ( x )  dx =  f ( x ) dx +  g ( x ) dx
NOTE:
Like differentiation, rules of substitution are also
applicable to integration as well in a similar
way.
16.3 Applications in Physics

dx
v=
dt
x2 t2
 dx =  vdt
x1 t1
t2
x 2 − x1 =  vdt = Change in position or displacement.

t1
(Area under the curve of v and t graph is displacement)

dv
a=
dt
v t2
 dv =  adt
u t1
t2
v − u =  adt = Change in velocity.

t1
(Area under the curve of a and t graph is change in velocity)
17. Graphs
17.1 Uniform Motion
• In a uniform motion a body covers equal distance in
equal intervals of time.
• Velocity is constant during the course of motion.
• Acceleration is zero during the course of motion.
If we try to represent the same on the number line with
x, v, a on the Y-axis and t on the X-axis then we will
have
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Velocity – Time graph Acceleration – Time graph

Displacement – Time
S.No velocity = Slope of x – t Acceleration = Slope of v – t
graph
graph graph
(i)
nature of slope: zero nature of slope of a – t: zero

nature of slope: positive
magnitude of slope: magnitude of slope: constant
magnitude of slope:
constant
constant
t
(ii)
nature of slope: negative nature of slope: zero

magnitude of slope: nature of slope: zero
magnitude of slope:
constant magnitude of slope: Constant
constant
17.2 Non-Uniform Motion

• In a non-uniform motion, a body covers unequal distances in equal intervals of time.
• Uniformly accelerated motion
• Accelerated motion
• Magnitude of velocity increases or decreases with time
Velocity – Time graph Acceleration – Time graph

Displacement – Time
S. No velocity = Slope of x – Acceleration = Slope of v – t
graph
t graph graph
(i)
(ii)
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(iii)
nature of slope: positive Slope of a - t graph

magnitude of slope: da
magnitude of slope: gives jerk, i.e., J = =0
Increasing constant dt
(iv)
Slope of a - t graph
nature of slope: negative
da
nature of slope: positive magnitude of slope: J= =0
constant gives jerk, i.e., dt
magnitude of slope:
decreasing
(v)
Nature of slope: negative Nature of slope: negative

Nature of slope: negative Magnitude of slope: Magnitude of slope: constant
magnitude of slope: constant
decreasing
(vi)

nature of slope: negative nature of slope: positive magnitude of slope: constant
magnitude of slope: magnitude of slope:
decreasing constant
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v dv
NCERT Corner a = lim a = lim
t →0 t →0 t
=
dt
The acceleration of an object at a particular time is the
(Some important Points to Remember) slope of the velocity-time graph at that instant of time.
1. An object is said to be in motion if its position changes For uniform motion. acceleration is zero and the x-t
with time. The position of the object can be specified graph is a straight line inclined to the time axis and the
with reference to a conveniently chosen origin. For
v − t graph is a straight line parallel to the time axis.
motion in a straight fine. position to the right of the
For motion with uniform acceleration. x - t graph is a
origin is taken as positive and to the left as negative.
parabola while the v − t graph is a straight line
2.P ath length is defined as the total length of the path inclined to the time axis.
traversed by an object.
10. The area under the velocity-time curve between times
3.D isplacement is the change in position: x = x 2 − x1 t1 and t2 is equal to the displacement of the object
during that interval of time.
Path length is greater or equal to the magnitude of the
displacement between the same points.
11. For objects in uniformly accelerated rectilinear
motion. the five quantities, displacement x, time taken
4.A n object is said to be in uniform motion in a straight
t. Initial velocity v0 , final velocity v and acceleration
line if its displacement is equal in equal intervals of
time. Otherwise, the motion is said to be nonuniform a are related by a set of simple equations called
kinematic equations of motion:
5.A verage velocity is the displacement divided by the v = v 0 + at
time Interval in which the displacement occurs: 1 2
x = v0 t + at
x 2
v=
t v 2 = v 02 + 2ax
On an x-t graph. the average velocity over a time
Interval is the slope of the line connecting the initial
and final positions corresponding to that interval.
6. Average Speed is the ratio of total path length

traversed and the corresponding time Interval.
7. Instantaneous velocity or simply velocity is defined as

the limit of the average velocity as the time interval
t becomes infinitesimally small
x dx
v = lim v = lim =
t →0 t →0 t dt
The velocity at a particular instant is equal to the slope
of the tangent drawn on position-time graph at that
instant.
8. Average acceleration is the change in velocity divided

by the time interval during which the change occurs:
v
a=
t
9. Instantaneous acceleration is defined as the limit of

the average acceleration as the time interval at goes to
zero:
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108
03
MOTION IN A PLANE
& RELATIVE MOTION
109 MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE
Chapter 03
Motion in a Plane & Relative Motion
1. Motion in 2D (Plane)
1.1 Position Vector & Displacement
The position vector r of a particle P located in a plane with
reference to the origin of an x-y coordinate system is given
by r = xiˆ + yjˆ
Fig 3.2
dx dy
where, vx = and v y =
dt dt
v = v2x + v2y ,
where v represents magnitude of velocity

Fig 3.1
vy
Suppose the particle moves along the path as shown to a and tan  =
vx
new position P1 with the position vector r
r = x î + y ˆj  vy 
1 1 1 or  = tan −1  
change in position = displacement  vx 
1 ( 1 1 ) (
= r − r = x î + y ĵ − xî + yjˆ ) NOTE:
The instantaneous velocity at any point on the
(By vector addition)
path of an object is tangential to the path at that
= ( x1 − x ) î + ( y1 − y ) ĵ point and its direction is in the direction of
= x î + yjˆ object’s motion.
from above figure we can see that
r = r1 − r 1.4 Average Acceleration
v v x ˆ v y ˆ
a avg = = i+ j
1.2 Average Velocity t t t
a avg = a x î + a y ˆj
 r xiˆ + yjˆ
vav = =
t t
vavg = v i + v ˆj
x
ˆ
y 1.5 Instantaneous Acceleration
NOTE: dv dv x ˆ dv y ˆ
a= = i+ j
Direction of the average velocity is same as that dt dt dt
of  r . a = a x î + a y ˆj
1.3 Instantaneous Velocity 2. Projectile Motion

v dr
v = lim = When a particle is projected obliquely from the earth’s
t → 0 t dt
surface, it moves simultaneously in horizontal and vertical
ˆ
v= v i+v j ˆ
x y directions in a curved trajectory as depicted in the diagram
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MOTION IN A PLANE & RELATIVE MOTION
below. Motion of such a particle is called projectile Horizontal Motion Vertical Motion
motion.
u x  u cos 
u y  u sin 
ax  0
a y  g
s x  u cos t  x
1
x sy  u y t  a y t 2
t 2
u cos 
So,
  x  1 x2 
Fig 3.3  y  u sin    g 2 2 
  u cos   2 u cos  
gx 2
2.1 Analysis of Velocity in Case of a  y  x tan  
2u 2 cos 2 
Projectile

Which resembles to y  bx  ax 2 
(i) This is an equation of a parabola
(ii) Because the coefficient of x2 is negative, it is an
inverted parabola.
Fig 3.4
(i) V1x = V2x = V3x = V4x = ux = u cos  Fig 3.5

which means that the velocity along x-axis remains constant Path of the projectile is a parabola
[as there is no external force acting along that direction]
2u 2 sin  cos  2u 2 R
R or 
g g sin  cos 
(ii) a) Magnitude of velocity along y-axis first decreases
and then it increases after the topmost point P. Substituting this value in the above equation we have,
b) At topmost point magnitude of velocity is zero.  x
y  x tan  1  
c) Direction of velocity is in the upward direction while  R
ascending and is in the downward direction while
descending. In this case a particle is projected at an angle  with an
d) Magnitude of velocity at A is same as magnitude of initial velocity u. For this particular case we will calculate
velocity at O; but the direction is changed the following:
e) Angle which the net velocity makes with the horizontal (a) time taken to reach A from O
can be calculated by (b) horizontal distance covered (OA)
vy velocity along y  axis (c) maximum height reached during the motion
tan   
vx velocity along x  axis (d) velocity at any time ‘t’ during the motion
& net velocity is always along the tangent.
2.2 Equation of Trajectory

Trajectory is the path traced by the body. To find the
trajectory we must find relation between y and x by
eliminating time.
[Ref. to the earlier diag.]
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Horizontal axis Vertical axis u sin 

t1 
u y  u sin  g
u sin 
a y  g t 2  T  t1 
g
1
sy  u y t  a y t 2 T u sin 
2 t1  t 2  
2 g
ux = u cos  when the particle returns to
ax = 0 same horizontal level,
(In the absence of any vertical displacement is 0
external force ax is assumed and time taken is called time Maximum Range
to be zero) of flight, (T). u2 sin 2 u2
1 R and R max 
0  u sin T  gT 2 g g
2
Range is maximum when sin 2 is maximum
2u sin  2u y
T  Maximum value of sin 2 = 1.
g g
So,   45 (for maximum range)
sx = ux t + 1/2ax t2
x – 0 = u cos t
2u y 3. Projectile Motion from a
x  u cos 
g
vy = uy + ay t Height
2u 2 cos  sin  It depends on time ‘t’.
x 3.1 Horizontal Direction:
g Its magnitude first decreases
and then becomes zero and (i) Initial velocity ux = u
(2 cos sin = sin 2)
then increases. (ii) Acceleration ax = 0
u2 sin 2
x
g Vertical Direction:
(i) Initial velocity uy = 0
horizontal distance covered is
known as Range (ii) Acceleration ay = -g (downward)
Maximum height attained
by the particle Method 1:
using time of ascent
u sin 
Time of ascent, t =
g
vx = ux + ax t
1
vx  ucos  s y  u y t  at 2
2
It is independent of t and is u sin 
constant  u sin 
g
1 u 2 sin 2 
 g Fig 3.6
2 g2 The path traced by projectile is called its trajectory.
u 2 sin 2  After time t,
H
2g Horizontal displacement x = ut
1 2
Maximum height attained Vertical displacement y   gt
2
Time of ascent (t1) =Time Method 2: using third
(Negative sign indicates that the direction of vertical
of descent (t2) equation of motion
displacement is downward.)
At topmost point y = 0 v 2y  u 2y  2a y s y
1 x2  x
 0  u sin   gt 2
u sin  2 So y  g  t   this is equation of a parabola
H 2 u2  u
2g Above equation is called trajectory equation.
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MOTION IN A PLANE & RELATIVE MOTION 113
The equations for this type of motion will be:

● Time of flight
2h
Tf =
g
● Horizontal Range
2h
R = ux t = u
g
● Trajectory Equation
Fig 3.8
1 x2  x
y= g  t= 
2 u2  u
Projectile up an inclined plane
This is equation of parabola
Motion along x-axis Motion along y-axis
● Along vertical direction u x = u cos  u y = u sin 
v 2y = 02 + 2 ( h1 )( g ) a x = −g sin  a y = −g cos 
v y = 2gh1 v x = u cos  − g sin t v y = u sin  − g cos t
Along horizontal direction: 1 1
x = u cos t − g sin t 2 y = u sin t − g cos t 2
vx = u x = u 2 2
So, velocity
v = v2x + v2y = u 2 + 2gh1 4.2 The Motion of a Particle along the
Inclined Plane in Downward
4. Projectile on an Incline Direction.
4.1 The Motion of a Particle along the
Inclined Plane in Upward Direction.
Fig 3.7
Fig 3.9
ux = u
ux = u
a x = −g sin 
v x = u − ( g sin  ) t a x = +gsin 
1 v = u + ( g sin  ) t
x = ut − ( g sin  ) t 2
2 1
x = ut + ( g sin  ) t 2
uy = 0 2
a y = −g cos  uy = 0
vy = 0 a y = −g cos 
y=0 vy = 0
y=0
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As this being a vector quantity, direction is very

important.
5.1 Velocity of Approach / Separation

• It is the component of relative velocity of one particle
with respect to another, along the line joining them.
• If the separation is decreasing, we say it is velocity of

approach and if separation is increasing, then we say it
Fig 3.10 is velocity of separation.
Projectile down an inclined plane • In one dimension, since relative velocity is along the
Motion along x-axis Motion along y-axis line joining A and B, hence velocity of approach
u x = u cos  u y = u sin  /separation is just equal to magnitude of relative
a x = g sin  a y = g cos  velocity of A with respect to B.
v x = u cos  + g sin t v y = u sin  − g cos t
1 1 5.2 Velocity of Approach / Separation in
x = u cos t + g sin t 2 y = u sin t − g cos t 2
2 2 Two Dimensions
• It is the component of relative velocity of one particle
2
with respect to another, along the line joining them.
sin ( 2 −  ) − sin 
u
R=
g cos 2 
The maximum range therefore is, • If the separation is decreasing, we say it is velocity of
u2 approach and if separation is increasing, then we say it
 R max = (1 − sin  ) is velocity of separation.
g cos 2 
5. Relative Motion 6. River-Boat Problems

Relative is a very general term. In physics we use relative • In river–boat problems we come across the following
very often. For e.g. three terms:
vr = absolute velocity of river.
vbr = velocity of boatman with respect to river and
vb = absolute velocity of boatman.
Fig 3.11 Hence, it is important to note that v br is the velocity of
• Case I: If you are stationary and you observe a car boatman with which he steers and vb is the actual
moving on a straight road then you say velocity of car
velocity of boatman relative to ground.
is 20 m/s which means velocity of car relative to you is
20 m/s or, velocity of car relative to the ground is 20 Further vb = vbr + vr .
m/s. • Now, let us derive some standard results and their
(As you are stationary on the ground.) special cases.
A boatman starts from point A on one bank of a river
• Case II: If you go inside a car and observe you will with velocity v br in the direction shown in figure.
find that the car is at rest while the road is moving
River is flowing along positive x–direction with
backwards. You will say: Velocity of car relative to the
you is 0 m/s Mathematically, velocity of B relative to velocity v r . Width of the river is d.
A is represented as Then, vb = vr + vbr
vBA = vB - v A
Therefore, vbx = vrx + vbrx = vr – vbr sin 
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Similarly, if vr > vbr, sin  > 1, i.e., no such angle exists.

Practically it can be realized in this manner that it is not
possible to reach at B if river velocity (vr) is too high.
7. Relative Velocity of Rain
Fig 3.12 with Respect to Man

Now, time taken by the boatman to cross the river is:

Consider a man walking west with velocity vm , represented
d d d 
t  or t  ...(i) by OA . Let the rain be falling vertically downwards with
v by v br cos  v br cos   
velocity vr , represented by OB as shown in figure. To find
Further, displacement along x–axis when he reaches on the 
other bank (also called drift) is given by- the relative velocity of rain with respect to man (i.e., vrm ),
d

x   v r  v br sin   ...(ii) bring the man at rest by imposing a velocity vm on man
v br cos  and apply this velocity on rain also.
6.1 Condition when the Boatman Now the relative velocity of rain with respect to man will be
 
 
crosses the river in shortest interval  
the resultant velocity of v r  OB and  v m  OC , 

of Time which will be represented by diagonal OD of rectangle
From eq. (i) we can see that time (t) will be minimum OBDC.
when  = 0° i.e., the boatman should steer his boat  v rm  v 2r  v 2m  2v r v m cos90  v 2r  v m2
perpendicular to the river current.
6.2 Condition when the Boatman wants

to reach point B, i.e., at a point just
opposite from where he started
(shortest distance)
In this case, the drift (x) should be zero.
x=0
d
or,  v r  vbr sin   0
vbr cos 
Fig 3.13
or, vr  vbr sin  
If  is the angle which vrm makes with the vertical
vr v 
or, sin   or   sin 1  r  direction, then
v br  vbr  OD v m v 
Hence, to reach point B the boatman should row at an tan    or   tan 1  m 
OB v r  vr 
v  
angle   sin 1  r  upstream from AB. Here, angle  is the angle that vrm makes w.r.t vertical.
 v br 
 In the above problem if the man wants to protect
d d himself from the rain, he should hold his umbrella in
t 
vb v 2br  v 2r the direction of relative velocity of rain with respect to
man i.e., the umbrella should be held making an angle
Since sin 1 So, if vr > vbr, the boatman can never v
reach at point B. Because if vr = vbr, sin  = 1 or  =  (= tan–1 m ) west of vertical.
vr
90° and it is just impossible to reach at B if  = 90°.
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The unit vectors î, ˆj and kˆ are vectors of unit

NCERT CORNER magnitude and point in the direction of the x-, y-, and z-
(Some important points to remember) axes, respectively in a right-handed coordinate system.
1. Scalar quantities are quantities with magnitudes only. 10. A vector A can be expressed as A = A x î + A y ˆj where
Examples are distance, speed, mass and temperature
Ax , Ay are its components along x-, and y-axes. If
2. Vector quantities are quantities with magnitude and vector A makes an angle  with the x-axis, then
direction both. Examples are displacement, velocity A x = A cos  , A y = A sin  and
and acceleration. They obey special rules of vector
Ay
algebra. A = A = A 2x + A 2y , tan  =
Ax
3. A vector A multiplied by a real number λ is also a
vector, whose magnitude is λ times the magnitude of 11. Vectors can be conveniently added using analytical
the vector A and whose direction is the same or method. If sum of two vectors A and B , that lie in x-y
opposite depending upon whether λ is positive or plane, is R, then: R = R x î + R y ˆj . where, R x = Ax + Bx
negative.
and R y = A y + By
4. Two vectors A and B may be added graphically using

head to tail method or parallelogram method. 12. The position vector of an object in x-y plane is given
by r = xiˆ + yjˆ and the displacement from position r to
5. Vector addition is commutative: A + B = B + A position r is given by
It also obeys the associative law: r = r − r
( A + B) + C = A + ( B + C ) = ( x  − x ) î + ( y − y ) ˆj
= xiˆ + yjˆ
6. A null or zero vector is a vector with zero magnitude.
Since the magnitude is zero, we don’t have to specify 13. If an object undergoes a displacement r in time t ,
its direction. It has the properties:
r
A+0 = A its average velocity is given by v = . The velocity
t
A0 = 0 of an object at time t is the limiting value of the
0A = 0 r dr
average velocity as t tends to zero: v = lim = .
t →0 t dt
7. The subtraction of vector B from A is defined as the It can be written in unit vector notation as:
sum of A and − B : dx dy dz
v = v x î + v y î + v z kˆ where v x = , v y = , vz =
A − B = A + −B( ) dt
When position of an object is plotted on a coordinate
dt dt
system, v is always tangent to the curve representing

8. A vector A can be resolved into component along two the path of the object.
given vectors a and b lying in the same plane:
A = a + b where λ and µ are real numbers. 14. If the velocity of an object changes from v to v' in time
t , then its average acceleration is given by:
9. A unit vector associated with a vector A has v − v ' v
a= =
magnitude one and is along the vector A : t t
A The acceleration a at any time t is the limiting value
n̂ =
A of a as t → 0 ,
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v dv Hence drift Δx will be

a = lim =
t →0 t dt d
t = ... ( i )
In component form, we have: a = a x î + a y ˆj + a z kˆ vsr sin 
x = ( v r + vsr cos  ) t ... ( ii )
dv x dv y dv
Where, a x = , ay = , az = z
dt dt dt • Minimum time of crossing
d
 t min = And hence
15. Relative motion can be defined as the comparison vsr
between the motions of a single object to the motion of  d 
another object moving with the same velocity. Relative Drift x = v r  
motion can be easily found out with the help of the  vsr 
concept of relative velocity, relative acceleration or
relative speed
16. The relative velocity of an object A with respect to

object B is the rate of position of the object A with
respect of object B.
• If VA and VB be the velocities of objects A and B
with respect to the ground, then:
(a) The relative velocity of A with respect to B is
VAB = VA – VB
(b) The relative velocity of B with respect to A is
VBA = VA – VB
• Shortest Path: The person should try to swim such
• SI unit: m/s
that the resultant velocity becomes perpendicular to the
• Dimensional formula: [LT-1]
river flow.
d
17. Relative Acceleration: The relative acceleration (also  t =
ar) is the acceleration of an object or observer B in the vsr − v2r
2
rest frame of another object or observer A.

• Acceleration of B relative to A = aB - aA
• SI unit: m/s2
• Dimensional formula: [LT-2]
18. Crossing of River problems:
19. Rain-man umbrella problems

• A person standing/running in a particular direction
would be needed to be protected by properly
directing the axis of the umbrella.
• Here again 3 situations may arise-
• Time of crossing: Component (vr + vsr cos 𝜽) will
enable the person to drift along the length of river.
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Case-I Case-II Case-III

v r sin  = v m
v r sin   v m
v r sin   v m 

 v r cos  = v rm
v m − v r sin 
v r sin  − v m
In this case rain appears

to fall vertically, which
v r sin  − v m
tan  = v m − v sin  can happen only if the
v r cos  tan  =
v r cos  horizontal velocity of
rain and man match.
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LAWS OF MOTION AND FRICTION 1
04
LAWS OF MOTION
& FRICTION
Laws of Motion and Friction
1. Force 2. Types of Force

(a) A force is something which changes or tends to There are, basically, four forces, which are commonly
change the state of rest or motion of a body. It causes encountered in mechanics.
a body to start moving if it is at rest or stop it, if it is (a) Weight : Weight of an object is the force with which
in motion or deflect it from its initial path of motion. earth attracts it. It is also called the force of gravity
(b) Force is also defined as an interaction between two or the gravitational force.
bodies. Two bodies can also exert force on each (b) Contact Force : When two bodies come in contact
other even without being in physical contact, e.g., they exert forces on each other that are called contact
electric force between two charges, gravitational forces.
force between any two bodies of the universe. (i) Normal Force (N): It is the component of contact
(c) Force is a vector quantity having SI unit Newton (N) force normal to the surface. It measures how strongly
and dimension [MLT–2]. the surfaces in contact are pressed together.
(d) Superposition of force: When many forces are
acting on a single body, the resultant force is (ii) Frictional Force (f) : It is the component of contact
obtained by using the laws of vector addition. force parallel to the surface. It opposes the relative
→ → → → motion (or attempted motion) of the two surfaces in
F = F1 + F2 + ... Fn contact.
Fig. 4.1
→ → Fig. 4.3
The resultant of the two forces F1 and F2 acting at
an angle θ is given by: (c) Tension: The force exerted by the ends of a taut
string, rope or chain is called the tension. The
F = F12 + F22 + 2 F1 F2 cos  direction of tension is so as to pull the body while
The resultant force is directed at an angle α with that of normal reaction is to push the body.
F2 sin  (d) Spring Force: Every spring resists any attempt to
respect to force F1 where tan  = change its length; the more you alter its length the
F1 + F2 cos 
harder it resists. The force exerted by a spring is
(e) Lami’s theorem : If three forces F1, F2 and F3 are given by F = –kx, where x is the change in length
acting simultaneously on a body and the body is in
equilibrium, then according to Lami’s theorem, and k is the stiffness constant or spring constant (unit
F1 F2 F3 Nm–1).
= =
sin ( −  ) sin ( −  ) sin ( −  )
where α, β and γ are the angles opposite to the forces
F1, F2 & F3 respectively.
3. Newton’s Laws of Motion
3.1 First law of Motion
(a) Everybody continues in its state of rest or of uniform
motion in a straight line unless it is compelled by a
resultant force to change that state
(b) This law is also known as law of inertia. Inertia is
the property of inability of a body to change its
position of rest or uniform motion in a straight line
unless some external force acts on it.
Fig. 4.2
LAWS OF MOTION AND FRICTION
(c) Mass is a measure of inertia of a body. 3.3 Third Law of Motion

(d) A frame of reference in which Newton’s first law is (a) According to this law, for every action there is an
valid is called inertial frame, i.e., if a frame of equal and opposite reaction. When two bodies A and
reference is at rest or in uniform motion it is called B exert force on each other, the force by A on B (i.e.,
inertial, otherwise non-inertial. action represented by FAB ), is always equal and
opposite to the force by B on A (i.e., reaction
3.2 Second Law of Motion represented FBA ). Thus, FAB = – FBA .
(a) This law gives the magnitude of force. (b) The two forces involved in any interaction between
two bodies are called action and reaction. But we
(b) According to second law of motion, rate of change of
cannot say that a particular force is action and the
momentum of a body is directly proportional to the
other one is reaction.
resultant force acting on the body, i.e.,
(c) Action and Reaction force always acts on different
 dp 
F   bodies.
 dt 
dp
F= K 3.4 Some Important Points Concerning
dt
Here, the change in momentum takes place in the Newton’s Laws of Motion
direction of the applied resultant force. Momentum,
p = mv is a measure of sum of the motion contained (a) The forces of interaction between bodies composing
a system are called internal forces. The forces
in the body. exerted on bodies of a given system by bodies
(c) Unit force : It is defined as the force which changes situated outside are called external forces.
the momentum of a body by unity in unit time. (b) Whenever one force acts on a body it gives rise to
According to this, K=1 another force called reaction i.e., a single isolated
dp d dv dm force is physically impossible. This is why total
F= = ( mv ) = m + v . internal force in an isolated system is always zero.
dt dt dt dt
According to Newton’s second law, F = 
If the mass of the system is finite and remains dp 
(c) .
constant w.r.t. time, then (dm/dt) = 0 and  dt 
 dv   p -p   dp  dv 
F = m   = ma=  2 1  If F=0,   =0 or   = 0
 dt   t   dt   dt 
(d) External force acting on a body may accelerate it →
either by changing the magnitude of velocity or or v = constant or zero,

direction of velocity or both. i.e., a body remains at rest or moves with uniform
(i) If the force is parallel to the motion, it changes velocity unless acted upon by an external force. This
only the magnitude of velocity but not the direction. is Newton’s Ist law.
So, the path followed by the body is a straight line. (d) Newton’s second law can also be expressed as:
(ii) If the force is acting perpendicular to the motion
Ft = p2 − p1 . Hence, if a car and a truck are initially
of body, it changes only the direction but not the
moving with the same momentum, then by the
magnitude of velocity. So, the path followed by the
application of same breaking force, both will come to
body is a circle (uniform circular motion).
rest in the same time.
(iii) If the force acts at an angle to the motion of a
(e) The second law is a vector law. it is equivalent to
body, it changes both the magnitude and direction of
three equations : Fx = max ; Fy = may ; Fz = maz. A
v . In this case path followed by the body may be
force can only change the component of velocity in
elliptical, non-uniform circular, parabolic or
hyperbolic. its direction. It has no effect on the component
perpendicular to it.
(f) F = ma is a local relation. The force at a point on

space at any instant is related to the acceleration at
that instant. Example: An object on an accelerated
balloon will have acceleration of balloon. The
moment it is dropped, it will have acceleration due to
gravity.
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3.5 Applications of Newton’s Laws of If observer O is non-inertial with acceleration a0 and still
Motion wants to apply Newton’s Second Law on particle P, then
observer has to add a “Pseudo force” in addition to real
There are two kinds of problems in classical mechanics : forces on particle P.
(a) To find unknown forces acting on a body, given the
FPseudo = −mP a0
body’s acceleration.
(b) To predict the future motion of a body, given the Thus, Newton Second Law with respect to O will be
body’s initial position and velocity and the forces
acting on it. For either kind of problem, we use
Newton’s second law . The following general
strategy is useful for solving such problems :
(i) Draw a simple, neat diagram of the system.
(ii) Isolate the object of interest whose motion is being
analyzed. Draw a free body diagram for this object, Fig. 4.4
that is, a diagram showing all external forces acting
on the object. For systems containing more than one
FReal + FPseudo = mP aP, O
object, draw separate diagrams for each objects. Do i.e., FReal − mP aO = mP aP, O
not include forces that the object exerts on its
surroundings. Where aP , O is acceleration of P with respect to observer O.
(iii) Establish convenient coordinate axes for each body NOTE:
and find the components of the forces along these
If observer is in rotating frame, then Pseudo force is
axes. Now, apply Newton’s second law,  F = ma , called “Centrifugal force”.
in component form. Check your dimensions to make
sure that all terms have units of force. Remember : Pseudo force is required only and only if
(iv) Solve the component equations for the unknowns. observer is non-inertial. e.g.
Remember that you must have as many independent (i) Study of motion with respect to accelerating lift.
equations as you have unknowns in order to obtain a (ii) Study of motion with respect to accelerating wedge.
complete solution.
(v) It is a good idea to check the predictions of your
solutions for extreme values of the variables. You 6. Apparent Weight in an
can often detect errors in your results by doing so.
Accelerated Lift
4. Linear Momentum (a) When the lift is at rest or moving with uniform
velocity, i.e., a = 0 :
The linear momentum of a body is defined as the product of mg– R = 0 or R = mg ∴ Wapp. = W0
the mass of the body and its velocity i.e.
Linear momentum = mass × velocity
If a body of mass m is moving with a velocity v , its linear
momentum p is given by
p=mv
Linear momentum is a vector quantity. Its direction is the
same as the direction of velocity of the body. Fig. 4.5
–1 (Where Wapp. = R = reaction of supporting surface or
The SI unit of linear momentum is kg ms and the cgs unit
of linear momentum is g cm s–1. Dimension : [MLT–1] reading of a weighing machine and W0= mg = true
weight.)
5. Pseudo Force
It is a fictitious force observed only in non-inertial frames of
reference. In a non-initial frame, it acts on a body in a
direction opposite to the acceleration of the frame of
reference.
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8. Problem of a Mass
(b) When the lift moves upwards with an acceleration
a:
 a
R – mg = ma or R = m(g + a) = mg 1 +


g
Suspended from a Vertical
∴ Wapp. = W0 1 +
 a
 String
 g
Following cases are possible:
(a) If the carriage (say lift) is at rest or moving
uniformly (in translatory equilibrium), then T0 = mg.
(b) If the carriage is accelerated up with an acceleration
a, then
 a  a
T = m(g + a) = mg 1 +  = T0  1 + 
 g  g
Fig. 4.6
(c) When the lift moves downwards with an
acceleration a :
 a
mg – R = ma or R = m (g–a) = mg 1 −  Fig. 4.8
 g
(c) If the carriage is accelerated down with an
 a acceleration a, then
∴ Wapp. =W0 1 − 
 g  a  a
T = m(g – a) = mg 1 −  = T0 1 − 
 g  g
Fig. 4.9
(d) If the carriage begins to fall freely, then the tension
Fig. 4.7 in the string becomes zero.
Here, if a > g, Wapp. will be negative. Negative (e) If the carriage is accelerated horizontally, then
apparent weight will mean that the body is pressed (i) mass m experiences a pseudo force ma opposite to
against the roof of the lift instead of floor. acceleration;
(d) When the lift falls freely, i.e., a = g : (ii) the mass m is in equilibrium inside the carriage and
R = m (g –g) = 0 ∴ Wapp. = 0 T sin θ = ma, T cos θ = mg, i.e.,
T = m g 2 + a2 ;
7. Problem of Monkey
Climbing a Rope
Let T be the tension in the rope.
(i) When the monkey climbs up with uniform speed : T
= mg.
(ii) When the monkey moves up with an acceleration a :
T – mg = ma or T = m (g + a). Fig. 4.10
(iii) When the monkey moves down with an acceleration
a : mg – T = ma or T = m (g – a).
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(iii) the string does not remain vertical but inclines to the
vertical at an angle θ = tan–1 (a/g) opposite to
acceleration;
(iv) This arrangement is called accelerometer and can be
used to determine the acceleration of a moving
carriage from inside by noting the deviation of a
plumbline suspended from it from the vertical.
9. Constraint Relation Fig. 4.12

Let us try to visualize this situation For string connecting m1 and m2 :
Let the length of the string be l1
Fig. 4.13
Fig. 4.11
On differentiating it twice :
(i) If m3 was stationary, then magnitude of
a1 + a2
displacements of m1 and m2 would be same and in 0 = (a2 – a) + (a1 – a) + 0  a =
opposite direction. 2
Let us say x (displacement of m1 and m2 when m3 is For string connecting m3 and pulley :
stationary). Let the string length be l2
(ii) Now consider the case when m3 displaces by x1, then
net displacement of m1 = x 1 – x
m2 = x 1 + x
m3 = x 1
(iii) Differentiate it twice we have
am3 = a1 Fig. 4.14
NOTE:
am1 = a1 − a
am2 = a1 + a If length is decreasing, then differentiation of that length

will be negative.
This problem can be approached in other way. Which
is more mathematical and do not require much of ∴ On differentiating twice, we have
visualisation. 0 = a + (–a3)
Steps involved to approach problems of multiple a = a3
pulleys of system having different accelerations:
Now, we can apply F = ma for different blocks.
(i) Define a fixed point/axis.
Solve for a3, a1, a2 and Tension.
(ii) Locate positions of all movable points from fixed
point/axis.
(iii) (a) Write down the relation between length of the
string and the position of different movable points.
(b) No. of relation must be equal to no. of string.
(iv) Differentiate it twice to get the relationship between
acceleration of different objects.
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10. Friction 10.2 Laws of Limiting Friction

(a) Static Friction
Friction is an opposing force that comes into play when
one body actually moves (slides or rolls) or even tries to (i) The force of friction always acts in a direction
move over the surface of another body. opposite to the direction of relative motion, i.e.,
friction is of perverse nature.
Thus force of friction is the force that develops at the
surfaces of contact of two bodies and impedes (opposes) (ii) The maximum force of static friction, fms (called
their relative motion. limiting friction) is directly proportional to the
normal reaction (R) between the two surfaces in
contact. i.e.,
(i) Frictional force is independent of the area of contact.
This is because with increase in area of contact, force f ms  N ...(1)
of adhesion also increases (in the same ratio). And (iii) The force of limiting friction depends upon the
the adhesive pressure responsible for friction, nature and the state of polish of the two surfaces in
remains the same. contact and it acts tangential to the interface between
(ii) When the surfaces in contact are extra smooth, the two surfaces.
distance between the molecules of the surfaces in (iv) The force of limiting friction is independent of the
contact decreases, increasing the adhesive force extent of the area of the surfaces in contact as long as
between them. Therefore, the adhesive pressure the normal reaction remains the same.
increases, and so does the force of friction.
10.3 Coefficient of Static Friction

10.1 Static Friction, Limiting Friction
We know that, f ms  N or f ms = s N
and Kinetic Friction
f ms
The opposing force that comes into play when one body or s = ...(2)
tends to move over the surface of another, but the actual N
relative motion has yet not started is called Static friction. Here, μs is a constant of proportionality and is called the
Limiting friction is the maximum opposing force that comes coefficient of static friction. Thus : Coefficient of static
into play, when one body is just at the verge of moving over friction for any pair of surfaces in contact is equal to the
the surface of the other body. ratio of the limiting friction and the normal reaction. μs,
being a pure ratio, has got no units and its value depends
Kinetic friction or dynamic friction is the opposing force upon the nature of the surfaces in contact. Further, μs, is
that comes into play when one body is actually moving over usually less than unity and is never equal to zero.
the surface of another body.
Since the force of static friction (fs) can have any value from
zero to maximum (fms), i.e. fs < fms, eqn. (2) is generalised to
NOTE: fs < μsN ...(3)
Kinetic friction is always slightly less than the limiting
friction.
10.4 Kinetic Friction
The laws of kinetic friction are exactly the same as those for
Wx - applied force static friction. Accordingly, the force of kinetic friction is
also directly proportional to the normal reaction, i.e.,
f - friction force
f k  N or fk =  k N ...(4)
μk is coefficient of kinetic friction. μk < μs.
10.5 Rolling Friction
The opposing force that comes into play when a body

rolls over the surface of another body is called the rolling
friction.
Cause of rolling friction: Let us consider a wheel which is
Fig. 4.15 rolling along a road. As the wheel rolls along the road, it
slightly presses into the surface of the road and is itself
slightly compressed as shown in Fig.
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i.e. coefficient of limiting friction between any two surfaces

in contact is equal to tangent of the angle of friction between
them.
10.7 Angle of Repose or Angle of Sliding

Fig. 4.16
Angle of repose or angle of sliding is defined as the
Thus, a rolling wheel: minimum angle of inclination of a plane with the
(i) constantly climbs a ‘hill’ (BC) in front of it, and horizontal, such that a body placed on the plane just
(ii) has to simultaneously get itself detached from the begins to slide down.
road (AB) behind it. The force of adhesion between It is represented by α. Its value depends on material and
the wheel and the road opposes this process. nature of the surfaces in contact.
Both these processes are responsible for rolling In fig., AB is an inclined plane such that a body placed on it
friction. just begins to slide down. ∠BAC (α) = angle of repose.
10.6 Angle of Friction

The angle of friction between any two surfaces in contact
is defined as the angle which the resultant of the force of
limiting friction F and normal reaction R makes with the Fig. 4.18
direction of normal reaction R.
The various forces involved are :
It is represented by θ.
(i) weight, mg of the body, acting vertically downwards,
In fig. OA represents the normal reaction R which balances
(ii) normal reaction, R, acting perpendicular to AB,
the weight mg of the body. OB represent F, the limiting
force of sliding friction, when the body tends to move to the (iii) Force of friction F, acting up the plane AB.
right. Complete the parallelogram OACB. Join OC. This Now, mg can be resolved into two rectangular components
represents the resultant of R and F. By definition, AOC = : mg cos α opposite to R and mg sin α opposite to F. In
θ is the angle of friction between the two bodies in contact.
equilibrium,
F = mg sin α ... (7)
R = mg cos α ... (8)
Dividing (7) by (8), we get
F mg sin 
= , i.e.,  = tan 
R mg cos 
Hence coefficient of limiting friction between any two
surfaces in contact is equal to the tangent of the angle of
repose between them.
NOTE:
Combining (6) and (9), we obtain
μ = tan θ = tan α
  =
Fig. 4.17 i.e. angle of friction is equal to angle of repose.
The value of angle of friction depends on the nature of
materials of the surfaces in contact and the nature of the
surfaces.
10.8 Method of Changing Friction
Relation between μ and θ Some of the ways of reducing friction are:
AC OB F (i) By polishing.
In Δ AOC, tan  = = = = ...(5) (ii) By lubrication.
OA OA R
(iii) By proper selection of materials.
Hence  = tan  ...(6) (iv) By Streamlining.
(v) By using ball bearings.
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Some Important Cases
Case Diagram Result
F
(a) When two bodies are kept in contact and force is (i) a =
m1 + m2
applied on the body of mass m1.
m2 F
(ii) N =
m1 + m2
(b) When two bodies are kept in contact and force is F

(i) a =
applied on the body of mass m2. m1 + m2
m1 F
(ii) N  =
m1 + m2
(c) When two bodies are connected by a string and F
placed on a smooth horizontal surface. (i) a =
m1 + m2
m1 F
(ii) T =
m1 + m2
(d) When three bodies are connected through strings as F
(i) a =
shown in fig and placed on a smooth horizontal surface.
( m1 + m2 + m3 )
m1 F
(ii) T1 =
(m1 + m2 + m3 )
( m1 + m2 ) F
(iii) T2 =
( m1 + m2 + m3 )
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( m1 − m2 ) g
(e) When two bodies of masses m1 & m2 are attached at (i) a =
the ends of a string passing over a pulley as shown in ( m1 + m2 )
the figure
 2m1m2 
(ii) T =  g
 m1 + m2 
m2 g
(f) When two bodies of masses m1 & m2 are attached (i) a =
at the ends of a string passing over a pulley in such a ( m1 + m2 ) ,
way that mass m1 rests on a smooth horizontal table and m1m2 g
mass m2 is hanging vertically. (ii) T =
( 1 + m2 )
m
( m2 − m1 sin  ) g
(i) a =
m1 + m2
(g) If in the above case, mass m1 is placed on a smooth
inclined plane making an angle  with horizontal as m1m2 g (1 + sin  )
(ii) T =
shown in ( m1 + m2 )
(iii) If the system remains in
equilibrium, then m1g sin  = m2g
(h) If masses m1 and m2 are placed on inclined planes g ( m1 sin  − m2 sin  )
(i) a =
making angles α & β with the horizontal respectively, ( m1 + m2 )
then
m1m2
(ii) T = ( sin  + sin  ) g
( m1 + m2 )
a = g sin , N = mg cos 
(i) When a body is moving on smooth inclined plane.
(j) When a body is moving down on a rough inclined aD = g (sin – µcos )

plane.
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NCERT CORNER 6. Newton’s third law of motion: To every action, there

is always an equal and opposite reaction In simple
(Some important points to remember) terms, the law can be stated thus: Forces in nature
always occur between pairs of bodies. Force on a
1. Aristotle’s view that a force is necessary to keep a body A by body B is equal and opposite to the force
body in uniform motion is wrong. A force is on the body B by A. Action and reaction forces are
necessary in practice to counter the opposing force of simultaneous forces. There is no cause-effect relation
friction. between action and reaction. Any of the two mutual
forces can be called action and the other reaction.
2. Newton’s first law of motion: “Everybody continues Action and reaction act on different bodies and so
to be in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a they cannot be cancelled out. The internal action and
straight line, unless compelled by some external reaction forces between different parts of a body do,
force to act otherwise”. In simple terms, the First however, sum to zero.
Law is “If external force on a body is zero, its 7. Law of Conservation of Momentum The total
acceleration is zero”. momentum of an isolated system of particles is
conserved. The law follows from the second and
3. Momentum (p) of a body is the product of its mass third law of motion.
(m) and velocity (v): p = mv
8. Frictional force opposes (impending or actual)
relative motion between two surfaces in contact. It is
4. Newton’s second law of motion: The rate of change
the component of the contact force along the
of momentum of a body is proportional to the
common tangent to the surface in contact. Static
applied force and takes place in the direction in
friction fs opposes impending relative motion; kinetic
which the force acts. Thus
friction fk opposes actual relative motion. They are
independent of the area of contact and satisfy the
dp
F=k = kma following approximate laws:
dt
fS  ( fs )max = S R
where F is the net external force on the body and a its
fk = R
acceleration. We set the constant of proportionality k k
= 1 in SI units. Then µs(co-efficient of static friction) and µk (co-efficient

dp of kinetic friction) are constants characteristic of the
F= = ma pair of surfaces in contact. It is found experimentally
dt
that µk is less than µs.
The SI unit of force is newton : 1 N = 1 kg m s-2 .
(a) The second law is consistent with the First Law
(F = 0 implies a = 0)
(b) It is a vector equation
(c) It is applicable to a particle, and to a body or a
system of particles, provided F is the total external
force on the system and a is the acceleration of the
system.
5. Impulse is the product of force and time which

equals change in momentum. The notion of impulse
is useful when a large force acts for a short time to
produce a measurable change in momentum. Since
the time of action of the force is very short, one can
assume that there is no appreciable change in the
position of the body during the action of the
impulsive force.
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Physics
Class11th NEET
04
LAW OF MOTION
& FRICTION
Chapter 04
1. Force 2. Types of Force

(a) A force is something which changes or tends to There are, basically, four forces, which are commonly
change the state of rest or motion of a body. It causes encountered in mechanics.
a body to start moving if it is at rest or stop it, if it is (a) Weight : Weight of an object is the force with which
in motion or deflect it from its initial path of motion. earth attracts it. It is also called the force of gravity
(b) Force is also defined as an interaction between two or the gravitational force.
bodies. Two bodies can also exert force on each (b) Contact Force : When two bodies come in contact
other even without being in physical contact, e.g., they exert forces on each other that are called contact
electric force between two charges, gravitational forces.
force between any two bodies of the universe. (i) Normal Force (N): It is the component of contact
(c) Force is a vector quantity having SI unit Newton (N) force normal to the surface. It measures how strongly
and dimension [MLT–2]. the surfaces in contact are pressed together.
(d) Superposition of force: When many forces are
acting on a single body, the resultant force is (ii) Frictional Force (f) : It is the component of contact
obtained by using the laws of vector addition. force parallel to the surface. It opposes the relative
→ → → → motion (or attempted motion) of the two surfaces in
F = F1 + F2 + ... Fn contact.
Fig. 4.1
→ → Fig. 4.3
The resultant of the two forces F1 and F2 acting at
an angle θ is given by: (c) Tension: The force exerted by the ends of a taut
string, rope or chain is called the tension. The
F = F12 + F22 + 2 F1 F2 cos  direction of tension is so as to pull the body while
The resultant force is directed at an angle α with that of normal reaction is to push the body.
F2 sin  (d) Spring Force: Every spring resists any attempt to
respect to force F1 where tan  = change its length; the more you alter its length the
F1 + F2 cos 
harder it resists. The force exerted by a spring is
(e) Lami’s theorem : If three forces F1, F2 and F3 are given by F = –kx, where x is the change in length
acting simultaneously on a body and the body is in
equilibrium, then according to Lami’s theorem, and k is the stiffness constant or spring constant (unit
F1 F2 F3 Nm–1).
= =
sin ( −  ) sin ( −  ) sin ( −  )
where α, β and γ are the angles opposite to the forces
F1, F2 & F3 respectively.
3. Newton’s Laws of Motion
3.1 First law of Motion
(a) Everybody continues in its state of rest or of uniform
motion in a straight line unless it is compelled by a
resultant force to change that state
(b) This law is also known as law of inertia. Inertia is
the property of inability of a body to change its
position of rest or uniform motion in a straight line
unless some external force acts on it.
Fig. 4.2
(c) Mass is a measure of inertia of a body. 3.3 Third Law of Motion

(d) A frame of reference in which Newton’s first law is (a) According to this law, for every action there is an
valid is called inertial frame, i.e., if a frame of equal and opposite reaction. When two bodies A and
reference is at rest or in uniform motion it is called B exert force on each other, the force by A on B (i.e.,
inertial, otherwise non-inertial. action represented by FAB ), is always equal and
opposite to the force by B on A (i.e., reaction
3.2 Second Law of Motion represented FBA ). Thus, FAB = – FBA .
(a) This law gives the magnitude of force. (b) The two forces involved in any interaction between
two bodies are called action and reaction. But we
(b) According to second law of motion, rate of change of
cannot say that a particular force is action and the
momentum of a body is directly proportional to the
other one is reaction.
resultant force acting on the body, i.e.,
(c) Action and Reaction force always acts on different
 dp 
F   bodies.
 dt 
dp
F= K 3.4 Some Important Points Concerning
dt
Here, the change in momentum takes place in the Newton’s Laws of Motion
direction of the applied resultant force. Momentum,
p = mv is a measure of sum of the motion contained (a) The forces of interaction between bodies composing
a system are called internal forces. The forces
in the body. exerted on bodies of a given system by bodies
(c) Unit force : It is defined as the force which changes situated outside are called external forces.
the momentum of a body by unity in unit time. (b) Whenever one force acts on a body it gives rise to
According to this, K=1 another force called reaction i.e., a single isolated
dp d dv dm force is physically impossible. This is why total
F= = ( mv ) = m + v . internal force in an isolated system is always zero.
dt dt dt dt
According to Newton’s second law, F = 
If the mass of the system is finite and remains dp 
(c) .
constant w.r.t. time, then (dm/dt) = 0 and  dt 
 dv   p -p   dp  dv 
F = m   = ma=  2 1  If F=0,   =0 or   = 0
 dt   t   dt   dt 
(d) External force acting on a body may accelerate it →
either by changing the magnitude of velocity or or v = constant or zero,

direction of velocity or both. i.e., a body remains at rest or moves with uniform
(i) If the force is parallel to the motion, it changes velocity unless acted upon by an external force. This
only the magnitude of velocity but not the direction. is Newton’s Ist law.
So, the path followed by the body is a straight line. (d) Newton’s second law can also be expressed as:
(ii) If the force is acting perpendicular to the motion
Ft = p2 − p1 . Hence, if a car and a truck are initially
of body, it changes only the direction but not the
moving with the same momentum, then by the
magnitude of velocity. So, the path followed by the
application of same breaking force, both will come to
body is a circle (uniform circular motion).
rest in the same time.
(iii) If the force acts at an angle to the motion of a
(e) The second law is a vector law. it is equivalent to
body, it changes both the magnitude and direction of
three equations : Fx = max ; Fy = may ; Fz = maz. A
v . In this case path followed by the body may be
force can only change the component of velocity in
elliptical, non-uniform circular, parabolic or
hyperbolic. its direction. It has no effect on the component
perpendicular to it.
(f) F = ma is a local relation. The force at a point on

space at any instant is related to the acceleration at
that instant. Example: An object on an accelerated
balloon will have acceleration of balloon. The
moment it is dropped, it will have acceleration due to
gravity.
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3.5 Applications of Newton’s Laws of If observer O is non-inertial with acceleration a0 and still
Motion wants to apply Newton’s Second Law on particle P, then
observer has to add a “Pseudo force” in addition to real
There are two kinds of problems in classical mechanics : forces on particle P.
(a) To find unknown forces acting on a body, given the
FPseudo = −mP a0
body’s acceleration.
(b) To predict the future motion of a body, given the Thus, Newton Second Law with respect to O will be
body’s initial position and velocity and the forces
acting on it. For either kind of problem, we use
Newton’s second law . The following general
strategy is useful for solving such problems :
(i) Draw a simple, neat diagram of the system.
(ii) Isolate the object of interest whose motion is being
analyzed. Draw a free body diagram for this object, Fig. 4.4
that is, a diagram showing all external forces acting
on the object. For systems containing more than one
FReal + FPseudo = mP aP, O
object, draw separate diagrams for each objects. Do i.e., FReal − mP aO = mP aP, O
not include forces that the object exerts on its
surroundings. Where aP , O is acceleration of P with respect to observer O.
(iii) Establish convenient coordinate axes for each body NOTE:
and find the components of the forces along these
If observer is in rotating frame, then Pseudo force is
axes. Now, apply Newton’s second law,  F = ma , called “Centrifugal force”.
in component form. Check your dimensions to make
sure that all terms have units of force. Remember : Pseudo force is required only and only if
(iv) Solve the component equations for the unknowns. observer is non-inertial. e.g.
Remember that you must have as many independent (i) Study of motion with respect to accelerating lift.
equations as you have unknowns in order to obtain a (ii) Study of motion with respect to accelerating wedge.
complete solution.
(v) It is a good idea to check the predictions of your
solutions for extreme values of the variables. You 6. Apparent Weight in an
can often detect errors in your results by doing so.
Accelerated Lift
4. Linear Momentum (a) When the lift is at rest or moving with uniform
velocity, i.e., a = 0 :
The linear momentum of a body is defined as the product of mg– R = 0 or R = mg ∴ Wapp. = W0
the mass of the body and its velocity i.e.
Linear momentum = mass × velocity
If a body of mass m is moving with a velocity v , its linear
momentum p is given by
p=mv
Linear momentum is a vector quantity. Its direction is the
same as the direction of velocity of the body. Fig. 4.5
–1 (Where Wapp. = R = reaction of supporting surface or
The SI unit of linear momentum is kg ms and the cgs unit
of linear momentum is g cm s–1. Dimension : [MLT–1] reading of a weighing machine and W0= mg = true
weight.)
5. Pseudo Force
It is a fictitious force observed only in non-inertial frames of
reference. In a non-initial frame, it acts on a body in a
direction opposite to the acceleration of the frame of
reference.
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8. Problem of a Mass
(b) When the lift moves upwards with an acceleration
a:
 a
R – mg = ma or R = m(g + a) = mg 1 +


g
Suspended from a Vertical
∴ Wapp. = W0 1 +
 a
 String
 g
Following cases are possible:
(a) If the carriage (say lift) is at rest or moving
uniformly (in translatory equilibrium), then T0 = mg.
(b) If the carriage is accelerated up with an acceleration
a, then
 a  a
T = m(g + a) = mg 1 +  = T0  1 + 
 g  g
Fig. 4.6
(c) When the lift moves downwards with an
acceleration a :
 a
mg – R = ma or R = m (g–a) = mg 1 −  Fig. 4.8
 g
(c) If the carriage is accelerated down with an
 a acceleration a, then
∴ Wapp. =W0 1 − 
 g  a  a
T = m(g – a) = mg 1 −  = T0 1 − 
 g  g
Fig. 4.9
(d) If the carriage begins to fall freely, then the tension
Fig. 4.7 in the string becomes zero.
Here, if a > g, Wapp. will be negative. Negative (e) If the carriage is accelerated horizontally, then
apparent weight will mean that the body is pressed (i) mass m experiences a pseudo force ma opposite to
against the roof of the lift instead of floor. acceleration;
(d) When the lift falls freely, i.e., a = g : (ii) the mass m is in equilibrium inside the carriage and
R = m (g –g) = 0 ∴ Wapp. = 0 T sin θ = ma, T cos θ = mg, i.e.,
T = m g 2 + a2 ;
7. Problem of Monkey
Climbing a Rope
Let T be the tension in the rope.
(i) When the monkey climbs up with uniform speed : T
= mg.
(ii) When the monkey moves up with an acceleration a :
T – mg = ma or T = m (g + a). Fig. 4.10
(iii) When the monkey moves down with an acceleration
a : mg – T = ma or T = m (g – a).
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(iii) the string does not remain vertical but inclines to the
vertical at an angle θ = tan–1 (a/g) opposite to
acceleration;
(iv) This arrangement is called accelerometer and can be
used to determine the acceleration of a moving
carriage from inside by noting the deviation of a
plumbline suspended from it from the vertical.
9. Constraint Relation Fig. 4.12

Let us try to visualize this situation For string connecting m1 and m2 :
Let the length of the string be l1
Fig. 4.13
Fig. 4.11
On differentiating it twice :
(i) If m3 was stationary, then magnitude of
a1 + a2
displacements of m1 and m2 would be same and in 0 = (a2 – a) + (a1 – a) + 0  a =
opposite direction. 2
Let us say x (displacement of m1 and m2 when m3 is For string connecting m3 and pulley :
stationary). Let the string length be l2
(ii) Now consider the case when m3 displaces by x1, then
net displacement of m1 = x 1 – x
m2 = x 1 + x
m3 = x 1
(iii) Differentiate it twice we have
am3 = a1 Fig. 4.14
NOTE:
am1 = a1 − a
am2 = a1 + a If length is decreasing, then differentiation of that length

will be negative.
This problem can be approached in other way. Which
is more mathematical and do not require much of ∴ On differentiating twice, we have
visualisation. 0 = a + (–a3)
Steps involved to approach problems of multiple a = a3
pulleys of system having different accelerations:
Now, we can apply F = ma for different blocks.
(i) Define a fixed point/axis.
Solve for a3, a1, a2 and Tension.
(ii) Locate positions of all movable points from fixed
point/axis.
(iii) (a) Write down the relation between length of the
string and the position of different movable points.
(b) No. of relation must be equal to no. of string.
(iv) Differentiate it twice to get the relationship between
acceleration of different objects.
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10. Friction 10.2 Laws of Limiting Friction

(a) Static Friction
Friction is an opposing force that comes into play when
one body actually moves (slides or rolls) or even tries to (i) The force of friction always acts in a direction
move over the surface of another body. opposite to the direction of relative motion, i.e.,
friction is of perverse nature.
Thus force of friction is the force that develops at the
surfaces of contact of two bodies and impedes (opposes) (ii) The maximum force of static friction, fms (called
their relative motion. limiting friction) is directly proportional to the
normal reaction (R) between the two surfaces in
contact. i.e.,
(i) Frictional force is independent of the area of contact.
This is because with increase in area of contact, force f ms  N ...(1)
of adhesion also increases (in the same ratio). And (iii) The force of limiting friction depends upon the
the adhesive pressure responsible for friction, nature and the state of polish of the two surfaces in
remains the same. contact and it acts tangential to the interface between
(ii) When the surfaces in contact are extra smooth, the two surfaces.
distance between the molecules of the surfaces in (iv) The force of limiting friction is independent of the
contact decreases, increasing the adhesive force extent of the area of the surfaces in contact as long as
between them. Therefore, the adhesive pressure the normal reaction remains the same.
increases, and so does the force of friction.
10.3 Coefficient of Static Friction

10.1 Static Friction, Limiting Friction
We know that, f ms  N or f ms = s N
and Kinetic Friction
f ms
The opposing force that comes into play when one body or s = ...(2)
tends to move over the surface of another, but the actual N
relative motion has yet not started is called Static friction. Here, μs is a constant of proportionality and is called the
Limiting friction is the maximum opposing force that comes coefficient of static friction. Thus : Coefficient of static
into play, when one body is just at the verge of moving over friction for any pair of surfaces in contact is equal to the
the surface of the other body. ratio of the limiting friction and the normal reaction. μs,
being a pure ratio, has got no units and its value depends
Kinetic friction or dynamic friction is the opposing force upon the nature of the surfaces in contact. Further, μs, is
that comes into play when one body is actually moving over usually less than unity and is never equal to zero.
the surface of another body.
Since the force of static friction (fs) can have any value from
zero to maximum (fms), i.e. fs < fms, eqn. (2) is generalised to
NOTE: fs < μsN ...(3)
Kinetic friction is always slightly less than the limiting
friction.
10.4 Kinetic Friction
The laws of kinetic friction are exactly the same as those for
Wx - applied force static friction. Accordingly, the force of kinetic friction is
also directly proportional to the normal reaction, i.e.,
f - friction force
f k  N or fk =  k N ...(4)
μk is coefficient of kinetic friction. μk < μs.
10.5 Rolling Friction
The opposing force that comes into play when a body

rolls over the surface of another body is called the rolling
friction.
Cause of rolling friction: Let us consider a wheel which is
Fig. 4.15 rolling along a road. As the wheel rolls along the road, it
slightly presses into the surface of the road and is itself
slightly compressed as shown in Fig.
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i.e. coefficient of limiting friction between any two surfaces

in contact is equal to tangent of the angle of friction between
them.
10.7 Angle of Repose or Angle of Sliding

Fig. 4.16
Angle of repose or angle of sliding is defined as the
Thus, a rolling wheel: minimum angle of inclination of a plane with the
(i) constantly climbs a ‘hill’ (BC) in front of it, and horizontal, such that a body placed on the plane just
(ii) has to simultaneously get itself detached from the begins to slide down.
road (AB) behind it. The force of adhesion between It is represented by α. Its value depends on material and
the wheel and the road opposes this process. nature of the surfaces in contact.
Both these processes are responsible for rolling In fig., AB is an inclined plane such that a body placed on it
friction. just begins to slide down. ∠BAC (α) = angle of repose.
10.6 Angle of Friction

The angle of friction between any two surfaces in contact
is defined as the angle which the resultant of the force of
limiting friction F and normal reaction R makes with the Fig. 4.18
direction of normal reaction R.
The various forces involved are :
It is represented by θ.
(i) weight, mg of the body, acting vertically downwards,
In fig. OA represents the normal reaction R which balances
(ii) normal reaction, R, acting perpendicular to AB,
the weight mg of the body. OB represent F, the limiting
force of sliding friction, when the body tends to move to the (iii) Force of friction F, acting up the plane AB.
right. Complete the parallelogram OACB. Join OC. This Now, mg can be resolved into two rectangular components
represents the resultant of R and F. By definition, AOC = : mg cos α opposite to R and mg sin α opposite to F. In
θ is the angle of friction between the two bodies in contact.
equilibrium,
F = mg sin α ... (7)
R = mg cos α ... (8)
F mg sin 
= , i.e.,  = tan 
R mg cos 
Hence coefficient of limiting friction between any two
surfaces in contact is equal to the tangent of the angle of
repose between them.
NOTE:
Combining (6) and (9), we obtain
μ = tan θ = tan α
  =
Fig. 4.17 i.e. angle of friction is equal to angle of repose.
The value of angle of friction depends on the nature of
materials of the surfaces in contact and the nature of the
surfaces.
10.8 Method of Changing Friction
Relation between μ and θ Some of the ways of reducing friction are:
AC OB F (i) By polishing.
In Δ AOC, tan  = = = = ...(5) (ii) By lubrication.
OA OA R
(iii) By proper selection of materials.
Hence  = tan  ...(6) (iv) By Streamlining.
(v) By using ball bearings.
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Some Important Cases
Case Diagram Result
F
(a) When two bodies are kept in contact and force is (i) a =
m1 + m2
applied on the body of mass m1.
m2 F
(ii) N =
m1 + m2
(b) When two bodies are kept in contact and force is F

(i) a =
applied on the body of mass m2. m1 + m2
m1 F
(ii) N  =
m1 + m2
(c) When two bodies are connected by a string and F
placed on a smooth horizontal surface. (i) a =
m1 + m2
m1 F
(ii) T =
m1 + m2
(d) When three bodies are connected through strings as F
(i) a =
shown in fig and placed on a smooth horizontal surface.
( m1 + m2 + m3 )
m1 F
(ii) T1 =
(m1 + m2 + m3 )
( m1 + m2 ) F
(iii) T2 =
( m1 + m2 + m3 )
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( m1 − m2 ) g
(e) When two bodies of masses m1 & m2 are attached at (i) a =
the ends of a string passing over a pulley as shown in ( m1 + m2 )
the figure
 2m1m2 
(ii) T =  g
 m1 + m2 
m2 g
(f) When two bodies of masses m1 & m2 are attached (i) a =
at the ends of a string passing over a pulley in such a ( m1 + m2 ) ,
way that mass m1 rests on a smooth horizontal table and m1m2 g
mass m2 is hanging vertically. (ii) T =
( 1 + m2 )
m
( m2 − m1 sin  ) g
(i) a =
m1 + m2
(g) If in the above case, mass m1 is placed on a smooth
inclined plane making an angle  with horizontal as m1m2 g (1 + sin  )
(ii) T =
shown in ( m1 + m2 )
(iii) If the system remains in
equilibrium, then m1g sin  = m2g
(h) If masses m1 and m2 are placed on inclined planes g ( m1 sin  − m2 sin  )
(i) a =
making angles α & β with the horizontal respectively, ( m1 + m2 )
then
m1m2
(ii) T = ( sin  + sin  ) g
( m1 + m2 )
a = g sin , N = mg cos 
(i) When a body is moving on smooth inclined plane.
(j) When a body is moving down on a rough inclined aD = g (sin – µcos )

plane.
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NCERT CORNER 6. Newton’s third law of motion: To every action, there

is always an equal and opposite reaction In simple
(Some important points to remember) terms, the law can be stated thus: Forces in nature
always occur between pairs of bodies. Force on a
1. Aristotle’s view that a force is necessary to keep a body A by body B is equal and opposite to the force
body in uniform motion is wrong. A force is on the body B by A. Action and reaction forces are
necessary in practice to counter the opposing force of simultaneous forces. There is no cause-effect relation
friction. between action and reaction. Any of the two mutual
forces can be called action and the other reaction.
2. Newton’s first law of motion: “Everybody continues Action and reaction act on different bodies and so
to be in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a they cannot be cancelled out. The internal action and
straight line, unless compelled by some external reaction forces between different parts of a body do,
force to act otherwise”. In simple terms, the First however, sum to zero.
Law is “If external force on a body is zero, its 7. Law of Conservation of Momentum The total
acceleration is zero”. momentum of an isolated system of particles is
conserved. The law follows from the second and
3. Momentum (p) of a body is the product of its mass third law of motion.
(m) and velocity (v): p = mv
8. Frictional force opposes (impending or actual)
relative motion between two surfaces in contact. It is
4. Newton’s second law of motion: The rate of change
the component of the contact force along the
of momentum of a body is proportional to the
common tangent to the surface in contact. Static
applied force and takes place in the direction in
friction fs opposes impending relative motion; kinetic
which the force acts. Thus
friction fk opposes actual relative motion. They are
independent of the area of contact and satisfy the
dp
F=k = kma following approximate laws:
dt
fS  ( fs )max = S R
where F is the net external force on the body and a its
fk = R
acceleration. We set the constant of proportionality k k
= 1 in SI units. Then µs(co-efficient of static friction) and µk (co-efficient

dp of kinetic friction) are constants characteristic of the
F= = ma pair of surfaces in contact. It is found experimentally
dt
that µk is less than µs.
The SI unit of force is newton : 1 N = 1 kg m s-2 .
(a) The second law is consistent with the First Law
(F = 0 implies a = 0)
(b) It is a vector equation
(c) It is applicable to a particle, and to a body or a
system of particles, provided F is the total external
force on the system and a is the acceleration of the
system.
5. Impulse is the product of force and time which

equals change in momentum. The notion of impulse
is useful when a large force acts for a short time to
produce a measurable change in momentum. Since
the time of action of the force is very short, one can
assume that there is no appreciable change in the
position of the body during the action of the
impulsive force.
Physics
05
WORK, ENERGY AND POWER
MOTION IN STRAIGHT LINE
Chapter 05
Work, Energy and Power
( )(
W = Fx î + Fy ˆj + Fz kˆ . xiˆ + yjˆ + zkˆ )
1. Work
W = x Fx + y Fy + zFz
Introduction to Work:
Obviously, work is a scalar quantity, i.e., it has magnitude
In Physics, work stands for ‘mechanical work’.
only and no direction. However, work done by a force can
Work is said to be done by a force when the body is be positive or negative or zero.
displaced actually through some distance in the direction of
Note:
the applied force.
Work done is positive, negative or zero depending upon the
However, when there is no displacement in the direction of
angle between force & displacement
the applied force, no work is said to be done, i.e., work done
is zero, when displacement of the body in the direction of
the force is zero. 1.1. Dimensions and Units of Work
As work = force × distance
Suppose a constant force F acting on a body produces a
W = ( M1L1T −2 )  L
displacement s in the body along the positive x-direction,
as shown in the figure 1 1 –2
W = (M L T ) × L
W =  M1 L2 T −2 
This is the dimensional formula of work.

The units of work are of two types:
1. Absolute units 2. Gravitational units
(a) Absolute unit
Fig.5.1
1. Joule. It is the absolute unit of work in SI.
If  is the angle which force makes with the positive x–
Work done is said to be one joule, when a force of one newton
direction of the displacement, then the component of in the
actually moves a body through a distance of one metre in the
direction of displacement is (F cos  ). As work done by the W =ofFsapplied
cos  force.
direction
force is the product of component of force in the direction of
the displacement and the magnitude of the displacement, From
1 joule = 1 newton × 1 metre × cos 0° = 1 N–m
W = ( Fcos ) s ... (1)
2. Erg. It is the absolute unit of work in cgs system.
If displacement is in the direction of force applied, Work done is said to be one erg, when a force of one dyne
 = 0 . Then from (1), W = (F cos 0°) s = F s actually moves a body through a distance of one cm in the
W =ofFsapplied
direction cos  force.
Equation (1) can be rewritten as W = F.s ... ( 2 ) From
Thus, work done by a force is the dot product of force and
1erg = 1dyne 1cm  cos0 = 10−5 N 10−2 m 1
displacement.
In terms of rectangular component, F and s may written as 1erg = 10−7 J
F = F î + F ˆj + F kˆ and s = xiˆ + yjˆ + zkˆ
x y z (b) Gravitational units
From (2), W = F.s These are also called the practical units of work.
1. Kilogram-metre (kg–m). It is the gravitational unit of
work in SI.
Work done is said to be one kg–m, when a force of 1 kgf

moves a body through a distance of 1 m in the direction of the
applied force.
From W = Fcos 
1 kg–m = 1kgf × 1 m × cos 0° = 9.8 N × 1 m = 9.8 joule, i.e.,
1kg − m = 9.8 J
2. Gram-centimetre (g-cm). It is the gravitational unit of

work in cgs system.
Work done is said to be one g-cm, when a force of 1g f moves
a body through a distance of 1 cm in the direction of the Fig.5.2
applied force.
(c) Zero work
From W = Fs cos 
When force applied F or the displacement s or both are
1 g-cm = 1 g f × 1 cm × cos 0° zero, work done W = F s cos q is zero. Again, when angle q
1 g-cm = 980 dyne × 1 cm × 1 between F and s is 90°, cos  = cos 90 = 0 . Therefore,
1g − cm = 980 erg work done is zero.
For example:
1.2. Nature of Work Done When we push hard against a wall, the force we exert on the
Although work done is a scalar quantity, its value may be wall does no work, because s = 0. However, in this process,
positive, negative or even zero, as described below: our muscles are contracting and relaxing alternately and
(a) Positive work internal energy is being used up. That is why we do get
tired.
As W = F. s = Fs cos 
1.3. Work done by a Variable Force
 when q is acute (< 90°), cos q is positive. Hence, work
done is positive. If the force is variable then the work done is
xB
For example: W=  F ( x ) .dx
When a body falls freely under the action of gravity,  = 0 , xA
F (x)
cos  = cos 0 = +1 . Therefore, work done by gravity on a
C
body falling freely is positive.
(b) Negative work
D
As W = F. s = Fs cos 
Work
\ When q is obtuse (> 90°), cos q is negative. Hence, work
done is negative. O A B
x
For example: (b)

When a body is thrown up, its motion is opposed by gravity. Fig.5.3
The angle  between gravitational force and the
W = Area ABCDA
displacement is 180°. As cos  = cos180 = −1 therefore,
work done by gravity on a body moving upwards is Note Hence, work done by a variable force is numerically equal to
negative. the area under the force curve and the displacement axis.
Note:
NOTE:
Energy of a body is defined as the capacity or ability of
the body to do the work
Work done is equal to energy consumed.
2. Kinetic Energy
Introduction to Kinetic Energy:
The kinetic energy of a body is the energy possessed by the
body by virtue of its motion.
For example:
(i) A bullet fired from a gun can pierce through a target on
account of kinetic energy of the bullet.
(ii) Windmills work on the kinetic energy of air.
(iii) For example, sailing ships use the kinetic energy of wind.
(iv) Water mills work on the kinetic energy of water. For
example, fast flowing stream has been used to grind
corn.
(iv) A nail is driven into a wooden block on account of kinetic
energy of the hammer striking the nail.
Formula for Kinetic Energy
1
K.E. of body = m v2
2
2.1. Relation Between Kinetic Energy

and Linear Momentum
Let m = mass of a particle, v = velocity of the particle. Fig.5.4
Linear momentum of the particle, p = mv
1 1 3. Work Energy Theorem

and K.E. of the particle =
2
mv 2 =
2m
( m2 v2 )
According to this principle, work done by net force in
p2 displacing a body is equal to change in kinetic energy of the
 K.E =
2m body.
Thus, when a force does some work on a body, the kinetic
This is an important relation. It shows that a particle cannot
energy of the body increases by the same amount.
have K.E. without having linear momentum. The reverse is
Conversely, when an opposing (retarding) force is applied on
also true.
a body, its kinetic energy decreases. The decrease in kinetic
1 energy of the body is equal to the work done by the body
Further, if p = constant, K.E 
m against the retarding force. Thus, according to work energy
This is shown in figure (a) principle, work and kinetic energy are equivalent quantities.
If K.E. = constant, p2  m or Proof: To prove the work-energy theorem, we confine

ourselves to motion in one dimension.
This is shown in figure (b).
Suppose m = mass of a body, u = initial velocity of the body,
If m = constant, p2  K.E or F = force applied on the body along it’s direction of motion,
This is shown in figure (c) a = acceleration produced in the body, v = final velocity of
the body after t second.
Small amount of work done by the applied force on the body,
dW = F ( ds ) when ds is the small distance moved by the body 3. Work done by or against a conservative force in moving a
body through any round trip (i.e., closed path, where final
in the direction of the force applied.
position coincides with the initial position of the body) is
 dv  always zero.
Now, F = ma = m  
 dt  Non-conservative Forces
 dv   dv  A force is said to be non-conservative, if work done by or
dW = F ( ds ) = m   ds = m   against the force in moving a body from one position to
 
dt  dt 
another, depends on the path followed between initial and
 ds 
dV = mv dv  = v  final position.
 dt 
For example, frictional forces are non-conservative forces.
 ds 
 = v
 dt  Potential Energy and the Associated Conservative Force:
Total work done by the applied force on the body in We know how to find potential energy associated with a
increasing its velocity from u to v is conservative force. Now we learn how to obtain the
v conservative force if potential energy function is known.
v v
 v2 
W =  mv dv = m v dv = m   Consider work done dW by a conservative force in moving
u u  2 u a particle through an infinitely small path length d s as
shown in the figures.
W=
1
2
( ) 1 1
m v 2 − u 2 = mv 2 − mu 2
2 2
1 1
But mv 2 = K f = final K.E. of the body and mu 2 = K i =
2 2
initial K.E. of the body
W = Kf − Ki = change in K.E. of body
i.e., Net work done on the body = increase in K.E. of body
4. Potential Energy
Fig.5.5
4.1. Conservative and Non-Conservative
Forces
dU = −dW = −F.ds = −Fds cos 
Conservative force
A force is said to be conservative if work done by or against From the above equation, the magnitude F of the
the force in moving a body depends only on the initial and conservative force can be expressed.
final positions of the body, and not on the trajectory of path
dU dU
followed between the initial and the final positions. F=− =−
ds cos  dr
This means, work done by or against a conservative force in
moving a body over any path between fixed initial and final If we assume an infinitely small displacement in the
positions will be the same. direction of the force, magnitude of the force is given by the
For example, gravitational force is a conservative force. following equation.
Properties of Conservative forces :
1. Work done by or against a conservative force, in moving dU
F=−
a body from one position to the other depends only on the dr
initial position and final position of the body.
Here minus sign suggest that the force acts in the direction
2. Work done by or against a conservative force does not of decreasing potential energy.
depend upon the trajecrory of the path followed by the body
in going from initial position to the final position.
−U U U Wg = −mgh
Also, Fx = , Fy = , FZ = −
x y z
U = − Wg
U = mgh
4.2 Introduction to Potential Energy
U B − U A = mgh
The potential energy of a body is defined as the energy
possessed by the body by virtue of its position or Considering UA = 0, UB = U = mgh
configuration in some conservative field.
Thus, potential energy is the energy that can be associated 4.4. Spring Potential Energy
with the configuration (or arrangement) of a system of objects Potential energy of a spring is the energy associated with the
that exert forces on one another. Obviously, if configuration state of compression or expansion of an elastic spring.
of the system changes, then its potential energy changes.
To calculate it, consider an elastic spring OA of negligible
Two important types of potential energy are : mass. The end O of the spring is fixed to a rigid support and
1. Gravitational potential energy a body of mass m is attached to the free end A. Let the spring
2. Elastic potential energy. be oriented along x–axis and the body of mass m lies on a
perfectly frictionless horizontal table.
Also WC = −U
WC : Work done by conservative force

O
4.3. Gravitational Potential Energy A
Fig.5.7
Gravitational potential energy of a body is the energy
possessed by the body by virtue of its position above the The position of the body A, when spring is unstretched is
surface of the earth. chosen as the origin.
To calculate gravitational potential energy, suppose When the spring is compressed or elongated, it tends to regain
to its original length, on account of elasticity. The force trying
m = mass of a body
to bring the spring back to its original configuration is called
g = acceleration due to gravity on the surface of earth. restoring force or spring force.
h = height through which the body is raised, as shown in the For a small stretch or compression, spring obeys Hooke’s
figure. law.
Restoring Force  stretch or compression
F  − x, F = − kx
where k is a constant of the spring and is called spring
constant.
1
It is established that for a spring, k  ,
: Natural length of spring

i.e., smaller the length of the spring, greater will be the force
constant and vice-versa.
The negative sign in equation indicates that the restoring
Fig.5.6
force is directed always towards the equilibrium position.
If we assume that height h is not too large and the value of g Let the body be displaced further through an infinitesimally
is practically constant over this height, small distance dx, against the restoring force.
Wg = mg  cos180 Small amount of work done in increasing the length of the
spring by dx is
dW = – F dx = kx dx only. Suppose a body undergoes a small displacement Dx

Total work done in giving displacement x to the body can be under the action of a conservative force F ( x ) . According to
obtained by integrating from x = 0 to x = x, i.e., work energy theorem,
x =x x =x
x 
2
x
2
 1 change in K.E. = work done
W=  k x dx = k  2  = k  − 0  = kx 2
 2  2
x =0 x =0 K = F ( x ) .x
This work done is stored in the spring at the point B in the
As the force is conservative, the potential energy function
form of P.E
U ( x ) is defined as
1 2
 P.E. at B = W = kx
−U = F ( x ) .x or U = −F ( x ).x
2
Adding, we get K = F ( x ) .dx
K = −U,  ( K + U ) = 0
which means ( K + U ) = E = constant
Fig.5.8 5.1 Illustration of the Law of

The variation of potential energy with distance x is shown in Conservation of Mechanical Energy
figure
P.E. To illustrate the law further, let us calculate kinetic energy
K.E., potential energy P.E. and total energy T.E. of a body
falling freely under gravity.
Let m be the mass of the body held at A, at a height h above
X' A X the ground, figure.
x
A
Fig.5.9
x
h
5. Mechanical Energy and Its B
(h–x)
Conservation C
Ground
The mechanical energy (E) of a body is the sum of kinetic Fig.5.10
energy (K) and potential energy (U) of the body
As the body is at rest at A, therefore,
i.e., E = K + U
At A : K. E. of the body = 0
Obviously, mechanical energy of a body is a scalar quantity
P.E. of the body = mgh where g is acceleration due to
measured in joule.
gravity at A.
We can show that the total mechanical energy of a system is
T.E. of the body = K.E + P.E = 0 + mgh
conserved if the force, doing work on the system are
conservative. E1 = mgh .... (1)
This is called the principle of conservation of total Let the body be allowed to fall freely under gravity, when it
mechanical energy. strikes the ground at C with a velocity v.
For simplicity, we assume the motion to be one dimensional
From v2 − u 2 = 2as
v2 − 0 = 2gh
v2 = 2gh ... ( 2 ) At locations r = r1 , r = r2 , and in the region r  r3 , where

potential energy function assumes a minimum, a maximum,
1 1
At C : K.E. of the body = mv 2 = m(2 gh) = mgh and a constant value respectively, the force becomes zero and
2 2 the particle is in the state of equilibrium
P.E. of the body = mgh = mg (0) = 0
Total energy of the body = K.E. + P.E.
E2 = mgh + 0 = mgh ... (3)
In the free fall, let the body cross any point B with a velocity
v1 , where AB = x
2 2
From v – u = 2 as
v12 − 0 = 2(g)x .... ( 4)
1 1
At B : K.E. of the body = mv 2 = m(2gx) = mgx
2 2
Height of the body at B above the ground = CB = (h – x)
P.E. of the body at B = mg (h – x)
Total energy of the body at B = K.E. + P.E.
EB = mgx + mg ( h − x ) = mgx + mgh − mgx Fig.5.11
EB = mgh ... (5) Force is negative of the slope of the potential energy
From (1), (3), (5) we find that function
E A = E B = E C = mgh which proves conservation of
mechanical energy
6.1 Stable Equilibrium
At r = r1 the potential energy function is a minima and the
force on either side acts towards the point r = r1 . If the
6. Potential Energy and particle is displaced on either side and released, the force tries
to restore it at r = r1 . At this location the particle is in the state
Nature of Equilibrium
of stable equilibrium. The dip in the potential energy curve at
the location of stable equilibrium is known as potential well.
du
As we know f = − So, Force = negative of slope of u A particle when disturbed from the state of stable equilibrium
dr
starts oscillations about the location of stable equilibrium. At
versus r graph. the locations of stable equilibrium we have
The state of stable and unstable equilibrium is associated with U F 2 U
F(r) = − = 0; and  0; and 2  0
a point location, where the potential energy function assumes r r r
a minimum and maximum value respectively, and the neutral
equilibrium is associated with region of space, where the 6.2 Unstable Equilibrium
potential energy function assumes a constant value.
For the sake of simplicity, consider a one dimensional At r = r2 the potential energy function is a maxima, the force
potential energy function U of a central force F. Here r is the acts away from the point r = r2 . If the particle is displaced
radial coordinate of a particle. The central force F slightly on either side, it will not return to the location r = r2
experienced by the particle equals to the negative of the slope
. At this location, the particle is in the state of unstable
of the potential energy function. Variation in the force with r
equilibrium. At the locations of unstable equilibrium we have
is also shown in the figure.
U F 2 U
F(r) = − = 0; therefore  0; and 2  0
r r r
6.3 Neutral Equilibrium dW

P=
In the region r = r3 , the potential energy function is constant dt
and the force is zero everywhere. In this region, the particle * Now, dW = F.ds, where F is the force applied and d s is
is in the state of neutral equilibrium. At the locations of the small displacement.
neutral equilibrium we have
F.d s
U F 2 U P=
F(r) = − = 0 therefore = 0 and 2 = 0 dt
r r r
F.d s
P=
dt
7. Power
ds
But = v, the instantaneous velocity.
Power of a person or machine is defined as the time rate at dt
which work is done by it. P = F.v
work done
i.e., Power = Rate of doing work = Dimensions of power can be deduced as :
time taken
Thus, power of a body measurement how fast it can do the W M1L2 T −2
work. P= = =  M1L2 T −3 
t T1
Units of power
The absolute unit of power in SI is watt, which is denoted by
W.
From P = W/t
1 joule
1 watt = , i.e., 1W = 1Js −1
1sec
Power of a body is said to be one watt, if it can do one joule
of work in one second.
1 h.p. = 746 W
NOTE:
Power is also described in terms of rate at which energy
is consumed.
NCERT Corner the pseudo forces in the calculation of the net force
acting on the body under consideration.
Important Points to Remember
11. Every force encountered in mechanics does not have an
associated potential energy. For example, work done by
1. Work done is a scalar quantity. It can be positive or
friction over a closed path is not zero and no potential
negative unlike mass and kinetic energy which are
energy can be associated with friction.
positive scalar quantities. The work done by the friction
12. The principle of conservation of mechanical energy
or viscous force on a moving body is negative.
states that the total mechanical energy of a body remains
2. A force is conservative if (i) work done by it on an constant if the only forces that act on the body are
object is path independent and depends only on the conservative.
initial and final position, or (ii) the work done by the
force is zero for an arbitrary closed path taken by the
object such that it returns to its initial position.
3. The gravitational potential energy of a particle of mass
m at a height x about the earth’s surface is U(x) = m g x
where the variation of g with height is ignored.
4. The elastic potential energy of a spring of force constant
1
k and extension x is U(x) = kx 2
2
5. The potential energy of a body subjected to a
conservative force is always undetermined upto a
constant. For example, the point where the potential
energy is zero is a matter of choice. For the gravitational
potential energy mgh, the zero of the potential energy is
chosen to be the ground. For the spring potential energy
kx2/2, the zero of the potential energy is the equilibrium
position of the oscillating mass.
6. For a conservative force in one dimension, we may
define a potential energy function U(x) such that
dU(x)
F(x) = −
dx
xf
or U i − U f =  F(x)dx
xi
dU
7. For equilibrium F = − =0
dx
8. The work – energy theorem states that the change in
kinetic energy of a body is the work done by the net
force on the body.
Kf – Ki = Wnet
9. The work done by a force can be calculated sometimes
even if the exact nature of the force is not known. This is
calculated with the help of work energy theorem by
using change in kinetic energy
10. The WE theorem holds in all inertial frames. It can also
be applied in non internal frames provided we include
Physics
Class11th NEET
06
CIRCULAR MOTION
Circular Motion
1. Characteristics of Circular (b) Particle moving in a straight line
Motion
1.1 Circular motion
It is the movement of particles along the circumference of
the circle.
Fig. 6.3
(c) Particle moving in circular path
2. Various Parameters in i) Angular displacement is a vector quantity.
ii) Its direction is perpendicular to the plane of
Circular Motion rotation and is given by right hand screw rule.
NOTE:
2.1 Radius Vector Clockwise angular displacement is taken as negative and
anticlockwise displacement as positive.
The vector joining the centre of the circle and centre of the
particle performing circular motion is called radius vector. arc linear displacement
angle = =
It has constant magnitude and variable directions. radius radius
iii) For circular motion ΔS = r × Δθ

2.2 Angular Displacement
iv) Its unit is radian (in M.K.S)
Introduction: Angle subtended by position vectors of a
particle moving along any arbitrary path w.r.t. some fixed NOTE:
point is called angular displacement. Always change degree into radian, if it occurs in
numerical problems.
v) It is a dimensionless quantity, i.e. dimension is

[M0L0T0]
2.3 Angular Velocity

It is defined as the rate of change of angular displacement of
Fixed point a body or particle moving in a circular path.
i) It is a vector quantity.
Fig. 6.1 ii) Its direction is the same as that of angular displacement
(a) Particle moving in an arbitrary path i.e. perpendicular to the plane of rotation.
NOTE:
If the particle is revolving in the clockwise, direction then
the direction of angular velocity is perpendicular to the
revolutionary plane downwards. Whereas in case of
anticlockwise direction the direction will be upwards.
iii) Its unit is Radian/sec.

Fig. 6.2 iv) Its dimension is [M0L0T–1].
CIRCULAR MOTION
Types of Angular Velocity iii) Unit : rad/sec2

iv) Dimension : M0L0T–2
Average Angular Velocity
Total angular displacement
av = 3.1 Relation Between Angular
Total time taken
Acceleration And Linear
Instantaneous Angular Velocity Acceleration
The instantaneous angular velocity is defined as the angular Linear acceleration = Rate of change of linear
velocity at some particular instant of time. velocity
• Instantaneous angular velocity dv
a = ... ( i )
 d dt
 = lim =
t →0 t dt Angular acceleration = Rate of change of angular velocity
d
= ... ( ii )
NOTE: dt
Instantaneous angular velocity can also be called simply From (i) & (ii)
angular velocity. a dv d ( r) d
= = =  r  r is constant  = r
 d d d
2.4 Relation Between Linear Velocity  a = r
In vector form, a =  r
And Angular Velocity
d d ds 1
We have  = =  = v
dt ds dt r 4. Radial and Tangential
 
Acceleration
ds arc ds
 d = dr , angle = radius and v = dt = linear velocity 
 
In vector form, v =  r a) Radial Acceleration is the change in direction of linear
velocity and acts along the radius towards the centre of
circle. It is given by
NOTE:
v2
i) When a particle moves along a curved path, its linear r = = 2 r
r
velocity at a point is along the tangent drawn at that
It is also called centripetal acceleration.
point.
ii) When a particle moves along a curved path, its
b) Tangential acceleration is the change in magnitude of
velocity has two components. One along the radius,
linear velocity, that act along the tangent to the circular
which increases or decreases the radius and another
path. It is given by:
one perpendicular to the radius, which makes the
  = r
particle revolve about the point of observation.
 vsin 
iii)  = =
t r 5. Uniform & Non-Uniform
3. Angular Acceleration Circular Motion

• The rate of change of angular velocity is defined as • The uniform circular motion is that in which the
particle is moving at a constant speed on circular path.
angular acceleration.
• The non-uniform circular motion is that in which the
• If Δω be change in angular velocity in time Δt, then
particles move with variable speed on its circular path.
angular acceleration:
 d
 = lim =
t →0 t dt
i) It is a vector quantity
ii) Its direction is that of change in angular velocity
CIRCULAR MOTION
iii) Tangential, force Ft = 0

6. Kinematics of Circular
Motion
If,
m = mass of body,
r = radius of circular orbit, Fig. 6.6
v = magnitude of velocity iv) Total acceleration
ac = centripetal acceleration,
v2
at = tangential acceleration a = a c2 + a 2t = a c = (towards the centre)
r
In uniform circular motion : NOTE:
• Because Fc is always perpendicular to velocity or
i) v1 = v2 = v3 = constant i.e., speed is constant displacement, hence the work done by this force will
always be zero.
• Circular motion in a horizontal plane is usually
uniform circular motion.
• There is an important difference between projectile
motion and circular motion:
In projectile motion, both the magnitude and the
direction of acceleration (g) remain constant, while
in circular motion the magnitude remains constant
Fig 6.4
but the direction continuously changes.
ii) As v is constant, so tangential acceleration at = 0
Hence, equations of motion are not applicable for
circular motion.
• Remember that equations of motion remain valid
only when both the magnitude & direction of
acceleration are constant.
Fig. 6.5
6.1 Equations for Linear and Rotational Motion
S.No Condition Linear Motion Rotational Motion

a = 0, s = ut α = 0 , θ = ωt
(i) Average velocity (i) Average angular velocity
With constant
i. v+u  + 2
velocity vav = ωav = 1
2 2
(ii) Average acceleration (ii) Average angular acceleration

v−u  − 1
aav = aav = 2
t t
(iii) s = vav t (iii) θ = ωav. t
v+u  + 2
With constant = t = 1 t
ii. 2 2
acceleration
(iv) v = u + at (iv) 2 = 1 + t
1 1 2
(v) s = ut + at 2 (v) θ = ω1t + t
2 2
1 1
(vi) s = vt – at 2 (vi) θ = ω2t –  t 2
2 2
CIRCULAR MOTION
(vii) v2 = u2 + 2as (vii) 22 = 12 + 2

(viii) displacement in nth sec
(viii) Angular displacement in nth sec
1
Sn = u + ( 2n − 1) a 1
2 n = 1 + ( 2n − 1) 
2
(i) (i)  = d / dt
(ii)  ds =  v dt (ii)  d =   dt
With variable dv dv d d
iii. (iii) a = =v (iii)  = =
acceleration
dt ds dt d
(iv)  dv =  a dt (iv)  d =   dt
(v)  v dv =  a ds (v)   d =   d
7. Non-Uniform Circular F 
  = tan −1  t 
 Fc 
Motion Angle between F & Ft is (90º – θ)
i) In non-uniform circular motion :

v  constant,   constant
i.e. speed is not constant
& angular velocity is not constant
ii) If at any instant,
v = magnitude of velocity of particle,
r = radius of circular path,
ω = angular velocity of particle,
then Fig. 6.7
iii) Tangential acceleration:
dv vii) Net acceleration towards the centre = centripetal
at =
dt acceleration
ds v2 F
where, v = and s = arc (length)  ac = = 2 r = c
dt r m
iv) Tangential Force: Fnet
viii) Net Acceleration a = a c2 + a 2t =
Ft = mat m
v) Centripetal Force: a t Ft
The angle made by 'a' with ac, tan  = =
mv2 a c Fc
Fc = = m2 r
r
vi) Net Force on the particle
F = Fc + Ft
 F = Fc2 + Ft2 a
If θ is the angle made by [Note: angle between Fc and Ft
is 90º] F with Fc, then
F Fig. 6.8
tan  = t
Fc
CIRCULAR MOTION
NOTE: The triangle OP1P2 and the velocity triangle are similar
• In both uniform & non-uniform circular motion, Fc is PP AB
 1 2 =
perpendicular to velocity ; so work done by P1O AQ
centripetal force will be zero in both the cases. s AB
 =  v1 = v2 = v 
• In uniform circular motion, Ft = 0, as at = 0, so work r AQ 
done will be zero by tangential force.
v
• But in non-uniform circular motion Ft ≠ 0, thus there  v = s
r
will be work done by tangential force in this case.
v v s
• Rate of work done by net force in non-uniform  =
circular motion = Rate of work done by tangential t r t
force v v  s 
 lim = lim  
dW dx t → 0 t r t → 0
 t 
P= = Ft  v = Ft 
dt dt v v2
 ac = v= = r2
r r
8. Centripetal & Centrifugal a c = r 2

This is the magnitude of centripetal acceleration of particle
Force
i) It is a vector quantity. In vector form a c =  v
8.1 Centripetal ii) The direction of a c would be the same as that of v .
i) A body or particle moving in a curved path always
iii) Because the velocity vector at any point is tangential to
moves effectively in a circle at any instant.
the circular path at that point, the acceleration vector
ii) The velocity of the particle changes moving on the
acts along the radius of the circle at that point and is
curved path, this change in velocity is brought by a
directed towards the centre. This is the reason that it is
force, known as centripetal force and the acceleration
called centripetal acceleration.
produced in the body, is known as centripetal
acceleration.
iii) The direction of centripetal force or acceleration is 8.3 Expression for Centripetal Force
always towards the centre of the circular path.
8.2 Expression for Centripetal

Acceleration
Fig. 6.9
(a) Particle moving in circular path of radius r
Q
A
Fig. 6.10 Fig. 6.11
(b) Vector diagram of velocities If v = velocity of particle,
CIRCULAR MOTION
r = radius of path force acts along the radius and away from the centre
Then necessary centripetal force of the circle.
Fc = mass × acceleration
v2 NOTE:
Fc = m
r Both centripetal and centrifugal forces, being the forces
This is the expression for centripetal force of action and reaction, act always on different bodies. For
example, when a piece of stone tied to one end of a string
i) It is a vector quantity is rotated in a circle, centripetal force F1 is applied on the
ii) In vector form stone by the hand. In turn, the hand is pulled outwards by
mv2 centrifugal force F2 acting on it, due to the tendency of
Fc = −
r the stone to regain its natural straight line path. The
mv2 centripetal and centrifugal forces are shown in Fig.
Fc = − r
r2
Fc = −m2 r
Fc = −m ( v  )
Negative sign indicates direction only.
Fc = m ( v  )
iii) For circular motion:
Fig. 6.12
Fc = m ( v sin 90 ) = mv
NOTE:
• Centripetal force is not a real force. It is only the
9. Applications of Circular
requirement for circular motion.
• It is not a new kind of force. Any of the forces found
Motion
in nature such as gravitational force, electric friction 9.1 Hint to Solve Numerical Problem
force, tension in string, reaction force may act as
• Write down the required centripetal force.
centripetal force.
• Draw the free body diagram of each component of the
system.
8.4 Centrifugal Force • Resolve the forces acting on the rotating particle along
The natural tendency of a body is to move uniformly along a radius and perpendicular to radius.
straight line. When we apply centripetal force on the body, it • Calculate net radial force acting towards the centre of
is forced to move along a circle. While moving actually the circular path.
along a circle, the body has a constant tendency to regain its • Make it equal to required centripetal force.
natural straight line path. This tendency gives rise to a force • For remaining components see according to the
called centrifugal force. question.
Hence, Centrifugal force is a force that arises when a
body is moving actually along a circular path, by virtue
NOTE:
of the tendency of the body to regain its natural straight
When a system of particles rotates about an axis, the
line path.
angular velocity of all the particles will be the same, but
• Centrifugal forces can be regarded as the reaction of
their linear velocity will be different, because of different
centripetal force. As forces of action and reaction are
distances from the axis of rotation i.e. v = rω.
always equal and opposite, therefore, magnitude of
centrifugal force = m v2/r, which is same as that of
centripetal force. 9.2 Motion in Horizontal Circle :
• However, the direction of centrifugal force is opposite Conical Pendulum
to the direction of centripetal force i.e. centrifugal This is the best example of uniform circular motion. A
conical pendulum consists of a body attached to a string of
CIRCULAR MOTION
length , such that it can revolve in a horizontal circle with curved path and regain the straight line path. Force of
uniform speed. The string traces out a cone in space. friction between the wheels and the road opposes this
tendency of the wheels. This force (of friction)
i) The force acting on the bob are therefore, acts, towards the centre of the circular track
(a) Tension F (b) weight mg and provides the necessary centripetal force.
• Three forces are acting on the car, fig.
Fig. 6.14
i) The weight of the car, mg, acting vertically downwards,
ii) Normal reaction R of the road on the car, acting
vertically upwards,
iii) Frictional Force F, along the surface of the road,
towards the centre of the turn.
Fig. 6.13 • As there is no acceleration in the vertical direction,
ii) The horizontal component F sin θ of the tension F R–mg=0 or R=mg ...(1)
provides the centripetal force and the vertical The centripetal force required for circular motion is
component F cos θ balances the weight of bob along the surface of the road, towards the centre of the
mv2 turn.
 Fsin  = and Fcos  = mg As, it is the static friction that provides the necessary
r
From these equations centripetal force. Clearly,
mv2
v4 F …(2)
F = mg 1 + 2 2 ..... ( i ) r
r g
where v is the velocity of the car while turning and r is
v2 the radius of a circular track.
and tan  = .... ( ii )
rg As F = μsR = μs mg, [using (1)]
Also if h = height of conical pendulum where μs is the coefficient of static friction between the
OP r tyres and the road. Therefore, from (2),
tan  = = .... ( iii )
OS h mv 2
 s mg
From (ii) & (iii) r
v2 g or v  s rg
2 = =
r2 h
 v max = s rg ….(3)
The time period of revolution
2 Hence the maximum velocity with which a vehicle can
As, T =
 go round a level curve, without skidding is
h cos  v = s rg
T = 2 = 2  where OS = 
g g
• The value depends on the radius r of the curve and on
the coefficient of static friction (μs) between the tyres
9.3 Rounding a Level Curved Road and the road. Clearly, v is independent of the mass of
• When a vehicle goes round a curved road, it requires the car.
some centripetal force. While rounding the curve, the
wheels of the vehicle have a tendency to leave the
CIRCULAR MOTION
9.4 Banking of Roads • R sin θ, along the horizontal, towards the centre of the
curved road.
• The maximum permissible velocity with which a
vehicle can go around a level curved road without
F can also be resolved into two rectangular components :
skidding depends on μ, the coefficient of friction
between the tyres and the road. The value of μ • F cos θ, along the horizontal, towards the centre of
decreases when the road is smooth or tyres of the curved road.
vehicle are worn out or the road is wet. Thus, the force • F sin θ, along vertically downward direction.
of friction is not a reliable source for providing the
required centripetal force to the vehicle. As there is no acceleration along the vertical direction, the
• A safer course of action would be to raise the outer net force along this direction must be zero. Therefore,
edge of the curved road above the inner edge. By doing Rcosθ =mg+ F sin θ ...(1)
so, a component of normal reaction of the road shall be
spared to provide the centripetal force. The If v is the velocity of the vehicle over the banked circular
phenomenon of raising the outer edge of the curved road of radius r, then centripetal force required = mv 2/r. This
road above the inner edge is called banking of roads. is provided by the horizontal components of R and F as
shown in Fig.
• We can calculate the angle of banking θ, as detailed
below: mv2
 R sin  + Fcos  = ... ( 2 )
In Fig., OX is a horizontal line. OA is the level of r
banked curved road whose outer edge has been raised. But F < μs R, where μs is coefficient of static friction
∠XOA = θ = angle of banking. between the banked road and the tyres.
To obtain vmax, we put F = μs R in (1) and (2).

Rcosθ = mg + μs Rsinθ ...(3)
mv2
and R sin  + s R cos  = .... ( 4 )
r
From (3), R (cos θ – μs sin θ) = mg
mg
R= .... ( 5 )
cos  − s sin 
mv2
Fig. 6.15 From (4), R ( sin  + s cos ) =
r
mg ( sin  + s cos  ) mv2
Using (5), =
( cos  − s sin ) r
rg ( sin  + s cos  ) rg cos  ( tan  + s )
 v2 = =
( cos  − s sin ) cos  (1 − s tan )
1/ 2
 rg ( s + tan  ) 
v=  .... ( 6 )
 (1 − s tan  ) 
Fig. 6.16 This is the max. velocity of vehicle on a banked road.
Three forces are acting on the vehicle as shown in Fig. Special Case:
• Weight mg of the vehicle acting vertically downwards. If μs = 0, i.e., if banked road is perfectly smooth, then,
v0 = ( rg tan  ) .... ( 7 )
1/ 2
• Normal reaction R of the banked road acting upwards in
a direction perpendicular to OA.
This is the speed at which a banked road can be rounded
• Force of friction F between the banked road and the
even when there is no friction. Driving at this speed on a
tyres, acting along AO.
banked road will cause almost no wear and tear of the tyres.
R can be resolved into two rectangular components :- From (7), v 02 = rg tan 
• R cos θ, along vertically upward direction.
CIRCULAR MOTION
or tan  = v02 / rg .... (8)
• If the speed of the vehicle is less than v 0, frictional force

will be up the slope. Therefore, the vehicle can be
parked only if tan θ < μs.
• Roads are usually banked for the average speed of
vehicles passing over them. However, if the speed of a
vehicle is somewhat less or more than this, the self
adjusting static friction will operate between the tyres
and the road, and the vehicle will not skid. Fig. 6.17
• The speed limit at which the curve can be negotiated R can be resolved into two rectangular components:
safely is clearly indicated on the sign boards erected • R cos θ, along the vertical upward direction,
along the curved roads. • R sin θ, along the horizontal, towards the centre of the
NOTE: circular track.
The curved railway tracks are also banked for the same
reason. The level of outer rail is raised a little above the In equilibrium, R cos θ balances the weight of the cyclist i.e.
level of inner rail, while laying a curved railway track. R cos θ = mg ...(1)
and R sin θ provides the necessary centripetal force (m v 2/r)
mv2
9.5 Bending of a Cyclist  R sin  = .... ( 2 )
r
• When a cyclist takes a turn, he also requires some
centripetal force. If he keeps himself vertical while
R sin  mv2
turning, his weight is balanced by the normal reaction =
of the ground. R cos  r mg
• In that event, he has to depend upon force of friction v2
between the tyres and the road for obtaining the tan  =
rg
necessary centripetal force. As the force of friction is
small and uncertain, dependence on it is not safe. Clearly, θ would depend on v and r.
• To avoid dependence on force of friction for obtaining
centripetal force, the cyclist has to bend a little inwards • For a safe turn, θ should be small, for which v should be
from his vertical position, while turning. By doing so, a small and r should be large i.e. turning should be at a
component of normal reaction in the horizontal slow speed and along a track of larger radius. This
direction provides the necessary centripetal force. To means, a safe turn should neither be fast nor sharp.
calculate the angle of bending with vertical,
Let, 10. Motion in Vertical Circle
m = mass of the cyclist,
v = velocity of the cyclist while turning, Motion of a body suspended by string: This is the best
r = radius of the circular path, example of non-uniform circular motion.
θ = angle of bending with vertical. When the body rises from the bottom to the height h, a part
of its kinetic energy converts into potential energy
In Fig., we have shown weight of the cyclist (mg) acting
vertically downwards at the centre of gravity C. R is force of Total mechanical energy remains conserved
reaction of the ground on the cyclist. It acts at an angle θ Total (P.E. + K.E.) at A = Total (P.E. + K.E.) at P
with the vertical. 1 1
 0 + mu 2 = mgh + mv 2
2 2
 v = u 2 − 2gh
as h = − cos 
= (1 − cos )
CIRCULAR MOTION
 v = u 2 − 2g (1 − cos ) a) Tension at the lowest point A :

mv2A
TA = + mg
Here  = 0
mu 2
TA = + mg
b) Tension at point B :
mv2B
TB = − mg
Fig. 6.18 mu 2
TB = − 5mg (  = 180 )
[Where is length of the string]
c) Tension at point C :
10.1 Tension at a Point P TC =
mvC2
mv2
i) At point P, required centripetal force = mu 2
TC = − 2mg ( Here  = 90 )
a) Net force towards the centre :
T – mg cos θ, which provides required centripetal Thus, we conclude that
force. TA > TC > TB
and also
TA – TB = 6 mg
TA – TC = 3 mg
TC – TB = 3 mg
iii) Cases:
a) If u  5g
In this case tension in the string will not be zero at
any of the points, which implies that the particle will
Fig. 6.19 continue the circular motion.
b) If u = 5g
mv2 In this case the tension at the top most point (B)
 T − mg cos  =
will be zero, which implies that the particle will
 v2  just complete the circular motion.
T = m g cos  + 
  c) Critical Velocity: The minimum velocity at which
the circular motion is possible.
m
=  u 2 − g ( 2 − 3cos  )  The critical velocity at A = 5g
b) Tangential force for the motion The critical velocity at B = g
Ft = mg sin θ
The critical velocity at C = 3g
This force retards the motion
ii) Results: Also, TA = 6 mg, TB = 0, TC = 3 mg
d) If 2g  u  5g
In this case particles will not follow circular
motion. Tension in string becomes zero somewhere
between points C & B whereas velocity remains
positive. Particle leaves circular path and follow
parabolic trajectory
Fig 6.20
CIRCULAR MOTION
9. On a rotating platform, to avoid the skidding of an

object placed at a distance r from axis of rotation, the
maximum angular velocity of the platform,
= ( g / h ) , where  is the coefficient of friction
between the object and the platform.
10. If an inclined plane ends into a circular loop of radius r,
then the height from which a body should slide from the
inclined plane in the order to complete the motion in a
Fig. 6.21 circular track is h = 5r/2.
11. Minimum velocity that should be imparted to a
e) If u = 2g pendulum to complete the vertical circle is ( 5g )
In this case both velocity and tension in the string
where is the length of the pendulum.
becomes zero between A and C and the particle
will oscillate along a semi-circular path. 12. While describing a vertical circle when the stone is in its
lowest position, the tension in the string is six times the
f) If u  2g
weight of the stone.
The velocity of the particle remains zero between A 13. The total energy of the stone while revolving in a vertical
and C but tension will not be zero and the particle circle is (5/2) mgl .
will oscillate about the point A. 14. When the stone is in horizontal position then the tension
in the string is 3mg and the velocity of the stone is
( 3g ) .
11. Tips & Tricks 15. If the velocity of the stone at the highest point is X mg,
1. Centripetal force does not increase the kinetic energy of then the tension at the lowest point will be (X + 6)mg.
the particle moving in a circular path, hence the work 16. If a body of mass m is tied to a string of length and is
done by the force is zero. projected with a horizontal velocity u such that it does
2. Centrifuges are the apparatuses used to separate small not complete the motion in the vertical circle, then
and big particles from a liquid. u2
3. The physical quantities which remain constant for a (a) the height at which the velocity vanishes is h =
2g
particle moving in a circular path are speed, kinetic
(b) the height at which the tension vanishes is
energy and angular momentum.
4. If a body is moving on a curved road with speed greater u2 + g
h= .
than the speed limit, the reaction at the inner wheel 3g
disappears and it will leave the ground first. 17. The K.E. of a body moving in a horizontal circle is the
5. On unbanked curved roads the minimum radius of same throughout the path but the K.E. of the body
curvature of the curve for safe driving is r = v2/mg, moving in a vertical circle is different at different
where v is the speed of the vehicle and m is small. places.
6. If r is the radius of curvature of the speed breaker, then
the maximum speed with which the vehicle can run on
it without leaving contact with the ground is v = ( gr )
7. While taking a turn on the level road sometimes
vehicles overturned due to centrifugal force.
8. If h is the height of centre of gravity above the road, a is
half the wheel base distance, then for road safety
mv2
 h  mg  a,
r
Minimum safe speed for no overturning is v = gar / h
.
CIRCULAR MOTION
NCERT Corner Relation between angular acceleration (  ) and
Important Points to Remember linear velocity (v)

v2
=
r
1. Circular Motion
• It is the movement of particles along the circumference
3. Centripetal and Centrifugal Force
of a circle. • Centripetal force: In uniform circular motion the force
• The uniform circular motion is that in which the acting on the particle along the radius and towards the
particle is moving at a constant speed on circular path. centre keeps the body moving along the circular path.
This force is called centripetal force.
• The non-uniform circular motion is that in which the
particles move with variable speed on its circular path. • Centrifugal force: The pseudo force experienced by a
particle performing uniform circular motion due to
accelerated frame of reference which is along the radius
2. Variables in Circular Motion
and directed way from the centre is called centrifugal
• Angular Displacement: It is the angle subtended by
force.
the position vector at the centre of the circular path.
Angular displacement,  = s / r where, s is the arc
length and r is the radius
NOTE:
• Angular Velocity: The time rate of change of angular • Pseudo force acts in non inertial frame i.e. accelerated
frame of reference in which Neutron’s law’s of motion
displacement ( ) is called angular velocity.
do not hold good.
Angular velocity,  =  / t • When a car moving along a horizontal curve takes a
Angular velocity is a vector quantity turn, the person in the car experiences a push in the
outward direction.
Relation between linear velocity (v) and and angular • The coin placed slightly away from the centre of a
velocity ( ) is given by rotating gramophone disc slips towards the edge of the
v = r disc.
• A cyclist moving fast along a curved road has to lean
• Angular Acceleration: The rate of change of angular
inwards to keep his balance
velocity is called angular acceleration.
Angular acceleration,
 d d 2 
4. Difference Between Centripetal Force and
 = lim = = Its SI unit is rad/s2 and Centrifugal Force
t →0 t dt dt 2
dimensional formula is [T-2] Centripetal Force Centrifugal Force
Acceleration in a circular motion has two components • Centripetal force is • Centrifugal force is
as given below: directed along the directed along the
(a) Tangential acceleration is the change in magnitude radius. Towards the radius, away from the
of linear velocity and act along tangent to the circular centre of the circle. centre of the circle.
path. It is given by: • It is a real force. • It is a pseudo force.
 T = r
• It arises in both • It arises only in non-
(b) Radial Acceleration is the change in direction of inertial and non- inertial frame of
linear velocity and acts along the radius towards the inertial frame of reference or in rotating
reference. frame reference
v2
centre of circle. It is given by r = = 2 r •
r • Eg. when a satellite is Eg. along a curved road
revolving in circular the passenger in the
It is also called centripetal acceleration.
orbit around the earth, vehicle has a feeling of
the centripetal force is push in the outward
Relation between linear acceleration (a) and angular due to gravitational direction The push is
acceleration (  ) force of attraction. due to centrifugal force.
a = r , where r = radius
CIRCULAR MOTION
5. Equations of Motions: For completing the circular motion minimum speed at

For constant angular acceleration- the bottom vB = 5gr
(i)  = 0 + t Tension TB = 6mg
1
(ii)  = 0 t + t 2
2 10. Conical Pendulum (Motion in a horizontal
(iii) 2 = 02 + 2 circle)
mg
Tension in string =
( − r2 )
1/ 2
6. Motion of a car on a plane circular road- 2
For motion without skidding

Mv2max g
= Mg Angular velocity =
r cos 
 vmax rg cos  r

Periodic time = 2 = 2
g g tan 
7. Motion on a banked road
Angle of banking = 
h
tan  =
b
Maximum safe speed at the bend
1/ 2
 rg (  + tan  ) 
v max =  
 1 − (  tan  ) 
If friction is negligible
rhg v2
vmax = rg tan  = and tan  = max
b rg
8. Motion of cyclist on a curve

v2
In equilibrium angle with vertical is  , then tan  =
rg
Maximum safe speed = vmax = rg
9. Motion in a vertical circle (particle tied to

string)
 v2 
At the top position – Tension TA = m  A − g 
 r 
For TA = 0, critical speed = gr
 v2 
At the bottom – Tension TB = m  B + g 
 r 
Physics
Class11th NEET
07
CENTRE OF MASS,
MOMENTUM AND COLLISION
Centre of Mass, Momentum & Collisions
M2c
1. Centre of Mass a=
M1 + M 2
In the first part of mechanics, we have discussed all about M1c
point objects. In this chapter, we shall deal with the cases of b=
M1 + M 2
large objects or systems of point objects. To deal with such
COM will be towards the heavier mass.
scenarios, we need to know about the centre of mass of an
object or a system.
(b) For multiple systems of point objects
1.1 Definition
Centre of mass is a hypothetical point where the whole mass
of the object is assumed to be concentrated mathematically.
It is the weighted mean of the positions of all the point
objects with masses M1, M2, M3, ......,Mn respectively
Example :
Fig. 7.1
then Fig 7.3
M x + M 2 x 2 + .....M n x n Consider three systems, where total mass and position
X cm = 1 1
M1 + M 2 .... + M n of COM mass of all the particles in system 1, is M 1
Similarly : and (x1, y1) respectively in system 2 is M2 and (x2, y2)
and in system 3 is M3 and (x3, y3) respectively.
rcm =
M r i i
Then COM of all particles in all combined systems is
M i
M x + M 2 x 2 + M3 x 3
X cm = 1 1 and
 X cm =
M x i i
and Ycm =
M y i i M1 + M 2 + M 3
M i M i M y + M 2 y 2 + M 3 y3
Ycm = 1 1
M1 + M 2 + M3
(c) For objects with continuous mass distributions:
1.2 Location of Centre of Mass
(a) For 2 point objects COM of objects with continuous mass distribution can
be found with help of integration. Presently we shall
focus on the location of COM for some objects whose
mass is continuously distributed.
S.No Shapes COM
Fig 7.2
L
1. x=
Uniform Rod 2
CENTRE OF MASS, MOMENTUM & COLLISION
1.3 Motion of Centre of Mass

We know
2R M r + M 2 r2 + M 3 r3 + ......M n rn
2. y= rcm = 1 1
 M1 + M 2 + ......M n
Differentiating both sides with respect to time,
Semicircular ring M v + M 2 v 2 + ......M n v n
Vcm = 1 1
M1 + M 2 + .....M n
Again, differentiating both sides w.r.t. time
M a + M 2 a 2 + ....M n a n
4R A cm = 1 1
3. y= M1 + M 2 + ....M n
3
1.4 Properties and Application of COM

Semicircular disk
(a) Entire mass is supposed to be concentrated at COM.
(b) If some force is applied on a free object, the body does
not rotate if line of action of force passes through
centre of mass.
R We know
4. y=
2 M a + M 2 a 2 + ....M n a n
A cm = 1 1
M1 + M 2 + ....M n
Hollow hemisphere  MAcm = M1a1 + M2 a 2 + Mn a n
By Newton’s 2nd law.
M1a1 = F1 and similarly for all objects, with terms
having the obvious meanings.
3R
5. y=  F1 + F2 + ....Fn = MAcm
8
  Fext = MAcm
Solid hemisphere The above relation is very useful in solving
complicated problems.
(c) We know
M v + M 2 v 2 + ....M n v n
Vcm = 1 1
M1 + M 2 + ....M n
h  Mvcm = M1v1 + M 2 v2 + ....Mn vn
6. y=
4
Psys = P1 + P2 + .....Pn
Total momentum of system of all particles is total
mass times Vcm .
Solid right circular cone
Above relation helps us in applying momentum related
equations in complex problems.
1.5 Example of Motion of COM and its

2h Applications
7. y=
3 (a) Trajectory of COM remains unchanged on
disintegration of an unstable nucleus or a bomb till the
time F ext on the system does not change.
Hollow right circular cone (b) Motion of binary stars.
(c) Conservation of momentum during disintegration of an

unstable nucleus.
(d) Motion of earth-moon system about sun.
2. Linear Momentum
The total linear momentum of a system of particles is equal
to the product of the total mass of the system and the
velocity of its centre of mass P = Mvcm .
Fig. 7.4
2.1 Linear Momentum Conservation in
Presence of External Force 3.1 Instantaneous Impulse
dP There are many cases when a force acts for such a short time
Fext =  Fext dt = dP that the effect is instantaneous, e.g., a bat striking a ball. In
dt
such cases, although the magnitude of the force and the time
( )
 dP = Fext
impulsive
dt for which it acts may each be unknow but the value of their
product (i.e., impulse) can be known by measuring the
If ( F ) ext =0
impulsive initial and final momenta. Thus, we can write.
 dP = 0 or Pis constant I =  Fdt = P = Pf − Pi
NOTE:
Momentum is conserved if the external force present is 3.1.1 Important Points
non-impulsive. Eg. Gravitation or spring force.
• It is a vector quantity.
• Dimensions = [MLT-1]
When the vector sum of the external forces acting on a
• SI unit = kg m/s
system is zero, the total linear momentum of the system
• Direction is along change in momentum.
remains constant.
• Magnitude is equal to area under the F-t graph.
P1 + P2 + P3 + ....... + Pn = constant
• I =  Fdt = Fav  dt = Ft
• It is not a property of a particle, but it a measure of the
3. Impulse degree to which an external force changes the
momentum of the particle.
Impulse of a force F acting on a body for the time interval
t = t1 to t = t 2 is defined as :-
t2
3.2 Average Force
I =  Fdt We can now define the average force which acts on a
t1
v2 particle during a time interval  t . It is:
dv
I =  Fdt =  m dt =  mdv
dt p I
v1 F= =
t t
I = m ( v2 − v1 ) = P = change in momentum due to force F
The value of the average force depends on the time chosen.
.
NOTE:
Impulse applied to an object in a given time interval can
also be calculated from the area under force time (F-t)
graph in the same time interval.
4. Collisions 4.2 Coefficient of Restitution or

We define a collision as an isolated event in which two or
Coefficient of Resilience
more colliding bodies exert relatively strong forces on each Coefficient of restitution or coefficient of resilience of a
other for a relatively short time. collision is defined as the ratio of relative velocity of
Two key rules of the collision game are : separation after collision to the relative velocity of approach
(i) Law of conservation of linear momentum, and before collision. It is represented by ‘e’.
(ii) Law of conservation of energy. relative velocity of separation (after collision)
e=
relative velocity of approach (before collision)
4.1 Types of Collision v 2 – v1
e=
Collisions between particles have been divided broadly into u1 – u 2
two types :
where u1, u2 are velocities of two bodies before collision,
and v1, v2 are their respective velocities after collision.
(a) Elastic collision : A collision in which there is
absolutely no loss of kinetic energy is called an elastic
collision. For example, collisions between atomic and • For a perfectly elastic collision, relative velocity of
subatomic particles are elastic collisions. Practically a separation after collision is equal to relative velocity of
collision between two ivory balls can also be taken as approach before collision.
an elastic collision.  e =1
• For a perfectly inelastic collision, relative velocity of
The basic characteristics of an elastic collision are:
separation after collision = 0
(i) The linear momentum is conserved,
(ii) Total energy of the system is conserved, e=0
(iii) The kinetic energy is conserved. • For all other collisions, e lies between 0 and 1, i.e.
(iv) The forces involved during elastic collisions must 0 < e < 1.
be conservative forces.
4.3 Elastic Collision in One Dimension
(b) Inelastic collision : A collision in which there occurs It involves two bodies moving initially along the same
some loss of kinetic energy is called an inelastic straight line, striking against each other without loss of
collision. As there is always some loss of kinetic energy kinetic energy and continuing to move along the same
in most of the collisions, therefore, collisions we come straight line after collision.
across in daily life are generally inelastic. Suppose two balls A and B of masses m1 and m2 are moving
initially along the same straight line with velocities u1 and u2
The basic characteristics of an inelastic collision are : respectively, figure (a).
(i) The linear momentum is conserved
(ii) Total energy is conserved.
(iii) Kinetic energy is NOT conserved. Obviously, a
part of kinetic energy is converted into some other form
of energy e.g., heat energy, sound energy etc.
(iv) Some or all the forces involved in an inelastic
collision may be non-conservative in nature.
NOTE:
A perfectly inelastic collision is one in which maximum
amount of kinetic energy is lost.
Fig 7.5
When u1 > u2, v 2 − v1

From (7), =1
Relative velocity of approach before collision, = u 1 – u2 u1 − u 2
v 2 − v1
Therefore, two balls collide, as shown in figure (b). Let the By definition, = e = 1 (For perfectly elastic collision)
u1 − u 2
collision be perfectly elastic. After collision, suppose v 1 is
Hence, the coefficient of restitution/resilience of a perfectly
the velocity of A and v2 is the velocity of B along the same
elastic collision in one dimension is unity.
straight line, as shown in figure (c).
When v2 > v1, the bodies separate after collision.
Relative velocity of separation after collision = v 2 – v1 4.3.1 Calculation of velocities after collision
Linear momentum of the two balls before collision Velocity of A:
= m1u1 + m2u2 ..(1) From (7), v2 = u1 – u2 + v1
Linear momentum of the two balls after collision Putting in (3),
= m1v1 + m2v2 ..(2) we get m1v1 + m2 (u1 – u2 + v1) = m1u1 + m2 u2
 m1v1 + m2u1 – m2u2 + m2v1 = m1u1 + m2u2
As linear momentum is conserved in an elastic collision,  v1 (m1 + m2) = (m1 – m2) u1 + 2 m2 u2
therefore from equations (1) and (2) ( m1 − m2 ) u1 2m2 u 2
m1v1 + m2v2 = m1u1 + m2u2  v1 = + ...(8)
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
or, m2 (v2 – u2) = m1 (u1 – v1) ...(3)
( m1 − m2 ) u1 2m2 u 2
General equation, v1 = +
Total K.E. of the two balls before collision m1 + m2 m1 + m2
1 1
= m1u12 + m 2 u 22 ...(4)
2 2 Velocity of B :
Total K.E. of the two balls after collision Put this value of v1 from (6) in (3),
1 1 ( m − m2 ) u1 2m2 u 2
= m1 v12 + m 2 v 22 ...(5) v2 = u1 − u 2 + 1 +
2 2 m1 + m2 m1 + m2
 m − m2   2m 2 
As K.E. is also conserved in an elastic collision, therefore = u1 1 + 1  + u2  − 1
from equations (4) and (5),  m1 + m 2   m1 + m 2 
1 1 1 1  m + m 2 + m1 − m 2   2m 2 − m1 − m 2 
m1 v12 + m 2 v 22 = m1u12 + m 2 u 22 = u1  1  + u2  
2 2 2 2  m1 + m 2   m1 + m 2 
1 1
Or, m 2 ( v 22 − u 22 ) = m1 ( u12 − v12 ) 2m1u1 ( m2 − m1 ) u 2
2 2  v2 = + ...(9)
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
Or, m 2 ( v 22 − u 22 ) = m1 ( u12 − v12 ) ...(6)
2m1u1 ( m2 − m1 ) u 2
General equation, v2 = +
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
Dividing, (6) by (3) we get
m2 ( v22 − u 22 ) m1 ( u12 − v12 )
= NOTE:
m2 ( v 2 − u 2 ) m1 ( u1 − v1 )
The expression for v2 can be obtained from the expression
Or,
( v2 + u 2 )( v2 − u 2 ) ( u1 + v1 )( u1 − v1 ) for v1, by replacing m1 by m2 and u1 by u2. The reverse is
=
( v2 − u 2 ) ( u1 − v1 ) also true, i.e., v1 can also be obtained from v2 similarly.
Or, v2 + u2 = u1 + v1
Or, v 2 − v1 = u1 − u 2 ...(7) 4.3.2 Special Cases
General equation, v 2 − v1 = u1 − u 2 1. When masses of two bodies are equal,
i.e., m1 = m2 = m, say
Hence, in one dimensional elastic collision, relative velocity 2 mu 2
From (8), v1 = = u2 ,
of separation after collision is equal to relative velocity of 2m
approach before collision. i.e., velocity of A after collision = velocity of B before
collision.
2 m1u1
From (9), v 2 = = u1 ,
2m1 (c) When body B at rest has negligible mass,
i.e., m2 << m1; i.e., m2 can be ignored compared to m1
i.e., velocity of B after collision = velocity of A before
Putting m2 = 0, in equation (8),
collision.
m 2m1u1
we get v1 = 1 u1 = u1 . ; v 2 = = 2u1
Hence, when two bodies of equal masses undergo a m1 m1
perfectly elastic collision in one dimension, their Hence, when a heavy body A undergoes an elastic
velocities are just interchanged. collision with a light body B at rest, the body A keeps
on moving with the same velocity of its own and the
body B starts moving with double the initial velocity of
A.
4.4 Inelastic Collision in One Dimension

Figure below shows two bodies of masses m1 and m2
moving with velocities, u1 and u2 respectively, along a single
axis. They collide involving some loss of kinetic energy.
Therefore, the collision is inelastic. Let v1 and v2 be the
velocities of the two bodies after collision.
Fig 7.6
2. When the target body B is initially at rest, i.e., u2 = 0

( m − m2 ) u1
From (8), v1 = 1 ...(10)
m1 + m2
2m1u1 Fig 7.7
From (9), v 2 = ...(11) As the two bodies form one system, which is closed and
m1 + m 2
isolated, we can write the law of conservation of linear
Three cases arises further :
momentum for the two body system as :
Total momentum before collision (Pi) = Total momentum
(a) When masses of two bodies are equal, i.e., m1 = m2
after collision (Pf)
using equation (10),
m1 u1 + m2 u2 = m1 v1 + m 2 v2 ...(12)
From, v1 = 0
2m1u1
From, v 2 = = u1 (The overhead arrows for vectors have been avoided as the
2m1 collision is one dimensional and velocity components along
i.e., body A comes to rest and body B starts moving one axis are used.)
with the initial velocity of A. Obviously, in such a
collision, 100% K.E. of A is transferred to the body B. If we know masses m1, m2, initial velocities u1, u2 and one of
This is shown in figure above. the final velocities, we can calculate the other final velocity
from the equation.
(b) When body B at rest is very heavy, i.e., m2 >> m1, i.e.,
m1 can be ignored compared to m2 Figure shows perfectly inelastic collision between two
Putting m1 = 0 in equation (8), we obtain bodies of masses m1 and m2. The body of mass m2 happens
m to be initially at rest (u2 = 0), we refer to this body as the
v1 = − 2 u1 = − u1 ; v 2 = 0
m2 target. The incoming body of mass m1, moving with initial
velocity u1 is referred to as the projectile. After the
Hence, when a light body A collides against a heavy
collision, the two bodies move together with a common
body B at rest; A rebounds with its own velocity and B
velocity V. The collision is perfectly inelastic.
continues to be at rest. This is what happens when a ball
rebounds to the same height from which it was thrown,
on striking a floor.
 Total K.E. after collision = Total K.E. before collision

1 1 1 1
Or m1 v12 + m 2 v 22 = m1u12 + m 2 u 22 ...(13)
2 2 2 2
Or m1 v12 + m 2 v 22 = m1u12 + m 2 u 22 ...(14)
Fig 7.8
As linear momentum is conserved in elastic collision,
As the total linear momentum of the system remains
therefore, along the X–axis, total linear momentum after
constant, therefore Pi = Pf
collision = total linear momentum before collision.
i.e., m1u2 + m2u2 = (m1 + m2) V
m1v1 cos θ + m2v2 cos φ = m1u1 + m2u2 ...(15)
or, m1u1 = (m1 + m2) ( u 2 = 0)
m1u1 Now, along Y–axis, linear momentum before collision is
or, V =
m1 + m 2 zero (as both the bodies are moving along X–axis). And
after collision, total linear momentum along Y–axis is
m1u1
General equation, V = (m1v1 sin θ – m2v2 sin φ)
m1 + m 2
 m1v1sin θ – m2v2 sin φ = 0 ...(16)
4.5 Oblique Collision From three equations (14), (15) and (16), we have to
If the initial velocities and final velocities of both the bodies calculate four variables v1, v2, θ and φ, which is not
are along the same straight line, then it is called a one- possible. We have, therefore, to measure experimentally any
dimensional collision or head-on collision. one parameter, i.e., final velocities v1,v2 of A, B or their
In the case of small spherical bodies, this is possible if the direction θ and φ. The rest of the three parameters can then
direction of travel of body 1 passes through the centre of be calculated from the three equations.
body 2.
When two bodies travelling initially along the same straight
When two bodies travelling initially along the same straight line collide involving some loss of kinetic energy, and move
line collide without loss of kinetic energy and move along after collision, along different directions in a plane, the
different directions in a plane after collision, the collision is collision is said to be inelastic collision in two dimensions.
said to be an elastic collision in two dimensions.
4.5.1 Perfectly inelastic collision in two
Suppose m1, m2 are the masses of two bodies A and B dimensions
moving initially along the X–axis with velocities u1 and u2 Figure shows perfectly inelastic collision between two
respectively. When u1 > u2, the two bodies collide. After bodies of masses m1 and m2. The body of mass m2 is moving
collision, let the body A move with a velocity v 1 at an angle initially with velocity u2 along X–axis. The body of mass m1
θ with X–axis. Let the body B move with a velocity v2 at an
is moving with velocity u1 at an angle θ with X–axis as
angle φ with X–axis as shown in figure. shown.
Fig 7.9 Fig 7.10

As the collision is elastic, kinetic energy is conserved.
After the collision at O, the two bodies stick to each other

and move with a common velocity V at an angle φ with X–
axis as shown in figure.
As the system is closed and isolated, the total linear
momentum of the system remains constant.
Referring to figure, and equating initial momentum along
X–axis to final momentum along the same axis, we get
m1u1 cos θ + m2u2 = (m1 + m2) V cos φ ...(17)
Again, applying the law of conservation of linear

momentum along y–axis, we get.
m1u1 sin θ + 0 = (m1 + m2) V sin φ ...(18)
Knowing m1, m2 ; u1, u2 and θ, we can calculate final

velocity V and its direction, i.e., ∠φ from equations (17) and
(18).
NCERT Corner
4. Conservation of Linear Momentum
According to law of conservation of linear momentum,
total linear momentum of a system of particles remain
Important Points to Remember constant or conserved in the absence of any external
force.
1. Centre of Mass i.e, When Fext = 0
Centre of mass of a system is the point that behaves as
dp
whole mass of the system is concentrated on it. For  =0
dt
rigid bodies, centre of mass is independent of the state
of the body, i.e. whether it is in rest or in accelerated  p = constant
motion, centre of mass will remain same. i.e. pinitial = pfinal
• Centre of mass of two particles system, Also, for n number of particles

m x + m2 x 2 p1 + p2 + p3 + ...pn = constant
x CM = 1 1
m1 + m 2
Similarly, x CM for n particle system. • For collision of two bodies, the total momentum before
n collision remains the same as the total momentum after
m1 x1 + m 2 x 2 + ........ + mn x n m x i i the collision.
x CM = = i =1
n i.e., m1u1 + m2 u 2 = m1v1 + m2 v2
m1 + m 2 + ........ + m n
m i m1 v1
i =1 • Recoil velocity of gun is calculated by, v 2 = −
• Velocity of centre of mass (n-particles system). m2
m v + m 2 v 2 + .... + m n v n where, m2 = mass of the gun, m1 = mass of bullet
VCM = 1 1 and v1 = velocity of the bullet.
m1 + m 2 + .... + m n
• Acceleration of centre of mass,

5. Collision
• It is an isolated event, in which two or more colliding
m a + m 2 a 2 + .... + m n a n
A CM = 1 1 bodies exert strong forces on each other for a short
m1 + m 2 + .... + m n
duration of time.
• It is mainly of two types: elastic and inelastic collision.
• Momentum of centre of mass. • For every type of collision, linear momentum of
m p + m 2 p 2 + ... + m n p n colliding body or system is conserved.
PCM = 1 1
m1 + m 2 + .... + m n i.e m1u1 + m2 u 2 = m1v1 + m2 v2
where, m1 and m2 = masses of the body which undergo
2. Linear Momentum collision.
The total linear momentum of a system of particles is u1 = initial velocity of the body of mass m1,
equal to the product of the total mass of the system and u2 = initial velocity of the body of mass m2,
the velocity of its centre of mass. P = Mvcm v1 = final velocity of the body of mass m 1, and
v2 = final velocity of the body of mass m 2.
3. Impulse
• But kinetic energy of the colliding body and system is
Impulse of a force F acting on a body for the time conserved in elastic collision only.
t2
interval t = t1 to t = t 2 as: I =  F  dt
t1 6. Coefficient of Restitution (e)
And also, It is the ratio of relative velocity of separation after
collision to the relative velocity of approach before
I = m ( v2 − v1 ) = P
v − v1
= Change in momentum due to force F . collision. It is expressed as e = 2 , where
u1 − u 2
0  e  1.
(i) For perfectly inelastic collision, e = 0.

(ii) For perfectly elastic collision, e = 1 and for inelastic
collision 0 < e < 1.
(iii) For other collisions, it can be 0 < e < 1.
7. Head-on Collision
• For bodies with masses m1 and m2 respectively
following are the important relations for head-on
collision.
(i) When collision is elastic, final velocities for m1 i.e,
( m − m2 ) 2m2 u 2 • If two bodies of equal masses undergo perfect elastic
v1 = 1 u1 +
m1 + m2 m1 + m2 
oblique collision then scattering angle  +  = and
2
2m1u1 ( m2 − m1 )
and for m2, v2 = + u12 = v12 + v 22 .
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
(ii) When collision is inelastic 9. Rebounding of a Ball on collision with

Final velocities for m1, Floor.
 m − em 2   (1 + e ) m 2 
v1 =  1  u1 +   u2 • Speed of the ball after nth rebound,
 m1 + m 2   m1 + m 2 
and for m2, vn = en v0 = en 2gh
 (1 + e ) m1   m 2 − em1  • Height covered by the ball after nth rebound, h n = e 2n h

v2 =   u1 +   u2
 m1 + m 2   m1 + m 2  • Total distance s covered by the ball before it stops
 1 + e2 
bouncing , s = h  2 
• If after collision, approaching bodies move with a  1− e 
common velocity, i.e. e = 0 (get stuck with one where, h = height of the ball dropped from ground and e
another). then collision is said to be perfectly inelastic. = coefficient of restitution
8. For perfectly elastic oblique collision

Along X-axis, m1u1 + m2 u 2 = m1v1 cos  + m2 v2 cos 
Along Y-axis, 0 = m1v2 sin  − m2 v2 sin 
7 ROTATIONAL MOTION
Physics
Class 11th NEET
08
ROTATIONAL MOTION
Rotational Motion
Angular velocity is a vector quantity whose direction

1. Kinematic of the System of is given by right hand thumb rule.
Particles According to right hand thumb rule, if we curl the
fingers of right hand along the direction of angular
System of particles can move in different ways as observed
displacement then the right-hand thumb gives us the
by us in daily life. To understand this, we need to understand
direction of angular velocity. It is always along the
few new parameters.
axis of the rotation.
Rigid body: A body in which distance between any two
particles remain same regardless of any external changes.
(iii) Angular Acceleration
Angular acceleration of an object about any point is
1.1 Kinematic of Rotational Motion rate of change of angular velocity about that point.
(i) Angular Displacement

Consider a particle moving from A to B in the
following figures.
Fig.8.3
d d 2 
= =
dt dt 2
d d d
Fig. 8.1 = . =
dt d d
Angle  is the angular displacement of the particle
about O. 
 avg =
Unit: radian (rad). t
Unit → Rad/s2.
(ii) Angular Velocity Angular acceleration is also a vector quantity.
The rate of change of angular displacement is called If  is constant, then like equations of translatory
as angular velocity. motion we can also write relations between   
and t.
 = 0 + t
1
 = 0 t + t 2
2
2 − 02 = 2
Here, 0 is initial angular velocity and  is final
angular velocity.
Fig. 8.2
Instantaneous Angular Velocity 1.2 Various Types of Motion
d (i) Translational Motion
=
dt A system is said to be in translational motion, if all the
Average Angular Velocity particles within the system have same linear velocity

=
t
Unit → Rad/s.
ROTATIONAL MOTION
Example: Motion of a rod as shown below. 1.3 Relationship Between Kinematics

Variables
In general, if a body is rotating about any axis (fixed or
movable), with angular velocity  and angular acceleration
, then velocity of any point p with respect to axis is
v p =  r
a = at + ar
Fig. 8.4
at =   r
Example: Motion of body of car on a straight rod. a r =  v
Fig.8.5
In both the above examples, velocity of all the Fig.8.8

particles is same as they all have equal displacements
in equal intervals of time. Example
(ii) Rotational Motion

An object is said to be in pure rotational motion, when
all the points lying on the system are in circular
motion about one common fixed axis.
Fig.8.9
L
v B = L and v A = , with directions as shown in
2
Fig.8.6 the figure above.
In pure rotational motion, angular velocity of all the Now in rotational + translational motion, we just
points is same about the fixed axis. superimpose velocity and acceleration of axis on the
velocity and acceleration of any point about the axis
(iii) Rotational + Translational motion of rotation. (i.e.)
An object is said to be in rotational + translational
motion, when the particle is rotating with some
angular velocity about a movable axis.
For Example
Fig.8.10
v PO = Ri
vO = vi
Fig.8.7
v P − vO = v PO
v = velocity of axis.  v P = v PO + vO = ( R + v ) i
 = Angular velocity of system about O.
ROTATIONAL MOTION
Similarly, vQO = R j When there are multiple forces, the net torque
needs to be calculated. i.e., all torque about same
vO = vi point/axis.
 vQ = vi + R j net = F1 + F2 + ...Fn
• If   = 0 , then the body is said to be in rotational
equilibrium.
2. Rotational Dynamics • If  F = 0 along with   = 0 , then body is said to
be in mechanical equilibrium (Translation and
2.1 Torque rotational equilibrium).
Similar to force, the cause of rotational motion is a physical • If two forces of equal magnitude, opposite direction
quantity called a torque/moment of force/angular force. and do not share a line of action act to produce same
Torque incorporates the following factors. torque, then they constitute a couple. It does not
• Amount of force. produce any translation, only rotation.
• Point of application of force. • For calculating torque, it is very important to know
• Direction of application of force. the effective point of application of force.
Combining all the above,
Torque about point O,
2.2 Newton's Law in Rotation
 = r F  = I
 = r.Fsin  Where, I = moment of Inertia
Where,
r = distance from the point O to point of application of force.  = Angular Acceleration
F = force
 = angle between r and F 3. Moment of Inertia
Moment of inertia gives the measure of mass distribution
about an axis.
I =  mi ri2
Where ri = Perpendicular distance of the i th mass from the
axis of rotation.
Moment of inertia is always defined about an axis.
Fig. 8.11
Magnitude of torque can also be rewritten as

 = rF⊥ or  = r⊥ F
Where,
F⊥ = component of force in the direction perpendicular to r.
r⊥ = component of distance in the direction perpendicular to
F.
(i) Direction of Torque:
Direction of torque is given by right hand thumb
rule. If we curl the fingers of right hand from first
( )
vector ( r ) to the second vector F then right- Fig.8.12
hand thumb gives us direction of their cross For example, moment of inertia for above case,
product, i.e., the torque.
I = M1r12 + M 2 r22 + M3 r32 + M 4 r42
(ii) Some Important Points about Torque: • SI unit → kg-m2
Torque is always defined about a point or about an • Gives the measure of rotational inertia and is
axis. analogous to mass in linear motion.
ROTATIONAL MOTION
3.1 Moment of Inertia of a Discreet (ii) Hollow Cylinder

I = MR2
Particle System :
Fig.8.16
(iii) Solid Cylinder and a Disc
About its geometrical axis as shown below
1
I = MR 2
Fig.8.13 2
I = M r + M r + M 3 r32
11
2 2
2 2
3.2 Moment of Inertia of Continuous

Bodies
When the distribution of mass of a system of particle is Fig.8.17
continuous, the discrete sum I =  m1r12 is replaced by an
integral. The moment of inertia of the whole body takes the (iv) Sphere
form Solid Sphere: Axis passing through the centre of
mass
I =  r 2 dm 2
I= MR 2
5
Fig.8.18
Fig.8.14 Hollow Sphere :
Axis passing through the centre of mass,
Keep in mind that here the quantity r is the perpendicular
2
distance of point mass from axis of rotation, not the distance I= MR 2
to the origin. To evaluate this integral, we must express m in 3
terms of r. (v) Thin Rod of length l :
• Axis passing through midpoint and perpendicular to
length :
3.5 Moment of Inertia of Some
Important Bodies
(i) Circular Ring Fig.8.19
Axis passing through the centre and perpendicular to
M 2
the plane of ring. I=
I = MR2 12
• Axis passing through an end and perpendicular to
the rod:
Fig.8.15
ROTATIONAL MOTION
3.5 Radius of Gyration

If M is the mass and I is the moment of inertia of a rigid body
about a given axis then the radius of gyration (K) of the body
about that axis is given by :
Fig.8.20 I
K=
M 2 M
I= R
3 e.g. K ring = R, K disc = (About an axis passing through
2
3.4 Theorems on Moment of Inertia the com and perpendicular to the plane of body)
(i) Parallel Axis Theorem: Let ICM be the moment of
inertia of a body about an axis through its centre of 4. Angular Momentum
mass and let I P be the moment of inertia of the same
body about another axis which is parallel to the
first one. If d is the distance between these two
and Angular Impulse
parallel axes and M is the mass of the body then
according to the parallel axis theorem :
4.1 Angular Momentum
(i) For a particle
Angular momentum about a point (O) is given as
( )
L = r  p = r  mv = m r  v ( )
where r is position vector of the particle w.r.t. O
and v is velocity of particle
(ii) For a particle moving in a circle
For a particle moving in a circle of radius r with a
speed v, its linear momentum is mv, magnitude of
angular momentum (L) is given as :
Fig.8.21
2 L = mvr⊥ = mvr
I P = Icm + Md
As  being 90, sin 90 = 1
(ii) Perpendicular Axis Theorem :
Consider a planar body (i.e., a body of zero Direction of L is out of the plane of circle.
thickness) of mass M. Let X and Y axes be two
mutually perpendicular lines in the plane of the body.
The axes intersect at origin O.
Fig.8.23
(iii) For a rigid body (about a fixed axis)
L = sum of angular momentum of all particles about
that axis
 L = m1 v1r1 + m 2 v 2 r2 + m3 v3 r3 + ....
Fig.8.22
Let I x = moment of inertia of the body about X–axis.
 L = m1r12  + m 2 r22  + m3 r32  + .... ( v = r)
Let I y = moment of inertia of the body about Y–axis.  L = ( m1r12 + m 2 r22 + m3 r32 + ....) 
Then the moment of inertia of the body about Z– axis  L = I
(Passing through O and perpendicular to the plane of Angular momentum is also a vector and its direction
the body) is given by : is same as that of 
Iz = Ix + I y We know that,
The above result is known as the perpendicular axis L = I
theorem.
dL d
=I = I = net (Considering I constant)
dt dt
Similar to the definition of linear force in linear
motion, Torque can be defined as the rate of change
of angular momentum.
ROTATIONAL MOTION
4.2 Conservation of Angular Momentum VCM = speed of the centre of mass

ICM = moment of inertia about axis passing through CM.
If net = 0  = angular velocity of rotation
dL
 =0
dt
6. Rolling
 L = constant
Rolling motion is a combination of rotation and translation
 L f = Li In case of rolling all point of a rigid body have same angular
4.2 Angular Impulse speed but different linear speed.
J =  dt = L
5. Work and Energy

5.1 Work Done by a Torque
Consider a rigid body acted upon by a force F at perpendicular
distance r from the axis of rotation. Suppose that under this Fig.8.24
force, the body rotates through an angle d. 6.1 Pure Rolling (without Slipping)
Work done = force × displacement For a rolling motion to be pure rolling the velocity of point of
contact of body with platform should be equal for both rolling
dW = F(rd) body and platform.
 dW = d
 Work done = (torque) × (angular displacement)
 W =  d ( Where  is function of  )

dW d
Power = = = 
dt dt
Fig.8.25
5.2 Kinetic Energy (i) General case (when surface is moving)
Rotational kinetic energy of the system rotating about a VA = VB
fixed axis
1 1  Vcm − R = VB
= m1 v12 + m 2 v 22 + ....
2 2 In terms of acceleration: a cm − R = a B
1 1
= m1r12 2 + m 2 r22 2 + .... (ii) special case (when VB = 0)
2 2
Vcm − R = 0
1
( )
= m1r22 + mr22 + m3 r32 + .... 2
2  Vcm = R
1
Hence rotational kinetic energy of the system = I2 6.2 Total KE of Rolling Body
2
Where I = Moment of inertia about the axis.
NOTE:
Comparing the expression of rotational kinetic energy
with 1/2 mv2, we can say that the role of moment of
inertia (I) is same in rotational motion as that of mass in Fig. 8.26
linear motion. It is a measure of the resistance offered
1
by a body to a change its rotational motion. (i) K= I P 2
2
The total kinetic energy of a body which is translating as Or

well as rotating is given by : 1 1
(ii) K= Icm 2 + MVcm
2
K = K translational + K rotational 2 2
1 2 1 Here, (a) I P = Icm + MR 2 (parallel axes theorem)
K = MVCM + ICM 2
2 2
Where,
ROTATIONAL MOTION
(b) Vcm = R (condition for pure rolling) g sin 

aR =
I
NOTE: 1+
mR 2
Friction is responsible for the motion, but work done or
If initial velocity of body is zero then by using equation
dissipation of energy against friction is zero in pure
of motion,
rolling motion as point of application has zero velocity.
2g sin  h
VR2 − 02 =
I sin 
1+
6.3 Forward Slipping MR 2
2gh
 VR =
I
1+
MR 2
1 2h  I 
Also, t R = 1 + 
sin  g  MR 2 
Where, VR = Final velocity of com of rolling body,
Fig.8.27
tR = Time taken by body to reach the ground,
The bottom most point slides in the forward direction w.r.t.
ground, so friction force acts opposite to velocity at lowest (ii) Sliding on an incline plane
point i.e., opposite to direction of motion.
Example: When sudden brakes are applied to car its ‘v’
remain same while ‘r’ decreases so it slides on the ground.
6.4 Backward Slipping
Fig.8.30
Using energy conservation,
1
Fig.8.28 mVs2 = mgh
2
The bottom most point slides in the backward direction w.r.t.  Vs = 2gh
ground, so friction force acts opposite to velocity i.e.,
friction will act in the direction of motion. Component of acceleration along incline is g sin.
Example: When car starts on a slippery ground, its wheels
Time taken by body to reach ground by sliding:
have small ‘v’ but large ‘ωr’ so wheels slips on the ground
h 1
and friction acts against slipping. = g sin  t s2
sin  2
6.5 Rolling and Sliding Motion on an  ts =
1
.
2h
sin  g
Inclined Plane
(i) Pure rolling on an incline plane
Fig.8.29
ROTATIONAL MOTION
NCERT Corner
1. Ideally a rigid body is one for which the distances 9. A rigid body is in mechanical equilibrium if
between different particles of the body do not change, (1) It is in translational equilibrium, i.e., the total external
even though there are forces acting on them. force on it is zero: F t = 0, and
(2) It is in rotational equilibrium, i.e., the total external

2. A rigid body fixed at one point or along a line can have
only rotational motion. A rigid body not fixed in some
torque on it is zero:  = r t t  Ft = 0.
way can have either pure translational motion or a
combination of translational and rotational motions.
10. The centre of gravity of an extended body is that point
about which the total gravitational torque on the body
3. In rotation about a fixed axis, every particle of the rigid is zero.
body moves in a circle which lies in a plane
perpendicular to the axis and has its centre on the axis.
11. The moment of inertia of a rigid body about an axis is
Every point in the rotating rigid body has the same
angular velocity at any instant of time. defined by the formula I = m r i i
2
where ri is the
perpendicular distance of the ith point of the body from
the axis.
4. In pure translation, every particle of the body moves
with the same velocity at any instant of time. 12. The theorem of parallel axes: I ' = I com + Ma 2 , allows
us to determine the moment of inertia of a rigid body
about an axis as the sum of the moment of inertia of the
5. Angular velocity is a vector quantity. Its magnitude is
body about a parallel axis through its centre of mass
d
= and it is directed along the axis of rotation. For and the product of mass and square of the perpendicular
dt
distance between these two axes.
rotation about a fixed axis this vector  has a fixed
13. Rotation about a fixed axis is directly analogous to
direction. linear motion in respect of kinematics and dynamics.
14. The kinetic energy of rotation about an axis is
6. The linear velocity of a particle of a rigid body rotating 1
K = I2 .
about a fixed axis is given by v =  r, where r is 2
the position vector of the particle with respect to an 15. For a rigid body rotating about a fixed axis of rotation,
origin along the fixed axis. The relation applies even to L = I, where I is the moment of inertia about that axis.
more general rotation of a rigid body with one point
16. The angular acceleration of a rigid body rotating about
fixed. In that case r is the position vector of the a fixed axis is given by I = .
particle with respect to the fixed point taken as the
17. If the external torque  acting on the body about the axis
origin.
is zero, then angular momentum about the axis (L = I)
of such a rotating body is constant.
7. The angular momentum of a system of n particles about
18. For rolling motion without slipping on ground vcm =
the origin is
R, where vcm is the velocity of translation (i.e., of the
n
L =  r t  pt centre of mass), R is the radius and m is the mass of the
t =1 body. The kinetic energy of such a rolling body is the
8. The torque or moment of force on a system of n sum of kinetic energies of translation and rotation:
particles about the origin is 1 2 1
K= mv cm + Icm 2
n 2 2
 =  r t  Ft
t =1
Physics
Class11th NEET
09
GRAVITATION
Gravitation
1.3 Vector Form

Introduction
In vector form, Newton’s law of gravitation is represented
Gravity is the force of attraction exerted by earth towards is
centre on a body lying on or near the surface of earth. ( )
in the following manner. The force F21 exerted on particle
Gravity m2 by particle m1 is given by,
is merely a special case of gravitation and is also called mm
earth’s gravitational pull.
F21 = G 1 2 2 ( rˆ12 ) ... ( i )
r
Weight of a body is defined as the force of attraction exerted
Where ( r̂12 ) is a unit vector drawn in the direction of vector
by the earth on the body towards its centre.
The units and dimensions of gravity pull or weight are the from particle m2 to
same as those of force. ( )
particle m1. Similarly, the force F12 exerted on particle m1
1. Newton’s Law of Gravitation by particle m2 is given by

mm
F12 = −G 1 2 2 ( rˆ12 ) ... ( ii )
1.1 Definition r
Every particle attracts every other particle with a force From (i) and (ii)
which is directly proportional to the product of their masses  F12 = −F21
and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them. 2. Acceleration due to Gravity
2.1 Definition
Acceleration due to gravity is the acceleration gained by a
an object due to gravitational force. It SI unit is m / s2 . It
Fig. 9.1
has both magnitude direction, hence, it is a vector quantity.
1.2 Mathematical Form Acceleration due to gravity is represented by g.
If m1 and m2 are the masses of the particles and r is the The stranded value of g on the surface of earth at sea level is
distance between them, the force of attraction F between the 9.8 m / s 2 .
particles is given by
2.2 The Acceleration due to Gravity at a
mm
F  12 2 Height h above the Earth’s Surface
r
mm Let M and R be the mass and radius of the earth and g be
 F = G 12 2
r the acceleration due to gravity at the earth’s surface.
Where G is the universal constant of gravitation. Suppose that a body of mass m is placed on the surface of
Universal gravitational constant is measured in N m 2 / kg 2 the earth.
GMm
The dimensional formula is  L3 M −1T −2  universal  mg =
R2
gravitational constant GM
The value of G is: 6.67408  10−11 Nm 2 / kg 2  g = 2 ... ( i )
R
Now suppose that the body is raised to a height h, above
the earth’s surface,
GMm
Mg n = .... ( ii )
( + h)
2
R
GRAVITATION
radius OB (R – d). The outer spherical shell, whose

thickness is d, will not exert any force on body at point B.
Because it will acts as a shell and point is inside.
Fig. 9.2
Dividing eq (ii) by eq (i), we get,
gh R2 Fig. 9.3
=
g ( R + h )2 4
(R − d) 
3
Now, M =
3
 R2 
 gh =  g GM1
 ( R + h ) 
2
gd =
(R − d)
2
4
2.3 Acceleration due to Gravity at a Very or g d = G ( R − d )  ... ( ii )
3
Small Height Dividing the equation (ii) by (i), we have
4
G ( R − d ) 
R+h
−2
gd 3 R −d  d
gh = g   = = or g d = g 1 −  .. ( iii )
 R  g 4 R  R 
GR
−2 3
 h
g h = g 1 +  Therefore, the value of acceleration due to gravity
 R decreases with depth.
If h << R, then neglecting high power’s of ‘h’ we get,
 2h  2.5 Variation of ‘g’ with Latitude due to
g h = g 1 − 
 R 
Rotational Motion of Earth
2.4 Effect of Depth on a Acceleration due Due to the rotational of the earth the force mr2 cos 
radially outwards. Hence the net force of attraction exerted
to Gravity by the earth of the particle and directed towards the centre
Also g in terms of  of the earth is given by
GM mg  = mg − mr2 cos 
g= 2
R where g  is the value of the acceleration due to gravity at
If  is density of the material of earth, then
the point P.
4
M = R 3
3
4
G  R 3
 g= 3
R2
4
 g = GR
3
Let gd be acceleration due to gravity at the point B at a
depth d below the surface of earth. A body at the point B
will experience force only due to the portion of the earth of
GRAVITATION
3. Gravitation Field and

Gravitation Potential
3.1 Gravitational Field
The space surrounding the body within which its gravitational
force of attraction is experienced by other bodies is called
gravitational field. Gravitational field is very similar to
electric field in electrostatics where charge ‘q’ is replaced by
mass ‘m’ and electric constant ‘K’ is replaced by gravitational
Fig. 9.4
constant ‘G’. The intensity of gravitational field at a points is
 g  = g − r cos 
2
defined as the force experienced by a unit mass placed at that
Now, r = R cos  (where R is the radius of the earth) point.
Then g = g − ( R cos  ) 2 cos  F
E=
 g  = g − R2 cos 2  m
The effective acceleration due to gravity at a point ‘P’ is The unit of the intensity of gravitational field is N kg-1.
given by, Intensity of gravitational field due to point mass:
g  = g − R2 cos 2  The force due to test mass m0 placed at point P is given
Thus value of ‘g’ changes with  and  b:
GMm 0
1. At poles, F=
r2
 = 90
F GM
g = g − R2 cos 2 90 Hence E = E= 2
m0 r
g = g
GM
This is maximum acceleration due to gravity. In vector form E = − rˆ
r2
2. At equator Dimensional formula of intensity of gravitational field
=0
F  MLT 
−2
g  = g − R2 cos 2 0 = = =  M0 LT −2 
g  = g − R2
m  
M
This is minimum acceleration due to gravity. 3.2 Gravitational Potential

Variation due to shape.
The gravitational potential at any point in a gravitational
field is defined as the work done to bring a unit mass slowly
NOTE: from
The variation of acceleration due to gravity according to infinity to that point.
the depth and the height from the earth’s surface can be 1. The gravitational potential (V) at a point at distance r from
expressed with help of following graph. a point mass M is given by,
GM
V=− (Where G is the constant of gravitation)
r
2. The work done on a unit mass is converted into its

potential energy. Thus, the gravitational potential at any
point is equal to the potential energy of a unit mass placed
at that point.
3. If a small point mass m is placed in a gravitational field at

a point where the gravitational potential is V, the gravitational
Fig. 9.5
GRAVITATION
potential energy (P.E.) of the mass m is given by.

P.E. = mass × gravitational potential
P.E = mV
GMm
P.E = −
r
3.3 Gravitational Potential Energy

Gravitational potential energy of a body at a point is
defined as the work done in slowly bringing the body from
infinity
to that point.
Let a body of mass m is displaced through a distance ‘dr’
towards the mass M, then work done given by,
r
GMm GMm
dW = Fdr = 2
dr   dW =  2 dr
r  r
Gravitational potential energy,
GMm
U=−
r
(i) From above equation, it is clear that gravitational potential
energy increases with increase in distance (r) (i.e. it
becomes less negative).
(ii) Gravitational P.E. becomes maximum (or zero) at r = 
GRAVITATION
Object Potential (V) Electric field ( E ) Figure
Ring −GM −GMr

V= E= rˆ
(a + r )
2 1/ 2
(a + r2 )
2 2 3/ 2
Thin −2GM  2 2  2GM  r 

circular V= a +r −r E=− 1 − 2  rˆ
a2   2
a  2
r +a 
Uniform
Thin
spherical
shell GM E=0
V=−
a
(a) Point P
inside the GM
shell (r < a) V=− −GM
r E= rˆ
r2
(b) Point P
outside the
shell (r > a)
GRAVITATION
Uniform
Solid sphere
GM 2 2 −GMr
(a) Point P V=−
2a 3
(3a − r ) E=
a3
rˆ
inside the
sphere (r 
GM −GM
a) V=− E= rˆ
r r2
(b) Point P
outside the
sphere (r ≥
a)
GRAVITATION
4. Escape Velocity of a Body 5. Satellite

4.1 Expression for the Escape Velocity of 5.1 Definition
Any smaller body which revolves around another larer
A Body at Rest on the Earth’s Surface body under the influence of its gravitation is called a
satellite. The satellite may be natural or artificial.
The minimum velocity with which a body should be
projected from the surface of the earth, so that it escapes
1. The moon which revolves around the earth, is a satellite
from the earth’s gravitational field, is called the escape
of the earth. There are sixteen satellites revolving around
velocity. Thus, if a body or a satellite is given the escape
the planet Jupiter. These satellite are called natural
velocity, its kinetic energy of projection will be equal to its
satellites.
binding energy.
Kinetic Energy of projection = Binding Energy.
2. A satellite made and launched into circular orbit by man is
1 GMm called an artificial satellite. The first satellite was launched
 mvc2 =
2 R by USSR named SPUTNIK–I and the first Indian satellite
2GM was ‘ARYABHATTA’.
 vc =
R There are two types of satellites:
1. GEO stationary satellite
2. SPY satellite
4.2 Expression for ‘Ve’ in Terms’s of ‘g’
Let’s discuss GEO stationary satellite
The escape velocity for any object on the earth’s surface
is given by.
2GM
ve =
R
If m is the mass of the object, its weight mg is equal to the
gravitational force acting on it.
GMm
 mg =
R2
 GM = gR 2
Substituting this value in the expression for v e we get,
ve = 2gR
4.3 Expression for ‘Ve’ in Terms’s of Fig 9.6

We know that the earth rotates about tis axis with angular
Density
velocity earth and time period Tearth = 24 hours . Suppose a
We have,
satellites is set in an orbit which is in plane of the equator,
2GM whose  is equal to earth , (or its T is equal to
ve =
R Tearth = 24 hours ) and direction is also same as that of earth.
Let  be the mean density of the planet. Then, Then as seen from earth, it will appear to be stationery. This
type of satellite is called geo-stationery satellite.
4 3
M= R  satellite = earth
3
 Tsatellite = Tearth = 24 hr.
2G 4 3
ve =  R  So time period of a geo-stationery satellite must be 24 hours.
R 3
To achieve T = 24 hour, the orbital radius geo-stationery
G
ve = 2R satellite.
3
GRAVITATION
T2 = 
 4 2  3
r 7. Orbital Velocity
 GM e 
Putting the values, we get orbital radius of geo-stationery 7.1 Definition
satellite r = 6.6R e (here Re = Radius of the earth) height from The horizontal velocity with which a satellite must be
the surface h = 5.6R e . projected from a point above the earth’s surface, so that it
revolves in a circular orbit round the earth, is called the
6. Period of Revolution of a orbital velocity of the satellite.
Satellite 7.2 An Expression for the Orbital

The time taken by a satellite to complete one revolution
Velocity of a Satellite Revolving Round
round the earth is called its period or periodic time (T). the Earth
Consider a satellite of mass m revolving in a circular orbit Suppose that a satellite of mass m is raised to a height h
with a orbital velocity v0 at a height h above the surface of above the earth’s surface and then projected in a horizontal
the earth. Let M and R be the mass and the radius of the direction with the orbital velocity v0 . The satellite begins
earth respectively. The radius (r) of the circular orbit of the to move round the earth in a circular orbit of radius, R + h,
satellite is r = R + h. For the circular motion, where R is the radius of the earth.
Fig. 9.7
GM Fig.9.8
 v0 = ... ( i )
r GMm
The gravitational force acting on the satellite is ,
If T is the period of revolution of the satellite, (R + h)
2
circumference of orbit 2r

Period (T) = = where M is the mass of the earth and G is the constant of
critical velocity v0
gravitation.
2r For circular motion,
R= ...(From i)
GM mv 02 GMm
= ,
r ( R + h ) ( R + h )2
r3 GM
 T = 2  v0 =
GM (R + h)
This expression gives the periodic time of the satellite.
This expression gives the orbital velocity of the satellite.
Squaring the expression, we get
From the expression, it is clear that the orbital velocity
4 2 r 3 depends upon.
 T2 = 1. Mass of the earth
GM
2. Radius of earth and
 T2  r3 ...(since G and M are constants) 3. Height of the satellite above the surface of the earth.
Thus, the square of the time period of revolution of a satellite
is directly proportional to the cube of the radius of its orbit
GRAVITATION
7.3 The Escape Velocity of a Body from 180°. If it enters the atmosphere while coming towards
perigee it will loose energy and spirally comes down. If it
the Surface of the Earth is 2 Times does not enters the atmosphere it will continue to move in
its Critical Velocity When it Revolves elliptical orbit.
Close to the Earth’s Surface 2. If the velocity of the projection is equal to the orbital
velocity then the satellite moves in circular orbit round the
Let M and R be the mass and radius of the earth and m be
earth.
the mass of the body. When orbiting close to the earth’s
surface, the radius of the orbit is almost equal to R. If v e is 3. If the velocity of the projection is greater than the orbital
the critical velocity of the body, then for a circular orbit. velocity but less than the escape velocity, then the satellite
Centripetal force = Gravitational force moves in elliptical orbit and its apogee, or point of greatest
distance from the earth, will be greater than projection
GMm height.
 mvc2 =
R2
4. If the velocity of the projection is equals to the escape
GM
 vc = ... ( i ) velocity, then the satellite moves in parabolic path.
R
5. It the velocity of the projection is greater than the escape
If ve is the escape velocity from the earth’s surface,
velocity, then orbit will hyperbolic and will escape the
K.E. of projection = Binding energy
gravitational pull of the earth and continue to travel
1 GMm
 mve2 = infinitely.
2 2
2GM NOTE:
 ve = ... ( ii )
R
Launching Of An Artificial Satellite Around Earth
From Eq (i) and Eq. (ii), we get,
ve = 2vc
7.4 Different Cases of Projection

When a satellite is taken to some height above the earth
and then projected in the horizontal direction, the following
four cases may occur, depending upon the magnitude of
the horizontal velocity.
Fig. 9.10
The satellite is placed upon the rocket which is launched
from the earth. After the rocket reaches its maximum
vertical height h, a spherical mechanism gives a thrust to
the satellite at point A (figure) producing a horizontal
velocity v. The total energy of the satellite at A is thus,
1 GMm
E= mv 2 −
2 R+h
The orbit will be an ellipse (closed path), a parabola, or an
Fig. 9.9
hyperbola depending on whether E is negative, zero, or
1. If the velocity of the projection is less than the orbital positive. In all cases the centre of the earth is at one focus
velocity then the satellite moves in elliptical orbit, but the of the path. If the energy is too low, the elliptical orbit will
point of projection is apogee and in the orbit, the satellite intersect the earth and the satellite will fall back.
comes closer to the earth with its perigee point lying at
GRAVITATION
Otherwise, it will keep moving in a closed orbit, or will 4. Therefore astronaut does not produce any action on the
escape from the earth, depending on the values of v and h. floor of the satellite. Naturally the floor does not exert any
Hence a satellite carried to a height h (<< R) and given a force of reaction on the astronaut. As there is no reaction,
horizontal velocity of 8 km/sec will be placed almost in a the astronaut has a feeling of weightlessness. (i.e. no sense
circular orbit around the earth (figure). If launched at less of his own weight).
than 8 km/sec, it would get closer and closer to earth until
it hits the ground. Thus, 8 km/sec is the critical (minimum) NOTE:
velocity.
1. sensation of weightlessness experienced by an
astronaut is not the result of there being zero
8. Communication Satellite gravitational acceleration, but of there being zero
difference between the acceleration of the spacecraft
An artificial satellite revolving in a circular obrit round the and the acceleration of the astronaut.
earth in the same sense of the rotational of the earth and
2. The most common problem experienced by astronauts
having same period of revolution as the period of rotation in the initial hours of weightlessness is known as space
of the earth (i.e. 1 day = 24 hours = 86400 seconds) is adaptation syndrome (space sickness).
called as geo-stationary or communication satellite.
As relative velocity of the satellite with respective to the
earth is zero it appears stationary from the earth’s surface. 10. Kepler’s Laws
Therefore it is know as geo-stationary satellite or
geosynchronous satellite. 10.1 Law of Orbit
1. The height of the communication satellite above the earth’s Each Planet moves around the sun in an elliptical orbit
surface is about 36000 km and its period of revolution is 24 with the sun at one of the foci as shown in figure. The
hours or 24 × 60 × 60 seconds. eccentricity of an ellipse is defined as the ratio of the
SO
distance SO and AO i.e. e =
8.1 Uses of the Communication Satellite AO
1.F or sending TV signals over large distances on the earth’s SO

e = , SO = ea
surface. a
2.T elecommunication.
3.W eather forescasting.
4.F or taking photographs of astronomical objects.
5.F or studying of solar and cosmic radiations.
9. Weightlessness
1.T he gravitational force with which a body is attracted
towards the centre of earth is called the weight of body. Fig. 9.11
2.W hen an astronaut is on the surface of earth, gravitational The distance of closest approach with sun at F1 is AS.
force acts on him. This gravitational force is the weight of This position is called perigee. The greatest distance (BS)
astronaut and astronant exerts this force on the surface of of the planet from the sun is at position B apogee.
earth. The surface of earth exerts an equal and opposte At, Perigee (AS) = AO – OS = a – ea = a (1 – e)
reaction and due to this reaction he feels his weight on the At, apogee (BS) = OB + OS = a + ea = a (1 + e)
earth.
3.F or an astronaut in an orbiting satellite, the satellite and 10.2 Law of Area
astronaut both have same acceleration towards the centre
of earth and this acceleration is equal to the acceleration due The line joining the sun and a planet sweeps out equal
to gravity at the place. areas in equal intervals of time. A planet takes the same
time to travel from A to B as from C to D as shown in figure.
GRAVITATION
(The shaded areas are equal). Naturally the planet has to Inertial Mass
move faster between C to D.
NOTE:
Inertial mass of a body is related to its inertia in linear
motion; and is defined by Newton’s second law of motion.
Let a body of mass m G move with acceleration a under the
action of an external force F. According to Newton’s
second law of motion, F = mi a or mi = F/a
Thus, inertial mass of a body is equal to the magnitude of
Fig. 9.12 external force required to produce unit acceleration in the
body.
area swept
Areal velocity =
time
1
Gravitational Mass
r ( rd )
1 d 1 mr 2  L
=2 = r2 = = NOTE:
dt 2 dt 2 m 2m
L Gravitational mass of a body is related to gravitational pull
Hence = constant. [As L = constant] on the body and is defined by Newton’s law of
2m
gravitational.
GMmG F F
10.3 Law of Periods F= or mG = =
R 2
(GM / R 2
) I
The square of the time for the planet to complete a
revolution about the sun is proportional to the cube of The mass mG of the body in this sence is the gravitational
semimajor axis of the elliptical orbit. mass of the body. The inertia of the body has no effect on
T2  a 3 the gravitational mass of the body. mG = F
Thus, Gravitational mass of a body is defined as the
magnitude of gravitational pull experienced by the body in
Astronomical Data
a gravitational field of unit intensity.
Body Sun Earth Moon

11. Binary Star System
Mean radius, 6.95 10 8
6.37 106
1.74 10 6
11.1 Double Star System
Mass, kg 1.97 1030 5.96 1024 7.30 1022
Mean density,
1.41 5.52 3.30
103 kg/m3
Period of rotation
25.4 1.00 27.3
about axis, days
Fig. 9.13
From mass M2
GRAVITATION
Gm1m 2
= m 2 2 r2
r2
Gm1 2 m1r
=
r2 m1 + m 2
G ( m1 + m 2 )
2 =
r3
 2 
2
G ( m1 + m 2 )
  =
 T  r3
42 r 3
T2 =
( m1 + m 2 ) G
4 2 r 3
T=
( m1 + m 2 ) G
In reality all the planets arel satellite revolves around their
COM but if the mass of planet is very large as compare to
the mass of satellite, then we can assume that planet is
stationary and satellite is removing around it in circular path
(because r1 → 0 )
GRAVITATION
NCERT Corner
• Gravitational force: The constitutents of the universe Kepler First law – The Law of Orbits
are galaxy, stars, planets, comets, asteriods, meteroids. According to Kepler’s first law,” All the planets revolve
The force which keeps them bounded together is called around the sun in elliptical orbits having the sun at one of the
gravitational force. foci”. The point at which the planet is close to the sun is
• Gravitation is a natural phenomenon by which particles known as perihelion and the point at which the planet is
get attracted towards one another. farther from the sun is known as aphelion.
• NEWTON’S LAW OF GRAVITATION: Every
particle attracts every other particle with a force which Kepler’s Second Law – The Law of Equal Areas
is directly proportional to the product of their masses Kepler’s second law states” The radius vector drawn from the
and inversely proportional to the square of the distance sun to the planet sweeps out equal areas in equal intervals of
between them. time”
• Variation of ‘g’ with latitude due to Rotational motion
of Earth: Kepler’s Third Law – The Law of Periods
Due to the rotational of the earth the force mrw2 cos l According to Kepler’s law of periods,” The square of the time
acts radially outwards. Hence the net force of attraction period of revolution of a planet around the sun in an elliptical
exerted by the earth of the particle and directed towards orbit is directly proportional to the cube of its semi-major
the centre of the earth is given by mg’ = mg – mrw2 axis”.
cosl where g’ is the value of the acceleration due to
gravity: T2 ∝ a3
1.A t poles, l = 90, g’ = g – R w2 cos2 90. g’ = g This is Shorter the orbit of the planet around the sun, shorter the time
maximum acceleration due to gravity. taken to complete one revolution.
2.A t equator l = 0, g’ = g – Rw2 cos2 0 g’ = g – Rw2 • An artificial satellite revolving in a circular orbit orbit
This is minimum acceleration due to gravity round the earth in the same sense of the rotational of the
• Any smaller body which revolves around another larger earth and having same period of revolution as the
body under the influence of its gravitation is called a period of rotation of the earth (i.e. 1 day = 24 hours =
satellite. The satellite may be natural or artificial. 86400 seconds) is called as geo-stationary or
• The horizontal velocity with which a satellite must be communication satellite.
projected from a point above the earth’s surface, so
that it revolves in a circular orbit round the earth, is
called the orbital velocity of the satellite.
• Escape Velocity: The minimum velocity with which a
body should be protected from the surface of the earth,
so that it escapes from the earth’s gravitational field, is
called the escape velocity.
• The gravitational potential at any point in a
gravitational field is defined as the work done to bring
a unit mass from slowly infinity to that point.
• Binding Energy: The minimum energy which must be
supplied to a satellite, so that it can escape from the
earth’s gravitation field, is called the binding energy of
a satellite.
• Kepler’s laws of planetary motion
10
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
OF SOLIDS
Mechanical Properties of Solids
1. Elastic Behaviour of Solids In general there are three types of stress as given below:
• Longitudinal Stress When the restoring force is
1.1 Rigid Body normal to the area of cross section, then it is known as
A body whose size and shape cannot be changed is called Longitudinal stress. It is of two types.
rigid body however if the applied force is large enough then • Tensile Stress If the stress produced in an object is
it can change its shape and size. due to increase in its length, then it is called Tensile
stress.
1.2 Deforming Force and Restoring • Compressive Stress If the stress produced in an
object due to decrease in its length, then it is called
Force Compressive stress.
• Deforming force is the external force applied on a
body which tends to change the natural size or shape • Volumetric Stress The restoring force acting per unit
of the body. area inside the object opposing change in volume is
• Under the action of deforming force, a body opposes called Volumetric stress.
any change in its shape & size due to the net effect of • Shearing Stress When a force applied on an object
internal (molecular) forces. The resulting force which along the tangential direction of the surface of the
opposes the deformation is knows as Restoring Force. object, then stress produced in the object is called
Shearing stress.
1.3 Elasticity 2.1.1 Breaking Stress

• The property of a body due to which it opposes the
• The minimum stress after which the object breaks is
action of the deforming forces is called Elasticity.
called Breaking stress.
• A material is said to be elastic if it returns back to its
• A wire of length  will break due to its own weight,
original shape or size, when the deforming forces are
removed. Breaking stress
when  =
• Plastic materials on the other hand, remains dg
permanently distorted when the deforming forces are where, d = density of material of wire
removed. The property is called Plasticity. and g = acceleration due to gravity.
• Some of the examples of elastic materials are rubber
band, steel, etc. 2.2 Strain
• The deformation of the solid is described in terms of a
2. Stress & Strain physical quantity strain, that is created in the body as a
result of deformation force.
2.1 Stress Change in dimsnion
• The deforming action is measured (described) in terms Strain =
Orignal dimension
of a physical quantity, known as stress, that is
• It has no unit.
developed in the body.
Restoring force
Stress = There are three types of stresses results in three types of
Area of cross section
strain as given below:
• Unit N/m2 or pascal.
• Longitudinal Strain ( SL ) : It is the change in length
per unit length of the body on application of force, i.e.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS
Change in length ∆L
=SL =
Original length L
• Bulk or Volume Strain ( SV ) : It is the change in
volume per unit volume of the object on application of
Change in volume ∆V
force, i.e., SV =
= .
Original volume V
• Shearing Strain ( SS ) : It is the ratio of displacement
of the upper surface to the distance between two
layers, i.e.,
Relative displacement of layer
S=
S = tan θ
Distance between two layers Fig. 10.2
where, θ shearing angle. a) When the strain is small (<2%) (i.e., in the region OP)
• Stress is proportional to strain.
• Hooke’s law is obeyed.
• The point P is called limit of proportionality and
• Slope of line OP gives the Young’s modulus of
the material of the wire. =Y tan θ .
NOTE:
Elastic limit
The maximum value of the stress within which the body
regains its original shape and size.
b) If the strain is increased a little bit (i.e., in the region

Fig. 10.1 PE.)
• The stress is not proportional to strain.
NOTE: • The wire still regains its original length after the
removal of stretching force.
Shearing strain= 2 × longitudinal strain.
• Point E is known as elastic limit or yield-point.
and volume strain= 3 × longitudinal strain.
• The region OPE represents the elastic behaviour of
the material of wire.
2.3 Hooke’s Law • Yield point is the stress beyond which the material
• If the deforming forces are within a limit (known as becomes plastic.
elastic limit), the stress created in the body is
proportional to the resulting strain. i.e., stress ∝ strain c) If the wire is stretched beyond the elastic limit E (i.e.,
stress between EA)
The ratio is known as Modulus of Elasticity.
strain • The strain increases much more rapidly
• According to various types of stresses, we have • If the stretching force is removed the wire does not
corresponding types of modulii of elasticity. come back to its natural length. Some permanent
• Units of modulus of elasticity is same as the unit of increase in length takes place.
stress. d) If the stress is increased further, then
• A very small increase in stress produces a very
large increase in strain (region AB).
2.4 Stress-Strain Graph • After reaching point B, the strain increases even if
If by gradually increasing the load on a vertically suspended the wire is unloaded and it ruptures at C.
metal wire, a graph is plotted between stress (or load) and
• In the region BC the wire literally flows. The
longitudinal strain (or elongation) we get the curve as shown
maximum stress corresponding to B after which the
in figure. From this curve it is clear that:
wire begins to flow and breaks is called breaking or
tensile strength.
• The region EABC represents the plastic behavior of where,

the material of wire. A = area of the body
• Stress-strain curve is different for different  = change in the length due to the strain and
materials. L = Natural length of the body.
2.5 Elastic Hysteresis • Bulk Modulus It is the ratio of volume stress to the
• The strain persists even when the stress is removed. corresponding volume strain in the material for small
This lagging behind of strain is called elastic hysteresis. value of strain and it is given by
This is the reason why the values of strain for same F/A VdP
B= = − .
stress are different while increasing the load and while −∆V / V dV
decreasing the load. where, dP = change in pressure
& dV = change in volume
1 −dV
Compressibility =
=
Bulk modulus ( B ) VdP
Gases can have following types of bulk modulus

a) Isothermal Bulk Modulus : Under isothermal
condition, Bulk modulus is equal to pressure of gas,
i.e., Bi = P (pressure of gas).
b) Adiabatic Bulk Modulus : Under adiabatic condition,
Bulk modulus is equal to γ times pressure, i.e.,
Fig. 10.3
 CP 
• Brittle material Ba = γP γ = .
 CV 
The plastic region between E and C is small for brittle
material and it will break soon after the elastic limit is where, γ =heat capacity ratio.
crossed. Also, Ba = γBi .
• Ductile material • Modulus of Rigidity : It is the ratio of shearing stress
The material of the wire have a good plastic range and to the shearing strain for small strain in a body, which
such materials can be easily changed into different
F
shaped and can be drawn into this wires. is given as : G = , where, θ =shearing angle.
Aθ
• Elastomers
Stress strain curve is not a straight line within the elastic NOTE:
limit for elastomers and strain produced is much larger • Young’s modulus and modulus of rigidity are defined
than the stress applied. Such materials have no plastic for solids only while Bulk modulus is defined for all
range and the breaking point lies very close to elastic solids, liquids and gases.
limit, eg, rubber. • For perfectly rigid body, we have
Y= ∞, B = ∞ and G = ∞.
3. Moduli of Elasticity
• Young’s Modulus It is the ratio of longitudinal stress
to the corresponding strain for small change in length
FL
and it is expressed as Y = .
A
3.1 Stress, Strain & Various Elastic Moduli

Modulus State
Name of
Types of Stress Stress Strain of of
Modulus
Elasticity Matter
Longitudinal (Tensile or compressive)
Two equal
and opposite
Elongation
forces
or FL Young’s
perpendicular Y= Solid
compression A∆L Modulus
to opposite
faces ( ∆L / L ) .
( σ =F / A ) .
Fig. 10.4
Shearing
Two equal
and opposite
forces parallel ∆x FL Shear
to opposite tan θ = G= Solid
L A∆x Modulus
surfaces
( σ =F / A ) .
Fig. 10.5
Hydraulic/Volume Forces
perpendicular
everywhere to
the surface, Volume Solid,
change −PV Bulk
force per unit B= liquid
∆V Modulus
area ( ∆V / V ) and gas.
(pressure)
same
Fig. 10.6 everywhere.
3.2 Poisson’s Ratio

When a rod or bar is subjected to a longitudinal stress, not
only its length changed but its transverse dimensions also
change and thus giving rise to transverse or lateral strain in
additional to longitudinal strain.
Fig. 10.7
Y = Young’s modulus,  = length of beam,

∆b b = breadth of bean and d = thickness of beam
Transverse or lateral strain is .
b
The ratio of transverse to longitudinal strain is termed as
Poisson’s ratio, σ .
−∆b / b
σ= .
∆ / 
Transverse strain
Since, σ = .
Longitudinal strain
Negative sign is introduced to make σ positive quantity. Fig. 10.8
Since, an increase in length always results in decrease of • If a rubber ball of volume V is taken to a depth h in
transverse dimensions and vice-versa. water, then decrease in its volume is given as
−ndgV
dV = .
NOTE: B
• σ has no units, as it’s a ratio. Where B is Bulk modulus.
• 0 < σ ≤ 0.5 . [For Most Materials]
3.5 Factors Affecting Elasticity
Elasticity of any material is affected due to many factors as
3.3 Derivation for Relations Between given below:
Elastic Constants • Due to hammering and rolling, the elasticity of
Individually Young’s Modulus, Bulk Modulus and Modulus material increases.
of Rigidity are related as- • Due to annealing (heating and slow cooling), the
elasticity of material decreases.
Relations Formula SI units • With rise in temperature for almost all materials the
The relation between elasticity decreases.
N/m2 or pascal
modulus of elasticity Y 2G (1 + σ )
= • Due to impurity, the elasticity can be increased or
(Pa)
and modulus of rigidity. decreased.
The relation between
N/m2 or pascal
Young’s modulus and Y 3B (1 − 2σ )
=
bulk modulus.
(Pa)
4. Elastic Potential Energy
Relation between • When an elastic body is deformed, work is done by the
Young’s Modulus and applied force. This work is stored as elastic potential
9BG
Bulk Modulus B and E= No unit energy and is released when the body returns back to
G + 3B
Modulus of rigidity as. its original size.
Elastic energy stored per unit volume,
1
Where, = ( stress )( strain )
2
• B is Bulk modulus.
1
= ( modulus of elasticity )( strain )
2
• G is shear modulus or modulus of rigidity.
2
• Y is Young’s modulus or modulus of Elasticity.
( stress )
2
1
= .
3.4 Applications of Modulus of 2 modulus of elasticity
Elasticity • In case of longitudinal stress (compressive or tensile)
2
• If a beam is fixed at its ends and loaded with weight at Energy stored 1  ∆ 
= Y 
its middle, then depression at the centre is given as Volume 2   
Mg3 1 YA 1
δ= Total energy = ⋅ ( ∆ ) =
2
F∆
4bd 3 Y 2  2
where,
where, ∆L, ∆d and ∆ are the errors in the

5. Miscellaneous Cases in
measurement of L, d and  , respectively. Generally,
Elasticity accuracy of these errors measurements depends on the
least count of the measuring instruments.
5.1 Determination of Young's Modulus
by Searle's Method 5.2 Thermal Stress & Strain
Consider a wire of length L and diameter d. Let its length L • The strain and stress produced by heating a material is
called the thermal strain and stress, respectively which
increases by an amount  when the wire is pulled by a
are gives as
longitudinal external force F. Young’s modulus of the
∆
material of the wire is the ratio of longitudinal stress to the Thermal strain = = ∆t [ As, α∆t << 1]
F / A 4FL 
longitudinal strain i.e.,
= Y = . where, α =thermal coefficient of linear expansion
 / L πd 2 
The units of Young’s modulus are the same as that of stress and ∆t = change in temperature.
(note that strain is dimensionless) which is same as the units F
Thermal stress= = Yα∆t .
of pressure i.e., Pa or N/m2. A
• If a metal cube is heated, then pressure applied on the

cube to prevent its expansion is
P= Bγ V dt
where, γ V =coefficient of volume expansion
and dt = rise in temperature.
5.3 Stress Developed due to Rotation of

Objects : Torsion Constant of a
Wire
The torsion constant is a geometrical property of a bar's
cross-section which is involved in the relationship between
angle of twist and applied torque along the axis of the bar,
for a homogeneous linear-elastic bar. The torsion constant,
together with material properties and length, describes a
bar's torsional stiffness.
Wire Extension Due to Pulling force F= kθ For a beam of uniform cross-section along its length
Fig. 10.9 TL
θ=
• As Young’s modulus is independent of the shape of GJ
the material, we can utilize any shape for its Where,
calculation. in particular, a thin circular wire fulfills θ is the angle of twist in radians
our requirement. T is applied torque
• In this method, the length L of the wire is measured by L is the beam length
a scale, diameter d of the wire is measured by a screw G is the Modulus of rigidity (shear modulus) of the material
gauge, length  of the wire is measured by a J is the torsional constant
Micrometer or Vernier scale, and F is specified
external force.
• Differentiate the expression for Y to get the relative
error in the measured value of Y
∆Y ∆L ∆d ∆
= +2 +
Y L d 
Fig. 10.1
• The SI unit for torsion constant is m4.
• Inverting the previous relation, we can define two
TL
quantities: the torsional rigidity GJ = with SI units
θ
Nm2/rad
• And the torsional stiffness:
GJ T
= with SI units N.m/rad.
L θ
5.4 Interatomic Force Constant

• It is the ratio of interatomic force to that of change in
F
interatomic distance, i.e., k = .
∆r
Also, k = Yr0
where, Y = Young’s Modulus,
r0 = distance between two atoms.
NCERT Corner
(Some important points to remember)
1. Elastic and Plastic behavior of Materials Thus, stress ∝ strain
• Whenever a force is applied on a body, then it tends to stress= k × strain
change the size or shape of the body. • The SI unit of modulus of elasticity is Nm-2.
• The property of a body by virtue of which it tends to • A class of solids called elastomers do not obey Hooke’s
regain its original size and shape when the applied force law.
is removed, is known as Elasticity and the deformation
caused is known as Elastic Deformation. 6. Moduli of Elasticity
• Those substances which do not have a tendency to • Three elastic moduli viz. Young’s Modulus, shear
regain their shape and hence gets permanently modulus and bulk modulus are used to describe the
deformed are called Plastic and the property is called elastic behavior of objects as they respond to deforming
Plasticity. forces that act on them.
• When an object is under tension or compression, the
2. Stress
Hooke’s law takes the form:
• The restoring force per unit cross-sectional are set up
F / A= Y∆L / L
within the body is called stress.
where ∆L / L is the tensile or compressive strain of the
Restoring force F
Stress = object, F is the magnitude of the applied fore causing
Area of cross-section A
the strain. A is the cross-sectional area over which F is
• In SI system, unit of stress is N/m2 or pascal (Pa). applied (perpendicular to A) and Y is the Young’s
• In general there are three types of stresses modulus for the object.
(a) Longitudinal Stress – Tensile stress (associated with • A pair of forces when applied parallel to the upper and
stretching or compressive stress (associated with lower faces, the solid deforms so that the upper face
compression). moves sideways with respect to the lower. The
(b) Shearing Stress.
horizontal displacement ∆L of the upper face is
(c) Bulk Stress.
perpendicular to the vertical height L. This type of
deformation is called shear and the corresponding stress
3. Breaking Stress
is the shearing stress. This type of stress is possible only
• The minimum stress after which the wire breaks is
in solids.
called breaking stress.
In this kind of deformation the Hooke’s law takes the
• A wire of length  will break due to its own weight, form :
Breaking stress F / A= G × ∆L / L where ∆L is the displacement of
when  =
dg one end of object in the direction of the applied force F,
where, d = density of material of wire and G is the shear modulus.
and g = acceleration due to gravity. • When an object undergoes hydraulic compression due
to a stress exerted by a surrounding fluid, the Hooke’s
4. Strain law takes the form P =−B ( ∆V / V ) . where p is the
• Strain is defined as the ratio of change in dimension of
pressure (hydraulic stress) on the object due to the fluid,
an object to the original dimension.
∆V / V (the volume strain) is the absolute fractional
Change in configuration of the object
Strain = change in the object’s volume due to that pressure and
Original configuration of the object
B is the bulk modulus of the object.
• It is a pure number and has no unit. • The Young’s modulus and shear modulus are relevant
only for solids since only solids have lengths and
5. Hooke’s Law shapes.
• This law states that, for small deformations, the stress • Bulk modulus is relevant for solids, liquid and gases. it
and strain are proportional to each other. refers to the change in volume when every part of the
body is under the uniform stress so that the shape of the

body remains unchanged.
• Metal shave larger values of Young’s modulus than
alloys and elastomers. A material with large value of
Young’s modulus require a large force to produce small
changes in its length.
7. Poisson’s Ratio
• It is the ratio of transverse or lateral strain to
longitudinal strain in the direction of stretching force. It
is expressed as
-Lateral contraction strain −d / D
σ = • In the region O to A, stress is found proportional to
Longitudinal contraction strain /L
strain. Thus, Hooke’s law is fully obeyed in this region
where, d = change in diameter & D = original diameter, and body regain its original shape.
 = change in length & L = original length. • Point A is known as point of proportional limit.
• Theoretical limits of Poisson’s ratio are -1 and 0.5, • In the region from A to B, stress and strain are not
while the practical limits are 0 and 0.5. proportional, but the body still returns to its original
• Relation between Y, K, G and σ as given below shape and size.
Y • The point B is yield point (also called elastic limit) and
(a) L =
3 (1 − 2σ ) corresponding stress is yield stress ( σ y ).
Y • If stress increases beyond point B, the strain further

(b) G = increases, but on removing the strain wire does not
2 (1 + σ )
regain its original length.
( 3B − 2G ) • Beyond point C, for a small stress, the strain produced
(c) σ =
2 ( 3B + G ) is large upto point D. The wire will break at point D
9GB called fracture point of wire.
(d) Y =
3B + G
9. Elastic Potential energy Stored in a Stretched Wire
9 3 1
(e) = + • The work done in stretching a wire against the
Y G B
interatomic forces is stored as the elastic potential
8. Stress-strain Curve energy.
• A typical stress-strain curve for a metal is shown in • Potential energy of work done per unit is given by
figure W 1
U == × Stress × Strain
V 2
1 1 2  Stress 
× Y × ( Strain ) = × ( Stress )  Y =
2
=
2 2Y  Strain 
• Potential energy stored in stretching wire by restoring
force is expressed as
1
W = × F× 
2
where, F = restoring force
and  = elongation produced.
• If the force acting on the body is increased from F1 to F2
within the elastic limit, then
( F1 + F2 )
= W × extension .
2
11
FLUID MECHANICS
Fluid Mechanics
1. Introduction to Fluids
• The liquids and gases together are termed as fluids, in
other words, we can say that the substances which can
flow are termed as fluids.
• We assume fluid to be incompressible (i.e., the density Fig.11.2
of liquid is independent of variation in pressure and (b) Pressure at two points which are at a depth separation
remains constant) and non-viscous (i.e. the two liquid of h when fluid is at rest or moving with constant
surfaces in contact are not exerting any tangential force velocity is related by the expression
on each other).
1.1 Fluid Pressure

Pressure p at any point is defined as the normal force per
unit area.
dF
P= 1 Fig. 11.3
dA
p2 − p1 = gh , where  is the density of liquid.
(c) Pressure at two points in a horizontal plane when

fluid container is having some constant horizontal
Fig. 11.1 acceleration are related by the expression
The SI unit of pressure is the Pascal and 1 Pascal = 1 N/m 2
• Fluid force acts perpendicular to any surface in the
fluid, no matter how that surface is oriented. Hence
pressure, has no intrinsic direction of its own, it is a
scalar quantity.
1.2 Relative Density and Specific

Gravity Fig.11.4
p2 − p1 = la
Relative density or specific gravity is the ratio of the
a
density (mass of a unit volume) of a substance to the and tan  = , where  is the angle which the
density of a given reference material. If the relative density g
is exactly 1 then the densities are equal i.e., equal liquid’s free surface is making with horizontal.
volumes of the two substances have the same mass.

RD = subs tan ce 2.2 Atmospheric Pressure, Gauge
reference Pressure and Absolute Pressure
• Atmospheric Pressure: It is the pressure exerted by
2. Hydrostatic Pressure earth’s atmosphere. Normal atmospheric pressure at sea
level (an average value) is 1 atmosphere (atm) that is
equal to 1.013 × 105 Pa.
2.1 Variation of Pressure • Gauge Pressure: It is the difference between absolute
(a) Pressure at two points in a horizontal plane or at
pressure and atmospheric pressure. If the gauge
same level when the fluid is at rest or moving with
pressure is above the atmospheric pressure, it is
constant velocity is same.
positive. If the gauge pressure is below the atmospheric
pressure, it is negative.
FLUID MECHANICS
• Absolute Pressure: Absolute pressure is gauge

pressure plus atmospheric pressure. An absolute 4. Pascal’s Law
pressure reading of zero can only be achieved in a • A change in the pressure applied to an enclosed fluid
perfect vacuum and only naturally occurs in outer is transmitted equally to every portion of the fluid in
space. all direction of the walls of the containing vessel.
• Barometer: It is a device used to measure atmospheric Hydraulic lift: Hydraulic lift is a practical
pressure while U–tube manometer or simply manometer applications of Pascal’s law
is a device used to measure the gauge pressure. •
3. Force Exerted by Fluids

on the Walls of the
Container
3.1 Force on the Sidewall of a Container
Force on the side wall of the container cannot be directly Fig. 11.6
determined as at different depths pressures are different.
To find this we consider a strip of width dx at a depth x According to principle of hydraulics
from the surface of the liquid as shown in figure, F F A
P1 = P2  1 = 2  F2 = 2 F1
A1 A 2 A1
5. Buoyancy
Buoyancy is the tendency of an object to float in a fluid.
All liquids and gases in the presence of gravity exert an
upward force known as the buoyant force on any object
immersed in them. Buoyancy results from the differences
Fig.11.5 in pressure acting on opposite sides of an object immersed
in a static fluid.
On this strip the force due to the liquid is given as:
dF = Px A 5.1 Buoyant Force
dF = gx(bdx) The buoyant force is the upward force exerted on an object
wholly or partly immersed in a fluid. This upward force is
h
F =  dF = gb  xdx also called Upthrust. Due to the buoyant force, a body
0
submerged partially or fully in a fluid appears to lose its
gbh 2 weight, i.e.. appears to be lighter.
F=
2 Following factors affect buoyant force:
This force is acting in the direction normal to the side wall. (i)the density of the fluid
(ii)the volume of the fluid displaced
(iii)the local acceleration due to gravity
3.2 Average Pressure on the Sidewall: An object whose density is greater than that of the fluid
in which it is submerged tends to sink. If the object is
The absolute pressure on the side wall cannot be evaluated either less dense than the liquid or is shaped appropriately
because at different depths on this wall pressure is different. (as in a boat), the force can keep the object afloat.
The average pressure on the wall can be given as:
F
Pavg =
bh
5.2 Archimedes’ Principle
Archimedes’ principle states that:
gh “The upward buoyant force that is exerted on a body
Pavg ==
2 immersed in a fluid, whether partially or fully submerged, is
equal to the weight of the fluid that the body displaces and
Above equation shows that the average pressure on side acts in the upward direction at the center of mass of the
vertical wall is half of the net pressure at the bottom of the displaced fluid”.
container. FB = Vg
Where, FB=Upthrust of Buoyant force
V = volume of liquid displaced
 = density of liquid.
FLUID MECHANICS
Apparent decrease in weight of body = Upthrust – weight of Now from conservation of mass
liquid displaced by the body A1 v1 t = A2 v2t
Wapp = FB – W  A1 v 1 = A 2 v 2
This equation is known as continuity equation
Mass flows rate = Av
6. Types of Fluid Flows •
(Where  is the density of the liquid.)
6.1 Steady Flow (Streamline Flow)
When a body is partially or fully dipped into a fluid, the
fluid exerts contact force on the body. The resultant of all 8. Bernoulli’s Theorem
these contact forces is called buoyant force (upthrust). In a streamline flow of an ideal fluid, the sum of pressure
Line of flow: It is the path taken by a particle in flowing energy per unit volume, potential energy per unit volume
liquid. In case of a steady flow, it is called streamline. Two and kinetic energy per unit volume is always constant at all
streamlines can never intersect each other. cross section of the liquid.
v2
P + gh + = Constant
6.2 Turbulent Flow 2
It is irregular flow in which particles move in zig zag way • It is a mathematical consequence of low of
conservation of energy and fluid dynamics.
6.3 Reynold’s Number

Reynolds defined a dimensionless number whose value
gives one an approximate idea, whether the flow rate would
be turbulent or laminar.
This number, called the Reynolds number Re is defined as,
vD
Re =

where,  = the density of the fluid flowing with a speed v.
D = the diameter of the tube. Fig. 11.8
 = the coefficient of viscosity of the fluid. v 2
v 2
It is found that flow is streamline or laminar for Re less than P1 + gh1 + 1
= P2 + gh 2 + 2
2 2
1000. The flow is turbulent for Re > 2000. The flow
• Bernoulli’s equation is valid only for incompressible
becomes unsteady for Re between 1000 and 2000.
steady flow of a fluid with no viscosity.
NOTE:
For lower density and higher viscosity fluids laminar 8.1 Application of Bernoulli’s Theorem
flow is more probable. (a) Velocity of Efflux
7. Equation of Continuity
In a tube of varying cross section as shown in diagram:
Fig. 11.9
Let us find the velocity with which liquid comes out
of a hole at a depth h below the liquid surface. Using
Bernoulli’s theorem,
Fig. 11.7 1 1
PA + v A2 + gh A = PB + v 2B + gh B
The fluid flows for a short interval of time in the tube. So, 2 2
assume that short interval of time as Δt. In this time t, the 1 2 1
volume of liquid entering the tube of flow in a steady flow is  Patm + v A + gh = Patm + v 2 + 0
2 2
A1 v1 t. [PB = Patm, because we have opened the liquid to
Where v1 is velocity of fluid at cross section A1 atmosphere]
The same volume must flow out as the liquid is
 v 2 = v 2A + 2gh
incompressible. The volume flowing out in t is A2 v2 t.
Where v2 is velocity of fluid at cross section A2 Using equation of continuity
FLUID MECHANICS
AvA = av (ii) Force F is directly proportional to the velocity

A: area of cross-section of vessel, a: area of hole dv
gradient between the layers.
a2 dx
 v2 = 2 v2 + 2gh
A
Combining these two, we have viscous force
2gh
 v= dv
a2 F = −A
1− 2 dx
A
If the hole is very small Where  is a constant depending upon the nature of the
liquid and is called the coefficient of viscosity. Its value
 v  2gh
depends on the nature of the fluid.
(b) Venturi Meter The negative sign in the above equation shows that the
Venturi meter is an instrument for measuring the rate direction of viscous force F is opposite to the direction of
of flow of fluids. relative velocity of the layer.
S.I. unit of coefficient of viscosity is Pa-s or N-s/m2 or
decapoise.
CGS unit of viscosity is poise. (1 decapoise = 10 poise).
9.1 Stoke’s Law

When a solid moves through a viscous medium, its motion
is opposed by a viscous force depending on the velocity and
shape and size of the body.
The viscous drag on a spherical body of radius r, moving
Fig. 11.10 with velocity v, in a viscous medium of viscosity  is given
by
If PA is pressure at A and PB is pressure at B, Fviscous = 6rv
PA – PB = hg This relation is called Stoke’s law.
[h : difference of heights of liquids of density  in
vertical tubes] Importance of Stoke’s Law
If v1 is velocity at A and v2 is velocity at B • This law is used in the determination of electronic
Q = a1v1 = a 2 v2 [equation of continuity] charge with the help of Millikan’s experiment.
v12 v2 • This law accounts the formation of clouds.
PA +  = PB +  2 [Bernoulli’s Theorem] • This law accounts why the speed of raindrops is less
2 2
2 2 than that of a body falling freely with a constant
 v2 − v1 = ( PA − PB ) = hg
2 2
velocity from the height of clouds.
 
• This law helps a man coming down with the help of a
Q2 Q2 parachute.
 − = 2gh
a 22 a12
2gh 9.2 Terminal Velocity
 Q = a 1a 2 It is maximum constant velocity acquired by the body while
a − a 22
2
1
falling freely in a viscous medium.
Here Q is the rate of fluid flow 2r 2 (  −  ) g
vr =
9
9. Viscosity Where r is radius of body,  is density of body,  is density
The property of a fluid by virtue of which it opposes the of liquid and  is the coefficient of viscosity.
relative motion between its different layers is known as
viscosity and the force that is into play is called the viscous 9.3 Poiseuille’s Formula
force.
Newton’s Law of Viscosity: According to Newton, the This law states that the flow of liquid depends on variables
frictional force F (or viscous force) between two layers such as length of tube (L) radius(r), pressure difference (P)
depends upon the following factors,
and coefficient of viscosity .
(i) Force F is directly proportional to the area (A) of the According to this law volume of liquid coming out of tube
layers in contact, i.e. F  A per second in given by
 Pr 4
V=
8L
FLUID MECHANICS
10. Surface Tension 11.1 Angle of Contact

When a liquid surface touches a solid surface, the shape of
The surface tension of a liquid is defined as the force per the liquid surface near the contact is generally curved.
unit length in the plane of the liquid surface at right angles The angle between the tangent planes at the solid surface
to either side of an imaginary line drawn on that surface. and the liquid at the contact is called the contact angle.
F
So, S = where S = surface tension of liquid
11.2 Shape of Liquid Meniscus
The surface tension can be defined as the property of a Concave upwards: When adhesive force between solid and
liquid at rest by virtue of which its free surface behaves like liquid molecules is more than the cohesive force between
a stretched membrane under tension and tries to occupy liquid-liquid molecules in this case liquids wet the walls of
as small area as possible. the container (For example water and glass) have meniscus
Unit of surface tension in MKS system : N/m, J/m 2 concave upwards and their values of angle of contact is less
CGS system  Dyne/cm, erg/cm than 90°.
Convex upwards: When adhesive force between solid and
10.1 Surface Energy liquid molecules is less than the cohesive force between
In order to increase the surface area, the work has to be done liquid-liquid molecules in this case liquids don't wet the
over the surface of the liquid. This work done is stored in walls of the container (For example mercury and glass) and
the liquid surface as its potential energy. Hence the surface have meniscus convex upwards and their value of angle of
energy of a liquid can be defined as the excess potential contact is greater than 90°.
energy per unit area of the liquid surface.
W = SA, where A = increase in surface area.
NOTE:
1. Work done in formation of drop of radius r =
surface tension × A = 4r2S
2. Work done in formation of soap bubble = 2 ×
Fig. 11.11
surface tension × A = 8r2S
11.3 Capillary Tube and Capillarity
10.2 Excess Pressure Action
• Excess pressure in a liquid drop or bubble in a liquid A very narrow glass tube with fine bore and open at both
2S ends is known as capillary tube. When a capillary tube in
is P = , S is surface tension dipped in a liquid, then liquid will rise or fall in the tube,
R
this action is termed as capillarity.
4S
• Excess pressure in a soap bubble is P =
R
(Because it has two free surfaces)
11. Cohesive and Adhesive

Forces
The force of attraction between the molecules of the same
substance is called cohesion.
For solids, the force of cohesion is very large and due to this
solids have definite shape and size. Fig. 11.12
But in case of liquids, the force of cohesion is weaker than 2Scos  2S
h= =
that of solids. Hence, liquids do not have definite shape but rg Rg
have definite volume. The force of cohesion is negligible in where, S = surface tension,
for gases so, gases don’t have fixed shape and volume.
 = angle of contact,
Some Important points:
r = radius of capillary tube,
(i) Adhesive force enables us to write on the black board R = radius of meniscus, and
with a chalk.  = density of liquid.
(ii) Due to force of adhesion, water wets the glass plate. • Capillary rise in a tube of insufficient length :
FLUID MECHANICS
If the actual height to which a liquid will rise in a

capillary tube is ‘h’ then a capillary tube of length
less than ‘h’ can be called a tube of “insufficient
length”.
In such a case, liquid rises to the top of the capillary
tube of length l (l < h) and adjusts the radius of
curvature of its meniscus until the excess pressure is
equalized by the pressure of liquid column of length l.
(Note liquid does not overflow).
2 Fig. 11.13
 = g …(i) 2
r' = r ' = hr
If r were the actual radius of curvature, g
2 hr
 = hg …(ii) r' = i.e. radius of curvature r’ can be calculated.
r
Comparing (i) and (ii)
11.3 Important Points to Remember
Adhesion > Cohesion Adhesion = Cohesion Adhesion < Cohesion
1. Liquid will wet the solid 1. Critical 1. Liquid will not wet the solid.
2. Meniscus is concave. 2. Meniscus is plane. 2. Meniscus is convex.
3. Angle of contact is acute ( < 90°). 3.Angle of contact is 90° 3. Angle of contact is obtuse ( >
4. Pressure below the meniscus is lesser 4. Pressure below the meniscus is 90°)
than above it by (2T/r), same as above it, 4. Pressure below the meniscus
2T i.e. P = P0 more then above it by (2T/r),
i.e. P = P0 − .
r 2T
i.e, P = P0 + .
r
5. In capillary there will be rise 5. No capillarity 5. In capillary there will be fall
FLUID MECHANICS
NCERT Corner
1. The basic property of a fluid is that it can flow. The 8. Bernoulli’s principle states that as we move along a
fluid does not have any resistance to change of its streamline, the sum of the pressure (P), the kinetic
shape. Thus, the shape of a fluid is governed by the energy per unit volume (ρv2/2) and the potential
shape of its container energy per unit volume (ρgh) remains a constant.
P + ρv2/2 + ρgh = constant
2. A liquid is incompressible and has a free surface of its The equation is basically the conservation of energy
own. A gas is compressible, and it expands to occupy applied to non viscuss fluid motion in steady state.
all the space available to it. There is no fluid which have zero viscosity, so the
above statement is true only approximately. The
viscosity is like friction and converts the kinetic
3. If F is the normal force exerted by a fluid on an area A energy to heat energy.
then the average pressure Pav is defined as the ratio of
the force to area
9. Though shear strain in a fluid does not require shear
F
Pav = stress, when a shear stress is applied to a fluid, the
A
motion is generated which causes a shear strain
growing with time. The ratio of the shear stress to the
4. The unit of the pressure is the pascal (Pa). It is the time rate of shearing strain is known as coefficient of
same as N m-2. Other common units of pressure are viscosity, η.
1 atm = 1.01×105 Pa
1 bar = 105 Pa 1 torr = 133 Pa = 0.133 kPa 10. Stokes’ law states that the viscous drag force F on a
sphere of radius r moving with velocity v through a
1 mm of Hg = 1 torr = 133 Pa
fluid of viscosity is, F = 6πrηv.
5. Pascal’s law states that: Pressure in a fluid at rest is

11. Surface tension is a force per unit length (or surface
same at all points which are at the same height. A
energy per unit area) acting in the plane of interface
change in pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is
between the liquid and the bounding surface. It is the
transmitted undiminished to every point of the fluid
and the walls of the containing vessel. extra energy that the molecules at the interface have as
compared to the interior.
6. The pressure in a fluid varies with depth h according

to the expression
P = P0 + ρgh
where ρ is the density of the fluid, assumed uniform.
7. The volume of an incompressible fluid passing any

point every second in a pipe of non-uniform cross
section is the same in the steady flow.
vA = constant ( v is the velocity and A is the area of
cross section)
The equation is due to mass conservation in
incompressible fluid flow.
12
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION 1
Simple Harmonic Motion
1. Periodic & Oscillatory 2.1 Restoring Force in SHM

Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) is that type of oscillatory
Motion motion in which the particle moves to and fro about a fixed
point under a restoring force whose magnitude is directly
• A motion which repeats itself over and over again after proportional to its displacement and directed towards means
a regular interval of time is called periodic motion. position, i.e.
F ∝ −x
• Oscillatory or vibratory motion is that motion in which So, Fnet = −kx
a body moves to and fro or back and forth repeatedly
where, k is known as force constant
about a fixed point in a definite interval of time.
Also, ma = −kx
−k
⇒a= x
m
or, a = −ω2 x ... ( i )
where, ω is known as angular frequency.
Fig. 12.1
2.2 Equation of SHM
The above two are the examples of both oscillatory From (i), we can write
and periodic motions. d2 x
= −ω2 x
dt 2
This equation is called as the differential equation of S.H.M.
2. Simple Harmonic Motion The general expression for x(t) satisfying the above equation
Simple harmonic motion is a specific type of is:
oscillatory motion, in which: x ( t ) A sin ( ωt + φ ) .
=
• particle moves in one dimension,
Mathematically a SHM can be expressed as
• particle moves to and fro about a fixed mean
2π
position (where Fnet = 0 ), x A sin =
= ωt A sin t
T
• net force on the particle is always directed towards 2π
mean position, and or,=x A cos= ωt A cos t
T
• magnitude of net force is always proportional to the where,
displacement of particle from the mean position at that x = displacement from mean position at time t,
instant. A = amplitude or maximum displacement,
ω =angular frequency, and
T = time period.
φ =initial phase.
2.3 Some Important Terms

a) Amplitude
Fig. 12.2 The amplitude of particle executing S.H.M. is its
magnitude of maximum displacement on either side of
the means position.
b) Time period • Velocity is minimum at extremes because the

Time period of a particle executing S.H.M. is the time particles is at rest. i.e., v = 0 at extreme position.
taken to complete one cycle and is denoted by T. • Velocity has maximum magnitude at mean
2π m  m position. v max = ωA at mean position.
Time period ( T ) = = 2π  as ω = .
ω k  k 
c) Frequency c) Acceleration (For φ= 2nπ )
The frequency of a particle executing S.H.M. is equal
to the number of oscillations completed in one second.
ω 1 k
=
υ =
2π 2π m
d) Phase
The phase of particle executing S.H.M. at any instant
is its state as regard to its position and direction of
motion at that instant. It is measured as argument
(angle) of sine in the equation of S.H.M. Fig. 12.5
Phase = ( ωt + φ ) • At any instant t, a ( t ) = −ω2 A sin ( ωt + φ ) .
• At t = 0, phase = φ ; the constant φ is called initial • At any position x, a ( x ) = −ω2 x .
phase of the particle or phase constant. • Acceleration is always directed towards mean
position.
2.4 Important Relations • The magnitude of acceleration is minimum at mean
position and maximum at extremes.
a) Position (For φ= 2nπ ) i.e., a min = 0 at mean position.
a max = ω2 A at extremes
2.5 Time Period of S.H.M.

To find whether a motion in S.H.M. or not and to find its
time period, follow these steps:
Fig. 12.3
a) Locate the mean (equilibrium) position mathematically
If mean position is at origin the position (X coordinate
by balancing all the forces on it.
depends on time in general as:
b) Displace the particle by a displacement ‘x’ from the
x (=
t ) sin ( ωt + φ ) mean position in the probable direction of oscillation.
• At mean position, x = 0 c) Find the net force on it and check if it is towards mean
• At extremes, x = ± A . position.
d) Try to express net force as a proportional function of
b) Velocity (For φ= 2nπ ) its displacement ‘x’.
NOTE:
If step c) and step d) are proved, then it is a simple
harmonic motion
e) Find k from expression of net force ( F = −kx ) and

Fig. 12.4 m
find time period using T = 2π .
• At any time instant t, v ( t )= Aω cos ( ωt + φ ) . k
• At any position x, v ( x ) = ±ω A 2 − x 2 .
2.6 Graphs in S.H.M. 3. Phasor in S.H.M.’s

2.6.1 Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration 3.1 SHM Projection for Circular Motion
of a Body Executing SHM
Uniform Circular Motion:
a) y ( t ) A cos ωt
Displacement = a) Particle moves on a circular path of radius A with
angular velocity ω .
Fig. 12.6
It is Sinusoidal in nature, y varies from -A to A. It has
zero phase difference.
Fig. 12.9
b) Velocity v ( t ) = −ωA sin ωt At t = 0,
• Particle is at point Q on the circle

• Position vector is OQ .
• Angle with X-axis = φ .
b)
Fig. 12.7
It is Sinusoidal in nature, v(t) varies from −ωA to ωA
π
. It has a phase difference of w.r.t. y(t).
2
π
(It is leading y(t) in the phase by .)
2
c) Acceleration a ( t ) = −ω2 A cos ωt
Fig. 12.10
At any given time t
• Particle is at point P

• Position vector OP .
• Angle with X-axis = φ + ωt .
Fig. 12.8 ∴ y A sin ( ωt + φ )
=
It is Sinusoidal in nature, a(t) varies from So, its projection on y-axis does SHM.
−ω2 A to ω2 A .
It has a phase difference of π w.r.t. y(t).
3.2 Phase in S.H.M.
(It is π phase ahead of y(t)) We can write an expression for the displacement of the mass
as follows:
x
= ( t ) A cos ωt
where, A is the amplitude of the oscillation, and ω is the
angular frequency in units of rad/s.
• That means that A is the value of largest deviation
(plus or minus) of the mass from its equilibrium
position, and the value of ω governs the time it takes Phasor Diagram: -
for the mass to complete one oscillation (recall that the
2π
period of the oscillation, T = ,so a small ω means a
ω
long period while a large ω means a short period).
• Together, A and ω completely define the oscillation.
• We can represent these two quantities and therefore
the oscillation itself with a phasor diagram. A phasor is
nothing more than a vector with magnitude is A that
rotates with angular velocity ω .
• For the oscillation defined above x ( 0 ) = A , since
cos 0° =1 . We can represent the oscillation at this time
with a phasor of length A that lies on the horizontal
axis.
Fig. 12.11
• As time passes, the mass moves back toward its
equilibrium position. At the same time, the phasor
rotates in the counterclockwise direction. The phasor’s
Fig. 12.13
magnitude doesn’t change, but the projection of the
phasor onto the horizontal axis gets smaller. NOTE:
If particle start from
• mean towards positive direction
=φ 0,= x A sin ωt
• mean towards negative direction
φ = π, x = A sin ( ωt + π )
• from positive extreme
π  π
Fig. 12.12 =φ =, x A sin  ωt + 
2  2
• Now, if θ = ωt in the phasor diagram, then projection
=x A cos ( ωt )
of the phasor on the horizontal axis is
• negative extreme
A cos
= θ A cos ωt , and that’s precisely the expression
for the displacement of the mass at time t. This means 3π  3π 
=φ = , x A sin  ωt + 
that if the phasor rotates with angular velocity ω , its 2  2 
projection on the horizontal axis will always describe −A cos ωt .
x=
the displacement of the oscillation.
Fig. 12.14
4. Energy in S.H.M. 4.3 Total Energy

T.E = K.E + P.E
4.1 Kinetic Energy
1
• K= mv 2
2
1
2
(
⇒ K =mω2 A 2 − x 2 as v =)( ω A2 − x 2 )
1
= mω2 A 2 cos 2 ( ωt + φ ) Fig. 12.17
2
1 2 1
T.E. =
= kA mA 2 ω2
2 2
NOTE:
For φ = 0° It is constant at all time instant and at all positions.
Fig. 12.15
• K is maximum at mean position and minimum at
extremes.
1 1
and: K max = mω2 A 2 = kA 2 at mean position
2 2
K min = 0 at extremes.
Fig. 12.18 Energy Position Graph
4.2 Potential Energy

If potential energy is taken as zero at mean position, then at
5. Spring Block System
any position x,
1 2 1
5.1 Horizontal Spring
U=(x) = kx mA 2 ω2 sin 2 ( ωt + φ )
2 2 • Let a block of mass m be placed on a smooth
horizontal surface and rigidly connected to spring of
force constant K whose other end is permanently
fixed.
For φ = 0°
Fig. 12.16
1 2
• U is maximum at extremes, U max = kA .
2
• U is minimum at mean position
Fig. 12.19
• Mean position: when spring is at its natural length.

m
• Time period: T = 2π .
k
5.2 Vertical Spring 5.4 Important Points Regarding Spring

• If the spring is suspended vertically from a fixed point Block System
and carries the block at its other end as shown, the
block will oscillate along the vertical line. • If the length of the spring is made n times, then the
effective force constant becomes 1/n times and the
time period becomes n times.
• If a spring of spring constant k is divided into n equal
parts, then the spring constant of each part becomes nk
1
and time period becomes times.
n
• The force constant of a stiffer spring is higher than that
Fig. 12.20
of soft spring.
mg
• Mean position: spring is elongated by d = .
k
m 6. Angular S.H.M.
• Time period : T = 2π .
k Instead of straight-line motion, if a particle or centre of mass
5.3 Combination of Spring of body is oscillating on a small arc of circular path, then it
a) Spring in series is called angular S.H.M.
When two spring of force constant K1 and K2 are For angular S.H.M., τ = −kθ
connected in series as shown, they are equivalent to a ⇒ Iα = −kθ
single spring of force constant K, which is given by I
⇒ Time period, T = 2π .
1 1 1 k
= +
K K1 K 2 where I is the moment of inertia of the body along the given
K1K 2 axis.
K=
K1 + K 2
6.1 Simple Pendulum
• If a heavy point mass is suspended by a weightless,
inextensible and perfectly flexible string from a rigid
support, then this arrangement is called a simple
pendulum
Fig. 12.21
b) Spring in parallel
For a parallel combination as shown, the effective
spring constant is K
= K1 + K 2
Fig. 12.23

• Time period : T = 2π
g
Fig. 12.22
Special Cases:
a) If reference system is lift
• If velocity of lift v = constant, Acceleration a = 0
and g eff = g

∴ T = 2π .
g
• If lift is moving upwards with acceleration a
g eff = g + a
 Fig. 12.25
T=
2π ⇒ T decreases .
g+a If the body displaced through a small angle ' θ ' and released
• If lift is moving downwards with acceleration a from this position a torque is exerted by the weight of the
g eff = g − a body to restore to its equilibrium,
 ( )
τ = − Fg sin θ d as Fg = mg 
∴ T = 2π ⇒ T decreases .
g−a τ = −mgd sin θ
• If lift falls downwards freely k = mgd
g eff =g − g =0 ⇒ T =∞ . I hinge
T=
2π
k
(
I hinge =
moment of inertia about hinge )
b) A simple pendulum is mounted on a moving truck
I Hinge
• If truck is moving with constant velocity, no ⇒ T =2π
pseudo force acts on the pendulum and time period mgd

remains same T = 2π . 6.2.1 Condition for Minimum Time period
g
• If truck accelerates with acceleration a, then a I
T = 2π
pseudo force acts in opposite direction. mgd
So effective acceleration, I Ic + md 2
=

g2 + a 2 & T ' =
g eff = 2π = I mK 2 + md 2
g eff
where I is Moment of inertia of the given body along the
 given axis of rotation.
Time period T ' =
2π ⇒ T ' decreases . Ic is the moment of inertia of the given body along its centre
g2 + a 2
of mass.
K is radius of gyration.
1/2
 mK 2 + md 2   Ic 
T= 2π    as, K = 
 mgd   m 
For minimum time period,
d=K
Fig. 12.24
6.3 Torsional Pendulum
A torsional pendulum consists of a disk (or some other
6.2 Physical Pendulum object) suspended from a wire, which is then twisted and
Consider a body of irregular shape and mass (m) is free to released, resulting in an oscillatory motion.
oscillate in a vertical plane about a horizontal axis passing • The oscillatory motion is caused by a restoring torque
through a point, weight mg acts downwards at the centre of which is proportional to the angular displacement.
gravity (C).
d2θ
τR = I = −κθ
dt 2
where, I is the rotational inertia of the disk about the Ld

• Mean position : cylinder is immersed upto  = .
twisting axis. k (kappa) is the torsional constant ρ
(equivalent to the spring constant).
Ld 
• This equation is exactly the same as SHM we have • Time period : T =
2π 2π
= .
already discussed. ρg g
• By direct comparison the period of the torsional
pendulum is given by. 7.2 Liquid Oscillating in a U-tube
I
T = 2π Consider a liquid column of mass m and density ρ in a U-
κ
tube of area of cross section A. Let L = 2H,
θ ( t ) A cos ( ωt + φ ) 
and we can write, =
Fig. 12.28
• Mean position : when height of liquid is same in both
Fig. 12.26 limbs.
• Similar to the simple pendulum, so long as the angular • Time period :
displacement is small (which means the motion in m 2L ⋅ A L
SHM) the period is independent of the displacement. T=
2π 2π
= 2π
=
2Aρg 2Aρg 2g
• Torsional pendulums are also used as a time keeping
where, L is length of liquid column.
devices, as in for example, the mechanical wristwatch.
7.3 Body Oscillation in Tunnel Along

7. Miscellaneous Examples of Any Chord of the Earth
S.H.M.
7.1 Oscillation of a Cylinder Floating in
a Liquid
Let a cylinder of mass m and density d be floating on the Fig. 12.29
surface of a liquid of density ρ . The total length of cylinder • Mean position : At the centre of the chord.
is L. • Time period :
R
T=
2π 84.6 minutes
=
g
where, R is radius of earth = 6400 Km.
7.4 Pulley Spring Block System

A system is consisting of massless pulley, a spring of spring
constant k and a block of mass m. If the block is slightly
Fig. 12.27 displaced vertically down from its equilibrium position and
released.
Let’s find the frequency of its vertical oscillation in given Case (C):
cases: In this situation if the mass m moved by the pulley will also
Case (A): move by y and so the spring will stretch by 2 (as string is
As the pulley is fixed and string in inextensible, if mass m is inextensible) and so, T =' F= 2ky .
displaced by y the spring will stretch by y Now as pulley is massless so T =F + T ' =4ky
F = T = ky i.e.,
i.e., the restoring force on the mass m
restoring force is linear and so motion of mass m will be
So, T = 4ky = k ' y ⇒ k ' = 4k
linear simple harmonic with frequency
1 k 1 k' 1 4k
fA = fC
⇒= = = 2f A
2π m 2π m 2π m
Fig. 12.30
Case (B): Fig. 12.32
The pulley is moveable and string inextensible, so if mass m
moves down a distance y, the pulley will move down by 8. Superposition of SHM
y
 . A simple harmonic motion is produced is produced when a
2
force (called restoring force) proportional to the
ky displacement acts on a particle. If a particle is acted upon by
So the force in the spring F = .
2 two such forces the resultant motion of the particle is
Now as pulley is massless F = 2T, combination of two simple harmonic motions.
F ky
⇒T= = .
2 4 8.1 In Same Direction
So the restoring force on the mass m,
a) Having Same Frequencies:
1 1
T= ky = k ' y ⇒ k ' = k Suppose the two individual motions are represented
4 4
by,
1 k' 1 k f x 2 A 2 sin ( ωt + φ )
x1 A1 sin ωt &=
=
fB
⇒= = = A
2π m 2π 4m 2
Both the simple harmonic motions have same angular
frequency ω .
x x1 + x 2
=
= A1 sin ωt + A 2 sin ( ωt + φ )
= A sin ( ωt + α ) .
Here, A = A12 + A 22 + 2A1A 2 cos φ

A 2 sin φ
and tan α = .
A1 + A 2 cos φ
Fig. 12.31
Special Case:
a) If φ = 0°
x2 y2 2xy
∴ + − 0
=
A12 A 22 A1A 2
A2
∴ y= ⋅ x ( eq. of straight line )
A1
Fig. 12.33
Thus, we can see that this is similar to the vector
addition. The same method of vector addition can be
applied to the combination of more than two simple
harmonic motions.
b) Having Different Frequencies:

x1 A1 sin ω1t
=
x 2 A 2 sin ω2 t
= Fig. 12.35
Then resultant displacement
x x1 + x 2
= b) If φ= 90°
= A1 sin ω1t + A 2 sin ω2 t x2 y2
⇒ + 1 ( eq. of ellipse )
=
This resultant motion is not SHM. A12 A 22
8.2 In Two Perpendicular Directions

Let the motion be in x as well as y directions. They are
given as:
=x A1 sin ωt .... (1)
=y A 2 sin ( ωt + φ ) ..... ( 2 )
Fig. 12.36
The amplitude A1 and A2 may be different and phase
difference φ and ω is same. So equation of the path may be
c) If φ= 90° & A1= A 2= A then
obtained by eliminating t from (1) & (2)
x 2 + y2 =
A 2 (eq. of circle)
Fig. 12.37
Fig. 12.34
On rearranging we get
x2 y2 2xy cos φ
+ − = sin 2 φ .... ( 3)
A12 A 22 A1A 2
9. Damped & Forced Where ω =

k
represents the angular frequency in
m
Oscillations the absence of retarding force (the undamped
oscillator) & is called natural frequency.
9.1 Damped Oscillation
• The oscillation of a body whose amplitude goes on
9.2 Forced Oscillation
decreasing with time is defined as damped oscillation. • The oscillation in which a body oscillates under the
• In this oscillation the amplitude of oscillation decreases influence of an external periodic force are known as
exponentially due to damping forces like fractional forced oscillation.
force, viscous force etc. • Resonance: When the frequency of external force is
equal to the natural frequency of the oscillator, then
this state is known as the state of resonance. And this
frequency is known as resonant frequency.
• Suppose an external force F(t) of amplitude F0 that
varies periodically with time is applied to a damped
oscillator.
Such a force is =F ( t ) F0 cos ωd t .
The equation of particle under combined force is
Fig. 12.38 ma ( t ) =− kx − bv + F0 cos ωd t
• Due to decrease in amplitude of the oscillator, energy md 2 x bdx
goes on decreasing exponentially. + + kx= F0 cos ωd t
dt 2 dt
• The damping force can be expressed as F = -bv (where
After solving,
b is a constant called the damping coefficient) and
=x A 'cos ( ωd t + φ )
restoring force on the system is -kx, we can write
Newton’s second law as F
where, A ' =
Fnet = −kx − bv = ma  bω 
2
m (ω 2
d )
− ω2 +  d 
 m 
dx d2 x
−kx − b m 2
=
dt dt k
( ω is natural frequency & ω = )
m
This is the differential equation of damped oscillation. Graph of amplitude versus frequency for a damped
oscillator when a periodic driving force is present.
When the frequency of the driving force equals the
natural frequency ω, resonance occurs.
Fig. 12.39
The solution of this equation is given by
 − bt 
=x A  e 2m  cos ( ω ' t + φ )
 
 
Where angular frequency of oscillation is Fig. 12.40
2 2
k  b   b 
ω' = −  = ω2 −  
m  2m   2m 
NCERT Corner
(Some Important Points to Remember)
4. The force acting in a simple harmonic motion is
1. Periodic Motion proportional to the displacement and is always directed
• A motion which repeats itself over and over again towards the centre of motion.
after a regular interval of time is called a Periodic
Motion. E.g., revolution of planets around the sun, 5. A particle of mass m oscillating under the influence of
rotation of the earth about its polar axis etc. Hooke’s law restoring force given by F = -kx exhibits
• The function which are used to represent periodic simple harmonic motion with
motion are called Periodic Functions. k
• One of the simplest periodic function is given by
ω= ( angular frequency )
m
f ( t ) A cos ωt .
=
m
T = 2π ( period )
k
2. Oscillatory Motion Such a system is also called a linear oscillator.
A motion in which a body moves back and forth The period T is the time required for one complete
repeatedly about a fixed point (called mean position) is oscillation, or cycle. It is related to the frequency υ
called Oscillatory or Vibratory Motion.
by.
1
3. Simple Harmonic Motion T= .
υ
• In simple harmonic motion (SHM), the
displacement x(t) of a particle from its equilibrium
position is given by, 6. Energy in SHM
• If a particle of mass m executes SHM, then at a
x ( t ) A cos ( ωt + φ )( displacement )
=
displacement y from mean position, the particle
in which A is the amplitude of the displacement, possesses potential and kinetic energy.
the quantity ( ωt + φ ) is the phase of the motion, • At any displacement y,
and φ is the phase constant. The angular frequency 1 1
a) Potential energy, U = mω2 y 2 = ky 2 .
ω is related to the period and frequency of the 2 2
motion by, b) Kinetic energy,
1 1
ω=
2π
T
= 2πυ ( angular frequency ) . ( ) (
K = mω2 A 2 − y 2 = k A 2 − y 2 .
2 2
)
• Simple harmonic motion can also be viewed as the c) Total energy,
projection of uniform circular motion on the 1
E =U + K = mω2 A 2 =2π2 mυ2 A 2 .
diameter of the circle in which the latter motion 2
occurs. • At mean position, kinetic energy is maximum and
• The particle velocity and acceleration during SHM potential energy is zero.
as function of time are given by, • At extreme position, potential is maximum and
Velocity: v ( t ) = −ωA sin ( ωt + φ ) , kinetic energy is zero.
Acceleration: • The time period of potential and kinetic energy is
T/2.
a ( t ) = −ω2 A cos ( ωt + φ ) = −ω2 x ( t )
• The frequency of oscillation of potential energy
Thus, we see that both velocity and acceleration of and kinetic energy is twice as that of displacement
a body executing simple harmonic motion are or velocity or acceleration.
periodic functions, having the velocity amplitude
v m = ωA and acceleration amplitude a m = ω2 A ,
respectively.
7. Simple Pendulum (iii) Spring connected

A simple pendulum, in practice, consists of a heavy with two masses
but small sized metallic bob suspended by a light, ( m1 and m 2 )
inextensible and flexible string.
µ
• The motion of a simple pendulum is simple T=2
harmonic whose time period and frequency are k
given by (iv) Spring with spring
 1 g constants (k1 and
T = 2π & υ= k2) connected in
g 2π 
series
• If a pendulum of length  at temperature θ°C has a
m ( k1 + k 2 )
time period T, then on increasing the temperature T = 2π
k1k 2
by ∆θ°C its time period changes to T + ∆T.
∆T 1
where, = α ⋅ ∆θ .
T 2 (v) Spring connected in
• If the length of a simple pendulum is increased to parallel
such an extent that  → ∞, i.e.,  >> R, then its time m
T = 2π
period is kp
R m
T=
2π 84.6 min
= = 2π
g k1 + k 2
where, R = radius of the earth.
8. Spring Mass system m1m 2

If the mass is once pulled so as to stretch the spring where,
= µ = reduced mass of the system,
m1 + m 2
and released, the spring pendulum oscillates simple
harmonically having time period and frequency. k1k 2
ks = and k=
p k1 + k 2 .
k1 + k 2
m 1 k
T = 2π and υ =
k 2π m
9. Simple Harmonic Motion in Special Cases
k
Angular frequency, ω = • The time period of SHM due to the motion of
m incompressible and non-viscous liquid in U-tube is
Various Cases Figures
h
given as T = 2π
g
(i) Spring is light
where, h = height of undisturbed liquid in each
m limb
T = 2π
k and L = 2h = total length of liquid column.
• The time period of a ball performing SHM in
R−r
hemispherical bowl is expressed as T = 2π
g
(ii) Spring is not light where, R and r are radii of bowl and ball.
but has ms • The time period of a ball executing SHM in a
1 tunnel through the earth is expressed as
m + ms
T = 2π 3 R
k T = 2π where, R = radius of earth.
g
10. Undamped and Damped Oscillations 12. Resonance

When a simple harmonic system oscillates with a If an external force with angular frequency ωd acts on
constant amplitude which does not change with time, an oscillating system with natural angular frequency ω
its oscillations are called undamped oscillations.
, the system oscillates with angular frequency ωd . The
When a simple harmonic system oscillates with a
decreasing amplitude with time, its oscillations are amplitude of oscillations is the greatest when
called damped oscillations. ωd =ω a condition called resonance.
13. Superposition of SHM
11. Free and Forces Oscillations A simple harmonic motion is produced when a force
A body capable of oscillating is said to be executing called restoring force proportional to the displacement
free oscillations, if it vibrates with its own natural acts on a particle. If a particle is acted upon by two
frequency without the help of any external periodic such forces, the resultant motion of the particle is a
force. combination of two simple harmonic motions.
When a body oscillates with the help of an external Suppose the two individual motions are represented by
periodic force with a frequency different from the =y1 A1 sin ωt and = y 2 A 2 sin ( ωt + φ )
natural frequency of the body, these oscillations are
Both the simple harmonic motions have same angular
called forced oscillations.
frequency ω .
Resultant amplitude is expressed as
A= a12 + a 22 + 2a1a 2 cos φ .
13
Waves
MOTION IN STRAIGHT LINE 1
Waves
Example: Sound waves in water, seismic waves in earth’s
crust.
1. Introduction and
• Based on energy propagation: - Waves can be
Classification of Waves divided into two parts on the basis of energy
propagation (i) Progressive wave (ii) Stationary
waves. The progressive wave propagates with
Introduction of Waves:
constant velocity in a medium. In stationary waves
When a particle moves through space, it carries KE with particles of the medium vibrate with different
itself. Wherever the particle goes, the energy goes with it. amplitude but energy does not propagate.
(One way of transport energy from one place to another • Based on direction of propagation:- Waves can be
place). one, two or three dimensional according to the number
There is another way (wave motion) to transport energy of dimensions in which they propagate energy. Waves
from one part of space to other without any bulk motion of moving along strings are one-dimensional. Surface
material together with it. Sound is transmitted in air in this waves or ripples on water are two dimensional, while
manner. sound or light waves from a point source are three
NOTE: dimensional.
A wave is a disturbance that propagates in space, • Based on the motion of particles of medium:
transport energy and momentum from one point to
another without the transport of matter.
Few Examples of waves:
The ripples on a pond (water waves), the sound we hear,
visible light, radio and TV signals etc.
Waves are of two types on the basis of motion of
particles of the medium.
1.1 Classification of Waves (i) Longitudinal waves
(ii) Transverse waves
In the transverse wave the direction associated with
the disturbance (i.e. motion of particles of the
medium) is at right angle to the direction of
propagation of wave while in the longitudinal wave
the direction of disturbance is along the direction of
propagation.
• Based on medium necessity: - A wave may or may
not require a medium for its propagation. The waves
which do not require medium for their propagation are 1.2 Transverse Wave Motion
called non-mechanical, e.g. light, heat (infrared), radio Mechanical transverse waves are produced in such type of
waves etc. On the other hand the waves which require medium which have shearing property, so they are known as
medium for their propagation are called mechanical shear wave or S-wave
waves. In the propagation of mechanical waves
elasticity and density of the medium play an important
role therefore mechanical waves are also known as
elastic waves.
WAVES
fluctuations are of the order of 1 Pa, whereas atmospheric

pressure is 105 Pa.
1.4 Mechanical Waves in Different

Media
• A mechanical wave will be transverse or longitudinal
depending on the nature ot medium and mode of
excitation.
NOTE: • In strings, mechanical waves are always transverse
Shearing is the property of a body by which it changes its when string is under a tension. In the bulk of gases
shape on application of force. and liquids mechanical waves are always
⇒ Mechanical transverse waves are generated only in solids longitudinal e.g. sound waves in air or water. This is
and surface of liquid. because fluids cannot sustain shear.
• In solids, mechanical waves (may be sound) can be
Individual particles of the medium execute SHM about their
either transverse or longitudinal depending on the
mean position in direction perpendicular to the direction of
mode of excitation. The speed of the two waves in
propagation of wave.
the same solid are different. (Longitudinal waves
A crest is a portion of the medium, which is raised travels faster than transverse waves). e.g., if we
temporarily above the normal position of rest of particles of struck a rod at an angle as shown in fig. (A) the
the medium, when a transverse wave passes. waves in the rod will be transverse while if the rod is
A trough is a portion of the medium, which is depressed struck at the side as shown in fig. (B) or is rubbed
temporarily below the normal position of rest of particles of with a cloth the waves in the rod will be longitudinal.
the medium, when a transverse wave passes. In case of vibrating tuning fork waves in the prongs
are transverse while in the stem are longitudinal.
1.3 Longitudinal Wave Motion

In this type of waves, oscillatory motion of the medium
particles produces regions of compression (high pressure)
and rarefaction (low pressure) which propagated in space
with time (see figure).
Furthermore in case of seismic waves produced by

Earthquakes both S (shear) and P (pressure) waves are
produced simultaneously which travel through the rock in
the crust at different speeds
 vs ≅ 5km / s while v p ≅ 9km / s  S-waves are transverse
NOTE:
while P − waves are longitudinal.
The regions of high particle density are called
compressions and regions of low particle density are called Some waves in nature are neither transverse nor longitudinal
rarefactions. but a combination of the two. These waves are called
‘ripple’ and waves on the surface of a liquid are of this type.
The propagation of sound waves in air is visualized as the In these waves particles of the medium vibrate up and down
propagation of pressure or density fluctuations. The pressure
WAVES
and back and forth simultaneously describing ellipses in a • Amplitude (A): Maximum displacement of vibrating
vertical plane. particle from its equilibrium position.
2π
• Angular frequency ( ω) : It is defined as ω = = 2πf
T
• Phase: Phase is a quantity which contains all information
related to any vibrating particle in a wave. For equation
=y A sin ( ωt − kx ) ; ( ωt − =
kx ) phase.
• Angular wave number or propagation constant (k): It is
2π
1.5 Characteristics of Wave Motion defined as k =
λ
• In wave motion, the disturbance travels through the 1 k
• Wave number ( v ) : it is defined as v= = =
medium due to repeated periodic oscillations of the λ 2π
particles of the medium about their mean positions. number of waves in unit length of the wave pattern.
• The energy is transferred from one place to another
without any actual transfer of the particles of the • Particle velocity, wave velocity and particle's
medium. acceleration: In plane progressive harmonic wave
• Each particle receives disturbance a little later than particles of the medium oscillate simple harmonically
its preceding particle i.e., there is a regular phase about their mean position. Therefore, all the formulae
difference between one particle and the next. that we studied in SHM apply to the particles here
• The velocity with which a wave travels is different also. For example, maximum particle speed is ω A at
from the velocity of the particles with which they mean position and it is zero at extreme positions.
vibrate about their mean positions. Similarly maximum particle acceleration is ω2 A at
• The wave velocity remains constant in a given extreme positions and zero at mean position.
medium while the particle velocity changes However the wave velocity is different from the
continuously during its vibration about the mean particle velocity. This depends on certain
position. It is maximum at mean position and zero at characteristics of the medium. Unlike the particle
extreme position. velocity which oscillates simple harmonically
• For the propagation of a mechanical wave, the (between + Aω and −Aω ) the wave velocity is
medium must possess the properties of inertia, constant for given characteristics of the medium.
elasticity and minimum friction among its particles.
• Particle velocity ( v p ) and acceleration ( a p ) in a
2. Equation of Plane sinusoidal wave: The acceleration of the particle is
the second partial derivative of y ( x, t ) with respect
Progressive Wave to t,
2.1 Important Terms Connected with ∂ 2 y ( x, t )
∴ap = = −ω2 A sin ( ωt − kx ) = −ω2 y ( x, t )
∂t 2
Wave Motion
i.e., the acceleration of the particle equals −ω2 times
• Wavelength ( λ ) [length of one wave]: Distance its displacement, which is the same result we
travelled by the wave during the time interval in which any obtained for SHM. Thus, a P = −ω2 (displacement)
one particle of the medium completes one cycle about its
mean position. We may also define wavelength as the
distance between any two nearest particle of the medium,
2.2 Equation of a Plane Progressive
vibrating in the same phase.
• Frequency (f): Number of cycle (number of complete Wave
wavelengths) completed by a particle in unit time.
• Particle velocity in wave motion: The individual
• Time period (T): Time taken by wave to travel a distance
particles which make up the medium do not travel
equal to one wavelength.
through the medium with the waves. They simply
oscillate about their equilibrium positions. The
WAVES
instantaneous velocity of an oscillating particle of the 2.4 Relation Between Phase Difference
medium, through which a wave is travelling, is
known as "particle velocity". and Path Difference
• Wave velocity: The velocity with which the

disturbance, or planes of equal (wave front), travel Phase 0 π π 3π 2π 5π 3π
through the medium is called wave (or phase) Difference 2 2 2
velocity. ( ∆φ )
Wave velocity (v) = Frequency of waves (f) ×
Phase 0 λ λ 3λ λ 5λ 3λ
wavelength of waves ( λ ) Difference 4 2 4 4 2
• Relation between particle velocity and wave ( ∆λ )
- y A sin ( ωt − kx ) ,
velocity: Wave equation: =
Phase 0 T T 3T T 5T 3T
∂y Difference
Particle velocity v P = = Aω cos ( ωt − kx ) . Wave 4 2 4 4 2
∂t ( ∆t )
velocity
λ ω ω ∂y
⇒V= =λ = , =− Ak cos ( ωt − kx )
T 2π k ∂x 2π
=
Path difference × phase difference
∂y 1 ∂y ∂y 1 ∂y λ
=
− ⇒ =−
∂x V ∂t ∂x V ∂t
3. Transverse Waves on a
Particle velocity at a given position and time is
equal to negative of the product of wave velocity String
with slope of the wave at that point at that instant.
A transverse wave is a moving wave whose oscillations are
perpendicular to the direction of the wave. A simple
2.3 Differential Equation of Harmonic demonstration of the wave can be created on a horizontal
Progressive Waves: length of the string by securing one end of the string and
moving the other up and down. Light is another example of
∂2 y a transverse wave, where the oscillations are electric and
=− Aω2 sin ( ωt − kx )
∂t 2 magnetic fields that are at right angles to the ideal light rays
∂2 y that describe the direction of propagation.
⇒ 2 =−Ak 2 sin ( ωt − kx )
∂x Transverse waves commonly occur in elastic solids,
∂2 y 1 ∂y oscillations, in this case, are the displacement of solid
⇒ 2 =
∂x V 2 ∂t particles from their relaxed position, in the direction
perpendicular to the propagation of the wave.
For example: - The ripples on the surface of the water,
Electromagnetic waves, Ocean waves, etc.
The speed of a wave on a string is given by
WAVES
T Power P 1 2 2
v= I= = ⇒ I= ρω A v
µ Cross sectional area s 2
where T is tension in the string (in Newtons) and µ is mass This is average intensity of the wave.
per unit length of the string (kg/m). Energy density: Energy per unit volume of the wave
It should be noted that v is speed of the wave w.r.t. the Pdt I 1 2 2
Energy density per unit volume= = = ρω A
medium (string). svdt v 2
In case the tension is not uniform in the string or string has
nonuniform linear mass density then v is speed at a given
point and T and µ are corresponding values at that point.
4.2 Relation Between Amplitude and
Intensity of Wave
For light waves, the energy of the light wave is proportional
to the intensity.
E ∝ I, where E is the energy of the wave and I is the
intensity.
E ∝ ( Amplitude ) ...... (1)

2
The velocity of a wave is calculated by dividing the distance

traveled by the time it took to travel that distance. For Also, the intensity of a wave is power transferred per unit
waves, this is calculated by dividing the wavelength by the area.
λ We know that power is energy expended per unit time.
period as follows: v =
T Therefore,
We can take the inverse proportionality to period and
E
frequency and apply it to this situation as follows: I= , where A is the area of cross section and t is the time.
At
λ 1
v =v =
λ v=
λf Therefore, we can say that.
T T
I ∝ E ... ( 2 )
4. Energy Transfer in a String From expression (1) and (2) we can say that.
I ∝ ( Amplitude ) or Amplitude ∝ Intensity

2
Wave
4.1 Rate of Energy, Power and
Intensity of Wave
5. Longitudinal Waves
t 5.1 Longitudinal Waves and Equation
• Energy Transferred = ∫ Pav dt
0
of Longitudinal Waves
Energy transferred in one time period = Pav T Longitudinal waves are the waves where the displacement
of the medium is in the same direction as the direction of the
This is also equal to the energy stored in one travel of the wave.
wavelength.
The distance between the centres of two consecutive regions
• When a travelling wave is established on a string, of compression or the rarefaction is defined by wavelength
energy is transmitted along the direction of λ.
propagation of the wave, in form of potential energy
and kinetic energy
Average Power ( P ) =
2π2 f 2 A 2 µv
• Intensity: Energy transferred per second per unit
cross sectional area is called intensity of the wave.
WAVES
dp =− B ( − ks 0 ) cos ( ωt − kx )
=dp Bks0 cos ( ωt − kx )
=dp ( dp )max cos ( ωt − kx )

 π
=p p0 sin  ωt − kx +  ..... ( 2 )
 2
A compression in a longitudinal wave is a region where the
particles are the closer together while rarefaction in a Where = = variation in pressure at position x and
p dp
longitudinal wave rarefaction is a region where the particle p0 Bks
= = 0 maximum pressure variation
are spread out.
Equation 3.2 represents that same sound wave where, p is
excess pressure at position x, over and above the average
5.2. Sound as a Pressure Wave atmospheric pressure and pressure amplitude p0 is given by
We can describe sound waves either in terms of excess P0 = Bks 0 ..... ( 3)
pressure or in terms of the longitudinal
displacement suffered by the particles of the medium w.r.t. (B = Bulk modulus of the medium, k = angular wave
mean position. number)
s s 0 sin ω ( t − x / v ) represents a sound wave where,
= Note from equation (1) and (2) that the displacement of a
medium particle and excess pressure at any position are out
s = displacement of medium particle from its mean position
π
at x, of phase by . Hence a displacement maximum
2
=s s 0 sin ( ωt − kx ) ..... (1) corresponds to a pressure minima and vice-versa.
When sound is not propagating particles are at mean
position 1 and 2
5.3. Speed of Sound and Laplace’s
Correction
Velocity of sound waves in a linear solid medium is given
by
Y
v= ..... (1)
ρ
When particles are displaced from mean position.
Where Y = Young’s modulus of elasticity and ρ =density.
Velocity of sound waves in a fluid medium (liquid or gas) is
given by
B
v= ..... ( 2 )
ρ
Change in volume = ∆V = ( ∆x + ∆s ) A − ∆xA = ∆sA Where ρ =density of the medium and B = Bulk modulus of
the medium given by,
∆V ∆sA ∆s
= =
V ∆xA ∆x dP
B = −V ..... ( 3)
dV
B∆V
∆P =− Newton’s formula: Newton assumed propagation of sound
V
through a gaseous medium to be an isothermal process.
B∆s
∆P =− PV = constant
∆x
dP −P
Bds ⇒ =
dp = − dV V
dx
WAVES
and hence B = P using equation (3) and thus he obtained for constant. Hence pressure does not have any effect
velocity of sound in a gas, on velocity of sound as long as temperature is
constant.
P RT
v
= = where M = molar mass in kg (c) Effect of Humidity:
ρ M
With increase in humidity density decreases. This
The density of air at 0° at pressure 76 cm of Hg column is is because the molar mass of water vapour is less
ρ =1.293kg / m3 . This temperature and pressure is called than the molar mass of air. The speed of sound
standard temperature and pressure at STP. Speed of sound in increases in humid air compared to dry air as. The
air is 280m/s. This value is somewhat less than measured 5
density of water vapour is about th times the
speed of sound in air 332m/s. Then Laplace suggested the 8
correction. density of dry air at ordinary temperature, therefore
Laplace’s Correction: Later Laplace established that the increase of moisture in air tends to decrease the
propagation of sound in a gas is not an isothermal but an density of air.
adiabatic process and hence PV γ = constant
⇒
dP
= −γ
P 6. Sound Intensity and
dV V
Loudness
dP
Where, B =
−V γP and hence speed of sound in a gas,
=
dV Intensity of Sound Waves: Like any other progressive
wave, sound waves also carry energy from one point of
γP γRT space to the other. This energy can be used to do work, for
=v = ..... ( 4 )
ρ M example, forcing the eardrums to vibrate or in the extreme
case of a sonic boom created by a supersonic jet, can even
Factors Affecting Speed of Sound in Atmosphere. cause glass panes of windows to crack. The amount of
(a) Effect of Temperature: energy carried per unit time by a wave is called its power
As temperature (T) increases velocity (v) increases. and power per unit area held perpendicular to the direction
of energy flow is called intensity.
v∝ T
1
For small change in temperature above room I= ρω 2 A2V
2
temperature v increases linearly by 0.6m/s for
For Sound,
every 1°C rise in temperature.
B
γR V =
=v × T1/ 2 ρ
M
P0
∆v 1 ∆T So =
= BK
v 2 T
1 B 2 P02
1 v I= .ω . 2 2 .V
∆v 
=  ∆T 2V2 B K
2T
P02 .V
( ∆v )T = ( 0.6 ) ∆T, ∆T = ( T − 273) kelvin I=
2K
(b) Effect of Pressure: P02
I=
The speed of sound in a gas is given by 2 ρV
γP γRT
=v =
ρ M
So, at constant temperature, if P changes then ρ

also changes in such a way that P / ρ remains
WAVES
NOTE:
7. Superposition of Waves
1
If The If the source is a point source, then I ∝ 2 and
r 7.1 Superposition of Waves
1 a Two or more waves can traverse the same medium without
s0 ∝ and
= s sin ( ωt − kr + θ )
r r affecting the motion of one another. If several waves
1 propagate in a medium simultaneously, then the resultant
If a sound source is a line source, then l ∝ and displacement of any particle of the medium at any is instant
r
is equal to the vector sum of the displacement produced by
1 a
s0 ∝ and
= s sin ( ωt − kr + θ ) individual by wave. The phenomenon of intermixing of two
r r or more waves to produce a new wave is called
Superposition of waves. Therefore, according to
superposition principle.
Loudness: Audible intensity range for humans:
The resultant displacement of a particle at any point of the
The ability of human to perceive intensity at different
medium, at any instant of time is the vector sum of the
frequency is different. The perception of intensity is
displacement caused to the particle by the individual waves.
maximum at 1000 Hz and perception of intensity decreases
  
as the frequency decreases or increases from 1000Hz. If y1 , y 2 , y3 ..... are the displacement of particle at a particular
For a 1000Hz tone, the smallest sound intensity that a time due to individual waves, then the resultant
   
human ear can detect is 10−12 watt. / m 2 . On the other hand, displacement is given by y = y1 + y 2 + y3 + ....
continuous exposure to intensities above 1W / m 2 can result Principle of superposition holds for all types of waves, i.e.,
in permanent hearing loss. mechanical as well as electromagnetic waves. But this
The overall perception of intensity of sound to human ear is principle is not applicable to the waves of very large
called loudness. amplitude.
Human ear do not perceives loudness on a linear intensity

scale rather it perceives loudness on organismic intensity 7.2 Reflection of Waves
scale. Reflection of String Waves: A travelling wave, at a rigid or
For a example: denser boundary, is reflected with a phase reversal but the
reflection at an open boundary (rarer medium) takes place
If intensity is increased 10 times human ear does not
without any phase change. The transmitted wave is never
perceive 10 times increase in loudness. It roughly perceived inverted, but propagation constant k is changed.
that loudness is doubled where intensity increased by 10
times. Hence it is prudent to define a logarithmic scale for
intensity.
Decibel Scale: The logarithmic scale which is used for
comparing two sound intensity is called decibel scale.
The intensity level β described in terms of decibels is
 I
defined as β =10 log   ( dB )
 I0 
Here I0 is the threshold intensity of hearing for human ear
i.e I = 10−12 watt / m 2 .

In terms of decibel threshold of human hearing is 1dB
Note that intensity level β is a dimensionless quantity and is
not same as intensity expressed in W / m 2 .
Amplitude of reflected and transmitted waves:

WAVES
v1 and v 2 are speeds of the incident wave and reflected A 2 sin φ

Also, tan α = ( α is phase difference of the
wave in mediums respectively then A1 + A 2 cos φ
v 2 − v1 2v 2 resultant wave with the first wave)
Ar = Ai , A t = .A i Constructive and Destructive Interference
v1 + v 2 v1 + v 2
Constructive Interference:
A r is positive if v 2 > v1 , i.e., wave is reflected from a rarer
When resultant amplitude A is maximum A
= A1 + A 2
medium.
Reflection of Sound Waves: Reflection of sound waves When cos φ = +1or φ = ±2nπ
from a rigid boundary (e.g. closed end of an organ pipe) is Where n is an integer.
analogous to reflection of a string wave from rigid
boundary; reflection accompanied by an inversion i.e. an Destructive Interference:
abrupt phase change of π . This is consistent with the When resultant amplitude A is minimum
requirement of displacement amplitude to remain zero at the
rigid end, since a medium particle at the rigid end can not Or A
= A1 − A 2
vibrate. As the excess pressure and displacement
When cos φ = −1or φ = ± ( 2n + 1) π
corresponding to the same sound wave vary by π / 2 in term
of phase, a displacement minimum at the rigid end will be a When n is an integer.
point of pressure maxima. This implies that the reflected
Interference of Sound Waves:
pressure wave from the rigid boundary will have same phase
as the incident wave, i.e., a compression pulse is reflected as If p1
= p m1 sin ( ωt − kx1 + θ1 )
a compression pulse and a rarefaction pulse is reflected as a
rarefaction pulse. and
= p2 p m 2 sin ( ωt − kx 2 + θ2 )
On the other hand, reflection of sound wave from a low-
pressure region (like open end of an organ pipe) is
analogous to reflection of string wave from a free end. This
point corresponds to a displacement maximum, so
that the incident & reflected displacement wave at this point
must be in phase. This would imply that this point would be
a minimum for pressure wave (i.e. pressure at this point Resultant excess pressure at point O is
remains at its average value), and hence the reflected
p= p1 + p 2
pressure wave would be out of phase by π with respect to
the incident wave. i.e. a compression pulse is reflected as a ⇒p
= p 0 sin ( ωt − kx + θ )
rarefaction pulse and vice-versa.
Where,
p0
= p 2m1 + p m2
2
φ , φ k ( x1 − x 2 ) + ( θ2 − θ1 ) ... (1)
+ 2p m1p m2 cos =
7.2 Interference of Waves
Interference of String Waves: Suppose two identical (i) For constructive interference
sources send sinusoidal waves of same angular frequency ω φ= 2nπ ⇒ p 0= p m1 + p m2
in positive x-direction. Also, the wave velocity and hence,
the wave number k is same for the two waves. One source (ii) For destructive interference
may be situated at different points. The two waves arriving =
φ ( 2n + 1) π ⇒ p= p m1 − p m 2
0
at a point then differ in phase. Let the amplitudes of the two
waves be A1 and A 2 and the two waves differ in phase by an 2π
If φ is only due to path difference, then =
φ ∆x, and
angle φ . Their equations may be written as λ
= y1 A1 sin ( kx − ωt ) condition for constructive interference:
And
= y 2 A 2 sin ( kx − ωt + φ ) 1 2
∆x =± nλ, n =0, ± , ±
According to the principle of superposition, the resultant 1 2
wave is represented by
y= y1 + y 2= A1 sin ( kx − ωt ) + A 2 sin ( kx − ωt + φ ) Condition for destructive interference:
We get y A sin ( kx − ωt + α ) λ 1 2
= ∆x =± ( 2n + 1) , n =0, ± , ±
2 1 2
Where, A = A12 + A 22 + 2A1A 2 cos φ (A is amplitude of the
From equation (1)
resultant wave)
P02 = Pm1
2
+ Pm2 2 + 2Pm1 + Pm 2 cos φ
WAVES
Since intensity, I ∝ (Pressure amplitude)2, Incident wave

We have, for resultant intensity, = y1 a sin (ωt − kx )
I = I1 + I 2 + 2 I1 I 2 cos φ ..... ( 2 ) Reflected wave

y2 a sin (ωt + kx + π )
= Incident wave
I=
1 I=
2 I0
= y1 a sin (ωt − kx )
− a sin (ωt + kx )
Or, y2 =
φ
=I 2I0 (1 + cos φ ) ⇒
= I 4I0 cos 2 ...... ( 3) Reflected wave
2 y= y1 + y2
=y2 a sin (ωt + kx )
Hence in this case,
sin (ωt − kx )  From superposition of wave
For constructive interference: φ = 0, ±2π, ±4π and I max = 4I0 y = a 
− sin (ωt + kx )  y= y1 + y2
And for destructive interference: φ = π, 3π.... and I min = 0
after solving sin (ωt − kx ) 
Coherence: Two sources are said to be coherent if the phase y = a
y = −2a sin kx cos ωt  after
difference between them at a given point does not change + sin (ω x + kx ) 
with time. In this case their resultant intensity at any point in
y = − A cos ωt where solving
space remains constant with time. Two independent sources
of sound are generally incoherent in nature, i.e. phase A = 2a sin kx y = 2a cos kx sin ωt
difference at x = 0 A = 0
between them changes with time and hence the resultant y = A sin ωt where
intensity due to them at any point in space changes with A = 2a cos kx
time.
So x = 0 and A = 2a
Special Properties of Stationary Wave Pattern
8. Standing Waves
• Zero wave velocity: No transfer of energy between
8.1 Introduction to Standing Waves two points, particle velocity is non zero but wave
velocity is zero.
• When two identical progressive waves (transverse or • Position of antinode-4 & nodes in this pattern
longitudinal) propagating in opposite direction remains fix.
superimpose in a bounded medium (having • The particles between two consecutive nodes vibrate
boundaries) the resultant wave is called stationary in same phase while medium particles nearby of any
wave or standing wave. node on both sides always vibrate in opposite phase.
• Stationary wave pattern may be obtained only and • All medium particles doing simple harmonic
only in limited region. vibrations have identical time period but different
• We can obtain two same type of progressive waves, vibration Amplitude and because of this their
only & only by method of reflection. maximum velocity at mean position is different
• According to the nature of reflected surface, • All medium particles pass through their mean
reflection are of two types – position simultaneously but with different maximum
(a) Rigid End (b) Free End velocity.
In such type of reflection In such type of reflection • All medium particles pass their mean position in their
incident and reflected incident and reflected waves one complete vibration two times hence stationary
waves have phase are in phase and direction of wave pattern is obtained as straight line twice in its
difference of π and propagation are opposite one complete cycle.
direction of propagation • In this pattern, at antinode position, displacement and
are opposite. velocity is maximum, but wave strain is minimum.
 dy 
Strain = slope of stationary wave pattern  
 dx 
At node position displacement and velocity is
minimum but wave strain is maximum.
• Amplitude of incident wave > Amplitude of reflected
wave
WAVES
For node a1 − a2 ⇒ minima Closed Organ Pipe

For antinode a1 + a2 ⇒ maxima
• For any wave each and every reflecting surface have
some absorptive power and due to this the energy,
intensity & amplitude of reflected wave is always
less compared to that of incident wave. Two waves
difference in their amplitude having same frequency
and wavelength and propagate in reverse or opposite
direction always give stationary wave pattern by their
superposition.
• According to nature of superposing waves stationary
waves are of two types-
Transverse stationary waves → Musical instruments Open Organ Pipe
based on wire (sonometer).
Longitudinal stationary waves → Musical
instruments based on air (resonance tube).
• Only applied to longitudinal stationary wave
If medium particle move in this way
Vibration of Air columns:

At antinode → pressure & density constant so When two longitudinal waves of same frequency and
variations min. amplitude travel in a medium in opposite direction then by
At node → Pressure & density variations maximum. superposition, standing waves are produced. These waves
are produced in air columns in cylindrical tube of uniform
change in pressure dP diameter. These sound producing tubes are called organ
• Egas
= = = const.
volumetric strain  dy  pipes.
 
 dx 
 dy  Vibration of air column in Closed Organ Pipe:
Then dP ∝ strain  
 dx  The tube which is closed at one end and open at the other
So strain is maximum at node positions and end is called closed organ pipe. On blowing air at the open
minimum at antinode positions. end, a wave travels towards dosed end from where it is
reflected towards open end. As the wave reaches open end,
it is reflected again. So two longitudinal waves travel in
opposite directions to superpose and produce stationary
waves. At the closed end there is a node since particles does
not have freedom to vibrate whereas at open end there is an
antinode because particles have greatest freedom to vibrate.
WAVES
λ1
Case (i) l = ⇒ λ1 = 2l
Hence on blowing air at the end, the column vibrates 2
formatting antinode at free end and node at closed end. If l v v
is length of pipe and λ be the wavelength and v be the ⇒ n1 = = Fundamental frequency.
λ1 2l
velocity of of sound in organ pipe then
2λ2 2l
λ Case (ii) l = ⇒ λ2 =
Case (i) l = 1 ⇒ λ1 = 4l 2 2
4
v 2v
v v ⇒ n2 = = = 2n1 First overtone frequency.
⇒ n1 = = Fundamental frequency. λ2 2l
λ1 4l
3λ3 2l
3λ2 4l Case (iii) l = ⇒ λ3 =
Case (ii) l = ⇒ λ2 = 2 3
4 3
v 3v
v 3v ⇒ n3 = = = 3n1 Second overtone frequency.
⇒ n2 = = = 3n1 First overtone frequency. λ3 2l
λ2 4l
Hence frequency of overtones are given by the relation
5λ3 4l
Case (iii) l = ⇒ λ3 = n1 : n2 : n3 ..... = 1: 2 : 3
4 5
If an open pipe and a closed pipe have same length
v 5v
⇒ n3 = = = 5n1 Second overtone frequency. nopen = nclosed
λ3 4l
When open organ pipe vibrate in nth overtone then
When closed organ pipe vibrate in mth overtone then
λ 2l v
λ 4l v l ( m + 1) so λ =
= ⇒ n = ( m + 1)
=l ( 2m + 1) so λ= ⇒ n= ( 2m + 1) 2 ( m + 1) 2l
4 ( 2 m + 1) 4l
Hence frequency of overtone is given by
n1 : n2 : n3 ..... = 1: 3 : 5.... 8.2 End Correction
Vibration of air columns in open organ pipe: As mentioned earlier the displacement antinode at an open
end of an organ pipe lies slightly outside the open end. The
The tube which is open at both ends is called an open organ
distance of the antinode from the open end is called end
pipe. On blowing air at the open end, a wave trawl towards correction and its value is given by e = 0.6r
the other end from which waves travel in opposite direction
to superpose and produce stationary wave. Now the pipe is
open at both ends by which an antinode is formed at open
end. Hence on blowing air at the open-end antinodes are
formed at each end and nodes in the middle. If f is length of
the pipe and X be the wavelength and v is velocity of sound
in organ pipe.
WAVES
where r = radius of the organ pipe. with end correction, the 1

 v if L and F are constants.
fundamental frequency of a closed pipe  fc  and an open 
organ pipe  f 0  will be given by
9.2 Resonance Tube
v v
fc  and f 0  ......  5  Figure shows schematically the diagram of a simple
4  L  0.6r  2  L 1.2r 
apparatus used in laboratories to measure the speed of sound
in air. Along cylindrical glass tube (say about 1 in) is fixed
on a vertical wooden frame. It is also called a resonance
9. Experimental study of tube. A rubber tube connects the lower end of this glass tube
to a vessel which can slide vertically on the same wooden
Standing Waves frame. A meter scale is fitted parallel to and close to the
glass tube.
9.1 Sonometer
 If a vibrating Tuning fork is pressed against a
sonometer wire then forced vibrations are produced
in table of hollow box & these vibrations are
transferred to air coloum filled in hollow box which
results into increase in vibration amplitude of sound
& intensity of sound increases. Air filled hollow box
is called sound box.
 During contact with table some energy is transferred
to table so TF can not do vibrations for longer
duration The vessel contains water which also goes in the resonance
 At resonance maximum energy is transferred to table tube through the rubber tube. The level of water in the
so TF can do vibrations not for longer duration. resonance tube is same as that in the vessel. Thus, by sliding
 At resonance maximum energy is transferred from the vessel up and down, one can change the water level in
TF to vibrating wire and sound intensity is the resonance tube.
maximum. A tuning fork (frequency 256 Hz if the tube is 1 in long) is
Laws of Transverse Vibrations of a String: Sonometer vibrated by hitting it on a rubber pad and is held near the
The fundamental frequency of vibration of a string fixed at open end of the tube in such a way that the prongs vibrate
both ends is given by equation. From this equation, one can parallel to the length of the tube. Longitudinal waves are
immediately write the following statements known as "Laws then sent in the tube.
of transverse vibrations of a string". The water level in the tube is initially kept high. The tuning
 Law of Length - The fundamental frequency of fork is vibrated and kept dose to the open end, and the
vibration of a string (fixed at both ends) is inversely loudness of sound coming from the tube is estimated. The
proportional to the length of the string provided its vessel is brought down a little to decrease the water level in
tension and its mass per unit length remain the same. the resonance tube. The tuning fork is again vibrated, kept
1 close to the open end and the loudness of the sound coming
v  If F and  are constants. from the tube is estimated. The process is repeated until the
L
water level corresponding to the maximum loudness is
 Law of Tension - The fundamental frequency of a
located. Fine adjustments of water level are made to locate
string is proportional to the square root of its tension
accurately the level corresponding to the maximum
provided its length and the mass per unit length
loudness. The length of the air column is read on the scale
remain the same.
attached. In this case, the air column vibrates in resonance
 v  F if L and  are constants. with the tuning fork. The minimum length of the air column
 Law of Mass - The fundamental frequency of a string for which the resonance takes place corresponds to the
is inversely proportional to the square root of the fundamental mode of vibration. A pressure antinode is
linear mass density, i.e., mass per unit length, formed at the water surface (which is the closed end of the
provided the length and the tension remain the same. air column) and a pressure node is formed near the open
WAVES
end. In fact, the node is formed slightly above the open end
(end correction) because of the air-pressure from outside.
Thus, for the first resonance the length l1 of the air column
in the resonance tube is given by
λ f +f 
l1 + e = ,.... ( i ) i.e., the resultant sound at point O has frequency  1 2 
4
 2 
Where d is the end correction. while pressure amplitude p′0 ( t ) varies with time as
 φ − φ2 
′0 ( t ) 2p0 cos π ( f1 − f 2 ) t + 1
p= 
 2 
Hence pressure amplitude at point O varies with time with a
f −f 
frequency of  1 2 
 2 
Hence sound intensity will vary with a frequency f1 − f 2
This frequency is called beat frequency ( f B ) and the time
interval between two successive intensity maxima
(or minima) is called beat time period ( TB )
The length of the air column is increase to a little less than 1

f B= f1 − f 2 TB =
three times of l. The water level is adjusted so that the f1 − f 2
loudness of the sound coming from the tube becomes IMPORTANT POINTS:
maximum again. The length of the air column is noted on
1. The two superimposed sound wave producing beats
the scale. In this second resonance the air column vibrates in must have a frequency in the audible range i.e., 20Hz
the first overtone. There is one node and one antinode in to 20Khz.
between the ends of the column. The length l2 of the column 2. Beat phenomenon can be used for determining an
unknown frequency by sounding it together with a
is given by
source of known frequency.
3λ 3. If the arm of a tuning fork is waxed or loaded, then its
l2 + e = . .... ( ii )
4 frequency decreases.
4. If arm of tuning fork is filed, then its frequency
By (i) and (ii), increases.
λ 5. The two waves should have a very small difference in
( l2 − l1 ) =, or=
λ 2 ( l2 − l1 ) . there frequencies. This difference should not be more
2
than 10Hz
6. The amplitude of the waves should preferably b equal
10. Beats so that the maximum and the minimum intensity of
sound produced in the beats can be heard distinctly and
When two sound waves of same amplitude and different clearly.
frequency superimpose, then intensity at any point in space
varies periodically with time. This effect is called beats.
If the equation of the two interfering sound waves emitted
11. Doppler’s Effect
by s1 and s 2 at point O are, The apparent change in frequency or pitch due to relative
=p1 p0 sin ( 2πf1 t − k1 x1 + θ1 )
motion of source and observer along the line of sight is
called Doppler Effect. While deriving these expressions, we
=p 2 p0 sin ( 2πf 2 t − k 2 x 2 + θ2 ) make the following assumptions:
Let −k1 x1 + θ1 = φ1 and −k 2 x 2 + θ2 = φ2 1. The velocity of the source, the observer and the medium
are along the line joining the positions of the source and
By principle of superposition the observer.
 φ + φ2   φ1 − φ2  2. The velocity of the source and the observer is less than
= 2p0 sin  π ( f1 + f 2 ) t + 1  cos  π ( f1 − f 2 ) t + 2 
 2    velocity of sound.
WAVES
Doppler effect takes place both in sound and light. In sound And changed frequency,
it depends on whether the source or observer or both are in v v  v  fv
motion while in light it depends on whether the distance f=′ = = n =
λ ′  v − vs   v − v s  v − vS
between source and observer is increasing or decreasing.  n 
 
Notations:
So, as the source of sound approaches the observer the
n → Actual frequency
apparent frequency n ′ becomes greater than be true
n ′ → observed frequency (apparent frequency) frequency n,
λ → actual wavelength 2. When source move away from stationary observer:
λ ′ → observed (apparent) wavelength For this situation n waves will be crowded in distance
v + vs .
v → velocity of sound
vs → velocity of source
v0 → velocity of observer
v w → wind velocity
Case I: v + vs
So, apparent wavelength λ ′ =
Source in motion, Observer at rest, Medium at rest: n
And apparent frequency
v v  v   v 
f=′ = = n = f 
λ ′  v + vs   v + v s   v + vS 
 n 
 
So, n ′ becomes less thatn n. ( f ′ < f )
Suppose the source S and observer O are separated by Case II

distance v. Where v is the velocity of sound. Let n be the Observer in motion, source at rest, medium at rest:
frequency of sound emitted by the source. Then n waves Let the source (S) and observer (O) are in rest at their
will be emitted by the source in one second. These n waves respective places. Then n waves given by source ‘S’ would
will be accommodated in distance v. be crossing observer ‘ O’ in one second and fill the space
total distance v OA ( = v )
=
So, wavelength λ =
total number of waves n
1. Source moving towards stationary observer:
Let the source start moving towards the observer with
velocity vs , after one second, the n waves will be
crowded in distance ( v − vs ) . Now the observer shall feel
that he is listening to sound of wave length λ ′ and
frequency n .
1. Observer move towards Stationary Source:
Now apparent wavelength

total distance v − vs
λ′ = When observer ‘O’ moves towards ‘S’ with velocity v0 , it
total number of waves n
will cover v0 displace in one second. So the observer has
WAVES
received not only the f waves occupying OA but also Case-I

received additional number of ∆n waves occupying the If medium moves in a direction opposite to the direction of
distance OO′ ( = vo ) .
 v − v m ± vo 
propagation of sound, then v′ =  v
So, total waves received by observer in one second  v − v m ± vs 
i.e., apparent frequency ( n ′ ) = Actual waves (n) + Case-II
Additional waves ( ∆n ) Source in motion towards the observer. Both medium and
observer are at rest.
v vo v + vo  v + vo   v
f ′= + = = f   λ= n 
λ λ (v / f )  v     v 
v′ =   v; clearly v′ > v
(so, f ′ > f )  v − vs 
2. Observer Move Away from Stationary Source: - So, when a source of sound approaches a stationary
observer, the apparent frequency is more than the actual
For this situation n waves will be crowded in distance
frequency.
v − vo .
Case-III:
Source in motion away from the observer. Both medium and
observer are at rest.
 v 
v′ =   v; clearly v′ < v
 v + vs 
When observer move away from source with v0 velocity
So, when a source of sound moves away from a stationary
then he will get ∆n waves less than real number of waves. observer, the apparent frequency is less than actual
So, total number of waves received by observer i.e., frequency.
Apparent frequency ( f ′ ) = Actual waves ( v ) − reduction in Case-IV:
number of waves ( ∆v ) Observer in motion towards the source. Both medium and
source are at rest.
v vo v − vo  v − vo   v
v′= − = =   v  λ= v′ 
λ λ λ  v     v + vo 
v′ =   v; clearly v′ > v
 v 
(so v′ < v )
So, when observer is in motion towards the source, the
Case III:
apparent frequency is more than the actual frequency.
Effect of Motion of Medium:
Case-V:
General formula for a Doppler effect
Observer in motion away from the source. Both medium and
 v ± v0  source are at rest.
= n=′ n   ...... ( i )
 v  vs 
 v − v0 
v′ =   v; clearly v′ < v
If medium (air) is also moving with v m velocity in direction  v 
of source and observer. Then velocity of sound relative to So, when observer is in motion away from the source, the
observer will be v ± v m (-ve sign, if v m is opposite to sound apparent frequency is less than the actual frequency.
velocity). So, Case-VI:
 v ± v m ± vo  Both source and observer are moving away from each other.
n′ = n   [on replacing v by v ± v m is equal (i)]
 v ± v m  vs  Medium at rest.
 v − v0 
NOTE: v′ =   v; clearly v′ > v
When both ‘S’ and ‘O’ are in rest (i.e., v= v= 0 ) then  v + vs 
s o
there is no effect on frequency due to motion of air.

WAVES
NCERT Corner ∂2 y
⇒ =−Ak 2 sin ( ωt − kx )
∂x 2
1. A wave is a disturbance that propagates in space,
transport energy and momentum from one point to ∂2 y 1 ∂y
⇒ 2 =
another without the transport of matter. ∂x V 2 ∂t
2. Mechanical transverse waves are produced in such 12. Wave velocity: The velocity with which the
type of medium which have shearing property, so disturbance, or planes of equal (wave front), travel
they are known as shear wave or S-wave through the medium is called wave (or phase)
velocity
3. A crest is a portion of the medium, which is raised
temporarily above the normal position of rest of 13. Transverse wave: A transverse wave is a moving
particles of the medium, when a transverse wave wave whose oscillations are perpendicular to the
passes. direction of the wave
4. A trough is a portion of the medium, which is The speed of a wave on a string is given by
depressed temporarily below the normal position of T
rest of particles of the medium, when a transverse v=
µ
wave passes.
where T is tension in the string (in Newtons) and µ
5. Longitudinal Wave Motion: Longitudinal wave
have oscillatory motion of the medium particles is mass per unit length of the string (kg/m).
produces regions of compression (high pressure) and 14. When a travelling wave s established on a string,
rarefaction (low pressure) which propagated in space energy is transmitted along the direction of
with time (see figure). propagation of the wave, in form of potential energy
6. The regions of high particle density are called and kinetic energy
compressions and regions of low particle density are 15. Intensity of Sound Waves: The amount of energy
called rarefactions. carried per unit time by a wave is called its power
and power per unit area held perpendicular to the
7. Wavelength ( λ ) [length of one wave]: Distance
direction of energy flow is called intensity.
travelled by the wave during the time interval in
which any one particle of the medium completes one 16. Loudness: Audible intensity range for humans: The
cycle about its mean position. We may also define ability of human to perceive intensity at different
wavelength as the distance between any two nearest frequency is different. The perception of intensity is
particle of the medium, vibrating in the same phase maximum at 1000 Hz and perception of intensity
decreases as the frequency decreases or increases
9. Phase: Phase is a quantity which contains all
from 1000Hz.
information related to any vibrating particle in a
wave. For equation 17. Decibel Scale: The logarithmic scale which is used
=y A sin ( ωt − kx ) ; ( ωt − =
kx ) phase. for comparing two sound intensity is called decibel
scale. The intensity level β described in terms of
1 k
10. Wave number ( v ) : it is defined as v= = =  I 
λ 2π decibels is defined as β =10 log   ( dB )
number of waves in unit length of the wave pattern.  I0 
11. Differential equation of Harmonic Progressive 18. Superposition of Waves: The phenomenon of
Waves: intermixing of two or more waves to produce a new
Differential equation of Harmonic Progressive wave is called Superposition of waves. Therefore,
Waves is given by: according to superposition principle.
∂2 y 19. The resultant displacement of a particle at any point
=−Aω2 sin ( ωt − kx )
∂t 2 of the medium, at any instant of time is the vector
sum of the displacement caused to the particle by the
individual waves.
WAVES
20. Coherence: Two sources are said to be coherent if

the phase difference between them does not change
with time. In this case their resultant intensity at any
point in space remains constant with time. Two
independent sources of sound are generally
incoherent in nature, i.e. phase difference between
them changes with time and hence the resultant
intensity due to them at any point in space changes
with time.
21. Standing Waves: Standing waves can be transverse
or longitudinal, e.g., in strings (under tension) if
reflected wave exists, the waves are transverse-
stationary, while in organ pipes waves are
longitudinal-stationary.
22. Beats: When two sound waves of same amplitude
and different frequency superimpose, then intensity
at any point in space varies periodically with time.
This effect is called beats. Beat phenomenon can be
used for determining an unknown frequency by
sounding it together with a source of known
frequency.
23. Doppler’s Effect: The apparent change in frequency
or pitch due to relative motion of source and observer
along the line of sight is called Doppler Effect.
Assumptions: (i) The velocity of the source, the
observer and the medium are along the line joining
the positions of the source and the observer.
(ii) The velocity of the source and the observer is less
than velocity of sound.
14
THERMAL PHYSICS
Thermal Physics
1. Temperature & Heat 1.2 Temperature Scale

Measurement of Temperature
• Temperature : Temperature is a relative measure of The measurement of temperature is done by some specified
hotness or coldness of a body. as given below:
SI Unit : Kelvin (K)
Different Scales to Measure the Temperature
Commonly Used Unit : °C or °F
Frezzing or Boiling or
• Heat : Heat is a form of energy flow Name of Measuring ice point steam point
(i) between two bodies or Scale Unit (Lower (Upper
(ii) between a body and its surroundings fixed point) fixed point)
by virtue of temperature difference between them Degree
SI Unit : Joule (J) Celsius Centigrade 0°C 100°C
Commonly Used Unit : Calorie (Cal) Point
( °C )
Conversion : 1 cal = 4.186 J
Degree
NOTE: Fahrenheit Fahrenheit 32°F 212°F
Heat always flows from a higher temperature Point
system to a lower temperature system. ( °F )
Degree
Reaumur Reaumur
1.1 Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics scale
0° R 80°R
The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if two
( °R )
thermodynamic systems are each in thermal equilibrium Kelvin
Kelvin (K) 273.15 K 373.15 K
with a third one, then they are in thermal equilibrium with Scale
each other.
Principle: Observation of Thermometric property with the
change in temperature and comparing it with certain
reference situations.
Reference situation is generally ice point or steam point.
1.2.1 Celsius and Fahrenheit Temperature

Scales
Fig. 14.1
• Zeroth law of thermodynamics takes into account that In Celsius Scale In Fahrenheit Scale
temperature is something worth measuring because it Ice Point → 0°C . Ice Point → 32°F .
predicts whether the heat transfer between objects or Steam Point → 100°C . Steam Point → 212°F .
not. This is true regardless of how the objects
interact. It implies that 100 division in Celsius scales is equivalent to
• Even if two objects are not in physical contact, heat 180 divisions in Fahrenheit scale.
still can flow between them, by means of radiation t − 32 tc
mode of heat transfer & zeroth law of Hence ⇒ f =
180 100
thermodynamics states that, if the system are in
thermal equilibrium, no heat flow will take place.
THERMAL PHYSICS
1.2.3 Thermometers
Instrument used to measure temperature of any system is
called as thermometer.
Examples : Liquid in Glass thermometer, Platinum
Resistance Thermometer, Constant Volume Gas
Thermometers.
a) Liquid in Glass thermometer and Platinum Resistance
thermometer give uniform readings for ice point &
steam point but go non uniform for different liquids
Fig. 14.2
and different materials.
b) Constant volume gas thermometer gives same
1.2.2 Absolute Temperature Scale readings irrespective of which gas. It is based on the
It is kelvin scale fact that at low pressures and constant volume, P × T
Ice point → 273.15 K for a gas is constant.
Steam point → 373.15 K
Comparing it with the Celsius scale, number of scale
division in both the scales is same.
t c − 0°C t k − 273.15
=
100 100
Kelvin scale is called as absolute scale, because it is
practically impossible to go beyond 0 K in the negative side.
Fig. 14.4
c) All gases converge to absolute zero at zero pressure.
2. Thermal Expansion
When matter is heated without any change in its state, it
usually expands. This phenomena of expansion of matter on
heating is called thermal expansion of matter.
There are three types of thermal expansions.
2.1 Expansion of Solids

Fig. 14.3
Three types of expansion takes place in solid as given
To convert the temperature to one scale to another, the below:
following relation is used a) Linear Expansion The expansion in length of a body
due to increase in its temperature is called the linear
Temperature on one scale − LFP ( ice point )
expansion.
UFP ( Steam point ) − LFP ( ice point )
Temperature on other scale − LFP ( ice point )
=
UFP ( Steam point ) − LFP ( ice point )
Fig. 14.5
Relation between C, F and K temperature scales is given  2 1 (1 + α∆t )
Increase in length, =
below:
where, 1 and  2 are initial and final lengths,
C F − 32 K − 273
= = . ∆t =change in temperature and
5 9 5
α =coefficient of linear expansion.
Coefficient of linear expansion,
THERMAL PHYSICS
∆ where, V = real volume,

α=
 × ∆t ∆V = change in volume and ∆t =change in
where,  = real length temperature.
The coefficient of volume (cubical) expansion of a
and ∆ = change in length
substance is defined as the increase in volume per
and ∆t =change in temperature.
unit original volume per unit rise in its temperature.
The coefficient of linear expansion of a material of a
Its unit is °C−1 or K −1 .
solid rod is defined as increase in length per unit
original length per unit rise in temperature. Its unit is
°C−1 or K −1 . 2.2 Expansion of Liquids
b) Superficial Expansion: The expansion in the area of • Liquids do not have linear and superficial expansion
a surface due to increase in its temperature is called but these only have volumetric expansion.
area expansion. • Since, liquids are always heated in a vessel, so
initially on heating the system (liquid + vessel), the
level of liquid in vessel falls (as vessel expands more
since it absorbs heat and liquid expands less) but later
on, it starts rising due to faster expansion of the
liquid. Thus, liquids have two coefficients of volume
expansion.
a) Apparent Expansion of Liquids: When expansion
Fig. 14.6 of the container containing liquid, on heating is not
A 2 A1 (1 + β∆t )
Increase in area, = taken into account, the observed expansion is called
apparent expansion of liquids.
where, A1 and A2 are initial and final area and β is a
Coefficient of apparent expansion of a liquid
coefficient of superficial expansion, apparent ( or observed ) incerease in volume
∆A ( γa ) = .
Coefficient of superficial expansion, β = original volume × change in temperature
A × ∆t
b) Real Expansion of Liquids: When expansion of the
where, A = area,
container, containing liquid, on heating is also taken
change in area
∆A = into account, then observed expansion is called real
and ∆t =change in temperature. expansion of liquids.
The coefficient of area expansion of metal sheet is Coefficient of real expansion of liquid
defined as the increase in its surface area per unit real incerease in volume
original surface area per unit rise in temperature. Its ( γr ) =
original volume × change in temperature
unit is °C−1 or K −1 .
Both γ r and γ a are measured in °C−1 .
c) Cubical Expansion: The expansion in the volume of
We can show that γ r =γ a + γ g
an object due to increase in its temperature is known
as cubical or volume expansion. where, γ g is the coefficient of cubical expansion of
the container (vessel).
2.2.1 Anomalous Expansion of Water

Generally, with increasing temperature, the volume
expansion coefficient of liquids is about ten times greater
than that of solids. Water is an exception to this rule. From
Fig. 14.7
0°C to 4°C water contracts and beyond 4°C ,it expands.
V2 V1 (1 + γ∆t )
Increase in volume, =
Thus, density of water reaches a maximum value of
where V1 and V2 are initial and final volumes and γ
1000kgm-3 at 4°C .
is a coefficient of cubical expansion.
∆V
The coefficient of cubical expansion, γ =
V × ∆t
THERMAL PHYSICS
2.3.1 Variation of Density with Temperature

Most substances expand when they are heated, i.e., volume
of a given mass of a substance increases on heating, so
density decreases.
1
Hence ρ ∝
V'
−1
ρ ' = ρ (1 + γ∆T )
Fig. 14.8
As γ is small
2.3 Thermal Expansion of Gases (1 + γ∆T )−1 = 1 − γ∆T
On heating, gases expand more than solids or liquids and ρ ' = ρ (1 − γ∆T )
equal volume of different gases expands equally, when
heated by the same amount.
All gases have coefficient of volume expansion γ v with
V V0 (1 + γ v ∆T ) and pressure
volume variation given by=
variation is given by= (

p p0 1 + γ p ∆T .)
Types of Expansion Fractional Change Coefficient of Expansion
∆L Coefficient of Linear Expansion ( α ) :

= α∆T
L Increase in length per unit length per degree rise in temperature.
∆A Coefficient of Area Expansion ( β ) :

= β∆T
A Increase in area per unit area per degree rise in temperature
∆V Coefficient of Volume Expansion ( γ ) :

= γ∆T
V Increase in area per unit volume per degree rise in temperature
THERMAL PHYSICS
NOTE: 2.4 Application of Thermal Expansion

• α for metals generally higher than α for a) Thermometers: In thermometers, thermal expansion
non-metals. is used in temperature measurements.
• γ is nearly constant at high temperatures b) Removing tight lids: To open the cap of a bottle that
but for all low temperature it depends on is tight enough, immerse in hot water for a minute.
temperature. So, Metal cap expands and becomes loose. It would
now be easy to turn it open.
c) Riveting: To join steel plates tightly together, red hot
rivets are forced through holes in the plates. The ends
of hot rivets is then hammered. On cooling, the rivets
contract and bring the plates tightly gripped.
d) Fixing metal tires on wooden wheels: Iron rims are
fixed on wooden wheels of carts. Iron rims are
heated. The thermal expansion allows them to slip
over the wooden wheel. Water is poured on it to cool.
Fig. 14.9 The rim contracts and becomes tight over the wheel.
Coefficient of volume expansion of Cu as a e) Bimetallic Strip: A bimetal strip consists of two thin
function of temperature. strips of different metals such as brass and iron joined
together. On heating the strip, brass expands more
• In general than iron. This unequal expansion causes the bending
3 of the strip.
γ = 3α = β
2
Proof: Imagine a cube of length  that expands
equally in all directions, when its temperature
increases by small ∆T;
We have
∆ =α∆T
Also,
∆V= (  + ∆ )3 − 3= 3 + 3 2 ∆ + 3∆ 2 + ∆3 − 3
Fig. 14.10
2 3
In Equation (1) we ignore 3∆ & ∆ as ∆ is very
Bimetallic strips are used for various purposes.
small as compared to  . Bimetal thermometers are used to measure
So, temperature, especially in furnaces and ovens.
∆V = 3 2 ∆ …(1) Bimetal strips are used in thermostats. A bimetal
3V thermostat is used to control the temperature of the
∆V
=  3Vα∆T
∆= ... ( 2 ) heater coil in an electric iron

∆V f) Thermostats: The thermostat is a heat-regulating
∴ = 3α∆T device which works on the principle of thermal
V
expansion.
⇒ γ = 3α
Similarly, we can prove for areal expansion
coefficient.
2.5 Thermal Strain & Thermal Stress
When a metal rod whose ends are rigidly fixed so as to
NOTE:
prevent the rod from expansion or contraction, undergoes a
Relation between coefficients of linear,
change in temperature, thermal strains and thermal stresses
superficial and cubical expansion :
are developed in the rod.
β = 2α and γ = 3α or α : β : γ = 1: 2 : 3 .
• If a rod of length  is heated by a temperature ∆T ,
then increase in length of rod should have been
∆ = α∆T .
THERMAL PHYSICS
But due to being fixed at ends rod does not expand 3.1 Mechanical Equivalent of Heat
and a compressive thermal strain is developed in it
The mechanical equivalent of heat implies that motion and
whose value is
heat are interchangeable, and that a defined amount of work
∆ generates the same amount of heat in all situations if the
Thermal (compressive) strain = = α∆T
 work is completely converted to heat energy.
Here, α =linear expansion coefficient of the material The mathematical expression for the mechanical equivalent
of rod. of heat is,
• Due to this strain, a thermal stress is developed in the W
J=
rod. q
We know,
Where
∆V W = The amount of heat required to generate heat
= α∆T = compressive strain
V q = Amount of heat
Y∆L The SI unit of mechanical equivalent of heat is
Also, = σ = Thermal stress
L Joule/calorie.
σT= Yα∆T
where, Y = young’s modulus of elasticity. 3.2 Thermal Heat Capacity
• Practical applications: Railway tracks, metal tyres of Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a system
cart wheels, bridges and so many other applications. through one degree
⇒ ∆Q = S∆T
3. Calorimetry where S = Heat Capacity
When two systems at different temperatures are connected Units
together then heat flows from higher temperature to lower SI : J / K
temperature till the time their temperatures do not become Common : Cal / °C
same.
Note: Note:
Whenever heat is given to any body, either its Materials with higher specific heat capacity
temperature changes or its state changes. require a lot of heat for same one degree rise in
temperature.
Change in Temperature
When the temp changes on heating, 3.2.1 Molar Heat Capacity
Then,
The amount of heat required to change the temperature of
Heat supplied ∝ change in temperature ( ∆T )
unit mole of substance by 1°C is termed as its molar heat
∝ amount of substance (m/n) capacity,
∝ nature of substance (s/C) Q
C=
⇒ ∆H= ms∆T µ∆T
m = mass of body where, µ =number of moles = m/M
s = specific heat capicity per kg
∆T =change in temperature • Types of molar specific heat capacity are as follows
or ∆H = nC∆T a) ( )
Molar specific heat capacity at constant pressure Cp
n = Number of moles  ∆Q 
is expressed as CP =  
C = Specific/Molar heat Capacity per mole  ∆T  p = constant
b) Molar specific heat capacity at constant volume ( CV )
 ∆Q 
CV =  
 ∆T V = constant
THERMAL PHYSICS
• Relation between specific heat and molar heat capacity Latent heat of fusion,
can be expressed as C = Ms Q
Lf =
where, C = molar heat capacity, m
M = molecular mass of the substance Its SI unit is Jkg-1.
and s = specific heat capacity b) Latent Heat of Vaporization It is the quantity of heat
Thermal stress = Y × Thermalstrain= Yα∆T required to change the state of unit mass of a substance
Thermal stress= Yα∆T from liquid to vapour state at its boiling point. It is
Here, Y = Young’s modulus of the material of given denoted by L V .
rod. Q
Latent heat of vaporization, L V = and its SI unit is
If A be the cross-section area of the rod, then force m
exerted by the rod on the supports will be Jkg-1.
F= Yα∆T A .
3.2.2 Specific Heat Capacity 3.5 Calorimeter
• The quantity of heat Q required to change the It is the branch of science which deals with the measurement
temperature of a mass m of certain material by ∆T , is of heat.
approximately proportional to the product of m and Principle of calorimetry states that, neglecting heat loss to
∆T , i.e., surroundings, heat lost by a body at higher temperature is
Q ∝ m∆T equal to heat gained by a body at lower temperature.
It is expressed as
or Q
= ms∆T
Heat lost by hotter body = Heat gained by colder body
where, s = specific heat capacity of the material.
m1s1∆T1= m 2 s 2 ∆T2
• Specific heat of ice is 500 cal / kg°C and that of water
where, m1 = mass of hot body,
is 1000 cal / kg°C . m2 = mass of cold body,
s1 = specific heat of hot body,
Note: s2 = specific heat of cold body
Specific heat capacity can have any value from ∆T1 = change in temperature of hotter body
0 to ∞ . For some substances under particular change in temperature of colder body.
and ∆T2 =
situations, it can have negative values also.
3.6 Change of State
3.2.3 Water Equivalent • The process of converting one state of a substance
Water equivalent is the amount of water that would absorb into another state is known as change of state of a
the same amount of heat as the calorimeter per degree substance or matter.
temperature increase. • Matter generally exists in three states
(i) Solid (ii) Liquid (iii) Gas
3.4 Latent Heat • These states can be changed into one another by
The amount of heat transferred per unit mass during the absorbing heat or rejecting heat. The process is so
change of state of a substance without any change in its called the change of state. The temperature of a
temperature is called latent heat of the substance for substance remains constant during change of state.
particular change.
Q∝m 3.6.1 Triple Point of Water
⇒Q= mL The values of pressure and temperature at which water
where, L = latent heat of the material. coexists in equilibrium in all three states of matter, i.e., ice,
water and vapour is called triple point of water.
• There are two types of latent heat of materials
a) Latent Heat of Fusion or Melting It is the quantity of • Triple point of water is 273 K temperature and 0.46
heat required to change the state of a substance from cm of mercury pressure.
solid to liquid state at its melting point. It is denoted by • For example
Lf . Solid  Liq Lf = Latent heat of fusion
Liq  Gas Lv = Latent heat of vaporization
THERMAL PHYSICS
NOTE: Point C → Critical temperature

In case any material is not at its B.P or M.P,
then on heating the temperature will change till • Triple Point: The combination pressure and
the time a particular state change temperature temperature at which all three states of matter (i.e.
reaches. solids, liquids and gases co-exist.
For Example: If water is initially at –50°C at 1 For H2O it is at 273.16 K and 0.006 Atm.
Atm pressure in its solid state. • Critical Point: The combination of pressure & temp
On heating beyond which a vapour cannot be liquified is called
Step - 1 : Temperature changes to 0°C first as critical point.
Step - 2 : Ice melts to H2O(  ) keeping the Corresponding temperature, pressure are called as
temperature constant critical temperature & critical pressure.
Step - 3 : Temperature increase to 100°C • From the phasor diagram, we can see that melting
Step - 4 : H2O(  ) boils to steam keeping the point decreases with increases in pressure for H2O.
temp constant • Regelation: The phenomena of refreezing of water
Step - 5 : Further temperature increases. melted below the normal melting point due to
increase in pressure.
• It is due to this pressure effect on melting point that
cooking is tough on mountains and easier in pressure
cooker.
4. Heat Transfer
Fig. 14.11
The slope is inversely proportional to heat There are three modes of heat transfer
capacity. • Conduction
Length of horizontal line depends upon mL for • Convection
the process. • Radiation
5. Conduction & Convection

3.6.2 Pressure Dependence on Melting Point
and Boiling Point 5.1 Conduction
• For some substance melting point decreases with 5.1.1 Thermal
increase in pressure and for other melting point
Thermal conduction is the process in which thermal energy
increases
is transferred from the hotter part of a body to the colder one
• Melting point increases with increase in pressure. or from hot body to a cold body in contact with it without
any transfer of material particles
We can observe the above results through phaser
diagrams.
Fig. 14.13
At steady state, the rate of heat energy flowing through the
rod becomes constant.
Fig. 14.12 Then its rate (for uniform cross-sectional rod)
Line AO → Sublimation curve ( TC − TD )
Line OB → Fusion curve Q = KA ... ( i )
L
Line OC → Vaporization curve where Q = Rate of heat energy flow (J/s or W)
Point O → Triple Point A = Area of cross-section (m2)
THERMAL PHYSICS
TC,TD = Temperature of hot end and cold end respectively Let temperature at the junction be T, since steady
(°C or K) state has been achieved thermal current through each
L = Length of the rod (m) slab will be equal. Then thermal current through the
K = coefficient of thermal conductivity first slab.
Coefficient of Thermal Conductivity: It is defined as Q TH − T
i= = or TH − T = iR1
amount of heat conducted during steady state in unit time t R1
through unit area of any cross-section of the substance under
and that through the second slab.
unit temperature gradient, the heat flow being normal to the
Q T − TC
area. i= = or T − TC = iR 2
t R2
Units
SI → J/msK or W/mK. adding eqn. 5.1 and eqn 5.2
TH − TC
TH − TC = ( R1 + R 2 ) i or i =
R1 + R 2
Note:
Larger the thermal conductivity, the greater will be rate of Thus these two slabs are equivalent to a single slab of
heat energy flow for a given temperature difference. thermal resistance R1 + R2.
Kmetals > Knon metals If more than two slabs are joined in series and are
Thermal conductivity of insulators is very low. Therefore, allowed to attain steady state, then equivalent thermal
air does not let the heat energy to be conducted very easily resistance is given by
R = R1 + R 2 + R 3 + ....
• Temperature Gradient: The fall in temperature per • Slabs in Parallel
unit length in the direction of flow of heat energy is
T − TD
called as Temperature Gradient i.e., C
L
Units
SI → K/m
The term Q, (i.e.) rate of flow of heat energy can also
be named as heat current.
The term (L/KA) is called as thermal resistance of
any conducting rod. Fig. 14.15
• Thermal Resistance: Obstruction offered to the flow
of heat current by the medium Consider two slabs held between the same heat
Units → K/W reservoirs, their thermal conductivities K1 and K2 and
cross-sectional area A1 and A2
5.1.2 Slabs in Parallel & Series L L
then R1 =
= , R2
• Slabs in Series (in steady state) K1A1 K 2A2
Consider a composite slab consisting of two materials thermal current through slab 1
different thickness L1 and L2 different cross-sectional T − TC
i1 = H
area A1 and A2 and different thermal conductivities R1
K1 and K2. The temperature at the outer surface of the and that through slab 2
slabs are maintained at TH and TC, and all lateral T − TC
surfaces are covered by an adiabatic coating. i2 = H
R2
Net heat current from the hot to cold reservoir
 1 1 
i = i1 + i 2 = ( TH − TC )  + 
R
 1 R 2 
TH − TC
Comparing with i = ,we get ,
R eq
Fig. 14.14
THERMAL PHYSICS
1
=
1
+
1 5.2 Convection
R eq R1 R 2 • The process in which heat is transferred from one
If more than two rods are joined in parallel, the point to another by the actual movement of the heated
equivalent thermal resistance is given by material particles from a place at higher temperature
1 1 1 1 to another place of lower temperature is called as
= + + .... .
R eq R1 R 2 R 3 thermal convection.
• If the medium is forced to move with the help of a fan
or a pump, it is called as forced convection.
5.1.3 Growth of Ice on Lake
• If the material moves because of the differences in
• Water in a lake starts freezing if the atmospheric density of the medium, the process is called natural or
temperature drops below 0°C . Let y be the thickness free convection.
of ice layer in the lake at any instant and atmospheric Examples of forced convection:
temperature is −θ°C . Circulatory system, cooling system of an automobile heat
• The temperature of water in contact with lower connector
surface of ice will be zero. Examples of natural convection:
• If A is the area of lake, heat escaping through ice in Trade winds, Sea Breeze/Land Breeze, Monsoons, Burning
KA  0 − ( −θ ) dt  of Tea.
time dt is dQ1 = .
y
• Suppose the thickness of ice layer increase by dy in 6. Radiation
time dt, due to escaping of above heat. Then
Radiation is energy that comes from a source and travels
dQ=
2 mL − ρ ( dyA ) L .
through space at the speed of light. This energy has an
electric field and a magnetic field associated with it, and has
wave-like properties. You could also call radiation
“electromagnetic waves”.
Also, this mode of heat transfer, does not need medium to
travel.
Fig. 14.16
• As dQ1 = dQ 2 hence, rate of growth of ice will be 6.1 Theory of Exchange
According to this theory, all bodies radiate thermal radiation
( dy / dt ) = ( Kθ / ρLy ) . So, the time taken by ice to
at all temperatures. The amount of thermal radiation radiated
ρL y ρL 2 per unit time depends on the nature of the emitting surface,
grow to a thickness
= y is t =
Kθ∫0
ydy
2Kθ
y .
its area and its temperature. The rate is faster at higher
• If the thickness is increased from y1 to y2 then time temperatures. Besides, a body also absorbs part of the
ρL 2 thermal radiation emitted by the surrounding bodies when
taken t
=
2Kθ
(
y 2 − y12 . ) this radiation falls on it.
If a body radiates more than what is absorbs, its temperature
• Do not apply negative sign for putting values of
falls. If a body radiates less than what it absorbs, its
temperature in formula and also do not convert it to
temperature rises. And if the temperature of a body is equal
absolute scale.
to the temperature of its surroundings it radiates at the same
• Ice is a poor conductor of heat, therefore the rate of
rate as it absorbs.
increase of thickness of ice on ponds decreases with
time.
• It follows from the above equation that time taken to 6.2 Ideal Black Body & Black Body
double and triple the thickness, will be in the ratio of Radiation
t1 : t 2 : t 3 ::12 : 22 : 32 A perfectly black body is one which absorbs all the heat
i.e., t1 : t 2 : t 3 ::1: 4 : 9 . radiations of whatever wavelength, incident on it. It neither
reflects nor transmits any of the incident radiation and
therefore appears black whatever be the colour of the
incident radiation.
THERMAL PHYSICS
• Emissive power: Energy radiated per unit time per

unit area along the normal to the area is knonw as
emissive power.
• Spectral Emissive power ( E λ ): Emissive power per
unit wavelength range at wavelength λ is spectral
emissive power, they are related as follows,
Fig. 14.17 ∞
dE
In actual practice, no natural object possesses strictly the ∫ Eλ dλ and
E=
dλ
Eλ .
=
properties of a perfectly black body. But the lamp-black and 0
platinum black are good approximation of black body. They • Emissivity:

absorb about 99% of the incident radiation. The most simple Emissive power of a body at temperature T
e=
and commonly used black body was designated by Ferry. It Emissive power of a black abody at same temperature T
consists of an enclosure with a small opening which is E
=
painted black from inside. The opening acts as a perfect E0
black body. Any radiation that falls on the opening goes
inside and has very little change of escaping the enclosure 6.3 Kirchhoff’s Law of Thermal
before getting absorbed through multiple reflections. The
cone opposite to the opening ensures that no radiation is Radiation
reflected back directly. The ratio of the emissive power to the absorptive power for
the radiation of a given wavelength is same for all
6.2.1 Absorption, Reflection & Emission of substances at the same temperature and is equal to the
emissive power of perfectly black body
Radiations
E ( body )
Q = Q r + Q t + Qa = E ( black body )
a ( body )
Q r Q t Qa
⇒ 1= + + Note:
Q Q Q
Hence, we can conclude that good emitters are also good
⇒1= r + t +a
absorbers.
where r = reflecting power, a = absorptive power\
amd t = transmission power.
(i) r = 0, t = 0, a = 1, perfect black body 6.4 Stefan’s Law
(ii) r = 1, t = 0, a = 0, perfect reflector According to this law, the emissive power of a perfectly
(iii) r = 0, t = 1, a = 0, perfect transmitter black body (energy emitted by a black body per unit surface
area per unit time) is directly proportional to the fourth
power of its absolute temperature.
Mathematically, E ∝ T 4
or E = σT 4
where, σ is a constant known as the Stefan’s constant. Value
of σ is 5.67 × 10−8 Wm −2 K −4 .
• The total radiant energy Q emitted by a body of
Fig. 14.18
surface area A in time t is given by
• Absorptive Power: In particular absorptive power of Q= Ate= AtεσT 4
a body can be defined as the fraction of incident • The radiant power (P), i.e. energy radiated by a body
radiation that is absorbed by the body. per unit time is given by
Energy absorbed Q
a= P= = AεσT 4 .
Energy incident t
As all the radiations incident on a black body are • If a body at temperature T is surrounded by another
absorbed, a = 1 for a black body. body at temperature T0 (where, T0 < T), then Stefan’s
law is modified as
THERMAL PHYSICS
(
σ T 4 − T04
E= ) Approximation: If a body cools from Ta to Tb in t times in
medium where surrounding temp is T0 , then
( )
and e = εσ T 4 − T04 . Ta − Tb
=
 T + Tb
K a

− T0  .
t  2 
6.5 Newton’s Law of Cooling Newton’s Law of cooling can be verified experimentally
Newton’s Law of cooling states that, the rate of loss of heat
 −dQ 
  of the body is directly proportional to the difference
 dt 
of temp between body and surrounding.
−dQ
Now, = k ( T2 − T1 )
dt
where k is a positive constant depending upon area and
nature of the surface of the body.
Suppose a body of mass m, specific heat capacity s is at Fig. 14.20
temperature T2 & T1 be the temperature of surroundings, if Set Up: A double walled vessel (v) containng water in
dT the fall of temperature in time dt. between two walls.
Amount of heat lost is A copper calorimeter (C) containing hot water placed inside
dQ = msdT the double walled vessel. Two thermometers through the
∴ Rate of loss of heat is given by lids are used to note the temperature T2 of H2O in
dQ dT calorimeter and T1 of water in between the double walls
= ms
dt dt respectively.
From above equations Experiment: The temperature of hot water in the
dT calorimeter after equal intervals of time.
−ms =k ( T2 − T1 )
dt Result: A graph is plotted between log (T2 – T1) and time
dT −k (t). The nature of the graph is observed to be a straight line
⇒ = dt =
−Kdt as it should be from Newton’s law of cooling.
T2 − T1 ms
k
where K = 6.6 Wien’s Displacement Law
ms
From the energy distribution curve of black body radiation,
On integrating
the following conclusions can be drawn:
log ( T2 − T1 ) =−Kt + C a) The higher the temperature of a body, the higher is
T1 + C1e − Kt where C1 =
or T2 = eC the area under the curve i.e., more amount of energy
is emitted by the body at higher temperature.
Thus, above equation enables you to calculate the time of
b) The energy emitted by the body at different
cooling of a body through a particular range of temperature.
temperatures is not uniform. For both long and short
wavelengths, the energy emitted is very small.
c) For a given temperature, there is a particular
wavelength ( λ m ) for which the energy emitted ( E λ )
is maximum.
d) With an increase in the temperature of the black
body, the maxima of the curves shift towards shorter
wavelengths.
Fig. 14.19
NOTE:
For small temperature differentiation, the rate of cooling,
due to conduction, convection & radiation combined is
proportional to difference in temperature
THERMAL PHYSICS
Fig. 14.21
From the study of energy distribution of black body

radiation discussed as above, it was established
experimentally that the wavelength ( λ m ) corresponding to
maximum intensity of emission decreases inversely with
increase in the temperature of the black body. i.e.,
1
λ m ∝ or λ m T = b
T
This is called Wien’s displacement law.
Here b = 0.282 cm-K, is the Wien’s constant.
6.7 Solar Constant

• A solar constant is a measurement of the solar
electromagnetic radiation available in a meter squared
at Earth’s distance from the sun. The solar constant is
used to quantify the rate at which energy is received
upon a unit surface such as a solar panel. In this
context, the solar constant provides a total
measurement of the sun’s radiant energy as it is
absorbed at a given point.
• Solar constants are used in various atmospheric and
geological sciences. Though called a constant, the
solar constant is merely relatively constant. The
relative constant does vary by 0.2% in a cycle that
peaks once every eleven years. The constant is rated
at a solar minimum of 1.361 kW/m2 and a solar
maximum of 1.362.
THERMAL PHYSICS
NCERT Corner
(Some Important Points to Remember)
7. The specific heat capacity of a substance is defined by
1. Heat is a form of energy that flows between a body and
1 ∆Q
its surrounding medium by virtue of temperature s= .
m ∆T
difference between them. The degree of hotness of the
where m is the mass of the substance and ∆Q is the heat
body is quantitatively represented by temperature.
required to change its temperature by ∆T . The molar
2. A temperature-measuring device (thermometer) makes specific heat capacity of a substance is defined by
use of some measurable property (called thermometric 1 ∆Q
C=
property) that changes with temperature. Different µ ∆T
thermometers lead to different scales. To construct a where µ is the number of moles of the substance.
temperature scale, two fixed points are chosen and
assigned some arbitrary values of temperature. The two
8. The latent heat of fusion (Lf) is the heat per unit mass
numbers fix the origin of the scale and the size of its
required to change a substance from solid into liquid at
unit.
the same temperature and pressure. The latent heat of
vaporization (Lv) is the heat per unit mass required to
3. The Celsius temperature (tC) and the Fahrenheit
change a substance from liquid to the vapour state
by t V ( 9 / 5 ) t C + 32 .
temperature (tV) are related=
without change in the temperature and pressure.
4. The ideal gas equation connecting pressure (P), volume
(V) and absolute temperature (T) is: PV = µRT where 9. The three modes of heat transfer are conduction,
µ is the number of moles and R is the universal gas convection and radiation.
constant.
10. In conduction, heat is transferred between neighbouring
parts of a body through molecular collisions, without
5. In the absolute temperature scale, the zero of the scale
any flow of matter. For a bar of length L and uniform
is the absolute zero of temperature the temperature
cross section A with its ends maintained at temperatures
where every substance in nature has the least possible
TC and TD, the rate of flow of heat H is:
molecular activity. The Kelvin absolute temperature
scale (T) has the same unit size as the Celsius scale T − TD
H = KA C .
(TC), but differs in the origin: TC= T − 273.15 . L
where K is the thermal conductivity of the material of
the bar.
6. The coefficient of linear expansion ( α t ) and volume
expansion ( α v ) are defined by the relations: 11. Newton’s Law of Cooling says that the rate of cooling
of body is proportional to the excess temperature of the
∆
= α t ∆T body over the surroundings:

where T1 is the temperature of the surrounding medium
∆V and T2 is the temperature of the body.
=α V ∆T
V 12. Emissivity of a body at a given temperature is equal to
where ∆ and ∆V denote the change in length  and the ratio of the total emissive power of the body ( eλ ) to
volume V for a change of temperature ∆T .The relation
the total emissive power of perfectly black body ( E λ )
between them is : α V =3α t .
eλ
at that temperature. Emissivity, E =
Eλ
THERMAL PHYSICS
13. Perfectly Black Body: A body which absorbs 16. Wien’s Displacement Law: This law states that as
completely the radiations of all wavelengths incident on temperature of black body T increase, the wavelength
it, is called a perfectly black body. For a perfectly black λ m corresponding to the maximum emission decreases
body, emissive power ( E λ ) = 1 . 1
such that λ m ∝ or λ m T =b.
Lamp black is 96% black and platinum black is about T
98% black. where, b is known as Wien’s constant and its value is
2.89 × 10−3 m − K .
14. Kirchhoff’s Law of Radiation: This law states that, the
ratio of emissive power to absorptive power is same for
all surfaces at the same temperature and is equal to the
emissive power of a perfectly black body at that
e e
temperature. Mathematically, 1= 2= ...= E .
a1 a 2
15. Stefan’s Law: According to this law, the emissive
power of perfectly black body (energy emitted by a
black body per unit surface area per unit time) is
directly proportional to the fourth power of its absolute
temperature.
Mathematically, E = σT 4
where σ is a constant known as the Stefan’s constant.
Value of σ is 5.67 × 10−8 Wm −2 K −4 .
15
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES
2 Kinetic Theory of Gases and Thermodynamics
Kinetic Theory of Gases and Thermodynamics
1. Kinetic Theory of Gases 1.2 Pressure Calculation

1.1 Introduction to Kinetic Theory of 1.2.1 Pressure of an Ideal Gas and Its
Gases: Expression
In this topic, we discuss the behaviour of gases and how Pressure exerted by the gas is due to continuous
are the various state variable like P, V, T, moles, U etc are bombardment of gas molecules against the walls of the
interrelated with each other container.
1.1.1 Postulates of Kinetic Theory of Gases Expression:
• A gas consists of a very large number of molecules
Consider a gas enclosed in a cube of side l. Take the axes
(of the order of Avogadro’s number, 1023), which are
to be parallel to the sides of the cube, as shown in figure.
perfect elastic spheres. For a given gas they are
A molecule with velocity ( v x , v y , v z ) hits the planar
identical in all respects, but for different gases, they
are different. wall parallel to yz-plane of area A (= l2). Since the
• The molecules of a gas are in a state of incessant collision is elastic, the molecule rebounds with the same
random motion. They move in all directions with velocity; its y and z components of velocity do not
different speeds., (of the order of 500 m/s) and obey change in the collision but the x-component reverses
Newton’s laws of motion. sign. That is, the velocity after collision is
• The size of the gas molecules is very small as ( −v x , v y , v z ) . The change in momentum of the
compared to the distance between them. If typical
molecule is: −mv x − ( mv x ) =
−2mv x . By the principle
size of molecule is 2Å, average distance between the
molecules is 320Å. Hence volume occupied by the of conservation of momentum, the magnitude of
molecules is negligible in comparison to the volume momentum imparted to the wall in the collision = 2mvx.
of the gas.
• The molecules do not exert any force of attraction or
repulsion on each other, except during collision.
• The collisions of the molecules with themselves and
with the walls of the vessel are perfectly elastic. As
such, that momentum and the kinetic energy of the
molecules are conserved during collisions, though
their individual velocities change.
• There is no concentration of the molecules at any
point inside the container i.e. molecular density is Fig 15.1
uniform throughout the gas.
To calculate the force (and pressure) on the wall, we need
• A molecule moves along a straight line between two
to calculate momentum imparted to the wall per unit
successive collisions and the average straight
time, if it is within the distance v x Vx ∆t from the wall,
distance covered between two successive collisions is
called the mean free path of the molecules. that is, all molecules within the volume. Av x ∆t only can
• The collisions are almost instantaneous, i.e., the time 1
hit the wall in time ∆T is A v x ∆t n, where n is the
of collision of two molecules is negligible as 2
compared to time interval between two successive member of molecules per unit volume. The total
collisions. momentum transferred to the wall by these molecules in
1 Pressure exerted by an ideal gas is numerically equal to two

time ∆t is: Q
= ( 2mv x )  
nAv x ∆t  . The force on the
third of mean kinetic energy
2 
wall is the rate of momentum transfer Q/∆t and pressure 1.3 Ideal Gas Law’s:
is force per unit area:
• Ideal Gas
Q That gas which strictly obeys the gas laws, (such as Boyle’s
=P = nmv 2x
( A ∆t ) Law, Charles’, Gay Lussac’s Law etc.)
Actually, all molecules in a gas do not have the same Characteristics
velocity; there is a distribution in velocities. The above 1. The size of the molecule of an ideal gas is zero.
equation therefore, stands for pressure due to the group 2. There is no force of attraction or repulsion amongst the
of molecules with speed vx in the x-direction and n stands molecules of an ideal gas.
for the number density of that group of molecules. The
total pressure is obtained by summing over the • Real Gas
contribution due to all groups: All gases are referred to as real Gases. All real gas near
2 the ideal gas behavior at low pressures and
P = nmv x temperatures high enough, where they cannot be
2 liquified.
where v x is the average of v 2x . Now the gas is isotropic,
Gay Lussac’s Law:
i.e. there is no preferred direction of velocity of the
2 
molecules in the vessel. Therefore by symmetry, We know that PV = NK
3
2 2 2
v= v= vz 
x y
where K is the average kinetic energy of translation per gas

molecule. At constant temperature. K is constant and for a
( )
2  1  2 2 2  1  2
vx   vx + vy + =
= vz  v given mass of the gas. N is constant.
3 3
2 Thus, PV = constant for given mass of gas at constant
where v is the speed and v denotes the mean of the temperature, which is also called Boyle’s Law.
squared speed. Thus Charle’s Law:
1 2 2 
P =   nmv We know that PV = NK
3 3
1 2 1 M 1 2 For a given mass of gas, N is constant.

P= mnv = = ρv
3 3V 3  3 
Since K
= k B T, K ∝ T and as such PV ∝ T.
M = Total mass of gas molecules 2
If P is constant, V ∝ T, which is the Charles’ Law.
V = Total volume of gas molecules
Constant Volume Law:
1.2.2 Relation Between Pressure and KE of Gas
2 
Molecules We know that PV = NK
3
1 2 For a given mass of gas, N is constant. Since
From equation P= ρv
3  3 
=K k B T, K ∝ T
2 1  2
⇒ P =  Mv −2 
3V  2  Thus, PV ∝ T
2 K.E If V is constant, P ∝ T, which the constant volume law.

⇒P=
3 V Avogadro’s Law:
2 Consider two gases 1 and 2. We can write

⇒ P =E 2  2 
3 =P1V1 = N1 K1 , P2 V2 N2 K 2
3 3
If their pressures, volumes and temperatures are the same, Real Gas Law
then By explicitly including the effects of molecular size and
 
P1 P= intermolecular forces, the Dutch physicist Johannes van der
= 2 , V1 V=2 , K1 K2.
Waals modified the ideal gas law to explain the behavior of
Clearly, N1 = N2 Thus: real gases. The Vander Waal real gas equation is given
Equal volumes of all ideal gases existing under the same below.
conditions of temperature and pressure contain equal Real gas law equation,
number of molecules which is Avogadro’s Law or
hypothesis.  n 2a 
 P +  ( V − nb ) =
nRT
This law is named after the Italian physicist and chemist,  V2 
Amedeo Avogadro (1776 – 1856). Where a and b represent the empirical constant which is
PV unique for each gas.
Alliter:=
As PV Nk
= B T, N
k BT n2
represents the concentration of gas.
If P, V and T are constants, N is also constant. V2
1.4 Ideal Gas Equation P represents pressure

R represents a universal gas constant and T is the
2   3
As PV = NK and K = k B T temperature.
3 2
Difference Between Ideal and Real Gases
2 3 
PV = N  k B T  or PV = Nk B T The table below shows the properties and the behaviour of
3 2  ideal and real gases.
which is the ideal gas equation Ideal Gas Real Gas
1.5 Real Gas Equation and Related No definite volume Definite volume
Concepts Elastic collision of Non-elastic collisions
particles between particles
Real Gas Definition: A real gas is defined as a gas that at
all standard pressure and temperature conditions does not No intermolecular Intermolecular attraction
obey gas laws. It deviates from its ideal behavior as the gas attraction force force
becomes huge and voluminous. True gases have velocity, Does not really exist in the It really exists in the
mass, and volume. They liquefy when cooled to their boiling environment and is a environment
point. The space filled by gas is not small when compared to hypothetical gas
the total volume of gas.
High pressure The pressure is less when
Ideal and Real Gas Equation An ideal gas is defined as a gas compared to ideal gas
that obeys gas laws at all pressure and temperature
Independent Interacts with others
conditions. Ideal gases have velocity as well as mass. They
have no volume. The volume taken up by the gas is small as Obeys PV = NRT Obeys
compared to the overall volume of the gas. It does not  n 2a 
condense, and triple-point does not exist.  P + 2  ( V − nb ) =
nRT
 V 
The ideal gas law is the equation of the state of a
hypothetical ideal gas, also called the general gas equation.
Under many conditions, it is a reasonable approximation of
the behavior of several gases, but it has many limitations. In
1834, Benoit Paul Emile Clapeyron first described it as a
variation of the empirical law of Boyle, the law of Charles,
the law of Avogadro, and the law of Gay-Lussac. In an
empirical form, the ideal gas law is also written:
PV = nRT
2. Speeds of Gas Molecules Vrms =

3RT
M
Maxwell’s speed Distribution Law, average, RMS and most Where M = Molecular Mass of Gas
Probable Speeds.  1
N∫
Similarly, Vav= V= VdN v
Molecule Nature of Matter: Same as Atomic Theory given
by Dalton, according to him, atoms are the smallest 8RT
constituents of elements. All atoms of one element are =
πM
identical, but atoms of different element are different.
dN v
In solids: Atoms are tightly packed, interatomic spacing But VMP is velocity at which =0
dv
about 1A°. Interatomic force of attraction are strong.
3RT
In liquids: Atoms are not as rigidly fixed as in solids. ⇒ VMP =
M
Interatomic spacing is about the same 2Å. Interatomic force
Physically VMP is velocity possessed by Maximum number of
a attraction are relative weaker.
molecules.
In Gases: Atoms are very free. Inter atomic spacing is about NOTE:
tens of Angstroms. Interatomic forces are much weaker in
gases than both in solids and liquids. Vrms > Vav > VMP
In this chapter, we mainly focus on gases
2.1 Maxwell’s Law of Distribution of 3. Energy of Gas Molecules

Molecular Velocities 3.1 Degrees of Freedom
Assumptions of Maxwell Distribution The number of degrees of freedom of a dynamical system is
• Molecules of all velocities between 0 to ∞ are defined as the total number of co-ordinates or independent
present. quantities required to describe completely the position and
• Velocity of one molecule, continuously changes, configuration of the system.
though fraction of molecules in one range of Example:
velocities is constant. • A particle moving in straight line, say along X-axis
Result need only x coordinate to define itself. It has only
3/ 2 mv 2
 M  2
−
2k B T
one degree of freedom.
N v = 4πN   V e
• A particle in a plane, needs 2 co-ordinates, hence has
 2πk B T 
2 degrees of freedom.
dN v
where N v = In general if
dV A = number of particles in the system
where dNv = Total number of molecules with speeds R = number of independent relations among the
between V and V + dV particles
N = Total number of molecules. N = Number of degrees of freedom of the system
N = 3A – R
Monoatomic Gases:
The molecules of a monoatomic gas (like neon, argon,
helium etc) consists only of one atom.
∴A=1
R=0
∴N=3
Fig 15.2 Here 3 degrees of freedom are for translational motion
Based on this we define three types of speed for molecules of
gas Diatomic Gases
( )
 2 1/ 2  1 
1/ 2
A=2
N ∫
2
Vrms =
= V V dNv  Assuming the distance between the two molecules is fixed
 
then R = 1
⇒ N = 3× 2 −1 = 5 A polyatomic gas has 3 translational, 3 rotational degrees of

Here 5 degrees of freedom implies combination of 3 freedom. Apart from them if there V vibrational modes then
translational energies and 2 rotational energies. there will be additional 2V vibrational degrees of freedom.
∴ Total degree of freedom
n = 3 + 3 + 2V = 6 + 2V
3.2 Internal Energy and Kinetic

Energy
Internal Energy: As studied in thermodynamics, Internal
Energy of any substance is the combination of Potential
Energies and Kinetic Energies of all molecules inside a
given gas.
• In real gas
Internal Energy = P.E of molecules + K.E of
Molecules
• In real gas: Internal Energy = K.E of Molecules
Here PE of molecules is zero as assumed in Kinetic
theory postulates; There is no interaction between the
molecules hence its interactional energy is zero.
Average KE per Molecule of the Gas:
1 M 2
We know, P = v
3V
Fig 15.3
If vibrational motion is also considered then [only at very
1 2
⇒ PV = Mv
high temperatures] 3
N=7 1 2
Hence, nRT = Mv
where 3 for translational 3
2 for rotational 1 2
⇒ nRT = Nmv
2 for vibrational 3
Triatomic Gas
n 3RT 1  2
⇒ = mv
N 2 2
Fig 15.4
Also N = nN A
Linear
A=3 3 R 1 2 3
⇒ T= ( K.E )avg
mv ⇒ K B T =
R=2 2 NA 2 2
⇒N=3×3–2=7 3
Average KE of translation per molecule of the gas K BT
Non-Linear 2
Kinetic Interpretation of Temperature
From above equations, we can easily see that KE of one
molecule is only dependent upon its temperature.
⇒ KE of molecule will cease if, the temperature of the gas
molecules become absolute zero.
Fig 15.5 ∴ Absolute zero of a temperature may be defined as that
A=3 temperature at which the root mean square velocity of the
R=3⇒N=3×3–3=6 gas molecule reduces to zero.
• Here again vibrational energy is ignored. All the Ideal gas laws can be derived from Kinetic Theory of
gases.
Polyatomic Gas
3.3 Law of Equipartition of Energy CV

=
∆Q 
=
∆U
[⸪ W = 0 for constant V]

∆T  V ∆T
Statement: According to this law, for any dynamical system
in thermal equilibrium, the total energy is distributed equally 3R
⇒ Cv =
amongst all the degrees of freedom, and the energy 2
associated with each molecule per degree of freedom is Cp 5
5R
1 ∴ Cp = and =
γ = .
k B T, where kB is Boltzman constant and T is temperature 2 Cv 3
2
of the system. Diatomic Gases
k BT When no vibration
Application: U = f where f = Total degrees of
2 Degree of freedom = 5
freedom. This law is very helpful in determining the total 5
internal energy of any system be it monatomic, diatomic or Average energy for one mole = RT
2
any polyatomic. Once the internal energy is know we can
very easily predict Cv and Cp for such systems. ∆U 5
∴ Cv = = R
∆T 2
Remark: In case vibrational motion is also there in any
system, say for diatomic molecule, then there should be 7R
Cp =
energy due to vibrational as well given by 2
2
1  dy  1 2 Cp 7
=Ev m   + ky =
γ =
2  dt  2 Cv 5
dy ky 2 When vibration is present.
where = vibrational velocity and = Energy due to
dt 2 There is only one mode of vibration between 2 molecules.
configuration.
∴ Degree of freedom = 7
According to Law of Equipartition
7
1 ∴ U =RT
Energy per degree of freedom = k B T 2
2
7 9
1 1 ⇒ Cv = R and Cp = R
⇒ Total energy = k B T + k B T = k B T is energy for 2 2
2 2
complete one vibrational mode 9
and γ =
7
3.4 Specific Heat of Gases Polyatomic Gases
Specific Heat Capacity: Degree of freedom
As we know the law of equipartition, we can predict the heat = 3 for translational
capacity of various gases.
+ 3 for rotational
Monoatomic Gas
+ 2V for vibrational
Degree of freedom = 3.
= 6 + 2V
∴ Average Energy of a molecule at temperature T
If v = Number of vibrational modes
1 
⇒E=
3  k BT  RT
2  ∴ U = ( 6 + 2V ) K
2
Energy for one mole ⇒ E × N A
⇒ C v =( 3 + V ) R
3
⇒ U =( k B N A ) T C= (4 + V) R
2 p
3 4+V
⇒ U =RT and γ =
2 3+ V
In thermodynamics, we studied
Specific Heat Capacity of Water 3.5 Mean Free Path

Water is treated like solid.
The path traversed by a molecule between two successive
Water has three atoms, 2 of hydrogen and one of oxygen collisions with other molecule is called the mean free path
∴ Total degree of freedom for every atom  Total distance travelled by a molecule
l=
=3×2=6 No. of collisions it makes with other molecules
∴ Total degree of freedom for every molecule of water Expression:
= 3 × 6 = 18 Mean Free Path
 1 
18 × R∆T 
∆Q ∆U  2 
∴ C= = =
∆T ∆T ∆T
C = 9R
Specific Heat Capacity of Solids
• In solids, there is very less difference between heat
capacity at constant pressure and at that constant
volume. Therefore we do not differentiate between Fig 15.7
Cp and Cv for solids.
Suppose the molecules of a gas are spheres of diameter d.
∆Q ∆U 
∴ C= = Focus on a single molecule with the average speed V. It
∆T ∆T
will suffer collision with any molecule that comes within a
{As solids hardly expand or expansion is negligible}
distance d between the centres. In time ∆t, it sweeps a
Now in solid the atoms are arranged in an array 
structure and they are not free to move independently volume πd 2 V ∆t wherein any other molecule will collide
like in gases. with it (as shown in figure). If n is the number of molecules

Therefore the atoms do not possess any translational per unit volume, the molecule suffers nπd 2 V ∆t collisions
or rotational degree of freedom. 
On the other hand, the molecules do possess in time ∆t. thus the rate of collisions is nπd 2 V or the time
vibrational motion along 3 mutually perpendicular between two successive collisions is on the average.
directions. 1
τ=  2
Hence for 1 mole of a solid, there are NA number of (
nπ V d )
atoms. The energy associated with every molecule
 1  The average distance between two successive collisions,
= 3 2 × k BT  = 3K B T called the mean free path l, is:
 2 
∴ U = 3 RT for one mole  1
=l V= τ
∴ C=
∆Q ∆U
= = 3R
( nπd ) 2
∆T ∆T
In this derivation, we imagined the other molecules to be at
• The above equation is called as Dulong and Petit’s
rest. But actually all molecules are moving and the collision
Law.
rate is determined by the average relative velocity of the
• At low temperatures the vibrational mode may not be  
molecules. Thus we need to replace V by 2V in equation.
that active hence, heat capacity is low at low
temperatures for solids. A more exact treatment.
 1
=
( 2nπd 2 )
Result
 1
l=
( 2nπd 2 )
Fig 15.6
for N molecules PV = NKBT ⇒ PV = nRT

N P Thermodynamic Process: A thermodynamic process is
⇒n= = said to take place when some changes occur in the state of a
V K BT
thermodynamic system, i.e., the thermodynamic parameters
 K BT of the system change with time. Types of these
=
2πd 2 P thermodynamic process are Isothermal, Adiabatic, Isobaric
NOTE: and Isochoric.
Mean free path depends inversely on the number density Quasi Static Process: A thermodynamic process which is
and size of the molecule. infinitely slow is called as quasi-static process.
• In quasi static process, system undergoes change so
4. Thermodynamics slowly, that at every instant, system is in equilibrium,
both thermal and mechanical, with the surroundings.
4.1 Introduction to Thermodynamics • Quasi-static process is an idealised process. We
It is the study of interrelations between heat and other forms generally assume all the processes to be quasistatic
of energy unless stated.
Indicator or P-V, Diagram: A graph between pressure and
Thermodynamic System: A collection of large number of
volume of a gas under thermodynamic operation is called P-
molecules of matter (solid, liquid or gas) which are so
V. diagram.
arranged that these possess certain values of pressure,
volume and temperature forms a thermodynamic system.
• The parameters pressure, volume, temperature,
internal energy etc which determine the state or
condition of system are called thermodynamic state
variables.
• In thermodynamics we deal with the thermodynamic Fig 15.8
systems as a whole and study the interaction of heat a → Isobaric
and energy during the change of one thermodynamic b → Isothermal
state to another. c → Adiabatic
Thermal Equilibrium d → Isochoric
The term ‘equilibrium’ in thermodynamics implies the state Area under P – V diagram gives us work done by a gas.
when all the macroscopic variables characterising the
system (P, V, T, mass etc) do not change with time.
4.3 Heat, Work Done and Internal
• Two systems when in contact with each other come
to thermal equilibrium when their temperatures Energy of Gas
become same. Internal Energy is the energy possessed by any system due
• Based on this is zeroth law of thermodynamics. to its molecular K.E. and molecular P.E. Here K.E and PE
According to zeroth law, when the thermodynamic are with respect to centre of mass frame. This internal
systems A and B are separately in thermal energy depends entirely on state and hence it is a state
equilibrium with a third thermodynamic system C, variable. For a real gases internal energy is only by virtue of
then the systems A and B are in thermal equilibrium its molecular motion.
with each other also. nfRT
U= for ideal gases where
4.2 Basic Terms of Thermodynamics 2
State Variables: P, V, T, no. of moles and internal energy n = number of moles
They can be extensive or intestive. f = Degree of freedom
Equation of State: The equation which connects the R = Universal Gas Constant
pressure (P), the volume (V) and absolute temperature (T) of T = Temperature in Kelvin
a gas is called the equation of state. Internal Energy can be change either by giving heat energy
PV = constant (Boyle’s law) or by performing some work.
V
= cons tan t (Charle’s law)
T
Heat Energy is the energy transformed to or from the system First law of thermodynamics states that energy can neither
because of the difference in temperatures by conduction, be created nor be destroyed. It can be only transformed from
convection or radiation. one form to another.
The energy that is transferred from one system to another by Mathematically: ∆Q = ∆U + ∆W
force moving its point of application in its own direction is
Sign Conventions:
called work.
• When heat is supplied to the system, then ∆Q is
positive and when heat is withdrawn from the
system, ∆Q is negative.
• When a gas expands, work done by the gas is
positive and when a gas contracts then work is
negative
• ∆U is positive, when temperature rises and ∆U is
Fig 15.9 negative, when temperature falls.
Work done by the system = ∫ F dx Remember here we always take work done by the
system.
= ∫ Ps Adx
5.2 Mayer’s Formula
= ∫ Ps dV
 dQ 
CP =  
Where Ps is the Pressure of system on the piston. This work  dT  P
done by system is positive if the system expands and it is
negative if the system contracts. Or, dQ = CP dT
• Work and Heat are path functions whereas internal From equation
energy is a state function.
dQ
= CP dT
= dU + PdV
• Heat and work are two different terms through they
might look same. Again, from equation (2) substituting
5. First Law of dU = C V dT
C=
P dT C V dT + PdV... ( 4 )
Thermodynamics
For one mole of gas ( µ =1) , from ideal gas equation,
The first law of thermodynamics is a thermodynamics-
adapted version of the law of conservation of energy. In PV = RdT
principle, the conservation law asserts that an isolated PdV = RdT
system's total energy remains constant; energy can be From equations
transferred from one form to another, but it cannot be
created or destroyed. ( CP − CV ) dT =
RdT
The first law states that the change in internal energy of the Or, C P − C V =
R
system ( ∆U system) is equal to the difference between the
Where CP is the Specific heat at constant pressure and C V is
heat provided to the system (Q) and the work (W) done by
the system on its surroundings in a closed system (i.e., there the specific heat at constant volume.
is no transfer of matter into or out of the system).
∆U system =
Q−W
5.1 Relation of Heat and Internal

Energy
Let ∆Q = Heat supplied to the system by the surroundings
∆W = Work done by the system on the surroundings
∆U = Change in internal energy of the system.
Therefore, ( pi Vi , Ti ) = ( p f , Vf , Tf )
6. Cyclic and Non-Cyclic
Internal energy is a state function which only depends on
Processes temperature (in case of an ideal gas).
Ti = Tf
6.1 Introduction to Cyclic and Non-
⇒ Ui =
Uf
Cyclic Processes
Or, ∆U net =
0
Cyclic Process: A cyclic process is one in which the system
returns to its initial stage after undergoing a series of If there are three process in a cyclic abc, then
changes. ∆U ab + ∆U bc + ∆U ca = 0
Indicator Diagram
From first law of thermodynamics,
Q= W + ∆U,if ∆U net= 0, then
Q net = Wnet
Or, Qab + Q bc + Qca = Wab + Wbc + Wca
Further, Wnet = area under P-V diagram. For example,

Wnet = + area of triangle ‘abc’ in the shown diagram. Cycle
Fig 15.10 is clockwise. So, work done will be positive.
∆U = 0 6.3 Reversible and Irreversible
W = Area enclosed by the loop. Processes
Q = W as per First Law of thermodynamics Reversible Process: A reversible process is the process
Here W is positive if the cycle is clockwise and it is where it never occurs; on the contrary the irreversible
negative if the cyclic is anti clockwise. process is the one which can be said to be the natural
Non-Cyclic Process: In Non-cyclic process the series of process and cannot be reversed.
changes involved do not return the system back to its initial Thermodynamics is the example of the reversible process.
state. Here the system and the surroundings return to the same
i.e., change in internal energy for cyclic process is zero and stage at the end of the process.
also ∆U ∝ ∆T ⇒ ∆T =0
i.e., temperature of system remains constant. i.e, heat NOTE:
supplied is equal to the work done by the system. A Reversible process takes two processes into account
while in the first process participants convert into another
6.2 Work done and Heat exchange in form, tin the case of this second process the reverse
Cyclic Processes reaction takes space where the resultants get back to the
initial state.
In cyclic process, initial and final points are same.
Types of reversible processes: There are two types of
reversible processes. The internally reversible process and
the external reversible process. Internal reversible process
involves no irreversibility within the system boundaries.
This states that the system undergoes the stage of
equilibrium but when it returns it again passes through the
same stage.
• In the externally reversible process there are no
irreversibility’s
Fig 15.11
Irreversible Process: an irreversible process is a naturally v2

nRT
occurring phenomenon, which does not go back to its = ∫
v2
V
dV [Using PV = nRT]
original state.
Factors behind Irreversibility of process: V2
= nRT ln
An irreversible process can be said to be the V1
thermodynamics process that departs equilibrium. When we
talk in terms of pressure, we can say that it occurs when the Since P1V1 = P2 V2
pressure of the system changes and the volume does not P 
have time to reach equilibrium. Therefore, W = nRT ln  1 
The system and the surrounding does not come back to the  P2 
original state even after the completion of the process in the First Law of Thermodynamics
spontaneous process. Q =∆U + W
Hence, The Reversible Nature of a Process is Dependent on
Multiple Factors Such as non-elasticity, friction, viscosity, V2
⇒Q=
nRT ln
electrical resistance etc. V1
NOTE:
7. Thermodynamic Processes All the heat supplied is used entirely to do work against
external surroundings. If heat is supplied then the gas
7.1 Isothermal Process expands and if heat is withdrawn then the gas contracts.
Description: A thermodynamic process in which Practical Examples:
temperature remains constant
Melting of ice at 0°C
Condition: The walls of the container must be perfectly
conducting to allow free exchange of heat between gas and Boiling of water at 100°C
its surroundings. 7.2 Adiabatic Process
The process of compression or expansion should be slow so
Description: When there is no heat exchange with
as to provide time for exchange of heat.
surroundings.
These both conditions are perfectly ideal.
Conditions: The walls of the container must be perfectly
Equation of State: T = Constant or PV = Constant non-conducting in order to prevent any exchange of heat
Indicator Diagram: between the gas and its surroundings.
The process of compression or expansion should be rapid,
and so, there is no time for the exchange of heat.
These conditions are again ideal condition and are hard to
obtain
Equation of State:
PV γ = constant
Fig 15.12
or TV γ −1 = constant
dP
Slope of P – V curve is at any point. γ
dV
or PT 1−γ = constant
PV = nRT
Indicator Diagram
⇒ ( dP ) V + P ( dV ) =
0
dP P
⇒ =
−
dV V
∆U = 0 (Temperature remains constant)
v2
W= ∫ P dV
v2
g
Fig 15.13
Slope of adiabatic curve =

dP 7.3 Isochoric Process
dV Description: Volume remains constant
PV γ = const Condition: A gas being heated or cooled inside a rigid
container.
⇒ PγV γ −1 ( dv ) + ( dP ) Vγ =0 P
Equation of State: V = constant or = constant
T
dP −γP
⇒ =
dV V
As shown in graph adiabatic curve is steeper than isothermal
curve.
nfRdT nR ( T2 − T1 ) P2 V2 − P1V1
∆U
= = =
2 γ −1 γ −1 Fig 15.14
Work Done by Gas: If a gas adiabatically expands from V1
nfR∆T
to V2 ∆U =
2
v2
Work
W= ∫ P ( dv )
v2 W = 0 as gas does not expands
v2
First Law of thermodynamics
dV Q =∆U + W
= cons tan t ∫ γ
v2 V nfR∆T
⇒Q=
 PV γ = cons tan t  2

cons tan t 
 NOTE:
⇒ P =
 Vγ  Since we have studied earlier, that when heat is supplied
2 V to any process. Its temperature increases according to
 V −γ +1  cons tan t  1 1  relation.
= cons tan
= t×   γ −1 − γ −1 
 1 − γ  V1 1 − γ V
 2 V1 
Q
= nC∆T
Also we know
Q
P=
1 V1
γ
P= γ
2 V2 cons tan t ⇒C= .... (1)
n∆T
1  P2 V2γ P1V1γ  Now this C depends upon external conditions for gases.
⇒  −  ∆Q 
1 − γ  V2γ −1 V1γ −1  Here it is referred as ( 2)
n∆T  v
P2 V2 − P1V1 nR ( T1 − T2 ) i.e. Molar heat capacity at constant volume Comparing
=W =
γ −1 γ −1 equation 1 and 2
First Law of Thermodynamics fR
We get C v = ... ( 3)
Q =∆U + W 2
Substituting the values

7.4 Isobaric Process
Description: When pressure remains constant
We get Q = 0
Condition: When in one container, the piston is free to move
NOTE: and is not connected by any agent.
If gas expands adiabatically then its temperature Equation of State: P = constant
decreases and vice versa. V
= cons tan t
Practical Example T
• Propagation of sound waves in the form of Indicator Diagram:
compression and rarefaction.
• Sudden bursting of a cycle tube.
NOTE:
c P , c v means Molar heat Capacity and CP , CV means
specific heat capacity
=CV Mc = V and C P Mc P where M stands for molar mass
Fig 15.15 of any sample.
R
cp − c v =
nfR∆T M
∆U = same as always
2
7.5 Melting Process
W= ∫ PdV= P∆V (as pressure is constant)
In any case first law is always applicable
=PV2 − PV1 =nR∆T Q = mLf as learned earlier.
First Law of Thermodynamics W=0
Q =∆U + W (In the change of state from solid to liquid we ignore any
nfR∆T expansion or contraction as it is very small)
Q
⇒= + nR∆T According to first law of thermodynamics
2
 fR 
∆U = Q − W
⇒Q = n  + R  ∆T ... ( 4 )
 2  ∆U =mLf
Similar to Cv, we can define molar heat capacity at constant NOTE:
pressure The heat given during melting is used in increasing the
Q  internal energy of any substance
⇒ Cp =  ... ( 5 )
n∆T  p
7.6 Boiling Process
From equation 4 and 5
Here, Q = mL v
fR
We get C=p + R ... ( 6 ) W P [ V2 − V1 ]
=
2
From equation 3 and 6 (Pressure is constant during boiling and it is equal to
fR atmosphere pressure)
Replacing by Cv we get ⇒ ∆U= Q − W
2
V=p Cv + R ∆U= mL v − P ( V2 − V1 )
which is also called Mayer’s Relation. 7.7 Polytropic Process
Similar to molar specific heat at constant pressure and molar
A polytropic process is a thermodynamic process that obeys
specific heat at constant volume, we can define molar specific
the relation:
heat for any process.
pv n = C
For example:
Cadiabatic = 0 Where p is the pressure, V is volume, n is the polytropic
index, and C is a constant. The polytropic process equation
Cisothermal = ∞
can describe multiple expansion and compression processes
Basically gas does not possess a unique specific heat. Mainly which include heat transfer.
we have Cp and C v . Particular Cases:
• Specific Heat at Constant Volume: It is defined as Some specific values of n correspond to particular cases:
the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of n = 0 for an isobaric process,
1g of a gas through 1C°, when its volume is kept n = +∞ for an isochoric process
constant. It is denoted as CV. In addition, when the ideal gas law applies:
• Specific Heat at Constant Pressure: It is defined as n = 1 for an isothermal process,
the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of n = γ for an isentropic process.
1g of a gas through 1°C keeping its pressure constant. Where γ is the ratio of the heat capacity at constant pressure
It is denoted as Cp. ( CP ) to heat capacity at constant volume ( Cv ) .
7.8 Free-Expansion First Law of Thermodynamics

⸪ Energy is always conserved
A process in which gas is allowed to expand in vacuum and
this happens so quickly that no heat leaves or enters the ⇒ Q1 = W + Q 2
system this type of process is also known as adiabatic process 8.1 Thermal Efficiency
and because this happens so fast the gas does not cross the Thermal Efficiency of a heat engine is defined of the ratio of
system boundaries, hence no work is done by the system or net work done per cycle by the engine to the total amount of
on the system, then the expansion is called the free expansion. heat absorbed per cycle by the working substance from the
We can for the equate free expansion into source.
U f − U i =Q − W W
It is denoted by η = ... (1)
Now, as know heat is exchange and no work is done Q1
Q = 0 and W = 0 i.e., U f = U i Using equation 1 and 2 we get
Further, as we see there is no change in the internal energy, Q
Hence, the temperature remains constant. η = 1− 2 ... ( 2 )
Q1
7.9 Limitation of First Law of Ideally engines should have efficiency = 1
Thermodynamics NOTE:
• The first law does not indicate the direction in which The mechanism of conversion of heat into work vanes for
the change can occur. different heat engines.
• The first law gives no idea about the extent of change. The system heated by an external furnace, as in a steam
• The first law of thermodynamics gives no information engine. Such engines are called as external combustion
about the source of heat. i.e. whether it is a hot or a engine.
cold body. The system in which heat is produced by burning the fuel
inside the main body of the engine is called as Internal
8. Heat Engine Combustion Engine.
It is a device that converts heat energy into mechanical 9. Carnot Cycle

energy.
Key Elements: Sadi Carnot devised on ideal cycle of operation for a heat
• A source of heat at higher temperature engine called as carnot cycle.

• A working substance Engine used for realising this ideal cycle is called as carnot
• A sink of heat at lower temperature. heat engine.
Working:
The essential parts of an Ideal heat engine are shown in
• The working substance goes through a cycle
figure.
consisting of several processes.
• In some processes it absorbs a total amount of heat
Q1 from the source at temperature T1.
• In some processes it rejects a total amount of heat Q2
to the sink at some lower temperature T2.
• The work done by the system in a cycle is transferred
to the environment via some arrangement.
Schematic Diagram
Fig 15.17
• Source of heat: The source is maintained at a fixed
higher temperature T1, from which the working
substance draws heat. The source is supposed to
possess infinite thermal capacity and as such any
amount of heat can be drawn from it without
Fig 15.16 changing its temperature.
• Sink of heat: The sink is maintained at a fixed lower w1 → Work done by gas
temperature T2, to which any amount of heat can be • Adiabatic Expansion: The cylinder is now removed
rejected by the working substance. It has also infinite from source and is placed on the perfectly insulating
thermal capacity and as such its temperature remains pad. The gas is allowed to expand further from B (P2,
constant at T2, even when any amount of heat is V2) to C (P3, V3). Since the gas is thermally insulated
rejected to it. from all sides, therefore the processes is adiabatic
• Working substance: A perfect gas acts as the R (T − T )
working substance. It is contained in a cylinder with q 2 = 0 ∆U 2 = 2 1
γ −1
non-conducting sides but having a perfectly
R ( T1 − T2 )
conducting-base. This cylinder is fitted with perfectly =W2 = Area BCNMB
non-conducting and frictionless piston. γ −1
• Apart from these essential parts, there is a perfectly • Isothermal Compression: The cylinder is now
insulating stand or pad on which the cylinder can be removed from the insulating pad and is placed on the
placed. It would isolate the working substance sink at a temperature T2. The piston is moved slowly
completely from the surroundings. Hence, the gas so that the gas is compressed until is pressure is P4
can undergo adiabatic changes. and volume is V4.
The Carnot cycle consists of the following four ∆U 3 = 0
stages: V
W3 =
−RT2 ln 4 =
−Area CDLNC
• Isothermal expansion V3
• Adiabatic expansion
V4
• Isothermal compression q 3 = −RT2 ln
V3
• Adiabatic compression
The cycle is carried out with the help of the Carnot engine q3 = Heat absorbed in this process
as detailed below: W3 = Work done by gas
• Adiabatic Compression: The cylinder is again placed
on the insulating pad, such that the process remains
adiabatic. Here the gas is further compressed to its
initial P1 and V1.
R ( T − T2 )
∆U 4 = 1
γ −1
−R ( T1 − T2 )
W4 = = −area DAKLD
γ −1
q4 = 0
Fig 15.18
Consider one gram mole of an ideal gas enclosed in the W4 = work done by the gas
cylinder. Let V1, P1, T1 be the initial volume, pressure and 9.1 Analysis of Carnot Cycle
temperature of the gas. The initial state of the gas is Total work done by the engine per cycle.
represented by the point A on P−V. diagram, We shall = W1 + W2 + W3 + W4
assume that all the four processes are quasi-static and
= W1 + W3
dissipative, the two conditions for their reversibility.
Steps V2 V
=W RT1 ln − RT2 ln 4
• Isothermal Expansion: The cylinder is placed on V1 V3
the source and gas is allowed to expand by slow Q1 = Total heat absorbed = q1
outward motion of piston. Since base is perfectly V
= RT1 ln 2
conducting therefore the process is isothermal. V1
Now
Q2 = Total heat released = −q3
∆U1 = 0
[q3 = Heat absorbed and not heat released]
V2 V
q1 W
= =1 RT1 ln . = Area ABMKA = RT2 ln 3
V1 V4
q1 → Heat absorbed by gas
We can see that for heat engine

W= Q1 − Q 2
= Area under ABCDA
9.2 Efficiency of Carnot Engine
W Q
η= = 1− 2
Q1 Q1
Now steps 2 is adiabatic and step 4 is also adiabatic Fig 15.19
γ −1 γ −1
⇒ T1V 2 T2 V
= 3 Step - 4: Arrange R, such that it returns same heat Q, to the
and T1V γ −1
= T2 Vγ −1 source, taking Q2 from the sink and requiring work W = Q1 –
1 4
Q2 to be done on it.
V2 V3
⇒ = ... ( 21)
V1 V4 Step - 5: Suppose ηR < ηI (i.e.) If R were to act as an engine
From equation 19, 20 and 21 we get it would give less work output than that of I (i.e.) W < W1 for
Q1 T1 a given Q1 and Q1 – W > Q1 – W1
=
Q 2 T2 Step - 6: In totality, the I-R system extracts heat (Q1 − W) −
T (Q1 − W1) = W1 − W and delivers same amount of work in
∴ n Carnot 1− 2
=
T1 one cycle, without any change in source or anywhere else.
This is against second Law of Thermodynamics. (Kelvin -
• ηCarnot engine − depends only upon source temperature
Planck statement of second law of thermodynamics)
and sink temperature.
• 1 only when T2 = 0 K or T1 = ∞ which is
ηCarnot engine = Hence the assertion η1 > ηR is wrong.
impossible to attain. Similar argument can be put up for the second statement of
• If T2= T1 ⇒ η= 0 ⇒ Heat cannot be converted to Carnot theorem, (i.e) Carnot efficiency is independent of
mechanical energy unless there is some difference working substance.
between the temperature of source and sink. ∴ We use ideal gas for calculating but the relation.
9.3 Carnot Theorem
Q1 T1
Statement: Carnot theorem states that all reversible engines = will always hold true for any working substance
Q 2 T2
working between same two temperatures have same
efficiency irrespective of the nature of working substance. used in a Carnot engine.
The source and the sink works between the same
temperature.
9.4 Second Law of Thermodynamics
• Working between two given temperatures, T1 of hot The second law of thermodynamics states that the heat energy
reservoir (the source) and T2 of cold reservoir (the cannot transfer from a body at a lower temperature to a body
sink), no engine can have efficiency more than that at a higher temperature without the addition of energy.
of the Carnot engine.
There are number of ways in which this law can be stated.
• The efficiency of the Carnot engine is independent of
Though all the statements are the same in their contents, the
the nature of the working substance.
following two are significant.
Engine used for realizing this ideal cycle is called as
Carnot heat engine. Kelvin Planck Statement: No process is possible whose sole
Proof: result is the absorption of heat from a reservoir and the
Step - 1: Imagine a reversible engine R and an irreversible complete conversion of the heat into work.
engine-I working between the same source (hot reservoir T1) Clausius Statement: No process is possible whose sole result
and sink (cold reservoir T2). is the transfer of heat from a colder object to a hotter object.
Step - 2: Couple two engines such that I acts like heat
engine and R acts like refrigerator. Significance: 100% efficiency in heat engines or infinite CoP
Step - 3: Let engine I absorb Q1 heat from the source deliver in refrigerators is not possible.
work W1 and release the balance Q1 − W1 to the sink in one
cycle.
10. Refrigeration 10.1 Coefficient of Performance

Coefficient of Performance of refrigerator (β) is defined as
A refrigerator or heat pump is a device used for cooling the ratio of quantity of heat removed per cycle from contents
things. of the refrigerator (Q2) to the energy spent per cycle (W) to
Key Elements: remove this heat.
• A cold reservoir at temperature T2. Q
β= 2 ... ( 2 )
• A working substance. W
• A hot reservoir at temperature T1. Using equation 1 and 2 we get
Working Q2
β=
• The working substance goes through a cycle Q1 − Q 2
consisting of several process. Ideally heat pumps should have β = ∞
• A sudden expansion of the gas from high to low
pressure which cools it and converts it into a vapour-
liquid mixture.
• Absorption by the cold fluid of heat from the region to
be cooled, converting it into vapour.
• Heating up of the vapour due to external work done on
the working substance.
• Release of heat by the vapour to the surroundings
bringing it to the initial state and completing the cycle.
Schematic Diagram.
Fig 15.20
First Law of Thermodynamics

Q2 + W =
Q1 ... (1)
required to describe completely the position and

NCERT Corner configuration of the system.
• Absolute zero: Absolute zero of a temperature may
(Some Important Points to remember) be defined as that temperature at which the root mean
• The molecules of a gas are in a state of incessant square velocity of the gas molecule reduces to zero.
random motion. They move in all directions with • Law of Equipartition of Energy: According to this
different speeds., (of the order of 500 m/s) and obey law, for any dynamical system in thermal
Newton’s laws of motion. equilibrium, the total energy is distributed equally
• The molecules do not exert any force of attraction or amongst all the degrees of freedom, and the energy
repulsion on each other, except during collision. associated with each molecule per degree of freedom
• A molecule moves along a straight line between two 1
is k B T, where kB is Boltzman constant, and T is
successive collisions and the average straight 2
distance covered between two successive collisions is temperature of the system.
called the mean free path of the molecules. • Mean Free Path: The path traversed by a molecule
• Pressure exerted by an ideal gas is numerically equal between two successive collisions with other
to two third of mean kinetic energy molecule is called the mean free path
• Ideal Gas: That gas which strictly obeys the gas  Total distance travelled by a molecule
laws, (such as Boyle’s Law, Charles’, Gay Lussac’s l=
No. of collisions it makes with other molecules
Law etc.)
• Mean free path depends inversely on the number
• Real Gas: All gases are referred to as real Gases. All
density and size of the molecule.
real gas near the ideal gas behavior at low pressures
• Thermodynamic System: A collection of large
and temperatures high enough, where they cannot be
number of molecules of matter (solid, liquid or gas)
liquified
which are so arranged that these possess certain
• Gay Lussac’s Law/Boyle’s Law: PV = constant for
values of pressure, volume and temperature forms a
given mass of gas at constant temperature, which is
thermodynamic system.
also called Boyle’s Law.
• The parameters pressure, volume, temperature,
• Charle’s Law: PV ∝ T, If P is constant, V ∝ T,
internal energy etc which determine the state or
which is the Charles’ Law condition of system are called thermodynamic state
• Constant Volume Law: PV ∝ T , If V is constant, variables.
P ∝ T, which the constant volume law. • In thermodynamics we deal with the thermodynamic
• Avogadro’s Law: Equal volumes of all ideal gases systems as a whole and study the interaction of heat
existing under the same conditions of temperature and energy during the change of one thermodynamic
and pressure contain equal number of molecules state to another.
which is Avogadro’s Law or hypothesis. • Thermal Equilibrium: Two systems when in
• Ideal Gas Equation: PV = Nk B T which is the ideal contact with each other come to thermal equilibrium
gas equation when their temperatures become same.
• Speed of Gas Molecules: • Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics: According to
• In solids: Atoms are tightly packed, interatomic zeroth law, when the thermodynamic systems A and
spacing about 1A°. Interatomic force of attraction are B are separately in thermal equilibrium with a third
strong. thermodynamic system C, then the systems A and B
• In liquids: Atoms are not as rigidly fixed as in are in thermal equilibrium with each other also.
solids. Interatomic spacing is about the same 2Å. • Thermodynamic Process: A thermodynamic
Interatomic force a attraction are relative weaker. process is said to take place when some changes
• In Gases: Atoms are very free. Inter atomic spacing occur in the state of a thermodynamic system, i.e.,
is about tens of Angstroms. Interatomic forces are the thermodynamic parameters of the system change
much weaker in gases than both in solids and liquids. with time. Types of these thermodynamic process are
• Degrees of Freedom: The number of degrees of Isothermal, Adiabatic, Isobaric and Isochoric.
freedom of a dynamical system is defined as the total • Quasi Static Process: A thermodynamic process
number of co-ordinates or independent quantities which is infinitely slow is called as quasi-static
process.
• Quasi-static process is an idealised process. We • Carnot Theorem: Carnot theorem states that all
generally assume all the processes to be quasistatic reversible engines working between same two
unless stated. temperatures have same efficiency irrespective of the
• First Law of Thermodynamics: The first law states nature of working substance. The source and the sink
that the change in internal energy of the system ( ∆U works between the same temperature.
system) is equal to the difference between the heat • Second Law of Thermodynamics: The second law
provided to the system (Q) and the work (W) done by of thermodynamics states that the heat energy cannot
the system on its surroundings in a closed system transfer from a body at a lower temperature to a body
(i.e., there is no transfer of matter into or out of the at a higher temperature without the addition of energy.
system). ∆U system = Q−W • Coefficient of Performance: Coefficient of
• Cyclic Process: A cyclic process is one in which the Performance of refrigerator (β) is defined as the ratio
system returns to its initial stage after undergoing a of quantity of heat removed per cycle from contents of
series of changes. the refrigerator (Q2) to the energy spent per cycle (W)
to remove this heat.
• Non-Cyclic Process: In Non-cyclic process the
series of changes involved do not return the system
back to its initial state.
• Isothermal Process: A thermodynamic process in
which temperature remains constant
• Adiabatic Process: There is no heat exchange with
surroundings.
• Isochoric Process: Volume remains constant and the
gas should be heated or cooled inside a rigid
container.
• Isobaric Process: When pressure remains constant
and When it is in container, the piston should be free
to move and is should not be connected by any agent.
• Specific Heat at Constant Volume: It is defined as
the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of
1g of a gas through 1C°, when its volume is kept
constant. It is denoted as CV.
• Specific Heat at Constant Pressure: It is defined as
the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of
1g of a gas through 1°C keeping its pressure constant.
It is denoted as Cp.
• Thermal Efficiency: Thermal Efficiency of a heat
engine is defined of the ratio of net work done per
cycle by the engine to the total amount of heat
absorbed per cycle by the working substance from the
source.
W
It is denoted by η =
Q1
• External Combustion Engine: The system heated by
an external furnace, as in a steam engine. Such engines
are called as external combustion engine.
• Internal Combustion Engine: The system in which
heat is produced by burning the fuel inside the main
body of the engine is called as Internal Combustion
Engine.

Physics Class11th All Chapters (Theory)

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Physics

NEET Class 11th

Units and Measurements

1.1 Type of Physical Quantities

1.4 Derived Physical Quantities

Fig. 1.4 1.9 System of Units

1.10 The SI System of Units

If we measure a physical quantity in more than one unit then

1.11 Fundamental Units: A

Amount of Substance Mole mol

Luminous Intensity Candela Cd

1.12 Supplementary Units: Temperature [K]

Amount of substance [mol]

Luminous intensity [cd]

Solid angle Steradian sr 2.1 Writing Dimensions of Physical

Fig. 1.7  Dimension of acceleration =  LT

2.6 Deducing Relation among the

Rule 2: If the last significant digit(d) > 5, then increase the

• If someone have a habit of taking measurements always

4.4 Systematic Errors

Fig. 1.14 4.7 Calculation of Errors

4.8 Absolute Errors

4.9 Relative Errors

Fig. 1.18 4.15 Errors of a Multiplication or

4.16 Error of a Measured Quantity

• If D > 0, Two distinct real roots

• If D = 0, Equal and real roots. Then we will get only one

(ii) Straight line graph

Fig. 1.26 (vi) Parabola graph

(iii) Straight line graph

Equation of graph: x = −ky (xi) Ellipse graph

(vii) Parabola graph

(viii) Parabola graph (xii) Exponential Decay graph

Equation of graph: y = −kx

(xiii) sin graph:

Equation of graph: xy = cons tan t

1 at 90, 450 etc. −1 at 270, 630 etc

(xiv) cos graph:

Fig. 1.38 Fig. 1.40

10. Trigonometry and

10.1 Angle 10.2 Trigonometrical Ratios (or T ratios)

Suppose that it revolves in anticlockwise direction starting Fig. 1.43

Table: The T-ratios of a few standard angles ranging from 0 to 360

10.3 Four Quadrants and ASTC Rule  n 

10.4 Trigonometrical Ratios of General tan ( −) = − tan 

10.6 Range of Trigonometric Functions

Fig. 1.45 Fig. 1.46

P 2. Volume of a cube = (side)3

11.Basic Geometry 12.Scalars and Vectors

• Vectors can be defined in two dimensional or three-

12.4 Properties of Vectors

12.6 Zero Vector:

12.7 Unit Vector: b |b | =1  b → j

12.12 Collinear Vectors:

12.13 Displacement Vector:

12.15 Multiplication of Vectors with

12.9 Co-initial Vector:

Now let us understand visually the scalar multiplication of the

The vectors AB and AC are called co-initial vectors as they

12.10 Like and Unlike Vectors: Fig. 1.56

• Unit vector in the direction of is â

Fig. 1.62 Fig. 1.65