Ma-Bad Jadeediyat Aur Islam (Tehqeeq Wa Tajziyah)

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‫ﻣﺤﮑﻤﮧ دﻻﺋﻞ وﺑﺮاﮨﯿﻦ ﺳﮯ ﻣﺰﯾﻦ ﻣﺘﻨﻮع وﻣﻨﻔﺮد ﮐﺘﺐ ﭘﺮ ﻣﺸﺘﻤﻞ ﻣﻔﺖ آن ﻻﺋﻦ ﻣﮑﺘﺒﮧ‬
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5
(i) Lyotard, J-F(1993), The Postmodern condition: A Report on
Knowledge (Tr.Geoff Bennington and Brian Massumi) university of
Minnnesota press.
(ii) Alain, Tourain (1995), Critique of Modernity, combridge Black
well.
(iii) Bauman, Zygmunt (2000), Liquid Modernity, Cambridge: Polity
press.
(iv) Charles upton (2001), The system of Antichrist Truthc Falsehood
in Postmodernism The New age, Sophia Perennis.
(v) Collins, Jim(1989), uncommon cultures; Popular cultures and
Postmodernism, Routledge.
(vi) Habermas, Jurgen (1993), Modernity versus Postmodernity,

û ivü
cambridge: polity press.
(vii) Umberto Eco (1986), Travels in Hyperreality, New York,
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
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X •D™qŽgs§Å Ideas
:ì @ Û ]â ¥b§kZ Constantine the GreatyZ>çg W~{gÃè[Â
™ë Z•
" First christian Emperor (c.AD 280-337) of Rome and
founder of constantinople. He defeated maxentius(joint
emperor of Rome AD312 and in 313) formally recognized
christianity. As sole emperor of the west of the empire, he
defeated Licinius emperor fo the East, to become ruler of the
Roman world 324. He Presided over the church's first council
an Nicaea 325. Constantine moved his capital to byzantium
on the Bosporus 330, renaming it constantinople (Now
Istanbul).
Constantine was born at Naissus (Nis, Yugoslavia), the
son of constantius.He was already well known as a soldier
when his father died in York in 306 and he was acclaimed by
the troops there as joint emperor in his father's place.A few
years laterMaxentius, the joint emperor in Rome (Whose
sister had married constantine), challenged his authority and
mobilized his armies to invade Gaul.Constantine won a
crushing victory outside Rome in 312. During his comaign he
was said to have seen a vision of the cross of Jesus
superimposed upon the sun, accompanied by the words: In
this sign, conquer, By the Ediet of Milan 313 he formally
recognized Christianity as one of the religions legally
permitted within the Roman Empire and in 314 he

û 17ü
summoned the bishops of the western world to the council of
Arles, However, there has never been agreement on
whether Constantine adopted christianity for reasons of
faith or as an act of imperial absolutism to further his
power. Constantine increased the autocratic power. He
summoned, and presided over, the first general council of the
church in Nicaea 325."(30)
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û 27ü
*™Ìy´Z » ò}ÆïKZÉ Hg ïZ » ~z¬ŠÆª!
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u ~g7 9•
Xì `gŠ•ÆEntryÅ InquisitionÐDic.of Ideas
"Tribunl of the Roman catholic church estblished in
1233 to suppress heresy (dissenting views) originally by
excommunication. Sentence was pronounced during a
religious ceremony, the auto-da-fe.(act of faith; religious
ceremony, including a procession, solemn mass, and sermon,
which accompanied the sentencing of heretics by the spanish
inquisition before they were handed over to the secular
authorities for punishment, usually burning).The Inquisition
operated in France, Italy, Spain and the Holy Roman Empire
and was especially active following the refomation; it was
later extended to the Americas. Its trials were conducted in
secret, under torture, and penalties ranged from fines, through
flogging and imprisonment, to death by burning.
During the course of the spanish Inquisition, until its
abolition1834, some 60,000 cases were tried. the Roman
Inquisition was established in 1542 to combat the growth of
protestantism. The Inquisition or Holy office (remaned sacred

û 28ü
congregation for the Doctrine of the faith 1965, still deals
with acclesiostical discipline."(45)
:ì ˆ½~p ÖZyZ]!
¸~Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary
"Inquisition: the organization oppointed by the Roman
catholic chruch to suppress people who opposed its beliefs,
esp. from the 15th to the 17th century."(46)
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û 29ü
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û 30ü
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û 32ü
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û 33ü
sŸzÅ (Renaissance)._Æ é¹G
:ì b§kZ 45H
1E
G "'be̈ZXì @
c Yï
"Literally, "rebirth" the period in European civilization
immediately, following the middle Ages, conventionally held
to have been characterized by a surge of Interest in classical
learning and value. The Renaissance also witnessed the
discovery and exploration of new continents, the substitution
of the copernican for the ptolemaic system of astronomy, the
decline of the feudal system and the growth of commerce and
the invention or application of such potentially powerful
innovations as paper, printing, the mariner's compass and
gunpowder. To the scholars and thinkers of the day,
however, it was primarily a time of the revival of classical
learning and wisdom after a long period of cultural
decline and stagnation.
The term Middle ages was coined by scholars in the
15th century to designate the interval between the downfall
of the classical world of Greece and Rome and its
Rediscovery at the beginning of their own century, a
revival in which they felt they participating.Indeed, the
notion of a long period of cultural darkness had been
expressed by Petrarch even earlier. Events at the end of the
Middle Ages, Particularly beginning in the 12th century, set
in notion a series of social, political and intellectual
transformations that culminated in the Renaissance. These

û 34ü
included the increasing failure of the Roman catholic
church and the Holy Roman Empire to Provide a stable
and unifying framework for the organization of spiritual
and material life.
The spirit of the Renaissance ultimately took many
forms, it was expressed earliest by the intellectual movement
called Humanism. (Detail is coming soon)'The intellectual
stimulation provided by Humanists helped spark the
Reformation (Detail is coming ahead), from which, however,
many Humanists, including Erasmus,recoiled. By the end of
the 16th century the battle of Refomation and
Counter-Reformation had commanded much of Europe's
energy and attention, while the intellectual life was poised on
the brink of the Enlightenment (Detail is coming ahead). It
was in art that the spirit of the Renaissance achieved its
sharpest formulation. Art came to be seen as a branch of
knowledge, valuable in its own right and capable of
providing man with images of God'
The Renaissance as a unified historical period ended
with the fall of Rome in 1527. The strains between christian
faith and classical Humanism led to Mannerism in the latter
part of the 16th century."(54)
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û 35ü
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ÅyÒ ]:Ssf `gŠ Å Renaissance ~The Hutchinson Dic. of Ideas
: •ˆ
"The aim of Renaissance education was to produce the
complete human being (Renaissance man) conversant in the
humanities, mathematics and science; to encourage the
growth of scepticism and free thoght, and the study and
imitation of Greek and Latin literature and art. The revival of
interest in classical Greek and Roman culture inspired artists
such as Leonardo davinci, Michel Angelo and Dijrer.
Figures of the Renaissance include the politician Michiavelli,
the poets Ariosto, Shakespeare and Tasso.etc."(55)
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yZ™ƒÙWÐ d •›gzZ™ Y~ ´ ˜}uzŠ [Z¸ ñƒ"ŠÒÆ(Scholasticism)

û 37ü
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(Scholasticism)8
The Penguin Dic. of Literary Terms and literary
c
:Š Zz™ b§kZsg ¬» Scholasticism~Theory
" The teachers of the liberal arts in the medieval
schools were known as doctores scholastici, theologians and
philosophers were also so called. Scholasticism now refers,
loosely, to the methods and matters of theological and
Philosophical thought in the Middle Ages. St. Thomas, Duns
scotus, Peter lombard and Albertus Magnus were all
scholastics the principal luminaries in exceptional
c o n st e l la t io n o f me t a p h s ic i a n s, Th e in flu e n c e o f
scholasticism since the Middle Ages has been enormous, and
its spirit has been kept alive in more recent times by T.E
Hulme, Jacques Maritain, Etienne Gilson and Gabriel
Marcel."(57)

û 38ü
:ì ˆÅ b§kZ '
sŸzh × ~The Hutchinson Dic. of Ideas
" Scholasticism; the theological and philosophical
systems and methods taught in the schools of medieval
Europe, especially in the 12th -14th centuries. scholasticism
tried to integrate orthodox christian teachings with
Aristotelian and some Platonic philosophy. The scholastic
method involved surveying different opinions and the reasons
given for them, and then attempting solutions of the problems
raised using logic and dialectic.
The 9th century neo-platon-ist Johannes Scotus
Erigena is sometimes regarded as an early scholastic. But
scholasticism began at the end of the 11th century, when
Roscellinus, a supporter of nominalism, and Anselm, a
supporter of realism, disputed the nature of universals. In the
12th century, the foundations of universities in Bologna,
Paris, oxford and Philosophical Texts, stimulated
scholasticism.Notable scholastic philosophers,or' schoolmen'
as they were called, william of champeaux, Abelard, the
English monk Alexander of Hales (died 1222) Albert
Mangnus, and Peter Lombard. The most important are in the
13th century, Thomas Aquinas, Whose works have become
classic texts of catholic doctrine and Duns scotus and in the
14th century, william of occam, who was the last major
scholastic philosopher.

û 39ü
In the 20th century there has been a revival of interest
in scholasticism, parlicularly in the writings of catholic
scholars like Jacques Maritian (1882-1973)"(58)
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manifestations and achievements as its subject. second, it
emphasized the dignity of man. In place of the medieval

û 46ü
ideal of a life of penance as the highest and noblest form of
human activity, the humanists looked to the struggle of
creation and the attempt to exert mastry over nature. Finally,
Humanism looked forward to a rebirth of a lost human spirit
and wisdom. The effect of Humanism was to help men
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criticism, and to inspire a new confidence in the
possibilities of human thought and creations." (69)
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paragon of animals." (72)
Þ ‡p ÖZsf `gŠÆThe Penguin Dic. of Literary terms and Literary Theory
.
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~„qZ »h ˆâgzŠ ÌtgzZ )X à™g (Z ÕÅ (88) Irrationalism) Òx°ñƒ D™
]
Åk#Zzkc kZpXì (89) (Existentialism),~ŠŽz1Z( Ðƒ  »T ( Xì1
7D=g f ðÃ{z´Æó ó=L è L aX ì „g™x » ~g ZŠ ÃzÐ ~I Ò„z ÌúÆqJ

û 54ü
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Xì àZzäWc6
¬ y̈Z » \g- Xì ðƒ ’~g ZÜZ} ú Æ ~I ÒÅ [fžì t |
ñWÉúëž 6X ÅŠ XZ~ˆ~I ÒaÆp ggzŠÐ ¿z„ÃZ} gzZX Zƒg Zi"Z}

yî#ZÔo ZcÌ` Wx â Z ~„Æ[fakZX H~ ZÐ xzgz y* - tâu~„CZ ä [fž•
y*- *ŠÌY Z’Z Å~IÒžì ¸ØÂñYH·_¤ Z Z®X •D YŒ„ {)zTgZgzZ
ðZ’Z Å ~I Ò: *6{Š â ~ „Å (90) (Aristotle 384-322 Bc) TgZ X ðƒ Ð
: *6{Š â ä æWÅá|Q c J (ÐWÃysg kZ ä V\Æˆ X ‰ÐäWÃV×Y6
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+ ¾ÃõG /“ ZŠ kZÐzz ÅÔm{”p’VZi ZˆgzZ 46" òzgz ã* -¬
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( French Revolution) ÷Z•
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kZ Šc Ø •
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[zZpXì§Zz»Y 1792tX ¶ðƒaÆä™ì‡> Ø • á Š ! Z¡ÂY Z’Z Å[zZ
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û%»tg/g »y WÃ÷Z•Û ä ]ZŠ Y„z¤  Ænh ”gzZ V.ÆVñ¸~uzŠ ]uZzŠŸ6Æ

û 55ü
ä™ »Ã (Reign of Terror) # Ö ÓÅcŠ x • á WypgzZ ä™z• Û ]ZŠ YX c
Š ZßŠ (Status)
(91) Az B̀Æ ` ¯úZ• Û g»yWgzZ X Å Ýq ì Ì6V7Š ãzÛ ä òg W õ• Û ˆÆ
X 1™ï6 g ZMZ~Y 1799ä(Napoleon 1769-1821)
Ô+id) y»g ZÆ# Ö ÓÂì e äJ (LZ  ä{ • á Š !
~Y 1789#5¬Ð kZ
á Š !
Å ( Louis Xvi) { • gzZg œãzg0 ZpX ñƒ¦~(versailles)ûgz( x ZúgzZ GyZM
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gzZX c á ~kc~Y 1792~Z 10~]gßÅxWäx Zús ÜÆ# Ö Ó: Z 'Y
(Louis ëŠ 4á ðßÃ 1793~g†X 21 Š
• c Š™ y´Z » tg/ úZ• Û « Ã Y 1792 m21
XŠcŠ™OÃ( XVI
pì @ YŒ ìÅe g/Ã[zZ kZX ]Zz)Ô]p ZÔ ~Š Zi WX å{È»÷Z• Û [zZ
~Chambers Dictionary ce¢ ™6 gîãZz(Democracy) e g/g¦»[f
:ˆÅ b§kZp°Åe g/
" Democracy: a form of Government in which the
supreme power is vested in the people collectively, state of
society characterised by recognition of equality of rights and
privileges. political, social or legal equality." (92)
}ÑçXì @ƒk0 Æx Zú6gî¦ùdZg ZMZ~Tì ^q Ö ÓÔe
ZÅ# g/L L
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t ]Z|{ W
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W™á x •» ]Zz)gzZ e
Xì Z„ Ç! Ð zg Å„gzZ×! fgzZì ÈgzZ¼ ~ ¹òsZ »X• ]q ˜Z
X 7mðÃÐxsZ »e g/gzZ]Zz)! fZ®
:•˜ ~jŒWz6 ~}g! kZ

û 56ü
*ƒ7ƒ6
 L å¸È»]Zz)gzZ ~Š Zi WC
x ZúLž Ù „ Â‰Ü zÆ÷Z• Û [zZ "þ
× W{zåV©x|Ž~p ÖZyZ1 ó Xó ce* ƒ~z)zgŠ »ƒ  ~ÃÅyâ ‡gzZce
C;gzZ ãKÅVâ ̈Z}g ‚ Lž L •b‡Æ]! kZáZz[fX ZƒC Ù ª× W
(93)ó ó•Ïq Z]c gz¢
Ðp ÒÆt £Æä™ Zg77ZgzZ]c gz¢CÑçc ]c gz¢ãKsÜ]Zz)ª
VŒXce ãƒ7~ÈzgŠ yxgŠÆVâ ̈Z®X •~z)y̈Z}g ‚Ðg ±ZC Ù É 7„
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X Yƒ7¿L6kZgzZì s ÜÇ! Æë›Æ]¡ ã̈Zg¦t»]Zz)ìC Ùª
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Xì  Š 1¯ g £ ~yW » qC Ù Ã (Public opinion)ó óòŠ Wx ¬L LÉÃ ó óy̈Z L LsÜ:ž ì
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XŠc Š Ìx * » ó ó~œÅòŠ Wx ¬L LÃ~œ¸¦  akZì
ì „gƒ Y7 ÌÅ (Common sense) óú ó 1™x ¬LB L ‚B‚Æ-6Å ó óòŠ Wx ¬L L
u * çtakZX 7zÂëÑc Ôì ß{zƒCF Z: ~g76 g £Æú1™x ¬qŽžì ;g Yt¹
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ÌVŒž Z 7t6}ÑçòsZ}g ø W Z »kZX ñYc Wá ~} ] ZŠÆú1™x ¬™. Y
òsZ ÌÃòŠ Wx ¬c X ñW: ~™Å òŠ Wx ¬Ž 7]! +Z ðÃ~ xsZ L ž L Î äYHc_
Û g »†f ¸úÆkZ L LÃY fAì h„Ú Z » ô=z¨Åb)&]5ç
Xì â •
3g7g¸~Vz]
Š ZŠÆyâ ‡gzZuÔ„  (ÃVßßZÆ]Zz)gzZe g/n¾

û 57ü
Xce*
ƒ74Š »yZV˜Š Š™Z
c ZŠyZÉ
¬Ì~Vz]
xÎ`
h
( Modernism)e]
»gzŠ {ŠŽñŠ Z%Ð kZgzZì @ Þ £Æ( Traditional) ˜ÀÂ » ( Modern) ~ ‹Z
YÑ1 .
Xì @
ƒ•gzZyDg
:._ÆChambers Dictionary
"Modern:Characteristic of present or recent time:not
ancient or medieval: in education mainly or wholly concerned
with subjects of other than Greek and Latin"
Xì `gŠ•ÆEntry Å Modernism gzZ
"Modern usage,expression or trait: modern spirit or character
: a tendency to adjust christian dogma to the results of scince
and criticism" (94)
Ð kZ ~ ½Xƒ: » «z gzŠ c
*ŠX • ë Ã¤SÅ: â i {ŠŽñ c
¢qgzŠÔh
]
X Vƒ:HÑc ã*
-Ž }p, Z Fx ÓŠ Z%
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ò} ~WgzZ ³‚ÃZ x ³/,jh
] ÔxÎg c
g ÖZ i§ÔwEZh L L þ
]
ó óy
þ Dg »ä™}WëÐ
:ì ˆÅ b§kZs Ÿzh
'× ~ThePenguin Dictionary
" A comprehensive but vague term for a movement (or
tendency) which began to get under way in the closing years
of the 19th c. and which has had a wide influence
internationally during much of the 20th c.The term pertains
to all creative arts,especially poetry ,fiction, drama,

û 58ü
painting,music and architecture.There have been various
theories as to when the movement ( or its tendencies) was at
its height (some suggest the 1920s for this) and as to whether
the modernist movement is actually over.Some have
suggested that modernism,as an innovative and revivifying
movement,was played out by the late 1940s,and that it was
then that postmodernism began" (95)
i ¸W» TÔì Cƒ wEZ a Æ( yDg c )q’kZ Ž ì b ˜Z ãp ìY q Z
{Š c
i ~ ~œ,•6gîò Z ¸ÑZ Î W Z Wz » q
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q á 6gîm{ÔFgW b ˜ZtX åZƒ
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Šg ZÆ Y 1920 q
Š 4 Æ ‰)X • ]c ÃZ~}g ! Æ`z²gzŠÆ
!ó óe h] L Lž • D™ m ?‰X Zƒ “  x !Z » ó óe
h] LžL ì
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» óeh]
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ó óŠ
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] h ] :/ eh] ˆâ
ì J 7ÌZÐáZjÆ ThePenguin Dic.ä ëž 6X ñY ŒÃe h] žì ~gz¢
Æ ~œ,z18gzZ ,z17Ž ì x *»·ùÆ Vr’Y•gzZ R•Ô Cc ÃyZ ÝZgŠ eh ]
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X NƒZa ~¿›gÆŠ Zë Z ðGgzZ ( Traditionalism) ~Ie Zzg~\g-
[VÃ`z²LZÕ» G~\g- Z  ågzŠ {ztÂZƒi ¸W»yDgÆó óe h ]
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]Zm ð|gzZ,ã* - *ŠäV-gŠ 0
Ãß ( Xì [ƒ{™E -}}g ! ÆTgzZ ) å
{zÃi ZzWÌËà ZzàZ s ÜÆ ]cÃyZgzZX¸ Çg™ì‡]c Ã•‚Šp¼ Ð ` ZâZÆ
å3g™ì‡x Â~Š Zë Z (Z äVrZÆ™hŽ SB‚ÆVáÓ„• á X¸B{çaÆ< Ø è
X ¶7öRðÃaÆq ’dŠ Zi WÌË~T

û 59ü
~*Š ð|ÐzzÅ ( Interaction)ï¬sîB‚Æd •òsZÅÜs§~uzŠ
ìg Ñ 8g kgŠÆ b‚ C! Š{”Ýq ~©* ¾gzZ\Œ Û X ‰ÐäWN Zƒ Å„e wÌ
Æógó ¦òsZÆ]Zz)gzZ ã̈Zèe w L ¸ L Ñ ä™]! ŠŠ Zi WyZŠb‚Æ\g- gzZX¸
G
Å ( Humanism) 46+  ̈Z ~ ˆgzZ 4zŠ y̈Z ~( Sicily) îG 0Ò¨rgzZ OZ ! †ä ]Z W Z
Za ¿›gh ” s Ü Æ Š ZëZ Æ G ™ ï ä ïZú ƒ  yZX ‰Å Za ¹’h ] 
 â ªŠ Å Îâh
8 ” ~ \g- IÐ q ’kZ èaX ðƒ qzÑ q ’Å ó óe h ] L gLzZ H
D a r k ) gzŠ q
g @Ã «z Ç }g7 ä q ’kZ a kZX å {gzŠgzŠ » 46e ZzggzZ
”X c
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’tD™D™4z]
q s ÜÆÖgzZ 46e ZzggzZ cŠ à6Y •Z ~uzŠÃq ’kZä¿Šg
X ˆƒs ÜÆ„]ZmIègzZ< Ø è
Û ,Š ã
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( Bacon Francis 1561-1626) èE½G 1Z• Cc ÃÅ q ’kZ Å e h ] 
H o b b e s T h o m a s ))  ƒ éåÔ ( Zƒ yÒ ú sg ¬)^g ke ¶gÔ ( 9 6 )
¬_Æ]ÑìÆvŠgzZ +®yZX • CY ð0 ~g °ZÆ+®{)z(97)( 1588-1679
Æ}@xgzZ"ŠÔ=]Ñ»gzZ *Štž L åtÃ`»+®yZ6 gî¦ùž•M ÈëˆÆ
óì eð‚g „Ð Vh§³‚J ë›x ÓÆkZgzZì ( knowable)Äc Þ ‡)g f
gŠ .
ðÃ: Å*ugzZ ËaÆÄc gŠ Å ë›ž L ìÀ ¸³òiÑ6 gîx»tÃkZ ( 98) X
{gÃè Å}@xgzZ"ŠÔ=Ž •g ±Z. Þ ‡ë›„z sÜXì ŠŽz }»kZ:gzZì ]gz¢
Matapysical ) ]â ú'× CG 4ŒÅZˆâ ä V\ò qÆe
é5šG3E h ]X óVƒ " U } 76Vkã
úëX D F Z7}g76VkãyZ {zž c Û Šg.
Šg Z Œ Þ ‡ÐzzkZÃVzúŠIègzZ ( contentions
ŒŠ ãÅ•! fh ]Ž Hy´Zg•» "I think therefore I am"ä^kež•ñW™™f
uZz »îJ ðC( Conscious Act of Ego) ¿~gÅ» ~Špžìt È »kZXì  @Y
Xì3 Zg
E
eÔ ðG3½H
{)z'ZzgzZ x‘Ô }zÔ]ZgZh 5k$â Ôñ0 ë~ sf Å ( Rationalism) 46Ò
Ãg¦ÆäƒD*uuZzgzZ 4Š Ñ! ŠzöÑÅ=Ìä +®yZÔ•ñW™{™E »+®‰

û 60ü
p°Åe h]ë~ÝzgÅt  I—‚çOX µŠ ã Åe h ] ~ˆ46 Ò¸gzZ Hx ¬
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e  ̈Z gzZ à ì ×zg {z eh ]:• M ™ V-
tXì C™tÃ( Authority) Å„óxE³‚gzZ=LsÜgzZì C™ŠšÃ( Tradition)
Ag »Xì =Å Š• Û g UŠp ( S o u r c e ) ÈuZz » pgzZ ðCž ì ì‡ 62 zG kZ
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gzŠh
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ò ¸~g/g UŠp~ V”ÒZÆM%Z à ÑgzZ \g- gzZX 1Àä(Democracy) e g/~
X Nƒì‡Zc g
Šã
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ž åtžÜ»TÔ Hx ¬g¦» (Utilitarianism)46 Š ÃZäq
e ’kZ6f õ¹ÜZ
aÆ` •ŽgzZ ^ Y {zÔ•q{Z ÃáÆ}ÑçbzgŽXì Ð e Š ÃZm»VzgŠ¹ÜZ
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]
h  ~ Ë Æ TÔ H ½ Ã e Š ÃZ Å }gZŠ Z §Zzg Æ yZ0 { gzZ ]ªÜZ
X Zƒi ¸W» (Permissiveness)¢  ! Z
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Ž Ô ðƒ Za q h ]
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:•sfzgq]ï~Š  ãP0Æe h ]

û 61ü
( Anthropocentricity)Xìg"z œ%»]Ñ»y̈Z X 1
( Freedom is ideal)Xì sàW~Š ã
~Š Zi WX 2
( Equality is basic value)XìgŠ~Š ã
]Zz)X 3
( Reason is the criterion)Xg £¨ÒX 4
h
X :]:SÅe]
#Š < Ø è c –Š Ñ»kZžÐ,™ÒÃÅKb§kZÃ:â Åe h ]
ë6x £kZ
X ñYƒãZzmZ•Ð( Anti Religion Secularization)
â /ù Zg fzŠÆ+ YÃ ( Truth) h( i)
X :] Z ~
’Åe
»q h ]  ~ Y Z’Zž• ` | 7Ð áZjÆChambers Dic. ëú
Z
•\gzZ ]xÅª!
ÃZ ™y@éb§Ë: Ëž¶ÒÃt Å+®\~ ÝZ ÂZƒi ¸W
Â Z 7*
™ o‚ » ò » * b§ ~'Z  ~ ÒÃ kZ pX Ã™ }Wë Ð ]î³‚h ]

h
e ] Ø ègïZ~ˆgzZ ~g Zi" <
Z åE<XÅX < Ø èåyDgtgzZX 1™g (Z cg *q Z ä e h ]

Æ¬ Ð e h äa#gzZ +®™™aÎð•Za kZXì ]zŒ s ÜÆ<
] Ø è„Å
¶„g WÐ < Ø è( Epistemology) Ï~gzŠ kZèYX ¹ ( Dark ages)gzŠ q g @ ÃgzŠ
É êŠ7Ày̈Z&ì q ZsÜðCž ( ì%Z¸$ tgzZ ) åòúŠ »á|XÐá|ª
ò ‚¸ )X M yY 7ðC\W ÂHgïZ »kz ä \W¤ ZgzZ)g fÆkzì Y™Äc gŠ sÜ
=g f ~y W ðÃ kz a Æ îJ  ðCž H òúŠ ä aÎh ]
( Xì •ñžœ » yc ŠZ
h{zÆ™g ®Z6 X•( Faculties) ù Zg f,Zk0Æy̈ZXì 7( Ultimate Source)
kZjÔ ( I n t u i t i o n )yZ]
zÔ( I n t e l l e c t )= }Xì Y yY Ã
°» a Æ hw”{)z( Observations)]Z@xÔ( Experiments)]! ŠÔ ( Senses)
:ì –~Encyclopedia of philosophyX 7]gz¢Å)gf Yg {ËaÆkZX •
"One of the most and lasting achievements of modernism in
all its manifestations is the devaluation of the premise that we
occupy an 'objective' reality accesible to but independent of

û 62ü
human percrption" (99)
Æ y Z ª• n g yZZ 6VzgŠzŠ aÆ ð‚g J ( Truth) h„  6e h]Z åE<XÅ
:7eð‚gJ h%ñCZÃVzgŠzŠyZq Š 4
Xì Y¯ì e‰äeÆÑzíLZ {zžìŠ Zi W6 gîåy̈ZC Ù :( Freedom) ~Š Zi W( 1)
» ~Š Zi WªX Ïƒ bŠ ?Š Å =Kãg•a Æ Vâ e ÆÑzí:( Rationality)=( 2)
Ã( Faculty of Reason)=KZ {zZ Ü zÏZŠ Zi Wy̈ZÔ e)gfÆ„=7Z·
 Çƒ‰
:•p ÖZÆ( Alain Touraine)+g I›ZËZ eX}™wEZ
"Modernity is not based upon one single principle
.......it is the result of a dialogue between reason and
subjectivity" (100)
X :y´Z » ( ~Š Zi W ) ðZ}
ï»Åy̈Ze
h
]( ii)
ã^‹÷Zpe h Ôn {eì eŽ {zžì Š Zi W6gîåy̈Z ._Æ„Åe
] h ]

Modern ) ÐZX •CB( Subjective)] ÷Zpx Ót~wìÆkZÔì y´Z »:ß Z Å
Š}ŠzgŠ » Z}
X c Ãy̈Zä„kZªXì @ Y¹Ì( subjectivism
:._ÆEncyclopedia of Philosopy
"To be autonomous is to be free in th sense of self
governing and independent' (101)
X :òúŠ »+ Y)g fÆ=sÜÃÏ0
 ( iii)
iÔ]ñÔ Z}
g h Ð( Faculty) Å =gzZ ì gUŠpt ž a kZ ~Š ÌZ Ãy̈Z ä e h ]

|~øÚ ã̈Zªì ( Anthropocentric)tžì Ìt¤{q Z Å„kZakZXì
Mataphysical ) ë› C G 4ŒÅZ ˆâ gzZ HŠg » á| ä VrZ a kZXì C™ uZgŠ Z »
é5šG3E
X HòúŠ »+ Y)g fÆ=Ã( Realities
YE E
:ìojãÓÖ( Cornalia Klinger)æ¾5Ò®G 5"gÃ
é5ÒG
"This cleavage between reason,rationality or objectivity

û 63ü
on the one hand,and the subject,the collective and individual
selfhood or subjectivity on the other,occurs in the aftermath
of the decline of a concept of transcendence that shaped the
metaphysical wordview of christianity" (102)
X :g ïZzù~}g ! Ø è( iv)
gzZ<
ÆZ}
~}g ! ÆZ} Ø è³ Â•^ ` Zzg »Ì6KãÅ=Ãë› C G
gzZ < 4ŒÅZˆâ Z
é5šG3E 
Š ÒZ 6f õIè ä( e h] ’kZ Z åE<XÅX • ~ ]gß Å g ïZ Æ VâzŠ ~ ˆgzZ ù
)q
ä Vzg ZŠbÆŠ ÒZ‰( 103) ( Voltair Francois 1694-1778)'ZzX c Š ÀÃùgzZ
( Hegel Georg Wilhelm Friedrich 1770-1831 )¬²X c Ø è
Š™g ïZ ~ »<
Ø è ë»hI4$‰( 104)
G
vŠ ÌÃë›IègzZX • D C ,@ Æ=ÐZpÔ• D™tÂÃ<
IE
Nietzsche Friedrich wilhelm ) õf‹X$ • ï Š g Z ŒÛ p. Þ ‡ b§Å ]ŸzG[
Ðk½Zsf `gŠì ‚ gtÃ: {ø ÷~}g ! …6 ( 105) ( 1844-1900
ÆZ}
:ì q{z~( The Death of God)k  ’KZÔìC Ùª
"New struggle........God is dead; but given the way of
men,there may still be caves for thousands of years in which
his shadow will be shown".
ÑÂb§kZ~zi Z F
:ì Š x £}uzŠÆ[ÂÏZ
6
Æ=ÃZ}
"The conditions for God.....God himself cannot exist without
wise people".
:ì @
™g ïZV-» Z} Ø è\
g¦Æ<
"The christian conception of God,is one of the most
corrupt conceptions of God arrived at on earth.God
degenerated to the contradiction of life,instead of being its
transfirguration and eternal yes; In God a declaration of

û 64ü
hostility towards life,nature,the will of life;God the formula
for every lie about the next world. In God nothingness
deified,the will to nothingness sanctified"(106)
yZŠ èc
Z} ggzZ …m
ôZ ( 107) ( Russell Bertrand 1872-1970)Ëg hR '
:ì @ ™~V/yZg ÖZ »ùKZ~}g ! Æ
{Zp ---( Z}
ªÛ{) ]uz ~---( Modern Physics)] G ]
4ƒh
é5šG3E žVƒ &~L L
b‚ÐÃ`ò ZúX 7öRðÃÐ wÅ] G 4ŒÅZˆâ Xƒ: VYÏx *
é5šG3E "gzZã„ Xt
Xƒ„g: ÌLh á ì [c
• ìÎ` W
igzZZ•C G 4ŒÅZˆâ§{Åä™¬Ï0
é5šG3E  ižì @ ƒx¥~gz¢tÃ7ÆwŽgßkZ
&t ~Xì¿gzZ J¦Z (Ã`Z÷~ ] G 4ŒÅZˆâ X ñY 5i q
é5šG3E Ð ZâqZ yxgŠÆZ •
±)¿e .t Âì ŠŽñt¤ Z pXƒ( Illusion) k£ Zžì e]Ñ» Yg {ž Vƒ
Z q
³tÐ kZë H''•]¬Z ºZ ã̈ZögzZK  F Ô^Xì ]g „Ð ]uZz¾"gzZ
E5_
Â,™ ~È0 Ð ñÅ ` éG 54G Z ³‚ë¤ ZX 7G?åHðä Û{ q ZÃ]Ñ»ž ,™~ Z
t ž ñY¹ t ~ }g !Æ ]Ñ» ž 7ŠŽñ i ZŽ ðÃ» %Z kZX M ™ 7¦ Ù (Z
C
XXX$Ë ƒ7ŠŽñŠpi Z
úyâ ‚ ðÃÔì Hðä Z} Ã]Ñ»ž~2zGkZVƒ eá {^ Y~J V˜
( 108) ó ó7ŠŽñ
X :7ÔŠá|sÜì ÔŠ< Ø èe h ] ( v)
•z6» e h ] žì CYƒ s  Ÿz ÌÅ ]! kZ 6gî~f Ð ]‚½Z Ñ! `gŠ
tÉ ;g:Šzö„J  Anti christianity¡yDg »e h pZƒ qzÑ„Æ™ŠgÃá|
]
s ™zzX Zƒ " U ( Anti Religion)ÔŠ kzgzZ ÔŠ Z} ÔÔŠ < Ø è ~(essence )C Ù Ž LZ
Zzg ÃígzZ hÔ †zc|É @
e ™ 7Šp y̈Z ç » ë›zg ZŠZ ~ < Ø Zèž ì C Ùª
søq ZÅkzÌe Zzg~< Ø ZèvŠžìgŠ c Xì @ ™Ýq)g fÆÞZkzc ( Traditions)
Sayings of the ) ~  wÎg ì " uŠ Z%Ð( Traditions ) e
ILG Zzg ~ xsZ²ì ^

û 65ü
 ~t ì
kZXì x £ » ~ Û Ð p ÒÆ • ~ xsZgzZXì Cƒ( Prophet
" uˆ Æ yWŒ
ILG
kZèYX ì $Ë Äg „tzgIè)˜iÑe h]ž•`™ì‡ñZgt · Z Ì+®! f6]!
Æ y̈ZžŽX ì Cƒ kz ÏÅ < Ø è²Xì =gzZ y̈Z ( Epistemology) ÏÅ
X @
™7g®Z6=ã̈ZgzZ• e: c
•e
"Losing hold in traditional religion as a consequence of
secularization the subject is forced to take up the god-like
position of a transcendental modal point in order to ensure
the unity and totality of being and experience" (109)
» lˆÆ h)gfÆ=žŽ „Åe h ž• D™g Z Œ
] Û Z Ì»]!kZ +®! f
ŠÈŠ !
7:Zz )g f Æ yZyÆ =å c íä e h ÃTÃ]¸Iè Lì C™ òúŠ
]
Xì q ( Jurgen Habermas 1929-) kâ çE
.G Ë Ñ
24XÌ̀X $
"But the principle of subjectivity is not powerful
enough to regenerate the medium of reason.The demotion of
religion leads to a split which the Enlightenment cannot
overcome by its own power" (110)
Š Z¤
X :c   ̈Zû%Ãy̈Zäe
Ð+ h
]( vi)
Û{gzZ y̈ZÔ Ï0iÔ ]Ñ» ä kZ Z åE<XÅ¶( Anthropocentric)èYq’Åe h
]
ž•t³» kZX ÅÒÃÅä™i~øÚÆ=ã̈ZÃ]ÑZÎ~$ ZgzZ EZŠÆ{)z ]Ñ»
y̈Z~~zcÅ]÷Zp ã̈Zs§~uzŠgzZX c Š™^
Ã6¥%ÆZ} Ãy̈Z äkZ Âs§q Z
Š Z¤
X c ÌÐ¥%Æ+  ̈Z™}Šg Z ŒÛ Animal¡Ã
Modern Science and the )[ Â KZ ( Williams Beck )à @zWz6 
:ì q~( Nature of Life
ÂK ù • á ]Ñì LZ 0Æ dZ “gñÆ y̈Z ä( Huxley) õÑh½X3Z  LL
~i !
u 0 gzZXìgA Ð ]ªìÆ VÍß J w‚Î6? E£zGÅ y̈Z

û 66ü
àZ•Û Xì „g™izˆÐŠzuKZb‚žÑ ä™V×Fp g ZŠ'DÆt ÜZgzZ
Y »g ZB‚Æ : â igz%! ,! X Zƒ ÞzZz „ (Z Ì6y´Z Æ ò} ³‚Æ
V-ÃVâzŠ yZžìt |X ÅÝq)¬ q=ä V-ÃÆt‹ C;gzZ
( 111)X ÑZ e W Z"6
Z {i Z0 ]ÑìÆ{%izggzZ×Ô< Ø èÔÄpÅVâ ̈Zx Óä
6f xg›ZŠ &pX ¸ g›ZŠ g Ñ" b§Å VÃ• C‚ 'p¤ Z g ZŠbÆ eh ]

tÃÔyzg Z e Ög e ã!» ( E v o l u t i o n T h e o r y ) Y »g Z tÃX ¶ ̄ !» [zZ
tX àZ•Û hã! ]
»h ];gzZ ¾g â wg »g ZŠb» ( Socialism/communism)K Z· Z
! fä ]c Ã{Š™7Æ yZX • M YbŠg Z Œ Û g z~Š ã
Æh ] d •! f]Z|VÐ
7åcðÃÅ]§tÃq Š 4
Æ¢qøZŠ%Æ{^ YÆyZžì HW OgŠkZÃ]Ñì
X$ Ë B
X :( Darwin Charles Robert 1809-1882)yzg Z eÖg e
~Y 1859ä kZˆÆ·_Wz LZgzZ H·_Z•VÎ'»]* Z³z ]@ mä yzg Z e
tÃCZ ä kZ ~ TX Å ù• á [Âq
ZÐ x * Æ( Origin of Species)]§ q Zâ Z ZJ
:ìtžÜ»]c ÃÆyzg Z eX H7( Theory of Evolution)Y »g Z
yZ Âìg @ ƒ: »ÚzZ( ¹»VYÅyZ¤ Zžì !gŠkZg ëgÅËÚz-Z Â~Vzgâ YX 1
X ÏñY| ( u“
J  ZŠ'Þ ‡*
. Š Z®Å
Struggle for )Y G 4 ~ Vzgâ Yž ì t ³òi Ñ » 6Âg ëg ðƒ f( • á Ž" kZX 2
̄ !» ( Survival of the Fittest) *Z ’ ¿¸ » ]§ B¿Xƒ úzg ¿» ( Existance
Xì @ ™¯
s %Z } gŠ ~ |  ‚ Å Vñ~Š ZÐZ Æ Vzgâ Y Æ q â q Zž ì {@x Zg øX 3
( Varition) w$ zŠgÚpš~VYs %ZtXì @ ™Zƒ( Indvidual Difference)
̄ !
Xì á »
šŽ ~ ãZ³Y ¡ Z Ð ÒÃÚÅ G4 a Æ ä™ Za °WëÐ wjâ X 4
( Natural Selection)[NZ CgŠ~VYà ZzäWw$ zŠgÆ„zì @ ƒZaw$ zŠg

û 67ü
’
:
á  » ( Evolution) Y »g Z ÿL) ~ VYà Zz •g ¹! „ q ½Z Ú» w$ zŠgÆXì @ ™
Xì
]@ m¿t p @ W7ÃÐzz Å äƒg ëg Ne .¿t » ä™ð w2ð»g ZX 5
Xì @ W`~g YÐyÛŒ;yŒ Û ~( Genus)ngzZ ( Species) q âC
Ù Å]* Z³gzZ
q â~uzŠ q âq
Zž• CWÃo1%gzZ ÚgŠkZ Vc ÒZ Åx lZz q Zâ ZÆVâ Z³X
š 6
ð»g Z ÅgÈgzZ ÷â 0:y̈Zžì @ ™~Úg s§Å]! kZ ötgzZXì CWÃ^ð»g Z Å
Hx™Ô |ŠpÑZz ( C e l l )3 uZz ðÃ ~š ðZ’Z Å ~± ð»g Z ~g7 kZ gzZXì ^
( 112) X Çƒ ( Unicellular microscopic organism)
kZgzZ àJy̈Zè]|™ƒqzÑÐ} QHq ZŽì ¿ð»g Zq Z]§Ö™ c Í
wßZ ( Mechanical ) ã}gzZ ( Biochemistry ) 6 C» § [òZ FÓÆ ¿ð»gZ
Life )] §3 |Šgp q Z sÜä( C h a n c e ) h ÂhŽ ¹· ZgzZ ðZ’Z ËÆ ÜÁX •
ÆVß ‚Vzhz™gzZ ðâ i WŠÎÐ: â i“Š ZjX Nƒg ZŠ%&&Å]§~ TX H Za ( Cell
kZ ä( Evolutionary Trend)yDg ð»g ZgzZ ( Natural Selection)[NZ CgŠÚ
Vzgâ YyZgzŠÆVß2ZÅY »g ZX ~Š}Š ¹F ^ã̈ZÃ( Life Cell)]§ ~f ëL $™
J
X •a * ¼gzZŠŽñ¼Ð~XX N W~ŠŽzÕ  ZÅ
( Mutation and Variation)w$ zŠg ~ | ‚ ãKÔ( Chance)t · Z ðZ’Z Z åE<XÅ
*Z ’ ~³Æ( N a t u r a l S e l e c t i o n ) [NZ CgŠÆ w$ zŠg ŒZgzZ ¢
 &Å
Å Û{ gZ MZ ~f 1 : ËX c 3Š™Ö™ƒ  t ä wßZ Æ( Survival of the Fittest)
ì @Yƒ "Ub§kZ Y »g Z » kZgzZ ŠŽz » ]Ñ» „ %Æ£zGÆ ÑgzZ {Š Zg ZÔ]gŠ
Ù b q‡Z ZÆ ]§~ ]Ñ»X Sg 7]gz¢VZP ÅÑgzZ {Š Zg ZÔ ]gŠgzZ
kZ Å VzC
ÁgÐ VzÑç ! f §z xÑgzZX c Š wï { i » »g ZŠZ ¹ÜZgzZ Iè Å ã̈Z ]§ ääÂ
ÅŠŽz Æ ]§~ ]Ñ» ._Æ Ty~ LZ 7ZX Iƒgzä èG 4G
5G 3…
4›E
Ieh]
X ˆƒ
ZgzZX ˆï( Justification )äÂ( Mechanical ) ã}gzZ ( Chemical ) ~z6
iZ q
V-š( Missing)gzZgz$ÅtÃkZžìt%Z u * k\ZpX B~}Š ]³‚gzZ xá{

û 68ü
bzê6gîh ”+  qzggzZ õx PZÃ46{Š â ä Y »gZtÃÆ yzg Z eX Š c Š™i Z0
ZÃ·ZŠÃ
äƒ ð Š l Šp } ×Æ ŸgzZ bzg Â c 0 Û á~Š â q
gZŒ Z 6gî ~Š ã Z  y̈ZX ˆƒ
å‚ g: |Å{Š c iÐ!Zzq ZgzZX å`„ÐqzÑ~ÃÅb‚g¦»ŠŽzÆbzgXÑ
äÂÅ¿ãKX ¶„g ï:äÂj„ðÃÅ¿C;gzZ ãKž ¶Å]! kZ sÜY ZX
ËZ e ~Š· q ZaÆ ¿C; ÂÅ7ä Y »g ZtÃÆ yzg Z egzZ VßßZ ã}ÔY 6 C» §
X c
VZ ZÚä];C Ù âgzZ
X :( Freud Sigmund 1865-1939) àZ• Ûh
wÒZ ‰áq ZÆ( Freil Berg)v's• Û ÂÏKgq Z Å czZgñIÆc 7WàZ• Û
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x ¸{h  Ã\WLZˆÆ ð[© ]|LZuZ µX Zƒ Za ~ Y 1865~ äZ y~Š·
'Å Z}
;gÃ7ÆyZå w”» ( Promised Land)}iuŠúñÅ ð .ñ]|gzZX • ñWB
LZ {eaÆ¶Š š  F ò ¸ƒ oÃVYKZÃ7Æ7Z ·ÏZìg}V˜ {zXì
• g D »| Š~(q ZŠ Z•Û ZÆLZuZ µXìg~( Ghettoes)Vz0  zy}Š ‚™ ¯ î
&±+Zq ZÔ•x ¸{h ¦' IÅ Z}
gzZ {h Y̈^t~yâ »ÆyZ „ DƒZaX
{zžì ;g @
%Å@WpXƒˆ~Š¤6x Z ¸ZvŠ Å *Š&gzZƒ 1™–aÆV8g KZ ä \¬Z} 
w®» 0zÕ&X • x ¸m[:Å *Š {zž• ñWÙ Š ¸å {zˆÆ% elƒgzZ
Xƒ„gg ezŠÐT rgzZxzøÐ¤gzZgZMZ~gzŠC Ù Æõg @ŽgzZƒŠ 1`áÆ“ 
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äƒZa g›ZŠ,Z~ LZuZ µž Zƒt³X Ãƒ#s§~uzŠgzZ H¤ YZÃyDg ´Š ÑgzZ
ò q lŽ6Æq ’#~ ÏŠ™uÅ „ Vƒ ÉZg IègzZ Dƒ Ì” ÆZ} ‰ Ü zàŽ ‰ µ
4Ž ËZ eg ó öZÎ » àZ• Û X Ì~Š· çHH .·6gî#gzZ ÌZ}
” X åg ZzZa Åwj â kZ ÌàZ• Û XÌ
:ì q ( Ernest Jones)
Û LL
Å
ä kZgzZ åJ m yZz6„” ÐZ •Æ] é)+ Zˆ]§gzZ Z} àZ•
~Š· Ã\WLZ~0z Ø KZå {zpX Å7„ kCL]gz¢ÅZ •yZ
Ð {g •á Z à ©s ÜÆV-Š·X åêŠ ÌZ ~(Ãäƒ ~Š·LZgzZX å&

û 69ü
,Z Á„ ¹ ä kZgzZ ¶ŠŽñ?Zzg$ ~ kZÔf~Š· Åh W @
à ©)„
X ó óeƒ: b‡ » Z}
LŽ åtC Ù Š (Z q
Z {zX¸ ~Š· )Ž c ¯„  zŠÃVÍß
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(15) Draper, Dr.John William, A History of the conflict Between Religion and
Science, Al Faisal Nashran ( V{Z;* zŠg Z ) Lahore, 2004, p.98
Ññ:ÀF
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236mÔ sZÁZo z!  (16)

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 (18)
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Z »wZziz`z²ÆVâ ›6 0!Zf127mÔ\g- t ÜZ õg@ (21)
245mÔ sZ
sZ (22)
sZ (23)
(24) Draper, Dr. John William, A History of the Conflict Between
Religion and Science. Ibid , p.134
Ø •
Æ> á Š ! Ša kZÃkl[Â „¸ x 
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ã• WÃVÍß []|ž åŠ *t • ~ŸppÆ gZ (25)
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(28) :ì @
Zz™~ p ÖZ yZ sg¬ » éE4ÓX3Âg ó!£ » Helicon Encyelopediac Dictionary of
5G
Ideas:Helena, St (c.248-328) Roman Empress, mother of constantine the Great,
and a convert to Christianity. According to legend, she discovered the true cross of
Jesus in Jerusalem. Her feast day is 18 Aug,(p.240)
•h
148mÔ sZÔd ]gzZxE*ŠÔHg ‚`g Y (29)
(30) Helicon Encyclopediac Dictionary of Ideas, Helicon Publishing Ltd, Oxford
1994, p119.
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144mÔ sZÔb‚z< (31)
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34:/pZ (40)
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b‚gzZ yWŒ zŠgZ ) The Bible, The Quran and the ScienceögñÔ%»1 (44)
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(45) The Hutchinson Dictionary of Ideas, Ibid, p269.
(46) Editor crownther, Jonathan, Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary Oxford
university Press 1998, p615.
265mÔ sZÔÁZo z!  (47)
Ø è î0¶cÔ@zÔyYËZŠÔTg e
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z*Š Å nC t VŒ (49)
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Urdu ( £Z hi ZÃ` ³‚ ÔÀFzŠg Z ) Russel, Bertrand,Tthe Scientific outlook, (50)
5Ò¯ä G~ VÎ'Ôžì ~gz¢™f »%Z kZ VŒScience Board Lahore 2003, p25-27
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Ø è î0¶cÔ@zyYËZ eÔTg e
152mÔ sZÔb‚z< z
88mÔ sZÔ@zyYËZ eÔTg e (53)
(54) Encyclopedia Britanica, P.1019
(55) The Hutchinson Dictionary of Ideas, Ibid, p.443
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Æ Vâ ZŠBZ'gzZ VÁâ õg @
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¸ Ì~Vâ ›gzZ Î
Xce
(57) Cuddon, J.A., The Penguin Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary
Theory, Penguin Books, 1992, p.837.
(58) The Hutchinson Dictionary of Ideas, Ibid, p.467.
ÅTg Z,k
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(69) Encyclopedia Britanica p.1021
(70) Helicon Encyclopedia Dic.of Ideas, Abid .P.255
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merchant of venice, julius caesar, Hamlet, othello, king lear, Macbeth, Antony and
á ‰cleopatra etc.
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(72) Shakespeare William, Hamlet, cambridge university press 2000p 127
(73)Cuddon j.a., The Penguin Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory
Ibid p. 432.
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 ŸzÅ ( Enlightement ) ~iz• ._ÆEncyclopedia Britanica
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which ideas concerning God, reason, nature and man were
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instigated revolutionary developments in art, philosophy and politics
central to enlightenment thought Were the use and the celebration of
reason the power by which man understands the universe and
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considered to be knowledge, freedom,and happiness" (Encyclopedia

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beyond the world of natural phenomenon."
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:._Æ Websters Dic. :( Empiricism)š
 Š ( 87)
"Empiricism; in philosophy, the belief that all knowledge is ultim-
ately derived from sense experience. It is Suspicious of metaphysical
schemes based on 'a priori' propositions Which are claimed to be true
irrespective of experience."
t Xì @ WD» nÙCžì {ot Š Z%Ð š
ƒ ÝqÐ/ŠÆ kZjg »y  Š~ ;#L L

û 84ü
ó Xó •C™~úŠ »äƒCÆ/Š%Ž~VÇCC G 3‹ÅZˆâì C™—( š
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:ì 9 The Hutchinson Dic. of Ideas (í Irrationalism ) Òx° ( 88)
"Irrationalism feature of many philosophies rather than a
philosophical movement. Irrationalists Deny that the World can be
comprehended by conceptual thought and often see the human mind
as determined by unconscious forces."
kZg ZŠbÆÒx°Ôì/³ »V•ZÉ 7q
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:._ÆThe Penguin Dic. of Literary Terms ( Existentialism ),~ŠŽz\e
ŠŽz( 89)
"The term existentialism mean s pertainin g toExisten ce.
philosophically, it now applies a vision of the condition and
existence of man, his plece and function in the world and his relation
-ship or lack of one with God."
ƒ t :Z » kZ [Z6gî: ‘X 0ÆŠŽzÔì È » b ˜Z Åe
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ë Z}uzŠXì CY ªÐ ( kierkegard) egÇÆP…Æug úe â ÀZ’Z ÅkZ
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martin )¤
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ågzZ ( Heideger

û 85ü
Æ y ä kZ Å ª »z Å wÑ+Z gzZ =ä T … ã* - ( A r i s t o t l e ) Tg Z ( 9 0 )
3‹ÅZˆâ Ô ]((ä kZX ì CY Åtg £Ethics[ÂÅkZX Hi ¸ì»·_( Systematic)‚Ÿ!
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á Š !
4 Z ä kZ~xt 367-347 åÉ » { • \ !
» kZX Zƒ Za ~ ( Stagira) Zæ G
¾ Š 4
54]q Æ6zlTgZ
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Ð Y 1804 w¾ » VŽ ¯úZ• Û ( Napoleon 1 Bonopart) ^g 01 Az ( 91)
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(92)Chambers 20th Century Dictionary ,p.343
h
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(94) Chambers 20th Century Dictionary,p.98
(95) Cuddon J.A.,Tthe Penguin Dic.of Literary Terms and Literary Theory,Ibid.
p.550
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:•bŠ Remarks

û 86ü
"The wisest,brightest and meanest of mankind."(Alexander Pope,the Rape
of the Lock,Oxford University Press 1996,p.17)
Æ( Nature)oä T å¿ª t ˆÆ Tg ZgzZ …m
Ã~g¹ìY ~}g ! 
ôZ :)ƒ éå ( 97)
Ù Ôtzg ã̈Z wøqC
kZX Ht‹»qC Ù ~ ]q ˜Z Å ó ó•
wgzZ {Š â L Lä kZX H ZŠ Zg ZŠ™ë Z~ ¶Š ¹F
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X c Å ( SocialContract) ó óãZ/{@çL Lä
Šã
:¶ ŠaÆ, ( 98)
Nasr Syed Hossein(1993),A young Muslim's Guide to the Moden World,
Cambridge University Press,,P.156.
(99) Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy,Routledge,London,1993, P.641
(100) Alain Touraine(1995),Critique of Modernity,Cambridge Blackwell, ,P.432.
(101) Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy,Ibid.P.643
(102) Cornalia Klinger(2004),From Freedom Without choice to choice without
Freedom;The Trajectory of the Modern subject,Blackwell Publishing Ltd., p.218
•zaÆg e6
Æ]c  ̈ZgzZs »ZÔ ~g ZŠ ZzgÃ\ WLZ äTd
ÃÆ46+ Û :'Zz ( 103)
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g¦ » Šx°%Æ }uzŠ q
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( Synthesis) òúŠ
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Ø èXì g•Ðzz Åq]
, LZ ¬
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û 87ü
E
vß Z åE ó [%Z}
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( The Hutchinson Dic.)Xì
(106) Novak Philip,(1996),The vision of Nietzsche,Element,Brisbane,, pp.57,114
Y •X H ZŠ Zg ZŠ™ëZ ~ äJ myZz6Ãy! ˆh ä TyZŠ èc
] ggzZ …m
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( 107)
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philosophy,
X ;g @ » ~IðZgzZ Nuclear Disarmament~/~y
™g e6 W
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87,73 mY 2003gƒÑeg1b‚zŠg ZÔ£ZhËZ eÔ { ó`³‚ÀF
)
(109) Cornalia Klinger,From Freedom without choice to choice without
Freedom,The Trajectory of the Modern subject, Ibid, P.311.
(110) Habermas Jurgen,(1987),The Philosophical Discource of Modernity:
Twelve Lectures( tr.Fredrick Lawrance),The MIT press,,p.198
(111) Williams Bech,Modern science and the Nature of Life,P.35.
176mÔ 2003gƒÑÅX£ZÔh
] å ²wÎgÔ¦³• Z·:!Zf
)gzZ!
:Š ZÐ( Sources) ù Zg f sf `gŠaÆ] c
H{Š .Zz~ ÃÆyzg Z e ( 112)
(i)Darwin Charles,(1996),The Origin of species Oxford Uni.press,
(ii)William s Beck,(2001).Modern Science and the Nature of Life,The Penguin,
(iii)Isac Asimov,(1967),The Genetic Code,Paperboard,
(iv)www.darwinistsinmourning.com

û 88ü
(v)www.Wikipedia.org
(113)Jones Ernest,(2003),The Life and works of Sigmund Freud Imperials
London,p.49
]
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)gzZ!
g ZŠ™ ~â YZ q
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(Sophocles,(1996),Oedipus Rex,Book Home Delhi)
:‰KÀFZÐù Zg f sf `gŠ]c
z~ Û ( 115)
ÃÆàZ•
(i)R.S.Wood worth,(1998)Psychology, Routledge London.
(ii)Jones Ernest,(2003),The Life and works of Sigmund Freud,Imperials UK.
(iii) Sigmund Freud,The Interpretation of Dreams www.Durham.edu.uk.
Y
Y 2006gƒÑÅXéëL E Û Ô£ZŠ ZP( iv)
5_Ô];ÅàZ•
(116)Soviet socialist Democracy,Moscow, P.163
]
241mÔ sZÔh )gzZ! ²wÎgÔ¦³• Z·:!Zf
:H qŽgs§Å ù Zg fsf `gŠäëaÆ]c
ÃÆ¾g â wg » ( 117)
(i)Karl Marks,(1983),Das Capital,oup
ÔV{wÑ
( 2003gƒÑxƒ, zŠg Z )
i%»i Ztâu:ÀF
(ii)Lenin.Selected works.MOSCOW,1981 (iii)www.Wikipedia.Org

û 89ü
wzZ`
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sg ¬q h
]ˆâ
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gzŠ Æ ` W b ˜ZtXì  @Y–Ìpomo6 gî¿Ã PostmodernismXì ÀFzŠg Z »
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point of departure for works of literature drama, architecture,
cinema and design, as well as in marketing and business and
in the interpretation of history, law, culture and religion in
the late 20th century. Postmodernism is an aesthetic, literary,
political or social philosophy, which was the basis of the
attempt to describe a condition, or state of being, or
something concerned with changes to institutions and
conditions as postmodernity. In other words, postmodernism
is the "cultural and intellectual phenomenon," especially since

û 90ü
the 1920s'new movements in the arts, while postmodernity
focuses on social and political outworkings and innovations
globally, especially since the 1960s in the west." (1)
5FH
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:._
" Postmodernism: a style and concept in the arts
characterized by distrust of theories and ideologies and by the
drawing of attention to conventions."(2)
zzÅ (distrust)D"6
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h ÃŽì x * 
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yÒV-pÆPostmodernism~ Merriam-webster Dic.íÑyW².ì i ŸÐ
:•‰K
"either of, relating to, or being an era after a modern
one" or "of, relating to, or being any of various movements in
reaction to modernism that are typically characterized by a
return to traditional materials and forms (as in architecture),
of relating to, or being a theory that involves a radical
reappraisal of modern assumptions about culture, identity,
history, or language."(3)

û 91ü
`gŠ X q
Ñ!  À) ~ ¿ŠgÆ e
’( à Zz h h] ´ÆgzŠ yg e â ª
Ô: â i »ˆ c
The American Heritage Ã b ˜Z ÏZ Xì ] ! ¸ ã½zÂ .Þ ‡ Ð zg Å p°
:ì C™yÒb§kZ Dictionary
"Of or relating to art, architecture, literature that reacts
aginst earlier modernist principles, as by reintroducing
traditional or classical elements of style or by carrying
modernist styles or practices to extremes." (4)
5FH
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:ì Šc Ø }gŠ
Zz™™?
"Late 20th century movement in architecture and the
arts that rejects the preoccupation of modernism with purity
of form and technique. Post-modern designers and architects
use an amalgam of style elements from the past, such as the
classical and Baroque, and apply them in a witty and parodic
way that emphasizes surface rather than depth.
The implication is that in an age of mass media and
multiculturalism, clarity and coherence of meaning are, no
longer possible. This collapse of progress and signification is
seen by some cultural critics, For instance Jean Baudrillard

û 92ü
and Jean-Francois Lyotard, as symptomatic of society as a
whole." (5)
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I
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:._ÆkZX •D™qŽgs§Å The Penguin Dic. of Literary Termsë
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refer to changes, developments and tendencies which have
taken place (and are taking place) in literature, art, music,
architecture, philosophy etc, since the 1940 or 1950s.
Postmodernism is different from Modernism, even a reaction
against it. It is not easier to define than many other isms. Like
them, it is amorphous by nature.
....... T h e b u r g e o n i n g o f M a r x i s t , f e m i n i s t a n d
psychoanalytic criticism since the 1970 s is yet another aspect
of post modernism, it also refers to a critical position in
criticism, in which a complete relativisn exists Hence its
proximity to post structuralism. Perhaps most important of all
are the revolutionary theories in philosophy and literary
criticism expressed in structuralism and deconstruction." (6)

û 93ü
V¶FÔV=pÅ{)z ;#gzZy®ÔuñÔ^g WÔ[Š ZŽ b ˜Z q i p Ð px ¬q Z ª
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h ]
ˆâ ÉXì
XìçJ e"gzZ^"tm¡èY7y‚ W
h
e ˆâ W¥C;gzZ q
] ’ÅVZ²ðŠ Zi WÔáZzjg1 ÅV ðH4hm±g â Ð Y 1970
~ Tysg (Z q Z Xì Ìx * ’c
»q ysg {°‡! Æ We h ]ˆâ X • U h × Æ
'
h
e ˆâ X • XY ÌÐ ] (‚:} &
] Z eÆkZ Z®ì ÝqÌZ {Š c i¹ÃsŸZ
ÎÔ• Ð !ZjÆ W! Š Z gzZ, ]c Ã! zZ Æ kZ „¸ ]:SVc úÐ ƒ Å
Wx Y»ŠŽñçL¸“gzZ –
 ez6Å Postmodern AgeXì @ Ù ª~ ó óúŠgL LgzZ ó ó](‚
YHC
:ì @™½b§kZ]â ¥h × ~}g !
' Æpomo… Internetª
"Postmodernism: A general and wide-ranging term
which is applied to literature, art, philosophy, architecture,
fiction and cultural and literary criticism, among others,
postmodernism is largly a reaction to the assumed certainty of
scientific or objective, efforts to explain reality. In essence, it
simply mirrored in human understanding of it, but rather is
constructed as the mind tries to understand its own particular
and personal reality. For this reason, postmodernism is highly
skeptical of explanations which claim to be vaild for all
groups, cultures, traditions, or races, and instead focuses on
the relative truths of each person. In the postmodern
understanding, interpretation is everything: reality only comes
into being through our interpretations of what the world
means to us individually. Postmodernism relies on concrete

û 94ü
experience over abstract prinicples, knowing always that the
outcome of one's own experience will necessarily be fallible
and relative, rather than certain and universal.
Postmodernism is "post" because it denies the
existence of any ultimate principles, and it lacks the optimism
of there being a scientific, philosophical or religious truth
which will explain everything for everybody a characteristic
of the so called "modern" mind. The paradox of the
postmodern position is that, in placing all principles under
the scrutiny of its skepticism, it must realize that even its own
principles are not beyond questioning, As the philosopher
Richard Tarnas states, postmodernism cannot on its
principles ultimately justify itself any more than can the
various metaphysical overviews against which the
postmodern mind has defined itself." (7)
g W
b ˜Z à Zzp Z Wzpx ¬ qZ e
h]ˆâžì b§kZ¼ x|»]g „Ñ! `gŠ
ˆâ Xì @ ƒ Ì6W! Š ZgzZ Dp {z´Æ {)z 6Ôy®Ô,Ô^gWÔ[Š Z t : Z » TÔì
 Ÿz Å (Reality) |Ž ì ¿Šg s ÜÆ ~z¬Š)ú'
s × ! ŠgzZ ³‚~ ÝZ eh]

uZgŠ ZzûÆy̈Z¡|žì x * » ŸgztkZe h ˆâ Ô U¿X •D™ÒÃÅä™
]
| ª Xì @ ™yÅ | Šp Ð û CZ f LZ ‚f ã̈Z É Cƒ 7FÐ
]%=Ô V0 Ÿz x ÓyZ e h ]ˆâ a ÏZ ?ì x * » ª½ZŠÉ 7Yg {(Reality)
E
Æ^zx Z ¸Z c
` ZzgzxÎgÔ]cZzgÔV:pÔt çM¤Lx ÓŽì C™ (Skeptical)ŠgÃ]c
ÃgzZ§·z
X •C™òúŠ »äƒ(valid)ÍÑV7a
~ŠŽz‰ Ü zÏZ|ì¼ƒ  „(Interpretation)s  ŸzqŠ 4Æ‚fh ]
ˆâ

û 95ü
X ,™ InterpretÃ ExperiencekZaLZŠ Z• Û ZÐ"ŠCZ fÆ*ŠZ  ì CW
ì D]! ZXì C™g ®Z6]!
tp¤ Šk^6Š ãÅVßßZ)ú' × &£zGe h ]
ˆâ
X ¹ÃWgzZ Dž * ì @ ƒ°ŸZgzZ¢Ðt³»]! ŠCZ fgzZ ~Š ZÐZž
tXì C™g ïZ »ŠŽzÆðC¹ÃWgzZwßZîÌËtžì akZ óˆ ó â L LÔe
h ]
ˆâ
ˆâ²• ¹ÃW< Ø ègzZ,Ôb‚žìtzzXì ” Å‰Ü ZœIègzZ: ‘Ô ³‚ÌË
Xì ¦æÅe Š ZÐZgzZsŸZe h ] 
ŠgÃ]c ÃzVßßZ ¹ÃWgzZîÆnC Ù tžìt(paradox)Š §ãZzq Z »e h ]
ˆâ
g•?• M ƒ Ñ!Ð —gzZt. Þ ‡ðY ~z¬Šz wßZÆkZQžìC Ù ªs ™³ì C™
ž• n g ñZg ¸ Ì{z • q ZÐ ~ VzŠ ÕÆ e h]
ˆâžŽ 4 g Ng …! fÜç
el
]oÆ~z¬ŠÆ]c Ã] G 4ŒÅZˆâ²$
é5šG3E Ë ™7" U „ÃŠp6Š ã
ÅVßßZ LZe h ] ˆâ
X •D™g ïZò qÆe h ] ˆâ »X•ŠŽñ
eg N Û å( F i g u r e ) • ë Z gzZ Vc
C kB • Z ~ VE!Æ e
úq h ]
ˆâ
Trend p¿q Z ~ y! i úZ• Û ä sßñX •( J e a n - F r a n c o i s L y o t a r d )
?ì x *
»[ÂÔc Š™ 0'
[zZ~yZyÆe h ]ˆâ ™É[Â setter
i ¸WÆ [Â ÏZ The postmodern condition: A Report on Knowledge
:•D™{™E »wŽgßh]ˆâ Ðb§kZs Z¤ ZczŠÆ
"Our working hypothesis is that the status of
knowledge is altered, as societies enter what is known as the
postindustrial age and cultures enter what is known as the
postmodern age. This transition has been under way since at
least the end of the 1950s. which for Europe marks the
completion of reconstruction. The pace is faster or slower
depending on the country, and within, countries it varies
according to the sector of activity. The general situation is

û 96ü
one of temporal disjunction which makes sketching an
overview difficult ......scientific knowledge is a kind of
discourse. And it is fair to say that for the last forty years the
"Leading" sciences and technologies have had to do with
language: phonology and theories of linguistics, problems of
communication and cybernetics, modern theories of algebra
and informatics, computers and their languages, problems of
translation and the search for areas of compatibility among
comuter languages, problmes of information storage and data
banks, telematics and the perfection of intelligent terminals,
to paradoxology. The facts speak for themselves (and this list
is not exhaustive)."
qŠ 4
 Æ yZ wŽgßÅ¢q)É ë 7~g¹ c tÃÔq’ðÃÃe h]ˆâ eg N
C
0commodity|  z• Û.
Þ ‡DÐzzÅäƒ0 '[zZ~yZyÆDXì1»e h ]
ˆâ
ì [ 0 {íf » ]â ¥Ðzz Åx Â óg:Æ V¶ ðeÉ 7ðÉg ñZ'¡DgzZì [
zŠÆThe producers and users of knowledge( }Ñç! f6 gîm{)}ÑçgzZ
p Ò DpgzZ P o s t i n d u s t r i a l Ð p Ò Y • }Ñç ! fX • `ƒ Ë~Vƒz¤ 
V”Z¿» ~pXì ~g YÐ Y 1950 ~pt gzZ • `ƒ 4ZŠ ~gzŠ PostmodernÐ
Å (eh ˆâ )gzŠ}uzŠÐ ( e
] h )gzŠq
] ZXì6¹F ÅV”g ®Z »kZgzZì Z~
X •ïŠg Z Œ Û Temporal disjunctionƒg"ãâ i eg N CÃ~p! zZ*g"
y!i ä Yß (gzZ ®‚8 7Ð Vß ‚:e¸¦ gzZì kgje » b§qZD³‚
E
H4&
Âg ÎZgzZ ZrZÔ ø½5G $‚Ôb)Æmãñ]c ÃÆ]*—Ô]»ßX •KA %]Z WZ6
š ðe Ô+ziñ~ ]*! i ÅR ÛgzZ b)Æ ã)F Ô]*—ÅkZgzZ iR
ÛÔ]c ]
Ãh Æ
~ VzÑç{)z ï GG3Ò$»Åx ÂÆ]â ¥gzZ]& Zñù Zg fh ]
Ôb)Æ] {fÆ]â ¥gzZ

û 97ü
Xì _ƒúzgwŽgßÅŠ §Ð
The Nature of the social Bond: The yZ>[ !
,v0Æ[ÂÏZ™^ÐW
:ì qeg N
C~postmodern perspective
"What is new in all of this that the old poles of
attraction represented by nation-states, parties, professions,
institution and historical traditions are losing their attraction.
And it does not look as though they will be replaced, at least
not on their former scale. The trilateral commission is not a
popular pole of attraction. "Identifying" with the great names,
the heroes of contemporary history, is becoming more and
more difficult. ....... But then again, it is not axactly a life
goal. It depends on each individual's industriousness. Each
individual is referred to himself, And each of us knows that
our self does not amount too much.
This breaking up of grand narrtives leads to what
some authors analyse in terms of the dissolution of the
social bond and the disintegration of social aggregates
into a mass of individual atoms thrown into the absurdity
of Brownian motion. Nothing of this kind is happening: this
point of view it seems to me, is haunted by the paradisaic
representation of a lost "organic" society."(8)
VzgZŠ Z ÔV§ÔVkg 0 ÔV2c C ñƒ D™t‹» wŽgßh
g ò ¸žì q eg N ]ˆâ
g¨ÿLE&‡a}g ø X • ìg Y DÅe Š ÃZz ÌZ KZ œ
Z%ÆÌŠ {Š™7Æ]c Zzg ]g @
gzZ
Historical traditions are losing žì òúŠt» eg NC(Challengable) nZ ‹Z ÿLE&‡gzZ

û 98ü
p .¶: nZ ‹Z . Þ ‡a }g ø Â CƒŠzöJ VzÑç ! f¡]! Z their attraction.
¤
_^~ ng Z Ò™}g7 Zƒt Å~pž•`™òúŠt sßñ„~ s Z¤ Zck¶ZÆ[Â
KZ ó ó]c gzZ }gZŠ Z L LÌ~ VzÑç›HX 7pô{Ñç ÌðÃÐ Ši Å kZgzZì
Zzg ]g @
XÐ,™cÝq§6 kIZë™^ÐW?•`ÅÌZ
I-G G
"
h
e ]
X ì ]! Å À̈Ãt ÂVƒ _ÅpŠ KZ ]c Zzg ö 4Ó5¤ Š 4
Z q Æ sßñ
~ p ÖZ}uzŠ Ô~g Zi" < Ø è „)*  »\g- ~gzŠÆ6U
g » ë ZÐ ƒ ¬ Ð kZgzZ
>¶
g Zzg]ÆkZ Âì ;g {¾" \g- Ð ]x~¡gzZ ~_s ™ÅxsZpì ;gŠg »á|
!‰ƒ} 9™0gZ-ŠÐWÆx •ÆxsZŽ •g ZaÆ< Ø è\Ì
E
-C#G
LZ ÿEZ gzZ ¾gâ ¤ Z ì ùgzZ nZ ‹Z Ì6Vñ* g »Æ yZgzZ ]†xÃ eg N C
gŠ eÅÏ-â kZ Âì Zƒx » * x4 ZìËZ6
ñ¤ »yZtÂì ˆƒx » * x4ñ c•ìgx » * ~} úŠ
?ì ð* ZŠ ÅV¹ *
™g ïZ »Vñ* g »ÆV-vŠ™¾Ò
:žì òúŠtÑZzä™ ½gzZnZ ‹Z ÿLE &‡Ðƒ  ~k½Z Ñ! `gŠ
Ð äYJZŠ OZÐ ( ÐZœx)6Ò'This breaking up to grand Narratives....
Ù ZŽ } ) K
C  F" ~ c }g ZŠ Z Æ q ½Z Y • gzZ ì Š ƒ 2 ~ g _ Z Y• {Ñç
( 9)X •DQ~( • wK  F" )• wãî Z 'Ž •b§Å (Atoms)
gzZ]Z@xLZ~}g ! ÆwŽgßh ]ˆâ ~VzÑç! fÆkB • Û åeg NCåt
7 b§kZt‹» e h ˆâ (Douglas Kellner) çE
] .ÔG5µ}eWz6:·_Ýq » ]‚ ˆZ
: •D ™
"On the terrain of everyday life, new youth subcultures
of resistance are visible throughout the world, as are
alternative subcultures of women, gays and lesbians, blacks
and ethnic minorities, and other groups that have resisted
incorporation into the hegemonic mainstream culture. British
cultural studies has accordingly explored both mainstream

û 99ü
hegemonic cultures and oppositional subcultures since the
1970s. It has focused on articulations of class, race, gender,
sexual ( preference), ethnicity, region, and nation in its
explorations of concrete cultural configurations and
phenomena in the postmodem age."(10)
•XÃÚ Šx ¬gzZVc ú~Ï0  i {%izg…C Ù bÆe h ˆâ ._ÆçE
] 5µWz6
.ÔG
Å kZ sßñWz6 X ì ~ *Š ~g ‚nçtgzZ • ìg| m yZz6×•âgzZ×6 6 gzZ
V•Z #gzZ×Æ( V ðG 4hIE
47)VÍßá»ÔNDãâ ‡ÃyZgzZ×Æ46½ë: * igzZ: ZŠ%BV
×̈¸gzZ ~ œ%ÆÌ‚ÎÌËgzZ•` ¯yT{eKZ×tžX •ïŠ wVÅ{)z×Æ
t Xì ;gƒ·_» kZÐ Y 1970•Æm Sw×ß' ž b§TX • 3Z' × Ð äƒæ~
zá‡´Ô46±Ô]¶F ÒÔ½Ô±Ô ~È{z¤ }ì ñƒÇgiÃ%6i×ZzÂKZ m S
Wz6žì n²6 gîÆ£2]X • ìgƒg Z2Z6VzŠ ã k^b§¾×Æ{)z è¸
«£ÆtægzZ ~I]”Ièž Œ7ƒ  o6 gî·ZŠh á *
• ™{™E »]! kZäsßñ
Xì Š H¾¯~m Sw×ß' ÌÃ×Æ~ F 'Å[f~
Ì» i× alternative gzZ subZ1q Z » e
h ˆâ ._ÆçE
] 5µWz6wq¾
.ÔG
X• `ƒ w=gzZ sg ” i×,Z¼žì t ]! u ‹\Z ~ yZgzZ Xì * ƒEstablish
t*Y0
` Zzg »× GaygzZ Lesbian6 gîÆwVX å: Ì~gzŠ ËÆõg @ )¥Åy̈ZŠŽz»
( ¦Zß ) ~i !xÝZ~ V¸Åxz‡._ÆyÒžœÆyWŒ Û gzZ ª! žì t. Þ ‡ Â]!
þL8Ã} hŽ „ 6½ë ä yâ ‡gzZ ¶ˆ~Š: ]gßÅ V-Š • á ãâ ‡ÐZ ÌQ pX ¶x ¬
B‚Æ t Zm}g7 žì wŽgßt ` W² å @ YHwìxñè wq¾÷t X åc Š: ÌV Zgz
x ¬ ~ *Š ~g ‚×tž åH{g • á Z Ìs§kZ ä æEÎG 5µWz6X • „gƒ Vc á Homosexual
Š•
Æ*Š ~Šysg u oÑgzZ u * çt pX • pôÐ×kZ wÒZ °Â}Ñç›X •ìgƒ
ïa¸tÅY 2009ðÑŽ 3QgñgƒÑk  )*izg~ŸkZXì ;g 0 lgz6Ì~ ´ ˜¹æ
?ì sf `gŠ,gzZquÅ¸ì ~ŠiÅe h ˆâ Ìtæb§¾žì à Zz¶Š
]

û 100ü
~ Tì ˆð) k ¦qZnÆqukZX c h Û^
Šg Z Œ YÃ46½ëä ^gr; ‹Š 5:qu
46½ë&Zp:‹Š 5žì –~ <gzZì Š c 3Š ñƒ D™g ÖZ »Ùp6ŸkZÃVÂgú
:ì ˆÅyÒb§kZ,Å¸gzZ•„g™g ÖZ »Ùp6 äYØŠg Z ŒÛ ãâ ‡Ã
Å 377iŠ ÅM W Cg ¸ ä ^gr; Å‹Š 5 ( Vì Z iE) ‹Š 5L L
kZ ä ª Z°Xì c Û^
Šg Z ŒYÃ46½ëÐ ~qŸgb! ñƒ D™ ô=5
ÆiŠ ÏZIÐ kZXì ~Š™ ô=5Å 377iŠ ÅM W Cg ¸)g fÆŸ
•ÆŸrZ°ë @ X åŠc Û x̀Zw.
Šg Z Œ Þ ‡gzZ ãâ ‡)Ã46½ëÅnC Ù•
Å=rX Çƒ6 Û ZáZzä™46
Š Z• ½ëÐ4Š' isÜt :Z »iŠkZ[Z
E4E
-G&
VßßZÆ]Zz)gzZ s »Zi q Ð Z »nC Ù žì ¹~ŸLZ ä ÷E ì‡~]Š ª
gì‡]©ÒÐ~qŸgb!
p ž –~ŸLZäª Z°Xì °oÆ
ŸkZÆª Z°._ÆÏ! ! Xì ~igz s ÜÅt £ã̈Z ~Š ã Ô ~È0
6
X ì ˆhzŠØÅÙp~V26 ½ëVÅÑÆo Ð
Û ]g @
H4E
cŠgZ Œ ÃŸrZ°ä öÐ5G 7 éE4Ó]g ZŠbÅ 46½ëgzZ {g » ZŠ Z Cg¸
5G
( 11) ó Xó Vƒlp¹6 kZ~¹gzZ
Ñ!`gŠ ë¤Z X • `™·_~ }g ! Æe h ] ˆâ Ð Vß Zj Zë J [Z
X •MZz™ b§kZ¼sg ¬»e h ] ˆâ Â•e@ÃW~ÝzgÅ]‚ ½Z
h
?ì He]ˆâ
f ÎÆg°Z yZgzZ Hg ZÜZB‚Ææz”T6g °Z mºLZ ä Vzg ZŠ'DÆe h]
Ö ÓgzZ ‰
Ô ~Š™ Za wŽgß„z ÅŠ Zë Z ~„ä kZ Zƒ wEZ $gŠ "» # Ü ¤ b§TaÆ
h
e ~ ¿Šg Æ TgzZ ¶Å Za ä ~I e
] Zzg Iè ~ \g- Æ «z ÇŽ
¿Šg¸gzZ Zƒúzg~^Å¿Šgh ”³òiÑ»Š ZëZ kZX ¶ðƒZa q
’Å (Modernism)
kZpmW7t ‚ Âp°.Åe h
]ˆâ Xì @ B (Postmodernism)eh ]
ˆâ

X ðƒkg¼~³Æ¿ŠgÆe
5 h] Ôe
h
] ˆâžì t · Z »+®x Óã½6 ]!
~¿ŠgÆkZ ÒZgzZˆÆe h 
]Žì x *»´ùÆg °ZyZÝZgŠe h ]
ˆâ Z®

û 101ü
„t a kZ ÔÆ Vr’±:gzZ • b‡Æ „x Â±ËÂ: g ZŠ' DÆ kZX ñƒk g¼
5
Xì ŠŽñ„q ’±ðÃ61 ÅkZ:gzZì 7„±c o„ðÃ b§Åe h ]c K Z· Z
Ð Tì x * »ÇkZÉ Ôì 7x * »bÃËtž•D™òúŠtgZŠ' DÆe h ]ˆâÉ
gzZ egN
C ë~ŸkZ X • ]:S~i q Ð Z ÅÇkZŽ ì x * » V„yZgzZ • ìgg ¦ ë
G@ Å]ÑìLZ {zèagzZì òúŠ¡tžìC Ù ª(12)X •`| 7]ÑìÆæEÎG 5µ}eWz6
tÃÃ]ÑìÆyZ *ŠakZ•ìg™•gzZ•ìgCt  I: ‘Ô•ìgÉÁÂ~
Xìg66 
+ â Ï0ii§c
(Ideology)] §
~ +®Æ e h ˆâ ~gñZ ÒZžì ~gz¢ÌbŠ™{™E
] » ]! kZ6x £ kZ
}g ! ÆkZ )ì „g CƒwEZ~ VsZb ˜Zt ~ VòdgzZì 7ÌñZgt · Z
‰ë@ Xì Â¹ Ì* ™yÒp°ÅkZakZ ( Ïƒ sŸz~sub-Heading‹Z~
Æ„kZ »TÔeg N Ð Z »yZ„uœ¸gzZ•Ìuœ~+®e
C Xì i q h ]ˆâ ]Ñì
:ì ÅV-p°ÅkZäkZì @ ƒgÑ~VE!
" I d e fi n e p o s t m o d e r n i s m a s i n c r e d u l i t y t o w a r d s
x°6]* Ò xÈ» e h ]ˆâ q Š 4 }÷) metanarratives." (13)
X(ì¢
~r?Ô ¹F g/Ô ~Š Zi WÔ ~ F
Ôe Ñ!
Å=äe h ] ž•ë ò qÆe h]ˆâ
7Ð VQÅ (Metanarratives)VÇC•Ý¬ ]Ñì‰(Communism) K Z· ZgzZ
a kZ Ôì c Š™ ãZz ^Ñ» Vz•‚Šp ~g ‚yZ ä Š ZŒZÆ: â iX åd •Û îqZtX K
Gra n d n a rra t iv e s/ Me g a n a rra tiv e s / ] *
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" Postmodernist ideas in philosophy and the analysis of
culture and society expanded the importance of critical theory

û 102ü
has been the point of departure for works of literature
architecture, and design, as well as being visible in
marketing/business and the interpretation of history, law and
culture. These developments-re-evaluation of the entire
western, Value system (love, marriage, popular culture, shift
from industrial to service economy)
Postmodernism was originally a reaction toward
modernist ideology. Largely influenced by the western
European "disillusionment" induced by world war II,
Postmodernism refers to a cultural, intellectual, or artistic
state lacking a clear central hierarchy or organizing principle
and embodying extreme complexity, contradiction,
ambiguity, diversity, interconnectedness or interreferntiality,
in a way that is often indistinguishable from a parody of
itself. It has given rise to charges of fraudulence." (14)

(History of the Term)õg @ h
Å b ˜Z : e ]
ˆâ
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ˆâ J
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:–ä(John Watkins)6
gîÆwVX ŠHwEZ~(Fields)
"A postmodern style of painting to get beyond French
Impressionism."(15)
Ž H wEZÃ b ˜Z kZ ~ çg W LZ ~ Y 1914äJ.M.ThompsonQ
The
•äkZ b ˜ZtX Ö ~Hibbert Journal (a quarterly philosophical review)
h
:¸p ÖZÆkZÅwEZaÆä™yÒÃysg s$ Æ]c Ãz
"The raison detre of post-Modernism is to escape from

û 103ü
the double mindedness of modernism by being thorough in
its criticism by extending it to religion as well as theology, to
catholic feeling as well as to catholic tradition."(16)
(philosophically Äp•: ‘Ã b ˜Z kZ äRudolf pannwitz~ Y 1917
àW» postmodernismäPannwitzX HwEZaÆä™yÒÃ oriented culture)
c
I $E
h
:å¹äkZ å1g »Ð(analysis of modernity)t‹Æe]Æ õ ~ÝZ
f ‹
"Overcoming the modern human would be the post
human."(17)
Ìa Æ ä™™f Æ(Forms)Vª5Å uñgzZ ^g WÐZ ~ Y 1925gzZ Y 1921
~Postmodemism and other y*LZ äB.I.Bell ~ Y 1926~ ˆX Š HwEZ
What is (London 1989) [ Â KZ ächarles Jencks (18)X H wEZ Ã b ˜Z kZ
cgñg•¬ Ð ƒ  Ã Post-Modernism „¸žì –~Post- Modernism?
~ pÆg ZzŠ Z ]g @
~A stury of History [Ât ÃW{àKZ äArnold J. Toynbee
:¸p ÖZÆ! íN HwEZ
"Our Post-Modern age has been inaugurated by the
general war of 1914-1918." (19)
Encyclopedia X ¶_ Y è~ Y 1938¬ k'
 á ~ Y 1947 [Ât
âpðƒ ù •
:._ÆBritanica
" In 1949 it was used to describe a dissatisfaction with
modern architecture, leading to the postmodern architecture
movement."(20)
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ˆâ L~ [ y.
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°egzZ d  wEZ »kZ~ ]ÒŠ ZX Zƒ~ˆ ` Zzg »kZ~ ]ÒŠ ZgzZ
:ì [ÂÅ (Ihab Hassan)Œ[;ZX HäÔŒ[;Z

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Th e Disme mb e rme n t o f Orp h e u s: To wa rd s a
Post-Modern Literature (1976)
Û wEZ » b ˜Z kZ~äâ iÏZ ã½
ƒx ¬Ì~÷Z•
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[Â Åg @C H qzÑ*™c wŽgßc ~g¹g•ÐPostmodernismäLyotard gzZ Bill
The Postmodern Condition: A Report ª Çƒ Ìh × gzZ • ñW™ú ë™f » T
'
{z´ÆLyotard Xì B gzgŠ » Bible gzZáZj~Š ã 6e
h ]ˆâ On knowledge
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8
-E
~ ~g¹KZ KZ Ð wq ]gßh ]ˆâ Ìä(Jameso n, Fre dric k) èEj.Gugi Û
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KZ ä( M a d a n S a r u p ) \zu yæžt h × X Ç ñW™f » TXì Å c s
'  Ÿß !
Madan sarup, An Introductory to Post- Structulralism and [ Â
•z6 postmodernism [ ! ~yW ~Postmodernism (Athens, Georgia 1989)
ä kZ »g °ZÆ+®úZ• Û ë@ì @™ q ÃŠ » Marxism6 gî~Š ã \zuyæp¤ ZXì H
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:ì x * x ¬©Ì[ÂgzZq ZÅ eg NC6qçñÏZXì 1{ ^ Y5!
The Postmodernism Explained to children, Tr, by Don Berry (Turnaround
ZX ( ì –~ ]gßÅoè~ y!
O%ZgzZq i {Š ‚Ã~g¹KZ ä eg N
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kZXì ~g Y Ì6gîÆcultural studiescÅe h]ˆâ ~]çY ‰Å[fžì
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Akbar S. Ahmad, Postmodernism and Islam: Predicament and Promise,
Routledg London(1992)
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" Walter Anderson identifies pomo as one of four
world views these four world views are the postmodern
ironist, which sees Truth (Capital T) as socially constructed,

û 106ü
the scientific rational........"(21)
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that anything in the constituted body of knowledge that is not
translatable in this way will be abandoned and that the
direction of new research will be dictated by the possibility of
its eventual results being translatable into computer
language." (22)
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û 118ü
pX ‰ˆƒg66ähg]Ÿ=LZ™ƒg D» ~g Zi ! Š ‚ ~Š OZ àÏ¹ ~ËÆ
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" 17 Marx is n't true then nothing is tue." (33)
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û 119ü
Ô ðËÔ[™kZÑ»yZgzZ•ðWÐ { ZgÅe ŠŽzgzZ];+àZ• Û F
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äe h]X å1™glCZ ä y̈Zh ]&Xì  *™7Ã6 gz “½ZŠgzZvZÔ r"
{zÂì ZgŠ¾Ð g¦kZ *Šž ¬Š ä y̈Zh ]
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] h ]
"Postmodern art and thought favours reflexivity and
self-consciousness, fragmentation and discontinuity,
especially in narrative structure ambiguity, simultaniety and
an emphasis on the destructed, decentered, dehumanized
subject." (34)
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(Paradigm)ÕC°_Åe ] ˆâçOframework of thought and language(35)
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Å aÎkZ Å (Media Tycoons)›gzZ VzÑç›ÂñY1{ ^ YÐ!ZjÆMentality)

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Þ ‡êO gzZ °oÆg ZŠZ Å}ÑçŽ • D™VY]g ˆÅ âZ +Z {zžì CYƒ Ìƒ
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&VßßZ ~ œ% Æ T Ôå •z68 g- ÝZgŠ ( M o d e r n i s m ) e h ]
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]
Ahmad)
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richness of meaning rather than clarity of meaning: avoid
choices between black and white, either-or' and accept
'both-and evoke many level of meaning and combinations of
focus, and attempt self discovery through self knowledge."

û 123ü
(37)
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"with postmodernism ,truth emerges co-creatively
through dialogical interaction truth becomes a variously
interpretable phenomenon dependent upon perspectives,
intersubjectivities and specifice cultural/ historical contexts.
The modernist singular and transcendent truth gets recast by
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kZžì t wZÎXì e h]ˆâ {z ì ðZz™ wzK s§KZzÂÅ +®! fätheory
?ì $Ë Y Å„0
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The ple asu re of The Tex t, A Love r's ÔÁÂ ³‚) {z
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X •ä! ä@ÆÌ‚Îã

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wÅ Authority x * » eg NC~t IÆe ] ˆâ ˆÆY 1980X Hì‡6 gî{°‡! Ã
~ä™ »c ä™ÁÌZ Å 6 ó Ò'LäkZžì @ ½ZŠ lŠpg¦ t„ D Wx * »kZX Š™g (Z
The postmodern ( ì _ƒ c Ýq§ ú 6 T) [Â Å kZ X c Š x •Z wzg ëZ
Ð ,]ïëZ ‰Æe h ]ˆâ Ð „ A ðƒÀF ~ ~ m ôZ~Y 1984 condition
XÑ äWck  i
~ Y 1949 ä kZ Z®Ô åD̈¤ » •t 6 gî ~Š ã
X å ZƒZa ~Versall iseg N C
äJ 7~ wjð; q Z {zˆÆ kZ X ÅÝq ~¤ e Å} Z * Z ~,Ð ;gE-sorbonne
~Y 1948{zžì YYc ÎÐ ]! Z »kZ åbâ s§Å ïG
kZ { i Z0 G4h±g â ‚f »kZ~Y Z’ZX Î
ZƒkˆZÐZ~ˆX Š 0Ág » socialisme on Barbarie^Ï( àZzäƒì‡~÷Z• Û
Å kzg ~ yj jZ „¸ ì ;g x » * ~ ä™" UÃòúŠ LZ Ž ì 6Ò' (Z q Z xšg â ž
Åxšg â X µ:  ë Z~ä™ga= ÃV1ZpÆkZ ðZÎgÅìÆš~V-Åjâ gzZuD Ù
s ZžZÐ e œ
 Ü ZœÅ Metanarratives Æ b§x Óä kZ™ƒ¸ZŠ'wŠÐ ò » *
%gzZ ‰
X ªs¬~ä™
ëZ a Æ kZQ Ô;g@ J 7, ~ ;gE- kc yxgŠ Æ Y 1965-66 {z z Z ,gŠ
}}X ;g êŠ¼6•~ V-gE- ‰ÅM%Z {z VZi Zˆ X ‰ Á} i ZzgŠÆ VƒogŠ
Îq Z ~ kc ä kZ d Œ Û Æ Y 1980X „g Ýq ÌwÅ visiting professorÐZ
{g ZŠ Zt X Š
0gœ» kZgzZ Hì‡International college of philosophy , ÒgZŠ Z ò Z ¸ÑZ
X ;gB·i p Ðe
.
Ë Y Ås
$  Ÿz Å yZ H ?•H ]Zg¦ ~Š ã Æ egN C ž ì @ ƒZa t wZÎ [Z
Ð p ÒÆ´• Û WW
Zžì DÂ]! ZXì ÌÌZ¼ ÅyZ c
q •wz" PŠ ÅkZ H ?ì
Â• D™ provoke~ ]5çÐ ¹gzZ• ãY V”V”Æ™î ZgŠgzŠ ]Zg¦ÆkZ

û 130ü
G!
é5©‹3E
:G /E
Ô: ×Ô: Ãg¬ Ô: ‘x Ó{z~ ~g¹Å õG# Ò7â KZ ?ì eg ïZùÐ ÌZ ÅkZQ
äVÍß‰X •`ƒAÅÜÁx ÓtžakZXì êŠtÃ»ä™õYâui Z~§Zz]gß
:ì @
àÅ¸Å]ñÅ6Ò'{zžì –Ìt
"Lyotard's point of departure is the demise of what he
terms metanarratives simplifying to the extreme. I define
postmodernism as incredulity towards metanarratives. Those
metanarrtives or grand narratives are, broadly speaking, the
supposely transcendent and universal truths that underpin
western civilization and that function to give that civilization
objective legitimation." (44)
q  gŠŽì Se*
ZXì 7„ ZëÃ\WLZ)g fÆ6Ò'b‚h
]žì wì»kZ
:ì H{zX ¶ Šk½Z
" Postmodern science-by concerning itself with such
things as undeciables, the limits of precise control, conflicts
characerized by incomplete information, fracta catastrophies
and pragmatic paradoxes- is theorizing its own evolution as
discontinuous, catastrophic, non-rectifiable and paradoxical,
It is changing the meaning of the word knowledge, while
expressing how such a change can take place. It is producing
not the known but the unknown. And it suggests a model of
legitimation that has nothing to do with maximised
performance, but has as its basis difference understood as
paralogy." (45)
kZì @ `gŠ • ñW™yÒ¼Ž6
ƒ ãZz ¸ ÌÐ k½Z Ñ! zZ ë~}g !
Æ6Ò'

û 131ü
 Ÿzä8
:ì Ås g * P8 Í~K
X 7öRðÃÅ6Ò'Æq âË~ e h ]
ˆâžì @ -E
™î>XG 5G
4E"g @CLL
~(ª6Ò'Xì 8 Š Ð ÃÅµz —Ãƒ  ‚f h]ˆâ ¾g â žƒ ¬
x ÓÆ(Modernism) ~g »h ] žì g ZÜZ » kZ X ;g 
@Yg ±Z » VìZzg: ‘
)Ôe wz ~Š Zi WÅy̈ZÔ]1] ÅÇ‰ Ü Zœ}(Grand Recits)6Ò'
Ëg â Xì [ µ y¶ DZÎ6ƒ  [Zp » ]äz ðZgzZ à ¥pz ¹F Ô ` • C4
! Álp{Š ciÐƒ  gzZëZÐƒ  „¸gzZ åq ZÐ~VEÒ'Š¼6Ò'
E
I45½G
5H"
Æ lˆÅ ðC]ÑWgzZ èEjG gzZ yZ0‚ Lž L ì •Z ( ]q Z »g @ C
(46)ó Xó aÆw”Æ‰ Ü ¤É D Y}h y  7a
X ÏñWck  iÌh ' × „Å eg N C
(Jacques Derrida 1930-2004) Zh gŠkð½G 58EX4 /
ÔX Å7 ~g¹Å (Deconstruction) úŠg~ e h ˆâ ä T…úZ•
] Û
kZì @ Wt ‚™0ë Z ™{x * gŠ~ cÅe
» Zh h ]ˆâ Xì [ƒ™f »úŠg~ ],
Ä»®h ]ˆâ aLZ {zp¤ Z )ì @ ½ZÐ c! zZ ÅkZ @ Î »c~g‚ÅúŠgža
QÂ ñYc Š™ u Ð e h ]ˆâ Ã úŠg ž ì YY¹ Ìt a kZ ( å@ ™ 7I
@ƒx¥~gz¢Z®X Ïìg ~gðŠ ZcÅkZ Ái Z Ác ì Â* ƒZa g¦ãZzðÃ»e h ]
ˆâ
X•ìg]ïÐyÃ~ä{V.Æ‚fÆkZgzZì Hg"»„Å Zh gŠžñYHãZzžì
X Z½Z™0i ZzW@¬~( Ðƒ  ÅúŠg {z6 Šã
Å
XŠƒ v÷Z• Û yZ0
{t ~1949X Zƒ Za ~ yZ0 { ~Š· ~âï ~ ] gŠ
Z4Z Zh
gŠpX 1¼ZŠ ~Ecole Normale superieure;gE- g•Åkc ä Zh
Zh gŠ ~ Y 1952

X ;g½k iÌ~– (Leuven)yC{zX c ¯ÃV\ð̀ñOÅVz®úZ• Û Ô‚»„KZ ä
•~Sorbonne~ˆX HÐ yC äkZi ¸W»# Ö i 5KZX 1nz» egzg ; ~Y 1956-57
Ecole dgŠ â KZ ZhgŠ (1964-84) J  k'ä {gW X ;g@ J 7w‚ g e 6 gîÆ Š *Z Æ
Ð V-gE- ~uzŠgzZ çEE & ; yY ÅM%Z {z ,i Z {z´ X ;g hZz ÐNormale superieure
.¿F

û 132ü
X ;ghZzÌ6
gîÆWz6 
zzb
O r i g i o n o f [ Â Å ( H u s s e r l ) wçl4 i ¸W» k gŠ
X PAgzZ dLZ ä Zh
&ÐáZjÆkZäZh gŠXìB;Z ( »wçl4X~úÅ‚fÆkZçOX HÐGeometry
ÆV1ÂyZX •C™C
:•x * Ù ªÃbzg ~ãÆkZŽX XÈ¯ÌÁÂ~Š ã 
(1) The problem of Genesis in Husserl's philosophy
(2) Introduction of Husserl's Origin of Geometry
(3) speech of phenomena
"U
 ÌtgzZ ñCZ 5 ZgŠ¼~eÆƒÅ (text)yáäZh gŠžì CYãâ ]! t
~â U
gzZ}p~â U {zžìtÂuXƒ ~ œ% ˜iÑwÅTžì Yƒ7(Zy*ðÃž H
y
WÐDeconstruction žì @ ½Z wZÎ~,Zì @ ZI³)Ð g ±ZÆ pÌÃyá
:•˜ °ÑZ[;zWz6 ?ì @
ƒHÝq
Z’Z ÌÅ q Ëž ì êŠ gzi6 %Z kZ ZhgŠ ~ c Å Genesis L L
c: ‘äwçl4² X X Yƒ7iL (problem)X c wZÎ» (Origin)
Xì @ Yƒ4ZŠ~„{™ ãqzgwçl4XakZ ¶¿g6lˆÅ b ðZ’Zk‚Z Å
kZ 7„ eƒÅ b ðZ’Z Ëžì wì» kZ Ôì H7Šg »„kZ ä Zh gŠ
ËZ®X Cƒ 7æY {za kZXì Sg CZ”Ð ]* kZ 6 qdÅ;ža
7³Š ã c origin Q ì e„ g¦(Heterogenous) ~s» Z’Z Ì
orgin wZÎ¸ »Š ã X ì @ ™³cg ãZz» kgjeÆ e h ]
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Åc ãqzg à{~ lˆÅkZ ä wçl4XXì Š cVZ Ì~of Geometry
(47)ó Xó ì &÷ªÑlˆÅ Èc 
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`~ œ%Ã ó óöZa L Lwçl4XXì {™E » Z’Z Åt‘gzZ öZa Å ùPj]|Ð yZgzZðxŠ W* ¦~
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û 133ü
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6kZ VâŠ 7ZÔ å½k i ~E'coleÃ ¯VâŠ X ðƒ ~ VzgZŠ Z‰Normale superieure
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(Althusses louis 1918-1990)Ð ðG 3Ÿ-ÊWðß…Ëg â âszcgzZŠ *Z » kZÔuøëZ » kZ
w‚zŠ äkZV;zHÐLs W;gE-i ¸W»# Ö i 5äkZX Š ƒµ ZÐKg 0 {zˆw‚&X å
;gE-Ñ‚\ZÅyi ÎgzZÅg (Zmz°Ð÷Z• Û äkZ~ˆX ðJ 7 ];J  (1953-54)
:Zz÷Z• Û ~Y 1960X ZƒhZzÐ V-gE- Åv[gzZ ‚g Zz {zQ Š ƒÝÉw×g•Ð
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(48)X}g Z ¦ ~Non-Monogamous Partnershipw‚FäkZ
X c » ó ó õg @
Šx * Åx ÂÆ„ã̈Z L LäkZ&ÔBçG .J28F~÷Z• Û s WÒ»ÃÃ ¯~Y 1970
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û 134ü
(Structurlist) C(‚Ž Ô Š á ~ {z¤
H ï• ÆBg !
CzggzZ kZ7 ~C Ôy»Ñ uZ jÃ kZ
½Ã (Existentialism)e ŠŽz Å (Sartre Jean-Paul 1905-80) F g‚ŽgzZ å@B
¹ (Post Structuralist) C(‚ :ÃVzk
XŠ  ’ÅkZ ~ ð;Š ÅY 1970VZi Zˆ X å;g™
 1• ï•
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kð½G á {)zgm Û •Ôkâ çE
• 24XÔ‹a xâÔZÖg ep¤
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äƒ6Ã ¯X ÅÌWh ”6Wˆè6[ÂÅ]g kŠ ÅÃ ¯ä kZX åÌŠ¤ •á »Ã ¯Ž åZh
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mS[Ô m S*iñÔb‚ î0ªEiÒ¡Ô ï G34G Ô ~g¹! Š Z Ô];½Ô]*Z/Ô]*—Ô]°_
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Czg~ kZX ðƒ ù •á ~ ~ m ôZ~ Y 1969 [ÂtXì What is An Author:[Âq Z
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ì Ð ]†yZm»yZžZ  X •CY ~Š™hZzÐ 'Ë'! x Ótžì ƒ  oI
:•¿ÆkZì @ ƒ;gƒA %Q»X
"Discourse that possesses an author's name is not to be
immediately consumed and forgotten... Rather, its status and
its manner of reception are regulated by the culture in which
it circulates." (49)
]! kZ~cÅ ?ì H AuthorÝZgŠ {zì Å sŸzb§TÅÃ`LZäÃ ¯
à Z e { ó6Èž7ptÆkZì  *™sz@ âui Z ÅkZÉì 7* hg8Ãqçñžì êŠgzi6
X ñY3gôZz{Š c
iÐÏŠ™g »ÅkZÉ ñY
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h ˆâ ÞgŠ !
] å

û 135ü
(Consumerism)sg ™gzZ óc
z× h
L Æe] Ou"Ð](‚gzZ ïG
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ì _ƒx³» ~g¹Y•̀¯žìtg¦~Š ã »kZXì Åx â ZwÅÞgŠ ! ~e h]ˆâ
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ëæ wzg » Marxismž åk ˆZ ÌÐZ b§Å+®vŠ FX ¶„g™ÒÃÅäƒ} 96
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H7ž {q
XŠ Z »
:~p ÖZÆg ó!£ÆThe Hutchinson Dic.
"Baudrillard evolved a critique of consumer society and
of an information world dominated by the reproduction of
images, producing a state whcih he called hyper-reality." (50)
Ï( ä kZ •z c Ø ³gzZ×sg ™V˜ ~ Ã KZ ä ÞgŠ !
¯ c qçñÃ! ˜>
h
ì q :ZÅæWÅe ˆâØ{tÝZgŠX c
] Š™Ìy´Z »8{Æe
h]
gzZ ïG
G4h±g â u
:ƒ±5k½Zq Z
" The discourse of the end signifies his anouncing a
postmodern break or rupture in history. We are now,

û 136ü
baudrillard claims, in a new era of simulation in which social
reproduction (information processing, communication,
knowledge, industries and so on) replaces production as the
organizing principle of society. In this era, labour is no longer
a force of production it itself one sign amongst many. Labour
is not primarily. productive in this situation, but is a sign of
one's social position, way of life and mode of servitude." (51)
• 2 ÔS7ð̀~ ;gE- yg1gÎ Å kc X ZƒZa ~ReimsàÆ ÷Z• Û ÞgŠ !
Third cycle thesis: the system of objectsä kZ~Y 1966X H·_Ì»] *Z/gzZ
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X ðâ i Wk ÅVÂ¸zŠ
» (capitalism)~gZŠtâu[Zž åc Šg¦tˆÆä)Æ2- e zÎä â c Ã ¯X • Z
g¦V7gzZ òÀÂ» õg @ ®VâzŠt X „g 7¹! Ì õg @[Za kZ Ô ;g 7¹! pwðÃ
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ì @ 3Š 7Z czŽ Ô• „z x Zú[Zì 7g ZŠ' DÅq’›Z' × Ëe ÒZ Åx Zú! f[Zž
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(57)X ó ì
ó
äegN Cžì H{zì @ ™gÖZ »]Ñì„,Z¼ Ìg ó!£» On line wikipedia
¹F Å y̈Z ªStory of Progressì {zgzZ ì H Define Ã Metanarrative q Z sÜ
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# Ò'

û 143ü
Û ±5
:• â •
" There is only one metanarrative as defined by
Lyotard. Modernists and philosophers address the problem by
telling a story the story of progress through universal human
reason, as Logos triumphs over Mythos. The problem is that
once a proof is accepted as the standard of believability not
only must we prove our claims, we must alsto prove our
proofs, and so on, ad in finitum. This is what Lyotard was
referring to when he made the claim that the Postmodern
condition is one of incredulity towards meta narratives. Only
recently has the term "Metanarratives" been used to define
religious narratives (or religions) whcih are actually pre
modern narratives. or, narratives that do not seek to place
Logos over My thos ----the great problem of the modern era."
(58)
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û 144ü
:ì q (J.F Lyotard)eg N
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''......In the first place, scientific knowledge does not
represent the totality of knowledge; it has always existed in
addition to, and in competition and conflict with, another
kind of knowledge, which I call Narrative in the interests of
simplicity. I do not mean to say that narrative knowledge can
prevail over science, but its model is related to ideas of
internal equilibrium and conviviality next which scientific
knowledge cuts a poor figure, especially if it is to undergo an
exteriorisation with respect to the "Knower" and an
alienation from its user."
™~p ÖZsf `gŠg ÖZ » ~Š OZ"KZ6
:ì @ xE³‚™^ÐW~[ÂÏZ
" The right to decided what is true is not independent
of the right to decide what is just, even if the statements
consigned to these two authorities differ in nature. The point
is that there is a strict inter linkage between the kind of
language called science and the kind called ethics and
politics: they both stem from the same perspective the same
"choice" if you will. the choice called the Occident." (59)
Æ [f„ mtgzZì mZ• ~ y! i Å]((gzZ ]ªÜZgzZ y!
i Åb‚ ª
Ð kZgzZì 7Š Zi WÐ V•¹ÜZgzZ„
 ( Å[fÌb‚ªì @ ™úÅøÚR•
žì @
™t „ p°~(Ð ƒ  Åe
h ]ˆâ {zžì [YH™f Â{Lg•t» eg N
C¬
:ì ¤S~( Ðƒ  Åe
h] ˆâ „ù6 VEÒ'
I define postmodernism as incredulity towards metanarratives.

û 145ü
:ì qÐWeg N
C
" This breaking up of the grand Narratives leads to
what some authors analyse in terms of the dissolution of the
social bond and the disintegration of social aggregates into a
mass of individual atoms thrown into the absurdity of
Brownian motion. It seems to me, is haunted by the
paradisaic representation of a lost "organic" society." (60)
Ô: ×Ô: Ãg ¬ Ô: ‘x Óžì t wq ]gßY•gzZ Ï(žì êŠgzi6]! kZ eg N
C
Ã)ÜÁx Ótža kZ ñY Å õY âui Z Å§Zz ]gß: G
G3!
gzZ X • `ƒAÅ ( ]c é5©‹E
D™~ p ÖZ yZt‹»6Ò' °ÑZ [;zWz6Xì [ƒ X ËkzŠ• Û [Zp » Ì‚Î ëE 4µYg W
5G
:•
CÑ»gzZ 6áZgzâ Ð äâ i q Z ë ?HìW3 Ð t ž ì t wZÎL L
w
uZutpÔ•D™g¦y¶ xq Z »Ì‚ÎKZ7ZÔ•ñWÕŠu6 VÇC
)g f Æ ¬q ZÉ D Y á 7gzŠ ¹ … õG # Ò xtža kZX ì ß
/E
(61)ó Xó •ï Š zîi~Vî 0 }g ø
Ð ¯Æ°ey›q ZžVƒ]ª"pX •bŠ™ ÂÜp ÖZÆ°ÑZWz6ä ~
ÌuðÃÅ“6fÐ+®! fgzZš  ú%Ð [f?•M ùòp ÖZáZzD", Z
VÇC ¹ÃWŽ 'W7Ã]xg7½Ð e Z@ ÅðsZ <ÑÃsßñH ?7žce ãƒ
Þ ‡gzZ•Ì{”& ¤~
! Ì¿.
Å¼ÏZ c • D™¨Ð ïG G4h±g â Lvß ë&ƒ ‘Cc „x Ó{z ~6Ò'¤ Z
Xì t. Þ ‡]! Âì Cƒt ‚}gø ~ VªZŽ Ô V×CŠ .x * : ×{”t~uzŠ
ÏñY (Collapse)ñe ~gZŠtâu¤ Z V¯Àì ËZ6 » yZtÂì ðƒ “Ã ïG ZgzZ
G4h±gâ ¤
X •h Þ ‡gzZ °ŸZÐZœCÑ»x Óž c
Š F
. WòÐV¹³tÐkZ Â
{zt ?•Hö ã—,Z Xì ‚ gÃ Language Games ~«£Æ6Ò' eg N C

û 146ü
~ kZì CW7]gßŽ ~eÆx » ËL• D™¨Ð ã kLëÎ• 'gß
ÆDialecticsçOX •Dg¦ Ð w2kZ~ä™ŠgÃ RC G 4›!~º Z LgzZ•D™lˆ
é5E
;g7¹!Ç{zì ;gzgŠŽ »b‚~gñZhZz}uzŠ c ~eÆRationalityc ~}g!
LZ)gfÆ6Ò'b‚h ]žì wì» eg N ƒsp~“gz0
C Xì Š Æb§q ZÉì
:ì H{z¶ Šk½Zq
Zh
'× ~ŸkZì 7„  gŠŽXì Se* ZëÃ\W
" Postmodern science by concerning itself with such
things as undeciables, the limits of precise control, conflicts
cha rac teriz ed by inco mplete information , "fracta"
catastrophes and pragmatic paradoxes is theorizing its own
evolution as discontinuous, catastrophic, non rectifiable and
paradoxical. It is changing the meaning of the word
knowledge, while expressing how such a change can take
place. It is producing not the known but the unknown. And it
suggests a model of legitimation that has nothing to do with
maximized performance, but has as its basis difference
understood as paralogy."(62)
zgq{z •ìg^~ŸÆ6Ò'Ž t
n¾X • VÈÌÐ k½Z Ñ!  IÆ6 zZ
~KkZX ì êŠ™Šg™È6Ò'ÐZÆ™yÒÃUq Ë: ËÆgŠY•ëZC
g @ Ù egN
Cž
/ŸÀG
: õG &Šk½ZgzZqZ
" We no longer have recourse to the Grand narrative. we can
resort neither to the dialectic of spirit nor even to the
emancipation of humanity as a violation for postmodern
scientific discourse. But as we have just seen, the little
narrative remains the quintessential form of imaginative

û 147ü
innovation, most particularly in science." (63)
{zžìtÂ•ZXì @ ™ÒÃÅŠgÆ6Ò'ÐáZjÆb‚gzZ ïG G4h±g â eg N
Cb§kZ
ZÌx » »V\~ wžì @ ™kCt {zXì mZ e {óÅ—q Z Ì6wzgÆVzg›ZŠ
ì @ƒkCZƒ@ ¯ y¶DZÎqZaÆx Zú™ƒ,@ Æ„  (‚f »yZžakZ ÇñY {g™ƒ
Ð t Nz ~ ]gß+ZXì˜Z q ZtXáê6 gîLZ ðÃž7~ ci7 kZg›ZŠ [ZgzZ
X „g7pôÐäƒŠiwZÎÌ]! ðÃÅEÃWÅkZžì YY¹
(Meganarrative 6Ò'gzŠtLž L It» ( {)zBg ! Czg eg N
C) +®h ] /ŸÀG
ˆâ ! õG &Š
ˆâgzZ ì @ ™ y´Z »Ø{ Æ/ Grandnarrative/Metanarrative/ Masternarrative)
{%iÆ(Grandnarrative)6Ò'ÂÌyÒ Ñ! `gŠ ó Xó ì C™Šg »6Ò'Æ b§C Ù eh]

Z òúŠt»+®yZ ?-: VY (Paradox)Š éE
q 4]ZëÃòúŠÆŠgÆ6Ò'Z®Xì @
5šG W~
Xì 7pôÌÑZzä™gZzÐ^»ÅTìg ZŒ(Double Edged)~g JŠzŠ +Z
ì c¯ Ws@Ìä +®! fÃŠgÆ6Ò'gzZt‹Æwq]gßh ]ˆâ Æeg N C
Alex gzZ Jurgen Habermas }Xì c Û Internally inconsistent ÐZgzZ
Šg Z Œ
Incredulity ó óù6 6Ò' L LyÒ kZ Æ e h ] ˆâ ž ì I» +®‰Collinicos
EÃW¤SÅ õG /E
# Ò'Xì YY c Û 6Ò'Ã t o w a r d s m e t a n a r r a t i v e s
ŠgZ Œ
7™ ¯ ¹ÃWÃù6VEÒ'Æe h]Ô »e h ] ˆâ gzZì (Universalization)~I
:<±5p ÖZÆAlex CollinicosXì @ ™" U 6Ò'ÐZ  *™
"Lyotard's description of the postmodern world as
containing an "incredulity toward metanarratives" could be
seen as a metanarrative in itself. According to this view,
poststructuralist thinkers like Lyotard and Barthes Criticise
universal rules but postulate that post modernity contains a
u n iv e rs a l sk e p tic i sm is , in itse l f a c o n te m p o ra ry
metanarrative. Like a Postmodern neo-romanticist meta

û 148ü
narrative that intends to build up a 'meta' critic, or 'meta'
discourse and a 'meta' belief holding up that western science
is just taxonomist, empiricist, utilitarion, assuming a
supposed sovereignty around its own reason and pretending
to be neutral, rigorous and universal. This is itself an obvious
sample of another 'meta' story, self contradicting the
postmodern critique of the metanarrative." (64)
Û Liar's paradox( ÃŠgÆ6Ò')ÐZ Âkâ çE
:ì H{zì êŠg Z Œ 24XgzZ
.G
" Lyotard's Postmodern incredulity towards
metanarratives could be said to be self refuting. If one is
skeptical of universal narratives such as "truth"( with capital
T), "Knowledge", "right" or "wrong", then there is no bases
for believing the "Truth" that metanarratives are being
undermined. In this sense, this paradox of Postmodernism is
similar to the liar's paradox (" This statement is false.")
perhaps postmodernists, like Lyotard, are not offering us a
utopian, telelogical metanarrative, but in many respects their
arguments are open to metanarrative interpretation.
Postmodernism is antitheory, but they use theoretical rules
to make its case." (65)
 ]Š ÞÅÝ¬ ! fgzZ q
g•:% Z ~ }g !
ÆparadoxkZÆpostmodernism
:•ë (Richard Tarnas)4
g Ng°eO%Z
el
" The paradox of the Postmodern position is that, in
placing all principles under the scrutiny of its skepticism, it

û 149ü
must realize that even its own principles are not beyond
questioning. Postmodernism cannot on its own priciples
ultimatley justify itself any more than can the various
metaphysical overviews against which the postmodern mind
has defined itself." (66)
Ð
?ì H6Ò'&6Òw
Grand Narrative ÐZ ì b ˜Z (Front Line) íÑ .Û Åe
• h
]ˆâ
gzZ (Beyond)ZgzÔˆâ p»TÔì Â ã* -(Meta) w Ð Xì Š ¹ÌMaster narrativegzZ
YE4É
ÂËt Z  {)z(Meta Language)ò ð½5Gw Ð c
(Meta physics) ¾‚ Ûw Ð b§Tì {z´
(Ideological Frame ugz *• Û ~Ãq Z Š Z% Ð kZ Âì @ ƒ wEZ —‚ g• B‚ Æ
·_»TÔì (Abstract)h ŠÅ qçñkZÝZgŠ ~g¹c ugz *Û•t Xì @ ƒ ~g¹c work)
YE4É
·_»yZŽì ~g¹First order{zÅy! i c¾‚Û Š Z%Ðò ð½5Gw Ð c
¾‚Ûw Ð }ì C™~g¹
C™·_» õG /E
# Ò Ž ì W.First orderc
ugz *• Û ~Ã{zŠ Z%Ð W. w Ð b§kZ Xì C™
ÅVEÒgzZì @ ™t‹»x Â C*ÒgzZ VEÒ ZŽ ì6Ò {z 0Ð õG /E
# Ò ÔW. wÐ c
ÍXì
6 gîÆw$ Æw Ð aÏZì ~g¹ÅVEÒ'gzZ h¤ x ÓißZ6Òw Ð Ôì @ ™{ Ç W…ÐÝZ
Xì @ƒwEZ ÌÂ»7âgzZ h¤ L
ÐZ ä eg N CQgzZBg ! Czg¬Ð  ƒŽì „zx|» õG /E
# Ò~W.w Ð žìg ãZz
Ž Ô ì c Û x ÂgzZ |
Šg Z Œ  ‚qZ ÐZgzZ ÑïÐ e ŠzöÅ ž ! Š ZÃ õG /E# Ò ä VrZ ì c Š
Û g »~V-ÃgzZVñ¯ÔxEŠ¼
Xì â •
U¿X • D YK ÌHistorsical Storyc "Big Story" ] ‡zZ ‰pÆW. w Ð
CY à ÌAn explanation for everything that happens in a society. Š Z%Ð kZ
:._ÆOn Line wikipediaXì
"Metanarrative/Grandnarrative/Masternarrative, is an
abstract idea that is thought to be a comprehensive

û 150ü
explanation of historical experience or knowledge. The prefix
Meta means. "beyond" and is here used to mean "about" and
a narrative is a story. Therefore, a metanarrative is a story
about a story, encompassing and explaining other, little
stories within totalizing schemes." (67)
.¬E
:._Æ(John Stephens) çEE G3H
4]yY²
"It is a global or totalizing cultural narrative schema
which orders and explains knowledge and experience, the
concept of Metanarratives is sometimes reffered to as a "high
level theory" or more usually, a perspective/ideology.
Socialogical perspectives such as Marxism, Functionalism
and Feminism are examples of what Postmodernists call
metanarrative.
outside of socialogy /social science, Various political
and economic metanarratives could be noted. The concepts of
"Capitalism" for example or "Communism" and "Fascism"
are examples of metanarratives, as are things like "Religion" (
Roman catholic, protestantism, Islam and so forth). And,
most controversially, science (and in particular "Big science"
that argues, ultimately, all of the laws governing the
behaviour of matter in the universe can be discovered and
eventually, related to a single unified law.)" (68)
•IèXƒ ]§ ›ÃðÃžì ÛZ ð×Z ]!
ò AZ Vƒh t Ð ]‚ ½Z Ñ!`gŠ
C aÏZXì @
žì I» egN ƒt :Z »6Ò'6ƒ
 Ï0
i ñ; x ÂÙçz Ï(c
VƒÐZœ

û 151ü
}Š gzi6 h
( R a t i o n a l i s m ) ~I Ò ä( M o d e r n i t y ) e  Z
] p¤
ÒZ  1X H 7 6 gîÆNarrativeÃ ŠpgzZ Å ÔÅ i Z0
Z (Mythological)î©™
s§Å NarrativeÅ e h ] ÚgzZ óg’ Åy̈Z6Š ã
tÂ Z½Zg¦» ¹F Å (Reason)
:•p ÖZÆeg N CXì Hg ÖZ CZÌ~]Zg¦³‚ä|  ‚Å õG # ÒªX ¶‡Z%
/E
" Simlifiying to the extreme, I define postmodernism as
incredulity toward metanarratives ( a grand narratives",
typically characterised by some form of "transcendent and
universal truth). This incredulity is undoubtedly a product of
progress in the sciences: but that progress in turn presupposes
it. To the obsolescence of the metanarrative apparatus of
legitimation corresponds, most notoably, the crisis of
metaphysical philosophy and of the university institution
which in the past relied on it. The narrative function is losing
its functors, its great heros, its great dangers, its great
voyages, its great goals. It is being dispersed in clouds of
narrative language elements-narrative, but also denotative,
perspective, descriptive, and so on." (69)
Xì H ãZz~øÚÆVEÒÆe h ]ÐZ ñOÅs  ŸzxÅ õG /E Ð äeg N
# Òw C
bŠ úä e h 
]Ž õG/E
# Ò'x Ó{zÔì C™µ6VEÒ'x ÓwŽgßh ]ˆâžì H izZ {z
»g ZtÃÆ yzg Z e ÔbŠgZ Œ Û ̄ !» ¹Fã̈Z ´ÃÒ³‚ ~VEÒ'Æ e h ]X¸
g ZzŠ Z Å õg @
! fgzZÔ*
ZIwe â eã̈Z ´Ãwe â eÆ [ Û Ô 'tÃ´ » »g Z ¦â ã̈ZÃ
Z•
6 On Line WikipediaX • ï• á *™ ;6õg @ã̈Z ~g7Ã (Periodization)~È
¾e h ]
ˆâžì @ ZÐ% Z eÃ~uu6XÔ•ˆÅ PublishBVPÅVEÒ'
ƒ{ i Z0
:•sf `gŠBVtXì C™ŠgÃ{oc Ù gzZì CCZtzg(Assertive): ×gŠ
ðC@¬C

û 152ü
" Examples of Metanarratives:
1. Christians believe that human nature, since the Fall (Genesis 3), is
characteristically sinful, but has the possibility of redemption. This
representing a belief in a universal rule and a telos for humankind.
2. The Enlightenment theorists believe that rational thought, allied to
scientific reasoning, would lead invitably toward moral, social and ethical
porgress.
3. Muslims view human history as the story of divine contact through
prophets like David, Abraham, or Jesus demonstrating rationally
impossible feats for human beings (miracles) as proof of authenticity.
These prophets or their messages are resisted when introduced, and
distorted or corrupted over time necessitating new prophets, the final one
being Muhammad (SAW), and the uncorrupted Quran; victory ultimately
being for those who have purified their hearts and accepted the divine
nature of the world.
4. The Marxist-Leninists believe that in order to be emancipated, society
must undergo a revolution. Just as the bourgeoisie took power form the
noble class, they believe that the present system of capitalism will fall and
the proletariats will take over.
5. Freudian theory holds that human history is a narrative of repression of
libidinal desires.
6. Categorical and definitive periodization of history, such as the fall of
the Roman Empire, the Dark Ages and Renaissance.
7. Many Feminists hold that the patriarchy has systematically oppressed

û 153ü
and subjugated women throughout history.
8. The whig Interpretation of History, where history was viewed as
teleological process gradually leading to increased liberty and
democracy." (70)
tÃ{oC Ù 6x *
Æ6Ò'Ô e h ] ˆâ ž¸ T e* 3Št ëÆ™yÒÃVß VyZ
h
e ]
ˆâ Xƒ ~g¹Ùç c Ï(Ô Y•c ƒ {oIèì e6Ò'{zXì C™h Š FÅ‰Ü Zœc
Ã Vª Z Å ó ó‰ Ü ZœL Ž
L •( M y t h s ) :‚ Z ¡õG /E
# Ò'ž • ë ¦æ Æ
wHXì Š JZ Š OZ Ð yZ~ VzÑça ÏZ X • CY ÙZ F a Æ ä™ Legitimise
Ðƒ  s ÜÆòúŠ kZÆx4  7 Xì 7(Zž• ëB‚ÆŠ OZ e
ge â † .ë?ì (Z
:ì6 Šã
Å{@xÆë›zŠ?Š ~(
IègzZ VªZÅ6Ò'Ì` Wvß~(Perspective)wq]gßgzZ VzÑçÐ ¹ X 1
±} (Ðƒ  Æ*Š ÂñW: ¢ÃË¤ Z•ñƒñÎÐJ ñƒD™t„  gŠÃh•
Broadly cá™ {g Â » ó~ó Y L LÆ Vîzy Xa NŠÃ ó óe Æ Vâ ›L L q ½Z Iè
~tæXá™g¨6[NZÆVáÓ)gfÆe g/gzZVªZÅ ~g ZŠtâuSpeaking
„ ð| ~ [fgzZ wŠ à » Z Å V³ ( {) zE6
 6Š ã zy ZØz Ô #ì) Z Âzy ÔØ òsZ
C™Â]¬½ZÆVÅÑÔVzgZD Ù ( {)z(Jerry springers and Jerry Falwells) È)
?•7C Ù biÆ¢6 6Ò'tHX •î×ÆyZvßÄÑV±ŠgzZ•
Zžìt wq]gßÝZ ( °•c VƒIètì e) Š -gzŠ »6Ò'žÃsÐ ]! kZ X 2
t ì eÔì YYH {@x&{ i Z0 Ü ¤ ðƒ f(Å yZZz ¢66Ò'Ì` W~ VzÑç
Z » ‰
~I]”òsZ c 46Š ã
òsZáZz[fÎÔØÅ]! Ièc
_ Vƒ6RY •~VzÑç
Å<Ø è1q ZÐ ~(Phenomenon)C Ù bZÆe h ] ˆâ X • D™¨Ð x * Æ
Iè ~ V/}uzŠÔì qŽg ( ì wŽgß¸ ~ < Ø Zè {0
 ix ÓÔÆ Vâ ›Ãs) s§
»¢6‰ Ü ZœÅ6Ò'c ì y´Z »ŠgÆ6Ò'ysg Ièì wìHXì ysg » ~I]”
?g ÖZ

û 154ü
ˆÆï6  ÙgzZ× "V.E.Taylor"®O%Zg•
(Culture and Identity)|
kZ Xì YYH{@x» ¢6 MetararrativesÐ ¹ ~ VzÑçZžì à6 ³kZ
Þ ‡p ÖZsf `gŠÆÀKg WÆ
:•g¨.
" Taylor (Investigating "Culture and Identity") for
example notes various examples of Meta-narrative belief that
fall into one or something both- of the above categories
(Christian Fundamentalism) in America and Iranian (Muslim)
revolution." (71)
ÌÐZ {z:gzn™7kCÃØòsZ ~R' jZÔ «z tæh
gzZ yj •á sßñZ
™g Ñ~Islamic Fundamentalism
Xf
:(Contextualization and Relativity of Truth)?ì HsŸZÅðC
kZÉ 7g »Ãä™wJÃtÃc ðCÌË~øÚ@¬gzZ • D™ŠgÃ6Ò'+®h ]
ˆâ
t w– Æ yZX • D™wJ~øÚ (Localised)ò £Ã Mininarratives~ «£Æ
C( Vƒ:VY„Š „Æ}uzŠq
:•p ÖZÆegN Zì e)•$ Ë ƒs6 Rò £ÐZœ
"With the transition form modern to postmodern, metarratives should
give way to petits recits, or more modest and "localised" narratives." (72)
CÔ (Hans Bertens)H'çEE
~g¹Å (Language game)ö ã— Å eg N 24XWz6
.G
sÅ]!
ÝZ „ e Šã̈Z ~øÚò £Æ V:pò £ž• ë ñƒ ïŠ e ¾h ×Ã
'
:•˜sßñWz6 Ü Zœ
Xì ‰
" Borrowing from the works of wittgenestein and his
theory of the "models of discourse." Lyotard constructs his
vision of a progressive politics that is grounded in the
cohabitation of a whole range of diverse and always locally
legitimated language games."

û 155ü
'
:•i ZBgh × {z
"Postmodernists attemp to replace metanarratives by
focusing on specific local contexts as well as the diversity of
human experience. They argue for the existence of a
"multiplicity of theoretical stadpoints", rather than Grand,
all-encompassing theories."(73)
sg ¬» Postmodernismg ó!£» On Line Encyclopedia of Faith and Reason
:ì qñƒD Zz™
" Postmodernism is largely a reaction to the assumed
certainty of scientific, or objective, efforts to axplain reality.
In essence, it stems from a recognition that reality is not
simply mirrored in human understanding of it, but rather, is
constructed as the mind tries to understand its own particular
and personal reality. For this reason, postmodernism is highly
skeptical of explanations which claim to be valid for all
groups, cultures, traditions, or races, and instead focuses on
the relative truth of each person. In the Postmodern
understanding, interpretation is everything; reality only
comes into being through our interpretations of what the
world means to us individually.
Postmodernism relies on concrete experience over
abstract principles, knowing always that the out come of
one's own experience will necessarily be fallible and relative,
rather than certain and universal. Post modernism is "Post"

û 156ü
because it denies the existence of any ultimate principles, and
it lacks the optimism of there being as scientific,
philosophical, or religious truth, which will explain
everything for everybody." (74)
t U¿•ë e h ˆâ Ã¿Šgs ÜÆ( Yg {Ô ³‚ ) V@ÃÅŒÆ‰
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E
Å õfI‹$Xì Š
Hg Ñ ~š ëZ Åîi Å„h ]
ˆâ ÌÃ (Nihilism)è° Å (Nietzsche)
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:• â • ÆãçgzZg ZMZÔè°
"I consider life itself instinct for growth, for
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will to power is lacking there is decline. My assertion is that
this will is lacking in all the supreme values of mankind that
values of decline, nihilistic values hold sway under the
holiest names." (75)
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û 157ü
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û 158ü
(76)ó Xó D™7òúŠ ðÃëžD™7ÌòúŠtÉ
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X {)z{)zX •F ~

û 159ü
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:•p ÖZÆVaclaw Havels ¯W½@
" Postmodern world one based on Science, and yet
paradoxically "where everything is possible and almost
nothing is certain."(77)
H4H_
5ƒ
c
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:•p ÖZÆMcDowell & Bob Hostetler
........"A worldview characterized by the belief that truth
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any system or statement that tries to communicated truth is a
power play, so is the Postmodernism itself." (78)
c Z sf `gŠ » e
Zh Z Z¬ZÆ i Z0 h
] Ù â ~ß ¤Zg•
ˆâ äUmberto Eco Yß 1C
X :ì
"The Postmodern attitude as that of a man who loves a
very cultivated woman and knows he cannot say to her, I love
you madly, because he knows that she knows (and that she
knows that he knows) that these words have already been
written by Barbara Cartland."(79)
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ItXì (Mathematical Mistake)ÚCMc .

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û 172ü
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yn z 8Xì )Zg e qZ ÑZz äY|a Æ wEZ ò Zú„  ( Xì {Š™
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?ì H ö g†;
:._ÆOnline Encyclopedia wikipedia
" In postmodern philosophy, the term hyperreality characterizes the
inability of consciousness to distinguish reality from fanatasy, especially
in technologically adanced postmodern cultures." (109)
žì È» (Hyperreality)|7c Ø ³Ô ._Æ ;#h
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å
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?ì H (umberto Eco)r Z IÞZX å: „ŠzŽ L»TšåÅqkZª
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qŠ 4
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"Hyperreality is nothing more than the technological

û 174ü
capability to intermix virtual reality (VR) with physical
reality (PR) and artificial intelligence (AI) with human
intelligence (HI) in a way that appear seamless and allows
interaction."(112)
ëV˜ ì copy worldÉ ì 7Ç•ìg {gë~T *Š {zžì HÞgŠ ! å
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chooses the term simulacrum, a word that denotes
representation but also carries the sense of a counterfeit,
sham or fake. simulacra seem to have referents (real
phenomena they refer to), but they are merely pretend
representations that mark the absence, not the existence, of
the objects they purport to represent, Baudrillard blames too
distinct but related culprits for this change: contemporary
consumer culture and imperialistic western science and
philosophy." (113)
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û 176ü
Xì { ›â WÅ óVz7L L{zì C™7g¦» *ŠTgzZ0Ð*ŠT
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"Hyperreality is significant as a paradigm to explain
current cultural conditions. Consumerism, because of its
reliance on sign exchange Value (e.g. brand x shows that one
is fashionable, cary indicates one's wealth), could be seen as a
contributing factor in the creation of hypearreality or the
hyperreal condition. Hyperreality tricks consciousness into
detaching from an real emotional engagement instead opting
for artificial simulation, and endless reproductions of
fundamentally empty appearance. Essentially, fullfillment or

û 179ü
happiness is found through simulation and imitation of a
transient simulacrum of reality, rather than any interaction
with any "real'' reality."(114)
:(Examples of Hyperrality)BVÅ|7
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"......imaginary world of Disneyland magnetizes people
inside and has been presented as "imaginary'' to make people
believe that all its surroundings are "real". But Los Angeles
area is not real; thus it is hyperreal. Disneyland is a set of
appratus, which tries to bring imagination and fiction to what
is called "real". This concerns the American Values and way
of life in a sense and "Concealing the fact that the real is no
longer real, and thus of saving the reality principle." (115)
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û 181ü
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Y Z0 zgÒ Vî 0 ¹!
ìá uZgpÅVzgâ Yz¼ »

û 190ü
X • ,q èg ¬ ÌV1¥pÅÏ0 i Åy̈Z b§ÏZX ÌVZ • gzZì q èg ¬ Ìg ·Å]@ m
ìt~ÔZŠÝZX Š 7~ÆðŠ} (¹{zŠ ƒ^6g ·mZgzZ Š Å~V´Š Å *Š¿Ž
ÅägZ’ÃE¬KZgzZŒËœq Zq Z »kZ ñOÅKŠÃö¡ÃÏ0  i Å *Š kZy̈Zž
X}™ÒÃ
Vz®Ô V\gzZ Vz– ™ÔVÁâ)Zg eÔ Vz²• á ÔV'Š Z „ Ð å ½gzZ']gú
T~gzŠh ˆâ pì H ExploitÃ½kZåäV'Š ZgzZVz²•
] á Ôì „gcqçñ»
~õg @ —‚wVÅkZì ;g™ï• á ~g ! Ù Æ™Vc
zg »C ²gzZì ;g™ projectÐZ c zb§
kZgzZ•CZ´xg p- aÆVÂgúxi 5KZ {)z F ÃŠ ÔV|Ôbg ZŠ ZÔ~•Û Cg ˆZX Q7
gzZ X ñYHVc ú{Š c
i Ð {Š c
iÃV”HŠ Æ y$ Æ kZžì  @Y 3g p Ò6gîm{» ]!
Ôì _0Ì]gz¢C;Å]gúh •á tB‚B‚Æ~g6ÙçX ñYH Commercialise
Vc ú{Š c
iÐ {Š ciÃ\WLZ~gzŠÆðZg W¨ £gzZ (Consumer) : Ãg™Ô ~g ! zg » {ŠŽñª
:åc $tä(Roland Barth)Bg !
J 7 Czg®q ZÆgzŠh ]ˆâ ?* ™
"Is not the body's most erotic zone there where the
garment leaves gaps."(135)
Ã[f Y {Š ciÐ {Š c
iÃVÂgú~Commercial Addsñƒ D™¿6ÃkZ Z®
™áÐg 3ZÆòXì CY~Š™~g7)g fÆYß )R ÛŸ•„ggzZì @ YH7™ ¯
|à Zz ¶Š ïa ~}g ! kZ ä yWŒ Û Xì @
Yc
¯=gf »n„Ã]gúJ ›gzZ *™8 ì
Û yÒ
:ì ðâ •
äßÚ é†ËÇÚ ÜÒ‚Ãm ä×Ö]æ ð^ŽvËÖê ÜÒ†Ú^mæ †ÏËÖ] Ü³Ò‚³Ã³m à³_6 ³nŽÖ]L L
?\¬vZgzZì êŠ¬» ð§"gzZ @ ”ŠÐ~M»y-) (136)ó¡ ó ³–³Êæ
( Xì @
™{°z»agzZ„KZÐ
gzZ ¹FÅg !
zg » LZ vß ~g! zg »žì CW~™]! t Ð ä™g¨6žg I ›WkZ
]g ˆh á ÂÏƒ:6–
•  e Z6k
¦Å]gú¤ Zž• Bt gzZ fZg –» ÙJaÆpublicity
ì @ 2¤6 - Æ äÅ g ! zg» Ãy̈Z y-Xì aÎ ã-t~ ÝZ ÂÏƒ: [x»

û 191ü
- +̃c g ¶Z c ø~z KZg v:gz Ôz™7Æ™Vc ²{Š c
iÐ {Š ciÃ]gúžì êŠ b &gzZ
g xi 56}C
n Ù x ~g ¸ÃVY±à Zz Vzi ZzWgZj ßgzZ Vzn æ6yÃâ Æ c zZ®X 7Ç
„ a Æ é Â {°z» ]ngzZ aÆZ} ž êŠ 7y·Š ðÃ s§ Å ]! kZgzZ Ô•
~äâ iÆ¹F ÅYß SgzZb‚ ` W ! Yßžì @ ƒZa gz¢wZÎq Z~V~fh ]ˆâ Xì
ëë1XÐN Y{gúÂÐ,Š7B‚ »ªÆäâ ië¤ Z ?ƒ‰Ö™á'! Ïâ ªŠ H
ðÃ: ðÃB‚LZ ¹F Ù X » ~ F
C 'Åt ÜZ:gzZ•7]o» ~—6f6 gîòiÑ]Ñ¾ Q!•
y̈ZJ0 eXì @ ƒg D»wÝÐg ±Z}uzŠgzZì @ ™ ¹Fy̈ZÐg ±Zq ZXì CÑwÝ
E
Šp]Z & b‚Ížce´gŠ c ]!
tÃV26b‚gzZì)* g » »8 2B+EZ {Š c
çJ.G iÐb‚^»
ä¯ábzg"Ãy̈ZgzZìg Ï»‰ Ü ¤~B;ÆVzg ZŠtâugzZVâ Z+(1ìgZ—Y)
ì 7|tHì L Þ ‡Šp »]Z f KZgzZì w>»‚f LZy̈Z ` WXì C™ ZŠ Zg ZŠ™ë Z~
ã̈ZxyZX ì ;g Y@ ƒgzŠÐ \WLZ y̈Z™7úÆä™¢g ZuZÆykz yâ iž
Åx • ~y WÆZ} žì Å%Z kZ ]gz¢Xì Š ƒ Ë}ÑÝZ »y̈Z~ [cÆ]q:
!ñYc Šj»yjãzÛgzZ ãzg0 ZÐZgzZ ñYðZ™yTÅkZÃy̈ZX ñYHx ¬Ã]úŠ
egïZÐ Tì |+Zq Z ]Ñ»tž• D™n²gzZ • ‚VŒ ëÃ]! KZ
gzZ æÅ *Š ä y̈Zpì |k^q ZÉ ì 7¿m¸¡ðÅ *Š kZX ì 7
Æ ]Z f KZgzZÑÆ ]Ñ» ð{zÐzz ÅTì 1™yâ ‚»ÆðŠÃ *Š™Å~ VŒg
x • Æ wÎgÆ Z} É ïŠ 7ú•  •‚ Å‚f LZ y›ëXì Š ƒgzŠÐ yÃ²
:ì @ C…yWŒ Û X D™7g ïZÐx •ZgzZÔ|ÅkZÔ *ŠgzZ n gyZZ™yâ h' Ã
Üâ †%Ò] àÓÖæ ÐvÖê Ÿ] ^Û`ßÏ×ì^Ú ànfÃÖ ^Ûãßne^Úæ š…Ÿ]æ l]çÛŠÖ] ^ßÏ³×³ì^³ÚæL L
6 gîÆ¿m¸ËÌÃkZì ~yZ¼ŽgzZÃ}igzZÃVâ •WäëgzZ ) (137)Xáó ç³Û³×³Ã³mŸ
( ó Xó … Y7vßÒZÐ~yZpXì H Za aÆÑÇËÉ H7Za
WÆZ ÒgÎÔ 115-116•e
e Wyë>Z ÒgÎÔ 27•e Wm ÒgÎIÐ kZ y*¸
Xì [ƒyÒ~J)z85•
:ì HyWŒ Û Ž •ë „zÌë™NŠV*¶ Å]gŠÅkZgzZ]Ñ» WzkZÅ Z} gzZ

û 192ü
àm„Ö] !h^fÖŸ] oFÖæŸ kmF 6Ÿ …^`ßÖ]æ ØnÖ] Í¡jì]æ š…Ÿ]æ lçFÛŠÖ] Ð³×³ì o³Ê á]L L
kÏ×ì ^Ú ^ße… (š…Ÿ]æ l]çÛFŠFÖ] Ð×ì oÊ áæ†ÓËjm Üãeçßq o×Âæ •çÃÎæ ^ÛnÎ ä×Ö] áæ†Ò„³m
~äW™w$ w$ Æ]ZggzZyŠÔ~ðÅ}igzZVâ •Wž7—~kZ ) (138)¡›ê ]„³âF
ÔVƒ} 9Dƒ7…¸ÐŠ c Å\¬vZ Ì~ wq ËŽX • V*¶ aÆVzq=G
}g ø } Z Ô• ëgzZ • D™ g¨~ öZa Å }iz y•WgzZ X Vƒ g  ž ÔVƒ Æ
( XáXÐ[Z±Æv W…:ì u 0 ÂÔ H7Zaë! ¼ƒ täÂ!g ÇŠgz6
}g ! Æ]©VÍ * ÍÆkZB‚Æ]Ñ»gzZ Z} g0
ZÆy̈ZžìtÑZ( Û
»yWŒ
ò D Z )´X ñYc
K n o w l e d g e a n d R e l i g i o u s \ LZ w Š™Za gÅF—~
Ð áZjÆ(Goethe Johann wolfgong von 1749-1832) , Í ~Experience
:•D™yÒ
"Goethe, while making a general review of Islam as an
educational force, said to Ecker mann: 'You see this teaching
never fails; with all our system, we cannot go, and generally
speaking no man can go, rather than that." (139)
1NŠ ä ?:å¹Ãð™ Z ñƒ f
 {^
YÐ wÅäƒ ]¸(»xsZ ä , Í )
„ëq Y7ÐWÐkZëŠŽz!
ZgzZ M ÆVñÂx ÓLZX C37uD Ù Ì}½tžì
( X YY7ÌðÃ7

û 193ü
:(Deconstruction)úœg
›gì e h ]
ˆâžì YY¹ÌtÉ ìtÃëZq Z úŠg~ cÅe h ]ˆâ
ìg ~gðŠ Z cÅkZ Ái Z Ác ì Â* ƒZa g¦ðÃ»kZQÂñYc Š™ (Minus)uú
žŽ DeÔì ¯ ™ïÐ V/zŠŽ Ôì sŠ ZázŠg Z » De Construction Â~ m ôZ úŠgX Ï
Ô¨Ât ,i Z {z´ ÔúÔIF Ô^z¯ ± concstructiongzZ Ôg(Ô ÔÔŠg ±ì —‚q Z
Xì Ã»kZ DeconsXì ~zqÌÃ ãçÆb‹gzZ‚ÔôÂ
wEZ » b ˜Z kZ®ÈZŠ Õ~ Vzk  ’~W(B‚Æ~p¼~x|)~[Š ZzŠg Z
X • ÙÌ]ÃŠ Zá‰ Œ |‚ÔúÑ ÔyŠg ;{z´Æ úŠg ~ zŠg Z Z® • D™
Ô: ø¢)tzg »kZžìtUI•Z »kZìtzggzZ,tq ZtZ®ìžU»GÔ~De—‚
„(Nihilism)e g ïZ¬ÐZ Ì+®! f‰aÏZXì ³#e gzZ: ZŠg^)
Zzgg Zæ¾5Å!
ŠgXì s§Å ï 34]IÑgzZèznÔØcg»kZ~]gßF
GJG •KZèY•ïŠgZ Œ Û Ôq Z Å
G
¹ é¨G4]IZgzZì Vc
úW @»x ·Z c Š §Ô³ÚÒZ~g¦Æ|¿ZgŠ Z c pzQ~„Ÿú
ÔwßZ Ô2‚Zz ]c Zzg {”ì‡ëªX •Æä™ (undo) 4Š" Ãpx » » úŠg6R
Xì,» óh ó Š F
 L gLzZ ó óe iÐWúŠgakZX 
g ïZ L L{Š c *™âúÅV!ZœgzZ ë›
pgŠ pÔ p:Ô pŽ Ôì (Jacques Derrida)Zh gŠ kð½G  »úŠg
58E{gúZ (Ð ƒ
Z pZ „ Z pZÔì ä„ äÔ~x|ÆZh gŠ pèagzZì êŠ w$ ~ pŠgÔ p™« ZÃg¦Æ
Û [ZŽÆyZúŠg ?ì ^HÅkZ ?ì H{zÔ ï Ü ZœakZÔì
G
GG3©ÒŒ!:gzZìŠŽzÂ: »‰
ëZ•
g• pÏ‚ ZgzZ îc ð‚gJ  œ%c Ù Žq
C Š 4 gŠ Ôì C™ï6wZÎgŠ wZÎÉ C™7
Æ Zh
Ôì Å ~9]g qÅ]Zg¦C é›G3E 4ŒÅZˆâ LZ ä•! fT6VzŠ ã yZgzZ]Zg¦‰]uz
•ÆTì êŠ™4Š" ÌÃ‰ Ü Zœg¦(Phonocentric)œ %]ßkZ {zXì x½q Z¡
ÏZ Ìg¦» (Phoncentrism)e œ  %]ßXì YYH~ ZÆ‰ Ü Zœg•Ìó óZ} LžL ©Â
@Yƒ{Šß Wk¼»k
  ½„ D W~k  ’ncžÌakZXì ÝqE¯Ãk ½6 
k ’žì ì‡6Š ã 
n• Û 6¯ ÏZ • D ¯ ŠŽñÃp™ïVâzŠXì NB‚Æg¦Æì‚gzZ ~zZgg¦»k  ½Xì
ÅnkZXì @ ƒgz {¾ ÌÐ DÆ‰ Ü Zœ6 gîåÔì {àyÒ»‰ Ü ZœŽ ~zZgžì  @Y1™

û 194ü
ÇË cg »ƒ  yZžVYB g77ðÃq Š 4 gŠ ÔÒÃ: c
ÆZh Ž‰Ü Zœ c : ‘ÌË
X •C Ù ! Ð¹Å Zh gŠp ÖZ‰¥zÇgzZì @ ƒs§Å2 zG¥gzZ
kZQgzZ 
*™wEZ6 gîÆ¡q ZÃk
 
’gzZk½žì ž~ wì kZ ÝZgŠg¦» Zh gŠ
žì akZsÜÌZ Åk  ½žakZXì 79¼ Ôì B gE¯6k  
’Ôk½ž * ÑŠ kˆZ »
H » Absence ž ì H {z ]! NŠ pì nç» Presence ª ÏŠŽñÅ ¿~ kZ
7k ½ÂÐGKZ {z•„ _7ë ` WÃyî#Z }Xì xl~\WLZÌZÅTñYH
X Y™
ysg {z) L o g o C e n t r i s m g¦áZz äY ñ0 ~ ]c gŠ ~ ÝZ
Zzg ! f Zh
ž a kZXì ;gÑŠ zÂ s§ Å ( ì êŠg Z Œ Û wßZ ~œ%» •gzZ y! iÃ wìcwÑ+ZŽ
7g¦» Z} ÂZƒÑ1¸gzZ ¶eÐÂñƒá1Z’ZÅ *Šžì {ot~( [f)m
äƒ ì‡]Zg¦6V/L L~of Grammatology [Â ˆÅt̀¯ Å Zh gŠ Xì @ ™
+Z Logos~ )* Ç * Ôì Â ã* -'Logos'Xì Š¹ ( eœ% Â) (Logcentrism)Ã
:ìhZzÐg¦Æó óÏŠŽñL Ž L ì b ˜Z
" In the beginning was the word ( Logos), and the word was
B‚ÆZ} x¯gzZ åx¯~ Z’Z ) with God, and the word was God."
(140)( X ó óåZ}
x¯gzZ å
Â ~ úZ• Û Xì @ ™ W6 D i f f e r a n c e {z ñƒ D J ( ÐWÃ c kZ KZ
(Å DifferenceÂZh gŠ X • ÌÆägzZ VÔ Z pZ Ô {z´Æt• Û c
t Z íZ pÆDifferer
ì @ ™wEZ ~ pzŠC Ù b ˜Zg•ÃÂkZ {z Xì @ ™Š XZ Â* q
Z ~ ^Å Differance
.J2_ÎXì êŠ àJ
„ çG ³xLZÃy! i ›ÃÆ(Sassure, Ferdinand) çJG .2_Î b§kZgzZ
Ôwßæ gzZ ( Â {Š™ ZŠ Z ~ k ½c 
k’ª) S i g n i f i e r , wZŠ ~ y! iž åH ì‡g¦t ä
äz(Linguistic Signs) ]* ã—Ž Ð uZ· ZÆ ( g¦hZzÐ Â ª) (Signified)
¶
b§Tžì HçG .J2_ÎX • Dƒ äâ ðgzZg UŠp6Š ã Å (Differance)t Z íZ {z • Dƒ
V×CKZÄpC Ù X • D Y w$ Ì]ZøÚÆë›gzZ V!Zœ b§ÏZX • CY w$ ©p

û 195ü
Û ±5k½Zq
:• â • ZXì C™úŠg »V!ZœëgzZì C™ðzyŠp
"The text is a tissue of quotations drawn from the innumerable centres of
culture."(141)
Æ ð;Š ”a kZ ì Se @ÃÝz ~g7 Å Ï0  h
i Ôe ]ˆâ ~ [fÝZgŠ
r â Š ! fžìt`NŠ X Zƒ~ ^Å ~g¹ÅúŠgúª» e h ] Z ~y
ˆâ Ô~ x c W
ì Zƒ k  g¼~ gzŠ Æ e
5 h ]ˆâŽ Ôì1» (Schizophrenia)©â Š t °gzZ d C
å òŠ W! fž• … Y ëì c Š wYZ6RÃ (Skepticism)[& EÆ‚f ! fä TgzZ
ì ;g Ý Ð(Cogito)ŠŽz áZz WÎ {zÂ s§ q ZXì ;g wd ~(Duality)e  ðE3I
"
spåŽ 3g ì‡Ð *Š èzc˜g CZ ä kZ s§~uzŠgzZì ;g 2~ E¯Å]Z f KZgzZ
Xì yi Zá)gzZSg Cƒ
U
" ß~ÝzgÅ]î5]Zg¦äZ6 Ô•gám g¹5(Åg ZŠZz]c ZzgÅèâ
: õG &Šk½Zsf `gŠ » (Antonio Gramsci) ög½$Z¤
/ŸÀG Wz6Ôì úŠg¸•Dƒ
" Everything is political even philosophy and
philosphies. In the realm of culture and of thought each
production exists not only to earn a place for itself but to
displace, win out over, others." (142)
+ ®h
]ˆâ ž ,™ s  Ÿz ž • ‰ V 6x £ kZ Æ c KZ ë [Z
P 8 ÍWz6¬ Ð ƒ
g *
sßñ\W; 8  Š Z%HÐ(Deconstruction)úŠg
 X• f
Š 4
:q Æ
i§{z »¬_Æ(Text)QŠ Z%Ð(Deconstruction) úŠg L L
É Ôì YYH (Undo)ó4Š"LÃpÙÆQsÜ:)g fÆTì g » 
Îâh ”~ ÝZ úŠg'Xì YYH Ì{g 0 Ã ó]
{g 0 þ uz C G
é5E
4›! Ô Å kZ
]§ ›ÃÔ {oÿ£zGðÃc Æ kZX ì ótó zg Œ"
Š 4
ÔwßZ ðÃq L L»
ì »Ãr™kZ c Ínç » kZXì 7klþ X {)z x AZÔkz Ô¢ ÔyZZÔ

û 196ü
(143)ó Xó ƒb‡Ð]”» Šó ™: lpVÇg )
+Š Ž
L
Ã{)z~g¹ÔQkl‰ Ü ZœÔwßZÔ•ÔDËÆèâ {zžìtzg¸ »+®h
]ˆâ
Y Ò®
(Mary æE5 ~÷X •D™7tÃ*gzZ
¾G sŸz5Æ™úŠg ÅkZÉ 7g »Ãä™t‚
:•— Klags)
" There are lots of questions to ask about
postmodernism, and one of the most inportant is about the
politics involved or more simply, is this movement toward
fragmentation, provisionality, performance and instability
something good or something bad: There are various answers
to that, in our contemporary society, the wave, the desire, to
return to the pre-postmodern era tends to get associated with
conservative political, religious and philosophical groups. In
fact, one of the consequences, of postmodernism seems that
the rise of religious fundamentalism, as a form of resistance
to the questioning of the "grand narratives" of religious truth,
This is perhaps more obvious when postmodern books
___like Salman Rushdie's the Satanic Verses because they
deconstruct such grand narratives." (144)
ðÃžì C™òúŠ ( eh]ˆâ )„tžVY Ôì o‚»]ÑZÎÐ ¹Ãe h]
ˆâ
ˆâQX • èg ¬ Ì]Zg¦Æ ðZ'ÔðYZÉ Xì 7wJ)gzZ ï» Ôî|ðÃÔwßZ
¬Ð e h] × s ÜÆ ~pgzZI e
gzZ ysg » ØZ' Zzg ~}Ñç {ŠŽñÔ~ eh
]
Ì~ V7z¤Æa#gzZ < Ø èÔ „
 ( ~I ‡gt gzZì éZpÅ ~I ‡g s§ÅgzŠ
ìCÙ ª ~ ]gßÃØ Å 46 ŠãgzZ ~I ]” Iè Â³q Z » e
h
]ˆâ |gŠ Xì
C™s ÜÆ ó óV!ZœIèL L{z Ž ì tzg » ØZ'
× s ÜÆ ]ŸZ ‹Z yZÆ e
h]
ˆâgzZ

û 197ü
Ièt ~ ÝZ ÂÅ úŠg Å QIè ™É]c W ã- Z ä ( y²) ~”g yG }Xì
X åg ÖZ „»—6 Ü Zœ
‰
äYKŠgÉ 7pô‚Ÿc wßZ ðÃÐŠi ÅkZžìt „ úŠgtÃ»e h ]
ˆâ
Ô~Š Zi WÔ¹F g/q
Ôe Š 4 Æeh ]ˆâ Ô Š
Hn²ž 6X Ìyáò AZž ©ì . Þ ‡Æ
VzogzZVâ *ZŠ (Myths)ðÑâ -ŠŽì w„zÅVzúŠÆb§kZgzZK Z· ZÔZ} Ô<Ø è
™}Š x * » (Metanarratives) õG # Ò xÃVzogzZ VzúŠ x ÓyZ ä VrZ a kZ Xì Å
/E
Ï ¹ ä VrZ ž å wì» +®Æ( M o d e r n i s m ) e h ]
Xì c Š™Šg
Šã
ÅyZ Ô]c Ãh]
c Vƒ < Ø Zè ì egzZ •(Construct)~Š ú(Narratives)V×C
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Ô[Š ZçO X ñYc Š J eÃ ó óVÇC£zGL LyZ ªX ñY Å (Deconstruction) úŠg Å
ÅX• õG # Ò xgzZ V×C•‚Šp¼ q
/E Š 4Æ yZ(C Ù ÆŸz wßZ Y•^g WÔ[y.
ž 6Xƒ: 4Š ¿» ó óVçzGßL , L Z ~ {)z[y.Ô[Š Zh ]
ˆâž @ ì ~gz¢úŠg
:ì qg ót‹q Z »e
h]ˆâ
" We deconstruct, displace and demystify the
logocentic, ethnocentric, phallocentric order of things."(145)
g¦{zì e¸¬Ð e h ]ˆâ Ž •D™ŠgÃ]c Ãx Ó,Z +®h ]
ˆâçO
x Ó,ZX Vƒ6Š ã
Åg eg W CÑç: ZŠ%z #c ƒ~}g! Æ<Ø èz t ÜZ c
DÔy!
iÔƒÄp
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Æ sg¬-nZ Âì c zŠ™f » Logocentrism Xì 9 Š ~ ]Ñq 6gzZ Vs6
W{g !
:<g¨6 k½Zsf `gŠa
"Logocentrism term ascribed to Jacques Derrieda that
refers to the nature of western thought, language and culture
since Plato's era. The Greek signifier of word speech and
reason', logos posseses connotations in western culture for

û 198ü
law and truth. Hence, logocentrism refers to a culture that
revolves around a central set of universal principles or
beliefs. More specially, Logocentrism denominates that
process in the history of western thought which, since
Aristotle, privileges speech over writing as being closer to
mental experience. Thus, for Derrida the history of
metaphysics in the west is the history of Logocentrism, The
Logocentric insistence in western philosophy on the priority
o f v o i c e o v e r wri tin g b e l o n g s t o m e t a p h y si c s o f
presence."(146)
Ôì ˆÅWÐ(Signified)wßæ&gtgzZ (Singnifier) wZŠ&g xg¦Æ çJ.G 2_ÎV˜
žì H Zh gŠXì êŠ™ Za pg¦îZzg * â ðwßægzZwZŠ b§¾žì ˆÅ sŸzÅkZV;z
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LZ y ¶  Ù ž åc
C 2_Îž•`™n²¬ëXce hŠæÐ ( Z pZgzZ¡) Differance
Cä çJ.G
t) X cŠ w$ÐDifferance ÐZ ä Zh gŠX » Differenceªì è¾»¡KZaÆp
7{æ7 \WLZ ~ y¶ Ëpžì wì» kZ ( ì 7wŠ •Ì~ ‹Z »Tì Â õ• Û
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wßæc gtžÆ kZ ñO Ì6 (Textuality) ï 4G
GG3E5!B‚ „B‚Ôì k  bŠgzi6g x6
*
¦ gî
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Åï 4G
GG3E5!ž ÇnYc `Ø tgzZ ÏnY ~ŠzÂ6y! i ÅQs§~uzŠgzZ Ïnƒeð¤[Õ
wßZ (Z ðÃžì 7n¾Ð kZÃ Deconstruction Xì wqH » Q~(Diction) › 
ÆkZXì ³)å x|»Qžìt ymZXnƒ ð‚gJ p}º Z Çž}™ äz

û 199ü
Yale O%Z ~ Vî Zâ ë ÆDeconstructionX YY 7„ Hê îðÃ L~ }g !
gÌZà{Jeaffery HartmangzZ J.Hillis Miller, Paul De manÆschool
X •n
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åg¦(ZqZg¦» ïG ¬yŠ¼ Xì $
G4h±g â J Ë Y ~ŠÐ ïG Z ÅkZXì YY
G4h±g â wVq
tpX •xgzZîïZúÆkZž å@ ƒkC(ZgzZ¸ìgf•  Ìg ZŠZIèÐWÆT
ö¼Ð}n ÆyZgzZ ñYc Š™Šg: VYÃ ismsvŠ b§ÏZXì [ƒ" U îÅ[Zg¦
:ì C™ b§kZp°ÅúŠg (Hutchinson Dic.X ñYàa â[ÕÅ
"A literary theory which views text as a 'decentered'
play of structures, lacking any ultimately determinable
meaning." (147)
Ü zZ
‰ Ù žì wì» +®h
 gzZ • Dƒ ]» ZgŠ Zz ]Zg¦LZÆ ÄpC ]ˆâ
:ì H (John Dewy)~-eyYX •D Yw$ Ì]Zg¦tÂì r 
$ÄpÐäg ¦
"As culture changes, the conceptions that are dominant
in a culture change....History is rewritten." (148)
(Humanism)x2‘„g W¬Ð V- œX •f
{ ^ Z »úŠg• W
YÐÃ`gzZq
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óVƒøÎ~ž L ì H. »X HLh × ÐZ ä ¬gzZ .
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û 200ü
"I think where I am not; therefore I am where I do not
think." (149)
wßZz ]c
Zzg Åèâ +®h ˆâ ‰ž Çƒ: Ai Z à { ÌbŠ™™f »]!
] kZVŒ
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" Postmodernism seeks not to destroy these theories,
but merely to modify and contextualize the claims and
knowledge porduced by them while self-reflexivly
acknowledging the limits and biasis of any mode of inquiring
and representation." (150)
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WâëZ q 
Š
:ì 9{zXì ÌWáÅ Of GrammatologyÅ Zh gŠ {zXì CWÃ~È0 ÅVßßZÆú
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(151)ó óX VƒñWD™gŠÐwŠ\ WÅT•M ™úŠgÅ
™ b§kZp°ÅúŠgÐáZjÆe
:ì @ h ˆâ (Baudrillard)ÞgŠ !
]
"We must now come to terms with second revolution,
"That of the twentieth century, of postmodernity, which is the
immense process of the destruction of meaning equal to the
destruction of oppearances whoever lives by meaning dies by
meaning." (152)
gŠJ
kZÐáZjÆZh  akZì Zh
Z gŠèYÛ{» b ˜ZÅ Deconstruction
gŠX Ïìg¯WÔƒ: ch
:ì H Zh × 6
'
"A text employes its own strategems against it, producing a force of

û 201ü
dislocation that spreads itself through an entire system." (153)
p}uzŠ pq ZX •z§VâzŠ:gzZ•qZ Â: VâzŠ pgzZQ~„úŠg Å Zh gŠ
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:ì @ {Š™™f6
™yÒb§kZÃ]! zZ~p ÖZ LZg ó!£» wikipediaXì @U
ƒ" Šg CZ
"Deconstruction is the name given by French
philosopher Jacques Derrida to an approach (whether in
philosophy, literary analysis, or in other fields) which
rigorously pursues the meaning of a text to the point undoing
the opposition on which it is apparently found, and to the
point of showing that those foundations are irreducibly
complex, unstable or impossible." (154)
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" During the eleventh century in Andalusia, there
existed a remarkably sophisticated and unexpectedly
prophetic school of Islamic philosophic grammarians, whose
polemics anticipate twentieth century Debates between

û 210ü
structuralists and generative grammarians, between
Deseriptivists and behaviorists, Nor is this all. One small
group of these Andalusian linguists directed its energies
against tendencies amongest rival linguists to turn the
question of meaning in language. into esoteric and allegorical
exercises. Among the group were three linguists and
theoretical grammarians, Ibn Hazm, Ibn Jinni, and Ibn Mada,
Alqurtoli, all of whom worked in cordoba during the eleventh
century, all belonging to the zahirite school, all antagonists of
the batinist school. Batinists held that meaning in language is
concealed within the words; meaning is therefore available
only as the result of an Inward-tending exegesis, The
zahirites their name derives from the arbic word for clear,
apparent, and phenomenal, batin connote internal argued that
words had only a surface meaning, one that was anchored to
a particular usage, circumstance, historical and religious
situation....Since the Koran is the result of a unique event, the
literal "Descent" into worldliness of a text,as well as its
language and form are then to be viewed as stable and
complete. More over, the language of the text is Arbic, which
therefore becomes a privileged language, and its vessel is the
prophet( or messenger), Mohammad, similarly privileged.
Such a text can be regarded as having an absolutely defined
origin and consequently cannot be refered back to any

û 211ü
particular interpreter or interpretation, although this is clearly
what the Batinites tried to...."(169)
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(170)ó Xó ð]ç‰
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(1) Retrieved from Http:www.wikipedia. org.
(2) www.askoxford.com/concise-oed/post modernism.
(3) Merriam-webster's definition of postmodernism(online).
(4) Ruth Reichl, cook's (November 1989); American Heritage Dictionary's
definition of the postmodern.
(5) The Hutchinson Dictionary of Ideas (1994); Helicon publishing Ltd. oxford.
(6) Cuddon J.a, The Penguin Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory,
Penguin Books London 1991,p.732.
(7) www. pbs, org/faithandreason/ post m-body. html
(8) Lyotard, Jean-Francois (1993) The Postmodern Condition: A Report on
knowledge: (Translation from the french by Geoff Bennington and Brian
Massumi) Minneapolis: university of Minnesota press.pp.15-23.
^'
à âgzZ VÜZ ä VM(Brown Robert 1773-1858) yî Z' Zg ]@Ù â ße :•
mC w ãî Z'
(9)
@ w ãî Z'
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 F
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(10) www.gseis-ucla.edu/courses/ed2539/GLOBE.
 )*
Y 2009ðÑŽ 3Ô260•30¢gƒÑk izg(11)
: õG &ŠaÆc-6
/ŸÀG qçñkZ (12)
Bauman, Zygmunt (2000), liquid Modernity, combridge: Polity Press.
(13)Lyotard, J-F. (1993) The Postmodern condition: A Report on knowledge, Ibid,
p 24
(14)www. Wikipedia.org.

û 214ü
(15) The Postmodern Turn, Essays in postmodern Theory and culture, Ohio
university press, (1987). p12
(16) ThompsonJ-M. Post-Modernism, The Hibbert Journal, Vol. xii No.4 July
1994 p 33.
(17) www. wikipedia. org
(18) Ibid
(19) Ibid
(20) Encyclopedia Britanica. 1991:
(21) www. wikipedia.org quoted from walter Truett Anderson (1996) the Fontana
postmodernism Reader
(22) Lyotard, J.F. (1993) The Postmodern condition: A Report on knowledge Ibid,
p19
(23) Lyotard J-F (1993) The Postmodern condition: A Report on Knowledge Ibid.
p24.
Y
531mÔY 1994ÔgƒÑÔ ÅXéëL E Ä¹ægzZ](‚:Ô](‚ÔP8ÍÔ8
5_Ô]c g*
(24)
sZ (25)
533mÔ sZ (26)
(27) Novak philip, The vision of Nietzsche, Element, Brisbane (1996) p.108
541mÔ sZÔP8 ÍÔ8
g*
(28)
91mykÔgƒÑòO ZzŠg ZyÎ 0
! fÔt
 I~Ãe
h
]ˆâ Ôk„Ü*
Ô.(29)
(30) Encarta. msn. com.
31mY 2007ÔŠ !
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(33)
(34)http:www.colorado.edu/English

û 215ü
(35) Ibid
533mÔ sZÔP8 ÍÔ8
g*
(36)
(37)Akbar S. Ahmad (1992), Postmodernism and Islam, Predicament and Promise
Routledge, P.10
(38) Encyclopedia of cultural Anthroplogy p.994
37™Y 2007ÔŠ !
WxsZÔòŠ » Z[g7Ô]žz]Zže
h
]ˆâ Ô °ÑZ[;z(39)
40mÔ sZ (40)
43mÔ sZ (41)
(42) Jencks, charles (1993) Postmodern Architecture, London p.319
Focault, Michel (1972) the Archeology of :¶ ŠaÆc-6
 Postmodernism (43)
knowledge, Sheriden smith, A.M. (trans) London, Tavistock.
(44) Harvey, David (1998) The Idea of the Postmodern, Oxford: Blackwell p. 124
(45) Ibid p.126
Ä¹ægzZ](‚:Ô](‚ÔP8ÍÔ8
534mÔ sZÔ]c g*
(46)
h
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Vƒ;g™yÒakZ]§ÅyZB‚Æ]ÑìÆ+®Æe
÷zw¸žnƒx¥…ž @ h
]ˆâ (48)
á ~ [fNon-Monogamous Partnership¸H‰
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h
!e] Þ W»¾~ÄÃÅ¾ž Cƒ7n¾ðÃÃËÐ] !
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(49) Foucault Michel (1980) what is An Author? Sheriden Smith, A.M. (trans)
London: Tavistock.
(50) The Hutchinson Dictionary of Ideas, (1994) Helicon p.211 publishing Ltd.
Oxford p.49

û 216ü
h
90mÔ sZÔ]žz]ZžX e]ˆâ Ô °ÑZ[;z(51)
402mÔY 1999c Z™]¬,ºZÔ?k6
 h
e]ˆâ zŠg ZÔjœx Â(52)
524mÔ sZÔ]c g*
(53)
tgzuqÔ sZÔ]žz]ZžÔe
h
]ˆâ Ô °ÑZ[ ;z (54)
(55) The Hutchinsom Dictionary of Ideas, Ibid, p.442
341mÔ sZÔÁZo z!  (56)
ðÑŽ Ô 7Š°Ô 135¢ gƒÑ yWÅZ y)F h
)xâ ÔxsZ gzZ ½ » e]ˆâ ÔvZ ]Š X ¦Ô +(57)
!ZfÔ 68ÜÔY 2008
Anderson, Walter Truett (1995) The Truth About Truth: De-Confusing and
Re-constructing the Postmodern world.New York Penguin pp.239-44
(58) www. Wikipedia, org/wiki/Metanarrative.
(59) Lyotard, J-F (1993), The Postmodern Condition; Ibid pp.22-25
(60) Ibid
h
53mÔ sZ]žz]ZžÔe]ˆâ Ô °ÑZ[ ;z (61)
(62) Harvey David (1993), The Idea of the postmodern, oxford: Blackwell p.124
(63) Ibid p.128
(64) Callinicos, Alex(1991), Against Postmodernism: A Marxist critique
Cambridge: polity press, p.289
(65) Habermas, Jurgen,(1993) Modernity versus Postmodernity, cambridge : Polity
press p.314
(66) www.Pbs.org/faith and reason/ gengloss/ postm-body.html
(67) www. wikipedia.org/wiki/Metanarrative
(68) Stephens, John (1998), Retelling Stories, Framing Culture: Traditional story
and Metanarratives in children's Literature ISBN o-8153-1298-9

û 217ü
(69) Lyotard, J-F(1993) Introduction: The Postmodern Condition; Ibid, p.21
(70) www. wikipedia.org/wiki/Metanarrative
(71) www. Pbs. org/faith and reason/gengloss/postm-body. html
(72) Lyotard, J-F (1993) Ibid, p.16
(73) Hans Bertens (1995), The Idea of the Postmodern: A History, Routledge.
p.124
(74) www. pbs. org/faith and reason/gengloss/postm-body. html
(75) Novak,philip, (1996) The vision of Nietzsche, Element, Brisbane, p.74
315mÔY 2004ÔgƒÑÃyZÑ *
ÿ}GZÔb‚z< 3©EÅ
Ø è î0¶cÔ@zyYËZ eÔTge (76)
(77) Vaclav Havel, The Need for Transcedence in the Postmodern world,
Philadelphia, July 94. Retrieved from www. wikipedia. org
(78) Josh McDowell&Bob Hostetler (1998) The New Tolerance, carol stream
p.208
(79) Umberto Eco, Retrieved from www. wikipedia, org.
30:xz°Z (80)
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48:yZ/wW (91)
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(95) Ibid
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(104) The Hutchinson Dictionary of Ideas, Ibid p.340
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(107) J.R.Firth, (1945) Techniques of Semantics, London, p.86
h
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(109) www.Wikipedia, org/wiki/Hyperreality
(110) Jean Baudrillard (1988), Simulacra and simulations; in selected writings,

û 219ü
Mark Poster, ed. Stanford: Stanford University Press p.184
(111) Umberto Eco (1986), Travels in Hyperreality, New york, Harcourt Brace
Jovanovich, p.43
(112) John Tiffin (2001) , Hyperreality: paradigm for the third Millennium, New
york, Routledge, p.30
(113) Ibid p.83
(114) www. wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperreality
(115) Jean Baudrillard (1988), Simulacra and simulations; Ibid. P.168.
83:yZ/wW (116)
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38-39:y{-Z (137)
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(139) Iqbal, Allama Muhammad, (1989) The Reconstruction of Religious Thought
in Islam, Iqbal Academy Pakistan Lahore p.7
ykXgƒÑÌ‚Îª!
yÎ 0 WÔ1[ !
Ô1•e gZÅ ¦- (140)
(141) Collins, Jim, (1989) uncommon cultures: Popular culture and
Postmodernism, Routledg, p.189
(142) Ibid. 191
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(143)
(144) Klags, Mary, (2007), Literary Theory: A Guide for the perplexed, continuum
press, p.432
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26mÔ sZ (146)
(147) The Hutchinson Dic. of Ideas Ibid p.139
(148) Dewy John (1985) Hegel (ed. Michel Inwood) London oxford Press, p.187
504mÔ sZÔ]c g*(149)
(150) Encyclopedia of Cultural Anthropology (1984) Editor David Levinson,

û 221ü
Melvin Ember, New York, Henry Halt&Comapny, p.994
 I~Ãe
247mÔ sZÔt h
Ô.(151)
(152) Shannon weiss (2007) Postmodernism and its critics, university of Alabama
press, p.432
(153) Ibid p.429
(154) www.wikipedia. org/Deconstruction
(155) Charles upton (2001) The system of Antichrist Truth & Falshood in
Postmodernism&the New Age, Sophia: Perennis p.45
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(169) Said, Edward w.(1983), The world, the Text, And the critic, Faber and
Faber, London, p.36-37
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English Books
1. Akbar s. Ahmad (1992) , Postmodernism and Islam: Predicament and
Promise, Routledye.
2.Alain, Touraine (1995), Critique of Modernity, Cambridge Blackwell.
3. Bauman, Zygmunt (2000) ,Liquid Modernity, Cambridge: Polity Press.
4.Callinicos, Alex(1991), Against Postmodernism: A Marxist Critique,
Cambridge: Polity Press.
5. Charles upton(2001), the system of Antichrist Truth Falsehood in
Postmodernism & The New Age Sophia: Perenmis.
6.Collins, Jim, (1989), Uncommon Cultures: Popular Culture and
Postmodernism, Routledge.
7.Cornalia, Klinger, (2004) From Freedom with out choice to choice
without Freedom: The Trajectory of the Modern Subject, Blackwell
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