Element 8

Element 8
Managing Emissions to the Atmosphere
Learning Outcomes
Once you’ve read this element, you’ll
understand how to:
1 Outline the types of emissions to

atmosphere and the harm to the
environment from specific pollutants.
2 Outline the purpose of monitoring

atmospheric emissions, including the
practitioner’s role, the sampling methods
available and the situations in which each
method would be used.
3 Describe appropriate control strategies

and measures for releases to atmosphere.
© RRC International Unit ED1 Element 8: Managing Emissions to the Atmosphere 8-1
Contents
Emissions to the Atmosphere 8-3

Types of Emission 8-3
Pollutant Impacts 8-4
Key Air Pollution Issues 8-7
National Emission Ceiling Levels 8-13
Monitoring Atmospheric Emissions 8-15

Purpose of Air Monitoring 8-15
Principles of a Monitoring Strategy 8-15
Remote Sensing 8-21
Control Strategies and Measures 8-22

Air Pollution Control 8-22
Particle Arrestment Devices 8-24
Gas and Vapour Devices 8-35
Summary 8-47
Appendix 8-48
Exam Skills 8-50
8-2 Unit ED1 Element 8: Managing Emissions to the Atmosphere © RRC International
Emissions to the Atmosphere 8.1
Emissions to the Atmosphere

IN THIS SECTION...
• Solid particles in air may be classified as fumes, smoke, dust or grit, depending on particle size.
• Liquids suspended in air can be classified as vapours, mists and droplets.
• The greenhouse effect is the general warming of the Earth as a result of emissions of greenhouse gases.
• Acid deposition is from emissions of sulphur and nitrogen compounds, causing acids to be formed and damaging
ecosystems.
• The ozone layer acts as a shield in the atmosphere against UV light. It can become depleted through emissions of
chlorine-containing compounds.
• The Gothenburg Protocol sets national emission ceilings for sulphur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, volatile organic
compounds and ammonia.
Types of Emission
Solid particles may be classified as fumes, smoke, dust and grit, depending on particle size. Liquids suspended in air
can similarly be classified as vapours, mists and droplets with increasing particle size. Air emissions can also be in the
form of gases or fibres.
DEFINITIONS
DUST
May consist of any size or shape of particle, crystalline or amorphous. Particle sizes capable of inhalation are
up to 10 microns; particle sizes of fewer than 7 microns are capable of penetrating lung tissue.
FIBRES
Are solid particles with an increased aspect ratio (the ratio of length to width). Fibres have special properties
due to their ability to be suspended in the air just like dusts and other aerosols.
FUMES
Are small solid particles produced by condensation of vapours or gaseous combustion products (i.e. cooling of
combustion products from hot processes). Particle size is in the range 0.01 to 1 micron.
GASES
Are substances which remain in the gaseous phase at the process temperatures and pressures, such as carbon
dioxide, nitrogen and ozone.
GRIT
Is defined as larger particles exceeding 76 microns in diameter.
(Continued)
8.1 Emissions to the Atmosphere
DEFINITIONS
SMOKE
Particles in the range 0.1 microns to 10 microns are seen as smoke. There are no clearly established size
definitions for these particulates, and different publications suggest other overlapping size bands. In industrial
air streams, the very fine particles may increase in size by coagulating into larger particles. Those greater than
20 microns tend to sediment out rapidly. Therefore, most particle sizes encountered are between 0.1 and 20
microns.
VAPOURS
Are the gaseous state of materials that are liquid at normal temperature and pressure. Mists are formed
when vapours condense and are composed of very fine droplets in the range 0.01 to 10.0 microns. Droplets
are normally generated by mechanical action on static or flowing liquids, but may form by the further
condensation and coalescence of mist. Droplets normally sediment out of the air stream. However, under
certain conditions, evaporation from the droplet surface may result in the formation of mists.
Pollutant Impacts
Controls over gaseous and particulate releases to the atmosphere focus on those substances that are linked with
health impacts and wider damage to the environment. These substances are released by a wide range of industrial,
domestic and transport-related activities, and often involve the combustion of fossil fuels for energy use. The key air
pollutants will fall into the following categories:
Substances Main Sources Effects

Particulates Combustion of fuels and activities such as Contribute to respiratory and cardiovascular
quarrying and construction. illness. Particles with a mean diameter less than
10 microns (PM10) have been particularly linked
Classified according to size. to adverse health impacts.
Oxides of carbon Combustion of fossil fuels, especially in Carbon dioxide is the main pollutant implicated
electricity generation and road transport. in climate change. Carbon monoxide reduces
the capacity of the blood to carry oxygen and is
especially dangerous to people with heart and
circulatory diseases.
Oxides of nitrogen Any combustion activity taking place in air. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and nitric oxide (NO) are
Road transport and electricity generation often referred to together as NOx. NOx is linked
are important sources. with inflammation of lung tissue and respiratory
symptoms and can reduce leaf growth in plants.
NOx also reacts with VOCs (below) to create toxic
ozone and other components of photochemical
smog.
Oxides of sulphur Combustion of fossil fuels containing Sulphur dioxide causes constriction of the airways
sulphur, such as coal and heavy fuel oil in of the lung and is especially harmful to people
power stations. suffering from asthma and chronic lung disease.
Sulphur dioxide is major contributor to acid-rain
deposition, which contributes to the acidification
of surface waters and soil and subsequent loss of
biodiversity.
Polycyclic Road transport and domestic coal and Potentially carcinogenic and linked to lung and
Aromatic wood fires. skin cancers.
Hydrocarbons
(PAHs)
Volatile Organic Evaporation of liquid fossil fuels used in VOCs can react with NOx (above) to create toxic
Compounds transport and solvents used in a range of ozone and other components of photochemical
(VOCs) industrial processes. smog.
Methane Decomposition of biodegradable waste Explosive, flammable and a potent greenhouse
(e.g. landfill gas), agriculture, fossil fuel gas.
production and distribution.
Low-level ozone Transportation and industry. Short-term exposure can cause temporary
irritation of the lungs, eyes and respiratory tract.
A secondary pollutant formed from the
reaction of oxygen, VOCs and nitrogen Long-term exposure to low concentration may
oxides in the presence of light. reduce lung function. Exposure to ozone may
worsen respiratory diseases such as bronchitis and
emphysema.
Asbestos Historically, used in a wide range of Causes respiratory illness and lung-cancer.
building materials, such as roofing and
lagging, and may be released from
construction sites.
(Continued)
Substances Main Sources Effects

Halogens A family of highly-reactive elements, Toxic and damaging to the growth of plants.
including fluorine, chlorine and bromine. Halogenated refrigerant gases (CFCs, HCFCs) are
Fluorine compounds are used in many strongly linked to the destruction of the ozone
industrial processes. Halogen-containing layer and to climate change (HFCs).
gases are used in refrigeration systems.
Toxic metals Lead, arsenic, cadmium, mercury A wide range of toxic biochemical effects,
and nickel may be emitted from the including damage to the nervous system.
combustion of coal and a range of
industrial processes. Historically, lead was
added to road fuels and was an important
exhaust pollutant.
Other toxics The combustion of road fuels and a range Carcinogenic.
of industrial processes have the potential
to release other toxic substances, notably
benzene and 1,3-butadiene.
DEFINITIONS
SMOG
A term used to describe particulate matter and gases and substances that can be breathed in by people,
causing adverse health effects.
PHOTOCHEMICAL SMOG
The term used to describe the reaction of primary pollutants with sunlight and other chemical pollutants to
produce air pollution such as low-level ozone (‘bad’ ozone).
PRIMARY POLLUTANTS
Pollutants that are emitted directly into the air and cause harm. Examples include particulates, sulphur dioxide
and oxides of nitrogen.
SECONDARY POLLUTANTS
Pollutants formed from the reaction of primary pollutants with other substances or the surroundings into
which they are emitted. For example, low-level ozone (‘bad’ ozone) is formed when sulphur dioxide emitted
from the burning of fossil fuels reacts with atmospheric gases in the presence of sunlight.
Impacts of Pollutants on Air Quality and Health

The quality of the air that surrounds us is critical to health and the enjoyment of life. Poor air quality may also have
detrimental impacts on wildlife and agricultural systems. But pollution of the air we breathe has been a problem for
centuries, as cities have grown larger and human society has become more industrialised. Although progress has been
made in controlling some sources of air pollution, air quality is still declining in many areas of the world, especially in
large cities with high densities of road vehicles.
We have seen that pollution may have local, regional and global impacts. This is especially relevant when considering
the potential impacts of air pollution because of the ability of some contaminants to be transported significant
distances through the atmosphere:
• Local air pollution, especially in towns and cities, is a continuing focus for regulators because of the health
impacts of ground-level pollution, such as city smog and photochemical smog. The World Health Organisation
has estimated that in 2014 there were about 7 million deaths worldwide that were associated with poor local air
quality. In many developed countries, local air quality has improved markedly with the introduction of stringent
air pollution legislation.
Short-term human health effects from air pollution can include irritation and inflammation of the airways, eyes
and mouth, and triggering of asthma attacks in susceptible individuals. Longer-term problems are often associated
with cardiopulmonary (heart-lung) performance, but some pollutants are also associated with increased incidence
of cancers.
• The long-range transport of air pollution from cities and industrial centres can also have regional impacts. Oxides
of nitrogen (NOx) and sulphur (SOx) can travel hundreds of kilometres from their emission source and react with
moisture in the atmosphere to create ‘acid rain’. This affects trees by damaging their leaves and bark, making
them more vulnerable to disease, weather and insects.
Toxic amounts of aluminium and iron may also be released from soils, further damaging trees and other plants.
Lake ecosystems that are exposed to acid rain may become acidic and this can kill fish eggs. At higher levels
of acidity, aluminium may build up in the water and kill adult fish, which are important food sources for other
animals such as birds.
• The global effects of air pollution such as climate change, ozone depletion and acid deposition have now moved
to the top of the international agenda.
Key Air Pollution Issues

The air is essential to all life and we need a supply of clean air to function effectively. Polluted air can directly affect
our health as well as the environment.
The following are key environmental effects observed on a global basis and are often the results of transboundary air
pollutants:
• Global warming - the greenhouse effect.

• Acid deposition.
• Low-level ozone - photochemical smog.
• Depletion of the ozone layer.
Climate Change
Over time, the gradual increase in CO2 has been contributed to by man’s activities. Burning of fossil fuel increased
tenfold between 1900 and 1980 to 5.3 × 109 tonnes globally. Coupled with deforestation at 1 × 109 tonnes per year,
this has had a net effect of causing imbalances that the cycle cannot compensate for. The rise in carbon dioxide has
been found to coincide with the start of the Industrial Revolution.
The first decade of the 21st century was the warmest on record and measurements over the last 150 years show that
the temperature of the atmosphere has increased by around one degree Celsius. There is now strong evidence that
climate change is related to pollution of the atmosphere, through the mechanism known as the greenhouse effect.
What is the greenhouse effect? It is actually a natural phenomenon. The Sun irradiates the Earth with energy and
as the Earth warms, it emits energy back into space as infrared radiation. Some of this radiation is absorbed by
greenhouse gases that occur naturally in the atmosphere (primarily water vapour, carbon dioxide and methane); the
effect of this is to reduce heat loss from the Earth. Were it not for the greenhouse effect the temperature of the Earth
would be well below zero degrees Celsius. The Global Warming Potential (GWP) of a gas depends on how long it
lasts in the atmosphere and how strongly it absorbs infrared radiation. GWPs are ratios normally expressed relative to
the effect of CO2. Some GWPs for common gases are illustrated in the following table:
Global Warming Potential (GWP)
Greenhouse gas Time Horizon
20 years 100 years 500 years
Carbon dioxide 1 1 1
Methane 62 23 7
Nitrous oxide 275 296 156
CFC-12 7900 8500 4200
HCFC-22 4300 1700 520
The greenhouse effect
The problem is that burning fossil fuels (e.g. coal, oil, gas, petrol, diesel), which account for more than 85% of the
world’s energy consumption, releases large quantities of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Levels of carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere have consequently increased significantly during the past 50 years. Enhanced levels of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere are now believed to be artificially increasing the greenhouse effect, leading to
global warming.
What is so alarming about a warmer planet?
• Sea levels will rise - primarily through the melting of the polar ice caps. This could result in widespread coastal
flooding.
• Climate change - this could potentially have very serious consequences. For example, major food-producing areas
might begin to suffer droughts, reducing our ability to feed ourselves. There are also likely to be more extreme
and disruptive weather events, such as high winds and floods.
The main man-made sources of CO2 emissions and the greenhouse effect
(reproduced courtesy of Scottish Power)
The Paris Agreement is a key international law that will provide international control of climate change for many
years to come. As you might remember, the agreement was developed at the Paris climate conference in December
2015 and formally entered into force in November 2016 when a sufficient number of countries (representing at least
55% of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions) had ratified the agreement. The agreement is planned to enter into
force in 2020.
The Paris Agreement provides a framework to reduce global warming to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels
and plans to achieve climate-neutrality by the end of the century. Other key requirements are:
• A specific legal requirement to reduce emissions on a five-yearly basis from 2025. All participant countries must
be independently reviewed for progress towards their emission reduction pledges.
• Governments must report to the public and each other on progress towards achieving their targets in a robust,
transparent and accountable way.
• Developed and emerging economies must mobilise $100 billion per year from public and private funding to assist
vulnerable and poor countries in protecting themselves against the consequences of climate change.
The Kigali Amendment 2016 to the Montreal Protocol 1987 sets legally binding targets that specify the phased
reductions of the hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), a potent group of fluorinated greenhouse gases. HFC reductions are
measured on overall CO2e (carbon dioxide equivalent). The Kigali Amendment entered into force on 1 January 2019.
The HFC phase-down schedule under the Kigali Amendment is provided in the table below.
Non-A5 (developed countries) A5 (developing countries) A5 (developing countries)
Group 1 Group 2
Baseline HFC 2011-2013 2020-2022 2024-2026

component (average consumption) (average consumption) (average consumption)
Baseline HCFC
15% of baseline 65% of baseline 65% of baseline
component
Freeze - 2024 2028
1st step 2019 - 10% 2029 - 10% 2032 - 10%
2nd step 2024 - 40% 2035 - 30% 2037 - 20%
3rd step 2029 - 70% 2040 - 50% 2042 - 30%
4th step 2034 - 80% - -
Plateau 2036 - 85% 2045 - 80% 2047 - 85%
Belarus, Russian Federation,

GCC (Saudi Arabia, Kuwait,
Kazakhstan, Tajikistan,
Article 5 countries not part of United Arab Emirates, Qatar,
Notes Uzbekistan, 25% HCFC
Group 2 Bahrain, Oman), India, Iran,
component and 1st two steps are
Iraq, Pakistan
later: 5% in 2020, 35% in 2025
HFC Phase-Down Schedule under the Kigali Amendment

Source: adapted from https://eia-international.org/wp-content/uploads/EIA-Kigali-Amendment-to-the-Montreal-
Protocol-FINAL.pdf
Photochemical Smog
The main causes of air pollutants are vehicle exhaust emissions and industrial activities. Vehicles emit a mixture of
gases and particulate material that can cause harm to the environment and damage human health. Oxides of nitrogen
(often referred to as NOx) can react with atmospheric gases, in the presence of sunlight, to produce harmful low-level
ozone. While we need ozone in the troposphere part of the atmosphere, at low altitudes where people live it is a
poisonous gas.
Acid Deposition
Acid deposition can occur as acid rain or dry deposition.
• Acid Rain
Acid rain results from the burning of oil and coal for power generation, from industry or transportation. These
activities release oxides of nitrogen (NOx) into the air and sulphur dioxide (SO2), which combine with water
vapour (clouds) to form acid rain. The rain may be blown extremely long distances from the sources. When the
clouds precipitate, the acid nature of the precipitation can have many impacts.
• Dry Deposition
Dry deposition is much more localised and involves acidic gases falling back to Earth under the influence of
gravity much closer to the source of the pollution and reacting with water. This form of deposition has the same
effects as for acid rain.
Impacts of Acid Deposition

Acid deposition can have many impacts, including:
• Impacts on fish - this can be as a result of the lowering of pH of watercourses as well as release of harmful
substances into watercourses from the dissolving of toxic elements, e.g. aluminium, from the soil and rocks.
• Impacts on other species - other species can also be affected, such as birds which live near affected lakes or rivers
due to bioaccumulation of pollutants released by acid rain in food chains. Harmful metals (such as aluminium) can
also be released into drinking water.
• Forest and crop damage - acid deposition can affect forests and crops both directly and indirectly. Direct damage
can occur from the effects of acidity on the leaves or needles of trees; e.g. brown spots can occur on leaves,
reducing the amount of area available for photosynthesis. Indirect impacts of acidity include dissolving important
nutrients and minerals from the soil the trees grow in. It can also release toxic substances into soil, such as
aluminium, which is normally chemically-bound and not available for uptake.
• Damage to buildings and other man-made structures can occur, leading to a significant amount of expenditure in
maintenance costs.
Ozone Layer Depletion

Life on Earth is protected from the damaging effects of ultraviolet radiation by a layer of ozone molecules (O3) in the
lower stratosphere, between 15 and 25km above the Earth’s surface. Ozone absorbs ultraviolet radiation, one of the
major causes of skin cancers. Certain chemicals (ozone depleters) can destroy the ozone layer. These include:
• Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) - historically used in a variety of products, e.g. foams, aerosols, refrigeration, solvents
and air-conditioning. They have the highest ozone depletion potential.
• Halons - e.g. bromochlorodifluoromethane (halon 1211) that was used in fire extinguishers.
• Carbon tetrachloride - traditionally used as a solvent.
• 1,1,1-Trichloroethane (methyl chloroform) - a non-flammable solvent with low toxicity which is often used for
cleaning metal.
• Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) - transitional substances used as replacements for CFCs. Although less potent
at depleting ozone, they still have some depletion potential.
• Methyl bromide - widely used as a fumigant to kill pests in soil and stored crops.
It is believed that the ozone layer has been depleting at a rate of 5% every ten years over northern Europe, with
depletion extending south over the Mediterranean and southern USA. However, ozone depletion has been most
dramatic over the polar regions, due to particular upper atmospheric conditions, and a continent-sized hole has
developed over Antarctica.
Most ozone depleters are chemically-stable compounds containing the halogen elements chlorine or bromine. These
compounds have typically been used as refrigerant gases, as propellants for aerosol sprays, as foam-blowing agents, as
solvents and in fire-fighting systems (e.g. CFCs, HCFCs, carbon tetrachloride, trichloroethane, halons).
These ozone-depleting compounds are very stable and if they are released by human activities they can persist
unchanged in the atmosphere until they drift upwards to reach the ozone layer in the stratosphere. At this altitude,
the compounds are exposed to higher levels of UV radiation, which liberates charged chlorine and bromine atoms
from the parent molecules. These charged atoms are known as ‘free radicals’ and are highly reactive.
Chlorine and bromine free radicals are able to react with, and break down, ozone molecules in a variety of ways - for
example:
• A chlorine free-radical reacts with ozone to produce chlorine monoxide and molecular oxygen:
Cl + O3  ClO + O2
• The chlorine monoxide so formed may then react to break down more ozone:
ClO + O3  Cl + 2O2
International agreements (especially the Montreal Protocol) are in place to curb the production and use of ozone
depleters.
Unfortunately, even if all ozone depleters were banned today, the chlorine molecules already in the atmosphere
would continue to affect stratospheric ozone levels for at least a century.
Depletion of the ozone layer
International Law and Ozone Depletion

The Vienna Convention 1985 required nations to take appropriate measures to protect people and the environment
against the impacts resulting from human activities that modify, or are likely to modify, the ozone layer. The main aim
of the Convention is to ensure that countries undertake research, exchange information and monitor CFC production.
The Convention acts as a framework for international efforts to combat ozone depletion.
More specific requirements on the banning and phasing-out of Ozone-Depleting Substances (ODSs) are present in
the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer 1987. Since it initially opened for signatures
in 1987 (coming into effect in 1989), the Protocol has undergone seven revisions. This has resulted in the phase-out
dates for ODSs as identified in the table below:
Developed Countries Phase-Out Developing Countries Phase-Out

Ozone-Depleting Substance
Dates Dates
CFCs 1995 2010
Halons 1993 2010
Methyl Chloroform 1995 2015
Carbon Tetrachloride 1995 2010
HCFCs 2020 2030
HBFCs 1995 1995
MORE...
NASA ozone watch website: https://ozonewatch.gsfc.nasa.gov
Further information on the Montreal Protocol can be found at:
www.epa.gov/ozone-layer-protection/international-actions-montreal-protocol-substances-deplete-ozone-
layer
National Emission Ceiling Levels

The Geneva Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution 1979 (and eight associated Protocols) aims
to limit and gradually reduce pollutants that can cross national boundaries. The Convention applies to the countries
within the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) - this currently includes 56 member states
across Europe and Canada, the USA, Central Asian republics and Israel.
The Gothenburg Protocol to Abate Acidification, Eutrophication and Ground-Level Ozone 1999 is made under
the Geneva Convention. It sets national emission ceilings for sulphur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, VOCs and ammonia
(see Annex 1 for the emission ceilings for 2010 up to 2020). It builds on previous protocols that addressed these
pollutants. Such ceilings have been developed based on scientific assessment and the abatement options for the
pollutants. Those countries whose emissions have the greatest impact and whose emissions can be reduced in a cost-
effective manner must make the largest cuts. The Protocol also sets emission limits for specified emission sources
such as combustion plants, dry cleaning and vehicles. VOCs from paints and aerosols must also be reduced. Parties
must report their progress on an annual basis.
An amendment to the Protocol in 2012 sets emission reduction commitments to be achieved by 2020 and beyond.
The revised Protocol is also extended to cover fine particulate matter emissions (including black carbon).
MORE...
To find out more about the Gothenburg Protocol to Abate Acidification, Eutrophication and Ground-Level
Ozone 1999, visit:
www.unece.org/env/lrtap/multi_h1.html
STUDY QUESTIONS
1. Outline what is meant by the terms ‘smog’ and ‘photochemical smog’.
2. Outline the impacts of acid deposition.
3. Describe the requirements of the Gothenburg Protocol to Abate Acidification, Eutrophication and
Ground- Level Ozone 1999.
(Suggested Answers are at the end.)
Monitoring Atmospheric Emissions 8.2
Monitoring Atmospheric Emissions

IN THIS SECTION...
• Legislation often includes requirements to sample, monitor and measure emissions from stacks, chimneys and
process vents.
• Periodic measurement is a measurement regime carried out at specified intervals, e.g. six months.
• Continuous Emissions Monitoring (CEM) measurements are taken automatically, with few, if any, gaps in the data
produced.
• In order to ensure that those who undertake monitoring are suitable, competency schemes have been developed
such as the monitoring certification scheme (MCERTS).
• The technique used to carry out atmospheric monitoring will usually be defined in standards at the national,
European or international level.
• Analysis of reports will largely involve comparison of the measured concentrations against Emission Limit Values
(ELVs) stated in a permit.
Purpose of Air Monitoring

Legislation often includes specific requirements to sample, monitor and
measure emissions from stacks, chimneys and process vents. In addition,
it is necessary to accurately measure process emissions in order to specify
arrestment plant to meet statutory requirements. In some cases, it is
important to sample and measure stack emissions in order to demonstrate
that the emissions are harmless to local communities living around the plant.
Monitoring of the waste gas stream as it leaves the chimney or flue

stack may be required in order to demonstrate compliance with the
environmental permits. The choice and specification of the sampling
equipment is outside the requirements of this course, but the following
general principles apply.
Principles of a Monitoring Strategy Emissions need to be monitored
Introduction
Generally, as we considered above, the monitoring of atmospheric emissions is largely driven by legislation. To
understand the type of monitoring required will therefore require reference to permits or equivalent legal documents
in addition to guidance publications. These will usually specify the sources, substances and techniques, etc, that should
be used to monitor atmospheric emissions.
Monitoring of atmospheric emissions is generally a specialised discipline that would not in most cases be undertaken
by a general environmental management practitioner. However, in order to ensure that the correct monitoring is
undertaken and is legally compliant, an environmental management practitioner needs to develop a background
knowledge of atmospheric monitoring.
8.2 Monitoring Atmospheric Emissions
A monitoring strategy consists of the elements identified in the diagram below:
Which substance
Safety When to
to sample?
TGN M1 sample, for
TGN M2
how long, how
Quality assurance many samples?
and control TGN M2
TGN M2
Monitoring
Strategy Which
technique,
method and
Collection,
equipment
interpretation and
Where to sample to use?
reporting of data
from TGN M2
TGN M2
TGN M1
Main elements of a monitoring strategy

Source: Adapted from Technical Guidance Note (Monitoring) M2, Monitoring of stack emissions to air,
Environment Agency, 2015
(www.gov.uk/government/publications/m2-monitoring-of-stack-emissions-to-air)
Sampling Principles
Key Terms in Stack-Emission Monitoring
DEFINITIONS
SAMPLING POINT
The specific position on the stack where the sample is extracted.
SAMPLING OR ACCESS PORTS
Points on the wall of the stack, duct or flue through which access to the emission can be gained.
ISOKINETIC SAMPLING
‘Same speed’ sampling - a technique of drawing a sample of air through a probe at the same speed as the gas
flow in the stack. This reduces the risk of concentrating either larger or smaller particles and ensures that the
sample taken is representative of the spectrum of particles found in the stack emission.
MONITORING APPROACH
Whether the monitoring is periodic or continuous.
MONITORING TECHNIQUES
The analytical principles behind the monitoring, e.g. infrared absorption, chemiluminescence, etc.
(Continued)
DEFINITIONS
MONITORING METHOD
The published or documented procedure for using the monitoring approach and technique so that
comparable results can be obtained when the monitoring is carried out at different times and by different
organisations.
MONITORING EQUIPMENT
The instruments and apparatus used.
Monitoring Approaches
There are two main approaches to measuring stack emissions - periodic measurement and Continuous Emissions
Monitoring (CEM).
• Periodic Measurement
This is a measurement regime carried out at periodic intervals, e.g. six months. Samples are usually taken from
the stack and measured elsewhere (grab or extractive sampling). Instrumental or automatic techniques can be
used where an online analyser carries out the sampling and analysis; or a manual technique may be used where a
sample is extracted on-site and analysed later in a dedicated laboratory. Samples may be collected over lengthy
periods of several hours, or can be spot or grab samples taken over much shorter periods, from a few seconds to
a few minutes.
• Continuous Emissions Monitoring (CEM)

These are measurements taken automatically, with few if any gaps in the data produced. Measurement can be
carried out in situ or the sample gas can be extracted and measured remotely on an instrument permanently
located elsewhere. CEM is also referred to as Automatic Monitoring Systems (AMS).
The two types of techniques are compared in the following table:
Important characteristics of CEMs and periodic monitoring

Characteristic CEMs Periodic Monitoring
Sampling period Monitoring covers all or most of Snapshots of the long-term emissions profile.
the period that substances are
emitted.
Speed of results Almost always real-time output of Real-time results if instrumental analysers used; delayed
generation results. results if manual method with laboratory end-method
used.
Averaging of results Results continuously averaged, Result over period of test, typically 30 minutes to
typically over one hour or 24 hours. several hours.
Calibration and CEMs require calibration against Standard reference methods can be used for periodic
traceability a standard reference method monitoring; also instruments calibrated with certified
(SRM) and with certified reference reference gases can be used.
materials.
Capital cost Tends to be higher than the cost of Tends to be lower than the cost of CEMs.
periodic monitoring equipment.
Operating cost Tends to be lower than periodic Tends to be higher than CEMs approach because
approach, as not usually labour labour-intensive. Trained team on site for whole
intensive. Requires routine duration of monitoring campaign.
maintenance and calibration only.
Certification of MCERTS certification of equipment MCERTS certification of transportable stack-
equipment available. monitoring equipment available.
Accreditation of Quality assurance of the calibration UKAS accreditation to ISO 17025 for the MCERTS
monitoring and maintenance of CEMs is performance standard for organisations carrying out
covered in EN 14181. periodic monitoring. Accreditation to the MCERTS
standard includes the requirement for individuals
carrying out monitoring to be certified under MCERTS
as competent.
Source: based on Technical Guidance Note (Monitoring) M2, Monitoring of stack emissions to air, Environment
Agency, 2015 (www.gov.uk/government/publications/m2-monitoring-of-stack-emissions-to-air)
DEFINITION
MONITORING CERTIFICATION SCHEME (MCERTS)
Is a certification scheme for pollution-monitoring equipment based on internationally-accepted performance

standards.
Competence
The undertaking of atmospheric monitoring requires a high level of competence and is usually undertaken
by specialist contractors. Without the necessary skills, knowledge and experience, it is unlikely that a general
environmental practitioner would be competent to carry out such monitoring.
In order to ensure that those who undertake monitoring are suitable, competency schemes have been developed.
The key environmental regulator in England, the Environment Agency, has for example developed a scheme known as
the monitoring certification scheme (MCERTS).
MCERTS:
• Provides a framework of standards for regulators and industry that can be used to monitor emissions that have
the potential to have a significant impact on the environment.
• Covers:
–– performance standards that equipment must meet;
–– the level to which staff who monitor must be qualified; and
–– the accreditation of laboratories and inspecting sites.
The MCERTS framework is based on numerous relevant standards such as ISO 17025 for monitoring and equipment
testing.
The Manual stack emission monitoring - Performance standard for organisations is one example of an MCERTS standard
that, as the name suggests, covers manual monitoring of stacks. MCERTS standards have been produced for issues
relating to the monitoring of air, soil and water in addition to environmental data-management software.
MORE...
Further information on the MCERTS performance standard for those undertaking manual stack emissions
monitoring can be found at:
www.gov.uk/government/publications/mcerts-performance-standard-for-organisations-monitoring-manual-
stack-emissions
The techniques used to carry out atmospheric monitoring will usually be defined in standards at the national,
European or international level. Permits or associated guidance will often state the standards that are deemed to be
an acceptable means of gaining a sample. The following are examples of standards specified for use in England for
particulate matter and gases:
Particulate matter
Type of Monitoring Monitoring Further Information
Monitoring Technique Standard
Manual Isokinetic BS EN Reference method for concentrations below to 50 mg m-³. However,
sampling 13284-1 and the scope states that it can be used for higher concentrations.
followed by MID Primarily developed for waste incinerators, the scope also states
weighing that it can be applied more widely. Reproducibility (worst quoted)
±5.7 mg m-³ at 6.4 mg m-³ and 30-minute sample. Validated at
concentrations around 5 mg m-³ and 30-minute sampling duration.
The overall uncertainty of the method complies with the uncertainty
of ±30% required by IED.
Particulate matter size fractionation1

Type of Monitoring Monitoring Further Information
Monitoring Technique Standard
Manual Impaction BS EN ISO Allows simultaneous measurement of <PM10 to > PM2.5
based on 232102 concentrations using a cascade impactor. The standard does not
a round measure the contribution of stack gas emissions to the formation
nozzle of secondary particulate matter in ambient air. It was primarily
two-stage developed for measurements of mass concentrations below
impactor 40 mg/m3 at STP. However, it states that it is applicable for
particulate concentrations between 1-50 mg/m3. The standard
also specifies limitations on stack gas temperature, pressure and
humidity.2 It is suitable for combustion sources, cement and steel
processes. It cannot be used to measure stack gases that are saturated
with water vapour. It is not applicable to stack gases where the
majority of particulates are greater than PM10. It cannot be used
for the measurement of total mass concentration of particulates.
The velocity and temperature profile of the sample plane is used to
determine a single representative sample point.
1
EA TGN M15 provides guidance on size fractionation measurements. It also provides further information on the
use of BS EN ISO 23210. TGN M15 is available from www.mcerts.net
2
For stack gas emissions with particulate concentrations above 50 mg/m3 the following are available:
–– BS ISO 25597: Test method for determining PM2.5 and PM10 mass in stack gases using cyclone samplers and
sample dilution.
–– BS ISO 13271: Determination of PM10 /PM2.5 mass concentration in flue gas - Measurement at higher
concentrations by use of virtual impactors.
Source: based on Technical Guidance Note (Monitoring) M2, Monitoring of stack emissions to air, Environment
Agency, 2015
(www.gov.uk/government/publications/m2-monitoring-of-stack-emissions-to-air)
BS 1747
Standard Name
BS 1747-6:1983, Methods for measurement of air pollution. Sampling equipment used for the determination of
ISO 4219:1979 gaseous sulphur compounds in ambient air
BS 1747-9:1987, Methods for measurement of air pollution. Determination of the mass concentration of
ISO 7996:1985 nitrogen oxides in ambient air: chemiluminescence method
BS 1747-11:1993, Methods for measurement of air pollution. Determination of a black smoke index in ambient air
ISO 9835:1993
BS 1747-12:1993, Methods for measurement of air pollution. Determination of the mass concentration of ozone
ISO 10313:1993 in ambient air: chemiluminescence method
BS 1747-13:1994, Methods for measurement of air pollution. Determination of the particulate lead content of
ISO 9855:1993 aerosols collected on filters: atomic absorption spectrometric method
Reporting and Recommendations

Following atmospheric emissions monitoring, a report will be submitted by the contractor outlining the
concentrations of measured substances at the sampled emission points. As we considered for waste, such reports
then need to be analysed. Analysis in this sense will largely involve comparison of the measured concentrations
against Emission Limit Values (ELVs) stated in the permit. If breaches occur then this will mean that action must be
taken to reduce emissions to below the ELV. This could require a range of actions but may include reviewing the
efficiency of pollution control equipment, reviewing compliance with other relevant control measures or ensuring
that current controls are adequate. In some situations there is a duty on an organisation to report to the regulator
breaches of an ELV.
Remote Sensing
Remote sensing enables the viewing of the Earth across great distances and at wavelengths of light that are invisible
to the human eye. It is often undertaken by satellites or high flying planes. Remote sensing is undertaken by using
detectors to record light as it is discharged by the element of interest. Remote sensing has many uses, including the
assessment of air pollution.
A method of remotely sensing air pollution is the tuneable pulse laser system. This uses laser pulses to transmit and
receive electromagnetic radiation. Most pollutants present in air exhibit optical absorption bands in the ultraviolet,
visible, or infrared portions of the spectrum. The concentration of gaseous pollutants may be monitored by the
application of a pulse LIDAR (light detection and ranging) over great distances, recording the absorption that is
attained at one wavelength that corresponds to a strong absorption band in a gas and making comparisons with
absorption at an adjacent wavelength where there is no absorption of the gas. This is known as the tuneable pulse
laser measurement of air pollutants. Differential absorption has been applied to the measurement of many air
pollutants including ozone, nitrogen oxides, sulphur oxides and mercury vapours.
STUDY QUESTIONS
4. Identify the main elements of a monitoring strategy.
5. Explain the meaning of the term ‘isokinetic sampling’.
6. Identify the two main approaches to stack emissions monitoring.
8.3 Control Strategies and Measures
Control Strategies and Measures

IN THIS SECTION...
• Reduction at source is the most effective option for the control of air pollutants.
• The range of particle arrestment devices includes cyclones and other inertial separators, fabric filters, wet
scrubbers and electrostatic precipitators.
• There are several types of gas and vapour-control devices including absorption devices, adsorption devices,
incinerators, coolers and chillers, and peat beds.
Air Pollution Control

Industrial air-pollution control encompasses the design, process engineering
and abatement techniques necessary to eliminate, reduce or render
harmless the emission of contaminants into the atmosphere. The most
cost-effective and efficient methods are those incorporated into the process
design to reduce the total mass of contaminants in the waste stream. The
engineering devices should be supplemented by management techniques,
i.e. procedures, information, instruction and training.
Control Hierarchy
The control hierarchy describes a system of controls of different
effectiveness. For instance, if a pollutant can be eliminated then there is
no need to have procedures in place to minimise it, or render it harmless
before exhausting to atmosphere. If it can be minimised then there is less to Air pollution needs to be
deal with. If neither of these are possible, then we are left with the render controlled to eliminate, reduce or
harmless option. One problem with this is that the harmful substance is still render harmless the emission of
in use and if it escapes through failures in process or equipment it can still contaminants into the atmosphere
cause harm.
TOPIC FOCUS
Control Hierarchy
Eliminate:
• Replace solvent-based chemicals with water-based chemicals, e.g. paints.

• Replace chemical process with mechanical process. Mechanically-generated particles are generally larger
than those produced through a chemical process and therefore easier to collect.
• Replace halogenated products with non-halogenated products. When CFCs were banned, they were
replaced with products such as propane and isobutene as alternative propellants (or use pump-action
sprays, which remove the need for any propellant).
(Continued)
Control Strategies and Measures 8.3
TOPIC FOCUS
Minimise:
• This has been achieved in the motor industry through the use of improved technology, such as engine
management systems and fuel injection. Modern cars do significantly more miles per gallon/litre of
fuel than older cars, when we compare similar engine sizes. They are also more powerful, so both fuel
economy and performance have improved, yet emissions are reduced.
Render harmless:
• Techniques to render harmless air pollutants will vary depending on the type of pollutants, examples
include bag filters, cyclones, adsorption devices, wet scrubbers and peat filters.
Examples of Technology
There are many techniques available to control pollution to the atmosphere and we discuss some of the main ones
below. The choice of technique will depend on a number of variables, such as the:
• type and volume of pollutant to be controlled; and

• environment in which the process takes place.
Particulate Matter Removal

The range of particle arrestment devices includes:
• Settling chambers.
• Cyclones and other inertial separators.
• Fabric filters.
• Wet scrubbers.
• Electrostatic precipitators.
• Water walls.
Gas and Vapour Devices

There are several types of gas and vapour control devices using a variety of technologies. Some devices are designed
to capture high volumes of particular gases and vapours, whereas others are designed to eliminate relatively small
volumes of gaseous material that cause odours. There is considerable overlap between the technologies used to
control large gas emissions and those designed to prevent VOC emissions and malodorous gases and vapours.
The technologies are as follows:
• Absorption devices.
• Adsorption devices.
• Incinerators.
• Dry scrubbers.
• Coolers and chillers.
• Peat beds.
• Bio scrubbers.
Particle Arrestment Devices

Settling Chambers
Settling chambers are relatively simple devices that reduce the velocity of an emission to allow dust to settle out by
the action of gravity. They are generally more effective at removing larger particles (over 50 µm). The efficiency of
collection of a settling chamber depends on the size of particles and the settling chamber design. They are often used
to prevent dust loading in a primary collection device such as a bag filter.
Settling chamber
Cyclones
TOPIC FOCUS
Cyclones operate by causing the airflow to change
direction rapidly into a spiral, thus throwing the
particles out of the air stream toward the walls of the
device. The particles then fall down to the bottom of
the device for collection. Cyclones are most efficient
for large dense particulates; smaller, less dense
particulates may be carried on through the cyclone.
Cyclones are used primarily for the following

functions:
• Product recovery, e.g. wood dust.

• First-stage air-stream cleaning.
• Droplet removal.
Single cyclones have no moving parts, so the running
costs and maintenance requirements are low.
However, efficiencies are much lower than for fabric Cyclone schematic
filters or electrostatic precipitators (see later) and
generally they are not suitable for achieving current air-emission standards. Common uses include wood-dust
collection in woodworking factories, and grinding and general metallic dust collection in light-engineering
plants.
TOPIC FOCUS
Different design geometries are used to improve the efficiency, but at the cost of throughput capacity.
For instance, as the diameter of the cyclone chamber increases, the volume of air that can be put through
increases and the air-cleaning efficiency decreases. With a constant resistance to airflow, the throughput of a
cyclone is proportional to the square of body diameter.
The efficiencies of a cyclone are given by the following relationship:
πNPd2V
Efficiency =
9MW
where N = number of turns made by the air vortex in the cyclone

P = particle density
d = particle diameter
v = gas velocity
M = gas viscosity
W = inlet width
The efficiency can be improved by decreasing the chamber diameter and increasing the chamber length and
the inlet velocities. However, this leads to a reduction in throughput. To accommodate this, cyclones may be
arranged in groups and operated in parallel.
In some multiple-tube cyclone designs, the vortex is induced by vanes at the entrance to the tube. However,
there is a small pressure drop as air passes each row of tubes and this is compensated for by reducing
the length of the cyclone body in each successive row. Collection efficiency can be improved by hopper
evacuation, in which a small portion (about 15%) of the total gas flow is drawn off through the hopper. This
reduces re-entrainment of deposited dust and may increase collection efficiency by 50%.
Fabric Filters
Fabric filters remove dust from a gas stream by passing through a fabric. The fabric must allow air to pass through it
and remove the dust particles from the air.
TOPIC FOCUS
Principles of Fabric Filters
The filtration mechanism involves both the mechanical filtration of particles adhering to the strands of the
fabric and the filtration properties of the dust particles that accumulate on the fabric surface. The layer of dust
that accumulates on the fabric surface is called the filter cake. It would be logical to expect that the particles
that pass through the filter cake are those that are smaller than the spaces between the filter-cake particles
and the fabric weave. In fact, studies have shown that the particle size distribution leaking through into the
exhaust air is similar to that in the original gas stream. The process involved may be visualised by imagining the
slow build-up of particles on the clear fabric surface.
(Continued)
TOPIC FOCUS
Fabric filters are generally more efficient than cyclones at removing smaller particles from air streams.
Consequently, cyclones are often used as first-stage air-cleaning devices to remove the larger particles from
the air stream before it is passed into a fabric-filter unit.
Fabric Filter Types
Fabric filters are normally designed with the fabric forming cylinders or bags. Usually, there are several filter
bags or filter elements grouped together in an enclosure; the whole air-cleaning device is called a bag house,
or bag-filter plant. The types of bag-filter plant are differentiated by the mechanism used to remove the filter
cake from the surface of the bag.
There are three commonly used mechanisms:
• Mechanically Shaken
The technique of using fabrics to filter particles out of dust-laden air streams dates back to the 1800s. In
the early 1890s, bag-shaped filters were employed and these were shaken by hand to remove the filter
cake. Modern bag-filter plants employ mechanical shaking devices to vibrate the bag at frequencies
between 10 and 100 cycles per second, for a few minutes. Generally, the bag is open at the bottom and
closed at the top. The dust-laden air enters the bag at the bottom and passes up and through the bag to
leave the filter plant through vents at the top. Thus, the filter cake accumulates on the inner surface of the
bag. The cleaning cycle is operated at regular intervals to remove the filter cake before the airflow through
the bag is stopped, and a slight reverse airflow is sometimes introduced to aid cleaning. The bags are
shaken and the released dust is collected in hoppers at the base of the plant.
The mechanical shaking of the bags induces friction and stresses the fabric, so the material of the filters
must be able to tolerate this.
• Reverse Air Cleaning

Reverse-airflow bag-filter plants employ a cleaning technique that involves passing cleaned air through
the bags in the opposite direction to the normal operating direction. In high-temperature operations the
cleaned air is recirculated rather than using colder ambient air, which reduces the thermal stresses in the
plant and prevents condensation.
Generally, the reverse airflow is carried out in separate compartments of the bag house to allow
continuous operation of the plant. The reverse airflow fan is much smaller than the main bag house fan.
As with mechanically-shaken systems, the dust-laden air enters the fabric bags, which are open at the
bottom and closed at the top. The filter cake accumulates on the inner surface of the bag. During the
cleaning cycle, the normal airflow is diverted and a reverse air current applied to the outside of the bag.
This change in pressure initially causes the bag to deform and the filter cake is dislodged and falls into a
hopper. It is believed that the filter cake is dislodged as a result of the deformation of the bag rather than
the aerodynamic forces of the reverse airflow. This method of cleaning involves less mechanical stress to
the bags and so the strength of the fabric material is not so crucial.
(Continued)
TOPIC FOCUS
Sonic horns have been introduced into mechanically-shaken and reverse-flow bag-filter plant designs to
supplement the filter-cleaning mechanisms.
Bag-filter plant reverse-air cleaning
Pulse Jet Cleaning
Pulse-jet bag-filter plants employ jets of compressed air to remove the filter cake. In these plants, the bag
filter elements are closed at the bottom and open at the top. The dust-laden air passes from the outside
of the bag to the inside and up to vents at the top of the plant. The filter cake forms on the outside of the
bag. To prevent the bags collapsing in normal operation, they are supported on the inside by metal rings
or cages.
During the cleaning cycle, the airflow to bags is redirected and air from compressed air nozzles at the
open tops of the bags is directed into the bags. This positive pressure slightly inflates the bags and the
deformation and outward flow of air dislodges the filter cake. The dislodged dust falls into a hopper and is
removed from the plant.
(Continued)
TOPIC FOCUS
Pulse-air jet bag-filter plant
Fabric Material
Probably the most important aspect of a bag-filter plant is the choice of filter fabric. The material chosen must
be able to withstand the dusts and gases to which it is subjected without damage and deterioration. Another
critical factor is the temperature. Early bag filters used natural fibres, such as cotton or wool, and they are still
used today. However, these materials are not suitable for high-temperature applications. Synthetic fibres, such
as acetates, acrylics, polyamides, polyester, polyolefins and polyvinyl chlorides have better chemical resistance
and temperature characteristics. For high-temperature use, Teflon®, Ryton® and carbon-fibre filters have been
developed, with glass, ceramic and metallic fibres being employed for very-high-temperature applications.
The material may also be subjected to repeated flexing and abrasion within the fabric and between the materials
and the supporting structure. The material chosen must be capable of withstanding this level of abrasion.
(Continued)
TOPIC FOCUS
In selecting an appropriate bag-filter material, the following characteristics must be considered:
• Temperature
The material chosen must have a maximum continuous service temperature higher than the normal
temperature of the application. If the temperature is likely to surge above the normal operating range, this
must be taken into account when selecting the material.
• Corrosivity
The ability of the material to resist physical degradation from the acids, alkalis, solvents and oxidising agents
in the waste gas stream must be considered.
• Hydrolysis
The effects of the expected levels of humidity of the flue gases must be considered.
• Dimensional Stability
If the material may shrink or stretch in service, the effects of this must be taken into account.
• Strength
The resistance of the material to flexing and abrasion must be considered. A trade-off between the other
factors may mean selecting a material that has to be replaced within shorter periods, thus increasing
maintenance costs.
• Release Characteristics
The material chosen must release the filter cake generated in the specific operational circumstances being
considered. Poor release characteristics will rapidly degrade the plant efficiency.
Bag-Filter Efficiency
Many of the design characteristics of bag-filter plants have been carefully researched and documented. However,
designers have been largely unsuccessful in predicting accurately bag-filter plant efficiencies prior to installation.
The method of measuring efficiencies involves measuring the particle concentrations in different size ranges
and expressing efficiency as the percentage of mass concentration retained by the plant in each size range.
Specific characteristics are important in designing plants to deal with specific situations. The parameters
include the gas-to-cloth ratio for particular materials. This is the measure of gas flow through a unit area of
material. However, this measure considers only the material and not the filter cake. There are various theoretical
equations for pressure drop across a porous bed and they are applied to material and filter-cake combinations
to determine the appropriate fan sizes and cleaning-cycle frequencies.
Wet Scrubbers
Wet scrubbing techniques are used to remove particulates from waste gas streams. Gases will also be removed and
the mechanisms involved are similar to those employed in absorption devices, such as packed columns (see later),
whose main function is to remove soluble gases. However, wet scrubbing techniques employ higher energy systems
and are normally employed under the following circumstances:
• Where the contaminant cannot be removed easily in a dry form.

• Where the waste gas stream contains both particulates and soluble gases.
• Where the particulates to be removed are soluble or wettable. They would adhere to the inner surfaces of a
cyclone or bag-filter plant and clog it.
• Where the contaminant will undergo some subsequent wet process, such as sedimentation, wet separation, or
neutralisation.
• Where the pollution-control system must be compact.
• Where the particulates may ignite or explode if collected in a dry form.
Wet scrubbing is used to control sticky emissions which may block filter-type collectors, to handle waste gas streams
containing both particulates and gases, to recover soluble dusts and powders and to remove metallic dusts such as
aluminium, which may explode if handled dry.
Principles of Wet Scrubbers

The principle of all wet scrubbers is that water droplets are generated within the device and particles are captured
within the droplets. The droplets are then removed from the air stream, which is now clean. The droplets are
collected as contaminated water and transported out of the device for treatment or disposal. It is generally accepted
that smaller droplets are required to capture small particulates and that the ideal case is to have a high concentration
of fine droplets in contact with the dust-laden exhaust air stream.
There are three main particle mechanisms involved:
• Impaction
This occurs when the particle is moving at a much higher velocity than the target droplet and impacts directly
onto the droplet. It happens when the particle has sufficiently high mass to overcome the aerodynamic forces
exerted by the air stream flowing around the droplet and applies mainly to large or dense particles.
• Interception
This occurs when smaller particles following the airflow around a droplet touch the surface of the droplet and
are captured in the droplet surface. It happens when the velocity of the particle is similar to the velocity of the
droplet.
• Diffusion
The collision of very small particulates with air molecules causes them to move in a random fashion, known as
Brownian motion. In a moving air stream, where there is little relative difference between the velocity of water
molecules and particulates, the motion may be Brownian, but diffusion may cause particles to come into contact
and be captured by the droplets.
The scrubber design must be directed toward generating a high concentration of small droplets and mixing those
efficiently with the dust-laden air stream. The methods for doing this include injecting water directly into the air
stream and mechanically shearing the water into droplets, spraying the water into the gas stream and injecting water
onto a spinning disc or fan. Different scrubber designs use different techniques, or combinations of techniques.
Scrubber Designs
There are five basic types of scrubber design:
• Venturi Scrubbers
These create atomised droplets by injecting water into the
gas stream before accelerating the water through a high-
velocity zone, called a venturi throat. The water and the
gas stream is then released into a low-pressure area, called
the diverging section. The turbulence in the venturi throat
breaks the water into tiny droplets and particle capture
occurs toward the end of the venturi throat and at the
beginning of the diverging section. Most venturi scrubbers
have throat widths of 150mm or less because large throat
widths lead to inefficient mixing and areas where there are
fewer droplets. To accommodate higher airflows, multiple
venturis are often employed with throat widths of less
than 30mm.
• Mechanically-Aided Scrubbers
These use spinning discs or fans to generate water
droplets. Theoretical equations have been derived linking
spinning-disc speed to droplet diameter - the faster the
disc speed, the smaller the droplet diameter. To increase Simple venturi scrubber
the capture efficiency for small particles, smaller droplet
sizes are required and the energy consumption of the
scrubber increases.
• Pump-Aided Scrubbers
These spray the water as droplets into the gas stream.
In some devices, the droplet spray direction is counter
to the gas flow direction, thus increasing the impaction
mechanism efficiency. The atomisation of the liquid spray
may be enhanced by compressed air.
• Wetted Filter Scrubbers

These devices use a combination of water spray and a
filtration element. Particles are captured by water droplets,
as described previously. However, particles may also
impact temporarily on the elements of the filter to be
washed off by a film of water.
• Tray or Sieve Scrubbers

Tray or sieve-type wet scrubbers have small holes in trays
that accelerate the gas stream. Water is piped onto the
trays to form a shallow layer of water. The airflow through
the holes creates a froth, which assists in capturing
particles. Impingement tray tower scrubber
Droplet Removal
The principle of wet scrubbers is the injection of fine droplets into the dust-laden air stream. It is crucial to the
satisfactory operation of the scrubber that the droplets and associated mists are removed from the air stream.
Many scrubbers use cyclonic separators or cyclones to remove droplets. Others use chevron droplet eliminators for
either vertical or horizontal gas flow. Shaped like curved and parallel blades, the chevron introduces a surface against
which droplets impact and accumulate as water and then drain off. The solids that accumulate on the surface are
periodically washed off using water sprays.
For finer droplets, mist eliminators comprising a fine metal mesh are often used. A layer of wire mesh is introduced
in the final duct and the mist accumulates on it and drops off. The mesh mist eliminators are also spray-washed
periodically to remove any particulate build-up.
Operating Practice
There are certain useful principles that may be adopted in the design, selection and operation of wet scrubbing
devices:
• Do not cool hot gas streams with water that has a high dissolved solids content. The water will evaporate leaving
very small particles, which are difficult to remove.
• The order in which the contaminated air is treated can be important. The air should be saturated with water first,
then the particulates removed. This will leave any contaminant gases which should then be taken out. If the air
stream is not saturated, the water droplets will evaporate and drive the particles away from droplets. However,
if the air is saturated, condensation on the particulates will aid particle capture. Particulates should be removed
before gas absorption because gas absorption requires larger droplets, which are not efficient for particle capture.
• Condense the moisture in the contaminated air whenever possible. This helps sweep particles out of the air
stream by creating submicron droplets around them. These small droplets are easier to collect.
• Allow for thermal expansion and contraction. As the temperature of the contaminated air-streams increases, the
volume which they occupy increases. The scrubber capacity and velocity calculation must incorporate thermal
expansion factors.
• Chemicals should be injected at points where they encounter the lowest particulate concentrations.
• Ensure that the scrubber can handle the maximum dust loadings envisaged. High dust loadings will result in
greater particulate build-up on surfaces and require more cleaning and maintenance. Lower dust loadings will
allow scrubbers with finer nozzles and perforations to be used.
• Take into account any airflow variations required because of batch production schedules. Airflow transients,
which may occur during abnormal or emergency situations, must also be considered and the effect on scrubbing
performance predicted.
• Arrange to remove sludges where the highest particle concentrations in liquid occur. Always design the scrubber
to inject the clean liquid into the zone where the cleanest exhaust air is required. Avoid running liquids with high
particulate concentration where the cleanest exhaust air stream is required, i.e. clean droplet eliminators with
clean liquids. Avoid adding clean liquid into a dirty sump or scrubber tank.
Electrostatic Precipitators
Principles of Electrostatic Precipitators
An area of ionised air molecules is established, usually around a wire, by maintaining the wire at a very high voltage,
typically 20,000 to 100,000 volts. This region of ionised air molecules is called a corona. As dust particles flow through
the corona, they collect the ions, then they themselves become charged. Small particles around one micron may
collect tens of thousands of ions. A plate, called the collector plate, is maintained at the opposite electrical polarity to
the wire and the particles, so that the charged particles migrate toward the plate.
DEFINITION
ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR (ESP)
Is a particulate and droplet control device which uses electrical forces to remove particles from a dust-laden air
stream.
ESPs are normally arranged with a series of wires between rows of plates so that as the particles pass each wire, they
collect more of a charge and drift progressively towards the plates. However, the turbulence in the gas tends to keep
the charged particles uniformly mixed with the gas. The collection process is a competition between the electrostatic
and dispersive forces. Eventually, the particles approach close enough to the plates so that the turbulence drops to
lower levels and the particles are deposited.
An ESP would be a very high-efficiency collection device, if all the particles could be removed efficiently from
the plates. However, the removal of dust from the plates is often accomplished by rapping the top of the plates
mechanically, using a hammer or piston. The released dust then drops or slides down the plate into a hopper. During
this process, approximately 10% of the dust may re-enter the air stream. Most of this dust is recaptured, but dust
released at the outlet of the device will escape into the exhaust air stream.
The dust deposited on the plates is not a solid cake, as in a bag-filter plant, but a fragile deposit. Thus, there may be
re-entry of the dust by the airflow over the plates. To prevent this, baffles are often included to reduce airflow over
the plant surface.
Electrostatic precipitator (plate-wire)
Another major factor in ESP losses is the resistivity of the dust. Because the particles form a continuous layer on the
ESP plates, all the ion current must pass through the layer to reach the ground plates. This current creates an electric
field in the layer and it can become large enough to cause local electrical breakdown. When this occurs, new ions of
the wrong polarity are injected into the plate-wire gap, where they reduce the charge on the particles and may cause
sparking. This breakdown condition is called back corona.
Types of Electrostatic Precipitators

There are four main types of precipitator:
• Plate-Wire Precipitators
Plate-wire precipitators, as described above, are by far the most common type and are used in a wide variety of
industrial applications, including coal-fired boilers, cement kilns, solid-waste incinerators, paper-mill recovery
boilers, petroleum refining and catalytic cracking units, sinter plants, basic oxygen furnaces, open-hearth furnaces,
electric-arc furnaces, coke oven batteries and glass furnaces.
• Flat-Plate Precipitators
These are used for smaller applications and use a central plate rather than a wire. The flat plates increase the
average electric field, which can be used to collect the particles and provide an increased surface area for the
collection of particles. Since a corona cannot be generated on flat plates, needle-like electrodes are located on
the leading and trailing edges of the central plates.
A flat-plate ESP operates with little or no corona current flowing through the collected dust, except directly under
the corona needles. This leads to a lower likelihood of back corona and, since there are two oppositely-charged
collection surfaces, particles of both polarities can be collected. However, because of the lack of current in the
collected layer, the layer is less strongly attracted to the collection plates and this leads to high rapping losses.
Flat-plate ESPs have applications for small (less than one micron) particles with high resistivities. These
applications are appropriate because electrical dislodging forces are weaker for small particles. A low air velocity is
essential to avoid high rapping losses. This type of ESP has been used to collect fly ash.
Flat-plate electrostatic precipitator
• Tubular Precipitators
The early ESPs were tubular, with the discharge wire running up the centre of the tube. In order to accommodate
higher airflows, the tubes were often arranged in bundles. The tubes may be formed as a circular, square or
hexagonal honeycomb and can be tightly sealed to prevent leaks of material. Consequently, while they are most
often used in sulphuric-acid plants, coke ovens, and iron and steel plants, they are often also employed to recover
valuable materials, or to control the release of hazardous material.
• Water-Irrigated Precipitators
A water-irrigated precipitator may be of any of the design types discussed above, but with walls washed with
water rather than the dry dust rapped from the surface. The water flow may be continuous or intermittent with
the sludge collected in a sump below the plates.
The use of a water-wash system reduces the build-up of dust on the plates and so reduces the chance of back
corona. However, it also generates slurry, which is more difficult and expensive to dispose of than a dry dust
deposit.
Typical Applications
Electrostatic precipitators are often used as the final stages in an air cleaning system. Where there are high dust
loadings with large particles, a cyclone is often used as a first-stage cleaning device to remove the coarse or large
particles from the air stream.
Gas-conditioning equipment to improve the ESP performance by changing dust resistivity is occasionally used as part
of the original design, but more frequently it is used to upgrade existing ESPs. The equipment injects a chemical into
the gas stream ahead of the ESP. Usually, the chemical mixes with the particles and alters their resistivity to promote
higher migration velocity and thus higher collection efficiency. However, the electrical properties of the gas may
change rather than the dust resistivity. For example, cooling the gas will allow a higher voltage to be applied before
sparking occurs. Important conditioning chemicals used include SO3, H2SO4, sodium compounds, ammonia and water,
but the major conditioning chemical by usage is SO3.
Water Walls
Water can be used to suppress dust and prevent it escaping from a confined area. This technique is commonly used in
construction and demolition, where large amounts of dust can be generated and therefore need to be controlled.
There are two common methods:
• Rain guns - used to spray water over stockpiles or buildings being demolished and keep material damp but not
wet. This reduces the amount of dust created by the break-up of the building material. The guns can be either
static or mounted on vehicles such as loading shovels so they suppress dust as material is moved around a site.
• Perimeter systems - create a curtain of fine water particles that can cover a large area where activities may
create dust.
With both systems the design of the nozzles is critical to avoid using excessive volumes of water and creating run- off
that then needs to be controlled. If designed and installed correctly there should be little, if any, run-off as the particle
size of the water droplets is such that they encourage dust particles to bind together and therefore drop out of
suspension in the atmosphere.
Gas and Vapour Devices

Absorption Devices
DEFINITION
ABSORPTION DEVICES
Remove pollutant gases by bringing them into contact with a solvent liquid (often water) - the pollutants are
absorbed by the liquid and removed from the air stream. A packed column is often used.
TOPIC FOCUS
Principle of Absorption Devices
These installations are designed primarily for removing pollutant gases from exhaust air-streams. In most
industrial circumstances, the concentration of pollutant gas in the air stream is low. The principle upon which
these devices operate is to bring the molecule of the pollutant gas into contact with a solvent liquid, usually
water, so that the pollutant dissolves and so is removed from the air stream. The efficiency of the installation
depends on the:
• solubility of the pollutant gas in the solvent;

• rate at which pollutant gas is dissolved;
• contact time between the gas and the solvent; and
• the degree of mixing.
When the pollutant gas is distributed throughout the air stream, the pollutant molecules are evenly
distributed. Thus, when one molecule of pollutant gas is dissolved in a droplet, either another molecule must
move toward the droplet, or the droplet must move toward another molecule for absorption to continue.
There must, therefore, be mixing and turbulence designed into the system.
Packed Columns
One of the most common types of absorption device is the packed column. These are usually vertical steel
columns containing small elements over which water flows, coating each of them with a thin layer of water. In
most arrangements, the water enters from the top and trickles down while the polluted air stream enters from
the bottom. The elements are designed with complex shapes to present a large surface area to the air stream.
As the air moves up the column, the pollutant gas is absorbed onto the water film which moves down toward
the sump at the base of the column. As the air stream moves up the column, it becomes progressively free of
the pollutant.
The upward movement of the air stream against the downward flow of water causes a resistance to the flow
of water. Consequently, as more air flows through the column, the resistance to the water will increase and
the flow of water will decrease. Eventually, a situation may be reached where the airflow is such that the water
flow through the column is less than the rate of water delivered to the top of the column. At this point, the
layers of water on the elements will increase and combine, and flooding of the column will occur, preventing
the operation of the column. The column must be designed to have a maximum throughput of approximately
70% of flooding velocity.
The efficiency of the column is also dependent on the even distribution of water moving down through the
column, so that the maximum surface area of water is presented to the air stream.
The water distributor is designed with spray jets to spray an even distribution of water onto the top of the
packing. However, water tends to migrate toward the walls of the column. To reduce this effect, packing
supports are incorporated into the column every three or four metres. These are plates which collect the
water moving down through the packing and redistribute it evenly. There are many different elements which
are used. There are also two basic packing strategies called random packing and stack packing.
(Continued)
TOPIC FOCUS
• Random-Packing Columns
In random-packing columns, the elements are dropped in the column in a random way. To prevent
damage to the elements, the column is filled with water and the elements are dropped in and allowed to
take up the position in which they settle. After the first two or three weeks’ operation, the packing will
normally settle further and so will need to be topped up.
• Stack-Packing Columns
The elements in stack-packed columns are manually placed in position. This creates vertical channels
through which the water film can travel and maintain a more even distribution of water surface. It also
leads to a lower pressure drop across the column.
Counter-current random packed column
(Continued)
TOPIC FOCUS
Packing media
Plate Columns
Another mechanism used to mix pollutant gases in an air stream with a solvent is to bubble the air up through
water held on plates. These devices are called plate columns. There are two basic designs, bubble-cap plate
columns and sieve air-perforated plate columns. As the air bubbles through the holes in the plates, the
pollutant gases are dissolved into the water. In order to extend the contact time with the water and allow
mixing of the pollutant gas and the air, these devices have several stages, or plates. The contact between
polluted gases and liquid is also increased by creating bubbles or froth.
In the bubble-plate system, the plates are approximately 500mm apart, with holes on top of which perforated
caps are fixed to generate a frothing action. These are called bubble caps.
The plates in the perforation-plate column are closer together, about 300mm, and the holes between 5mm
and 25mm in diameter. The liquid resting on the plate flows off over a weir and into a down caster to the
plate below. The action of forcing the airflow through the small holes and into the liquid again creates bubbles
or a frothing effect which increases the gas liquid surface area. Increasing the depth of liquid through the
gas bubbles increases efficiency. However, it also increases the pressure drop, which increases the energy
consumption of the device
(Continued)
TOPIC FOCUS
Bubble-cap plate column
Application
These devices each have several features which present advantages in particular situations. The total weight
of a plate column is normally less than the equivalent packed column. The pressure drop of the gas through a
packed column is lower than that through a plate column. The plate column can function on lower water-feed
rates as the water stands on the plates. However, the packed columns must have a minimum water-feed rate
to maintain a water film on all of the elements. The arrangement of water flowing off the plates also means
that a plate column can accommodate higher water-feed rates at levels which would normally flood a packed
column.
(Continued)
TOPIC FOCUS
In addition, the plate column design is less likely to have the water distribution problems presented by a
random-packed column. The contact between the gas and the water is better. If the air stream contains
particulates, they will deposit on the internal surfaces of the columns. With packed columns they may plug or
clog the elements. While back flushing may remove some sediments, gross contamination is difficult to clear.
In plate columns, the plates may be cleaned manually provided access manholes have been incorporated into
the design. Where the absorption processes involve heating or cooling of the liquid, this can be achieved by
incorporating heat exchange systems on the plates of plate columns. However, heat exchange elements are
more difficult to incorporate into a stack-column design. In addition, temperature changes are more likely to
damage a packed column than a plate column.
Where the air stream contains highly corrosive pollutants, a packed column is simpler and cheaper to
construct, the ceramic elements are less prone to corrosion and easier to replace. Packed columns are also
preferred for liquids with high foaming characteristics.
Activated Carbon Adsorption Devices

There are two adsorption mechanisms: a physical action involving
intermolecular Van der Waals forces and a chemical action involving DEFINITION
activated adsorption. ADSORPTION
The physical adsorption uses the forces present on the surfaces of most A process involving the
solids to attract gas molecules. When these surface forces are stronger than retention of a gas or vapour
the intermolecular forces between the pollutant gas molecules and the air molecule on the surface of
molecules, the pollutant gas molecules will adhere to the surface of the solid. a particle or droplet. The
Chemical adsorption, in contrast to physical adsorption, involves chemical phenomenon is essentially a
reactions on the surface of the adsorbent. surface reaction as opposed
to absorption, which involves
Some solids with many pores and crevices present extremely large surface
the complete encapsulation
areas to gases and so are the most appropriate adsorbents. These include
of a molecule which is then
activated carbon, activated alumina, silica gel and molecular sieves - see
dissolved in a liquid droplet.
following illustration.
Adsorption on a solid with many pores
Adsorbents
Several factors must be considered in selecting an adsorbent. A high relative surface area is important to maintain a
large contact area for adsorption, while maintaining the maximum possible space between the adsorbent granules
for maximum airflow rates. Relative affinity for polar and non-polar compounds varies between adsorbent media.
Activated charcoal, which is non-polar, has an affinity for organic compounds to the exclusion of polar gases, including
water vapour. Silica gel and alumina are polar and have increasing affinity for higher polarity gases. Clearly, the
adsorbents must not be chemically reactive with the gases to be retained, unless chemical adsorption is desired.
• Activated Carbon
Activated carbon is charcoal which has been heated in the absence of air. At one time wood was heated to
produce charcoal, but later developments include the use of coal, coconut shells, peat and other substances.
After heating, the carbon is activated to remove the volatile components. In the case of coal, high temperature
steam is used. Zinc chloride, magnesium chloride, calcium chloride and phosphoric acid have also been used as
activating agents.
• Activated Alumina
Activated alumina and hydrated aluminium oxide is produced by special heat treatment of aluminium ore or
bauxite. Activated alumina is mainly used for drying gases under pressure. It selectively adsorbs polar and higher
molecular weight compounds and, like all polar adsorbents, has an affinity for water.
• Silica Gel
Silica gel is an amorphous form of silica derived from the interaction of sodium silicate and sulphuric acid. As with
alumina, the polarity of the adsorbed compound determines the binding strength, hence compounds of high
polarity will displace compounds of lesser polarity.
• Molecular Sieves
A carbon molecular sieve sorbent is the carbon skeletal framework remaining after pyrolysis of the synthetic
polymeric or petroleum pitch precursors. The result is a spherical macroporous structure. The choice of starting
polymer or pitch dictates the physical characteristics of the sieve, such as particle size, shape and pore structure.
Carbon molecular sieves are most commonly used to collect non-polar organic compounds.
Operational Mechanisms
Adsorption systems are designed either to remove pollutant gases and vapours from air streams, to prevent the
emission of these pollutants to atmosphere, or to collect those vapours to return them to the process. In either case,
there are four phases in the process:
• Contact between the polluted air stream and the adsorbent under conditions that allow adsorption of the
pollutant.
• Removal of the cleaned air stream from the adsorbent.
• Regeneration of the adsorbent to recover the pollutants and re-use the adsorbent.
• Re-use or disposal of the pollutant.
The adsorbent most often used is activated carbon.
• Static-Bed System
In simple systems, granulated activated carbon is held in a vertical column and solvent-laden air is passed down
through the column. The solvent is progressively adsorbed on the carbon and the cleaned air passes out of
the column to the atmosphere. After a predetermined period, set to ensure that the carbon is not completely
saturated with solvent, the airflow through the column is shut off and the carbon is regenerated. This may be
achieved by lowering the gas pressure on the carbon to cause desorption of the solvent, or by increasing the
temperature. Of the two, thermal desorption is the most widely-used method. In many cases, hot dry steam is
passed through the column in the opposite direction to the previous airflow. Thus, desorption occurs first at the
end of the column with least adsorption and the released solvent is passed over the areas of most adsorption,
which reduces the likelihood of re-adsorption during the regeneration cycle.
Steam consumption per litre of solvent recovered varies with strip time and with the particular solvent adsorbed.
As the steam strip time is extended, more steam per litre of solvent recovered is required and a point is reached
at which expended steam cost exceeds the solvent recovery benefits. Hence, it is more economical to operate
the strip cycle to recover only part of the adsorbed solvent, leaving a heel of solvent within the bed. The resultant
steam solvent mixture passes into a condenser and then into a single gravity separator. In cases where the
recovered solvent is miscible in water, fractional distillation may be necessary.
After the solvent is steam-stripped, the carbon beds are hot and saturated with water. The beds are normally
opened and air-dried, allowing the water to evaporate to atmosphere. Where the polluted air stream contains
more than one pollutant, the solvents with a lighter molecular weight will be adsorbed first, but may then be
displaced by those with a higher molecular weight. Thus different percentages of chemical species may be present
at different parts of the column.
Although the time taken for regeneration of the carbon and recovery of the solvent or gas is usually much less
than the period when air cleaning or adsorption is taking place, in some cases the industrial process is such that
it cannot be stopped. Multiple systems are therefore common where two or more columns are used. This allows
some columns to be in the adsorption part of the cycle, while others are in the regeneration part of the cycle, as
in the following illustration:
Simple activated carbon solvent-recovery system

• Rotary-Bed Systems
To improve efficiency of the carbon bed, continuous rotary-bed systems have been developed. These consist of
a rotating drum containing activated carbon. The drum has a hollow central core along the axis of rotation and
the space between the inner and outer walls of the drum is divided into radial sections. Vapour-laden air enters
the drum in one section, at one end of the drum. It then travels along the length of the section and the vapour is
adsorbed in the carbon. The cleaned air leaves through the central core from the far end of the drum.
Once that section is saturated with vapour, the drum rotates to the next section. At another vapour-saturated
section of the drum, steam is pumped up a pipe in the central core to enter the section at the far end of the
drum. The steam passes through the vapour-saturated carbon to exit as a steam and solvent mixture at the front
end of the drum. Thus, there is always adsorption, and regeneration is progressive within the drum.
Process Controls
Before a carbon-bed adsorption system is considered or designed, careful consideration should be given to modifying
existing processes and procedures to reduce the quantities of VOCs in the exhaust air-streams:
• Consider whether the use of the solvent is necessary, or whether a water-based system or detergent degreasing
system could be used.
• Consider the substitution of the solvent for a lower-volatility solvent, or a less toxic solvent, or one with a lower
environmental impact.
• Minimise the ventilation rates and volumes in the process to reduce evaporation rates.
• Establish working procedures for increasing free board zones, increasing transit times, avoiding splashing and
solvent carry-over. Train workers to comply with the procedures.
• Maintain a cold-air condensation zone above tanks with either chilled water coils, or direct expansion
refrigeration. Do not vigorously boil the sump or agitate the solvent with compressed air.
• Provide well-designed local-exhaust ventilation systems with hoods and tank enclosures.
• Provide a parts-drying chamber within this process if possible, with internal recycling.
• Cover tanks when not in use.
• Perform solvent spraying in a vapour zone, preferably with a gentle flush rather than an atomised spray.
• Do not use compressed-air drying techniques.
• Do not direct ventilation fans onto solvent baths, containers or uncontrolled drying areas.
Maintenance and Operation

The surface area of carbon granules must be protected against dirt and other particulates entering the bed. It is
common to have a fabric filter or bag filter as a primary air-cleaning device located upstream of the carbon bed. Some
solvents entering the adsorption bed will degenerate or polymerise. Such substances must not be allowed to enter
the bed as they will progressively reduce the working surface area of the carbon.
Many local-exhaust ventilation systems have been introduced to satisfy occupational hygiene requirements. Poor
hood and enclosure design and leaking ducts have often been compensated for by higher ventilation velocities and
volumes, which are not consistent with efficient final air-cleaning characteristics. Careful consideration should be
given to improved design characteristics which deliver lower ventilation velocities and volumes. This will lead to
lower space-heating energy requirements, more efficient final air cleaning, lower atmospheric emissions and lower
fan and system maintenance costs. Working bed capacities vary considerably, depending on the particular solvent
being reclaimed and its regeneration characteristics. To maximise the performance of the carbon bed, the duration
of the adsorption cycle should be extended to just below the breakthrough points of the bed. Breakthrough can
be determined using organic vapour analysers simultaneously on the inlet and outlet streams of the adsorber bed.
Breakthrough history can be determined on the particular process being controlled and regeneration can be initiated
when appropriate.
Incinerators
There are three types of incineration devices generally referred to: flare stacks, thermal incinerators and catalytic
incinerators.
Incineration Devices
• Flare Stacks
These are usually employed in the petrochemical industry and are seen
as tall stacks with visible flames on top. When operating efficiently, the
flame should be blue or colourless. Yellow flames indicate incomplete
combustion. The oxidation reaction occurs at the burner at the top of
the stack and is almost instantaneous.
• Thermal Incinerators
These devices are used primarily for oxidising organic compounds
to prevent their release into the atmosphere. For simple organic
compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen, the products of
combustion are carbon dioxide and water. However, where more
complex compounds are involved containing sulphur or halogens,
the incineration process may produce sulphur dioxide, hydrochloric
acid, hydrofluoric acid or phosgene. These pollutants may have to be Flare stack incinerator
removed using a scrubber, before they are released to the atmosphere.
Combustion occurs when the waste gas is raised to a sufficiently high temperature for the molecules to react with
oxygen. For this to happen, the conditions must be established in terms of temperature and time. The higher the
temperature, the more rapid the reaction rate and so the shorter the time involved.
Most incinerators comprise a chamber containing a burner unit. The burner unit, fuelled usually with natural
gas, raises the temperature of the waste gas to the point where it reacts with the oxygen in the air. The chamber
size and waste-gas flow rate is designed to achieve a given residence time of the waste gas in the chamber. Since
the cost of the fuel gas is a critical parameter in the economics of incinerator operations, a balance between
operating temperature and residence time is reached.
Most hazardous waste-gas incinerators operate at temperatures of between 950°C and 1,200°C, although the
thermal destruction of most organic compounds occurs at around 600°C. Residence times are of the order of
one or two seconds. One of the major considerations in operating waste-gas incinerators is complete incineration
of the waste gas stream. Operating at higher temperatures assists this, but thorough mixing of the incoming
waste gases with the hot gas around the burner zone is critical. For this reason, the chamber is designed to induce
turbulence in the burner zone. Some designers say that the most important design features are Temperature,
Time and Turbulence, or the three Ts.
• Catalytic Incinerators
Since the cost of fuel gases used to maintain high temperatures in incinerator operation is so high, devices have
been developed to achieve oxidation at lower temperatures. Catalysts, such as finely divided platinum in the form
of surface-coated pellets, honeycombs and meshes are in common use. However, there are other catalytic surface
coatings, such as oxides of copper, chromium, vanadium, nickel and cobalt.
The use of a catalyst allows the oxidation reaction to take place at much lower temperatures, around 400°C.
While this allows economies through fuel-gas costs and less substantial structures due to the lower pressure and
temperature demands, there are penalties in the initial cost of the catalyst. In addition to this, the surface of the
catalyst can be poisoned by halogens and particulates containing metals such as zinc, arsenic, lead and mercury.
This requires the catalyst surface to be regenerated periodically using steam. The necessity of keeping the catalyst
surface clean also means that particulates may have to be removed from the polluted air stream before entering
the catalytic incinerator.
Both thermal and catalytic incinerators can achieve destruction efficiencies in excess of 95%. They are widely used for
the control of VOCs and where odour control is important.
Dry Scrubbers
A dry scrubbing system does not saturate the gas stream with moisture. They therefore do not have a wastewater
handling requirement. There are various forms of dry scrubber that will usually use a combination of moisture-
free air pollution abatement technologies that we have covered above such as bag filters, adsorption, electrostatic
precipitators and cyclones. Dry scrubbing techniques may be used for treating pollutant emissions from numerous
sources such as waste incineration, biomass combustion or kilns.
A common application of dry scrubbing is the removal of acidic gases such as sulphur dioxide from an air stream
released from fossil fuel combustion. In such a scenario, an alkaline material (such as hydrated lime or sodium
bicarbonate) is injected into an air stream. The acidic gas reacts with the alkaline sorbent to form a solid salt. The solid
salt is removed via particulate control devices such as filters, etc.
Coolers and Chillers

VOC vapours condense when their temperature is reduced or pressure increased. In most air pollution-control
applications it is more practical to reduce the temperature of the vapour. Two methods are used to reduce vapour
temperature. One involves spraying cold water into the gas stream and cooling by direct contact. Devices which use
this principle are called contact coolers, or contact condensers. Devices that present the vapour with a cold surface
are called surface coolers.
TOPIC FOCUS
Contact and Surface Coolers
• Contact Coolers
The simplest form of contact cooler is a chamber fitted with sprays. The vapour enters the chamber and
is sprayed with chilled water. Another variant involves a chamber containing trays onto which chilled water
pours from tray to tray down the chamber. The vapour rises through the chamber, condensing as it makes
contact with the chilled water.
In contact coolers, there is clearly intimate contact between the vapour being condensed and the cooling
medium. Thus, the cooling medium becomes contaminated and is seldom suitable for re-use. This may, in
fact, present significant waste-disposal problems.
• Surface Coolers
In surface-cooling or surface-condensing devices, the cooling water is circulated within pipes similar to
a heat exchanger. The vapour-polluted air stream flows over the pipes and the vapour condenses on the
pipes, leaving the air stream.
Neither contact nor surface coolers are high-efficiency devices and are generally used for pre-treatment to
reduce the total vapour volume being passed into more efficient devices.
Peat Filter Beds

These were being developed in the mid-1980s as an inexpensive technology to remove from air streams simple
organic compounds that were not toxic but did present odour problems. The beds are typically large steel or concrete
containers containing natural peat. The peat was treated with micro-organisms and supplied with water and nutrients
to encourage their growth. High-volume, but low-velocity air streams could then be treated by passing them through
the peat beds to remove the organics that generated the odours.
Bio Scrubbers
A bio scrubber consists of a gas scrubber that removes pollutants from the gas stream by the use of washwater. The
wastewater is then transferred to a biological reactor where pollutants are biologically degraded.
Bio scrubbers can be used to treat a range of pollutants such as hydrocarbons, chlorinated organics and odorous
substances.
STUDY QUESTIONS
7. Describe two devices that can be used for the capture of particulates; sketch an outline of each device.
8. Identify abatement techniques for gases and vapours.
9. Describe how an emission of a solvent could be captured for re-use.
Summary
Summary

Key topics covered in this element:
• Particles and liquids may be classed as fumes, smoke, dust, grit, vapours, mist and fibres.
• Transboundary pollutants may cause acid deposition, climate change and ozone depletion.
• The Gothenburg Protocol requires participants to comply with national emission ceilings for four identified
substances.
• Legislation often states requirements for atmospheric monitoring.
• Competence schemes, such as MCERTS, have been developed to ensure standardisation of monitoring results.
• Report findings will need to be compared to emission limit values in permits.
• The eliminate, minimise, render harmless hierarchy can be applied to air pollutants.
• Particulate matter can be reduced by engineering controls such as settling chambers, cyclones and fabric filters.
• Gas and vapours may be removed by absorption devices, adsorption devices, incineration and peat beds.
Appendix
Appendix

Emission Ceilings under the Gothenburg Protocol to Abate Acidification,
Eutrophication and Ground-Level Ozone 1999
8-48 Unit ED1 Element 8: Element 8 - Managing Emissions to the Atmosphere © RRC International
Appendix
Source: Annex II, Gothenburg Protocol to Abate Acidification, Eutrophication and Ground-Level Ozone, United
Nations, 1999 (as amended) (www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/env/documents/2013/air/eb/ECE.EB.AIR.114_ENG.
pdf)
© RRC International Unit ED1 Element 8: Element 8 - Managing Emissions to the Atmosphere 8-49

Element 8 - Managing Emissions To The Atmosphere

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Element 8 - Managing Emissions To The Atmosphere

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Managing Emissions to the Atmosphere

1 Outline the types of emissions to

2 Outline the purpose of monitoring

3 Describe appropriate control strategies

Emissions to the Atmosphere 8-3

Monitoring Atmospheric Emissions 8-15

Control Strategies and Measures 8-22

Exam Skills 8-50

Emissions to the Atmosphere

Is defined as larger particles exceeding 76 microns in diameter.

Substances Main Sources Effects

Substances Main Sources Effects

Impacts of Pollutants on Air Quality and Health

Key Air Pollution Issues

• Global warming - the greenhouse effect.

The greenhouse effect

What is so alarming about a warmer planet?

Baseline HFC 2011-2013 2020-2022 2024-2026

Freeze - 2024 2028

1st step 2019 - 10% 2029 - 10% 2032 - 10%

2nd step 2024 - 40% 2035 - 30% 2037 - 20%

3rd step 2029 - 70% 2040 - 50% 2042 - 30%

4th step 2034 - 80% - -

Plateau 2036 - 85% 2045 - 80% 2047 - 85%

Belarus, Russian Federation,

HFC Phase-Down Schedule under the Kigali Amendment

Impacts of Acid Deposition

Ozone Layer Depletion

Depletion of the ozone layer

International Law and Ozone Depletion

Developed Countries Phase-Out Developing Countries Phase-Out

Further information on the Montreal Protocol can be found at:

National Emission Ceiling Levels

Monitoring Atmospheric Emissions

Purpose of Air Monitoring

Monitoring of the waste gas stream as it leaves the chimney or flue

Principles of a Monitoring Strategy Emissions need to be monitored

A monitoring strategy consists of the elements identified in the diagram below:

Main elements of a monitoring strategy

The specific position on the stack where the sample is extracted.

SAMPLING OR ACCESS PORTS

Whether the monitoring is periodic or continuous.

The instruments and apparatus used.

• Continuous Emissions Monitoring (CEM)

The two types of techniques are compared in the following table:

Important characteristics of CEMs and periodic monitoring

Is a certification scheme for pollution-monitoring equipment based on internationally-accepted performance

Particulate matter size fractionation1

Reporting and Recommendations

Control Strategies and Measures

Air Pollution Control

• Replace solvent-based chemicals with water-based chemicals, e.g. paints.

• type and volume of pollutant to be controlled; and

Particulate Matter Removal

Gas and Vapour Devices

The technologies are as follows:

Particle Arrestment Devices

Cyclones are used primarily for the following

• Product recovery, e.g. wood dust.

The efficiencies of a cyclone are given by the following relationship:

where N = number of turns made by the air vortex in the cyclone