Volume 2 Part 3

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LAND AND WATER CONSERVATION ENGINEERING
MARVIN M. CINENSE, Ph.D.

Department Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering
College of Engineering, Central Luzon State University
THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE OR WATER CYCLE
The hydrologic cycle describes the continuous movement of water above, on, and below the surface
of the Earth. The water on the Earth’s surface—surface water—occurs as streams, lakes, and
wetlands, as well as bays and oceans. Surface water also includes the solid forms of water—snow
and ice. The water below the surface of the Earth primarily is ground water, but it also includes
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soil water.
The hydrologic cycle commonly is portrayed by a very simplified diagram that shows only major
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transfers of water between continents and oceans. However, for understanding hydrologic
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processes and managing water resources, the hydrologic cycle needs to be viewed at a wide range
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of scales and as having a great deal of variability in time and space. Precipitation, which is the
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source of virtually all freshwater in the hydrologic cycle, falls nearly everywhere, but its distribution
is highly variable. Similarly, evaporation and transpiration return water to the atmosphere nearly
everywhere, but evaporation and transpiration rates vary considerably according to climatic
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conditions. As a result, much of the precipitation never reaches the oceans as surface and
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subsurface runoff before the water is returned to the atmosphere. The relative magnitudes of the
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individual components of the hydrologic cycle, such as evapotranspiration, may differ significantly
even at small scales, as between an agricultural field and a nearby woodland.
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Figure 1. The hydrologic cycle
Processes in Hydrologic Cycle
The hydrologic cycle is used to model the storage and movement of water between the biosphere,
atmosphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere. Water is stored in the following reservoirs: atmosphere,
oceans, lakes, rivers, glaciers, soils, snowfields, and groundwater. It moves from one reservoir to
another by processes like: evaporation, condensation, precipitation, deposition, runoff, infiltration,
sublimation, transpiration, and groundwater flow.
CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Land and Water Conservation Engineering
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1. Evaporation – is a gradual process in which something is changed from liquid to gas

2. Condensation – is a process by which vapor lose heat and changes into a liquid
3. Precipitation – rain, snow, or hails, all of which are formed by condensation of moisture
in the atmosphere and fall to the ground.
4. Percolation - to make a liquid or gas pass through a porous substance
5. Runoff – water not absorbed by the soil and flows into surface waters
6. Infiltration – movement of water through the soil surface into the soil
7. Sublimation - a chemical process in which a solid substance is converted into a gas
directly, without passing through an intermediate liquid phase.
8. Transpiration - biological process in which water evaporates from a plant, especially
through tiny openings called stomata on the surfaces of leaves.
9. Advection - the horizontal transfer of a property such as heat, caused by air movement
10. Groundwater flow – movement of water underneath the soil surface from higher to
lower elevation or pressure.
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1. Precipitation
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Water evaporates into the air from every water surface on Earth and from living things. This water
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eventually returns to the surface as precipitation. Precipitation is any form of water that falls from
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clouds and reaches Earth’s surface. The formation of precipitation begins with the condensation of
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water vapor to form clouds when the air is cooled to its dew point by mixing with colder air (frontal
precipitation), ascending due to atmospheric instability ( convective precipitation), being forced to
rise due to air movement over high ground (orographic precipitation).
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Precipitation always comes from clouds. But not all clouds produce precipitation. For precipitation
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to occur, cloud droplets or ice crystals must grow heavy enough to fall through the air. One way
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that cloud droplets grow is by colliding and combining with other cloud droplets. As the droplets
grow larger, they fall faster and collect more and more small droplets. Finally, the droplets become
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heavy enough to fall out of the cloud as raindrops.
Forms of Precipitation:
• Drizzle or mist
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• Rain
• Glaze
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• Rime
• Snow
• Snow pellets
• Hail
• Ice pellets
Types of Precipitation
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• Convective precipitation – is brought about by heating of the air at the interface of the
ground and is typical of the tropics.
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Figure 2. Convective precipitation
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• Orographic precipitation – results from the mechanical lifting of moist horizontal air
currents over natural barriers such as mountain ranges.
Figure 3. Orographic precipitation
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• Frontal / Cyclonic precipitation – is associated with the movement of air masses from
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high pressure regions to low pressure regions created by the unequal heating of the earth’s
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surface.
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Figure 4. Frontal precipitation

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Figure 5 illustrates the patterns of wind flow, surface pressure, fronts, and zones of
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precipitation associated with cyclonic precipitation in the Northern Hemisphere. Around the
low pressure (L), winds blow counterclockwise and inwards. The direction of air flow would
be in the opposite direction in the Southern Hemisphere (clockwise but still inward).
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Figure 5. Wind patterns
Measurement of Precipitation
Precipitation is measured as the amount of water that reaches horizontal ground or the horizontal
ground projection plane of the earth’s surface, and is expressed as a vertical depth of water or the
water equivalent of solid precipitation.
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Rain gauges. Rain, the most common form of precipitation, is probably the easiest to measure.
The most common instruments used to measure rain are (1) the standard rain gauge, which is
read directly, and (2) the tipping bucket gauge and weighing gauge, both of which record the
amount of rain.
Snow gauges. Snow can be measured by gauges or by measuring snow depth on the ground.
The water equivalent of snow is on average: 1 cm of snow = 1 mm of water.
Radar measurement. Makes possible the detection of hurricanes, tornadoes, and other severe
storms over distances of several hundred kilometers.
Satellite estimates. Indirect method of measuring precipitation where estimates are based on
relating brightness of cloud photographs to rainfall intensities.
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Figure 6. Rain gauges
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Figure 7. Automatic weather station
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Figure 8. Doppler radar
Sources of Errors in Measurement
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• Instrument Errors - A well-adjusted siphon rain gauge has an accuracy of 0.2 mm for
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precipitation of up to 20 mm per hour. A tipping bucket rain gauge has an accuracy of 0.5 mm
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for precipitation of up to 20 mm per hour, but may have errors of up to 3% for stronger
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precipitation.
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• Errors from Wetting - If the inner wall of the receptacle and the funnel surface are not
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sufficiently water-repellent, rainwater adheres to them and does not reach the storage bottle or
the tipping bucket, thereby causing errors.
• Errors from Evaporation - Water remaining in the tipping bucket and subsequently
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evaporating causes errors.
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• Errors from the Lack of a Windshield - As the amount of weak precipitation entering the
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receptacle is reduced by wind, the lack of a windshield causes significant errors.
• Errors Related to Tipping Bucket Rain Gauges in Heavy Rain - In tipping bucket rain
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gauges, rainwater enters the bucket even when it in a tipping state, and water that is drained
without being measured causes errors. These errors increase with heavier precipitation, and the
amount measured becomes less than the actual amount.
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Agrometeorological Service in the Philippines

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Philippine agriculture is dependent on climate and weather, and as such, the Philippine
Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAG-ASA) is mandated to
continuously render/contribute meteorological services supportive of the program thrusts of the
Philippine government towards self-sufficiency in food and the attainment of a progressive and
sustained economic growth without jeopardizing environmental safety.
Agrometeorological services in the country are delivered not only at the farm operation level but
also at the strategic level where planning of agricultural operations, both short- and longterm, are
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included.
PAGASA Network of Observing Stations

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The PAG-ASA operates a network of weather stations all over the country. Synoptic,
agrometeorological, rainfall, climatological, upper-air, and radar stations, located all over the
country, make up the entire network of observing stations. To cater to the needs of the agriculture
sector, there are around twenty agrometeorological stations that the PAGASA operates in
collaboration with state colleges and universities, government research institutions, and private
entities. These operational stations provide the necessary meteorological and agrometeorological
data required in the formulation of advisories, bulletins, warnings, and other weather and climate-
related information. Observed data are transmitted to the central office and other users through
single side-band radio circuits and telephone/fax lines.
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Weather Maps
A weather map displays various meteorological features across a particular area at a particular
point in time and has various symbols which all have specific meanings. The weather picture is
commonly depicted by weather maps showing the position of the isobars, the ground position of
the fronts, and the areas of precipitation. As weather maps are now commonly included in daily
newspapers and on TV, the individual is provided with an opportunity to practice forecasting and
to compare his or her predictions with those of the weather bureau.
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Figure 9. Sample of a weather map
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Analysis of Precipitation Data
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Analysis of rainfall would enhance the management of water resources applications as well as the
effective utilization of water resources. Such information can also be used to prevent floods and
droughts, and applied to the planning and designing of water resources related engineering, such
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as reservoir design, flood control work, drainage design, and soil and water conservation planning,
etc.
2. Intensity, Duration and Frequency of Rainfall

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Rainfall intensity is the volume or depth of rainfall per unit time.

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General expression for rainfall intensity:
𝐾𝑇 𝑥
𝑖= 𝑡𝑛
(Eq. 2.1)
where: 𝑖 - rainfall intensity

𝐾, 𝑥, 𝑛 - constants for a given geographic location
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𝑡 - duration of storm in minutes

𝑇 - return period in years
Eq. 2-1 has not been widely adopted because of the difficulty in evaluating the constants.
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By linearizing the return period and the duration, Weiss (1962) developed the following equation
for the rainfall amount at a given location for partial duration service values:
𝐼 = 0.0256(𝐶 − 𝐴)𝑥 + 0.000256[(𝐷 − 𝐶) − (𝐵 − 𝐴)]𝑥𝑦 + 0.01(𝐵 − 𝐴)𝑦 + 𝐴 (Eq. 2.2)
where: 𝐼 - rainfall amount in inches

𝑥 - return period variate
𝑦 - duration variate
𝐴 - 2-year, 1-h rainfall
𝐵 - 2-year, 24-h rainfall
𝐶 - 100-year, 1-h rainfall
𝐷 - 100-year, 24-h rainfall
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Hydrologic Frequency Analysis
The relationship between return period and probability of occurrence can be expressed by:
𝑇 = 100/𝑃 (Eq. 2.3)
where: 𝑇 - return period in years

𝑃 - probability in percent that an observed event in a given year is equal to or
greater than a given event
Determination of statistical analysis:
∑ 𝑋 2 −(∑ 𝑋)2 /𝑛 1/2

𝑠=[ ] (Eq. 2.4)
𝑛−1
where: 𝑠 - standard deviation
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𝑋 - measured value
𝑛 - number of values
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The coefficient of variation is 𝐶𝑣 = 𝑠⁄𝑥̅ , and 𝑠 3 = 𝐶𝑣3 (𝑥̅ )3 . Then the unbiased estimate of
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𝑛 ∑(𝑋 3 )⁄𝑛−3(𝑥̅ ) ∑(𝑋 2 )⁄𝑛+2(𝑥̅ )3
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𝐶𝑠 =
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(Eq. 2.5)
(𝑛−1)(𝑛−2) 𝑠3
where: Cv - coefficient of variation
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𝑥̅ - mean value (∑ 𝑋/𝑛)
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Determination of Plotting Positions and Plotting of Data
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̅ + ∆𝑿 , from a statistical point of view, 𝑿𝒄 possesses two important properties (1)

Any point, = 𝒙
the tendency to deviate from the mean (measured by standard deviation), and (2) the frequency
of occurrence, measured by frequency factor K.
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∆𝑋 = 𝑠𝐾 (Eq. 2.6)
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̅
By substituting for ∆𝑿 and s = Cv𝒙
𝑋𝑐 = 𝑥̅ (1 + 𝐶𝑣 𝐾) (Eq. 2.7)
where:
√6 𝑇
𝐾=− {0.5772 + ln [ln ( )]}
𝜋 𝑇−1
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For the log-probability law the frequency factor K is a function of the return period (also P), the
coefficient of variation, and the coefficient of skew. Theoretically, Chow (1954) shown that:
𝐶𝑠 = 3𝐶𝑣 + 𝐶𝑣3 (Eq. 2.8)

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Gumbel’s equation:
𝑵+𝟏
𝑻= (Eq. 2.9)
𝒎
where: 𝑇 - return period in years

𝑁 - total number of statistical events
𝑚 - rank of events arranged in descending order of magnitude;
𝑚 = 1 for largest value and 𝑚 = N for smallest value
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Mockus’ adequacy of length of record Y:
𝑌 = (4.30𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑅)2 + 6 (Eq. 2.10)
where: 𝑌 - minimum acceptable years of record

𝑅 - ratio of magnitude of the 100-year event to 2-year event
𝑡 - students statistical value at the 90 percent level of significance with (Y-6)
degrees of freedom
Averaging Precipitation
1. Arithmetic mean. The simplest method of estimating average

precipitation by computing the arithmetic average of the recorded
precipitation values at stations in or near the area.
∑ 𝑋 37.1 + 48.8 + 68.3 + 114.3 + 75.7 + 127

𝑃= = = 78.5 𝑚𝑚
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𝑛 6
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2. Thiessen method
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𝐴1𝑃1 + 𝐴2𝑃2 + ⋯ + 𝐴𝑛𝑃𝑛
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𝑃=
𝐴𝑇
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3. Isohyetal method
𝐴1𝑃1 + 𝐴2𝑃2 + ⋯ + 𝐴𝑛𝑃𝑛

𝑃=
𝐴𝑇
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3. Infiltration
Infiltration refers to the movement of water from the soil surface into the soil. Infiltration into
the ground is the transition from surface water to groundwater. The infiltration rate will depend
upon soil or rock permeability as well as other factors. Infiltrated water may reach another
compartment known as groundwater (i.e., an aquifer). Groundwater tends to move slowly, so the
water may return as surface water after storage within an aquifer for a period of time that can
amount to thousands of years in some cases. Water returns to the land surface at lower elevation
than where it infiltrated, under the force of gravity or gravity induced pressures.
The subsequent movement of infiltrated water in the unsaturated zone of a soil is known as
redistribution. This can involve exfiltration (evaporation from the upper layer of the soil), capillary
rise (movement upward from the saturated zone to the unsaturated zone due to surface tension),
recharge (movement of water from the unsaturated zone to the saturated zone), and interflow
(flow that moves downslope). Percolation is a general term for the downward flow in the
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unsaturated zone.
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The one-dimensional flow of water through a saturated homogenous soil can be computed by the
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Darcy equation:
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𝑞 = 𝐾ℎ𝐴/𝐿 (Eq. 3.1)
where: 𝑞 - the flow rate (L3/T)

𝐾 - hydraulic conductivity of the flow medium (L/T)
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𝐴 - cross-sectional area of flow (L2)

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𝐿 - length of flow path (L)
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Where infiltration is through two layers, such as the topsoil and the subsoil, the average
hydraulic conductivity K can be computed from:
𝐿
𝐾= 𝐿 𝐿 (Eq. 3.2)
( 1+ 2)
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𝐾1 𝐾2
where: 𝐿 - total length of flow through all layers (L)

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subscripts 1 & 2 - the soil layers
Infiltration into unsaturated soil is defined by the differential equation:

𝜕𝜃 𝜕 𝜕∅ 𝜕
𝜕𝑡
= 𝜕𝑧 (𝐾 𝜕𝑧 ) + 𝜕𝑧 (𝐾𝑔) (Eq. 3.3)
where: 𝜃 - the moisture content in volume of water per unit volume of soil
𝐾 - the unsaturated hydraulic conductivity (L/T)
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∅ - the capillary potential (L)

𝑔 - gravitational constant (L/T2)
𝑧 - the coordinate in the vertical direction (L)
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Factors Affecting Infiltration
Soil Factors. Soil functions essentially as pervious

medium that provides a large number of passageways for
water to move into the surface. The effectiveness of the
soil as an agent for transporting water depends largely
on the size and permanency of these channels. In
general, the size of the passageways and the infiltration
to the soil are dependent on (1) size of the particles that
make up the soil, (2) the degree of aggregation between
the individual particles, and (3) the arrangement of the
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particles and aggregates. The larger the pore size and the greater the continuity of the pores that
can be maintained, the greater is the resulting infiltration rate.
The importance of maintaining permanent channels, particularly at the soil surface, is critical. The
usual rapid reduction in the rate of intake of water through the surface is accompanied by the
formation of a thin compact layer on the surface. This layer is a result of severe breakdown of soil
structure caused in part by the beating action of raindrops and in part by an assorting action of
the water flowing over the surface, fitting the fine particles around the larger ones to form a
relatively impervious seal, giving the surface of the soil a slick appearance.
Vegetation. Surface sealing can be greatly reduced by vegetation. In general, vegetative cover
and surface condition have more influence on infiltration rates than do the soil type and texture.
The protective cover may be grasses or other close growing vegetation as well as mulches. It has
been shown that when infiltration rates are determined for soil protected by vegetation and the
vegetation is removed, surface sealing occurs and infiltration drops.
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Other Factors. Other factors affecting infiltration include land, slope, antecedent moisture, and
water temperature (a special case being frozen soil). The effect of slope on rate of infiltration has
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generally been shown to be small, and to be more important on slopes less than 2 percent than
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on steeper gradients. The effect of slopes steeper than 2 percent on infiltration is not significant.
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Soil water generally reduces or limits the infiltration rate. The reduction is due in large part to the
fact that water causes some of the colloids in the soil to swell thereby reduces both the pore space
and the rate of water movement. Consequently, in making infiltration test in the field, it is
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customary to make both a dry soil run and a wet soil run, often 24 h later. Design is usually based
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on the minimum values obtained. In a completely saturated soil underlain with an impervious layer
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or layers, infiltration will be zero.
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Soil Additives
The physical characteristics of the soil, including the infiltration capacity, can be changed by adding
chemicals. In general, these additives are one of two types. The first type consists of materials that
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added to permanency of the soil aggregate formations and thereby generally improve soil structure.
This improved structure causes considerable increases in both infiltration and percolation rates.
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The second type of additive is essentially a wetting agent that does not change the soil but instead
changes the angle of contact of the soil water with the soil surface and thereby the rate at which
water can move through the soil.
Additives are also applied that decrease infiltration rates. One group of chemical additives reduces
infiltration capacity by causing soil particles to swell and to become hydrophilic. Fine clays are
sometimes added to soils. These swell and seal soil pores to reduce infiltration rates. Partial or
complete sealants, such as petroleum or plastic films, are applied to soil surfaces to decrease or
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prevent infiltration.
Predicting Infiltration
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Infiltration data are commonly expressed graphically with rate as the ordinate and time as
the abscissa. The figure below represents a typical infiltration curve. Here, as usual, the potential
infiltration capacity initially exceeds the rate of water application; however, as the soil pores fill
with water, and as surface sealing takes place, the rate of water intake gradually decreases. It
then normally approaches a constant value which may be taken as the infiltration rate of the soil.
The infiltration curve can be expressed by:
𝑓 = 𝑓𝑐 + (𝑓𝑜 − 𝑓𝑐 )𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 (Eq. 3.4)
where: f - infiltration capacity or the maximum rate at which soil under a given condition can
take water through its surface (L/T)
fc - constant infiltration capacity as t approaches infinity (L/T)
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fo - infiltration capacity at the onset of infiltration (L/T)

k - a positive constant for a given soil and initial condition (L/T)
t - time (T)
Figure 1. Typical infiltration curve
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Evaporation and Transpiration
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Evaporation is the transfer of liquid water into the atmosphere. Transpiration is the process
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through which water vapor passes into the atmosphere through the tissues of living plants.
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Basic methods in predicting evaporation and evapotranspiration can be grouped into three
categories:
1. Mass Transfer – this approach recognizes that water moves away from evaporating and
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transpiring surfaces in response to the combined phenomena of turbulent mixing of the air and
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the vapor pressure gradient. It requires measurement of wind velocity and humidity at two or
more elevations.
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2. Energy Balance – Heat is required for evaporation of water, so if there is no change in water
temperature the net radiation or heat supplied is a measure of evaporation. Energy balance
methods are proving to be practical calculation. Example of this method is the Penman
approach.
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3. Empirical methods – methods, developed from experience and field research, are based
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primarily on the assumption that the energy available for evaporation is proportional to the
temperature. Blaney and Criddle (1950) and Thornthwaite (1948) have proposed equations of
this type.
Evaporation from Water Surfaces
Many evaporation formulas for free-water surfaces are based on Dalton’s law:
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𝐸 = 𝐶(𝑒𝑠 − 𝑒𝑑 ) (Eq. 3.5)
where: 𝐸 - rate of evaporation

𝐶 - constant
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es - saturated vapor pressure at the temperature of the water surface, in mm Hg

ed - actual vapor pressure of the air (es times relative humidity), in mm Hg
Rohwer (1931) evaluated the constant in Eq. 3.5 as:
𝐶 = (0.44 + 0.073𝑊)(1.465 − 0.00073𝑝) (Eq. 3.6)
where: 𝑊 - average wind velocity in km/h at a height of 0.15 m

𝑝 - atmospheric pressure, in mm Hg at 0OC.
With these units E is in mm/day. To find the evaporation from reservoirs, the calculated E should
be multiplied by 0.77.
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Meyer (1942) evaluated the constant for pans and shallow ponds (E as mm/month),
𝐶 = 15 + 0.93𝑊 (Eq. 3.7)
And for small lakes and reservoirs,
𝐶 = 11 + 0.68𝑊 (Eq. 3.8)
where: 𝑊 - average wind velocity for the period, in km/h at a height of 7.6 m
Evapotranspiration
Evapotranspiration (ET) or Consumptive Use is defined as the combined process of transpiration

by the plant, and evaporation from the soil or free water surface. Evaporation and transpiration
occur simultaneously and there is no easy way of distinguishing between the two processes. Apart
from the water availability in the topsoil, the evaporation from a cropped soil is mainly determined
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by the fraction of the solar radiation reaching the soil surface. This fraction decreases over the
growing period as the crop develops and the crop canopy shades more and more of the ground
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area. When the crop is small, water is predominately lost by soil evaporation, but once the crop is
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well developed and completely covers the soil, transpiration becomes the main process.
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The various methods for determining evapotranspiration include:
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1. Tank and lysimeter experiments
2. Field experimental plots
3.
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Soil water studies
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4. Analysis of climatological data
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5. Integration methods where the water used by plants and evaporation from the water and
soil surfaces are combined for the entire area involved
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6. Inflow-outflow method
Types of Evapotranspiration
1. Potential evapotranspiration (PET) is the rate of ET from a well-watered cropped

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field or where there is no limitation in water availability.

2. Actual evapotranspiration (AET) refers to the amount of water actually
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evapotranspired from a soil-water-plant system where water supply is limiting (usually

below field capacity)
Factors affecting evapotranspiration:
Weather parameters. The principal weather parameters affecting evapotranspiration are

radiation, air temperature, humidity and wind speed. Several procedures have been developed
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to assess the evaporation rate from these parameters. The evaporation power of the atmosphere
is expressed by the reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo). The reference crop
evapotranspiration represents the evapotranspiration from a standardized vegetated surface.
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Crop factors. The crop type, variety and development stage should be considered when
assessing the evapotranspiration from crops grown in large, well-managed fields. Differences in
resistance to transpiration, crop height, crop roughness, reflection, ground cover and crop rooting
characteristics result in different ET levels in different types of crops under identical
environmental conditions. Crop evapotranspiration under standard conditions (ETc) refers to the
evaporating demand from crops that are grown in large fields under optimum soil water, excellent
management and environmental conditions, and achieve full production under the given climatic
conditions.
Management and environmental conditions. Factors such as soil salinity, poor land fertility,
limited application of fertilizers, the presence of hard or impenetrable soil horizons, the absence
of control of diseases and pests and poor soil management may limit the crop development and
reduce the evapotranspiration. Other factors to be considered when assessing ET are ground
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cover, plant density and the soil water content. The effect of soil water content on ET is
conditioned primarily by the magnitude of the water deficit and the type of soil. On the other
hand, too much water will result in waterlogging which might damage the root and limit root
water uptake by inhibiting respiration.
When assessing the ET rate, additional consideration should be given to the range of
management practices that act on the climatic and crop factors affecting the ET process.
Cultivation practices and the type of irrigation method can alter the microclimate, affect the crop
characteristics or affect the wetting of the soil and crop surface. A windbreak reduces wind
velocities and decreases the ET rate of the field directly beyond the barrier. The effect can be
significant especially in windy, warm and dry conditions although evapotranspiration from the
trees themselves may offset any reduction in the field. Soil evaporation in a young orchard,
where trees are widely spaced, can be reduced by using a well-designed drip or trickle irrigation
system. The drippers apply water directly to the soil near trees, thereby leaving the major part
of the soil surface dry, and limiting the evaporation losses. The use of mulches, especially when
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the crop is small, is another way of substantially reducing soil evaporation. Anti-transpirants,
such as stomata-closing, film-forming or reflecting material, reduce the water losses from the
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crop and hence the transpiration rate.
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Methods in Estimating Evapotranspiration (ET)
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1. Blaney-Criddle Method - an empirical method that is widely used for determining ET from
climatological and irrigation data.
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𝑢 = 𝑘𝑝(0.46𝑇 + 8.13) (Eq. 3.9)
EP S
where: u - monthly evapotranspiration (mm)
k - monthly ET coefficient or crop coefficient
N W SU
T - mean monthly temperature (oC)

p - monthly percent of total daytime hours of year (monthly daytime hours x
100/total annual daytime hours)
O IE L
2. Penman Method - method of estimating ET from a free-water surface by examining the

energy balance at the water surface.
D EV C
𝑅𝑛 = 𝐸 + 𝐴 + 𝑆 + 𝐶 (Eq. 3.10a)
where: Rn - net radiant energy available at the earth’s surface

E - energy used in evaporating water
A - energy used in heating air
S - energy used in heating the water
C - energy used in heating the surrounding of the water
O
The energy used in heating the water and its container could be neglected and that the
evaporation of water could be predicted:
R
𝐸 = 𝑅𝑛 − 𝐴 (Eq. 3.10b)
Combination of this equation with Dalton’s law (Eq. 3.5) results in equation for
evapotranspiration. The equation for well-watered grass or reference Eto (Penman, 1963) and
converted to SI units (Jensen et al, 1990):
∆ 𝛾
𝜆𝐸𝑇𝑜 = ∆+𝛾 (𝑅𝑛 − 𝐺) + ∆+𝛾 6.43(1.0 + 0.53𝑣2 )(𝑠𝑠 − 𝑒𝑑 ) (Eq. 3.11)
where: 𝜆𝐸𝑇𝑜 - reference ET for a well-watered grass expressed as latent heat flux density,
MJ m-2 day-1
∆ - slope of the saturation vapor pressure curve in kPa/oC
𝛾 - psychrometric constant in kPa/oC
𝑅𝑛 - net radiation in MJ m-2 day-1
14
𝐺 - heat flux density to the soil in MJ m-2 day-1

𝑣2 - average wind speed at a height of 2 meters, in m/s
𝑒𝑠 - saturated vapor pressure at mean air temperature in kPa
𝑒𝑑 - saturated vapor pressure at mean dew-point temperature in kPa (also 𝑒𝑠 X
mean RH)
The following equations and constants were summarized from Jensen et al. (1990). Values
for ∆ can be obtained from:
∆= 0.20(0.00738 𝑇 + 0.8072)7 − 0.000116 (Eq. 3.12)
where: 𝑇 - mean air temperature in oC
The psychrometric constant in kPa/oC is:
𝛾 = 0.00163 𝑃/𝜆 (Eq. 3.13)
U 3
𝑃 = 101.3 − 0.01055(𝐸𝐿) (Eq. 3.14)
D 2
𝜆 = 2.501 − 0.002361 𝑇 (Eq. 3.15)
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where: 𝑃 - estimated atmospheric pressure in kPa
R LA BE
C
𝐸𝐿 - elevation in m
𝜆 - latent heat of vaporization of water in MJ/kg (539 cal/g = 2.256 MJ/kg)
R S
The net radiation 𝑅𝑛 can be calculated from:
T C A
EP S
𝑅𝑛 = (1 − 𝛼)𝑅𝑠 − 𝜎𝑇𝑎4 [0.34 − 0.139(𝑒𝑑 )0.5 ](0.1 + 0.9𝑛/𝑁) (Eq. 3.16)
where: 𝑅𝑠 - the solar radiation received at the earth’s surface in MJ m-2 day-1
N W SU
𝛼 - the radiation reflection coefficient or albedo with values near 0.25 for green
crops
𝜎 - Stefan-Boltzmann constant (4.903 x 10-9 MJ m-2 day-1 oK-4)
𝑇𝑎 - absolute air temperature in oK, (oC + 273)
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𝑛/𝑁 - ratio of actual to possible hours of sunshine

D EV C
If solar radiation is not measured, it can be obtained from:
𝑅𝑠 = (0.35 + 0.61𝑛⁄𝑁)𝑅𝑠𝑜 (Eq. 3.17)
where: 𝑅𝑠𝑜 - mean solar radiation for cloudless skies in MJ m-2 day-1
The soil heat flux 𝑮 is small and often assumed as zero. The saturation vapor pressure 𝑒𝑠 is
O
calculated from:
𝑒𝑠 = 3.38639[(0.00738 𝑇 + 0.8072)8 − 0.00019|1.8 𝑇 + 48| + 0.001316] (Eq. 3.18)

R
where: 𝑇 - mean air temperature in oC
Eq. 3-18 can be used to determine 𝒆𝒅 by substituting the mean dew-point temperature for 𝑻 .
Actual ET for other crops is estimated with crop coefficients from:
𝑬𝑻𝒄 = 𝑲𝒄 ∗ 𝝀𝑬𝑻𝒐 /𝝀 (Eq. 3.19)
where: 𝐸𝑇𝑐 - the estimated ET for a crop in mm/day

𝐾𝑐 - the crop coefficient for a specific crop and location
15
3. Empirical Solar Radiation Method

Jensen and Haise (1963), and Jensen (1966) presented an energy-balance approach to estimate
evapotranspiration that is simpler in application than Penman’s equation.
𝝀𝑬𝑻𝒓 = 𝑪𝒕 (𝑻 − 𝑻𝒙 )𝑹𝒔 (Eq. 3.20)
where: 𝜆𝐸𝑇𝑟 - alfalfa based reference ET expressed as latent heat flux density,
MJ m-2 day -1
𝑅𝑠 - solar radiation, MJ m-2 day -1
𝑇 - mean air temperature for the period of calculation in oC
𝐶𝑡 = 1.0/(𝐶𝑙 + 7.3𝐶𝐻 ) (Eq. 3.21)
𝐶𝑙 = 38 − (2 𝐸𝐿/305) , EL is elevation in m (Eq. 3.22)
𝐶𝐻 = 3.0/(𝑒2 − 𝑒1 ) (Eq. 3.23)
U 3
𝑇𝑥 = −2.5 − 1.4(𝑒2 − 𝑒1 ) − 𝐸𝐿/550 (Eq. 3.24)
D 2
where: 𝑒2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒1 = the saturation vapor pressures in kPa for the mean maximum and mean
E
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minimum temperatures, respectively, for the warmest month of the year in the area.
R LA BE
C
Crop Coefficient
R S
Crop water use information can be used to schedule irrigation systems. Crop water use is directly
T C A
related to evapotranspiration (ET). The ET information must be adjusted to correspond to the crop
EP S
and climate. Once the reference ET has been determined, a crop coefficient must be applied to
adjust the reference ET value for local conditions and the type of crop being irrigated.
N W SU
𝐸𝑇𝑐 = 𝐾𝑐 ∗ 𝐸𝑇𝑜
where: ETo - calculated reference ET (mm)

Kc - crop coefficient
ETc - crop evapotranspiration or crop water use (mm)
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D EV C
The reference ET is a measurement of the water use for that reference crop. In the case of ETo
grass is used as the reference. However other crops may not use the same amount of water as
grass due to changes in rooting depth, crop growth stages and plant physiology. The crop
coefficient (Kc) takes into account the crop type and crop development to adjust the ETo for that
specific crop. There may be several crop coefficients used for a single crop throughout an irrigation
season depending on the crop’s stage of development.
O
R
Figure 2. Crop coefficient at different growth development
16
Crop growth periods can be divided into four distinct growth stages; initial, crop development, mid-
season and late season. The length of each of these stages depends on the climate, latitude,
elevation and planting date. Local observations are best for determining the growth stage of the
crop and which Kc values to use.
4. Runoff
Runoff is that portion of the precipitation that makes its way toward streams, channels, lakes or
oceans as surface or subsurface flow. The term runoff usually means surface flow. Runoff will occur
only when the rate of precipitation exceeds the rate at which water may infiltrate into the soil.
The engineer designing channels and structures to handle natural surface flows is concerned with
peak rates of runoff, with runoff volumes, and with temporal distribution of runoff rates and
volumes.
U 3
Runoff Process
Runoff will occur only when the rate of precipitation exceeds the rate at which water may infiltrate
D 2
into the soil. Before runoff can occur, precipitation must satisfy the demands of evaporation,
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interception, infiltration, surface storage, surface detention, and channel detention.
R LA BE
C
When rain falls, the first drops of water are intercepted by the leaves and stems of the vegetation.
This is usually referred to as interception storage. As the rain continues, water reaching the ground
surface infiltrates into the soil until it reaches a stage where the rate of rainfall (intensity) exceeds
R S
the infiltration capacity of the soil. Thereafter, surface puddles, ditches, and other depressions are
T C A
filled (depression storage), after which runoff is generated.
EP S
The infiltration capacity of the soil depends on its texture and structure, as well as on the
N W SU
antecedent soil moisture content (previous rainfall or dry season). The initial capacity (of a dry soil)
is high but, as the storm continues, it decreases until it reaches a steady value termed as final
infiltration rate. The process of runoff generation continues as long as the rainfall intensity exceeds
the actual infiltration capacity of the soil but it stops as soon as the rate of rainfall drops below the
actual rate of infiltration.
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Factors Affecting Runoff

D EV C
The factors affecting runoff may be divided into those factors associated with the
precipitation and those associated with the watershed.
Rainfall. Rainfall duration, intensity, and aerial distribution influence the rate and volume of runoff.
Total runoff for a storm is clearly related to the duration for a given intensity. Infiltration will
decrease with time in the initial stages of a storm. Rate and volume of runoff for a given watershed
are influenced by the distribution of rainfall and of rainfall intensity over the watershed. Generally,
O
the maximum rate and volume of runoff occur when the entire watershed contributes; however,
an intense storm on one portion of the watershed may result in greater runoff than a moderate
storm over the entire watershed.
R
Watershed. Watershed factors affecting runoff are size, shape, orientation, topography, geology,
and surface culture. Both runoff volumes and rates increase as watershed size increases; however,
both rate and volume per unit of watershed area decrease as the runoff area increases. Watershed
size may determine the season at which high runoff may be expected to occur. Long, narrow
watersheds are likely to have lower runoff rates than more compact watersheds of the same size.
Topographic features, such as slope of upland areas, the degree of development and gradients of
channels, and the extent and number of depressed areas affect rates and volumes of runoff.
Watersheds having extensive flat areas or depressed areas without surface outlets have lower
runoff than areas with steep, well-defined drainage patterns. The geologic of soil materials
determine to a large degree of infiltration rate, and thus affect runoff. Vegetation and the practices
incident to agriculture and forestry also influence infiltration. Vegetation retards overland flow and
17
increases surface detention to reduce peak runoff rates. Structures such as dams, levees, bridged,
and culverts all influence runoff rates.
Design Runoff Rates
Conservation structures and channels must be designed to handle natural flows of water from
rainfall or melting snow. The capacity to be provided in a structure that must carry runoff may be
termed the design runoff rate.
1. Rational Method
𝑞 = 0.0028𝐶𝑖𝐴 (Eq. 4.1)
where: 𝑞 - design peak runoff rate, m3/s

𝐶 - runoff coefficient
𝑖 - rainfall intensity in mm/h for the design return period and for a duration equal
U 3
to the “time of concentration” of the watershed
𝐴 - watershed area, hectare
D 2
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Time of concentration is the time required for water to flow from the most remote (in
time of flow) point of the area to the outlet once the soil has become saturated and minor
R LA BE
C
depressions filled.
𝑇𝑐 = 0.0195 𝐿0.77 𝑆𝑔 −0.385 (Eq. 4.2)
R S
T C A
where: 𝑇𝑐 - time of concentration in min.
EP S
𝐿 - max length of flow in m,
𝑆𝑔 - watershed gradient in m/m or the difference in elevation between the outlet
N W SU
and the most remote point divided by the length, L
Runoff Coefficient, C. The ratio of the peak runoff rate to the rainfall intensity (it is
dimensionless).
O IE L
Table 4.1. Runoff coefficient C for Agricultural Watersheds (Soil group B)

D EV C
O
The runoff coefficient can be converted to other hydrologic soil groups:

R
Table 4.2. Hydrologic soil group conversion factors
18
The Rational Method is developed from the assumptions that: (1) rainfall occurs at
uniform intensity for a duration at least equal to the time of concentration of the watershed,
(2) rainfall occurs at a uniform intensity over the entire area of the watershed.
Example 4.1.
Determine the design peak runoff rate for a 50 year return period storm form a 40-ha (100-acre)
watershed near Chicago, Illinois, with the following characteristics:
Sub-area Topography Soil Group Land Use, Treatment & Hydrologic condition
(ha) (ac) % Slope
24 (60) Flat C Row crop, contoured, good,
15 (40) 10-30 B Woodland, good
U 3
D 2
The maximum length of flow is 600 m (2000 ft) and the difference in elevation along this path is 3
m (10 ft).
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Solution:
R LA BE
C
The watershed gradient is (3/600) 100 = 0.5 %
From Appendix A or Eq. 4.2, Tc = 0.0195L0.77Sg-0.385 ; Tc = 20 mins
R S
From Chapter 2 (SWCE by Schwab et al) for a 50-yr return period near Chicago, the 20 min rainfall
T C A
is 97 mm/h (3.8 iph)

EP S
Runoff coefficients C from Table 4.1 for row crop, good practice, and woodland are 0.56 and 0.10,
N W SU
respectively.
Correcting factor for hydrologic soil group C to group B is 1.09
C= (24/40) ( 0.56 X 1.09) + (16/40) ( 0.10) = 0.41
O IE L
Substituting in Eq. 4.1,

q = 0.0028ciA = (0.0028)(0.41)(97)(40) = 4.45 m3/s
D EV C
2. Soil Conservation Service Method (SCSM)

This method by SCS (1990) was originally developed for uniform rainfall using the assumptions for
a triangular hydrograph. A hydrograph is a plot of the runoff rate versus time. The time to peak
flow is:
𝐷 𝐷
𝑇𝑝 = + 𝑇𝐿 = + 0.6 𝑇𝑐 (Eq. 4.3a)
O
2 2
where: 𝑇𝑝 - time to peak (T),

𝐷 - duration of excess rainfall (T),
R
𝑇𝐿 - time of lag (T),

𝑇𝑐 - time of concentration (T)
19
Figure 4.1. Triangular hydrograph
U 3
D 2
Time of concentration, Tc = TL/0.6 is the longest travel time and may be obtained from the
E
equation:
O 20
R LA BE 𝑇𝑐 = 𝐿0.8 [(1000/𝑁) − 9]0.7 /[4407(𝑆𝑔 )0.5 ]
C
(Eq. 4.3b)
The time to peak is necessary to develop a design hydrograph for routing runoff through a storage
R S
reservoir or for combining hydrographs from several sub-watersheds. It is not required for peak
T C A
flow estimates. The peak flow rate is calculated from the equation:
EP S
𝑞 = 𝑞𝑢 𝐴𝑄 (Eq. 4.4)
N W SU
where: 𝑞 - peak runoff rate (m3/s)

𝑞𝑢 - unit peak flow rate (m3/s per ha/mm of runoff)
𝐴 - watershed area (hectares)
𝑄 - runoff depth (mm) from Eq. 4.6.
O IE L
3. Flood Frequency Analysis Method

D EV C
A method of runoff estimation based on the existence of a number of years of record from the
basin under study. These records then constitute a statistical array that defines the probable
frequency of recurrence of floods of given magnitudes. The procedure for this method is the same
as that for rainfall (see Chapter 2- Rainfall).
4. Computer Prediction of Runoff

Numerous computer programs have been developed to predict storm runoff using the different
O
methods of runoff estimation. Computer Assisted Management and Planning Systems (CAMPS)-
computer software developed during late 1980’s to predict runoff and link this prediction with
programs to design diversion, waterways, and terraces. CREAMS and WEPP erosion models and
R
drainage model DRAINMOD include runoff prediction within the models. When selecting a runoff
model, the user should generally select the model that best suits the purpose.
5. Other Methods
Many other methods have been proposed for estimating flood runoff. A number of empirical
formulas have been developed to describe the magnitude of extreme floods. These formulas take
the form:
𝑞 = 𝐾𝐴𝑥 (Eq. 4.5)
20
where: 𝑞 - magnitude of the peak runoff (L3/T),

𝐾 - coefficient dependent on various characteristics of the watershed
𝐴 - watershed area (L2)
𝑥 - constant for a given location
Runoff Volume
It is often desirable to predict the total volume of runoff that may come from watershed during a
design flood. Total volume is of primary interest in the design of flood control reservoirs.
1. Soil Conservation Service Method

(𝐼−0.2𝑆)2
𝑄= 𝐼+0.8𝑆
(Eq. 4.6)
where: 𝑄 - direct surface runoff depth in mm (area under hydrograph)
U 3
𝐼 - storm rainfall in mm (see Chapter 2)
𝑆 - maximum potential difference between rainfall and runoff in mm, starting at
D 2
the time the storm begins.
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On gaged watersheds I can be plotted against Q and the value of S obtained directly. As shown by
R LA BE
C
Eq. 4.6, runoff decreases as S or infiltration increases. The initial abstraction, 𝐼𝑎 = 0.2𝑆, consists of
interception losses, surface storage, and water that infiltrates into the soil prior to runoff.
R S
T C A
EP S
N W SU
O IE L
D EV C
Figure 4.2. Relationship between rainfall and runoff depth by curve numbers
O
For convenience in evaluating antecedent rainfall, soil conditions, land use, and conservation
practices, USDS-SCS (1972) defines:
25400
𝑆= − 254
R
(Eq. 4.7)
𝑁
Where 𝑁 is an arbitrary curve number varying from 0 to 100. Thus if
𝑁 = 100, then 𝑆 = 0 and 𝐼=𝑄
Curve numbers can be obtained from Table 4.3. These values apply to antecedent rainfall condition
II, which is an average value for annual floods. Correction factors for other antecedent rainfall
conditions are listed in Table 4.4.
21
Table 4.4. Antecedent rainfall conditions and curve numbers (for Ia = 0.2S)
U 3
D 2
Water Yield
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The total runoff volume for a period of several months stored in ponds and reservoirs is termed as
R LA BE
annual runoff or water yield. This data varies from one place to another and dependent on
C
different hydrologic conditions. Estimation of minimum water yield is important in agricultural
structure design and other waterway structures. Its computation is based primarily on frequency
analysis of historic climatological data and watershed size.
R S
T C A
EP S
Runoff Hydrographs
Hydrograph is a graphical or tabular representation of runoff rate against time. The runoff
N W SU
hydrograph can also be expressed as might be defined for a stage-discharge relationship for a
stream channel of floodway (i.e., the discharge rating curve for a channel cross section). The shape
of the storm hydrograph is related to the rainfall hyetograph (intensity vs. time) and the combined
effects of the storage in the watershed or channel. The watershed and channel storage effects
O IE L
smooth out much of the variation evident in the storm hyetograph. The runoff hydrograph
increases in magnitude shortly after the start of the rainfall event and reaches a peak after the
D EV C
maximum rainfall intensity has occurred.
Hydrograph components:
a) qp is the maximum flow rate on the hydrograph

b) tp (time to peak) is the time from the start of the hydrograph to qp.
c) tb (base time) is the total time duration of the hydrograph.
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Figure 4.3. Components of a hydrograph
22
Types of hydrographs
Natural hydrograph— obtained directly from the flow records of a gaged stream.
Synthetic hydrograph— obtained by using watershed parameters and storm characteristics to
simulate a natural hydrograph.
Unit hydrograph— a discharge hydrograph resulting from 1 inch of direct runoff distributed
uniformly over the watershed resulting from a rainfall of a specified duration.
Dimensionless unit hydrograph (DUH)— a hydrograph developed to represent several unit
hydrographs; plotted using the ratio of the basic units time to peak and peak rate; also called
an index hydrograph.
U 3
D 2
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R LA BE
C
R S
T C A
EP S
N W SU
Figure 4.4. Relationship of storm, unit, and direct runoff hydrograph

O IE L
D EV C
Triangular hydrographs
It is the simplest runoff hydrograph. They are applied to subareas of watershed or to time
increments of a rainstorm.
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Figure 4.5. Triangular hydrograph
Dimensionless hydrographs
The dimensionless hydrograph is shown by a smooth curve. It has an idealized shape called a
synthetic hydrograph. The SCS triangular hydrograph shown by the dashed lines closely
approximates the dimensionless hydrographs and greatly simplifies calculation of the variables.
23
U 3
Figure 4.6. Dimensionless hydrograph
D 2
E
To develop the design hydrograph for a watershed, the peak flow and the runoff volume must be
O 20
known for the desired return period storm. The design hydrograph is developed from the
R LA BE
C
dimensionless hydrograph by using appropriate conversion factors. The factor u is the ratio of the
total runoff volume to the area under the dimensionless hydrograph . The area under the
hydrograph is 2620 square units. Thus, each square unit under the basic hydrograph has a value
of
R S
T C A
𝑢 = 𝑄/2620 (Eq. 4.9)
EP S
where: Q - total runoff volume
N W SU
The factor w is the ratio of peak runoff for the design storm to the peak flow of 100 on the
dimensionless hydrograph. Each unit of flow has a value of
𝑤 = 𝑞/100 (Eq. 4.10)

O IE L
The factor k is the value that each unit of time on the dimensionless hydrograph represents in the
D EV C
design hydrograph. On the design hydrograph 1/100 of the peak flow times 1/100 of the duration
of runoff must equal 1/2620 of the flood volume, just as it does on the dimensionless hydrograph.
Since w is equal to 1/100 of the design peak flow, k must be equal to 1/100 of the design duration,
and u is 1/2620 of the design flood volume. Therefore,
𝑤𝑘 = 𝑢
and
O
𝑘 = 𝑢/𝑤 (Eq. 4.11)
5. Erosion
R
Erosion is one of the most important agricultural problems in the world. It is a primary source of
sediment that pollutes streams and fills reservoirs. The two major types of erosion are geological
erosion and erosion from human or animal activities. Geological erosion includes soil-
forming as well as soil-eroding processes that maintain the soil in a favorable balance, suitable for
the growth of most plants. Human or animal-induced erosion includes a breakdown of soil
aggregates and accelerated removal of organic and mineral particles resulting from tillage and
removal of natural vegetation.
Soil erosion is the product of many interactive sub-processes; water is the primary agent of soil
erosion. Water erosion is the detachment and transport of soil from the land by water, including
runoff from melted snow and ice. The interactive processes causing soil erosion by water include
detachment and transport by falling rain and flowing water. The process may be natural or
accelerated by human activity. The rate of erosion may be very slow to very rapid, depending on
24
the soil, the local landscape, and weather conditions. The various parameters influencing these
sub-processes include: cover, soil physical and chemical properties, raindrop energy, flow velocities
and hydraulic properties, cover management, slope, slope-length and conservation practices.
Types of water erosion include interrill (raindrop and sheet), rill, gully, and stream channel erosion.
Water erosion is accelerated by farming, forestry, and construction activities.
Factors Affecting Erosion by Water
The major variables affecting soil erosion are climate, soil, vegetation, and topography.
Climate. Climatic factors affecting erosion are precipitation, temperature, wind, humidity, and
solar radiation. Temperature and wind are most evident through their effects on evaporation
and transpiration; however, wind also changes raindrop velocities and the angle of impact.
Humidity and solar radiation are somewhat less directly involved in that they are associated
U 3
with temperature and rate of soil water depletion.
D 2
Soil. Physical properties of soil affect the infiltration capacity and the extent to which particles
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can be detached and transported. The corresponding soil characteristics that describe the ease
with which soil particles may be eroded are soil detachability and soil transportability. In
R LA BE
C
general soil detachability increases as the size of the soil particles or aggregates increase, and
soil transportability increases with a decrease in the particle or aggregate size.
R S
Vegetation. The major effects of vegetation in reducing erosion are (1) interception of rainfall
T C A
by absorbing the energy of the raindrops and thus reducing surface sealing and runoff, (2)
EP S
retardation of erosion by decreased surface velocity, (3) physical restraint of soil movement,
(4) improvement of aggregation and porosity of the soil by roots and plant residue, (5) increase
biological activity in the soil, and (6) transpiration, which decreases soil water, resulting in
N W SU
increased storage capacity and less runoff.
Topography. Topographic features that influence erosion are degree of slope, shape and
length of slope, and size and shape of the watershed. On steep slopes, runoff water is more
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erosive, and can more easily transport detached sediment downslope. On longer slope, an
increased accumulation of overland flow tends to increase rill erosion. Concave slopes, with
D EV C
lower slopes at the foot of the hill, are less erosive than convex slopes.
Raindrop Erosion
Raindrop erosion is soil detachment and transport resulting from the impact of water drops directly
on soil particles or on thin water surfaces. Although the impact of raindrops on shallow streams
may not splash soil, it does increase turbulence, providing greater sediment-carrying capacity.
O
The relationship among erosion, rainfall momentum, and energy is determined by raindrop mass,
size distribution, shape, velocity, and direction. The relationship between rainfall intensity and
energy has been found to be (Foster et al., 1981)
R
𝐸 = 0.119 + 0.0873 log10 𝑖 (Eq. 5.1)
where: E - kinetic energy in MJ/ha-mm

i - intensity of rainfall in mm/h
Sheet Erosion
Sheet erosion is the removal of soil in thin layers by raindrop impact and shallow surface flow. It
results in loss of the finest soil particles that contain most of the available nutrients and organic
matter in the soil. Soil loss is so gradual that the erosion usually goes unnoticed, but the cumulative
impact accounts for large soil losses. Soils most vulnerable to sheet erosion are overgrazed and
cultivated soils where there is little vegetation to protect and hold the soil. Early signs of sheet
erosion include bare areas, water puddling as soon as rain falls, visible grass roots, exposed tree
25
roots, and exposed subsoil or stony soils. Deposition of the eroded soil occurs at the bottom of the
slope or in low areas. Soil deposits on the high side of obstructions such as fences may indicate
active sheet erosion.
Interrill Erosion
Splash and sheet erosion are sometimes combined and called interrill erosion. Inter-rill erosion
is the movement of soil by rain-splash and its transport by this surface flow whose erosive capacity
is increased by turbulence generated by raindrop impact. The term sheet erosion is frequently used
instead of inter-rill erosion, but it omits the concept of rain-splash and conveys the erroneous
concept that runoff commonly occurs as a uniform sheet. Research has shown interrill erosion to
be a function of soil properties, rainfall intensity, and slope. The relationship among these
parameters is generally expressed as (Watson and Laflen, 1986).
𝐷𝑖 = 𝐾𝑖 𝑖 2 𝑆𝑓 (Eq. 5.2)
U 3
where: 𝐷𝑖 - interrill erosion rate in kg/m2-s,
D 2
𝐾𝑖 - interrill erodibility of soil in kg-s/m4,
E
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𝑖 - rainfall intensity in m/s,
𝑆𝑓 - slope factor = 1.05 – 0.85 exp(-4 sin)
R LA BE (Eq. 5.3)
C
Rill Erosion
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Rill erosion is the detachment and transport of soil by a concentrated flow of water. When sheet
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flows begin to concentrate on the land surface, rill erosion occurs. While sheet erosion is generally
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invisible, rill erosion leaves visible scouring on the landscape. This type of erosion occurs when the
duration or intensity of rain increases and runoff volumes accelerate. Rills are shallow drainage
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lines less than 30cm deep. They develop when surface water concentrates in depressions or low
points through paddocks and erodes the soil. Rill erosion is common in bare agricultural land,
particularly overgrazed land, and in freshly cultivated soil where the soil structure has been
loosened. The rills can usually be removed with farm machinery. Rill erosion can be reduced by
reducing the volume and speed of surface water with grassed waterways and filter strips, ripped
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mulch lines, and contour drains. Rill erosion is often described as the intermediate stage between
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sheet erosion and gully erosion.
𝑄𝑠 (Eq. 5.4)
𝐷𝑟 = 𝐾𝑟 (𝜏 − 𝜏𝑐 ) (1 − )
𝑇𝑐
where: 𝐷𝑟 - rill detachment rate in kg/m2-s,

𝐾𝑟 - rill erodibility resulting from shear in s/m,
𝜏𝑐 - critical shear below which no erosion occurs in Pa,
O
𝑄𝑠 - rate of sediment flow in the rill in kg/m-s,

𝑇𝑐 - sediment transport capacity of rill in kg/m-s,
𝜏 - hydraulic shear of flowing water in Pa =  g r s,
and
R
where:  - density of water in kg/m3,

g - acceleration resulting from gravity in m/s2,
r - hydraulic radius of rill in m,
s - hydraulic gradient of rill flow
Gully Erosion
Gully erosion is an advanced stage of rill erosion where surface channels are eroded to the point
where they become a nuisance factor in normal tillage operations. Gullies are channels deeper than
30 cm that cannot be removed by normal cultivation. Gullies occur when smaller water flows
concentrate and cut a channel through the soil. Most gullies extend upslope as a result of the head
of the gully being continually undercut and collapsing. However, collapse and slumping of sidewalls
26
usually contribute a greater proportion of soil loss. Surface water runoff, causing gully formation
or the enlarging of existing gullies, is usually the result of improper outlet design for local surface
and subsurface drainage systems.
On steep land, there is often the danger of gullies forming. Water running downhill cuts a channel
deep into the soil and where there is a sudden fall, a gully head forms at the lower end of the
channel and gradually works its way back uphill. As it does so, it deepens and widens the scar that
the gully makes in the hillside. Gully erosion is related to streambank erosion, in which fast-flowing
rivers and streams increasingly cut down their own banks.
Gully formations are difficult to control if corrective measures are not designed and properly
constructed. Control measures must consider the cause of the increased flow of water across the
landscape and be capable of directing the runoff to a proper outlet. Gully erosion results in
significant amounts of land being taken out of production and creates hazardous conditions for the
operators of farm machinery.
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Stream Channel Erosion
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Stream channel erosion consists of soil removal from stream banks or soil movements in the
E
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channel. Stream channel erosion and gully erosion are distinguished primarily in that stream
channel erosion applies to the lower end of headwater tributaries and to streams that have nearly
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continuous flow and relatively flat gradients, whereas gully erosion generally occurs in intermittent
streams near the upper ends of headwater tributaries.
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Natural streams and constructed drainage channels act as outlets for surface water runoff and
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subsurface drainage systems. Bank erosion is the progressive undercutting, scouring and slumping
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of these drainageways. Poor construction practices, inadequate maintenance, uncontrolled
livestock access and cropping too close can all lead to bank erosion problems.
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Sediment Transport
Sediment transport is the movement of solid particles (sediment), typically due to a combination
of gravity acting on the sediment, and/or the movement of the fluid in which the sediment is
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entrained. Sediment transport occurs in natural systems where the particles are
clasticrocks (sand, gravel, boulders, etc.), mud, or clay; the fluid is air, water, or ice; and the force
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of gravity acts to move the particles along the sloping surface on which they are resting. Sediment
transport due to fluid motion occurs in rivers, oceans, lakes, seas, and other bodies of water due
to currents and tides. Transport is also caused by glaciers as they flow, and on terrestrial surfaces
under the influence of wind. Sediment transport due only to gravity can occur on sloping surfaces
in general, including hillslopes, scarps, cliffs, and the continental shelf—continental slope
boundary.
Numerous methods for predicting sediment transport capacity of channels have been developed,
O
based on channel hydraulic shear, flow rate, velocity, and sediment properties. Transport capacity
of individual rills has been estimated by the relationship (Foster and Meyer 1972).
𝑇𝑐 = 𝐵𝜏 1.5 (Eq. 5.6)

R
where: 𝑇𝑐 - transport capacity per unit width in kg/m-s

𝐵 - transport coefficient based on soil and water properties,
𝜏 - hydraulic shear of rill channel in Pa
6. Soil Losses
The importance of soil losses is indicated by the effect of erosion phase on crop yield. Researchers
reported that much of the reduced yield observed on eroded soils was due to a decrease in the
amount of water available to the plant on eroded soils. On some soils, these crop yield decreases
can be largely overcome by higher fertilization levels. On other soils, particularly more shallow soils
on sloping terrain, erosion may completely destroy productivity if appropriate conservation
practices are not initiated.
27
The Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE)
The Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) predicts the long-term average annual rate of erosion on
a field slope based on rainfall pattern, soil type, topography, crop system and management
practices. USLE only predicts the amount of soil loss that results from sheet or rill erosion on a
single slope and does not account for additional soil losses that might occur from gully, wind or
tillage erosion.
Rainfall erosivity factor refers to the capacity of rainfall to erode certain type of soil. It is a measure
of the total storm energy (E) and the maximum intensity (I 30) of the storm during a 30-minute
period shortly expressed as EI30. The rainfall and runoff erosivity index (R-factor) is a measure of
the erosion force for a specific rainfall event. For the calculation of the R-factor monthly and annual
rainfall averages are usually used, which can be obtained from available pluviometric records
(Helm, 2008). Soil loss is related to rainfall through the detachment power of raindrops striking the
soil surface and the entrainment of the detached soil particles by run-off water down slope.
U 3
Soil-erodibility factor (K-factor) defines the inherent resistance of the soil to both detachment and
transport. The soil-erodibility represents both susceptibility of the soil to erosion and the rate of
D 2
runoff, as measured under standard unit plot conditions. It is a function of soil texture, organic
E
matter content, permeability and soil structure. It is a measure of susceptibility of soil particles to
O 20
respond against detachment and transport caused by rainfall and surface run-off. Higher K factor
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C
value means the soil is highly susceptible to erosion.
Soil erosion increase with increases in slope gradient (S) and/or slope length (L) resulting from
R S
respective increase in velocity and volume of surface run-off water. The slope length and steepness
factor (LS-factor) is a relative dimensionless value. LS values greater than 1 indicate a higher soil
T C A
EP S
loss or the steeper and longer the slope, the higher is the risk to erosion.
Crop management factor (C-factor) reflects the effect of cropping and land management practices
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on soil loss. Vegetation cover intercepts raindrops dissipating their kinetic energy before reaching
the ground surface. It is influenced by prior land use, canopy cover, surface cover, surface
roughness and soil moisture (Helm, 2008). The higher the C value, the higher the erosion risk.
Conservation practice factor (P-factor) reflects the impact of support practices such as mulching,
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terracing, contouring and strip cropping, or line elements on the average annual. The protection
offered by crops cultivated on slopes against erosion should be supported by soil conservation
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practices, which slow down the run-off water.
The average annual soil loss, as determined by Wischmeier and Smith (1978), can be estimated
from the equation:
A = RKLSCP (Eq. 5.7)
where: A - average annual soil loss in Mg/ha,

O
R - rainfall erosivity index value (see Table 1)

K - soil erodibility factor (see Table 2)
LS - slope length and steepness factor (see Table 3)
C - cover management factor (see Table 4)
R
P - conservation practice factor (see Table 5)
Erosion Control Practices
a. Retention Ditches
Retention ditches are large ditches, designed to catch and retain all incoming runoff and hold
it until it infiltrated into the ground. They are sometimes also called infiltration ditches. In semi-
arid areas retention ditches are commonly used for trapping rainwater and for growing crops
that have high water requirements, such as bananas.
28
Retention ditches are particularly beneficial in semi-arid areas where lack of soil moisture is a
problem. They should be constructed on flat or gentle sloping land and soils should be
permeable, deep and stable. Retention ditches are not suitable on shallow soils or in areas
prone to landslides.
b. Contour Farming
Contour farming means that field activities such as ploughing, furrowing and planting are
carried out along contours, and not up and down the slope. The purpose is to prevent surface
runoff downslope and encourage infiltration of water into the soil. Structures and plants are
established along the contour lines following the configuration on the ground. Contour farming
may involve construction of soil traps, bench terraces or bunds, or the establishment of
hedgerows.
Contour ploughing is successful on slopes with a gradient of less than 10%. On steeper slopes
contour ploughing should be combines with other measures, such as terracing or strip
cropping. The fields should have an even slope, since on very irregular slopes it is too time-
U 3
consuming to follow the contours when ploughing.
D 2
c. Water Harvesting by External Catchment
E
Water harvesting through an external catchment involves the transfer of runoff water from a
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land area that is not cropped to supplement the rainfall received directly on the area where
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C
crops are grown. When it rains, large amounts of runoff water are generated from roads,
grazing areas and homesteads. Instead of this water being lost through runoff to local streams
or land depressions, this water can be diverted to the cultivated fields.
R S
Water harvesting by external catchments is suitable in areas with low rainfall (300-800 mm per
T C A
EP S
year) where there is a lot of uncultivated, open land available. It is not suitable in densely
populated areas where most of the land is cultivated. Sites that are communally owned should
be properly managed to ensure sharing among the intended beneficiaries. If the area already
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suffers from erosion problems, large external catchments might not be suitable since the
technology does not reduce erosion.
d. Contour Furrows
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Contour furrows are, small earthen banks, with a furrow on the higher side which collects
runoff from the catchment area between the ridges. The catchment area is left uncultivated
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and clear of vegetation to maximize runoff. Crops can be planted on the sides of the furrow
and on the ridges. Plants with high water requirements, such as beans and peas are usually
planted on the higher side of the furrow, and cereal crops such as maize and millet are usually
planted on the ridges.
Contour furrows are suitable for areas with annual rainfall amounts of 350-700mm. The
topography should be even to facilitate an even distribution of the water. Contour furrows are
most suitable on gentle slopes of about 0.5-3%. Soils should be fairly light. On heavier, more
O
clayey soils they are less effective because of the lower infiltration rate.
e. Stone Lines
Stone lines along the contour are a popular technology in dry stony areas. Since the lines are
R
permeable, they do not pond runoff water, but slow down the speed, filter it, and spread the
water over the field, thus enhancing water infiltration and reducing soil erosion. The lines are
constructed by making a shallow foundation trench along the contour. Larger stones are then
put on the downslope side of the trench. Smaller stones are used to build the rest of the bund.
Stone lines are suitable on gentle slopes in areas with annual rainfall of 200-750 mm. They are
often used to rehabilitate eroded and abandoned land. Plenty of stones should be locally
available. Most agricultural soils are suitable.
f. Grass Strips
Grass strips are a cheap alternative to terracing. Grass is planted in dense strips, up to a meter
wide, along the contour. These lines create barriers that minimize soil erosion and runoff. Silt
builds up in front of the strip, and within time benches are formed. The spacing of the strips
29
depends on the slope of the land. On gentle sloping land the strips should have a wide spacing
(20-30 m). On steep land the spacing needs to be less (10-15m).
Grass strips are suitable in areas where there is a need of fodder or mulch. If farmers do not
have livestock, they have little incentive to plant grasses. Grass strips are not applicable on
steep slopes and in very dry areas since grasses might not withstand drought.
g. Planting Pits
Planting pits are the simplest form of water harvesting. They have proved especially successful
for growing sorghum and millet in areas with minimal rainfall amounts. Small holes are dug at
a spacing of about 1 m. During rainstorms the planting pits catch runoff and concentrate it
around the growing plant. Crops are planted in the pits and thereby benefit from the increased
moisture availability in the pits. Compost or manure is placed in the pits before planting to
improve soil fertility. It is not necessary to follow the contour when constructing planting pits.
Dimensions of the pits vary according to the type of soil in which they are dug. Usually they
are between 10-30 cm in diameter and 5-15 cm deep.
U 3
Planting pits have proven successful in areas with annual rainfall of 200-750 mm. They are
D 2
particularly useful for rehabilitate barren, crusted soils and clay slopes, where infiltration is
E
limited and tillage is difficult. The slope should be gentle (below 2%) and soils should be fairly
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deep. Where soils are already shallow, they become even shallower when planting pits are
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dug. In those cases, farmers should not plant in the pit, but in top of the ridge of excavated
soils in order to maximize rooting depth.
R S
h. Semi-Circular Bunds
Semi-circular bunds are earth bunds in the shape of a semi-circle with the tip of the bunds on
T C A
EP S
the contour. The size of the bunds varies, from small structures with a radius of 2 m to very
large structures with a radius of 30 m. Semi-circular bunds are suitable on gentle slopes
(normally below 2%) in areas with annual rainfall of 200-750 mm. The soils should not be too
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shallow or saline.
i. Earth Basins
Earth basins are square or diamond shaped micro-catchments, intended to capture and hold
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all rainwater that falls on the field. The basins are constructed by making low earth ridges on
all sides of the basins. The size of the basin is usually 1-2 m being larger on flat land and
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smaller on sloping land. In some cases, basins of up to 30 m length are constructed. Sometimes
grass is planted on the bunds for reinforcement. Manure and compost can be applied to the
basin to improve fertility and water-holding capacity.
Earth basins are suitable in arid and semi-arid areas, with annual rainfall amounts of 150 mm
and above. Soils should be deep, preferably at least 1.5 m to ensure enough water holding
capacity. The slope can be from flat up to about 5%. If earth basins are constructed on steep
slopes, they should be made small.
O
j. Mulching
Mulching is done by covering the soil between crop rows or around trees or vegetables with
cut grass, crop residues, straw or other plant material. This practice help to retain soil moisture
R
by limiting evaporation, prevents weed growth and enhances soil structure. It is commonly
used in areas subject to drought and weed infestation. The mulch layer is rougher than the
surface of the soil and thus inhibits runoff. The layer of plant material protects the soil from
splash erosion and limits the formation of crust. The optimal proportion of soil cover ranges
between 30% and 70 %. Areas with limited rainfall usually respond very well to mulching.
Mulching is not applicable in wet conditions. The soils should have good drainage.
k. Cover Crops
Cover crops are usually creeping legumes which cover the ground surface between widely
spaced perennial crops such as fruit trees and coffee, or between rows of grain crops such as
maize. Often cover crops are combined with mulching. They are grown to protect the soil from
erosion and to improve soil fertility. Cover crops protect the soil from splashing raindrops and
too much heat from the sun. Most of the plants used as ground cover are legumes, such as
30
different varieties of beans and peas. Pigeon peas and other crops with strong tap roots and
longer growing season than maize and beans make good mix and can be used to break hard-
pans in semi-arid areas.
Cover crops are not very suitable for dry areas, with annual rainfall of less than 500 mm, since
they might compete for water with the main crop. Under such conditions it might be better to
keep the weeds and natural vegetation as cover.
l. Conservation Tillage
Conservation Tillage refers to the practice in which soil manipulation is reduced to a minimum.
This practice preserves soil structure and, increases soil moisture availability and reduces runoff
and erosion. Conventionally tillage is conducted basically to prepare land for sowing or planting
operations but mainly to control weeds. Unfortunately, conventional tillage destroys the
structure of the soil and compact it.
Conservation tillage is defined broadly with regard to four main application principles:
U 3
 No soil turning,
D 2
 Permanent soil cover,

E
Mulch planting (direct sowing),
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 Crop selection and rotation.
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No soil turning includes a No-till subsystem where the land is prepared without the use
of a conventional moldboard plough, or a Minimum-tillage sub-system where tine based
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implements are used to open soil to a minimum extent, only to make the insertion of seed
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possible. Minimum tillage may also be applied to break the hard pans, and where access
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to equipment is possible, the operation can be advanced to simultaneously insert seed
(and even fertilizer) into the soil while breaking the hard pan in the same single pass. The
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principle is also applicable for manual (hand hoe) operations where sharp heavy hoes are
applied to till only the spots where seeds are to be placed. This operation is referred to as
pitting or pot-holing.
Permanent soil cover protects soil from harsh rain drops, fauna-killing radiation, high
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temperatures and erosion, among other effects. Permanent soil cover can be achieved by
mulch or cover crops. In most cases mulch is derived by leaving a percentage of the crop
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stover on the farm at harvest time.
Mulch-planting (or direct-sowing) is necessary where ground surface is covered with

mulch.
Crop selection and rotation refers to selecting suitable crops and grow them in
sequence, one after another, in the same part of the farm or field. Crop rotation helps to
control crop diseases and pests and it also uses nutrient and mineral resource in the soil
O
efficient since different crops will exploit different soil minerals at different times.
R
DEFINITION OF TERMS
1. Drainage Coefficient – the depth of water in mm or inches to be removed in a 24-hour

period from the drainage area, (in mm/day or in/say)
2. Permeability – specific property of soil is measure of the readiness with which the soil
transmits water. Permeability is a velocity and for agricultural purposes can be conveniently
expressed either in inches/hour or cm/hour.
3. Infiltration – the downward movement of water into the soil through the soil surface, and
the rate is generally expressed in in/hr or mm/hr.
4. Transpiration – refers to the passage of soil water through the plant system, principally the
leaves and its vaporization into the atmosphere.
31
5. Stilling Basin – structured device designed to hold a pool of water to cushion the impact and
retard the flow of falling as from overflow weir, chute, or drop.
6. Riparian Right – a principle of English Common Law, which recognizes the right of riparian
owner to make reasonable use of the stream flow provided the water, is used on riparian land.
7. Riparian Land – is that which is contiguous to a stream or body of water surface.
8. Mole drain – type of drain whereby channels are produced by a tractor – drawn shaped metal
in a subsoil without a trench from the surface.
9. Strip Cropping – consist of growing alternate strips of clean cultivated and close – growing
crops in the same field.
10. Multiple Cropping or mixed cropping – planting different crops simultaneously in the same
U 3
field at the same cropping season.
11. Relay Cropping – (crop rotation) planting different crops, one after each season.
D 2
E
12. Compact Farming – adjoining farms operating as a single unit in a compact farm, the farmers
O 20
may still work on their respective farm but whatever possible work should be done in
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consortium, it is expected that there are more cooperation among the farmers because they
are under one management, farm plan and budget.
13. Check gates – is a gate placed across a stream from which it is desired to divert water. The
R S
function of the check gate is analogous to that of the dam of the diversion weir or the rivers
T C A
at the heads of canal systems.

EP S
14. Head gate – used to divert from a project canal into the farm delivery systems or from a man
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canal into lateral canals.
15. Flume – specially shaped and stabilized channel section, which may also be used to measure
flow and is generally less inclined to catch floating debris and sediments than a weir.
16. Culvert – closed conduit usually circular, square or rectangular in cross section, used for
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conveying water across and under an elevated roadway, embankments or dikes.

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17. Run-off coefficient – the ratio of depth of direct run – off to depth precipitation producing
the runoff over a drainage area.
18. Furrow Irrigation – an irrigation method which necessitates the welting of only part of the
surface (from ½ to 1/5) thus reducing evaporation losses, lessening the pudding of heavy
soils, and making it possible to cultivate the soil sooner after irrigation.
19. Corrugation – an irrigation that makes use of small, shallow furrows.

O
20. Spillway – a structure for passing out water not needed for storage or diversion.
21. Waterway – any open channel or closed – conduit that conveys water.
R
22. Total Dynamic Head – static head –plus pump, pipe and discharge head losses plus velocity
head.
23. Consumptive use – defined as the sum of the volumes of water used by the vegetation
growth of a given area for transpiration and building of plant tissues plus that evaporated from
the adjacent ground or intercepted precipitation on the area in any specified time divided by
the given area.
24. Apparent specific gravity – ratio of the soil bulk density to the density of water.
25. Land capacity – the suitability of land for cropping or some of her use and the degree or
intensity of land special soil and water conservation practices required for such use.
32
26. Field Capacity – soil moisture content after gravitation water has been removed. The
percentage of water held in the soil 2 or 3 days after a heavy rain.
27. Watershed – a horizontal projection of an area whose boundary follows ridges and summits
from which a lake or stream receives surface water originating as precipitation.
28. Percolation – downward movement of water within the soil.
29. Irrigation – the application of water to soil the purpose of supplying the moisture essential
for the plant growth.
30. Drainage – the removal of excess water from agricultural land by means of open or covered
drains.
31. Moisture Capacity – is the moisture content in the soil per unit depth, which is usually
expressed in inches per foot or mm per meter.
32. Seepage – the flow of liquid through porous media, the loss of water from irrigation canals.
U 3
33. Wilting Percentage – can be estimated by dividing the field capacity by a factor varying from
D 2
2.0 to 2.4 depending upon the amount of silt in the soil.
E
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34. Soil texture – the relative proportion of the various size groups of individual soil grain.
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C
35. Available soil moisture – quantity of water in the soil that is available for plant use, as
limited by the field capacity, and the permanent wilting percentage.
R S
36. Check Contour – an irrigation method formed by building longitudinal levees approximately
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parallel to the contour, and connecting them at desirable places with levees at right angles.
EP S
37. Basin method of irrigation – application of water in small basins to retain the water and
facilitate penetration. The basin may be formed in furrows or maybe several feet in dimensions.
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38. Hygroscopic water – immobile soil moisture that can be driven off only the heat.
39. Irrigation requirement – quantity of irrigation water, exclusive of precipitation, required by

crops for their normal growth under field condition.
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40. Soil – a natural body composed of mineral and organic material on the surface of the earth in
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which plants growth.
41. Drop structure – an irrigation structure that conveys water from a higher to a lower level,
maybe inclined or vertical.
42. Porosity – physical property of rock or soil material that defines degree to which they contain
interstices, expressed as ratio of volume or interstices to the total volume of rock or earthen
materials.
O
43. Hydraulic radius – the ratio of the cross-sectional area of the flow in an open channel to the
wetted perimeter of the flow in contact with the channel.
44. Contour line – an imaginary line of constant elevation on the surface of the ground.
R
45. Fertigation – the application of irrigation water with dissolved fertilizer to the field.
46. Soil Conservation – the application of engineering principle to the solution of soil
management problems, any method used to fully utilize and conserve soil.
47. Soil erosion – the wearing away or detachment of soil particles from earth surface by either
wind or water.
48. Graded terrace – constructed by cutting a shallow channel on the uphill side and using only
this soil to build the embankment.
49. Absolute humidity – in a system of moist air, the ratio of the mass of water vapor present
to the volume occupied by the mixture.
33
50. Accelerated erosion – erosion increased by human agency to beyond the normal geologic
rate.
51. Acre – foot – the volume of water required covering one acre to a depth of one foot, hence,
43, 560 cubic feet.
52. Adiabatic process – a thermodynamic change of state of a system in which there is no

transfer of heat or mass across the boundaries of the system.
53. Agricultural climatology – in general, climatology as applied to the effect of climate on

crops.
54. Air – the mixture of gases comprising the earth’s atmosphere. The percent by volume of those
gases found in relatively constant amount in dry air is as follows:
U 3
Nitrogen (N2) 78.084 %
Oxygen (O2 ) 20.946
D 2
Argon (A) 0.934
E
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) 0.033
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Neon (Ne) 0.0018
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Helium (He) 0.000524
Methane (CH4) 0.0002
Krypton (Kr) 0.000114
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Hydrogen (H2) 0.00005
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Nitrous Oxide (N2O) 0.00005
EP S
Xenon (Xe) 0.0000087
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In addition to the above constituents there are may variable constituents. Chief of these is
water vapor, which may vary from zero to four percent. Ozone, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide
and other trace gasses occur in small and varying amounts.
55. Air mass – a widespread body of air, the properties of which can be identified as having been
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established while that air was situated over a particular region of the earth’s surface. An air
mass is often defined as a widespread body of air that is approximately homogenous in its
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horizontal extent, particularly with reference to temperature and moisture distribution.
56. Air parcel – an imaginary body of air, which may be assigned any or all of the basis dynamic
and thermodynamic properties of air.
57. Air pocket – an expression of the amount of electromagnetic radiation reflected by a body to
the amount incident upon it.
O
58. Aitken nuclei – the microscopic particles in the atmosphere which serve as condensation
nuclei for droplet growth during the rapid adiabatic expansion.
59. Albedo – the ratio of the amount of electromagnetic radiation reflected by a body to the
R
amount incident upon it.
60. Aquiclude – a geologic formation which may contain large quantities of water but which does
not permit movement of water at rates sufficient to support larges springs or justify the
economic development of wells.
61. Aquifer – a geologic formation that transmit water in sufficient quantities to support the
economic development of wells.
62. Aquifuge - a geologic formation that has no interconnected openings and hence cannot
transmit or receive water.
63. Arid climate – generally, any extremely dry climate.
34
64. Arithmetic mean – also called mean, average which is one of the accepted measures of
central tendencies.
65. Atmosphere – the envelope of air surrounding the earth and bound to it by the earth’s
gravitational attraction exerted upon it by the column of air directly above the point in question.
66. Atmospheric pressure – the pressure exerted by the atmosphere as a consequence of

gravitational attraction exerted upon it by the column of air directly above the point in question.
67. Avalanche – a mass of snow moving rapidly down a mountain slope.
68. Biosphere – that transition zone between earth and atmosphere within which most of
terrestrial life are commonly found.
69. Black body – a hypothetical body which absorbs all of the electromagnetic radiation striking
it.
70. Boiling Point – the temperature at which the equilibrium vapor pressure between a liquid
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and its vapor is equal to the external pressure on the liquid.
D 2
71. Boltzman’s constant – the ration of the universal gas constant to Avogadro’s number equal
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to 1.3804 x 10-16 ergs per degree Kelvin.
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C
72. Buys Ballot – a law describing the relationship of the horizontal wind direction in the
atmosphere to the pressure distribution. If one stands with his back to the wind, the pressure
to the left is lower than to the right in the Northern Hemisphere.
R S
73. Calorie – a unit of heat defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of
T C A
one gram of water through one degree centigrade.

EP S
74. Capillarity – the phenomena resulting from the operation of surface tension on liquids in
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narrow tube.
75. Carbon cycle – a sequence of atomic nuclear reactions and spontaneous radioactive decays
which serves to convert matter into energy in the form of radiation and high speed particles.
76. Carbon dioxide – a heavy, colorless gas of chemical symbol CO2.

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77. Celsius temperature scale – a temperature scale with the ice point at 0 degree and the
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boiling point of water at 100 degrees. Conversation to the Fahrenheit temperature scale is
given by the formula.
78. Centrifugal Force – the apparent force in a rotating system, deflecting masses radically
outward from the axis of rotation.
79. Chemosphere – the vaguely defined region of the upper atmosphere in which photochemical
reactions take place.
O
80. Chi-square Test – a statistical significance test based upon the frequency of occurrence.
81. Circulation – the flow or motion of a fluid or through a given area or volume.
R
82. Clapeyron – Classius equation – the differential equation relating pressure to temperature
in given system in which two phases of a substance is in equilibrium. In formula form, it is
written as:
dp L
=
dT T∆V
where: p - pressure
T - temperature
L - latent heat of the phase change
∆V - difference in volume of the phase
83. Climate – the long term of weather. It is the statistical collective of weather conditions.
35
84. Climatological observation – the type of observation which includes the evaluation of
one more of the following: maximum – minimum temperature and total precipitation and
may also include the description of weather such as cloudy, clear etc. Observations are done
at least once daily.
85. Climatology – the scientific study of climate.
86. Cloud – a hydrometer consisting of a visible aggregate of minute water and or ice particles
in the atmosphere above the earth’s surface.
87. Cloud seeding – any technique carried out with the intent of adding to a cloud certain
particle that will alter the natural development of cloud.
88. Coalescence – the merging of two water drops into a single larger drop.
Concentration – the time required for water to travel from the most remote point of a river
U 3
89.
basin to the basin outlet.
D 2
90. Condensation – the physical process by which a vapor becomes liquid or solid.
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91. Conduction – the transfer of energy within and through a conductor by means of internal
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C
particle or molecular activity.
92. Conservation of energy – the principle that the total energy of an isolated system remains
R S
constant.
T C A
93. Conservation of mass - the principle that states that mass cannot be created nor
EP S
destroyed but only transferred from one volume to another. It is generally expressed in the
form of continuity equation.
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94. Convection – in general, mass motions within a fluid resulting in transport and mixing of
the properties of the fluid.
95. Critical depth – in a specified stream channel, the water depth at which the specific energy
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is the minimum for the given flow rate.
96. Dalton’s Law – the empirical generalization that for many so-called perfect gases, a mixture
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of these gases will have a pressure equal to the sum of the partial pressures that each of
these gases, mixture of these gases will have a pressure equal to the sum of the partial
pressures of these gases would have as sole component with the same volume and
temperature, provided there is no chemical interaction.
97. Degree – day – Generally, a measure of the departure of the mean daily temperature from
a given standard.
O
98. Density – the ration of the mass of any substance to the volume occupied by it (usually
expressed in grams per cubic centimeter).
99. Depression – in general, point or area of locally lower elevation in a particular surface. In
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meteorology an area of low pressure.
100. Dew point temperature – the temperature at which the air becomes saturated when air
is cooled under constant pressure and with constant water vapor content.
101. Diabatic process – thermodynamic change of state of a system in which there is transfer
of heat across the boundaries of a system.
102. Diffraction – the process by which the direction of radiation is changed so the it spreads
into the geometric shadow region of an opaque or refractive object that lies in a radiation
field.
103. Diffusion – in meteorology, the exchange of fluid particles between region spaces.
36
104. Discharge – the rate of flow of water past a point in a stream, expressed as volume per
unit time.
105. Doldrums – (Also called equatorial calms). A nautical term for the equatorial trough.
106. Drainage area – (Also called catchment area). The size of the area comprising a watershed
or river basin.
107. Drizzle – very small, numerous and uniformly dispersed water drops that may appear to
float while following air currents.
108. Drought – a period of abnormally dry weather sufficiently prolonged for the lack of water
to cause a serious hydrologic imbalance.
109. Dry – adiabatic lapse rate – A special lapse rate of temperature, defined as the rate of
decrease of temperature with height of a parcel air lifted adiabatically through an atmosphere
in hydrostatic equilibrium, the value being equal to 10 degrees Celsius per kilometer or 5.4
U 3
degrees Fahrenheit per thousand feet.
D 2
110. Dry season – in certain types of climates, an annually recurring period of one or more
E
months during which precipitation is at a minimum for that region.
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111. Dry spell – Loosely, a period of abnormally dry weather.
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C
112. Effective precipitable water – that part of the precipitable water which, in theory, can
actually fall as precipitation.
R S
113. Effective precipitation – that part of the precipitation that reaches stream channels as
T C A
runoff.
EP S
114. Ekman Layer – the layer of transition between the surface boundary layer where the
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shearing stress is constant, and the free atmosphere, where the atmosphere is treated as an
ideal fluid in geostrophic equilibrium.
115. Emissivity – the ratio of the emittance of a given surface at a specified wavelength and
emitting temperature to the emittance of an ideal black body at the same wavelength and
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temperature.
116. Entrainment – in meteorology, the mixing of environment air into a pre – existing organized
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air current so that the environmental becomes part of the current.
117. Environmental lapse rate – the rate of decrease of temperature with elevation. ∆T/∆z.
118. Equator – geographically, the imaginary great circle of latitude zero degree on the earth’s
surface.
119. Erosion – the movement of the soil or rock from one point to another by the action of the
O
sea, running water, precipitation or wind.
120. Evaporation – (Also called vaporization). The physical process by which liquid or solid is
transformed to the gaseous state.
R
121. Fog – a hydrometer consisting of a visible aggregate of minute water droplets suspended
in the atmosphere near the earth’s surface.
122. Foot –candle – a unit of illuminance equal to one lumen per square foot.
123. Forecast – a statement of expected future occurrences, that which is predicted.
124. Fraunhofer lines – dark lines in the absorption spectrum of solar radiation.
125. Free atmosphere – that portion of the earth’s atmosphere above the planetary boundary
layer in which the effect of the earth’s the air is friction on the air motion is negligible, and
in which the air is treated dynamically as an ideal fluid.
126. Freezing – the phase transition of a substance is passing from the liquid to the solid state.
37
127. Frequency – the rate of recurrence of an event in periodic motion.
128. Friction – the mechanical resistive force offered by one medium or body to the relative
motion of another medium or body in contact with the first.
129. Front – in meteorology, the interface or transition zone between two air masses of different
density.
130. Frontogenesis – the initial formation of a front.
131. Fusion – the phase transition of a substance passing from solid to the liquid state; melting.
132. General circulation – in its broadest sense, the complete statistical description of
atmospheric motions over the earth.
133. Global radiation – received by a unit horizontal surface.
U 3
134. Gray Body – a hypothetical “body” which absorbs some constant fraction, between zero
D 2
and one, of all electromagnetic radiation incidents upon it.
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135. Greenhouse effect – the heating effect exerted by the atmosphere upon the earth by
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virtue of the fact that the atmosphere absorbs and remits infrared radiation.
C
136. Growing season – generally, the period of the year during which the temperature of
cultivated vegetation remains sufficiently high to allow plants growth.
R S
137. Heat – a form of energy transferred between systems by virtue of a difference in
T C A
EP S
temperature and existing only in the process of energy transformation.
138. Heat balance – the equilibrium that exists on the average between the radiation received
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by the earth and atmosphere from the sun and that emitted by the earth and atmosphere.
139. Heat transfer – the transfer or exchange of heat by radiation, conduction or convection in
a fluid and or between the fluid and it surroundings.
140. Horizon – one of several lines or planes used as reference for observation and measurement
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relative to a given location on the surface of the earth generally referred to as horizontal
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direction.
141. Humidity – generally, some measure of water vapor content of air.
142. Hydraulic gradient - the slope of the profile of the static level for a hydraulic system. In
open channel flow, the hydraulic gradient is the slope of the water surface taken parallel to
the flow.
143. Hydrograph - a graphical representation of stage or discharge at a point on a stream as a

O
function of time.
144. Hydrologic cycle – the composite picture, including change of state and vertical and
horizontal transport of the interchange of water substance between the earth, the
R
atmosphere and seas.
145. Hydrology – the scientific study of the waters of the earth, especially with relation to the
effects of precipitation and evaporation upon the occurrence and character of water in
streams, lakes and or below the land surface.
146. Hydrometer – any product of condensation or sublimation of atmospheric water vapor

whether formed in the free atmospheric of at the earth’s surface.
147. Hydrometeorologies – that part of meteorology of direct concern to hydrologic problems,

particularly to flood control hydroelectric power, irrigation and similar fields of engineering
and water resources.
148. Hydrosol – a colloidal system in which the dispersion medium is water.
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149. Hydrosphere – the water portion of the earth.
150. Hyetograph – a map chart displaying temporal or aerial distribution of precipitation.
151. Hygrothermograph – a recording instrument combining on one record, the variation of

temperature and humidity as a function of time.
152. Ice crystal – any one of macroscopic crystalline forms in which ice appears, including
hexagonal columns, ice needles, etc.
153. Illuminance – the total luminous flux received on a unit area of a given real or imaginary
surface, expressed in such units as the foot – candle, lux, or phot. Illuminance is analogous
to irradiant.
154. Infiltration – the passage of water through the soil surface into the soil or the quantity of
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water entering the soil.
155. Infrared radiation – (Also called long-wave radiation). Electromagnetic radiation lying in
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the wavelength interval from about 0.8 micron to an indefinite upper boundary sometimes
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set at 1000 microns.
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C
156. Insulation – (Contracted from incoming solar radiation). In general, solar radiation received
at the earth’s surface.
157. Instability – a property of the steady state of a system such that certain disturbance or
R S
perturbations introduced into the steady state will increase in magnitude.
T C A
EP S
158. Instrument shelter – (or thermometer shelter) A box-like structure designed to protect
certain meteorological instruments from exposure to direct sunshine, precipitation and
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condensation, while at the same time providing ventilation.
159. Interception – the process by which precipitation is caught and retained on vegetation or
structures and subsequently evaporated without reaching the ground.
160. Intertropical convergence zone – (Also called equatorial convergence zone). The axis or
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portion thereof, of the broad trade wind current of the tropics. The axis is the dividing line
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between the southeast trades as the northeast trades.
161. Inversion – in meteorology, a departure from the usual decreases or increases altitude of
the value of an atmospheric property.
162. Ionosphere - the atmosphere shell characterized by a high ion density its base is at about
70 or 80 km and it extends to an indefinite height.
163. Irrigation – the artificial application of water to land to promote growth of crops.
O
164. Isallobars – a line of equal change in atmosphere pressure during a specified time interval.
165. Isentropic – of equal or constant entropy, (or in meteorology, potential temperature), with
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respect to either space or time.
166. Isobar – a line of equal or constant pressure; an isopleth. In meteorology, it most often
refers to a line drawn through all points of equal atmospheric pressure along a given
reference surface.
167. Isobaths - (sometimes called fathom curve). A contour of equal depth in a body of water.
168. Isobathythem – a line or surface showing the depths in oceans or lakes at which point
have the same temperature.
169. Isochrone – a line in a chart connecting points having the same time of occurrence of a
particular phenomenon. In meteorology, the past position of fronts, instability lines,
isotherms etc.
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170. Isocline – a line connecting points having the same vertical direction of a particular vector
quantity.
171. Isoclinic line – a line drawn through all points on the earth’s surface having the same
magnetic inclination.
172. Isogeotherms – a line or surface showing the depths in the ground at which points have
the same temperature. Isogeotherms are often drawn against coordinates of the time and
depth to represent the diurnal or annual variation of soil temperature.
173. Isogons – in meteorology, isogons are usually drawn the velocity vector as an aid in
constructing streamlines for a wind field.
174. Isohaline – of equal or constant salinity.
175. Isohyets – a line drawn through geographical points recording equal amounts of
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precipitation during a given period for a particular storm.
D 2
176. Isoneph – a line drawn through all points on a map having the same amount of cloudiness.
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177. Isopycnic – a line of equal or constant specific volume.
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C
178. Isoshear – a line of equal magnitude of vertical wind shear.
179. Isostere – a line of equal or constant temperature.
R S
180. Isotach - (also called isovel). A line in a given surface connecting points with equal wind
T C A
EP S
speed.
181. Isotherm – a line of equal or constant temperature.

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182. Jet stream – relatively strong wings concentrated within a narrow stream in the
atmosphere.
183. Joule – a unit of energy equal to 10 ergs or 0.2399 calorie.

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184. Katabatic wind – any wind blowing down an incline, the opposite of anabatic wind. If the
wind is warm, it is called a foehn; if cold, it may be a fall wind, or a gravity wind such as a
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mountain wind.
185. Katallobaric – of, or pertaining to, a decrease in atmosphere pressure.
186. Kelvin temperature scale – an absolute temperature scale independent of the

thermodynamic properties of the working substance. The ice point in the Kelvin scale in
273.160 K.
O
187. Kinetic energy – the energy which a body posses as a consequence of its motion, defined
a one- half the product of its mass and the square of its speed. ½ my2.
188. Kirchoff’s Law – the radiation law which state that a given temperature the ratio of the
R
emissivity to the absorptivity for a given wavelength is the same for all bodies and is equal
to the emissivity of an ideal black body at that temperature and wavelength.
189. Lambert’s law – a law in radiometry which state that at a given temperature of the ratio
of emissivity to the absorptivity for a given wavelength is the same for all bodies angle
between the normal to the surface and the direction of the radiation.
190. Land and sea breeze – the complete cycle of diurnal local winds occurring on seacoasts
due to differences in surface temperature of land and sea. The land breeze component of
the system blows from land to sea and the sea breeze blows from sea to land.
40
191. Land breeze – a coastal breeze blowing in the land to sea, caused by the temperature
difference when the sea surface is warmer than the adjacent land. Therefore, it usually blows
by the night and alternates with a see breeze, which blows in the opposite direction by day.
192. Langley – a unit of energy per unit area commonly employed in radiation theory; equal to
one – gram calorie per square centimeter.
193. Laplace equation – the elliptic partial differential equation.
194. Lapse line – a curve showing the variation of temperature with height in the free air.
195. Lapse rate – the decrease of an atmospheric variable with height, the variable being
temperature, unless otherwise specified.
196. Latent height – the heat released or absorbed per unit mass by a system in a reversible,
isobaric – isothermal change of phase. In meteorology, the latent heats of vaporization,
fusion and sublimation of water substance are of significance. At 00 C, these are, respectively,
U 3
Lv = 597.3 cal/gm
D 2
Lc = 79.7 cal/gm
E
Lv = 677.0 cal/gm
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197. Lifting condensation – the level at which a parcel of moist air lifted dry adiabatically would
C
become saturated. If T is the surface temperature and T the mean dew point temperature in
the surface layers, the height h of the lifting condensation level is given approximately by:
R S h = 120 (T – Td)
T C A
EP S
where: h is in meters and T in 0C
198. Light – visible radiation (about 0.4 to 0.7 micron in wavelength) considered in terms of its
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luminous efficiency, i.e. evaluated in proportion to its ability to stimulate the same of sight.
199. Lightning – generally, any and all of the various forms of visible electrical discharge produced
by thunderstorms.
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200. Lightning arrested – any device designed to carry to the ground the short duration surge
currents, which appear on power line during severe thunderstorms.
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201. Lightning rod – a grounded metallic conductor with its upper extremely extending above
the structure that is to be protected from damage due to lightning.
202. Limnology – the physics and chemistry of fresh water bodies and of the land classification,
biology and ecology of the organisms living in them.
203. Linear differential equation – the differential equation that is linear in the dependent
O
variable and derivatives thereof.
204. Liquid – in glass thermometer - a thermometer in which the thermally sensitive element
is a liquid contained in a graduated glass envelope.
R
205. Lithometeor – the general term for dry atmospheric suspensoids, including dust, haze,
smoke and sand.
206. Lithosphere – the outer, solid portion of the earth; the crust of the earth.
207. Local derivative – the rate change of a quantity with respect to time at a fixed point of a
fluid. f/t.
208. Low – (sometimes called depression). In meteorology, elliptical for “area of low pressure”
referring to a minimum at atmospheric pressure in two dimensions (closed isobars) on a
constant – height chart or a minimum of height (closed contours) on a constant – pressure
chart.
41
Since a low is, on a synoptic chart, always associated with cyclonic circulation, the term is
used interchangeably with cyclone.
209. Lower atmosphere – generally and quite loosely. That part of the atmosphere in which
most weather phenomena occur (i.e., the troposphere and the lower stratosphere).
210. Lumen – a unit of luminous flux. The lumen is equal to the luminous flux is radiated into a
unit solid angle from a small source having a luminous intensity of one candle.
211. Lunar day – (also called tidal day). The time for the earth to rotate once with respect to the
moon, i.e., the time between two successive upper transits of the moon. The mean lunar day
is approximately 1.035 times as gear as the mean solar day.
212. Lux – a photometric unit of illuminance equal to one lumen per square meter.
213. Macroclimate – the general large – scale climate of a large area.
214. Micrometeorology - the study of the largest – scale aspects of the atmosphere, such as the
U 3
general circulation.
D 2
215. Maximum thermometer – a thermometer so designed that it registers the maximum
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temperature attained during an interval of time.
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C
216. Maxwell’s law – the statement that the viscosity of air is independent of the density of air.
217. Mean sea level – the average height of the sea surface, based upon hourly observation of
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tide height on the open coast or in adjacent waters, which have free access to the sea.
T C A
218. Mean solar day – the interval of time between two successive meridional transits of the
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mean sun an imaginary point moving with such constant angular velocity along the celestial
equator. The mean solar day is 86, 400 seconds, or 1.0027379 sideral day.
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219. Mean temperature – the average temperature of the air as indicated by a properly exposed
thermometer during a given time period, usually a day, a month, or year.
220. Median – one of several measures of central tendency.

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221. Melting point – the temperature at which a solid substance undergoes fusion, i.e., melts,
changes from solid to liquid form.
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222. Meniscus – the upper surface of a column of liquid.
223. Mesosphere – the atmospheric shell between about 20 km. And about 70 and 80 km,
extending from the top of the stratosphere to the upper temperature minimum.
224. Mesosphere – a type of plant, which requires moderate temperatures for full growth.
225. Meteorology - the study dealing with the phenomena of the atmosphere.
O
226. Methane – (Also called marsh gas). A colorless, inflammable gas of chemical formula CH4.
227. Micrometeorology – which portions of the science of meteorology that deals with the
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observation and explanation of the smallest scale physical and dynamic occurrences within
the atmosphere.
228. Mirage – a refraction phenomenon wherein an image of some object is made to appear
displaced from its position.
229. Mist – a hydrometer consisting of an aggregate of microscopic and more or less hygroscopic
water droplets suspended in the atmosphere.
230. Mixing Ration – in a system of moist air, the dimensionless ratio of the mass of water vapor
to the mass of dry air. The mixing ratio maybe approximated by the specific humidity. In
terms of the pressure p and vapor pressure e, the mixing ratio w is
W = 0.622e
42
P–e
231. Monsoon – a name for seasonal winds (derived from Arabic mausim, a season). The
monsoons are strongest on the southern and eastern sides of Asia, but monsoons also occur
on the coast of tropical regions wherever the planetary circulation is not strong enough to
inhibit them.
232. Mountain and valley winds – a system of diurnal winds along the axis of a valley, blowing
uphill and upvalley by day, and downhill and downvalley by night, they prevail mostly in calm,
clear weather.
233. Multiple correlation – the correlation between a random variable and its regression
function.
234. Muskingum method - a method of streamflow routing in which the channel storage S is
assumed to conform to the equation S = K x l + (1-x) 0
U 3
Where l and O are instantaneous values of inflow and outflow respectively, x is an
D 2
dimensionless constant reflecting the relative importance of l and O in determining storage,
and K is a storage constant with the dimension of time. K and x are characteristics of a
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particular reach and are determined by analysis of past floods in the reach. The method
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assumes that storage is a linear function of the weight flow in the reach and is adaptable to
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a simple mathematical solution.
235. Newton’s Law of motion – a set of three fundamentals postulates forming the basis of the
R S
mechanics of rigid bodies. The first law is concerned with the principle of inertia and states
T C A
that if a body in motion is not acted by an internal force, its momentum remains constant
EP S
(law of conservation of momentum). The second laws assert that the rate of change of
momentum of a body is proportional to the force acting upon the body and is in the direction
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of the applied force. A familiar statement is the equation.
F = ma
Where F is vector sum of the applied force, m the mass, and a vector acceleration of the
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body. The third law is the principle of action and reaction, stating that for every force acting
upon a body there exists a corresponding force of the same magnitude exerted by the body
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in the opposite direction.
236. Nimbostratus – a principal cloud type, gray and often dark, rendered diffuse by more or
less continuously falling rain, snow, sleet etc. and not accompanied by lightning, thunder or
hail.
237. Nitrogen – a colorless, tasteless, odorless gaseous element. It is the most abundant
constituent of the atmosphere amounting to 78.09 percent by volume of dry air.
O
238. Non – recording rain gage – a rain gage that indicated but does not record the amount of
precipitation captured.
239. Nucleation – any process by which the phase of change of a substance to a more condensed
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state is initiated at certain loci within the less condensed state.
240. Numerical forecasting – the forecasting of the behavior of atmospheric disturbances by

the numerical solution of the governing fundamental equations of hydrodynamics subject to
observed initial conditions.
241. Occluded front – a composite of two fronts, formed as a cold front overtakes a warm front
or quasi – stationary front.
242. Ocean – (or sea). The intercommunicating body of salt water occupying the depressions of
the earth’s surface.
243. Orographic Lifting – the lifting of an air current caused by its passage up and over
mountains.
43
244. Orographic precipitation – precipitation that results from the lifting of moist air over an
Orographic barrier such as a mountain range.
245. Overcast – descriptive of a sky cover 1.0 (95 percent or more) when at least a portion of
this amount is attributable to clouds or obscuring phenomena runoff.
246. Overland flow – (also called surface flow). Water flowing over the ground surface toward a
channel. Upon reaching the channel, it is called surface runoff.
247. Oxygen – lN its free form, a colorless, tasteless and odorless gaseous element. It comprises
20.946 percent by volume of dry air; its molecular weight is 32 and its molecular formula is
O2.
248. Ozone – a nearly colorless gaseous from oxygen, with a characteristic odor like that of weak
chlorine. Its formula is O3 and the molecular weight is 48.
U 3
249. Parcel method – a method of testing for instability in which a that only the parcel or parcels
D 2
displaced are affected, the environment remaining unchanged.
E
250. Partial derivative – the ordinary derivative of a function of two or more variable with respect
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to one of the variables, the others being considered constants.
C
251. Partial duration series – a series composed of all events during the period of record which
exceed some set criterion, e.g. all floods above a selected base, or all daily rainfalls greater
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than a specified amount.
T C A
252. Partial potential temperature – the temperature that the dry-air component of an air
EP S
parcels would attain if its actual partial pressure were changed to 1000 mb. That is,
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Od = T 10000 289
p–e
where: Od is the partial potential temperature,

T the absolute temperature of air,
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p the total air pressure,

e the partial pressure of the water vapor present.
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253. Perihelion – the point on the earth’s surface, which is nearest the sun. At present, the earth
reaches this point on about January 1.
254. Perturbation – any departure introduced into an assumed steady state of a system.
255. Phenology – the science that deals or treats of periodic biological phenomena with relation
to climate, especially seasonal changes.
O
256. Photosphere – the intensely bright portion of the sum visible to the unaided eye.
257. Phereatic surface – same as water table.

R
258. Phreatic zone – same as zone of saturation.
259. Phreatophyte – a plant which habitually obtains its water, supply either directly from the
zone of saturation, or through the capillary fringe.
260. Physical meteorology – that branch of meteorology which deals with the optical, electrical,
acoustical and thermodynamic phenomena of the atmosphere, its chemical composition, the
laws of radiation and the explanation of clouds and precipitation.
261. Planetary boundary layer – that layer of the atmosphere from the earth’s surface to the
geostrophic wind level including the surface boundary layer and the Ekman layer
262. Point rainfall – the rainfall during a given time interval measured in a rain gage.
44
263. Potential energy – the energy that a body possesses as a consequence of its position in
the field of gravity.
264. Potential evapotranspiration – generally, the amount of moisture which, if available would
be removed from a given land area by evapotranspiration.
265. Perceptible water – the total atmospheric water vapor contained in a vertical column of
unit cross- sectional area extending between any two specified levels, commonly expressed
in terms of height to which that water substance would stand if completely condensed and
collected in a vessel of the same unit cross – section.
266. Pressure – a type of stress characterized by uniformity in all direction.
267. Probability – the chance that a prescribed event will occur, represented as a pure number
p in the range of pl. The probability of an impossible event is zero and that of inevitable events
is unity.
U 3
268. Probable maximum precipitation – the theoretically greatest depth of precipitation for a
given duration that is physically possible over a particular drainage area at a certain year of
D 2
the year.
E
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269. Process lapse rate – the rate of decrease of the temperature of an air parcel as it is lifted,
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C
-dT/dz, or occasionally dT/dp where p is pressure.
270. Pyranometer – general name for the class of actionometers, which measure the combined
intensity of incoming direct solar radiation and fiffuse, sky radiation.
R S
T C A
271. Pyrhelliometer – general term for the class of actionometers, which measure the intensity
EP S
of direct solar radiation.
272. Quantum theory – the theory first stated by Max Planck that all electromagnetic radiation
N W SU
is emitted and absorbed in quanta each of magnitude Hv, h being Planxk’s constant and v the
frequency of the radiation.
273. Radiation – the process by which electromagnetic radiation is propagated through free space
by virtue of joint undulatory variation in the electric and magnetic fields in place.
O IE L
274. Radiation laws – the four physical laws which, together fundamentally describe the behavior
D EV C
of blackbody radiation.
275. Kirchoff’s Law – the essentially a thermodynamic relationship between emission and
absorption of any given wavelength a given temperature.
276. Planck’s law – describes the variation of intensity of black body radiation at a given
temperature, as a function of wavelength.
277. The Stefan-Boltzmann Law – relates the time rate of energy emission from a black body
O
to its absolute temperature.
278. Wien’s Law – relates the wavelength of maximum intensity emitted by a black body to its
absolute temperature.
R
279. Rain – precipitation in the form of liquid water drops, which have diameters greater than 0.5
mm, or, if widely scattered the drops may be smaller. The only other form of liquid
precipitation, drizzle, is to be distinguished from rain in that drizzle drops are generally less
than 0.5 mm, are very much numerous.
280. Rainbow – any one of a family areas consisting of concentric colored bands, arranged from
red on the inside to blue on the outside, which may be seen on a sheet of water drops (rain,
fog, spray).
281. Rainy day – in British climatology, a period of 24 hours normally commencing at 9 a.m
G.M.T., in which at least 0.01 inch or 0.0254 mm of precipitation is recorded.
45
282. Raindrop – a drop of water of diameter greater than 0.5 mm falling through the atmosphere.
283. Rainfall – the amount of precipitation of any type; usually taken as that amount which is
measured be means of a rain gage.
284. Rainy season – (Also called wet season). In certain types of climate an annually recurring
period of one or more months during which precipitation is a maximum for that region.
285. Rankine temperature scale – a temperature scale with the degree of the Fahrenheit
temperature scale and the zero point of Kelvin temperature scale. The ice point is thus 491.69
degrees Rankine and the boiling point of water is 671.69 degrees.
286. Raoult’s law – a law of physical; chemistry relating the vapor tension of a solution to a) The
saturation vapor pressure of pure water of the same temperature, and to b) The solute
concentration.
287. Recession - the decrease in Streamflow, at a point along a stream channel, following the
U 3
passages of a crest (also called falling limb).
D 2
288. Recording raingauge - (Also called pluviograph). A rain gauge, which automatically records
E
the amount of precipitation, collected as a function of time.
O 20
289. Reflection – the process where by a surface of discontinuity turns back a portion of the
R LA BE
C
incident radiation int the medium through which the radiation approached.
290. Refraction – the process in which the direction of energy propagation in change as the result
R S
in density within the propagating medium. Or as the energy passes through the interface
T C A
representing a density of discontinuity between two media.
EP S
291. Relative humidity – the ratio of the actual vapor pressure of the air to the saturation vapor
pressure.
N W SU
292. Rising limb – the rising portion of the hydrographic resulting from runoff of rainfall or
snowmelt.
293. River basin – the total area drained by a river and is tributaries.
O IE L
294. River forecast – a forecast of the expected stage or discharge at a specified time, or of the
D EV C
total volume of flow within a specified time interval, at one or more point along a stream.
295. Roughness coefficient – a measure of the roughness of a surface over which a fluid is
flowing, defined as follows:
Z0 = c/20
where: Z0 is the roughness length

c is the average height of surface irregularities
O
296. Runoff – the water, derived from precipitation that ultimately reaches stream channels.
297. Runoff cycle – the part of hydrologic cycle undergone by water between the time it reaches
the land as precipitation and its subsequent evapotranspiration through stream channels.
R
298. Salinity – a measure of quantity of dissolve salts in seawater. It is formally defined as the
total amount of dissolved solids in sea water is parts per thousand (0/00) by weight when all
the carbonate has been converted to oxide, the bromide and iodine to chlorine and all organic
matter is completely oxidized. The relationship between salinity S and chlorinity CL is given
by the equation
S = 0.03 + 1.805 CL
299. Saturation – the condition in which the partial pressure of any fluid constituent is equal to
its maximum possible partial pressure under the existing environmental conditions.
300. Saturation deficit – the difference between the actual vapor pressure and the saturation
vapor pressure at the existing temperature.
46
301. Saturation vapor pressure – the vapor pressure of a system at a given temperature,
wherein the vapor pressure of a substance is in equilibrium with a plane surface of that
substance’s pure liquid or solid phase.
302. Scattering – the process by which small particles suspended in a medium of a different index
of refraction diffuse a portion of the incident radiation in all directions.
303. Sea level pressure – the atmospheric pressure at mean sea level.
304. Season – a division of the year according to some regularly recurrent phenomena, usually
astronomical or climatic.
305. Second-foot day – the volume of water represented by a flow of one cubic foot per second
for 24 hours; equal to 86,400 cubic feet.
306. Second law of thermodynamics – an inequality asserting that it is impossible to transfer

heat from colder to a warmer system without the occurrence of other simultaneous changes
U 3
in to two system or in the environment.
D 2
307. Sensible temperature – the temperature at which “average indoor air” of moderate
E
humidity would induce, in a lightly clothed person. The same sensation of comfort as that
O 20
induced by the actual environment.
R LA BE
C
308. Shower – precipitation from a connective cloud. Showers are characterized by the
suddenness with which they start and stop.
R S
309. Sidereal day – the interval of time between two successive meridional transits of the vernal
T C A
equinox, equal to 23h 56m 4.09 sec reckoned in the mean solar day.
EP S
310. Sky – the vault – like apparent surface against which all aerial objects are seen from the
earth.
N W SU
311. Sling psychometer – a psychometer in which the wet and dry bulbs one end by means of
a bearing or a length of chain.
312. Smog – a mixture of smoke and fog.

O IE L
313. Soil air – (Also called soil atmosphere). The air and other gases in space in the soil;
D EV C
specifically, that which is found within the zone of aeration.
314. Solar constant – the rate at which solar radiation is received outside the earth’s atmosphere
of a surface normal to the incident radiation, and at the earth’s means distance from the sun,
the value being equal to 2.00 gram – calories per cm2 per minute.
315. Solar radiation – the total electromagnetic radiation emitted by the sun.
316. Specific energy – in hydrology, the energy at any cross section of an open channel
O
measured above the channel bottom as datum. Numerically, it is the sum of the water depth
plus the velocity head v2/2g where v is the velocity of flow and g the acceleration of gravity.
317. Specific gravity – the ratio of the density of the substance to the density of water 4OC.
R
318. Specific heat – the heat capacity of a system per unit mass, i.e., the ratio of the heat
absorbed or released by unit mass of the system to the corresponding temperature rises or
falls.
319. Specific humidity – in a system of moist air, the ratio of the mass of water vapor to the
total mass of the system.
320. Specific volume – volume per unit mass of a substance.
321. Specific yields – the quantity of water, which a unit volume of aquifer after being saturated,
will yield by gravity.
322. Squall – a strong wind characterized by a sudden onset, duration of the order of minutes,
and a rather sudden decrease in speed.
47
323. Staff gage – a graduated scale placed in a position so that the stage of a stream may be
read directly therefrom.
324. Stage – the elevation of the water surface in a stream as measured by a river gage with
reference to some arbitrary selected zero datum.
325. Stefan- Boltzmann constant – a universal constant of proportionally between radiant

emittance of a black body and the fourth power of the body’s absolute temperature. Its
magnitude is approximately 8.22 x 1011 Langley/min.
326. Stefan- Boltzmann law – one of the radiation laws which states that the amount of energy
radiated per unit time from a unit surface area of an ideal black body is proportional to the
fourth power area of the absolute temperature of the black body. It is written as
E = T4
where: E - emittance of the black body, the Stefan – Boltzmann constant,
U 3
T the absolute temperature of the black body.
327. Storage equation – in hydrology, the equation of continuity applied to unsteady flow. It
D 2
E
states that the fluid inflow to a given space during an interval of time minus the outflow during
O 20
the same interval is equal to the change in storage.
R LA BE
C
328. Storm – any disturbed state of the atmosphere, especially as affecting the earth’s surface
and strongly implying destructive or unpleasant weather.
R S
329. Storm surge – (Also called tidal wave). An abnormal rise of the sea along a shore as the
T C A
result, primarily, of the winds of a storm.
EP S
330. Storm warming – in general, a specially worded forecast of severe weather condition
designed to alert the public to impending dangers.
N W SU
331. Stratosphere – the atmosphere shell above the troposphere and below the mesosphere.
332. Streamflow – the water flowing in a stream channel.
333. Streamflow routing – (Also called flood routing, storage routing). In hydrology, a procedure
O IE L
used to derive a downstream Hydrograph from an upstream Hydrograph and considerations

D EV C
of local inflow by solving the storage equation.
334. Sublimation – the transition of a substance from the solid phase directly to the vapor phase,
or vice versa without passing through an intermediate liquid phase.
335. Sunrise – the phenomenon of the sun’s daily appearance on the eastern horizon as a result
of the earth’s rotation.
336. Surface runoff – the water that reaches streams by traveling over the surface of the soil.
O
337. Temperature – in thermodynamics, the integrating factor of the differential equation

referred to as the first law of thermodynamics. In general, it is the degree of hotness or
coldness as measured on some definite temperature scale.
R
338. Thunderstorm – (Sometimes called electrical storm). In general, a local storm invariably
produced by a cumulonimbus cloud, and always accompanied by lightning and thunder;
usually with strong gusts of wind, heavy rain and sometimes with hail.
339. Tide – the periodic rising and falling of the earth’s ocean and atmosphere. It results from the
tide – producing forces of the moon and sun acting upon the rotating earth.
340. Tornado – (Sometimes called cyclone). A violently rotation of column of air, pendant from a
cumulonimbus cloud, and nearly observable as “funnel cloud’
341. Trace – a precipitation amount of less than 0.005 inch.
342. Trade winds – the system, occupying most of the tropics, which blows from the subtropical
highs toward the equatorial trough.
48
343. Transpiration – the process by which water in plants is transferred as water vapor to the
atmosphere.
344. Tropical climate – in general, a climate that is typical of equatorial and tropical regions.
345. Tropical cyclone – in general term for cyclone that originates over tropical oceans.
346. Tropopause – the boundary between the troposphere and stratosphere, usually
characterized by an abrupt change of lapse rate.
347. Troposphere – that portion of the atmosphere from the earth’s surface to the Tropopause,
i.e., the lowest 10 to 20 km of the atmosphere.
348. Trough – in meteorology, an elongated area of relatively low atmospheric pressure.
349. Typhoon – a severe tropical cyclone in the Western Pacific.
350. Ultraviolet radiation – electromagnetic radiation of shorter wavelength than visible
U 3
radiation but longer that x-ray, i.e., 10 to 4000 angstroms.
D 2
351. Valley wind – a wind, which ascends a mountain valley during the day.
E
O 20
352. Vapor pressure – the pressure exerted by the molecules of a given vapor.
R LA BE
C
353. Visibility – the greatest distance in a given direction at which it is just possible to see and
identify with the unaided eye a) in the daytime, a prominent dark object against the sky at
horizon, b) at night, a known unfocused moderately intense light source.
R S
T C A
EP S
FORMULAS RELEVANT TO IRRIGATION SYSTEMS AND
LAND AND WATER CONSERVATION ENGINEERING
N W SU
1. General formula for water yield of wells
Q =  k (H2 – h2)
O IE L
Loge R/r
D EV C
where: Q - rate of flow, cubic feet per day

K - hydraulic conductivity, feet/day
H - height of the static water level above the bottom of water bearing formation,
ft.
h - height of the water level at the well measured from the water bearing
formation, ft.
R - radius of influence, ft.
O
r - radius of the well
2. Water yield of a confined and unconfined well

R
Q = 2 () k * t (he – hw)

log10 (re / rw)
Notes: For definitions of variables, refer to figure 3.8 of Irrigation Systems Handbook (Orcullo,
1997) or other books by any author
The formula for unconfined well and unconfined well is essentially the same but the definition of
variables varies (refer to Figure 3.9 of Irrigation Systems Handbook) (Orcullo, 1997) or other books
by any author.
49
3. Soil Moisture content, dry weight basis
P = Ww - Wd * 100
Wd
where: Pw - moisture content of soil on dry weight basis, %

Ww - weight of moist soil
Wd - weight of water free soil
4. Soil moisture content, volume basis
Pv = Pw * As * 100
where: Pv - moisture content of soil on volume basis, %

Pw - moisture content of soil on dry weight basis
U 3
As - apparent specific gravity of soil
D 2
5. Porosity
E
O 20
R LA BE n = 100 (1-As / Rs)
C
where: n - the percentage pose space
As - the apparent specific gravity of soil
R S Rs - the real specific gravity, approximately 2.5 for most agricultural fields
T C A
EP S
6. Total available moisture (TAM)
N W SU
TAM = FC – PWP, %
where: TAM - total available moisture, %

FC - field capacity, %
O IE L
PWP - permanent wilting point, %

D EV C
For values of FC and PWP, refer to Table 5.5 of Irrigation Systems Handbook (Orcullo, 1997) or
other books by any author.
7. Range - the level of moisture within which TAM is allowed to be utilized
R = RAM * TAM
O
where: R - range
RAM - readily available moisture (refer to appropriate table)
TAM - total available moisture
R
8. Depth of readily available moisture
dram = (FC – Pw) As * RZD

100
where: FC - field capacity

Pw - moisture content of soil, %
= FC – R
As - Apparent specific gravity
RZD - root zone depth
50
9. Evapotranspiration
E = Evaporation + Transpiration
10. Water Requirements
WR = Evapotranspiration + percolation losses
11. Irrigation requirements
IR = water requirements + farm wastes/losses – effective rainfall
12. Farm turn –out requirements
FTR = irrigation requirements (IR) – farm/ditch losses
U 3
13. Diversion Requirements
D 2
E
DR = farm turnout requirements + conveyance losses in canals and
O 20
laterals up to farm turnout
R LA BE
C
14. Amount of water for transpiration (Cherkasov, 1952)
R S W=kxR
T C A
where: W - amount of water required for transpiration
EP S
R - total yield of dry matter
K - transpiration coefficient (refer to Table 6.3 of Irrigation Systems Handbook
N W SU
(Orcullo, 1997) or other books by any author.
15. Dalton’s surface evaporation formula

O IE L
E = (es – ed) f (u)
where: E - surface evaporation

D EV C
es - maximal pressure of saturated vapor at the water surface temperature in

inches of mercury (Hg)
ed - vapor pressure of saturated air at temperature of dew point, in. Hg
f(u) - function of horizontal wind velocity
16. Rohwer’s evaporation formula

O
E = (1.458 – 0.0186B) (0.44 + 0.118W) (es – ed)
where: B - Mean barometer reading, in. Hg

W - mean wind velocity at ground or water surface
R
17. Leather’s evaporation formula
e = 2.0 (log t – 1.74) + 0.33 (log D – 100) 0.36 (log W – 0.125)
where: E and W are in metric units whereas t in English unit (F)
18. Folle’s formula
E = (es – ed) [0.319 + 0.358 (W – 10.80)]
Note: This equation assumes that wind with a speed lower than 10.8 mph has no influence on
irrigation.
51
19. Fitzgerald’s formula
E = (0.40 + 0.199 W) (es – ed)
20. Sterling’s formula
E = (0.8424 + 0.1056 W (es – ed)
where: E, es, and ed are in millimeters and W in meters per second
21. Consumptive use formulas
Et = (E1 + T) = A – (B=C)
where: Et - evapotranspiration
U 3
E1 - evaporation from tanks without plants
T - transpiration of plants
D 2
P - percolation
E
O 20
Note: refer to Figure 6.5 of Irrigation Systems Handbook (Orcullo, 1997) or other books by any
R LA BE
author.
C
Et = E0 R + L
R S
where: Et - evapotranspiration (mm/day)
T C A
E0 - evapotranspiration of class *A* pan (mm/day)
EP S
R - evaporation coefficient
L - constant
N W SU
Et = [ H + 0.27 Ea] (Penman formula)

 - 0.27
Note: For definitions of other variables, refer to 126 of Irrigation Systems Handbook (Orcullo,
O IE L
1997) or other books by any author.

D EV C
22. Thornthwaite consumptive use formula
ETP = 1.6 [10 t]a k - ETP is also referred to as Et

l
where: ETP - potential evapotranspiration, mm
t - mean monthly air temperature, C
l - annual heat index
O
= sum of the monthly heat indices, “i” = i

a - [1.6/100] x l + 1.6
k - corrective coefficient for geographical latitude
R
Maximum evapotranspiration Et max = 1.5 Et average
Note: For definitions of other variables, refer to 129 of Irrigation Systems Handbook (Orcullo,
1997) or other books by any author
23. Lowry-Johnson consumptive use formula
U = 0.8 to 0.56 F
24. Blaney – Cradlle consumptive use formula
𝐔 = [𝐏(𝟎. 𝟒𝟔𝐓 + 𝟖. 𝟏𝟑)]𝐤
52
where: U - consumptive use of crops

t - mean monthly temperature in F
k - empirical coefficients of certain as crops as shown on Table 6.8 of Irrigation
Systems Handbook (Orcullo, 1997)
P - percentage day-time hours of the year occurring that period (refer to Table
6.11 of Irrigation Systems Handbook (Orcullo, 1997)
25. Bouchet’s consumptive use formula
ETP = 0.37 E(1+ t)
where: ETP - potential evapotranspiration, mm/day

E - evaporation on the Piche’s evaporimeter in shelter, mm/day
t = tm + tr/2
tm = dew point temperature, C
U 3
tr = dew point temperature
(1 + t) - refer to Table 6.10 of Irrigation Systems Handbook (Orcullo, 1997)
D 2
E
O 20
26. Shaumyan’s formula
R LA BE
C
𝐄𝐬𝐮𝐦 = 𝐓 𝐱 𝐤 𝐱 𝐭 (𝟎. 𝟑𝐯 + 𝟏)√𝟏 − 𝐏/𝟏𝟎𝟎
R S
where: Esum - water requirement
= period of which the Esum is determined in days
T C A
k - coefficient of yield [ reflecting the influence of biological factors, refer to

EP S
Table 6.11 of Irrigation Systems Handbook (Orcullo, 1997)
T - mean air temperature during the period t C
N W SU
v - mean wind velocity in the period T, meters/second

P - relative air humidity in the period T, %
27. Practical methods of measuring evapotranspiration

O IE L
Water requirement (I) = k/Tn (General formula)

D EV C
where: I - intake rate of soil in/hour

T - time that water is on surface of soil, minutes
K, n - empirical values dependent upon soil characteristics and moisture
Conditions at the time of Irrigation
28. Depth of Irrigation water

O
P v x D P w x As x D
d= =
100 100
R
where: d - depth of irrigation water

D - depth f root zone
PV - moisture content of soil on volume basis
PW - moisture content of soil on dry weight basis
AS - apparent specific gravity
29. Water applied
C*q*t=A*d (General formula)
where: q - size of the stream

t - time required to irrigate the area, hours
A - area irrigated, hectares
53
d - depth that the volume of water used would cover the area irrigated quickly
spread uniformly on its surface, cm
c - constant depending upon the units of discharge q
c - 100 when q is in cubic meters per hour
c - 27.8 when q is in liters per second
30. Flow measurement
Q = AV (General formula)
where: Q - discharge, cubic meters/second

A - cross sectional area of water, square meters
V - mean velocity of water, meters/second
31. Average stream
U 3
QAVE = 2/3 (AAVE) (VAVE)
D 2
E
where: QAVE - average discharge, cubic meters per second
O 20
AAVE - average stream cross-sectional area, square meters
R LA BE
C
VAVE - maximum stream velocity, meters per second
Note: The average stream velocity is usually about 2/3 of the water surface stream velocity.
R S
T C A
32. Weirs and orifices
EP S
Q = C * I * hm
N W SU
where: Q - discharge
C - coefficient dependent on the nature of the crest and approach condition
L - length of the crest
hm - head of the crest, and the exponent *m* is dependent upon the shape of the
O IE L
weir opening
D EV C
33. Orifice under head
𝐐 = 𝐂 𝐀 √𝟐𝐠𝐡
where: Q - discharge, cubic meters per second

A - cross-sectional area of the orifice
g - 32.2 ft/sec2
h - height (depth) of water from surface down to the orifice area
O
Note: Refer to the various nomenclatures and schematic diagrams of the orifices from the book
Irrigation Systems Handbook (Orcullo, 1997) or any other reference textbook.
R
34. Submerge orifice
𝐪 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟏 𝐀 √𝟐𝐠𝐡
35. Rectangular weir
𝐐 = 𝟐𝐂𝐋𝐡 √𝟐𝐠𝐡
𝟑
𝐐 = 𝟐𝐂𝐋𝐡𝟐 𝐠𝐡
54
36. Partly-filled orifice
𝐐 = 𝟐𝐡𝐋
37. Trapezoidal weir
𝟓
𝑸 = 𝟐. 𝟒𝟗𝑯𝟐
38. Triangular notch weir
𝟓
𝑸 = 𝟐. 𝟒𝟗𝑯𝟐
39. Velocity formula
U 3
𝐕 = √𝟐𝐠𝐡 (General velocity formula for orifices)
D 2
where: V - average velocity in feet per second
E
g - acceleration due to gravity, 32 2 f/sec2
O 20
h - depth of water (feet) or pressure head
R LA BE
C
40. Manning velocity equation
R S
V = 1.486/n R2/3 S1/2 (English units) V = 1/n R2/3 S1/2 (Metric units)
T C A
EP S
where: V - velocity, feet per second
n - roughness coefficient (see reference tabl0se)
R - hydraulic radius of the channel, meters
N W SU
- A (wetted area of the channel) (wetted perimeter of the channel)

S - slope/gradient of the channel, %
41. Chezy velocity formula

O IE L
𝐕 = 𝐂√𝐑 𝐱 𝐒
D EV C
where: C - coefficient of roughness

R - hydraulic radius
S - slope of water surface, gradient or piezometric head line
42. Best hydraulic radius cross-section

O
b = 2 d tan 0/2
where: b - bottom width of the channel

d - depth of water flow
R
0 - side slope of the channel
43. Water flow for vertical pipe
𝟏
𝒌 𝑫𝟐 𝑯𝟐
𝐐=
𝟐𝟖𝟕
where: Q - discharge, liters per second
D - inside pipe diameter, mm
H - vertical rise of water jet. M
k - discharge coefficient varying from:
= 0.87 for height of 75 mm to 100mm
= 0.97 for height of 0.3 m to 0.6 in pipe of 50 to 200 mm in diameter
55
Note: Refer to diagram on page 185 of Irrigation Systems Handbook (Orcullo, 1997) or any other
reference textbook.
44. Flow of water in a horizontally-installed pipe
{𝟑.𝟔 𝒙 𝑨 𝒙 𝑿}
𝑸= , gpm
√𝒀
where: W - discharge, gallons per minute

A - cross-sectional area of water at the end of the pipe, square inches
D - pipe diameter, feet
X - coordinates of the point on the surface measures in inches parallel to the pipe
Y - vertical coordinates measured in feet
Note: Refer to diagram on page 185 of Irrigation Systems Handbook (Orcullo, 1997) or any other
U 3
reference textbook.
D 2
45. Water flow in siphon tubes and pipes
E
O 20
R LA BE Q=0.65 A √2gh
C
where: Q - siphon discharge, gallons per minute
A - cross=-sectional area of the siphon tube, square feet
H - suction head, feet
R S
T C A
EP S
46. Maximum discharge/flow in furrows
Q = 10/S
N W SU
where: Q - maximum non-erosive furrow stream, gallons per minute

S - slope/gradient of the land/furrow,%
O IE L
47. Length of furrows

D EV C
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝐋=
(𝐈 − 𝐀)𝐖 𝐱 𝐒
where: L - safe length of furrow, feet

I - rainfall intensity, inches/hour
A - absorption or infiltration rate of soil, inch/hour
W - furrow spacing, feet
S - slope/gradient of furrow, %
O
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
If I – A = R, then 𝐋 =
𝐑𝐱𝐖𝐱𝐒
R
48. Intake rate of soil
I=Kxtxn
where: I - intake rate of soil

t - time rate that water is on the surface of the soil
K - intake rate intercept at unit time
n - slope of line (vertical scaled distance divided by the horizontal scaled distance)
56
49. Time required to fill soil moisture reservoir
𝟏
𝟔 𝐃(𝐧 + 𝟏)
𝐭= 𝐧+𝟏
𝐊
where: t - time required to fill; the soil moisture reservoir, minutes

D - depth of water absorb by the soil, inches
n - slope of the intake rate curve
K - intake rate intercept at unit time
50. Furrow discharge
𝐦𝐱𝐥𝐱𝐚
𝐐=
𝟏𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎
U 3
where: Q - quantity of water for I furrow, cubic meters
m - irrigation rate, cubic meters per hectare
D 2
I - length of furrow, meter
E
O 20
R LA BE a - distance between furrows, meter
C
51. Design parameters/formulas in border irrigation
R S
a) Volume of water
T C A
V1 = W [C1 * D0 + E]
EP S
X
N W SU
where: V1 - volume of water on the surface of the soil at time ti

W - width of the border check
D0 - depth of water at the upper end
C1 - shape factor
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E - depth correction factor

E - distance leading to edge in time ti
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b) Advance distance
𝐠×𝐭
𝐱=
[𝐤 𝟏 𝐃𝐨 = 𝐤 𝟐 𝐲𝐨 ]
where: X - distance to the leading edge

Q - unit stream size or flow per unit width of border strip
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T - total time of flow

D0 - depth of water at upper end
Y0 - cumulative intake at the upper end
K1 - surface storage, coefficient varying from 0.67 t less than1.0
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K2 - intake coefficient varying from 0.5 to less than 1.0
c) Percolation losses
P = (R + 1)n +1 - R n + )
( R + 1)n + 1 + Rn + )
where: P - percent of water intake which is lost by deep percolation below root zone
R - a time ratio = tC/ta is the required contact time for the Desired depth of
irrigation water to be absorbed at Ta is the advance time
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d) Unit border stream size
QU = 1/Ea [tcr/ (tcr tr) * [D/7.2 tcr]
where: Qu - unit stream, cubic per second

E a - water application efficiency expressed as a decimal
= 1.0 – P where P is the percolation loss in decimal
tcr - time in minutes required for infiltration of D inches of water
tr - recession lag time in minutes (from the time of the stream is cut off average
area irrigated per set)
e) Maximum stream size per foot width of strip
qmax= 0.06* S0.75
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where: qmax - maximum stream size in cubic feet per second per foot width of border strip
S - slope/gradient, %
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52. Minimum stream size per foot width of strip
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0.5
Qmn = 0.004 * S
where: qmn - maximum stream size in cubic feet per second per foot of border strip
R S S - slope/gradient, %
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53. Water conveyance efficiency
Wf
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Ec = x 100
We
where: Ec - water conveyance efficiency

Wt - water delivered to the farm
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Wr - water diverted from the river or reservoir

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54. Water application efficiency
Ws
Ea = x 100
Wt
where: Ea - water use efficiency

Ws - water stored in the soil root zone during irrigation
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Wf - water delivered to the farm
55. Water use efficiency

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Wu
Eu = x 100
Wd
where: Eu - water use efficiency

Wu - water beneficially used
Wd - water delivered
56. Water storage efficiency
Ws
Es = x 100
Wn
where: Es - water storage efficiency
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Ws – water stored in the root zone during irrigation

Wn - water needed in the root zone prior to irrigation
57. Water distribution efficiency
Ed = 100 [1-(y/d)]
where: Ed - water distribution efficiency

y - average numerical deviation in depth of water stored from average depth stored
during irrigation.
d - average depth or water stored during irrigation
58. Consumptive use efficiency
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Wcu
Ecu = x 100
Wd
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E
where: Ecu - consumptive use efficiency
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Wcu - normal consumptive use of water
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Wd - net amount of water depleted from root-zone soil
59. Rainfall intensity
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T C A
l = KTx
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tn
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where: l - rainfall intensity

K, x, and n - constants for a given geographic location
t - duration of storm in minute
T - return period
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60. Return period and probability of occurrence

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T = 100
P
where: t - return period in years

P - probability in percent that an observed event in a given year is equal to or
greater than a given event.
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61. Thiessen method of rainfall determination
P = A1P1 + A2P2 + A3P3 …. AnPn

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An
where: P - representative average of rainfall in a watershed of area A

P1P2P3 - rainfall depth in the polygon having areas A1, A2, A3 within the watershed
62. Runoff rates – Rational method
q = 0.0028 C*l*A
where:
q - is the design peak runoff rate, cubic meters per second
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C - runoff coefficient
l - rainfall intensity in mm/hour for the design return period and for a duration
equal to the “time of concentration” of the watershed
A - watershed area, hectares
63. Time of concentration
Tc = 0.0195 L0.77 Sg-0.385
where: Tc - time of concentration, minutes

L - maximum length of flow, meters
Sg - the watershed gradient in m/m or the difference in elevation between outlet
and the most remote point divided by the length, L
64. Flood runoff (Chow method)
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q = KAx
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where: q - magnitude of the peak runoff (L3/T)
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C
A - watershed area, L2
x - Constant for a given location
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T C A
65. Runoff volume (US/SCS Method)
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Q = (l – 0.2S)2
l + 0.8S
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where: Q - direct surface runoff depth, mm (area under the hydrograph)

l - storm rainfall, mm
S - maximum potential difference between rainfall and runoff in mm, starting at
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the time the storm begins

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66. Required pump capacity for irrigation
Q = 453 Ad (English Units)

FH
where: Q - discharge, gpm

A - design area, acres
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D - gross depth of irrigation, in

H - average number of hours of operation per day
F - no of days permitted for irrigation
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60
REFERENCES
1. David, Wilfredo P. 1988. Soil and Water Conservation Planning: Policy Issues and
Recommendations. Journal of Philippine Development. Number Twenty-Six, Volume XV, No. 1.
1988.
2. Ecosystems Research and Development Bureau, 2011. Manual on Vulnerability Assessment of
Watersheds. Ecosystems Research and Development Bureau, Department of Environment and
Natural Resources, College, Laguna.
3. Espino, A.N., Alberto, M.P., Cinense, M.M., Bauan, R.C., and Salvador, N.C. 2013. Community-
based Watershed Monitoring System for Biodiversity Conservation. Terminal Report. Central
Luzon State University, Science City of Munoz, Nueva Ecija, Philippines.
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4. Deborah Duveskog, Daniel Nyagaka, Benjamin Mweri, Mwamzali Shiribwa, and Dr. Pascal
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Kaumbutho. 2003. Soil and Water Conservation with a Focus on Water Harvesting and Soil
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Moisture Retention. A Study Guide for Farmer Field Schools and Community-based Study
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Groups.
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5. PAES XI. Philippine Agricultural Engineering Standards.
6. Schwab, G.O., Fangmeier, D.D., Elliot, W.J., and Frevert, R.K. Soil and Water Conservation
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Engineering. Fourth Edition.
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1
AQUACULTURE ENGINEERING
MARVIN M. CINENSE, Ph.D.

Associate Professor
Department of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering
College of Engineering, Central Luzon State University
DEFINITION OF TERMS
 Aquaculture – refers to fishery operations involving all forms of raising and culturing fish
and other fishery species in fresh, brackish and marine water areas. Aquaculture is the farming of
aquatic organisms, including fish, mollusks, crustaceans and aquatic plants.
 Aquaculture Biotechnology – The use of an aquaculture organism to make a product
or run a process. Different aquatic organisms, both animal and plant, are used in industry, farm
animal and aquaculture feeds, medicinal treatments, wastewater treatment, and the recycling of
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gas products. (Maine Aquaculture Innovation Center).
 Aquacultural engineering – is a multidisciplinary field of engineering that aims to solve
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technical problems associated with farming aquatic vertebrates, invertebrates, and algae. Common
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aquaculture systems requiring optimization and engineering include sea cages, ponds, and
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recirculating systems.
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 Aquafarm – is the farming facility used in the culture or propagation of aquatic species
including fish, mollusk, crustaceans and aquatic plants for purposes of rearing and culturing to
enhance production. The types of aquafarm are the following:
 Fish Cage – is an enclosure which is either stationary or floating made up of nets or
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screens sewn or fastened together and installed in the water with opening at the surface or covered
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and held in place by wooden/bamboo posts or various types of anchors and floats.
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 Fish Pen – is an artificial enclosure constructed within a body of water for culturing fish,
fishery/aquatic resources made up of bamboo poles closely arranged in an enclosure with wooden
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material, screen or nylon netting to prevent escape of fish.

 Fishpond – is a land-based facility enclosed with earthen or stone material to impound
water for growing fish.
 Brackishwater – refers to mixed seawater and freshwater and salinity varies with the
tide. Examples are estuaries, mangroves and mouth of rivers where seawater enters during high
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tide.
 Brood stock – fish of any particular species which are raised for reproduction purposes.
Sexually mature aquatic animals used to produce progeny that may be incorporated into an
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aquaculture production system. (USDA).

 Capture fishery refers to all kinds of harvesting of naturally occurring living resources in
both marine and freshwater environments.
 Commercial Fishing – is the catching of fish with the use of fishing boats with a capacity
of more than three (3) gross tons for trade, business or profit beyond subsistence or sports fishing.
 Commercial Waters – waters beyond municipal waters marked by coordinates drawn
from two points on the seaward border of the municipality and extending to the Exclusive Economic
Zone (EEZ) and in the adjacent high seas.
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 Culture tanks – Artificial holding areas used to rear fish farm stocks.
 Farm Gate Value - The unprocessed value excluding the costs of packaging or transport
of the aquaculture product to its first point of sale (Alaska DFG).
 Fingerling – Development stage of fish following the fry stage and continuing into the
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first three to four months of life. Young fish larger than fry but not yet an adult (USDA).
 Finfish - A term used to distinguish true fish, having fins and gills, from shellfish, crayfish,
jellyfish.
 Fish farm – locations used to grow populations of aquatic organisms, primarily fish.
 Fish meal – commercially processed food source used in fish farming as a source of
protein for the fish stock.
 Fish husbandry – the breeding and rearing of fish for a variety of reasons.
 Fish kill – a description of the number of fish stock to die in a specific amount of time.
 Fisherfolk – refers to people who are directly or personally and physically engaged in
catching and/or culturing and processing fishery and/or aquatic resources.
 Fisheries – refer to all activities relating to the act or business of fishing, culturing,
preserving, processing, marketing, developing, conserving and managing aquatic resources and
the fishery areas, including the privilege to fish or take aquatic resource thereof.
CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Aquaculture Engineering

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 Fishermen – refers to a classification of workers who catch, breed and raise fish and
cultivate other forms of aquatic life for sale or delivery on a regular basis to wholesale buyers,
marketing organizations or at markets.
 Fishery Species – refers to all aquatic flora and fauna including but not restricted to fish,
algae, coelenterates, mollusks, crustaceans, echinoderms and cetaceans.
 Fishing Boat – is a type of watercraft, such as motorized/non-motorized banca, sailboat,
motorboat, etc., either licensed or not, used for fishing purposes.
 Fishing Effort – is a collective variable pertaining to manpower, machine power and
technology employed in harvesting fishery resources, such as number of fishing hours spent in
fishing, number of units of a particular gear used, number of hauls, number of hooks, etc.
 Fishing Gear – is any instrument or device and its accessories utilized in taking fish and
other fishery species.
 Fishing Ground – refers to areas in any body of water where fish and other aquatic
resources congregate and become target of capture.
 Fish Cage – stationary or floating fish enclosure made of synthetic net wire/bamboo
screen or other materials set in the form of inverted mosquito net (“hapa” type) with or without
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cover with all sides either tied to poles staked to the water bottom or with anchored floats for
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aquaculture purposes.
 Fish Pen – an artificial enclosure constructed within a body of water for culturing fish and
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fishery/aquatic resources made up of bamboo poles closely arranged in an enclosure with wooden
materials, screen or nylon netting to prevent escape of fish.
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 Fishpond – a body of water (artificial or natural) where fish and other aquatic products
are cultured, raised or cultivated under controlled conditions.
 Freshwater – refers to water without salt or marine origin, such as generally found in
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lakes, rivers, canals, dams, reservoirs, paddy fields and swamps.
 Fry – Development stage of fish immediately after the larvae stage, at an age of less than
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a week.
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 Inland Fishing Household – is a household in which one or more members were directly
engaged for at least 30 days in fishing anytime during the past 12 months.
 Inland Municipal Fishing – refers to the catching of fish, crustaceans, mollusks and all
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other aquatic animals and plants in inland waters like lakes, rivers, dams, marshes, etc. using
simple gears and fishing boats some of which are non-motorized with a capacity of less than or
equal to three (3) gross tons; or fishing not requiring the use of fishing boats.
 Inland Municipal Waters – include streams, lakes, and tidal waters within the
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municipality, not being the subject of private ownership, and not comprised within national parks,
public forests, timberlands, forest reserves, or fishery reserves and other protected areas as defined
under R.A. No. 7586 (the National Integrated Protected Area System (NIPAS) Act of 1992).
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 Landing Center – is the place where fish catch and other aquatic products are unloaded
and traded.
 Marine Water – is the seawater environment with a salinity ranging from 34.5 to 35.5
parts per thousand (ppt) consisting of ocean, bay, gulf and channels.
 Municipal Fishing – is fishing within municipal waters using fishing vessels of three (3)
gross tons or less, or fishing not requiring the use of fishing vessels.
 Municipal Waters – include not only streams, lakes, inland bodies of water and tidal
waters within the municipality which are not included within the protected areas as defined under
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Republic Act No. 7586 (The NIPAS Law), public forest, timber lands, forest reserves or fishery
reserves, but also marine waters included between two lines drawn perpendicular to the general
coastline from points where the boundary lines of the municipality touch the sea at low tide and a
third line parallel with the general coastline including offshore islands and 15 kilometers from such
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coastline.
 Mariculture – Ocean-based aquaculture or the production of marine organisms in coastal
waters or in the open ocean.
 Ocean Ranching – A type of fish farming where juvenile fish are released into the ocean
to grow unprotected and unassisted to be harvested in the future (FAO).
 Owner/Operator – refers to a person who owns and operates the farm, exercises
technical initiatives and takes full economic risk and responsibility in the administration and
operation of the farm.
 Seawater/Marinewater – refers to inshore and open waters and inland seas in which
salinity generally exceeds 20 percent.
 Shellfish – Aquatic animals with shells, e.g., crustaceans (prawns, lobsters) and mollusks
(e.g., oysters, scallops, clams). (Fishbase.org).

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 Yearling – Development stage of fish following the fingerling stage and lasting until
approximately one year of age.
AQUACULTURE SYSTEMS
a. Aquaculture classification according to production environments

Aquaculture in the Philippines is carried out in three major aquatic environments:
brackishwater, freshwater and marine (Table 2-1). Potential for freshwater aquaculture is much
more than brackishwater and mariculture in the immediate future. Brackishwater aquaculture is
limited to intertidal flats, mangrove swamps, and estuarine areas, while mariculture is limited to
shallow or deep coastal waters only. However, new technologies in mariculture will likely enable a
huge expansion in the future given the length of the Philippines’ coastal waters. Other
environments for freshwater aquaculture include irrigated lowland rice farms, small water
impoundments, and irrigation canals.
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Table 2-1. Classification of aquaculture according to production environments.
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Freshwater Brackish water Mariculture
Lakes Intertidal flats Shallow coastal
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Reservoir Mangrove swamps Deep coastal
Dams Estuarine areas Intertidal flats
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Rivers
Streams
Creeks
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Ponds
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Swamps
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b. Aquaculture classification according to farming systems
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Farming systems vary according to cultured species and water source. The types of farming
systems in the three environments are listed below (Table 2-2). In freshwater environments such
as lakes, pens and cages are the common farming systems while in brackishwater environments,
earthen ponds are most common.
Farming systems can also be classified as (i) water-based systems such as cages and pens
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located both inshore or offshore; (ii) land-based systems such as rainfed ponds, irrigated or flow-
through systems, tanks and raceways; (iii) recycling systems (high control enclosed systems, more
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open pond based recirculation); and (iv) integrated farming systems (e.g. agri-aqua by integrating
crops, livestock, and poultry to fish).
Table 2-2. Aquaculture classification according to farming systems.

Freshwater Brackish water Mariculture
Freshwater hatcheries Aqua-silviculture Marine hatcheries
Earthen ponds Earthen ponds Floating net cages
Fish pen Fish pen Fish pen
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Floating net cages Shallow fish cages Mussel/oyster beds

Concrete tanks Seaweeds farm
Integrated fish farming Ornamental fish production
Ornamental fish production
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c. Aquaculture classification according to production scale
Aquaculture according to production scale can be classified as intensive, semi-intensive

and extensive depending on stocking density of fry or seed, feed introduction, and labor and
capital usage.
Extensive farming systems rely on natural food such as phytoplankton and zooplankton.
Introducing fertilizers into the pond system enhances the growth of both phytoplankton and
zooplankton but also risks occurrence of algal blooms.

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Intensive systems, fish production can be controlled for as long as there is sufficient oxygen,
fresh water, and food. Since feed is introduced, these systems naturally incur a higher cost. Also,
dependence on oxygen implies constant aeration while freshwater demand must be supported by
an efficient filtration system.
d. Aquaculture species or farmed commodities
Aquaculture is as diverse as agriculture and involves the farming of many aquatic species by
many different methods.
i. Seaweeds. Seaweeds farmed in the Philippines comprise two major groups: (i) those
farmed for extraction of industrial chemicals, i.e., eucheuma; and (ii) edible species, principally
caulerpa. The farming of seaweeds is the Philippines’ largest aquaculture operation and the
Philippines is the world’s largest producer of farmed eucheuma. ARMM is the most important
seaweed producing region followed by Region IV-B, Region IX, and Region VII. All other regions
except for CAR now produce seaweeds, some on a seasonal basis.
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ii. Milkfish. Milkfish (bangus) thrive in fresh-, brackish- and marine waters and are a popular
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fish to farm in earthen ponds, net cages, and pens. The Philippines is the top milkfish producing
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country in the world. The top three milkfish producing regions are Regions VI, I and III, all
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producing more than 60,000 t each.
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iii. Tilapia. Tilapia is the third most important species produced in the Philippines. It is
produced mainly in Regions III and IV-A.
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iv. Shrimps. In the early 1990s, the Philippines was the third most important shrimp
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producing country after Thailand and Indonesia, with a production of over 90,000 t, primarily of
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black tiger shrimps (Penaeus monodon). However, bacterial disease caused the industry to collapse
to half its production levels and has not yet fully recovered.
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v. Oysters and Mussels. Oysters and green mussels are the only two species of mollusks
farmed significantly in the Philippines for food. Oyster farming has remained in shallow sub-tidal
areas where the spats are collected. These areas are now increasingly subjected to domestic
pollution with its consequential effect on quality and food safety. While mussels are farmed in
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deeper waters, these areas also face problems of contamination due to increasing organic loading
from urbanization. Both oysters and mussels are affected by periodic harmful algal blooms,
especially of red tide organisms which cause paralytic shellfish poisoning.
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CULTURE FACILITY
Closed systems
These are for animals that swim or move.
Rice field
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A rice field may be open seasonally in terms of water exchange with the external
environment.
Static water pond

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A static water pond, with the exception of rainfall, receives water only when intentionally
filled up with water at the start of the culture cycle, or “topped-up” during the cycle to compensate
for water loss due to evaporation and seepage.
Running water pond or raceway

These have continuous exchange of water with the external environment, usually by
gravity from rivers or streams. Screened inlet and outlets prevent fish escape.
Pen
A pen is a fenced enclosure in a larger water body which is embedded in the mud or bottom
sediment.

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Cage
A cage is a box shaped enclosure which floats, is suspended, or sits on the bottom of a
larger water body.
Recirculation system
A recirculation system is largely a closed water system in which water from the culture
facility is treated on-site and is pumped back into the culture facility.
Open systems
Enclosures are usually not needed if the organisms are sedentary e.g. molluscs and
seaweeds.
SITE SELECTION FOR LAND BASED CULTURE SYSTEMS
Selection of a suitable site for an aquaculture venture will influence construction costs and
affect the ultimate success of the aquaculture enterprise. A number of factors must be considered
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when selecting a site. These include ecological, biological and socio-economic factors.
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4.1. Ecological factors
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4.1.1. Location
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Choice of location includes inland or coastal sites depending on the species of choice.
Protection against tides etc should be considered for coastal farming. The sites should be near
service components such as access to roads, electricity, and other communication networks.
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4.1.2. Topography
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For smaller and flat areas eye estimation is enough, but for a big area proposed for
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farm construction with a number of ponds for different purposes and of different sizes, it is
essential to conduct contour survey for determining the topography and land configuration.
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The land slope should be suitable; too steep slopes require more excavation and higher
construction costs. The recommended slope should not be greater than 2%.
4.1.3. Soil Suitability

Pond soil must retain water. Soils with a low infiltration rate are most suitable for fish
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pond. Table 1 shows the filtration rate of different types of soils. The best soils for our purpose
are thus the impermeable clay which can be easily compacted and made leak proof.
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4.1.4. Water supply

A dependable source of water supply must be available within or near the site. Water of
proper quality and quantity should be available in accordance with cycles of the aquaculture
venture. The most common sources are groundwater and surface water.
4.1.4.1. Water quantity

The required quantity of water is dependent on:
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o The type of aquaculture system

o The cultured species
o Management practices
o Culture densities
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o Skill of the culturist etc
A water supply must satisfy four basic functions in aquaculture system namely
evaporation losses, seepage losses, oxygen depletion and waste disposal. A recommended
flow rate is 0.28 m3/min/ha. The maintenance inflow requirements of dynamic ponds can be
calculated as;
Inflow = Seepage (s) + Evaporation (E) + Volume of replacement (∆v) – Precipitation (P)
4.1.4.2. Water quality

Good quality water is defined as water of which the chemical and physical
characteristics are within the defined units for the cultured species. The deterioration
in water quality is related to amount of fish waste released into the system.

6
4.1.5. Hydrological and Meteorological Information

Climatological data obtained over the longest period is required and should include
mean monthly temperature, rainfall, evaporation, humidity, solar radiation, wind speed and
direction, and flood records.
4.2. Biological Factors

Choice of fish species should consider both biological and economic criteria such as
production costs, service providers and related costs, consumption patterns and affordability, value
adding potential, competitors, and export potential. The biological factors to be considered include:
 Control of reproduction and seed supply
 Feed requirements and supplies
 Disease risk and management
 Processing potential and requirements
 Conservation and regulations
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4.2.1. Predator control
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The water source should be free of undesirable fish species and forms of insect
predators. Predatory birds and animals should be controlled in accordance to local
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conservation regulations and requirements. Predatory birds can be of particular concern
during site selection.
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4.3. Economic and Social Factors
4.3.1. Type of culture facility
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An important decision involve the choice of production system i.e. ponds, raceways,
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tanks etc. The choice will be influenced by economic factors such as;
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 Availability of working capital

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Availability of land
 Operator skills levels
 Labor requirements and costs
 Operating costs
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4.3.2. Marketing
A market study should be an essential component of site analysis before any land is
purchased or construction commences. The aquaculturist must understand the marketing
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strategies and be able to interpret the marketing climate.
 Market oriented approach: Market analysis is done before establishment of the

enterprise
 Production oriented approach: This approach often lead to high levels of completion
amongst producers and conditions of oversupply.
 Environmental oriented approach: Focus is on selection of a species that will adapt to
environmental conditions in a particular geographical location.
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 Species oriented approach: This is when the culturist selects a fish species
4.3.3. Safety and Security

Aspects of public health and work safety must be taken into consideration during site
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selection. Environmental Impact Assessment has become a prerequisite in most cases of

aquaculture development. Poaching and vandalism should also be considered at the onset.
4.3.4. Social considerations

Aspects of job creation etc. for local residents should be presented as part of the
process for establishing new projects such as large scale aquaculture ventures.
4.3.5. Legal Matters

During site selection for aquaculture, analysis of local, or national legislation and
regulations should be done such as licenses, permits etc.

7
Fish Pond Construction
Ponds, man-made bodies of water usually smaller than lakes, fall into the category of
extensive or semi-intensive culture systems.
The pond depth varies from less than a meter to close to 3m. The pond depth selection
depends on the penetration of sunlight. The depth should be such that the sunlight cannot reach
the pond bottom; otherwise, rooted plants will grow in the bottom.
Two primary types of ponds are embankment and excavated ponds.
 Embankment ponds are formed by building up a dam, dike, or similar above-ground

structure to hold water.
 Excavated ponds are constructed by removing soil from an area to form a depression
that can be filled with water.
The feeding method in aquacultural ponds may be either natural (cultured organisms
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derive their food from algae or other naturally growing aquatic organisms in the pond) or manual
with commercial diets. A combination of the two methods can also be used. In densely stocked
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ponds, some type of mechanical aeration may be needed to maintain proper oxygen concentration.
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Production per unit area varies by a factor of 10 for different practices and species. Low-
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intensity and minimum-management ponds yield 500 to 1000 kg/ha, but yields above 10,000 kg/ha
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are achievable using commercial practices.
4.4. Pond dykes
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4.4.1. Characteristics of pond dikes
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Any pond dike should have three basic qualities.
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 It should be able to resist the water pressure resulting from the pond water
depth.

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It should be impervious, the water seepage through the dike being kept to a
minimum.
 It should be high enough to keep the pond water from ever running over its top,
which would rapidly destroy the dike.
Water pressure can be readily resisted by:
 anchoring your dike strongly to its foundations (the soil on which you build it);
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 Constructing your dike large enough to resist the water pressure by virtue of
its weight.
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Ensuring impermeability. Impermeability of the dike can be ensured by:

 using good soil that contains enough clay
 building a central clayey core when using pervious soil material;
 building a cut-off trench when the foundation is permeable;
 applying good construction practices
 Ensuring that the thickness of your dike is appropriate.
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4.4.2. Choosing the right height
To calculate the height of the dike to be built, take into account:

 the depth of the water you want in the pond;
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 the freeboard, which is the upper part of a dike and should never be under
water. It varies from 0.25 m for very small diversion ponds to 1 m for barrage
ponds without a diversion canal;
 the dike height that will be lost during settlement*, taking into account the
compression of the subsoil by the dike weight and the settling of fresh soil
material. This is the settlement allowance which usually varies from 5 to 20
percent of the construction height of the dike.
4.4.3. Types of dike height:
 The design height (DH), which is the height the dike should have after settling
down to safely provide the necessary water depth in the pond. It is obtained by
adding the water depth and the freeboard;

8
 The construction height (CH), which is the height the dike should have when
newly built and before any settlement takes place. It is equal to the design height
plus the settlement height.
Construction height (CH in m) can be determined from the design height (DH in m) and
the settlement allowance (SA in percent) as follows:
CH = DH ÷ [(100 - SA) ÷ 100]
Example
If the maximum water depth in a diversion pond of medium size is 1 m and the freeboard
0.3 m, the design height of the dike will be DH = 1 m + 0.30 m = 1.30 m. If the settlement
allowance is estimated to be 15 percent, the required construction height will be CH = 1.30 m ÷
[(100 - 15) ÷ 100] = 1.30 m ÷ 0.85 = 1.53 m.
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D 2
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where: WD – Water depth
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FB – Freeboard
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DH –Design height
SH – Settlement height
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CH – Construction height
 In barrage ponds with a spillway, the design height of the dike is calculated slightly
differently, the freeboard being added above the maximum level of the water in
the discharging spillway.
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Note: the water surface in your pond will be horizontal and therefore the top of your dike
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should also be horizontal, from the deepest point of the pond to its shallowest point.
4.4.4. Determining dike thickness

A dike rests on its base; it should taper upward to the dike top, also called the
crest or crown.
The thickness of the dike thus depends on:
 the width of the crest; and
 the slope of its two sides.
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This, together with the height of the dike, will determine the width of the dike base.
Determine the width of the crest according to the water depth and the role the dike
will play for transit and/or transport. It should be at least equal to the water depth, but not
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less than 0.60 m in clayey soil or 1 m in somewhat sandy soil. It should be even wider as
the amount of sand in the soil increases.
It should be safe for the transport you plan to use over it:
 larger vehicles at least the wheel base plus 0.50 m on each side.
Example
In a dike with side slope 2:1, for each 1 m of height, the base width increases on each side by
2 x 1 m = 2 m.

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The side slopes of each dike should be determined bearing in mind that:
 the steeper the slope, the more easily it can be damaged;
 as the soil becomes more sandy, its strength decreases, and slopes should be more gentle;
 as the size of the pond increases, the size of the waves increases and erosion becomes
stronger;
 as the slope ratio increases, the volume of earthwork increases, and the overall land area
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required or the ponds increases;
 a higher slope ratio makes it easier when using a bulldozer to build the dikes.
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4.4.5. Compacting earthen dikes
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When earth is disturbed, for example when it is excavated in preparation for using it to
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construct dikes, it normally becomes looser, more permeable and less stable. Its volume
expands, which is known as bulking. When disturbed earth is compacted, for example during
dike construction, its volume decreases. Later, as the soil settles, the volume is further reduced.
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Therefore several different but related measurements of earth volumes can be defined:
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 the undisturbed volume, which is the volume of the soil at the site before excavation;
 the expanded volume, which is the volume of the soil after it has been dug out, typically
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5 to 25 percent more than the undisturbed volume

 the construction volume, which is the volume of the soil necessary for building the dike,
for example before any compaction or settlement. It is about the same as the expanded
volume;
 the design volume, which is the intended volume of the dike after it has been compacted
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and it has fully settled. Typically, it is 10 to 25 percent less than the construction volume.
Determining the potential for compaction:

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Example
Using a 0.30 x 1 m trench, dig to a 1 m depth. The original earth volume = 0.30 m3. The earth
is filled back, leaving a surplus of 0.06 m3 or 60 li.
(a) Estimate bulking

expanded volume = 0.30 m3 + 0.06 m3 = 0.36 m3
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bulking (in percent) is obtained as: [(expanded volume - undisturbed volume) ÷

undisturbed volume] x 100
= [(0.36 m3 - 0.30 m3) ÷ 0.30 m3] x 100
= (0.06 m3 - 0.30 m3) x 100 = 20 percent.
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(b) You should expect to be able to compact at least 80 percent of the surplus (the
difference between the expanded volume and the original undisturbed volume): 0.06 m3 x
0.80 = 0.05 m3. The compaction potential is calculated as: (0.05 m3 ÷ expanded volume)
x 100 = (0.05 m3 ÷ 0.36 m3) x 100 = 13.9 percent of the expanded volume.
Compacting for best results

To compact successfully, air and water are expelled from the soil so that its mineral
particles can settle very tightly together. For best results, you therefore should always:
 place and compact the soil in thin horizontal layers about 15 to 20 cm thick, so air and
water can be expelled easily;
 wet the soil material to its optimum moisture content for compaction ;
 finish off the slopes of the completed dike to form a well-compacted surface.

10
4.4.6. Preparing the foundations of the dike

After clearing the site, removing the surface soil and marking out the position of the
dike, the foundations of the dike should be prepared. This may include:
 treating the surface of the foundations;
 excavating and backfilling the cut-off trench;
 Excavating and backfilling an existing stream channel.
Treating the surface of the foundations

 The surface of the dike's foundations needs to be well compacted, so that the dike can
be solidly attached without any risk of it sliding away.
 Break the ground surface thoroughly and turn it to a depth of about 15 cm. (You could
use a plough or a hoe.)
 Fill all holes in the foundation area with suitable soil. Use thin layers, wet them if
necessary, and compact well.
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4.4.7. Calculating dike and excavation volumes
D 2
Multiply excavation volume by the expansion factor to obtain the expanded volume. This
expanded volume is then used in the construction volume of the dike. After compaction and
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settlement, as estimated by the compaction potential, it should reach the design volume
required.
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 Calculating the width of the dike base
Having determined the characteristics of your dikes, determine the width of the dike base
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(in m) by adding:
- crest width (in m);
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- construction height (CH in m) multiplied by slope ratio of dry side (SD);
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- construction height (CH in m) multiplied by slope ratio of wet side (SW).
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Base width = crest width + (CH x SD) + (CH x SW)

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Example
A 0.04-ha pond (400 m2) has to be built in clayey soil with dikes 1.50 m high and 1 m wide
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at the top, according to the design. If SD = 1.5:1 and SW = 2:1, calculate the base width of the
dikes.
- Estimate the settlement allowance of the expanded clay volume (20 percent for medium
clay soils).
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- Consider the design height = (100% - 20%) = 80 percent of construction height.

- Obtain the construction height = 1.50 m ÷ 0.80 = 1.88 m.
- Calculate dike base width = 1 m + (1.88 m x 1.5) + (1.88 m x 2) = 1 m + 2.82 m +
3.76 m = 7.58 m.
 Calculating the cross-section of a dike on horizontal ground
The size of the cross-section of a dike on horizontal ground (ABCD in m2) (see diagram) is
obtained by adding:
- area ABFE (in m2) = crest width (AB) x construction height (CH);
- area AED (in m2) = ED x (AE ÷ 2)= (SD x CH) x (CH ÷ 2);
- area BFC (in m2) = FC x (BF ÷ 2)= (SW x CH) x (CH ÷ 2).
CH = the construction height of the dike;

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SD = the slope ratio of the dry side;

SW = the slope ratio of the wet side.
Example
For the above 0.04-ha pond to be built in clayey soil, calculate the size of the cross-section
of the dike as:
- area 1 = 1 m x 1.88 m = 1.88 m2;
- area 2 = (1.5 x 1.88 m) x (1.88 m ÷ 2) = 2.6508 m2;
- area 3 = (2 x 1.88 m) x (1.88 m ÷ 2) = 3.5344 m2;
- cross-section = 1.88 m2 + 2.6508 m2 + 3.5344 m2 = 8.0652 m2.
• Calculating the volume of dikes on horizontal and regular ground
If the topography of the construction site is reasonably flat (less than 0.30 m difference
in average site levels) and regular, you can calculate the volume of the dike (in m3) by
multiplying the cross-section of the dike (in m2 and halfway along the dike for an average
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area) by its length measured along the centre line (in m).
D 2
Example
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Assume the cross-section of the dike = 8.0652 m2. If the length of the dike to be built is
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20 m x 4 = 80 m, its volume is 8.0652 m2 x 80 m = 653.216 m3.
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T C A
EP S
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• Calculating the volume of dikes on sloping or irregular ground

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Example
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A 400-m2 (20 x 20 m) pond is to be constructed with wall heights of 0.5 m at corner A, 0.3
m at corner B, 1.1 m at corner C and 1.5 m at corner D. Crest width is 1 m and side slope 2:1 on
both sides. The cross-section areas at each corner are:
A: (1 m x 0.5 m) + 2 x (0.5 m x 0.5 m x 1 m) = 1.5 m2,

B: (1 m x 0.3 m) + 2 x (0.5 m x 0.3 m x 0.6 m) = 0.48 m2,
C: (I m x 1. 1 m) + 2 x (0. 5 m x 1. 1 m x 2.2 m) = 3.52 m2,
D: (1 m x 1.5 m) + 2 x (0.5 m x 1.5 m x 3 m) = 6.0 m2.
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Average area for wall AB = (1.5 m2 + 0.48 m2) ÷ 2 = 0.99 m2 and volume for wall AB =
0.99 m x 20 m = 19.8 m3.
2
• Calculating the volume of a dam for a barrage pond

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If you have to calculate the volume of the dam to be built for a barrage pond, one of the
above methods can be applied. However, because of the presence of the stream channel and
numerous changes of ground slopes, it is usually necessary for precise estimates either to measure
cross-sections at small d intervals or to subdivide the dam into sections using different d intervals.
You will need to know excavation volumes for:
 topsoil;
 borrow pits, dug near an earth structure to provide the material for its
construction;
 excavated ponds, to provide the pond volume required;
 other structures such as harvest pits, supply channels, etc.

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You will normally have to remove the topsoil before you reach soil good for construction
material. Levels should therefore be taken from the base of the topsoil layer. In most cases, the
sides of the excavation should be sloped to prevent them from collapsing. In many cases (ponds,
channels, etc.) these will be of specified gradients.
For reasonably flat, level surfaces, where excavated width is at least 30 times the depth,
volume of excavation can be estimated as:
V = top area x depth of excavation.
Where the width is less than 30 times the depth, you should correct for side slopes as
follows:
V = [(top area + bottom area) ÷ 2] x depth.
Example
A 400 m2 (40 x 10 m) area is to be excavated, 1 m deep, with side slopes 2:1. As the width
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(10 m) is less than 30 times the depth (30 x 1 m), the first method is not accurate (estimated
volume would be 400 m2 x 1 m = 400 m3). Use the second method, where
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top area = 400 m2 and base area=base length x base width.
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Base length = 40 - (2 x slope x depth) = 40 - (2 x 2 x 1 m) = 36 m
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Base width = 10 - (2 x slope x depth)= 10 - (2 x 2 x 1 m) = 6 m
Base area = 36 m x 6 m = 216 m2
Average area = (400 m2 + 216 m2)÷ 2 = 308 m2
Volume therefore = 308 m2 x 1 m= 308 m3.
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On gently sloping ground, calculate the cross-section at each end of the excavation. Then:
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 Calculate the average cross-section of the excavation.
 Multiply by the average length of the excavation.
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Example
If the area is on a gentle slope, calculate cross-sections at AB and CD, and average length.
a. Cross-section at AB can be determined by drawing out on squared paper, or estimated by:

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[(AB + A'B') ÷ 2] x average depth, or

[(10 + 7) ÷ 2] x [(1 + 0.5) ÷ 2] = 8.5 m x 0.75 m = 6.375 m2.
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b. Cross-section at CD, similarly
= [(10 + 3) ÷ 2] x [(2 + 1.5) ÷ 2] = 6.5 m x 1.75 m = 11.375 m2.
c. Average length can be determined at the midpoint.
Average length = (top length EF + bottom length E'F') ÷ 2

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= (40 m + 35 m) ÷ 2 = 37.5 m.
d. Thus volume = average area x average length =

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[(6.375 m2 + 11.375 m2) ÷ 2] x 37.5 m = 332.8 m3.
On more steeply sloping ground (steeper than 10 percent in any direction), you can use
the same method as above; however, the lengths of the base and the corresponding cross-sections,
as calculated in the previous method, will not be sufficiently accurate. To obtain a reasonable
estimate proceed in the following way.
Use squared paper and obtain the base length by measurement. Then use this base length
in the calculations, as shown earlier.

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For best accuracy, calculate cross-

section ABCD
= area ADC + area ABC = [(FC x AF)

÷ 2] + [(EC x AB) ÷ 2]
4.5. Constructing dug-out ponds

Dug-out ponds, entirely obtained through soil excavation, are the simplest to build. There
are two main types of dug-out pond depending on the water supply
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 dug-out ponds fed by rain and surface runoff, commonly found in relatively flat, well-
drained terrain such as the low point of a natural depression;
D 2
 dug-out ponds fed by springs or seepage, the latter being commonly found in areas where
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the ground water table is close to the surface, either permanently or seasonally.
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4.5.1. Selecting soil for dug-out ponds
To build a rain-fed dug-out pond, it is essential to have enough impervious soil at the site
to avoid excess seepage losses. The best sites are those where fine-textured clays and silty clays
extend well below the proposed pond depth. Sandy clays extending to adequate depths are
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satisfactory. Avoid sites with porous soils, either at the surface or at the depths through which the
T C A
pond would be cut.
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To build a seepage dug-out pond, look for soils where the water bearing layer is thick
enough and permeable enough to provide the required water. It is best to observe the site during
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a complete annual cycle to check on the possible variations of the water table elevation with the
season.
5. Cage Culture Systems

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5.1. Net Pens and Cages
Net pens and cages are floating structures in open water and are usually located within
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a pond, lake, reservoir, river, estuary, or open ocean environments. Netting or plastic mesh material
is used around a frame to form an enclosure for aquatic organisms intended for production.
Net pen is employed in relatively shallow waters (usually less than 10 m). This system
consists of rigid poles, pilings, or other fixed structures driven into the bottom. The rigid framework
supports the net that is stretched around it. The bottom of the enclosure is formed by the natural
bottom of the water body. Net pens range in size from 1 m2 to several hectares in surface area.
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Cages are generally constructed in deeper water and it is smaller than net pens and range
in size from 1 m2 to over 1000 m2 in surface area. Cages are manmade structures suspended in
the water at the bottom. Cage culture is often reliant on the culture of fingerlings in land based
hatcheries. As most of the sheltered inshore areas have already been developed, cage farming
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systems are nowadays moving into larger offshore based farming systems.
5.2Site Selection for Cages
There are three categories of cage site selection criteria that must be
addressed:
a) The first is concerned with the physico-chemical conditions that dictate whether a species
can thrive in an environment (temperature, salinity, oxygen, currents, pollution, algal
blooms, exchange).
b) The second comprises those factors that must be considered in order to site a cage system
successfully (weather, shelter, depth, substrate)
c) The third is concerned with the establishment of a farm and profitability (legal aspects,
access, land-based facilities, security, economic and social considerations).

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Cage sites must have:

a) Good water quality.
b) They should not be contaminated by toxic industrial pollutants,
c) Should meet the pH, temperature, oxygen, and salinity requirements of species to be
farmed. Use of remote sensing techniques may also be done to monitor and evaluate
water quality.
5.2. Cage Types
Cage Types
Fixed Floating Submersible Submerged
Non-rotating Rotating Suspended Adjustable Rigid or
from surface buoyancy flexible
Wide or narrow With central axis Rigid or flexible
collar
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Rigid or flexible Without central
collar axis
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Rigid or flexible
bag
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Rigid structures and mesh are mainly used in fast flowing waters and currents. Submersible
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cages have been designed primarily as a strategy against stormy weather conditions.
5.3. Design Criteria for Cage Culture Systems
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Cage design depends on a number of factors including:
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 Fish species
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 Prevailing environmental conditions
 Method of culture, extensive vs intensive
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 Properties, costs, availability of materials and

 Local manufacturing skills
The design components include aspects of the cage bag, the cage frame, collars and support,
linkages and groupings and mooring systems.
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5.4. Parts of a cage

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Cages have three parts:

1. The cage itself, having some sort of mesh sizes
2. Floats that keep the cage in the water column
3. Anchors that prevent the cage from drifting away.
6. Tanks, Raceways and Pen Culture Systems

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6.1. Tank Culture Systems

Tanks can be manufactured from a variety of materials such as wood, concrete, metal,
plastics, poli-ethylene, PVC, fibre-glass etc and an infinite number of shapes and sizes to suite the
specific needs of the species and farming operation. The recommended characteristics for
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aquaculture tanks are as follows:
1. The interior surface should be smooth to prevent abrasion.

2. The surfaces should be nontoxic.
3. The tanks should be durable and portable,
4. should have long life,
5. ease of cleaning,
6. easy to sterilize.
7. It should be non-corrosive
8. affordable.

15
6.1.1. Shape
a. Circular Tanks
Circular tanks are most commonly used for nursery and grow out
purposes, though rectangular, square and oval tanks are also used. Circular tanks
have better hydraulic characteristic, whilst square and rectangular tanks make
better use of surface area. The self cleaning action and oxygen distribution of
circular tank hold specific advantages with regard to efficient utilization of available
water and optimal stocking densities.
b. Square and Rectangular tanks

Square and rectangular tanks offer the advantage of efficient use of space.
Layouts can also incorporate the use of common wall between neighbouring tanks
that can contribute to considerable savings on construction costs. They have
however the disadvantages that wastes tend to collect in the corners, whilst short-
circuits and dead spots tend to develop. The conrers of square or rectangular tanks
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are therefore often rounded to improve the hydraulics and flow patterns.
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c. Oval tanks
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Oval or D-ended tanks are relative new addition to tank culture and are an
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effort to combine the advantages of circular tanks with regard to the efficient water
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use and self-cleaning action with the space efficiency of rectangular tanks.
6.1.2. Water Inlet

The water inlet must at all times provide for control over the flow rate (L/sec) and
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velocity (cm/sec) of water. The design must allow for the maintenance of flow patterns to
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maintain the self cleaning action of the tanks through the continual movement of detritus
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and wastes to central drain. When required such as when using underground or lowly
saturated water sources, the inlet can also be designed to facilitate with aeration of inlet
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water through the use of jets, diffusers or ventury-system. Inlets should also be designed
to minimize the risk of blockages and reduction in water flow. The main water supply
should be screened and an adequate diameter for the inlet pipe should be maintained.
6.1.3. Water Outlet and Flow Patterns

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Flow patterns are functions of water inlet and outlet deisgn. The deisgn inlet must
therefore offer control over both the flow rate, velocity and flow patterns within the tank.
Care must be taken to ensure that no dead spots occur in the tanks due to short-cuts
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between inlet and outlet, particularly in rectangular tanks. Dead spots refer to areas with
low water replacement, resulting in low dissolved oxygen and an accumulation of wastes.
The water outlet must also make provision to regulate operating depth of the tanks.
6.1.4. Tank Bottom and Drainage

Flat or conical bottoms can be used. Sloping bottoms are more efficient in removing
wastes. Adequate velocities are required to maintain self-cleaning in flat bottom tanks.
When rectangular tanks are used the bottom should slope from one end to the other, with
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the inlet and drain on the corresponding end. The slope in the tanks bottom should not be
excessive.
6.1.5. Harvesting
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Removal of fish from large circular tanks may be difficult without proper equipment.
Screens or grader bars that rotate around the center standpipe may facilitate easy
crowding of fish into small area from where they can be netted. Seine nets are more often
used to harvest fish from circular tanks.
6.2. Raceway Culture System
Raceways are single-pass, relatively shallow structures, typically with a rectangular cross-
section, containing aquatic organisms. Significant water flow through a raceway is required to
remove accumulated wastes, provide aeration, and maintain suitable environmental conditions for
the species reared.

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Raceway culture is widely used in hatcheries because flowing water minimizes metabolite
concentration and enhances oxygen transfer. Intensity of production can be much higher in
raceways than in ponds because the water is changed continuously. Raceways can utilize gravity
flow of water to minimize pumping costs, provided the water supply is a freshwater spring and the
raceways are located on the downstream side.
There are two basic arrangements of raceways— series and parallel.
Raceways are culture units, mostly made of concrete, in which water flows in and out
continuously. These culture units are also known as flow-through culture systems.
6.3. Pen Culture (Enclosure Culture) Systems

Pen culture is possible only in the following three zones with natural bottom as the limit of
the lower side of the enclosure:
 Intertidal,
 Sub-littoral
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 Seabed
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6.3.1. Types of Pens - Design and Construction
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There are 3 categories of pens with regard to design and construction of pens as
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follows;
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1. Rigid pens
a. Embanked pens
b. Net enclosures
2. Flexible pens (netting)
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3. Outer barrier nets.
T C A
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7. Water Supply for Aquaculture
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The sources of water for the farm can be - a river or a stream, a lake or a dam, or rain
water collected in wells and ponds. It could also be pumped up water from underground sources.
It is important to determine if the level of the supply source is higher or lower than the level of the
fish farm and this will determine if the water can be brought to the fish farm by gravity or by using
a pump. Also, the means of transporting the water can either be by open channel, by covered
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channel or by pipes.
7.1. Properties of Water

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Water quality in land-based aquaculture

The quality of inflowing water (into the ponds) should be of very good quality to support
optimal growth of fish. Water quality requirements depend on species and ontogenetic stages.
Early life stages normally have the highest requirements for optimal water quality.
Cold water fishes cannot be reared in tropical waters at high temperature. Marine fishes
cannot be raised directly in seawater without acclimatization. Freshwater fishes should best be
raised in freshwater. Different fish species would naturally require various ranges of water quality
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variables.
Water Temperature
Selection of species for culture depends on water temperature i.e. tropical fish species and
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temperate fish species. In hatcheries and recirculation aquaculture systems, however, the
temperature can be controlled; however it does increases production costs.
Salinity
Variations in salinity are one of the environmental factors to be taken into consideration.
Some species have wide tolerance limits and it has been noted that some fresh water fish grow
faster in slightly saline water and some brackish-water than in fresh water. Growth and
reproduction is affected by salinity.
Turbidity
Turbidity is caused by suspended solids and affects productivity and fish life. Turbidity
decreases light penetration into the water and thus reduce primary production which impacts on

17
secondary production. In some cases, oxygen deficiency has been reported as a result of sudden
increase in turbidity.
The suspended solids can clog filter feeding apparatus and digestive organs of planktonic
organisms. The gills of fish may be injured by turbid water. Turbidity is recommended to be less
than 4% by volume.
Acidity and Alkalinity

The most suitable pH of water for aquaculture farms is considered to lie in the range 6.7-
8.6 and values above or below this inhibit growth and production. The most common method of
correcting low pH is by liming to neutralize the acidity. The dose will depend on the pH value and
the chemical composition of the water especially concentration of calcium bicarbonate. It will also
depend on the type of lime used. High pH, indicating excessive alkalinity can also be harmful.
Water Quantity
Water for aquaculture should be adequate and reliable throughout the year. Quantity of
water is a very important factor when selecting sites for aquaculture.
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Basic Water Budget Equation
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The water budget equation for a fish pond is prepared with the help of the hydrologic
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equation. This equation states that inflows equal outflows plus or minus change in storage.
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Water budget for a pond:
P + I + RO = (S+E) + ∆V
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where:
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P – precipitation
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I – Inflow from well, stream or reservoir
RO – runoff
S – seepage
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E – pond evaporation
∆V – change in storage volume
The variables are expressed in volume or depth, usually depth.

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Quantity depends on:

 Type of aquaculture system
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 Species cultured
 Culture densities
 Skill of the culturist.
Water supply must satisfy the following functions:

 evaporative losses
 seepage losses
 oxygen depletion
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 waste disposal
Water may also be used for the following:

1. Fire protection
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2. Livestock watering
3. Facility cleaning
4. Irrigating crops
5. Residential uses.
The water budget should also be sufficient for future plans.
Water Supply Requirements

The requirements of water for a fish farm depend on the area of the ponds, their average
depth and the frequency of draining and refilling and also the losses dues to seepage and
evaporation.
Water requirement for a fish farm can be estimated according to the formula (Kovari,
1984):

18
where:
QR – Annual requirement of water in m3 or l/sec
VF = A × h = volume of the ponds to be filled (m3)
A – Average area under water of the ponds (m2)
h – Average depth of the ponds (m)
VRf = No × VF = volume of water to be replaced (m3)
No – Number of filling per annum.
Le = A × E = Loss by evaporation (m3)
E – Average evaporation per annum (m)
Ls = A × T × S = losses by seepage (m3)
S – Coefficient of seepage (m/d)
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Le = Ac × 1,2 × E – losses encountered during transportation in the earthen
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channel (m3)
Ac – Area under water of the supply channel (m2)
E
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VRa = Aeff × Ra = Rain water (m3)
Aeff – Total area of the ponds plus partial area of the dikes affected by the rain
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C
(m3)
Ra – Average rain fall per annum
T – Number of working days in the farm.
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An acceptable soil of the pond bottom should have a permeability coefficient less than
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5.10-6 m/s.
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The seepage through the dikes can be estimated if the following factors are known: the
coefficient of permeability of the dike (recommended to be less than 1.10 -4 m/s); the effective level
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of water in the pond; the width of the dike; the nature of the soil on which the dike is built. When
the soil used for the construction of the dike is of homogenous material, the percentage of seepage
will be calculated with Casagrande's formula:
When the dike is built on a permeable soil.

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where:
q – the percentage of seepage by cm of length of the dike (cm2/h).
K – the coefficient of permeability of the dike (cm/h)
K1 – the coefficient of permeability of the soil on which the dike is built.
h – height of the level of water, in cm
w – effective width of the dike in cm.
O
When calculated from the level of water in the pond:

w = L – 0.7C
where:
R
L – width of the dike at the bottom

c – h x a.
h – height of water in the pond.
a – slope of the dike, e.g. 1:2, where a is the second number.
When the soil is impermeable, the Casagrande formula becomes
Once a fish pond has been filled, there must be adequate water supply to replace water
lost through seepage and evaporation. Fish ponds should be filled within a reasonable time period.
Two weeks may be adequate to fill ponds for the culture of some species. Seven days is more

19
desirable but not economical in some operations. If a pond is filled too slowly, production time will
be lost. Weed growth may become a problem.
Water flow and level instrumentation

Flow control means:
1. Having a knowledge of what the water requirements are to individual parts of the
system,
2. Being able to adjust flow rates as required.
Instruments used to measure fluid flow are variable: some measure velocity while others
measure volumetric flow.
Classification of flow measurement

1. Direct
2. Indirect methods are used.
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Pond size and water flow required
To begin growing fish as soon as possible, you should have enough water available to fill
D 2
your pond in a reasonable length of time. For ponds smaller than 1 500 m3, eight days is
E
reasonable.
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Before you begin to build a pond it will be helpful to compare the number of days needed
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C
to fill ponds of various sizes and the rate of water flow required.
Pond volume and the number of ponds possible will depend on the water flow available.
The size and number of ponds you will be able to build will depend on the water flow available at
the time you plan to fill them.
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T C A
Number of ponds to be built
EP S
For example, with 14 l/s, you can fill two ponds of 2500 m3 (= 5000 m3) in 4 days;
Or, with 14 l/s, you can fill five ponds of 500 m3 (= 2500 m3) in 2 days.
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Water distribution structures

It is important to have good-quality and reliable water source and equipment to transfer
water to and within the farm. Volume of water needed depends on:
1. Farm size
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2. Species
3. Production system
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The materials used for water transport include:

 pipes,
 pipe parts (fittings)
 pumps
The common way of transporting water is through pipes. Open channels are also used.
Channels can be used:

O
 for water transport into the farm

 for distribution inside the farm
 for the removal of water through the outlet.
R
Channels are normally large, built of either earth or concrete. Water is transported at low
velocity.
Advantages of open channels:

1. Simple construction
2. Ease with which water flow can be controlled visually
3. Water can collect oxygen through diffusion from the air
Disadvantages:
1. Requires a constant slope over the total length
2. No pressure
3. Greater exterior size compared to pipes
4. The noise (inside the building) when water is flowing

20
Plastics
These are thermoplastics. A thermoplastic melts when the temperature gets high
enough. Thermoplastic pipes can be divided into:
1. Weldable (polyethylene; PE)
2. Glueable (polyvinyl chloride: PVC) depending on the way pipes are connected.
The opposite of thermoplastic is hardening plastic such as fiberglass made of different

materials that are hardened. It is not possible to change the shapes of these materials afterwards
by heating.
Materials used for making pipes should not be toxic to fish. Copper commonly used
inside houses is not recommended for aquaculture purposes because of its toxicity.
PE pipes are:
1. Of low weight
2. Simple to handle
3. Have high impact resistance
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4. Good abrasion resistance
5. But may be vulnerable to water hammer or vacuum effects.
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E
Do not expose PE pipes to low temperatures (0oC) because they will become brittle and
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snap.
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C
PVC is recommended for high temperatures above 40oC. PVC is also vulnerable to water
hammer.
When PVC components are burnt, they give off poisonous gases and there are some
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questions concerning the use of PVC material.
T C A
EP S
Fiberglass may be used in very large pipes (over 1 m diameter). Material is built in two
or three layers:
 A layer of polyster that functions like a glue,
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 A layer with a fiberglass mat that acts as reinforcement;

 Quartz or sand.
There are several layers of fiberglass and polyster.

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Fiberglass:
1. Tolerates low temperature
D EV C
2. Is very durable
3. May be constructed so thick that it can tolerate water hammer and vacuum effects.
Disadvantage of fiberglass:
 there is a low diversity of pipes
 low diversity of pipe parts available.
Other materials are also used but they are more expensive than PE and PVC.
O
Valves
Valves are used to regulate water flow rate and the flow direction. Many types of valves
are used in aquaculture. Ball valves are used but they are not precise in regulating water flow.
R
Open channel flow

Open channels are conduits in which the flowing water has a free surface open to the
atmosphere. Pressure is always zero gauge pressure at the liquid surface, and the energy for
moving the water is derived from gravitational forces.
Transportation of water
The transportation of water from the supply to the ponds is through channels or pipes.
The choice of where to lay the pipes, the dimensions of the channel, (its form, width, capacity)
and the diameter of the pipes, depend on the farm needs and of the available funds and resources.
The law of the conservation of mass states that in an closed system, the mass of a liquid
passing through a section of a pipe must pass through any other section of the same pipe:

21
Q = VA = V1A1 = V2A2
where:
Q = The mass of liquid (fluid)
A = The section of the pipe (A1; A2)
V1, V2 = The speed of the fluid
The law of conservation of energy or Bernoulli’s law says that at any point in the pipe in
which a liquid is passing through, the sum of energies of gravity, potential pressure energy and
kinetics remain constant.
This law is applicable only to ideal fluids. In reality, there is loss of energy due to internal
friction in water and friction against the surface (lining) of the pipe. This energy is transformed into
U 3
heat. These losses of energy are continuous all occurring along the length of the pipes or are
localised at the joint when the cross sections of the pipe change or the direction changes.
D 2
Practically, one has to take into account losses of energy due to the roughness of the
E
internal surface of the pipes and the kind of liquid flow (laminar and turbulent). Losses due to
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changes of cross sections and direction: these facts are taken into account to choose the types of
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pipes necessary to be laid from the source of water to the ponds.
C
Total water requirements
The total water requirements for a pond are:
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 The amount of water needed to fill the pond in a reasonable length of time;
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 The amount of water needed to compensate for seepage and evaporation losses over the
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planned fish-growing period.
Water flow
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The amount of water that flows through a pipe or an open channel depends on the water
velocity, and the cross-sectional area of the pipe or the channel where the water is flowing. The
following equation is used for pipes and channels and is also called the continuity equation.
Q = VA
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where:
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Q – water flow (l/min; l/s; and m3/s).

V – water velocity (m/sec)
A – cross-sectional area of where the water is flowing.
Example:
Water flow to a farm is 1, 000l/min (0.0167m3/sec). The acceptable velocity in the pipeline is set
at 1.5m/sec. Find the necessary pipe dimensions if one pipe is to be used.
O
Q =VA
A = Q/V
A = 0.0167/1.5
= 0.011m2
R
Now:
A= πr2
where:
r = internal radius of the pipe. Therefore re-arranging these gives:
r=√A/π
r=√0.011/π
r=0.059m x 1,000
r=59 mm.
The internal diameter in the pipe =2x59=118 m

22
For an open channel, the flow velocity depends on:

 The slope,
 The hydraulic radius,
 The Manning coefficient.
The Manning equation is used to calculate the flow velocity:
2/3
V=(R S ½)/n)
where:
V - average flow velocity in the channel
R - hydraulic radius = A/P
S - channel slope
N - Manning coefficient
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Example:
The horizontal distance between two points A and B is 500m. Point A=34m above sea level and
D 2
point B=12m above sea level. Calculate the slope (S) of the channel.
E
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S = (34m-12m)/500m
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C
S = 0.044
S = 4.4cm/m
This means that for each meter of elevation, the horizontal distance is 22.7m. 22.7 is
R S
derived from 500m/22m.
T C A
To ensure drainage, it is recommended that the slope is more than 0.0013, while self-
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cleaning is ensured with slopes in the range of 0.005-0.0010.
The Manning coefficient is determined by experiment, some actual values being about
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0.015 for concrete-lined channels and 0.013 for plastic, while unlined channels made of straight
and uniform earth have a value of 0.023 and those made of rock 0.025.
Based on the flow velocity, and the cross-sectional area, the flow rate may be calculated
with the continuity equation which also can be expressed as:
2/3 1/2
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Q = VA = R S /n A
where:
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Q – water flow
A – cross-sectional area where the water is flowing
V – average flow velocity in the channel
R – hydraulic radius
S – slope of the channel
N – Manning coefficient
Head loss in pipelines

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Transport of water through a pipe or a channel between two points results in an energy
loss (head loss). This is caused by friction between the water molecules and the surroundings. In
all pipe parts, where there is a change in water direction (bends), or narrow passage (valves),
additional friction will occur. This will also increase the head loss.
R
According to Bernoulli equation, the amount of energy in water remains constant if during
passage no energy is supplied or extracted from it. When friction occurs, the energy in the water
is transformed into another form, usually heat.
As a result of frictional losses, when flowing through a pipeline, the energy of the water
must be higher at the beginning (inlet) than at the end (outlet). If water is pumped, the pump
pressure must overcome these frictional energy losses in addition to the pump height.
The energy loss (hm) due to friction through a pipeline may be calculated using the Darcy-
Weisbach equation.
hm= fLV2/2gd
where:
f - frictional coefficient

23
L - length of the pipeline

D - diameter of the pipeline (wet)
V - water velocity
g - acceleration due to gravity
The friction coefficient depends on the pipe surface; this is normally called the roughness
of the pipe. Relative roughness (r) is the relation between the absolute roughness (e) and the
diameter (d) of the pipe. r = e/d.
High relative roughness gives high friction. The amount of friction depends on:
1. Pipe material
2. Connection method
3. Age of the pipe
A new plastic pipe will have a lower friction coefficient than an old pipe; The fouling that
occurs in pipes used for some time will increase the roughness of the pipe.
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The f value for the pipe is given by the manufacturer, and for PE or PVC pipes normally
D 2
ranges from 0.025 to 0.035. For new pipes, the value is lower. When doing calculations, values
E
for old pipes should be used. Frictional coefficient also depends on flow type.
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C
The flow pattern can be divided into;
1. Laminar and
2. Turbulent
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Frictional losses are much higher with turbulent flow. This will always be the case in pipes
T C A
used in aquaculture because water velocity is high. Laminar flow may occur in open channels with
EP S
low water velocity.
The Reynolds number Re is a non-dimensional number used to describe the flow conditions.
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If Re is less than 2,000, the flow is laminar. When it is above 4,000 the flow is turbulent. Between
these Re values, the flow is unstable, and both turbulent and laminar conditions may occur. R e can
be calculated from the following equation:
Re= Vd/v
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where:
V – average water velocity
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d – internal pipe diameter

v – kinematic viscosity
Kinematic viscosity is the absolute viscosity divided by the density of the liquid, the unit is
m2/sec, The kinematic viscosity tells us something about how easily the liquid flows for instance,
oil will flow out slowly when drops are allowed to fall onto a horizontal plate, while water will be
distributed much faster.
The kinematic viscosity of water decreases with temperature for example; it is reduced
O
from 1.79 x 10-6 m2/sec at 0oC to 1.00 x 10-6 m2/sec at 20oC. Salinity will also increase the kinematic
viscosity of water. With a salinity of 3.5% it is 1.83m2/sec at 0oC and 1.05 m2/sec at 20oC.
Example:
R
The average velocity of freshwater in a pipe of internal diameter 123.8mm is 1.5m/sec (0.1238m).
The temperature is 20oC. Calculate the Reynolds number.
R=Vd/v
= 1.5 x 0.1238/1 x 10-6
= 185700
This clearly shows that the water flow in the pipe is in the turbulent area.
By calculating the Reynolds number and the relative roughness of the pipe, the friction coefficient
f, can be found from the Moody diagram (Reynolds number on X axis and friction coefficient
(relative roughness) on the Y axis.

24
Example:
Calculate the head loss in an old PE pipe with internal diameter of 110mm (0.11m). The length of
the pipe is 500m, and the velocity in the pipe is 1.5m/sec; the friction coefficient is 0.030.
hm =fLV2/2gd
=0.030 x 500 x 1.52/2 x 9.81 x 0.11
=11.47m
8. Waste production and filtration of water in Aquaculture

Factors such as limitations in water quality and quantity, cost of land, limitations on water
discharges, environmental impacts and diseases, are driving the aquaculture industry toward more
intensive practices.
Recirculating systems, with a biofilter as the most prominent characteristic, treat internally
the water contaminated with dissolved organics and ammonia and reduce the amount of water use
and discharge from aquaculture operations and therefore reduce impact of pond effluent on the
U 3
environment.
D 2
8.1. Waste Production from Aquaculture
E
Davidson at al. (2008), summarized three major types of wastes from aquaculture operations
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to consist of: (1) organic matter which is measured as a 5 day carbonaceous biochemical oxygen
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C
demand (cBOD5); (2) nutrient such as nitrogen and phosphorous and; (3) solids that are usually
measured as total suspended solids (TSS). Most of the wastes discharged from aquaculture farms
such as phosphorus, cBOD5, organic nitrogen, and TSS are filterable or settleable solids e.g.
uneaten feed, fecal matter.
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The quantity of wastes varies with culture systems and intensification. The culture systems
T C A
with increasingly intensive use of inputs such as water, feeds, seed have wastes that are
EP S
concentrated in nutrients and can pollute the environment when discharged. Quality and quantity
of pond waste water depend on feeding level, feed composition, feed digestibility, and utilization
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of digested feed.
8.2. Recirculating Aquaculture Systems

Management and treatment of pond effluents may pose some difficulties because in
general they tend to have low concentrations of pollutants, while most of the conventional
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treatment systems are designed for higher concentrations of pollutants (Boyd, 1994).
Components of a recirculating aquaculture system:

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Lawson (1995) described the main components of a generic recirculating system

comprising of primary clarification, biological filtration and secondary clarification as follows (Table
1);
 Primary Clarifier: This is a process of solids removal and is done by screening the
solids or sedimentation or granular media filtration or a combination. Solid waste can
contain 70% of the nitrogen load in the system and if such nitrogen load enters the
system, can cause several problems such as clogging the biofilter, resulting in low water
flow through the filter or causing the nitrifying bacteria to die from lack of oxygen.
O
 Biological filtration: Biological filters are used for nitrogen removal i.e. ammonia and
nitrite.
 Secondary clarification: This removes the biological floc that remains suspended in
the water. This could be done by screening or sedimentation.
R
 Aeration: This is important because it does replace oxygen in the system and normally
done by use of a pump.

25
Table 1. Physical, chemical and biological processes used to purify water for recycling.
Physical Chemical Biological
Screening Aeration Nitrification
Settling Pure oxygen injection Denitrification
Sand filtration Alkalinity and hardness control
DE filtration Carbon adsorption
Centrifuging pH control
Temperature control Reverse osmosis
UV sterilization Degassing
Cartridge filtration Foam fractionation
Bag filtration Ion exchange
Ozonation
Source: (Lawson, 1995)
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8.3. Biofilters
Several authors have defined “biofilter”, which basically is the surface on which bacteria
D 2
grow, while growing, the bacteria would convert toxic ammonia produced by fish and feed to much
less toxic nitrate. (Lawson, 1995).
E
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Factors that affect biofilter performance:
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C
Biofilter design considerations include the following; the physical size of the filter, media
characteristics (type, density, size, and specific surface area), water flow rates, and specific loading
rates (Colt et al., 2006). The following factors will promote establishment of bacteria communities
R S
and this affect biofiltration efficiency in terms of removal or oxidation of ammonia to nitrate (Jun
and Wenfeng, 2009);
T C A
 pH: The bacteria would not adapt to rapid changes in pH. Nitrification efficiency
EP S
decreases with rapid increase or decrease in pH. The minimum pH requirements for
development of Nitrosomonous and Nitrobacter was reported to be 6.5-7.0.
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 Alkalinity: This is the buffering capacity of the system. The process of nitrification forms
acid and lowers the pH. Therefore the system needs to have sufficient buffer to avoid
further decrease in pH. Boyd (1982) recommended a minimum alkalinity of 20 mg L-1 as
CaCO3.
 Ammonia and Nitrite: High concentrations of ammonia and nitrite are toxic to nitrifying
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bacteria. Ammonia concentrations above 10-150 mg L-1 inhibits nitrosomonas while

nitrobacteria is inhibited at concentrations between 0.1 and 1.0 mg L-1 (Lawson, 1995).
 Oxygen: The rate of nitrification decreases with decrease in concentration of oxygen.
D EV C
Biofilter effluent should contain a minimum of 2 mg L-1 (Lawson, 1995).

 Solids: Solids can clog the system components resulting in reduced flow rate, head loss
and other related problems such as shielding disease organisms.
 Salinity: Freshwater bacteria would not function under marine environments and vice
versa.
 Physical Factors: These include temperature.
Types of Biofilter Systems:

O
Four different types of biofilters have been described as follows (Sandu et al., 2002);
1. Submerged-bed biofilters: These have fixed medium constantly under water. The
biofilter medium used include gravel, oyster shell, solid plastic beads, extruded plastic
R
rings, plastic screening.

2. Trickling filters: The design for trickling filters is similar to that of submerged down flow
filters. The trickling filter is elevated and has an open bottom and water cascades over
the medium in a thin film. Trickling filter can remove 23-52% of ammonia.
3. Rotating Disk: In this system the substrate for the nitrifying bacteria consists of a series
of parallel circular plates, which are mounted on a shaft with a small gap between them.
The disks are partially submerged and rotated on the shaft, using either a low-speed gear
motor or a paddlewheel driven by the water flow.
4. Fluidized Bed: In this system water enters the bottom of a cylinder with a velocity to
expand the medium. Graded sand is one of the more common substrates used in fluidized
bed filters; however, because of its density, a considerable amount of water is required
to make it expand.

26
8.4. Sterilization and disinfection
Sterilization is the destruction of all organisms both harmful and beneficial. It is used more for
treating nets, boots, seines, and other gear that may easily transmit infectious organisms. In
addition, it is a good idea to sterilize culture units before putting fish in or after a disease incident.
Disinfection is the technique of selectively controlling organisms that enter aquaculture systems.
In-line disinfection is commonly used in recirculating culture systems as a separate water
treatment.
Ozonation
Ozone, an allotrophic form of oxygen (O3) has been used to treat waste water. For more than
70 years because of its ability to reduce color, taste, and smell. It is an unstable blue gas with a
readily identifiable odor. The rate that O3 degrades back to O2 increases with temperature. Since
O3 is unstable, it is made when and where it is needed. Ozone generators produce O 3 by passing
O2 or dry air through a high-voltage (4,000 -30,000 volts) corona between two electrodes. Ozone
U 3
works as a disinfectant because it is a powerful oxidizing agent. Ozone may react with some plastics
but not with glass and porcelain. It is an excellent virucide and works well as a bactericide by
D 2
disintegrating bacterial cell walls. Although O3 is more soluble in water than O2, it is still much less
E
soluble than chlorine. Saturation at 20oC is about 570mg O3/l of water. It reacts with water.
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The HO2 and HO oxidation reactions may be:
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C
1. Inorganic, including conversion of sulfides and sulfites to sulfates; nitrites to nitrates;
chlorides to chlorine; and ferrous and manganous ions to too their insoluble ionic forms resulting
in precipitates.
2. Organic, rupturing compounds at unsaturated bonds and destroying humic acids,
R S
pesticidesm phenols and other compounds.
T C A
EP S
9. Aeration and Pure Oxygen Systems
There are three basic ways of enhancing oxygen transfer into water: gravity aerators,
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mechanical aerators, and pure oxygen contact systems. Pure oxygen systems have limited use in
fish ponds. In addition to supplying oxygen, mechanical aerators also circulate or mix water to aid
in distribution of dissolved oxygen throughout the ponds. There are reports of increased net
photosynthetic activity in aerated and circulated bodies of water through a reduction in the demand
of phytoplankton for oxygen in respiration.
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9.1. Oxygen consumption by pond water

Oxygen is consumed in pond water by decomposition of organic materials in the respiration
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of macro-vegetation, phyto- and zooplankton and bacteria. Fish pond water is a complicated
biological complex, thus its oxygen consumption is different from pond to pond under different
conditions.
While oxygen production is dependent mainly on light conditions, respiration is mainly
determined by water temperature and dissolved oxygen content of the water.
Oxygen consumption by the pond bottom

Oxygen consumption by the pond bottom is dependent on the oxygen requirement for
O
decomposition of organic material accumulated on the pond bottom and for vital functions of
benthos. Oxygen fixation taking place in the water mud interfacial area can also not be neglected.
The dissolved oxygen content of the water layer directly in contact with the mud is much lower
than that of the upper layers of water.
R
Oxygen consumption by fish

The different fish species have become adapted to different living conditions during their
evolution. Generally all those fish species which live in fast flowing and oxygen rich streams (e.g.
Salmonids) need high quantities of oxygen and only a small decrease of dissolved oxygen can
cause losses. At the same time the species which became accustomed to slow motion of the water
or stagnant water (e.g. several Cyprinids) need less oxygen and are able to tolerate short periods
of oxygen deficiency.
Natural diffusion caused by wind action

Diffusion is caused by partial differential pressure of oxygen in the air and in the water. As the
oxygen content of the air is considered to be constant, the rate of diffusion is determined by oxygen
saturation of the water layer interfacing with the air. In the case of stagnant water the uppermost

27
layer of water becomes saturated quickly and the convection current of oxygen into the water
slows down. The mass transfer rate which determines the rate of diffusion (g/O 2/m2/hour) varies
in a wide range
9.2. Artificial control of the dissolved oxygen content of water

Artificial control of the oxygen budget of water of fish ponds in this case means technical
and practical measures which have direct effect on the dissolved oxygen content of the pond water.
Oxygen content of the pond water can be influenced by two methods; by change of flow rate,
and by aeration of pond water.
9.2.1. Aeration devices for fish ponds
Hydraulic Type Fish Pond Aerators

In aeration with an ejector the water is passed through a venturi-type diffusor where its
pressure decreases below the atmospheric pressure thus air can penetrate into the water.
Specially designed air intake heads can also be used for aeration. These usually involve a
U 3
propeller inside a pipe through which water is passing. The propeller is driven by the water current
and on the surface of the blade the pressure decreases and an air sucking effect takes place.
D 2
Cascades can also be used for aeration, in which the water is broken into small drops,
E
increasing the interfacial area.
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Hydraulic type aerators can be applied usefully when water is pumped through a pipeline
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C
but they are particularly useful when a natural head is available.
Air Diffusion Type Fish Pond Aerators

During air diffusion the air is supplied by various types of compressors or blowers into the
R S
water where it is diffused through a variety of diffusers. When the air is diffused through a
T C A
perforated pipe large bubbles of up to 10 mm in diameter are formed and when the diffuser is a
EP S
porous material fine bubbles of 2-5 mm in diameter are produced. When the bubbles emerge and
pass up to the water surface a part of their oxygen content is dissolved in the water, and also a
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secondary upwards water movement is generated, creating a mixing effect.
9.2.2. Emergency aeration

Ponds are commonly aerated when dissolved oxygen concentrations are low. Dissolved
oxygen concentrations are checked at night when DO concentrations are expected to fall below 2
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or 3 mg/l so emergency aeration is needed. Emergency aeration is needed when feeding rates
exceed 50kg/ha/day. Any type of aerator can be used for emergency aeration.
Paddle wheel aerators driven by power-take-off (PTO) of farm tractors are the most
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effective. Mobile PTO aerators can be moved from pond to pond, but this requires an expensive
tractor for each unit. Large electric aerators are not portable, so one must be placed in each pond
if they are to be used for emergency aeration.
Electric aerators are not as expensive to purchase and operate as PTO aerators and
tractors. A single 7.5-kW electric paddle wheel aerator will transfer about 75% as much
oxygen/hour as a PTO paddle wheel aerator driven by a 50-kW tractor.
9.2.3. Equilibrium
O
At equilibrium, there is no net transport of gas into the water or from the water to the air.
There is still some transport of gas molecules through the water surface but what goes in is what
comes out. There are no free gas bubbles in the water. When the water is supersaturated with
gas it forms bubbles because it can no loner dissolve in the water.
R
Dissolved oxygen is one of the critical factors the culturists must consider in aquaculture.
Green plants produce oxygen by the quantity produced is greatly reduced at night during
respiration. Producers cannot just depend on this source of oxygen when fish are stocked at high
density in the ponds.
Oxygen is required by all animals, while plants themselves are considered as an oxygen sink
at night or on cloudy days. DO requirements vary vary as a function of species, water temperature,
stocking density and water quality.
9.3. Types of aerators

There are four aeration systems that have been developed:
1. Gravity aerators
2. Surface aerators
3. Diffuser aerators

28
4. Turbine aerators.
a. Gravity aerators
Are among the most common of aerators because they are simple to construct and reliable.
Requirement is that water should be raised above the level of the pond, tank, or raceway. As the
water falls, the potential energy is converted to kinetic energy that serves to break apart the falling
water. When water is broken into droplets or a mist, the area over which diffusion can take place
is increased, thereby increasing the DO of the water.
b. Surface aerators
These increase the surface area of the culture medium by agitating it with some sort of
mechanical device. The DO rises when the surface water is thrown up and mixes with the air above
the water and then falls back down into the pond or tank. There are three commonly-used surface
aerators:
i. Nozzle aerators
ii. Spray aerators
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iii. Motorized paddle wheels.
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Nozzles
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They are often used with round tanks. Water is pumped downward through a nozzle toward
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the surface of the water. When the jet of water hits the tank surface water, there is considerable
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turbulence.
The pump imparts energy to the water which is forced out of the nozzle, and the water
leaving the nozzle transfers that energy to the water it hits. Besides increasing the DO in the round
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tanks, nozzle aerators also set up a circular water flow.
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Spray aerators
Are generally built as floating propellers. The propeller is beneath the water’s surface and
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as it turns, it brings subsurface water up and into the air. The rate of oxygen transfer depends on
the size and depth of the propeller and the speed at which the propeller turns.
Floating paddle wheels

These are very popular, and are considered one of the most energy-efficient devices for
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increasing the DO. Besides increasing the DO as the wheel hits the water, they also increase both
vertical and horizontal water movement. The most efficient paddle-wheels are triangular in cross
section. The amount of oxygen that is transferred to the water increases with the size and speed
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of the paddle wheel, although energy efficiency (O2 transferred per kilowatt) may decrease at high
speeds and depths.
c. Diffuser aerators
Surface aerators work to disturb the water surface, thereby putting water in the air.
Diffuser aerators, however, work to put air in the water. Oxygen in air bubbles will diffuse out into
the water through the surface of the bubbles. The longer the bubbles stay below the water surface,
the more time there is for oxygen to pass into the water. In some cases, diffuser aerators use pure
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oxygen in place of air.
9.4. Types and configuration of aerators (diffusers)

There are many types of diffuser aerators: 1) simple diffuser; 2) the U-tube diffuser; 3)
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downward bubble contact aerator. The airstone is an example of simple diffuser. The diffuser
forces the air through small holes.
This results in a greater bubble surface area per unit volume of air, yielding a better
transfer of O2 to the water. The smaller bubbles have less slip and therefore lift some of the water
to the surface with then as they rise. This improved vertical motion helps to distribute the water.
Venturi diffuser
This is an aspirator which operates by forcing water at a high speed through a restriction
of some sort. At the restriction site, there is an opening to the atmosphere. The quickly moving
water causes a drop in pressure which results in air being drawn into the water line. A source of
compressed air is not required.

29
The U-tube
A simple device designed to increase the time that bubbles are in the water. At the front of the
U-tube, air bubbles are injected into the water as it flows down. The downward velocity of the
water must be greater than the velocity of the at which the bubbles rise.
That way, the bubbles are first forced to the bottom of the U-tube before they may rise. The
amount of oxygen transferred is related to: 1) the flow and composition of the air or oxygen; 2)
the depth of the diffuser; 3) the velocity of the water; and 4) the depth of the U-tube.
The down flow bubble contact aerator

This operates on the same principle as the U-tube aerator. A propeller forces water downward;
a diffuser is placed in the stream of the downward flowing water. First, the bubbles are forced
down and then they rise up, and this increases the contact time with the water and the amount of
oxygen passed from the bubbles.
Turbine aerators
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This is simply a submerged propeller. Instead of injecting air into the water or water into the
air, it is simply a device that increases the circulation in the pond or tank, resulting in greater
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surface aeration. Size and speed at which the propeller rotates govern the efficiency of the transfer.
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One variation involves a rapidly spinning propeller mounted on a hollow drive shaft. The drive
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shaft has an opening at water surface. As the spinning propeller forces the water at a high velocity,
past the submerged hole in the drive shaft, there is a drop in pressure in the shaft. This results in
air being sucked through the surface hole and out the submerged hole near the propeller.
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10.9. Degassing systems
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Aeration is the addition of a gas, O2, to the water. Degassing is the removal of gas, usually
inert N2 from the water. Since N2 is the most abundant gas in the atmosphere (about 78%) it is
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not surprising that it is also the most common gas in water. High levels of N2 reaching
supersaturation, lead to gas bubble disease (formation of bubbles in the blood of fish and shellfish.
Supersaturation is an unstable condition. It is usually reached when gas-saturated waters are
exposed to changing conditions in the pond, such as temperature or pressure.. Suppose the water
in the aquifer is saturated with N2, then there is a rise in the height of the lake that feeds the
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aquifer this will result in increased pressure on the aquifer which may result in supersaturation of
well water taken from that aquifer for a culture facility.
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10.9.1 Methods of removing excess N2
There are three commonly used ways of to remove excess N2 from culture water. 1) Vacuum
degassers; 2) oxygen injection and 3) use of packed columns.
Vacuum degassers are sealed vessels that contain packing material such as plastic rings. A
vacuum is maintained in the vessel using a vacuum pump. Water is distributed over the packing
material by a diffuser. The diffuser breaks breaks up the stream of entering water and distributes
it over the packing material, which results in more of the water’s surface being exposed to the
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vacuum. He gasses flow from the liquid and are exhausted by the vacuum pump, while the
degassed water flows out from the bottom of the vessel through a pipe. The weight of the water
in the exit pipe must be great enough to overcome the vacuum in the vessel. These units are
efficient and wil decrease the levels of gasses in the water below saturation; the greatest problem
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is that they will slightly reduce the DO level.

Oxygen injection degassers are also packed columns. As water flow through the bed, oxygen
is bubbled or injected into the system. The surfaces of the packing particles again increase the
surface area where mixing can take place. The oxygen scrubs the nitrogen from the water because
there is competition for “space” in the fluid. Oxygen injection often results in supersaturation of
O2; oxygen supersaturation is not a problem in most cases; allowing an increased stocking density
and helping to meet the chemical oxygen demand of the water. While this is probably the most
expensive way to remove high levels of N2 in culture water, the usefulness of additional O 2 in the
water (supplementing the aeration system) may make oxygen injection practical. A packed column
degasser is similar to the vacuum degasser without the vacuum. When levels of saturation are
initially high, and the organism in culture can survive and grow in water with a slight
supersaturation (101-103%), this is a simple and cost-effective method of dealing with high levels
of N2.

30
The packed column degasser works because the packing material again breaks up the water
passing through the bed, allowing the supersaturated gas to leave the water. The greater the
saturation, the greater the efficiency of the bed; the major problem with these degassers is that
they become very inefficient when the saturation level is approached, so the water always stays
slightly supersaturated.
REFERENCES
1. Boyd, C.E., 1979. Water quality in warmwater fish ponds, Auburn Univerity, Alabama.
2. Jun, Y., and X. Wenfeng. 2009. Ammonia biofiltration and community analysis of ammonia-
oxidizing bacteria in biofilters. Bioresource Technology 100:3869-3876.
3. Lawson, T.B. 1995. Fundamentals of Aquacultural Engineering Chapman and Hall, An
International Thomson Publishing Company, New York.
4. Muir, J.F. (Year). Aquaculture Systems: Process, Engineering and Development. Fishing News
Books, Blackwell Science LTD.
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5. Pillay, T.V.R.1990. Aquaculture, Principles and Practices. Fishing News Books.
6. Pillay, T.V.R., 1979, The state of aquaculture. In Advances in aquaculture, edited by T.V.R.
D 2
Pillay and W.A. Dill. Farnham, Surrey, Fishing News Books Ltd
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7. Sandu, S.I., G.D. Boardman, B.J. Watten, and B.L. Brazil. 2002. Factors influencing the
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nitrification efficiency of fluidized bed filter with a plastic bead medium. Aquacultural
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Engineering 26:41-59.
8. Southgate, P. and Lucas, J. (Year). Aquaculture: Fish and Shellfish Farming. Fishing News
Books, Blackwell Science LTD.
9. Stickney, R.R. (1994). Principles of Aquaculture. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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10. Thomas, B. L. (1995). Fundamentals of Aquaculture Engineering. Chapman & Hall, New York.
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11. Upadhyay, A.S.(1994). Handbook on Design, Construction and Equipments in Coastal
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Aquaculture (Shrimp Farming).Allied Publishers, Bombay.
12. Wheaton, F. W. (1987). Aquacultural Engineering. John Wiley and Sons, New York.
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13. Yoo, K.H and Boyd, C.E., 1994. Hydrology and Water Supply for Pond Aquaculture, Chapman
& Hall
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REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. A culture system that is built in deep waters. It uses fiberglass, plastic or steel and nets
held up by floaters.
a. Fish Pond
b. Fish Pen
c. Fish cage
d. Fish Tank
2. A culture system that is enclose (earthen or concrete) built to retain water for the
purpose of growing fish.
a. Fish Pond
b. Fish Pen
c. Fish cage
d. Fish Tank
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3. These are floating structures in open water and are usually located within a pond, lake,
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reservoir, river, estuary, or open ocean environments.
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a. Fish Pond
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b. Fish Pen
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c. Fish cage
d. Fish Tank
4. Part of cage structure that keeps the cage at the surface of the water and helps maintain
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the shape of the cage in the vertical and horizontal planes. It can be made of large diameter
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rubber hose or high-density polyethylene tubes or pipes.
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a. Floats
b. Collar
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c. Nets
d. Mooring
5. Part of cage structure that maintains the shape of the cage in the horizontal plane. It
may simply be a ring of metal placed at the bottom of the cage to weigh the cage down
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in the required shape or it can be a complicated design involving flotation and weights.
a. Floats
b. Collar
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c. Nets
d. Mooring
6. A type of net in cages that holds the cultured stock.

a. Main net
b. Covering Net
c. Predator Net
d. Jump Net
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7. This net in cage system keeps sea-borne predators away from the cultured stock to
reduce predation. It is placed outside the main net.
a. Main net
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b. Covering Net
c. Predator Net
d. Jump Net
8. This net in cage system is placed over the top of the cages to prevent birds landing,
fouling, scavenging and preying on cultured stock.
a. Main net
b. Covering Net
c. Predator Net
d. Jump Net
9. This net in cage system projects vertically out of the water around the main net,
preventing fish escaping.

32
a. Main net
b. Covering Net
c. Predator Net
d. Jump Net
10. These are used to secure the cage at the selected site.
a. Floats
b. Collar
c. Nets
d. Mooring
11. Aquaculture facilities associated with reproduction, larval rearing and supply of juveniles
to farms.
a. Nursery
b. Grow-out
c. Hatchery
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d. None of the above
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12. A measure of the amount of oxygen that bacteria will consume while decomposing
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organic matter under aerobic conditions.
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a. BOD
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b. COD
c. DO
d. EC
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13. A measure of the total quantity of oxygen required to oxidize all organic material into
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carbon dioxide and water.
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a. BOD
b. COD
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c. DO
d. EC
14. A measure of the amount of free hydrogen ions in water.

a. EC
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b. pH
c. DO
d. BOD
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15. The water flow to a fish farm is 1000 l/min (0.0167 m3/s). The acceptable velocity in the
pipeline is set at 1.5m/s. Find the necessary pipe dimensions if one pipe is to be used.
a. 59 mm
b. 92 mm
c. 118 mm
d. 124 mm
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16. The horizontal distance between two points A and B is 500 m. Point A is 34 m above sea
level and point B is 12 m above sea level. Calculate the slope (S) of the channel.
a. 0.022
b. 0.044
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c. 0.22
d. 0.44
17. Determine the required rate of flow if a fish farm with total water surface area of 25
hectares and an average water depth of 120 cm should be filled with water in 5 days.
Assume a 25% water loss due to evaporation and seepage.
a. 0.626 m3/s
b. 0.926 m3/s
c. 0.362 m3/s
d. 0.462 m3/s
18. Part of a pond dike (main dike) that provides additional stability and it slopes towards the
dike wall to trap eroded soil particles during rains. It also serves as small ditch that conveys

33
runoffs towards the outlet gate especially when acidity of exposed dike is a management
problem.
a. Crown
b. Base
c. Berm
d. Side Slope
19. Determine the width of base if the dike should have a top width or crown of 2.5 m,
height of 1.3 m and a side slope of 1.5:1.
a. 5.2 m
b. 4.6 m
c. 6.4 m
d. 3.8 m
20. Determine the height of a main dike with the given conditions in the site as follows:
a. Highest astronomical tide = 2.04 m
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b. Elevation of the land = 0.91
c. Flood allowance = 0.30 m
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d. Freeboard = 0.30 m
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e. Settlement/shrinkage = 15%
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a. 2.04 m
b. 3.40 m
c. 4.32 m
d. 5.04 m
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21. If the mean high tide above the zero datum is 1.55 m, the ground elevation at the side
EP S
of dike is 1.00 m, and maximum 24-hour rainfall in the locality for 15-year interval is 12
cm. Determine the height of secondary dike needed. Provide 25% allowance for
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shrinkage and 30 cm freeboard.

a. 1.20 m
b. 1.40 m
c. 1.30 m
d. 1.50 m
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22. Determine the height of a tertiary dike if the desired water level in the pond is 1.35 m
from the zero datum and the ground elevation is 1.00 m. The maximum 24-hour rainfall
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is 12 cm, allowance of shrinkage is 20% and freeboard is 30 cm.

a. 1.00 m
b. 1.20 m
c. 1.30 m
d. 0.90 m
23. Determine the construction height (CH) of the pond if the depth of water is 1 m and a
freeboard of 0.3 m. The settlement allowance is 15 percent.
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a. 1.25 m
b. 1.53 m
c. 1.46 m
d. 1.76 m
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24. A 0.04-ha pond (400 m2) has to be built in clayey soil with dikes 1.50 m high and 1 m
wide at the top. If the dry side (SD) = 1.5:1 and wet side (SW) = 2:1, calculate the base
width of the dikes. The settlement allowance is 20 percent.
a. 4.56 m
b. 5.74 m
c. 7.58 m
d. 8.23 m
25. It refers to the vertical distance from the surface of water (including drawdown) to
centerline of the pump impeller.
a. Total dynamic head
b. Discharge Head

34
c. Suction Head
26. It refers to the vertical distance from the centerline of the impeller to point of discharge.
b. Discharge Head
c. Suction Head
27. The sum of the suction head, discharge head, hydraulic head losses and the velocity
head.
b. Discharge Head
c. Suction Head
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28. The lowering of water surface below the static level during pumping.
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b. Discharge Head
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c. Suction Head
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29. Refers to the water level before pumping begins.

a. Drawdown
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b. Static Level
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c. Hydraulic Loss
EP S
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30. Refers to the loss due to pipe wall friction, elbow design, joints, gate valves, sudden
reduction or enlargement of pipe size. This is expressed in its equivalent height or head
of water loss.
a. Hydraulic loss
b. Friction loss
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c. Discharge loss
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31. Refers to the rate of flow or the volume of water pumped per unit time such as gallons
per minute; cubic feet per second; cubic meters per minute; liters per second; etc.
a. Discharge
b. Velocity
c. Suction
32. In pump terminologies, NPSH means

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a. Net positive suction head

b. Net possible suction head
c. Negative/positive suction head
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33. Compute for the total volume of dike fill and total volume of excavation given the
following condition:
Pond dimension = 10 m x 25 m
Height of dike = 1.2 m
Top width of dike = 1.5 m
Side slope = 1.5:1
Depth of cut = 20 cm
34. Calculate the energy required to lift 1000 l/min of water by 5m and 15m (including the
friction head). The density of water is 1025 kg/m3, the flow rate is 0.016 m3/s and
acceleration due to gravity is 9.81 m/s2.

1
ECOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES
ENGR. LEA S. CAGUIAT, MSc

Instructor I
Institute for Climate Change and Environmental Management
College of Science, Central Luzon State University
I. INTRODUCTION
The Earth may seem enormous but its resources are finite. During the ancient time,
resources were still enough for the population. Back then, even while the population is continuously
increasing, more resources were able to utilize through the developments in science and
technology. However, at present, Earth’s resources continue to decline due to different
environmental problems. Its natural systems are now being pushed to their limits. Therefore,
integrating environmental science and ecology in the conservation and proper management of
agricultural and biological resources is very crucial to attaining sustainability.
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II. INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ECOLOGY
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Environment
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The term Environment is derived from the French word “Environ” which means
“surrounded”. The environment is the natural landscape together with the living and non-living
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components, characteristics, and processes. The environment provides natural resources which is
defined as any natural substance or “goods” produced by nature. These goods are necessary for
survival. Natural resources can be grouped into two groups:
R S 1. Renewable resources – natural resources that are constantly renewed or

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replenished over time.
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Example: Sunlight, wind, wave energy (perpetually replenished)
Timber, water, soil (replenished over a certain amount of time)
2. Nonrenewable natural resources – natural resources that become unavailable
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after depletion.
Example: oil, coal, minerals, fossil fuels
Environmental science
Interdisciplinary discipline that highlights human interaction with natural ecosystems. It
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combines physical and biological sciences, (including but not limited to Ecology, Physics, Chemistry,
Biology, Soil Science, Geology, Geography, and Atmospheric Science) to the study of the
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environment, and the solution to different environmental problems.
Core Environmental Messages

1. Interdependence
Everything on Earth is connected to everything else. All organisms in an ecosystem
depend upon each other. If the population of one organism rises or falls, then this
can affect the rest of the ecosystem.
2. Diversity and Stability

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All life forms are important. All ecosystems are important. Diversity increases the
resilience and stability of systems. The greater the diversity of species of plants
and animals in an ecosystem, the greater its stability.
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3. Change
Everything changes. Some changes improve the quality of the environment, others
degrade it. Changes that reduce environmental quality have to be controlled or
avoided.
4. Balance
Nature knows best. It has its laws and processes to maintain itself. Disruptions
caused primarily by human actions can disrupt the cycle of nature, thus bringing
imbalance to the ecosystem.
The Earth and its Spheres

Spheres are systems that make up the planet Earth. Everything in Earth's system can be
placed into one of four major subsystems: land, water, living things, or air. These four subsystems
CLSU ABELE Review Class 2023 Ecological and Environmental Sciences

2
are called "spheres." The four spheres of the Earth drive all its processes and support life on our
unique planet. Earth’s spheres interact with each other to form an overall complex and connected
system.
Four Major Spheres of the Earth

1.Biosphere
Also called the “life zone of the Earth”. It includes all living organisms such as
plants, animals, and microorganisms, and all organic matter that has not yet decomposed.
2.Atmosphere
The blanket of air that surrounds the Earth. It extends from less than one meter
from the planet's surface to more than 10,000 km above the planet's surface. The
atmosphere plays an integral component in the hydrologic cycle, carbon cycle, and nitrogen
cycle, affects the earth’s energy balance, and provides a favorable climate to meet food
and energy demands.
 Permanent gases – gases in which concentrations are basically constant.
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Examples of permanent gases near the earth’s surface are nitrogen and
oxygen.
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 Variable gases – gases present in small and variable amounts. Near the
earth’s surface, variable gases include carbon dioxide, methane, ozone, water
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R LA BE vapor, and particulates among others.
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Layers of the atmosphere
a. Troposphere
 The region of the atmosphere from the surface up to about 11 km which
R S contains all of the weather humans are familiar with on Earth.

 The region where temperature decreases with altitude.
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 The boundary separating the troposphere from another layer is called the
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tropopause.
b. Stratosphere
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 The region of the atmosphere near 20 km.

 The air temperature begins to increase with height due to gas ozone,
producing a temperature inversion.
 The boundary separating the stratosphere from another layer is called the
stratopause.
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c. Mesosphere
 Approximately 80 km above the Earth.
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 The air here is extremely thin with only a small amount of ozone that
prevents the air from warming.
 This layer has an average temperature of -90°C but it can reach up to -
110°C, making it the coldest part of our atmosphere.
 The boundary separating the mesosphere from another layer is called the
mesopause.
d. Thermosphere
 Extends 640 km from the Earth.
 Temperature increases rapidly with altitude because of the absorption of
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shortwave radiation by the ionization process.

 The oxygen molecules that absorb energetic solar rays warm the air.
3. Lithosphere
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Also called geosphere. It is the solid Earth that includes the continental and ocean
as well as various layers of Earth’s interior.
4.Hydrosphere
The hydrosphere contains all the water found on our planet.
Freshwater
Type of water that has low salt concentrations that is usually less than 1%.
a. Surface water
Body of water above ground, including streams, rivers, lakes, wetlands, reservoirs,
and creeks. Since surface water is more easily accessible than groundwater, it is
relied on for many human uses. It is an important source of drinking water and is
used for the irrigation of farmland.

3
b. Groundwater
Water that soaks into the ground. It exists underground in saturated zones
beneath the land surface. Groundwater is also a major source of water for
irrigation and drinking water supplies.
c. Ice caps and Glaciers

Frozen freshwater
Saline water
Water that is salty because of the dissolved sodium chloride, magnesium, calcium,
and/or potassium.
Earth system science

Study of how the four spheres of the Earth system interact continually, each affecting the
other.
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Ecology
Ecology, on the other hand, is a branch of biology that studies the pattern of life and
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interactions between organisms and the environment. Environmental science and ecology are
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important in the field of agricultural and biosystems engineering as they can help us better
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understand the processes involving farming and food production in order to attain food security
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while creating sustainable farming practices and maintaining a balanced and safe environment.
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Some important concepts of ecology
 Organism - the smallest and basic unit of ecology. It includes all living organisms,
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unicellular or multicellular having a fixed lifespan.
 Species or Population - A group of species of the same kind occupying a given
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area at the same time.
 Biodiversity - Describes the enormous variety of life on Earth. It includes every living
things, including plants, bacteria, animals, and humans.
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 Megadiversity - Nations that harbor most of Earth's species and high numbers of
endemic species.
 Biodiversity Hotspot - Have at least 1,500 vascular plants as endemics and have
lost at least 70 percent of its primary native vegetation.
 Coral Triangle - Area with more species of corals, fish, and pharmaceutical marine
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products than any other marine environment on Earth

 Endemic - A species that exist in a single defined geographic location and do not
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occur naturally in any other part of the world.

 Biome - A large area characterized by its vegetation, soil, climate, and wildlife.
 Tragedy of the commons – first described by American ecologist Garret Hardin in
1968 which states that unregulated exploitation of public resources leads to depletion
and damage, posing risk to everyone involved.
 Ecological footprint - the environmental impact of a person or population.
 Carrying capacity - maximum population size the environment can support.
 Overshoot - Occurs when a population grows very quickly and exceeds its
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environment's carrying capacity.

 Invasive alien species -Species that are capable of causing extinctions of native
plants and animals, reducing biodiversity, competing with native organisms for limited
resources, and altering habitats
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III. ECOSYSTEM AND ITS SERVICES
A system is defined as a collection of elements or components that are organized for a

common purpose. An ecosystem is defined as any unit that includes all organisms in a given area
interacting with the physical environment so that a flow of energy leads to a clearly defined trophic
structure, biotic diversity, and material cycle within the system.
Different types of Ecosystem
1. Nature
a. Natural Ecosystem - forms naturally without interference from humans.
Example: pond, river, forest, ocean
b. Artificial Ecosystem - Ecosystem developed and maintained by humans.
Example: farm, backyard, aquarium
4
2. Duration
a. Temporary ecosystem - short-lived; can be either man-made or natural.
Example: rain-fed pond
b. Permanent ecosystem - long-lived and self-supported natural ecosystem for a very
long period.
Example: forest, river
3. Size
a. Small - also known as microecosystem. It can be temporary or permanent.
Example: Pond, flowerpot
b. Large - also known as macroecosystem. They are mostly permanent and natural.
Example: Ocean, river, forest, and desert
Structure of Ecosystem
1.Biotic components - Living organisms present in an ecosystem. It includes
include plants, animals, and other organisms.
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a. Producers (Autotrophs) – organisms that can make their own food.
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 Photoautotrophs - consist of green plants which can trap sunlight to form
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R LA BE carbohydrates, simple sugar from carbon dioxide, and water. They fix energy
from the sun and store it in complex organic compounds (green plants, algae,
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some bacteria). The process is known as photosynthesis.
 Chemoautotrophs - consist of a few bacteria such as sulfur bacteria and nitrifying
bacteria that can be able to utilize free energy released from the chemical
R S reactions to prepare organic food with it. The process is known as

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chemosynthesis. Examples are methanogens, halophiles,
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nitrifiers, thermoacidophiles, and sulfur oxidizers.
b. Consumers (Heterotrophs) – organisms unable to synthesize their own food

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and depends on producers. They are also known as heterotrophs. Consumers are
mainly animals. It also includes crustaceans, worms, insect larvae, and fishes.
 Herbivore - an animal that eats plants.

 Carnivore - an animal that eats other animals.
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 Omnivore - an animal that eats both plants and animals.

 Primary Consumer - Animals that consume only plant matter.
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 Secondary Consumer - Animals that eat primary consumers.

 Tertiary Consumer - Animals that eat secondary consumers.
 Predators - kill for food. They are either secondary or tertiary
consumers.
 Prey - are the organisms that predators feed on.
 Scavenger - a consumer that eats dead animals.
c. Decomposers - the primary purpose of the ecosystem is to decompose complex

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organic material into simple inorganic material so that it can be used for producers to
prepare food. It mainly consists of bacteria and fungi.
2. Abiotic Components - Non-living part of an ecosystem that shapes its environment.

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Includes temperature, light, water, etc.
a. Inorganic substances - substances like carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, water, carbon

dioxide, calcium, phosphorus, and their inorganic compounds. These are available
in free form or dissolved in water and may be adsorbed on the soil particles.
b. Organic substances - substances like carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic
acids, etc. This material is present in dead organic matter. These are broken into
simple compounds by decomposers in an ecosystem for the recycling of matter.
c. Climatic factors - factors present in the environment such as temperature,
humidity, light, wind, and rainfall.

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Food chain, Food web, and symbiotic relationships
Food chain
The sequence of transfers of matter and energy in the form of food from organism to
organism. It describes who eats whom in the wild.
a. Grazing food chain - food chain that starts from living green plants to grazing
herbivores and onto carnivores. Solar energy is entrapped by the plants, then
eaten by the herbivorous, and these are subsequently been consumed by a variety
of carnivorous. The death of all these organisms becomes the food for bacteria
and fungus to produce simple inorganic materials for reuse by the producers. An
ecosystem with such type of food chain directly depends upon solar energy for
their food requirements
b. Detritus food Chain - starts with the dead organic matter either from fallen
leaves or dead animal bodies. This food chain doesn’t directly depend on solar
energy.
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Food web
The interconnected and interlocking pattern of the food chain in a single ecosystem.
D 2
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Symbiotic relationship
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R LA BE Describes the relationship and interaction between species. It occurs when
different species in an ecosystem have activities or resource needs in common.
C
Types of Symbiotic Relationships
1. Commensalism
R S An interaction that benefits one species but neither harms nor helps the other
T C A
species.
EP S
Example: A bird making a nest in a tree
2. Mutualism
N W SU
An interaction that involves two species involved in a relationship interacts in ways

that benefit both.
Example: Bee pollination
3. Parasitism
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Interaction is beneficial to one and detrimental to another. It occurs when one

species (the parasite) feeds on part of another organism (the host) by living on or
D EV C
in the host.
Example: Ticks in cattle
4. Predation
Interaction is beneficial to one and detrimental to another. This is a very active
symbiotic relationship and uses intense physical effort (hunt, kill, and feed over
their prey from the outside).
Example: Cheetahs preying on gazelles
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Ecosystem Services
The ecosystem provides benefits to humans in the form of material and non-material
benefits. Any process, condition, output, and resources that directly or indirectly benefit humans
are called ecosystem services.
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Classification of ecosystem services
1. Provisioning services
Type of benefit to people that can be extracted from nature. Provisioning services
are used for basic human needs such as food, freshwater, medicinal resources,
and raw materials. Along with food, other types of provisioning services include
drinking water, timber, wood fuel, natural gas, oils, plants that can be made into
clothes and other materials, and medicinal benefits.
Example:
 Food - Virtually all ecosystems provide the conditions for growing, collecting,
hunting, or harvesting food.
 Medicinal resources - Natural ecosystems provide a variety of plants and
mushrooms which offer effective cures for many kinds of health problems.

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 Freshwater - No water, no life. Ecosystems play a vital role in providing the

flow and storage of fresh water.
 Raw materials - Ecosystems provide a great diversity of materials including
wood, biofuels, and fibers from wild or cultivated plant and animal species.
2. Regulating services
The benefit provided by ecosystem processes that moderate natural phenomena.
These services carried out by ecosystems in regulating environmental processes
make life possible for people. All processes that make ecosystems clean,
sustainable, functional, and resilient to change are part of regulating services.
Example:
 Air and Water Purification - Ecosystems influence water and air quality.
 Carbon sequestration and storage - Ecosystems regulate the global climate by
storing greenhouse gases.
 Climate Regulation - Ecosystems and living organisms create buffers against
natural disasters.
 Erosion prevention and maintenance of soil fertility - Vegetation cover prevents
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soil erosion and ensures soil fertility through natural biological processes such
as nitrogen fixation.
D 2
E
3. Cultural services
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R LA BE The ecosystem has guided our cultural, intellectual, and social development by
being present in our lives. Cultural services are non-material benefit that
C
contributes to the development and cultural advancement of people.
Example:
 Recreation - Nature-based opportunities for recreation play an important role
R S in maintaining mental and physical health, e.g. walking and playing sports in
T C A
parks and urban green spaces.
 Tourism - The enjoyment of nature attracts millions of travelers worldwide.
EP S
 Spiritual experience and sense of place - Nature is a common element in most
major religions.
N W SU
4. Supporting Services
Ecosystem services do not provide direct benefits but are necessary for the
production of all other ecosystem services. Natural processes such as
photosynthesis and the hydrologic cycle are part of supporting services. These
O IE L
processes allow the Earth to sustain basic life forms, let alone whole ecosystems
and people. Without supporting services, the other ecosystem services will not be
D EV C
sustained.
Example:
 Nutrient cycling - The three main cycles of an ecosystem are the water cycle,
the carbon cycle, and the nitrogen cycle.
 Habitat for species - Ecosystems provide living spaces for plants and animals.
 Maintenance of genetic diversity - Genetic diversity (the variety of genes
between, and within, species populations)
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IV. ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

An environmental problem occurs when an environmental condition is seen as a problem
by a specific place and situation. People differ in their awareness of problems, depending on who
they are, where they live, and what they do.
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Common Environmental problems

A. Biospheric-Related Problems
 Biodiversity loss - Forests cover now stands at only 18 percent with a small
portion of this being old-growth, or uncut virgin, forest. The Philippines also
ranks fifth in the world in terms of the number of plant species
 Extinction - Over the past century, 800 species have become extinct and at
least 10,000 species are now considered threatened.
 Shifting cultivation – the practice of clearing forest for shifting cultivation
through slash and burn.
 Overgrazing – the practice of intensive grazing of plants for extended periods
of time without sufficient recovery periods. It is often caused by livestock in
poorly managed agricultural operations or by overpopulations of the native or
native wild.
 Poaching - the practice of illegal trade of wildlife products.

7
B. Atmospheric-related problems
 Air pollution - contamination of the indoor or outdoor environment by any
chemical, physical or biological agent that modifies the natural characteristics
of the atmosphere.
 Climate change - a trend in one or more climatic variables characterized by a
fairly smooth continuous increase or decrease of the average value during the
period of record.
 Acid rain - occurs when sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOX) from
the burning of fossil fuels combine with water vapour in the atmosphere and
fall as precipitation. It poses significant risks to soils, rivers, forests, etc.
C. Geospheric related problems

 Land pollution - Waste generation from household solid waste and industrial
hazardous waste has risen significantly. This can be attributed to the lack of
environmentally sound waste disposal and treatment facilities. Chemical,
Textiles, Food and Drink and Engineering sectors are the main producers of
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hazardous wastes.
 Soil erosion – naturally occurring processes through the action of water or
D 2
wind and is being accelerated by human exploitation. It often occurs due to
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deforestation, overgrazing, industrialization, and desertification.
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R LA BE  Land degradation - any change in the land that alters its conditions or reduces
its
C
quality. It may be caused by natural disasters (e.g. volcanic eruptions, extreme
weather events, fire, etc.) or human-related activities.
 Ground subsidence – occurs when the sediments in the aquifer become
R S compacted due to the groundwater withdrawal being greater than the

T C A
recharge rate. It may cause damage to buildings and water supply systems.
 Landslide - the mass movement of rocks, debris, and soil down a slope of land.
EP S
It can be associated with steep slopes, heavy rainfall, earthquakes, volcanic
activity, changes in groundwater movement, human activities, or any
N W SU
combination of these factors.

 Desertification - process which turns productive into non- productive desert as
a result of poor land-management
D. Hydrospheric-related problems
O IE L
 Coastal resources deterioration - Coral reefs are now threatened by siltation,

pollution, overfishing, and destructive fishing techniques.
D EV C
 Water pollution - contamination of water sources by substances that make the

water unusable for drinking, cooking, cleaning, swimming, and other activities.
Pollutants include chemicals, trash, bacteria, parasites, salts, metals,
metalloids, and pathogens.
 Water Scarcity – lack of water resources to meet the standard water demand.
a. Physical water scarcity
occurs when there is not enough water to meet all demands or the
demand of the population exceeds the available water resources of a
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region.
b. Economic water scarcity
Occurs when water is adequate but is unavailable due to a lack of
significant investment in water infrastructure.
 Flooding - an overflow of water onto land that is normally dry. Flooding is
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usually caused by heavy rainfall resulting from tropical weather disturbances

aggravated by deforestation, improper agricultural practices, inadequate
design of drainage channels and structures, inadequate maintenance of
drainage facilities, blockage by debris brought by flood waters, and
construction of settlements in flood plains.
 Water contamination - Contamination of water sources by substances that
make the water unusable for drinking, cooking, cleaning, swimming, and other
activities. Pollutants include chemicals, trash, bacteria, parasites, salts, metals,
metalloids, and pathogens.
 Oil spills – occur when Crude petroleum and refined petroleum are accidentally
or deliberately released into the environment from different sources.
 Eutrophication – occurs when excessive nutrients (e.g. NPK fertilizers in
agricultural fields) are washed off or accumulated in different bodies of water.
It leads to harmful algal blooms and fish kills.

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World Food problems
Food security
Food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical and
economic access to sufficient safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary
needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life” - 1996 World Food
Summit
Four main dimensions of food security

1. Physical Availability of Food
Food availability addresses the “supply side” of food security and is determined
by the level of food production, stock levels, and net trade. Availability simply
refers to the existence of food within a community.
2. Economic access to food

Access to food depends on whether consumers have enough money to
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purchase the food they require. Greater policy focus on incomes, expenditure,
markets, and prices in achieving food security objectives
D 2
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3. Food utilization
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R LA BE To be food secure, it is crucial that the food being accessed is of good quality.
Combined with good biological utilization of food consumed, this determines
C
the nutritional status of individuals. It depends on the quantity, quality, and
diversity of food consumed in the household, as well as adequate health care
and sanitation services.
R S
T C A
4. Stability of the other three dimensions over time
EP S
Stability is about being food secure at all times.
V. CLIMATE CHANGE
N W SU
 Weather – short-term state of the atmosphere. It can change in a matter of minutes or

hours.
 Climate – long-term state of the atmosphere. It is the average weather over at least 30
years of weather data.
O IE L
Climate change can be defined as a trend in one or more climatic variables

D EV C
characterized by a fairly smooth continuous increase or decrease of the average value

during the period of record. Some gases in the Earth's atmosphere trap heat and stop it
from escaping into space. These gases are called 'greenhouse gases’. These gases act as a
warming blanket around the Earth, known as the 'greenhouse effect’.
Evidences of Climate Change

 Global warming - rise in the average temperature of Earth's air and oceans
 Sea level rise - increase in the level of the world's oceans due to the effects of
global warming
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 Extreme weather events - occurrences of unusually severe weather or climate

conditions that can cause devastating impacts on communities and agricultural
and natural ecosystems.
 Heatwave - a period of abnormally hot weather.
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 Water scarcity - lack of sufficient water, or not having access to safe water
supplies.
Relative Contribution of Natural and Anthropogenic Greenhouse Gases to

Greenhouse Effect
1. Water vapor
Water vapor is the most abundant GHG in the atmosphere and is the largest
contributor to the greenhouse effect. Warming is caused by increasing water vapor
in the atmosphere due to increased evaporation.
It does not last long in the atmosphere and is removed as precipitation and
condensation.

9
2. Carbon Dioxide
Natural sources of carbon dioxide (approximately 770 billion mt of CO2/year)
include ocean, plant, and animal respiration, organic matter decomposition, forest
fire, and volcanic eruption. Anthropogenic sources (approximately 34 billion mt
CO2/year) include fossil fuel burning, cement production, and farmland plowing).
Although natural sources are higher than anthropogenic sources, natural biological
processes such as plant photosynthesis absorb all natural emissions plus 54% of
man-made emissions.
3. Ozone
Ozone is found in two (2) different atmospheric layers – stratosphere and
troposphere:
 Stratospheric ozone - protects life on Earth from the harmful effects of the
sun’s ultraviolet rays. This layer also causes cooling, however, it has been
partially destroyed by manmade chemicals such as CFCs formerly found in
aerosol spray cans and refrigerants.
 Tropospheric ozone is a GHG formed by the reaction of sunlight on air
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containing hydrocarbons and nitrous oxides. Tropospheric ozone is created by
pollutants emitted by cars, power plants, and chemical plants.
D 2
E
4. Methane and Nitrous Oxide
O 20
R LA BE Methane and nitrous oxide are formed from oil, coal, and gas extraction,
agriculture particularly rice cultivation, and biomass burning. Natural sources
C
include soil nitrification and denitrification, oceans, rivers, estuaries, and wildfires.
Anthropogenic emissions include fertilization and cultivation of farmland,
industrial, and fossil fuel use, and biomass burning.
R S
T C A
Climate Change Mitigation
EP S
Measures taken to reduce and curb greenhouse gas emissions to address the
causes of climate change.
Example:
N W SU
 Sustainable transportation
 Reduce, reuse, recycle
 Eat less meat
 Eliminate food waste
 Conserve water
O IE L
Climate Change Adaptation

D EV C
Measures are based on reducing vulnerability to the effects of climate change.

Example:
 Green architectures
 More secure facility locations and infrastructures
 Preventive and precautionary measures
VI. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS

The solution to the different environmental problems is sustainability – management of
Earth’s resources without depleting them. The pathway to achieve this is through sustainable
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development - the use of resources to satisfy current needs without compromising the future
availability of resources.
The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), also known as the Global Goals, were adopted
by the United Nations in 2015 as a universal call to action to end poverty, protect the planet, and
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ensure that by 2030 all people enjoy peace and prosperity. The 17 SDGs are integrated—they
recognize that action in one area will affect outcomes in others, and that development must balance
social, economic, and environmental sustainability.
 GOAL 1: No Poverty
End poverty in all its forms everywhere. This involves targeting the most
vulnerable, increasing basic resources and services, and supporting communities affected
by conflict and climate-related disasters.
 GOAL 2: Zero Hunger

End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition, and promote
sustainable agriculture. This involves promoting sustainable agriculture, supporting small-
scale farmers, and equal access to land, technology, and markets. It also requires

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international cooperation to ensure investment in infrastructure and technology to improve

agricultural productivity.
 GOAL 3: Good Health and Well-being

Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages. Multisectoral, rights-
based, and gender-sensitive approaches are essential to address inequalities and to build
good health for all.
 GOAL 4: Quality Education

Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning
opportunities for all. This goal ensures that all girls and boys complete free primary and
secondary schooling by 2030. It also aims to provide equal access to affordable vocational
training, eliminate gender and wealth disparities, and achieve universal access to quality
higher education.
 GOAL 5: Gender Equality

Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls. It is vital to give women
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equal rights to land and property, sexual and reproductive health, technology, and the
Internet. Today there are more women in public office than ever before, but encouraging
D 2
more women leaders will help achieve greater gender equality.
E
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 GOAL 6: Clean Water and Sanitation
R LA BE Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all.
C
Safe and affordable drinking water for all by 2030 requires we invest in adequate
infrastructure, provide sanitation facilities, and encourage hygiene. Protecting and
restoring water-related ecosystems is essential.
R S
 GOAL 7: Affordable and Clean Energy
T C A
EP S
Safe and affordable drinking water for all by 2030 requires we invest in adequate
infrastructure, provide sanitation facilities, and encourage hygiene. Protecting and
restoring water-related ecosystems is essential. Investing in solar, wind, and thermal
N W SU
power, improving energy productivity, and ensuring energy for all are vital if we are to
achieve SDG 7 by 2030. Expanding infrastructure and upgrading technology to provide
clean and more efficient energy in all countries will encourage growth and help the
environment.
O IE L
 GOAL 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth

Promote sustained, inclusive, and sustainable economic growth, full and
D EV C
productive employment, and decent work for all.
 GOAL 9: Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure

Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization,
and foster innovation.
 GOAL 10: Reduced Inequality

Reduce inequality within and among countries.
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 GOAL 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities

Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable.
 GOAL 12: Responsible Consumption and Production

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Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns. The efficient

management of our shared natural resources, and the way we dispose of toxic waste and
pollutants, are important targets to achieve this goal. Encouraging industries, businesses,
and consumers to recycle and reduce waste is equally important, as is supporting
developing countries to move towards more sustainable patterns of consumption by 2030.
 GOAL 13: Climate Action
Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts. Supporting
vulnerable regions will directly contribute not only to Goal 13 but also to the other SDGs.
These actions must also go hand in hand with efforts to integrate disaster risk measures,
sustainable natural resource management, and human security into national development
strategies. It is still possible, with strong political will, increased investment, and using
existing technology, to limit the increase in global mean temperature to two degrees
Celsius above pre-industrial levels, aiming at 1.5°C, but this requires urgent and ambitious
collective action.

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 GOAL 14: Life Below Water

Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas, and marine resources for
sustainable development. The SDGs aim to sustainably manage and protect marine and
coastal ecosystems from pollution, as well as address the impacts of ocean acidification.
Enhancing conservation and the sustainable use of ocean-based resources through
international law will also help mitigate some of the challenges facing our oceans.
 GOAL 15: Life on Land

Protect, restore, and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems,
sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation
and halt biodiversity loss. Urgent action must be taken to reduce the loss of natural habitats
and biodiversity which are part of our common heritage and support global food and water
security, climate change mitigation and adaptation, and peace and security.
 GOAL 16: Peace and Justice Strong Institutions

Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide
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access to justice for all, and build effective, accountable, and inclusive institutions at all
levels.
D 2
 GOAL 17: Partnerships to achieve the Goal
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R LA BE Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the Global Partnership for
Sustainable Development.
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VII.REFERENCES
Alberto, A.M.P., & Guzman, J. (2002). Self Learning Module in Principles of Ecology. EMI
R S Publishing, Central Luzon State University.

T C A
Berg, L. & Hager, M.C. (2008). Visualizing Environmental Science (2 nd Ed.) Wiley: Hoboken,
EP S
NJ, USA.
N W SU
Berthouex, P.M., & Brown, L.C. (2015). Pollution Prevention and Control: Part 1, 1st Edition,
ISBN 978-87-403-0526-5
Botkin, L. & Keller, M.C. (2008). Environmental Science, Earth as a living planet (6 th ed.).
Wiley:Hoboken, NJ, USA.
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Jones, C. (2014). Atmospheric Pollution 1st Edition., ISBN 978-87-7681-416-8

D EV C
Moir P. (2015) A wet look at Climate Change: Hurricanes to House Mites, ISBN 978-87-
403-006305.
Lukenga, W. (2019) Water Resource Management 2nd Edition, ISBN 978-87-403-2971-1
Tyller, G., Miller, J.R., & Scott, E. (2011). Library of Congress Control Number:
2008933001, ISBN-13: 978-0-495-55795-1. ISBN-10: 0-495-55795-1
Withgoth, J. & Brenhan, S. (2014). The science Behind the Stories: 5th edition., published
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by Addison Wesley Paperback Materials. https://www.pearson.com/us/higher-

education/product/Withgott-Environment-The-Science-behind-the-Stories-5th-
Edition
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Zehnder C., Manoylov, K., Mutiti, S., Mutiti C., VandeVoort A., & Bennett D. (2018).
Introduction to Environmental Science: 2nd Edition., Galileo Open Learning
Materials: https://oer.galileo.usg.edu/biology-textbooks/4
United Nations. (2015). The 2030 Agenda and the Sustainable Development Goals.
https://sdgs.un.org/goals
ECOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES QUESTIONS
1. The environmental impact of a person or population is called ___________.

a. Overshoot b. Ecosystem services c. Ecological footprint d. Overexploitation
2. Which of the following is NOT a biotic component?

a. Fungi b. Water c. Bacteria d. Plants

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3. Which is NOT a sustainable solution?

a. Use of fossil fuels c. Greenhouse gas mitigation technologies
b. Reduce, reuse, recycle d. Renewable energy
4. Which of the following is an example of non-renewable resources?

a. Solar b. Wind c. Wave d. Natural gas
5. The use of resources to satisfy current needs without compromising future availability of
resources is called __________________.
a. Environmental sustainability c. Renewable development
b. Economic sustainability d. Sustainable development
6. Erosion prevention belongs to which ecosystem services?

a. Supporting services c. Regulating services
b. Provisioning services d. Cultural services
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7. The hydrologic cycle belongs to which ecosystem services?
D 2
E
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R LA BE
C
8. Basic human needs people get from the ecosystem belong to which ecosystem services?
R S
9. Processes that make ecosystems clean, sustainable, functional, and resilient to change
T C A
belong to which ecosystem services?
EP S
N W SU
10. Ecosystem services that do not provide direct benefits but are necessary for the production
of all other ecosystem services.
O IE L
11. Development and cultural advancement of people belong to which ecosystem services?
D EV C

12. What symbiotic relationship is exhibited by a spider making its web on a tree?
a. Mutualism b. Commensalism c. Predation d. Parasitism
13. Mosquitos and humans exhibit what kind of symbiotic relationship?

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14. What symbiotic relationship is exhibited by plants and pollinators?

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15. The maximum population size the environment can support.

a. Population limit c. population dynamics
b. Carrying capacity d. Absolute population
16. Structural and functional unit of the biosphere, comprising living and non-living factors
and their interaction.
a. Ecosystem b. Environment c. Biosphere d. Ecology
17. ___________ occurs when humans have surpassed the Earth’s capacity to support.
a. Overexploitation b. Ecological footprint c. Overshoot d. Ecosystem services
18. It describes the enormous variety of life on Earth.

a. Stability b. Biodiversity c. Endemic d. Ecological balance
13
19. A species that exist in a single defined geographic location and do not occur naturally in
any other part of the world.
a. Stable species b. Invasive c. Endemic species d. Alien species
20. Any process, condition, output, and resources that the ecosystem provide to humans
directly or indirectly.
a. Ecosystem services c. Biodiversity
b. Environmental benefit d. Ecological balance
21. Species that are capable of causing extinctions of native plants and animals, reducing
biodiversity, competing with native organisms for limited resources, and altering habitats.
a. Exotic species c. Invasive species
b. Native species d. Endemic species
22. Which of the following is an abiotic component?
U 3
a. Air b. Bacteria c. Animals d. Tree
D 2
23. Ozone layer depletion is associated to which sphere?
E
a. Geosphere b. Atmosphere c. Biosphere d. Hydrosphere
O 20
R LA BE
C
24. Extinction is associated to which sphere?
a. Geosphere b. Atmosphere c. Biosphere d. Hydrosphere
R S
25. Climate change __________ are measures that are taken to reduce and curb greenhouse
T C A
gas emissions.
EP S
a. Solution b. Mitigation c. Adaptation d. Emergency
26. Climate change __________ are measures that reduce vulnerability to the effects of
N W SU
climate change.
a. Solution b. Mitigation c. Adaptation d. Emergency
27. Which of the following is a climate change mitigation measure?

O IE L
a. Survival skills c. Secure infrastractures

b. Responsible consumption d. Emergency responses
D EV C
28. Which of the following is a climate change adaptation measure?

a. First aid training c. Water conservation
b. Recycling d. Sustainable transportation
29. Type of water scarcity which occurs when water is adequate but is unavailable due to a
lack of significant investment in water infrastructure.
a. Global water scarcity c. Economic water scarcity
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b. Physical water scarcity d. Environmental water scarcity
30. Type of water scarcity which occurs when when there is not enough water to meet all
demands or the demand of the population exceeds the available water resources of a
R
region.
a. Global water scarcity c. Economic water scarcity
b. Physical water scarcity d. Environmental water scarcity
31. Which is the most abundant greenhouse gas in the atmosphere and is the largest
contributor to the greenhouse effect?
a. Carbon dioxide b. Methane c. Water vapor d. Nitrous oxide
32. Body of water above ground, including streams, rivers, lakes, wetlands, reservoirs, and
creeks.
a. Freshwater b. Saltwater c. Groundwater d. Surface water
33. Body of water that exists underground in saturated zones beneath the land surface.

14
a. Freshwater b. Saltwater c. Groundwater d. Surface water
34. Global goals adopted by the United Nations in 2015 as a universal call to action to end
poverty, protect the planet, and ensure that by 2030 all people enjoy peace and prosperity.
a. Sustainability goals c. Biodiversity goals
b. United Nations’ goals d. Sustainable development goals
35. Sustainable development goals that urge to take urgent action to combat climate change
and its impacts.
a. SDG 13 b. SDG 14 c. SDG 15 d. SDG 16
36. Sustainable development goals that urge to protect, restore and promote sustainable use
of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and
reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss.
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37. Sustainable development goals that urge to conserve and sustainably use the oceans,
seas, and marine resources for sustainable development. The SDGs aim to sustainably
D 2
manage and protect marine and coastal ecosystems from pollution, as well as address the
E
impacts of ocean acidification.
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a. SDG 13
R LA BE b. SDG 14 c. SDG 15 d. SDG 16
C
38. It is also called geosphere and it consists of the solid Earth that includes the continental
and ocean. as well as various layers of Earth’s interior.
a. Hydrosphere b. Atmosphere c. Biosphere d. Lithosphere
R S
T C A
39. A rice field is an example of ____________.
EP S
a. Natural ecosystem c. Temporary ecosystem
b. Artificial ecosystem d. Macroecosystem
N W SU
40. Sierra Madre mountain ranges is an example of ____________.

a. Natural ecosystem c. Temporary ecosystem
b. Artificial ecosystem d. Microecosystem
O IE L
41. Animal that eats both plants and animals.

a. Herbivore b. Carnivore c. Omnivore d. Scavenger
D EV C
42. Mushroom is an example of ___________ ?

a. Producer b. Consumer c. Predator d. Decomposer
43. Branch of biology that studies the pattern of life and interactions between organisms and
the environment.
a. Ecology c. Zoology
b. Environmental science d. Environmental physiology
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44. Area with more species of corals, fish, and pharmaceutical marine products than any other
marine environment on Earth
a. Biome b. Ocean c. Coral Triangle d. Freshwater
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45. Occurs when excessive nutrients (e.g. NPK fertilizers in agricultural fields) are accumulated
in different bodies of water that leads to algal blooms and fish kills.
a. Nitrification c. Desertification
b. Eutrophication d. Water degradation
46. Practice of practice of illegal trade of wildlife products.
a. Poaching b. Smuggling c. Trafficking d. Encroahing
47. How many goals does the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) have?
a. 16 b. 17 c. 18 d. 19
48. Affordable and Clean energy belong to what Sustainable Development Goals?

15
49. Dimesion of food security that depends on whether consumers have enough money to
purchase the food they require.
a. Availability b. Access c. Use and Utilization d. Stability
50. Dimesion of food security that refers being food secure at all times.
a. Availability b. Access c. Use and Utilization d. Stability
U 3
D 2
E
O 20
R LA BE
C
R S
T C A
EP S
N W SU
O IE L
D EV C
O
R
ECOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES ANSWER KEY
1. C 11. D 21. C 31. C 41. C

2. B 12. B 22. A 32. D 42. D
3. A 13. D 23. B 33. C 43. A
4. D 14. A 24. C 34. D 44. C
5. D 15. B 25. B 35. A 45. B

16
6. C 16. A 26. C 36. C 46. A

7. A 17. C 27. B 37. B 47. B
8. B 18. B 28. A 38. D 48. C
9. C 19. C 29. C 39. B 49. B
10. A 20. A 30. B 40. A 50. D
U 3
D 2
E
O 20
R LA BE
C
R S
T C A
EP S
N W SU
O IE L
D EV C
O
R

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1

LAND AND WATER CONSERVATION ENGINEERING

MARVIN M. CINENSE, Ph.D.

THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE OR WATER CYCLE

Figure 1. The hydrologic cycle

Processes in Hydrologic Cycle

1. Evaporation – is a gradual process in which something is changed from liquid to gas

heavy enough to fall out of the cloud as raindrops.

Figure 2. Convective precipitation

Figure 3. Orographic precipitation

Figure 4. Frontal precipitation

Figure 5. Wind patterns

Figure 7. Automatic weather station

Figure 8. Doppler radar

Sources of Errors in Measurement

Agrometeorological Service in the Philippines

PAGASA Network of Observing Stations

2. Intensity, Duration and Frequency of Rainfall

Rainfall intensity is the volume or depth of rainfall per unit time.

General expression for rainfall intensity:

where: 𝑖 - rainfall intensity

𝑡 - duration of storm in minutes

𝐼 = 0.0256(𝐶 − 𝐴)𝑥 + 0.000256[(𝐷 − 𝐶) − (𝐵 − 𝐴)]𝑥𝑦 + 0.01(𝐵 − 𝐴)𝑦 + 𝐴 (Eq. 2.2)

where: 𝐼 - rainfall amount in inches

Hydrologic Frequency Analysis

𝑇 = 100/𝑃 (Eq. 2.3)

where: 𝑇 - return period in years

Determination of statistical analysis:

∑ 𝑋 2 −(∑ 𝑋)2 /𝑛 1/2

where: 𝑠 - standard deviation

where: Cv - coefficient of variation

̅ + ∆𝑿 , from a statistical point of view, 𝑿𝒄 possesses two important properties (1)

𝐶𝑠 = 3𝐶𝑣 + 𝐶𝑣3 (Eq. 2.8)

where: 𝑇 - return period in years

Mockus’ adequacy of length of record Y:

𝑌 = (4.30𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑅)2 + 6 (Eq. 2.10)

where: 𝑌 - minimum acceptable years of record

1. Arithmetic mean. The simplest method of estimating average

∑ 𝑋 37.1 + 48.8 + 68.3 + 114.3 + 75.7 + 127

𝐴1𝑃1 + 𝐴2𝑃2 + ⋯ + 𝐴𝑛𝑃𝑛

where: 𝑞 - the flow rate (L3/T)

R S ℎ - head or potential causing flow (L)

𝐴 - cross-sectional area of flow (L2)

where: 𝐿 - total length of flow through all layers (L)

subscripts 1 & 2 - the soil layers

Infiltration into unsaturated soil is defined by the differential equation:

∅ - the capillary potential (L)

Factors Affecting Infiltration

Soil Factors. Soil functions essentially as pervious

The infiltration curve can be expressed by:

𝑓 = 𝑓𝑐 + (𝑓𝑜 − 𝑓𝑐 )𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 (Eq. 3.4)

fo - infiltration capacity at the onset of infiltration (L/T)

Figure 1. Typical infiltration curve

Evaporation from Water Surfaces

𝐸 = 𝐶(𝑒𝑠 − 𝑒𝑑 ) (Eq. 3.5)

where: 𝐸 - rate of evaporation

es - saturated vapor pressure at the temperature of the water surface, in mm Hg