Week 6:

Lecture 6.1: Animal diversity

Animals are distinguished by defining features, include;
- Eukaryotic
- Multicellular
- Heterotrophs: ingest then digest
o Plants are autotrophs,
o Heterotrophic fungi, digest food outside then absorb
- No cell wall  rather specialized structure (collagen) and unique intercellular junctions
- Nervous tissues and muscle tissues movement
- Most reproduce sexually, with dominate diploid stage
Most (not all) animal life cycles include a Larval stage  metamorphoses into adult
- Hox genes:
o developmental genes that regulate expression of other genes
o particularly during embryonic development (ie. Control body plan)
Arrival:
common ancestor to all animals species lived about 770 million YA; suggested by molecular clocks
and biochemical fossils
- Sponges appear ~700 million YA
- First 150 million years
o Mainly soft bodied animals; mollusks, sponges, cnidarians (sea anemone)
o Early evidence of predation: prey of animals
- 530 MYA
o Fossils  50% all living animal phyla, esp, bilaterians
o Simultaneous decrease in Ediacaran life forms  predation
 Predator  prey (arms race)
 Response to increase in O2 in atmosphere
 Development of Hox genes and microRNA
- Paleozoic    541 MYA (Cambrian explosion) till 252 MYA (end-Permian extinction)
o Increased animal diversity punctuated by mass extinction
o Vertebrates (fish) emerged as top predator in marine food web
o Colonization of land:
 Fungi, plants ~500 MYA
 Arthropods ~450 MYA
 Vertebrates ~365 MYA  amphibians, amniotes
- Mesozoic (251-65.5 MYA)
o Starts with mass extinction event (84% genera disappear)
o Surviving animals spread into new habitats; coral reefs appear
o Decent with modification in vertebrates
 Origin of wings in birds
 Emergence of small and large dinosaurs
 Appearance of the first small mammals
- Cenozoic (65.5 MYA to present)
o Starts with mass extinction event (47% perished)
o Large nonflying dinosaurs and marine reptiles
o Rise of large mammals, as they exploit the vacant ecological niches
Modern animals
 - Around 35 phyla
- All but 1 are invertebrates,  vertebrates = chordate phylum
- Around half are marine exclusive
Animals phylogeny
Phylogenetic tree of animals based on similarities in;
- DNA sequence,
- Morphology
- body plan
o particular set of morphological and developmental traits
o developed body plans main features include;
1. development of true tissues
2. development of bilateral symmetry
3. protostome vs deuterostome development
o reflect evolution  can help build phylogenetic tree
Phylogeny tree distinct divisions (4):
1. true tissues?  premetazoan vs eumetazoan
- tissue= collection of cells that function as a unit with specialized function
- In most animals, embryo becomes layered during early development
o Earlier animals have 2 layers (diploblastic)
 Ectoderm: outer membrane layer covering (and CNS)
 Endoderm: inner layer  digestive tract and organs
o Later animals have 3 layers (triploblastic)
 Mesoderm: middle layer  muscles and other organs (and body cavity)
2. Bilateral symmetry  radiata vs Bilateria
- Radial symmetry tissues
o Early life forms
o 1 axis of orientation: top and bottom
- Bilateral symmetry:
o Later organisms
o More active
o Sensory organs located anteriorly
o Multiple axes of orientation: dorsal vs ventral; left vs right; anterior vs protector
3. Deuterostome or protostome  Deuterostomia vs Protostomia
- Most animals  embryo becomes layered during early development
o Radically symmetrical animals have 2 layers (diploblastic)
o Bilaterally symmetrical animals have 3rd layer (triploblastic)
 Most triploblastic animals have a body cavity (coelom)
 fluid or air filed space between digestive tract and outer body wall
 Functions:
Cushion suspended organs
Allows internal organs to move independently of other body
wall
In soft body organisms (e.g. worms), noncompressible fluid can
act like a skeleton against which muscles can work
- Differentiation in body plan based on early embryonic development
Protostome development Deuterostome development
Cleavage: eight – cell stage Begins with a spiral, Characterized by radial
 determines cleavage indeterminate cleavage
Coelom formation: begins The coelom forms from The coelom forms from in
in the gastrula stage splits in the mesoderm mesodermal outpocketings
of the archenteron
Fate of blastopore The mouth forms from the The mouth forms form
blastopore secondary opening  anus
forms from blastopore
Examples Mollusks and annelids Echinoderms, chordates
4. Lophotrochozoan or Ecdysozoa
- Ecdysozoa= moult,
- Lophotrochozoan= either lophophore or trochophore

Animal diversity part 1: Porifera and Cnidaria (eumetazoa)

Porifera sponges:
- Pore bearers ( no true tissue)
- Sessile (don’t move)
- Often bright colour
- Initially mistaken for plants
- Size for mm-m
- Filter feeders  trap food particles in water as they draw though bodies
Porifera anatomy:
- Lack true tissues
- 1) mesophyll: wall of sponge  consists of bilayer of cells separated by gelatinous matrix
- 2) epidermis: outer layer consists of tightly packed epidermal cells
- 3) pores: water enters the sponge though pores, (formed by doughnut shape cells the span
body wall)
- 4) spongocoel: water passing though pores enters cavity
- 5) choanocytes: flagellated cells which line spongocoel, when beating flagella current is
created drawing water though pores and out the osculum
- 6) Projections: flagellum movement, draws water though collar/finger like projections, traps
food particles in mucus coat, then engulfed by phagocytosis
- 7) amoebocytes: transporters of digested/ transferred food particles to other sponge body
cells
Cnidaria:
- Diverse range of sessile an motile forms; hydra, sea anemone, coral, jellyfish
- Simple diploblastic radial body plan
- No centralized brain, but has nerves associated with sensing
Cnidaria anatomy:
- Sac with central digestive compartment (gastrovascular cavity)
- Single opening, both mouth and anus
- 2 variations
o sessile polyp  has tentacles but additional body stalk
o mobile medusa  has additional tentacles for movement
- cnidarians are predators  use tentacle to capture prey
- specialized cells that throw nematocysts (similar to harpoon  spear fishing)

The great barrier reef:

- coral polyps secrete a hard exoskeleton of calcium carbonate  Skelton = coral
 - corals form symbiosis with algae

Animal diversity part 2: Parametazona , Eumetazoa  radiata

Protostomes  ecdysozoa

- very diverse animal clade  8 phyla, contains more species that all other animals protists,
fungi and plants combined
- includes animals that shed tough external coat as they grow (ecdysis=molting)
- two largest phyla include:
1. nematodes (roundworms)
2. arthropods
 one of most successful animal phyla  found in nearly all habitats of the
biosphere
 more than 1,000,000 species  most are insects
 includes;
chelicerates (scorpions)
myriapods (millipedes)
crustaceans
insects

Arthropod anatomy:

- exoskeleton made up of protein and polysaccharides (chitin)

- Advantages
o Avoid water loss  facilitated colonization of land
o Defenses against predators
o Provides point of attachment for muscles
- Disadvantages to molting
o Must be shed for animal to grow
o Molting is energetically expensive
o Newly molted animals are temporary vulnerable

Arthropods  insects

- Common interstitial, fresh water and air (rarer in marine habitats)

- Explosion of species diversity 359-251 MYA , likely due to;
o Response to co- evolution with new plant species  diversity of insects linked to
diversity of angiosperms
o Evolution of flight
- Hold enormous biological role
o Herbivore, predator, parasite, pray, pollinator

Protostome  lophotrochozoan

- Name refers to 2 features observed in some animals of clade;

1. Lophophore  crown of tentacles for feeding
2. Trochophore larvae  free swimming planktonic larval stage

- Include:
o Platyhelminthes (flatworm)
  Free living  planarians
 Parasitic: tape worm
o Syntagmata
 Includes rotifers (multicellular microscopic animals with complex organs)
and parasitic taxa
o Ectoprocts
 Colonies look like clumps of moss
o Lamp shells
 Look like clams
o Mollusks very diverse phylum 100,000 species
 Soft bodied , most secrete hard protective shell made of calcium carbonate
(slugs, squids and octopuses have reduced internal shell or have lost shell all
together)
 Common Types:
Gastropods (75%)  snails and slugs ( most have single shell 
found; marine, freshwater, land )
Bivalves oysters and clams (shells in two halves  sedentary
suspension feeders)
Cephalopods  octopus and squid (internal shell, modified foot 
siphon  predators)
 Most have separate sexes, except snails, many if which are hermaphrodites
 Life cycle of many marine mollusks include a trochophore larval stage
 Anatomy: all have similar body plan
Muscular foot  movement
Visceral mass with organs
Mantle  drapes over visceral mass, secretes shell
o Segment worms
 Mobile and sedentary
 <1mm  >3m

Invertebrates = >95% of animal species

Lecture 6.2: Animal diversity 2

Non- vertebrate deuterostomes
Deuterostomia
Main shared features:

- Bilateral symmetry
- Triploblastic (includes mesoderm)
- Deuterostome development (blastopore forms anus)

Main phyla (2)  despite appearance, DNA suggests are closely related)

1. Echinoderms (sea star, sea urchins)

- Echnios= spiky, derma= skin
- Usually slow moving or sessile
- Separate sex individuals
- Appear radically symmetrical, but larvae stage are bilateral and adults are off centered
- Endoskeleton of hard calcareous plates --> calcium carbonate
- Unique water vascular system:
 o Water enters through pore on tube feet
o Flows into ring canal in center
o Then down five radial canals  running from entire arm into inflatable tubes
- Examples include:
o Sea stars
 Arms radiating from central disc
 Regenerative ability  re grow lost arms, members from one genus can
grow a full body from a single arm
 Everts its stomach into shell for prey, digests its there then brings it back
inside
o Brittle stars
 Central disc , ling flexible arms
o Sea urchin
 Roughly spherical, spines, no arms but 5 rows of tube feet
o Sea cucumber
 Look different, but 5 rows of tube feet

1. Chordates (mostly vertebrates)

- All chordates posses 4 features share at come point during there development
1) Notochord
o flexible rod,
o sits below nerve cord
o provides skeletal support
o replace by bones in vertebrates (vertebrate column)
2) dorsal, hollow nerve cord
o develops into spinal cord and brains in adults
o CNS
3) Pharyngeal slits and clefts
o Used for suspension feeding in invertebrates
o Develops into gills in non-tetrapod vertebrates  develops into parts of ears and
neck of tetrapod’s (4 limbed vertebrates)
4) Muscular post anal tail
o Extends posterior to anus
o Muscular  movement
o Often greatly reduced during embryonic development

- Invertebrate chordates  (2) Classes don’t have vertebrate

a) Cephalochordate (lancelets)
o Filter feeder, up to 6cm
o Relatively rare, but at high density when found
b) Urochordata (tunicates)
o Chordate characteristics apparent in larva
o Settles on substrate, then undergoes radical metamorphosis
o Filter feeder

- Aquatic vertebrates chordates

All other chordates have vertebrae

o Cyclostomes (myxini and petromyzontida)

a) Myxini:
 Jawless
 Reduced vertebrate, cartilage skull
 Marine
 Scavengers, teeth made of keratin
b) Petromyzontida (lampreys)
 Jawless
 Skeleton out of cartilage
 Larvae life in fresh water, then migrate to sea as adults
 Most are parasites
o Evolution of jaws  due to expanding diet (jaws and mineralized skeleton),
Chondrichthyes include;
 Sharks
Biggest vertebrates predators in oceans
Some suspension feeders, but most are carnivores  good sensory systems
(vision, smell, sound, electric field)
Well known species;
1) Whale shark:
 Largest fish living, up to 14 m long, live up to 70 years
 Filter feeder
2) Megalodon
 Huge  18m long
 Lived 16-2.5 MYA
 Predator of large whales
 Rays and skates
Flat, bottom dwelling, eat mollusks
 Chimaeras
Live in deeper water  feeding on shrimp, mollusks and sea urchins
o Evolution of lungs (air sacs)  Osteichthyes (bony fishes)
 Bony endoskeleton (calcium phosphate)
 Breath by passing water over gills (in mouth, though pharynx, out operculum)
 Maintain buoyancy with air filled sac (swim bladder), which developed from lungs
 3 classes:
a) Ray finned fishes  over 27, 000 species
b) Lobe finned fish  2 species of Actinistia (coelacanthine), 6 species of dipnoid
(lungfishes)
o Evolution to land (moving on land  limbs with digits)  amphibia (frog, salamander)
 Tetrapod’s:
amphibians, reptiles and mammals
appear 365 MYA, after land colonization
clear evolution of limb from fins in fossil record
 class amphibia (3)
salamanders (order urodele; tailed ones)
frogs (order Anura; tailless ones)
 life cycle
a) larval stage  tadpole (aquatic herbivore, initially have gills, tail
and not legs)
b) during metamorphosis
  loose tail
 develop legs, eardrums
most species looses gills and develop lungs
 modify digestive systems to carnivorous
c) adult terrestrial (land based hunter)  moist skin to improve
gas exchange
 rapid decline (30 yrs) in population due to;
 disease causing fungus
habitat loss
pollution
 agricultural chemicals
 climate change
caecilians (order Apoda; legless ones)
o Evolution to adapt to dry land  the amniotic egg
 Amniotic egg (adapt to live on land)
Amniotic fluid  protective liquid contained by the amniotic sac
Hard shell slow dehydration (mammals develop inside mother body, so
don’t need sell to avoid desiccation)
 More effective ventilation of lungs (ribs not throat based)
Abandon breathing through skin, less permeable skin, conserve water
 Class reptiles
E.g. turtle, snake, crocodile, birds
Birds:
 Evolved from dinosaurs 160 MYA
 Anatomical adaptions to flight:
a) Weight saver  no bladder, no teeth
b) Wings  remodeled tetrapod forelimb (aerodynamic  honey
comb bone  lighter)
c) Feathers  made up of beta keratin (similar to scales)
d) Acute vision
e) Fine muscle control
 High diversity class ( approx 100,000 species)

Mammals:
- Increased parental care  mammary glands

Shared features:

- Nourish their young with mil

- Hair and layer of fat under the skin to retain heat (exothermic)
- Differentiated teeth  chewing different foods

First true mammals in Jurassic 200-145 MYA

- Coexisted with dinosaurs

- Small, not particular abundant

Adaptive radiation after ectinction of large dinosaurs 65-60 MYA

Major clades:
 - Monotremes
o Echidna, platypus
o Australia
o Lay eggs
- Marsupial
o Possums, kangaroos, koala
o Australia/ America
o Embryo starts to develop in uterus, finishes in pouch
- Placental mammals
o More complex placental (organs that feeds embryo)
o Complete embryonic development within uterus

Note* 20 living orders of the class Mammalia

Humans:
Evolved from primates 2.4 MYA, with appear of homo sapiens 0.2 MYA

 Domain: eukaryote
 Kingdom: animalia
 Superphylum: Deuterostomia
 Phylum: Chordata
 Subphylum: vertebrata
 Class: Mammalia
 Sub class: eutherian
 Order: primate
 Family: Hominidae
 Genus: Homo, Species; sapiens

Lecture 6.3: animal form and function:

All animals face (3) fundamental challenges

1. Obtain nutrients
2. fight off infection
3. Produce offspring
- Natural selection favors adaption that increase relative fitness  explained the vast diversity
of life
- Convergent evolution: unrelated organisms evolve similar traits a a result of adaption to
similar environments

Animal form and function effects:

- Exchange of nutrients
- Metabolic waste
- Gases with in external environment
- Which can me maximized by shape and exchange surfaces (limitations on body size and
shape)
- Rate of exchange is proportional the SA,
- Amount of material needs to be exchanged depends on volume
- Two approaches:
o Optimize body shape for exchange
 Place many cells with contact with external environment  Rely of diffusion
  E.g. gastrovascular cavity in cnidarians
o Develop specialized exchange surface and circulatory system
 Are usually internal and connect to environment via openings e.g. mouth
 The surface are finely branched or folded forming large SA
 Examples include; digestive, respiratory and endocrine system, there
collections carried by the circulatory system.
- Benefits:
o Predation
o Sensory organs  external environment info
o Internal digestive organs  gradual control energy storage
o Maintain internal environment

The endocrine and nervous system allow coordinates of multicellular organisms

- Endocrine; Chemical messengers, long duration

o Hormones: signaling molecules released in to blood stream, carried to appropriate
location
o Only cells with receptors for specific hormone respond
o Hormones remain in blood for mins-hour, long lasting
o Function: gradual change and affect whole body; e.g. growth, development,
reproduction, metabolism, digestion
- Nervous: electrical impulses, immediate short
o Neurons: transmitters of nerve impulses, along axons to specific locations
o Long distance: along axon as change of voltage
o Short distance: inter cellular distance as chemical signal (neurotransmitter)
o Function: immediate and rapid response to environment, e.g, reflexes and
movement

Organ systems fulfill functions of life  sustain normal body function

- External environment:
o Gases in and out (o2 in, co2 out)  gas exchange  respiration
o Nutrients in and out (food in (digestion), waste out(excretion))
o Movement = muscular
o Integumentary  barrier  separates internal and external
- Internal environments
o Skeletal  body support
o Internal distribution  circulation
o Defense  immune system
o Coordination  homeostasis
 Grow and metabolism  endocrine
 Sense and move  nervous
o Reproduction  formation of gametes  reproductive

Homeostasis: maintain an stable internal environment (sensor, control, effector), achieved by;

- Form
- Function
- Behavior
 - E.g.
o Thermoregulation:
 Form:
Insulation (feathers, fur, blubber)
Circulatory adaptions (countercurrent heat exchanger)
Brown fat
 Function
1. Endotherms
Shivering (muscle activity)
Increased metabolic rate
Evaporative cooling (sweat)
 Behavior
2. Exotherms
Basking in the sun,
Seeking shade
Note* ectotherm consumes less energy then
endothermy
o solute concentration,

Animals are regulators and conformers

Animals are heterotrophs (harvest energy from food)

- Energy is limited  must be carefully balances between;

o Maintenance (basal metabolism, thermoregulation, repair)
o activity
o growth
o reproduction functions
- biogenetics: the study of energy flow and transformation of an organism
o determines nutritional needs
o related to size, activity and environment

Week 7:
Lecture 7.1: resource acquisition and transport in animals:
Animal nutrients:
Nutrients: process of taking large food items  breaking them down for absorption

Animals must eat to supply the body with;

- Chemical energy (fuel)

- Organic molecules (building blocks)
- Essential nutrients

Production of chemical energy

- Activity in animal cells depends on chemical energy harvested from food
 - Break down of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids in cellular respiration

Biosynthesis
Diet must supply the raw materials to build complex organic molecules (proteins, polysaccharides,
lipids, nucleic acids, etc)

Biosynthesis requires a source of CHNOPS  nonmetals

- Carbon
- Hydrogen
- Nitrogen
- Oxygen
- Phosphorous
- Sulfur

Balancing take vs needs

Animals must balance:
- Consumption
- Storage
- Use of food

 Intake  cellular respiration + biosynthesis  excess stored as fat (weight gain)

 Intake  cellular respiration + biosynthesis  stores of fat utilized (weight loss)
 Insufficient food  under nutrition

Storage of food is important to survive periods of limited supply:

- Animals also have adaptions to reduce cellular respiration and biosynthesis for predictable
long- term periods to limited supple (e.g. hibernation)
Essential nutrients
As well as CHNOPS, cellular processes (esp. enzyme function) requires materials that animals
cannot synthesis from simpler organic precursors  essential nutrients which include;

- Some amino acids and fatty acids ( 8 essential amino acids, with in humans)
- Vitamins (water soluble B1-B12 and C; fat soluble A,D,E and K)
- Minerals ( Cam K, Cl, Na, Mg, Fe, F, I…)

Malnutrition: diet lacking one or more essential nutrients

Examples:

- Amino acids and fatty acid  can make some but not all:
 Humans can make 12 of the 20 AA, but require 8 from there diet (e.g. tryptophan,
methionine, lysine)
 Animals cannot synthesis some fatty acids e.g. linoleic acid
- Vitamins and minerals  Do not make any vita nor minerals sourced from diet
 Humans require 13 vitamins (e.g. C), from diet
 Minerals  required in trace amounts, excessive amounts can be toxic (e.g. iron,
copper , manages, zinc, etc)

Modes of Nutrition:
Partial autotrophic (symbiosis with photosynthetic protist)
- Invertebrates only
- Mutualistic symbiosis between protists (zooxanthellae) and animals

- Needs and products of one, facilitate other’s needs and products

Herbivory
- Eat plants or algae

Carnivory
- Mostly eat other animals

Omnivore
- Regularly consume plants, algae, and animals

Food processing
Main stages include:
 1. Ingestion (mechanical digestion)
4 types of ingestion:

1) Filter feeding
 Straining small organisms/food particles from surrounding medium
 E.g. whale
2) Substrate feeding
 Live in or on food
 Caterpillar
3) Fluid feeding
 Suck nutrient-rich fluid from host
 E.g. mosquito
4) Bulk feeding
 Most animals
 Eating large pieces of food
 E.g. snakes

2. Digestion (chemical digestion (enzyme hydrolysis)

- Break down food into molecules small enough to be absorbed
- Can be;
1) Mechanical digestion (chewing)
2) Chemical digestion  breaking down polymers into monomers by breaking polymer
bonds e.g.
 Polysaccharides  simple sugars
 Proteins  amino acids
 nucleic acid  nucleotides
 fats and phospholipids  fatty acids

3. Absorption (nutrients molecules enter body cells)

4. Elimination (undigested material)
Avoiding self digestion:
- Digestion occurring in compartments
- Switching digestive enzyme activity on/off (e.g. regulate pH)
- The cells lining the digestive compartments are protected by mucus and rapidly replaced
- Compartmentalization at both the
 Intracellular level (within cells  lysosomes)
 Extracellular level ( at organism level)

Extracellular compartments
- Large extracellular compartments liked to external environment
- Digestive enzymes released into compartment breaks down large particles, allow absorption
by phagocytosis (cell eating)
- Gastrovascular cavity or alimentary canal (variations)

Gastrovascular cavity: mouth to anus

1) Digestive enzymes are released from a gland cells

2) Enzymes break down food into smaller particles
3) Food particles are engulfed and digested is food vacuoles

Alimentary canal : mouth  digestive tube  anus, e.g. bird, worm, insects
Digestive system:
Digestive system=alimentary canal + accessory glands

Human digestive system:

- Mouth
 Ingestion
 Digestion; mechanical (teeth), chemical (saliva)
- Stomach
 Chemical digestion (gastric juice  contains HCl
and pepsin)
- Small intestine
 Very long canal (6m), most chemical digestion
occurs here
o Small in diameter
 Chemical digestion
o Digestive enzymes secreted by pancreas
and small intestine itself
o Bile salts from liver and gall bladder, which act as emulsifiers
 Major site of absorption
o Highly folded surface (villi and microvilli)  very large surface area
o Both passive and active transport mechanisms in cell living

 Large intestine
o No digestion
o Absorption of water
 Rectum
o Excretion

Gut microbe
- Symbiotic bacteria that live in digestive tract
o Stomach
o Small intestines
 o Large intestines
- Ferment undigested polysaccharides,  absorbed and provide a major source of useful
nutrients

Mammalian digestive system:

- Variations on a common plan, associated to animals diet
o Carnivore
 Expandable stomach
o Herbivore
 Long digestive tract
 More room for symbiotic bacteria to digest plant matter

Dentition and diet:

- Mammals show broad adaptions of teeth types for processing different types of food
- Non-mammalian vertebrates usually show less, (expectations include; crocodile)
1. Carnivores:
 Incisors  large and pointed
 Canines  used to kill prey and rip away flesh pieces
 Premolars and molars  jagged for crushing and shredding food
2. Herbivores:
 Premolars and molars  forming broad ridged surface for grinding though plant
material
 Incisors and canines  modified for biting off pieces of vegetation
 Some herbivores are absent of canines
3. Omnivore:
 Adapted to eating both plant and meat
 In humans;
o 32 teeth
o 4 blade like incisors (front teeth)  for biting
o A pair of pointed canines  tearing
o 4 premolars  grinding
o 6 molars  crushing

Distributing nutrients and gases

All animals must exchange materials with environment

Ultimately occurs at cellular level

- O2 and nutrients in
- CO2 and waste products out
- Difference in concentration  diffusion can occur to reach equilibrium
o Time taken to diffuse is proportional to the square distance

2 body plans to maximize exchange:

- Unicellular organisms: exchange occurs directly with external environment

- Multicellular organisms: direct transfers can be problematic, thus strategies to overcome
include;
 o Maximize body shape  to make majority of cells close to environment
o Develop circulatory system: bring gases to cells inside body
 Three basic components
1) Circulatory fluid
2) Interconnected vessels
3) Pump (heart)
 Open vs closed
1) Open: fluid (hemolymph) bathes body cells (interstitial fluid)
One or more hearts pumps hemolymph into series of
interconnected systems
Arthropods, some molluscs
2) Closed: fluid (blood) confined to vessels and different from interstitial
fluid
One of more hearts pumps blood into large vessels which
branch into smaller ones that infiltrate organs
Gas and nutrient exchange the occurs between blood and
interstitial fluid and body cells
Annelids, cephalopods and all vertebrates

Cardiovascular system of vertebrates

- In vertebrates one heart and extensive network of vessels  cardiovascular system
a) Fish  single circulation
b) Amphibian –> double circulation (missing of blood)
c) Mammal  double circulation

Blood vessels:
- Capillaries: have very thin walls  diffusion
- Walls of arteries and veins are thick with muscular and connective tissues
o Arteries: high pressure  thick muscle layer
o Veins: have valves maintain unidirectional flow, not back flow

Mammals cardiovascular system: distributes both nutrients and gases

- O2  lungs  organs  CO2  lungs  out
- Nutrients  gastrointestinal tract  liver  organs  waste  GIT / kidneys

Mammal blood composition:

1. Plasma 55%
- Water  solvent
- Ions (blood electrolytes)  osmotic balance, pH buffering and regulation of membrane
permeability
- Plasma proteins 
o Albumin: osmotic balance, pH buffering
o Immunoglobulins: defense
o Apolipoproteins: lipid transport
o Fibrinogen: clotting
- Substance transported by blood  nutrients such as; glucose, fatty acids, vitamins. Als,
Waste products of metabolism, respiratory gases and hormones

2. Cellular elements: 45%

- Leukocytes (WBC) defense and immunity
 - Erythrocytes (RBC) transport of O2 and some CO2
o Donut shape  improves diffusion
o No nucleus, no mitochondria
o Packed with hemoglobin, an iron containing protein that binds to O2 (and CO2)
o 1 RBC can bind 1 billion O2

Gas exchange
Organism level:
- Circulatory system transports O2 and CO2 from respiratory surface to the cells

Cellular level:
- Energy rich fuel molecules + cellular respiration = ATP

Partial pressure gradients:

- Gases diffuse down pressure gradients
- Partial pressure: pressure exerted by a particular gas in gas mixture
- Diffuse form a higher partial pressure to lower partial pressure regions
- E.g. lungs and tissues:
o O2 and CO2 diffuse from high to low partial pressure regions

Diffusion:
- Gases always move by diffusion, never by active transport
- Rate of diffusion determined by:
o Partial pressure gradient
o S:A of respiratory surface
o Thickness of membrane where diffusion is occurring (diffusion distance)
- Respiratory surface tend to be thin which a large S:A  maximizes rate of gas exchange

Source of oxygen:
- Land animals: found in air (21% O2 in air)  efficient
- Aquatic animals: found in water H2O  less efficient as less O2 in water
o Requires more efficient mechanisms
o Water more dense  requires more energy to extract O2

Respiratory surfaces:
- Simple organisms (e.g. sponges, cnidarians, flatworms)
o Every cell close to external environment
o No need for respiratory organ or circulatory system
o Rely on simple diffusion
- Earth worms and some amphibians
o Skin serves as respiratory organ
o Dense network of capillaries underneath skin facilitates gas exchange
- For organisms which body surface is not sufficient area for gas exchange:
o Development of repository organs
o Aquatic  gills
o Insects  tracheae
o Land vertebrates  lungs
Respiratory organs
Gills: out folding of body surface suspended in water
- Large S:A for gas exchange
- Also takes up ions
- Has a very diverse morphology
- Gills are unsuitable for land animals as they;
o Loose to much water by evaporation
o Collapse in air, reduce S:A
o Thus terrestrial animals have repository surfaces with in body (exposed to
atmosphere via narrow tubes)

Advantages to breathing air:

- Much high concentration of O2
- Air less dense  less energy to pump past gas exchange surface

Tracheae: insects, Tracheae system:

- Air tubes
o connect external environment with internal
o largest tubes open to outside
o Finest branches extend to all cells
- Air sacs
o Compressed and expanded by body movement
o Ventilate tubes
- In carboniferous (359-290) O2 level was 35% (compared to current 21%)
o Insects where very large

Lungs: land invertebrates

- Lungs are localized repository organs
- Numerous pockets
- Large S:A
- Requires circulatory system to bring gases from lungs to rest of body
- Breathing: lung ventilation  various mechanisms for moving air in and out of lungs:
o Amphibians: positive pressure (forced airflow)
o Birds: air sacs (function a bellows  mechanism that forces air)
o Mammals: negative pressure (pull air into lungs, using muscles to expand thoracic
cavity)

Mammals partial pressure:

1. Inhaled air (PO2=160, PCO2=0.2)
2. Alveolar spaces fill (PO2=104, PCO2=40)
3. O2 diffuses in to pulmonary veins and systemic arteries via alveolar capillaries, and carried to
the heart (PO2=104, PCO2=40)
4. Form heart O2 diffuses into body tissues via systemic capillaries
5. System capillaries diffuse CO2 from body tissues (PO2=<40, PCO2=>45)
6. Pulmonary arteries and systemic veins carried CO2 into heart (PO2=40, PCO2=45)
7. Heart pumps CO2 to the alveolar capillaries, which diffuses into the overall epithelial cells
8. Air is exhaled (PO2=120, PCO2=27)

Further adaptions:
- Respiratory pigments increase amount of oxygen that blood can carry
 o Most vertebrates, some invertebrates: hemoglobin, with irons as the binder
o Arthropods and many mollusks: hemocyanin, with copper as binder
- Other adaptions:
o High altitude birds: higher hemoglobin counts
o Deep diving mammals: store O2 in muscles minimize muscle activity, use anaerobic
fermentation (dive for up to 2hrs)

Lecture 7.2: osmoregulation and excretion:

Osmoregulation:
Homeostasis: maintaining internal environment: e.g. thermoregulation

Osmoregulation: active control of movement of solutes between internal fluids and external
environment

- Balances uptake and loss of water and solutes

- Regulate chemical composition of body fluids (uptake and loss of chemical/fluids)

Osmosis: movement of water from HC to LC

- Permeable cell membrane to water molecules (aquaporins)

- Generally impermeable to charged ions (solutes)  require channels of pumps

Osmolarity: equals solute concentration

 Water moves form hypoosmotic to hyperosmotic  until reach equilibrium

(isosmotic)
- Lower osmolarity hypoosmotic (hypotonic)
- High osmolarity  hyperosmotic (hypertonic)
- Same osmolarity  isosmotic (isotonic)
 Osmolarity of human blood  300 mOsm/L
 Osmolarity of sea water  1,000 mOsm/L

Osmoregulation: two stages

1. Osmo conformer  isosmotic with environment

2. hy  control internal osmolarity independent of external environment

Osmoregulatory challenges of animals

Maine invertebrates:

- Most are Osmo conformers

- Don’t need to control water movement
- Still need to control specific ion concentration
- E.g. Mg+ in sea water is 50mM, but Mg+ in hemolymph of lobster is 9mM

Maine vertebrates:

- Many vertebrates and some invertebrates  osmoregulation

- Ocean is a strongly dehydrating environment (forms challenge)
- Drink seawater  the specifically eliminate salts through gills and kidneys
o ALTHOUGH Sharks do not drink lots of water  high concentration of urea and
TMAO  hyperosmotic, draw in water

Fresh water animals:

 - Fresh water (around 0.05% salt), (around 1mOsm/L =low osmolarity compared to blood)
- All fresh water animals are osmoregulation
- Must avoid excess gain of water (by osmosis) and loss of solutes by diffusion
- Drink almost no water, excrete dilute urine (lots of water in urine)
- Actively uptake salts across gills and diet

Anadromous/catadromous: migrate between fresh and salt water habitats

1. Anadromous: live in sea, spawn in fresh (e.g. salmon)

2. Catadromous: live in fresh, spawn in sea (e.g. eels)

Land animals:

- Dehydrate is a major regulation problem

- Desiccation: extreme dehydration
o Is lethal foe most anaimals
o Humans up to 12%; camels up to 25%
o Anhydrobiosis: Some animals can go into inactive sate and survive
o E.g. tardigrade up to 98%
- Too much salt:
o Albatross on the ocean, drink seawater
o Specialized glands excrete salt  counter current exchange
- Adaptions:
o Physical adaptions e.g. impermeable outer layer to avoid water loss (waxy layers,
shell, dead skin cells)
o Behavioral e.g. nocturnal
- Maintain water via;
o Drinking
o Eating moist foods
o Producing water though cellular respiration

Example: fennec fox adaptions to dessert

- Morphological
o Large ears  dissipate heat
 o Thick sandy fur  reflect heat, insulate against cold dessert night, camouflage
o Extra fur on feet soles: insulate against heated sand, better traction
o Kidney adaptation; can survive without free water
- Behavioral
o Burrowing: shelter against the sun, collects moisture
o Nocturnal: avoid heated day time

Excretion of metabolic waste

- Metabolic processes produce waste, which cannot be used by organism, e.g.
o Cellular respiration produces CO2 and H2O
o Biosynthesis and catabolism produces nitrogen compounds
- Need to eliminate waste  if not it accumulates in tissues
- Most metabolic waste  dissolved in water  excretion tightly liked to osmoregulation

Nitrogenous waste

- Excreted depends on animals evolutionary history and habitat

- Especially water available
- Include:
o Ammonia  fish
 Pros: small molecules, readily lost by
diffusional across membranes
 Cons: toxic even at low concentration,
requires lost of water loss to excrete
(bad for land animals)
o Urea  vertebrates
 Pros:
100,000 x less toxic then NH3
Less water required for
excretion
Can be stored
 Cons:
Genetically expensive to produce
Still requires some water (bad in dessert and for flying)
o Uric acid  insects and birds
 Pros:
Even less toxic then urea
Excreted as a semi-solid paste  almost no water
 Cons:
Energetically very expensive to produce
- Proteins and nucleic acids  broken down into amino acids and nitrogenous bases,
respectively
- Removal of nitrogen containing amino groups -NH2, forms nitrogenous waste

Excretory systems
Functions of excretory system:

1. Filtration:
- Summary: Water and solutes pushed across semi permeable membrane to excretory tube
 - Excretory tube collects filtrate from the blood water and solutes are forced by blood
pressure across semipermeable membranes of a cluster of capillaries into the excretory
tubule
2. Reabsorption:
- Summary: Valuable substances return to body fluids
- Transport epithelium reclaims valuable substances from the filtrate and returns to the boy
fluids
3. Secretion
- Summary: other substances assed to the excretory tubule
- Other substances such as toxins and excess ions are extracted from body fluids and added to
the contents od the excretory tubule
4. Excretion
- Summary: filtrate leaves the body
- Altered filtrate (urine) leaves he system and the body

Excretion in flatworms:

- Flatworms: lack coelom (body cavity), have a system of protonephridia: network of dead end
tables connected to external opening)
- Filtrate collected and emptied into surrounding environment
1. Draw by beating cilia, intertarsal fluid filters thorough the membrane where the cap cell and
tubule cell interlock
2. Filtrate empties into external environment

Excretion in earthworms:

- Metanephridia: excretory organs that collect fluid directly from the coelom and release into
surrounding environment
- Also osmoregulation
o Nitrogenous waste excreted
o Valuable solute reabsorbed
o Lots of water in environment (damp, soil) --< urine is dilute

Excretion insects:

- Insets and arthropods  have Malpighian tubules

- Dead ended tips immersed unto hemolymph open into digestive tract
- Nitrogenous waste (mostly insoluble uric acid) excreted with feces
o Removes nitrogenous waste
o osmoregulatory
- Conserves water

Excretion in vertebrates:

- Specialized organ: kidneys

- Both excretion and osmolarity
- Network of tubules, counter current exchange
- Nitrogenous waste excreted and urea
- Collecting duct curries hyperosmotic urine  bladder
- Except in birds  no bladder  Produce uric acid \

Adaption in vertebrates:
 - Desert animals: particularly long loop of Henle  maximize reabsorption
- Live in water: very short loop of Henle e.g. platypus
- Unique adaption  vampire bats
o Gorge on blood
o Kidneys produce large volume of dilute urine after feed (up to 24% of body mass per
hour)  shed weight
o When back at roost  produces lot of nitrogenous waste (proteins from blood)n
o Kidney produce highly concentrated urine (up to 4600mOsm/L)

Human kidney:

- Around 10 cm long, on left and right side of the body (2)

- Filter 1,000-2,000L of blood/day
- Produce 180L of urine/day
- Excrete around 1.5L of urine/day
- Thus; reabsorb 99% of water
- Kidney disease:
o Kidney stones:
 Cilium slats acuminate and mass forms
 Cause; intake of food rich in oxalate ( beets, nuts, chocolate, etc)
o Renal failure
 Nephrons are damaged (by infection, tumors, shock, toxic compounds, ets)
 Cannot perform regulatory and excretory function
 Requires dialysis  remove waste and excess water from blood

Lecture 7.3: Animal reproduction

Asexual reproduction
Creation of new individuals without fusion of gametes

- Relies on mitosis a cellular level

1. Budding
2. Fusion
3. Fragmentation and regeneration

Pathogenesis: Egg develops without being fertilized

- Inverts; bees, wasps, ants, crustaceans, etc.

- Rarer in vertebrates (about 0.1% if species)  Komodo dragon, hammerhead shark
- Offspring can be haploid or diploid
- Lizard:
o Some lizard species  are exclusively female and reproduce asexually by
pathogenesis
o More eggs laid if mounted at ovulation (female acts on another female, like male)

Sexual reproduction
Fusion of haploid gametes (sex cells)  diploid zygote  which divides by mitosis to produce
multicellular embryo

- Female gamete: egg: large nonmotile

- Male gamete: sperm: small, motile
 - Diploid gametes  meiosis  haploid gametes  fertilization  diploid zygote  mitosis
and development to multicellular diploid adult

Asexual
Advantages - No need to locate mate (energy
efficient)
- Asexual products usually large
(increases survivorship
- Rapid development to adult
(limited vulnerable juvenile
stage)
- May occur throughout year
Disadvantages - No genetic recombination
- Genetically identical offspring)
- Offspring usually locally dispersed
Sexual
- Genetic variability
(recombination)
- Genetically unique offspring
- Often widespread offspring
(e.g. larvae in ocean
currents)
- Need a mate
- Sexual products usually
small (decreased
survivorship
- Delay to reach sexual
maturity (longer vulnerable
juvenile stage)
- Usually occurs seasonally
(when environment
conditions are favorable to
survival of offspring)

Sexual reproductive cycles:

- Environmental cues (e.g. temperature, day length)  effect sex hormones  effect
reproductive status
- Offspring born in most favorable conditions
- Impact of climate change caribou in Greenland  mismatch between onset of migration
(day length) and plant growth (temperature)

Hermaphrodites: animals with both female and male reproductive systems

- Any two individual can mate

- Some species can self fertilize
- Sequential hermaphroditism:
o Protogynous: female fist (most common) (some fish and amphibians)
o Protandrous: male first (e.g. some butterflies and fish)

Fertilization…
- Male gamete fertilizes the female gamete,
- Fertilization: union of sperm and egg
- Can be;
o Internal
 Adaption that enable sperm to reach the egg even in dry environment
 Requires cooperative behavior (copulation) and compatible reproductive
systems
o external
 Requires moist habitat (avoid gamete from drying out, allows sperm to
swim to eggs)
  Gametes released into water;
> asynchronous ( courtship)
> synchronous (broadcast spawning)

Modes of giving birth: if internal fertilization occurs

1. Oviparous: female lays zygote as eggs
2. Viviparous: embryo develops within mothers body (generally fed by placenta, but some
species as eggs fed by yolk)
- Placental mammals:
o Placenta feeds the developing embryo
o Exchange between mother and embryo blood capillaries (nutrients in and waste
out)

Parental care: varies with reproductive strategy

- None  gametes released to environment
- Some  guarded fertilized eggs
- Extensive  protect nurture until adult hood

Sex determination: genetic chromosomal most common:

- Most mammals/ some insects: XX/XY
o XY= male, XX= female, y chromosome expresses male features (and inactivates X
chromosome)
- Some insects: XX/X0
o XX= female, X0= male, sex determined by amount of genes on X chromosome
expressed
- Birds, some reptiles and some insects: ZW
o More varied, usually ZZ= male , ZW=female
- Others:
o Platypus and echidnas have 5 pairs of sex chromosomes (suggested 1 dominate Y
chromosome)

Sex determination  environmental effect

- Temperature dependent sex determination:
o Some reptiles, turtles and tuatara
o impact of climate change??
 - Social:
o Sequential hermaphrodites, e,g, blue head wrasse, clown fish
- Contact:
o Maine worm larva develops into tiny male, if it come sin contact with female (then
sucked into gentle sac of female, producing dern and receiving food) , and then
develops into female

Lecture 8.1: Sensing and Reacting

Information processing and transmission:
Information processing in 3 stages:
- Sensory input (sensory neurons)  sensory input
o Transmit information about external or internal environment
- Information processing (interneurons)  integration
o Integrate multiple sensory inputs unto account context and experience
- Motor output (motor neurons)  effector
o Transmit signal to muscle, causing contraction  movement

CNS: Animals with brain, integration occurs, in CNS. (integration)

PNS: the neurons carrying the information in and out of the CNS. (sensory input, motor output)

Neuron form  cell body contains all organelles

Well adapted to its function:

- Multiple dendrites to receive stimuli
- One long axon to transmit signal to other cell
- Axon ends in many synapses, where chemical messages (NT) pass information to receiving
cell
- Supported by glial cells

Neurons:
- transmit signals by generating action potentials and releasing neurotransmitter in the
synaptic cleft
- ATP pumps: in cell membrane  pump Na+ and K+ in, producing a concentration gradient
- Passive channels: allow K+ ions to equalize  no open Na+ channels  net flow forms a
charge difference across membrane called membrane potential
- Gated ion channels: Na+ gated channels which open in response to stimuli
- Volage gated channels: open when membrane potential reaches particular threshold value
- Action potential: rapid depolarization that occurs, when all voltage gated ion channels are
open
- Wave of depolarization: travels down the axon  faster with myelin sheaths

Transmitting:
- Depolarization wave reach end of axon (synapse)
- Releases ventricles filled with NT’s into intercellular space (synaptic cleft)
- NT opens gated Na+ channels on the next neuron  depolarization cell membrane 
action potential
- Neurons have many snapes from other neurons  forms network

Nervous system:
- Network of neurons + glial cells
 - Glial cells: nourish nerve cells
- Invertebrates: nervous system range from simple nerve nets to CNS
- Vertebrates: have CNS and PNS

Types of sensory input:

Sensory receptor can be:
- Neurons
- Specialized cells  releases NT’s upon detection specific stimuli
o Internal e.g. Blood pressure, body position
o External  e.g. heat, light, chemicals ,pressure

Stimulus and Action potential:

- All action optional exact same amplitude
- Intensity increases 
o increasing frequency of AP
o increase n.o cells involved

Classes of sensory receptors (4):

1. Electromagnetic receptors: detect;
o Electric fields:
 Aquatic animals only (e.g. sharks, fish, platapus)
o Magnetic fields
 Migration animals (e.g. birds, whales, bees)
o Light
 Presence: light detecting organ in vertebrates
 Movement: compound eye in insects
 Colour: single lens eye in vertebrates
2. Mechanoreceptor: receptors have cilia to detect mechanical energy
o pressure,
o touch,
o motion,
o sound
o typically linked to hairs (cilia) that extend outside the receptor cell
3. Chemoreceptors: highly varied group of receptors respond to chemical stimuli (O2, CO2,
glucose, amino acids, pheromones, small, taste)
o Specific
 Most animals: O2, CO2, glucose, amino acids
 In insects: pheromones
o General
 Responding to total solute concentration
 Receptors in brain detect osmolarity of blood and stimulates thirst when
osmolarity increase
4. Thermoreceptors: detect heat and cold (infrared radiation)
o E.g. snakes detect infrared radiation (heat) emitted by warm prey

Nociceptors: (pain receptors) respond to extreme stimuli and trigger defense reactions

o Mechanical
o Chemical
 o Thermal

Movement requires muscle and skeleton:

Muscle: derived from embryotic cells that fused to form one muscle cell
- Cell bundles made of myosin and actin filaments
- Myosin: (thick filaments) slide up  Actin: (thin filaments)
o Causes the sarcomere to shorten, which in turn causes muscle fiber to shorten
- Action potential  NT released at synapse  Ca2+ realses inside muscle fiber  myosin
slides up to actin filament
- Muscles attracted to skeleton convert muscle contraction into locomotion
- Skelton functions (3)
o Protection
o Support
o Locomotion

Three different types of skeletal system:

o Hydro skeleton: flexible, but fragile
o Exoskeleton: durable, great protection, but inflexible and required molting
o Endoskeleton: soft tissue exposed, but repairable

Molting exoskeleton  develop new

Types of movement:
Movement:
- Even sessile animals move e.g. sponges beat their flagella to generate water currents
- Friction and gravity oppose motion; so animals must expend energy
- Amount of energy is reduced by body plan

Movement on land:
- Crawling, waling, running, jumping
- gravity  strong skeletal support and powerful muscles
- minimal air friction  no need for streamlined shape

Movement in water:
- gravity less an issue, but water is dense  minimize drag (e.g. sleek fusiform body shape) 
fast swimmers
- buoyant thus no need to overcome great gravity forces

Movement in air:
- active flight in: insects, birds and mammal (bats)
- needs to generate enough lift to over come gravity
- specialized wings to minimize weight (wing shape adapted to; gliding agility speed)
- reduce weight through:
o young develop outside body
o honey comb bone
o no urinary bladder
o no teeth
Lecture 8.2: The Animal Immune System
The animal immune system:

Pathogen= bacteria, fungus, virus, or other disease causing agent

Internal environment is the ideal habitat for pathogens due to;

- ready source of nutrients
- protected setting
- transport to new environment

Immune system= protects against pathogens  combined body defenses against foreign molecules

- Sub systems (2):

1. Innate
2. Adaptive

External defenses:
- Outer covering of animals = barrier to pathogen entry
- Physical barrier:
o Skin
o Mucus (traps microbes)
- Chemical barriers:
o Acidic secretions (sweat, stomach acids)
o Antimicrobial proteins (saliva, tears, mucus)

Self vs non-self:
- Pathogen breaches barrier of defenses  enter body  body must distinguish self or non-
self
- Immune cells have receptors thar specially bind to foreign molecules ( molecular recognition
system)
 o Innate immunity:
o Adaptive immunity

Innate immune system:

Innate immunity: all animals
- recognition of traits shared by broad ranges of pathogens, using small set of receptors that
bind to molecules/structures common groups of pathogens
- rapid response
- First line of defense  barrier defenses
o Skin
o Mucous membranes
o Secretions
- Second line of defense  internal defenses
o Phagocytic cells
o Natural killer cells
o Antimicrobial proteins
o Inflammatory response

Innate in insects
- Chitin exoskeleton provides physical barrier
- Lysosomes: secreted in digestive tract  breaks down bacterial cell wall
- Hemocytes: special immune cells present in hemolymph
o Ingest and breakdown bacteria and other large foreign substances (phagocytosis)
o Receptors that bind to alien molecules (unique polysaccharides and polymers only
present in fungi and bacteria)
o Binding release antimicrobial peptide -> kill/entrap pathogen  circulate through
hemolymph

Innate in vertebrates: more developed the invertebrates

- More complex, also have additional adaptive immunity
- Various immune cells in blood and tissues called leukocytes (WBC)
- Pathogen detection trigger production and release of peptides/proteins that attack
pathogens  impeded the reproduction, spread (interferon) of pathogen,
- Then signal to cytokines (other immune cells)

Types of WBC:
1. Phagocytes: destroy pathogens by phagocytosis
o Neutrophils (60%) of all WBC
o Monocytes (5%), mature in to macrophages
2. Granulocytes: releases (granules) destructive enzymes that destroy target cells
o Eosinophils 2% , can also phagocytose
o Natural killer cells: detect abnormal protein on cell surface characteristics of virus
infected or cancerous cells
3. Releases histamine: makes blood capillaries become more permeable WBC can move
more easily across
o Basophils (0.5%), incl mast cells

Lymph system:
- Drains and cleans interstitial fluid
 - Role in immune system: filters foreign particles and contain macrophages (pathogen
detection device)

Inflammatory response:
- Localized inflammation response
- Mast cells produce histamine;
o increase capillary,
o increase blood flow
o Causes: swelling, redness and heat
- Macrophages produces cytokines (signal neutrophils)

Systematic inflammation response:

- Widespread response to sever damage or infection
- Massive release of cytokines (and neutrophils) lead to:
o Rapid increase in leukocytes
o Increased body temp (fever)
- Inflammatory response that is out of hand can cause septic shock
o Very high fever
o Low blood pressure
o Poor blow flow though capillaries
o Kills >20 million people world wide/ year

Adaptive immune system of vertebrates:

Adaptive immunity: vertebrates only
- Recognition of traits specific to particular pathogen, using vast array of receptors
- Acquired and specific
- Relies:
o Lymphocytes: surface receptors detect specific pathogen molecules
o presence of infinity varied number of pathogen specific antigen receptors on
lymphocytes cell surface
- Slower response
- Humoral response:
o Antibodies defend against infection in body fluids (released in to extracellular fluid)
 Bind to pathogen and neutralize it
 Promote phagocytosis
 Activate proteins
 Passed from mother to fetus, also present in breast milk
o B cells and plasma cells
- Cell mediated response:
o Cytotoxic cells defend against infection in body cells  toxic proteins to kill
o Helper T cells; activate other lymphocytes

Self-reactivity test:
- Body produces a huge variety of antigen receptors
- Randomly assembled from different gene fragments
o Random assortment can create antigen receptors
o During lymphocyte maturation  undergo self reactivity test
o Failure triggers programmed cell death
Lymphocyte types (2):
1. B lymphocytes: produced and educated in bone marrow
2. T lymphocytes: produced in bone marrow and educated in thymus

Activating lymphocytes:
- Antigen receptor on surface lymphocyte binds to antigen
- Activates that lymphocyte
- Clonal proliferation  clones becoming ;
o Short lived  effector cells
 Organize and conduct the current immune response (2 minutes)
 Cell mediated immune response (T cells)
 Hormonal immune response (B cells)
o Long loved  memory cells

Memory cells: acquired immunity  long term protection (immunological memory)

- Future response to same antigen faster and stronger

- 1st primary response (10-17 days)
- 2nd secondary response (2-7 days)

Immunization: producing memory cells using harmless antigen analogues

- May pose risk to greater population as disease remains in the pool

Challenges with Organ transplants:

- Immune cells recognized transplant as non-self
- find someone with similar MHC and suppress immune system of recipient

Immune disease:
- allergies,: exaggerated response to antigen
- autoimmune stress: immune system targets some molecules of self
- exertion and stress: downgraded immune system by excessive exercise and stress
- immune deficiency: genetic or developmental defect  incomplete immune system

HIV:
- Attacks immune system and mutates quickly
- Infects T helper cells  HIV RNA genome is the reverse transcribed and product DNA
integrated unto host genome  production of new viruses
- Eventually kills all T helper cells (acquired immunodeficiency disorder)
- Overcome the ability to mount antigen-mediated immune response

Lecture 8.3: Animal Behavior

Understanding animal behavior:
Behavior:
- action carried out by muscles under control of nervous system
- motor neuron output = behavior
- discrete sensory inputs can stimulate both simple and complex behaviors
- an essential part of acquiring nutrient and finding a mate
- contributes homeostasis
- essential for survival and reproduction  substantial natural selection over time
Animal behavior can be understood though:
- what stimulus elicits behavior (how)
- How the experience during growth and development impacts influences response (how)
- Dose it impacts survival and reproduction (why)
- What its evolutionary history (why)

Stimuli elicit behavior:

Elicits behavior:
- External stimulus
 Environmental cues (e.g. amount of day light)
 Signal  produced by another animal communication

Stimuli can be:

- Fixed action patterns:
o sequence of unlearned acts directly linked to simple stimulus (hard
wired)
o sign stimulus: initiative response constant and usually carried to completion
- Environmental cue:
o Alteration of dark/light cycle (photoperiod)  circadian rhythms
o Season  drive migrations
o Lunar phase - influences tides  affect marine animal behavior
- Signal from another animal:
o Visual: display of specific stimulus to another animal
o Olfactory: release of chemical messengers
o Auditory: production of sound to send messages
o Tactile: touch

Signals adapted to environment:

- Form communication depends on animals lifestyle and environment
o Terrestrial mammals: mostly nocturnal  use olfactory and auditory signals
o Bords and humans: mostly diurnal (active during day, and rest at night) animals, use
visual and auditory signals

Complex signals:
- Fly courtship ritual:
o Multisensory
o Visual, chemical, tactile and auditory
- Pheromones
o Chemical secreted by one animal that affect behavior of another
o Very common in insects and mammals (alarm, food trail, sex)
o Have major physiological effect of receiver: e.g. queen Bee inhibits development of
ovaries in workers and attacks workers and males to queen

Experience influences the response:

Innate behavior: Behavior fixed to a population,

- Shown in most (all)members of a species
- Present at birth
 - Develops independently of environment an context

Learnt behavior: vary with experience and between individuals

- Modification of behavior  results from experience

- Capability to learn  depends on organisms nervous system
- Learning requires changes in neuronal connectivity

Different types of learning:

- Imprinting: recognition of parent (bonding)  occurs only during short sensitive period
- Cognitive maps: memory that reflects the environment
- Associative learning: making associations between experiences (repeat or avoid behavior for
favorable outcome )
- Cognitive:
o The most complex form of learning
o Involves awareness, reasoning , recollection and judgement
o Many groups of animals exhibit cognition  incl insects
- problem solving:
o behavior is form of cognition activity
o highly developed in primates, dolphins and some birds (esp., crows and ravens)
- Social learning:
o Learn to solve problems by observing behavior of other animals
o Social learning from the roots of culture

Understanding why:
Selection for individual survival and reproductive success can explain diverse behavior (including
altruism)

Affect survival /reproductive success

o Foraging behavior  obtaining food
 Balance between;
Energy costs and benefits (nutrition)
Risk (coming across predator) and reward (finding food)
o Mating behavior
 Mating systems
Monogamy: 1 male and 1 female pair
Polygyny: 1 male , many females
Polyandry: 1 female, many males
 Perinatal care  mating system
Young offspring that cannot care for itself  high level of parental
care  monogamous spp
Offspring can feed and take care of self  males maximize
reproductive success with multiple females  polygynous spp

Paternity: influences mating behavior and level of parental care

- Low certainty with internal fertilization mating and birth (egg laying) are sperated over
time  paternal care rare in mammals and birds
- High certainty with external fertilization, egg laying and mating occur together  parental
and maternal care equally likely to occur
Sexual selection:
- Natural selection  differences in reproductive success are consequence of differences in
mating success
- Mate choice by female: favor arbitrary traits (bright coloration) correlated with heath and
vitality
- Male competition for mates
o Agonistic behavior, often ritualized contest
o Various alternative strategies

Evolution of behavior:
- Current behavior  result of natural selection  passed to next generation
- Genetic basis: e.g. fixed action patterns, courtship rituals, etc)
- Culture: learned behavior passed to offspring though social learning
- Behavior conveys increased survival and reproductive success

Altruism: disinterested and selfless concern for the well-being of others.

- Unselfish behaviors
- Increases individual fitness 
- Includes:
o inclusive fitness
 total effect an individual of proliferating its gene by producing its own
offspring and providing aid to close relatives
 association between altruistic behavior and closeness of relatives
o reciprocal atrium
 favor for favor (reciprocate)
 usually limited to animals with stable social groups (primates, pack animals)

human behavior:
- capacity for learning and highly developed symbolic language
 - lead to rapid acquisition of new behaviors and skills
- some behaviors have less clearly defined function in survival and courtship
- e.g. play  practice unexpected and unpredictable

ecture 9.1: plant diversity 1: mosses and ferns (non-vascular plants)

Origin and phylogeny of land plants:
Major groups of photosynthetic organisums:
- algae (Protista)
- mosses (plantae) 
o bryophytes
o seedless
o non vascular
- ferns (plantae)
o seedless
o vascular
- gymnosperm (plantae)
o vascular
o seeded
- angiosperm (plantae)
o vascular
o seeded

Kingdom Plante:
- photosynthetic organisms adapted to life on land (live most in terrestrial habitats)
- eukaryotes
- cell walls
- photosynthetic autotrophs
o sunlight source of energy for metabolism
o fixed carbon for CO2 to create organic compounds
- Life on land possible cause of plants
- Live in all but harshest terrestrial habitats
- Two distinct forms:
1. Vascular
2. Non-vascular

Land plants colonized land around 500MYA:

o Positive to moving on land  more sunlight, more CO2, less predators
o Negative to moving on land less water, gravity

Land plants are closely related to green algae, but have developed adaptions to land
o Alternation of generations
o Specialized sex organs (gametangia)
 Archegonium: female plants
 Antheridium: male plants
o Multicellular, dependent embryos that are protected with parent plant
(embryophytes)
o Spores protected;
 against drying by encasing in special wall (sporopollenin)
 specialized spore-producing structures (sponangia)
 o Apical meristems  rapid directed growth
 Specialized tissue growing tips of plant where cells divide repeatedly
 Cell produced by special apical meristem the differentiate into outer
epidermis , or internal tissues

Sporophyte:
- Diploid (2n), multicellular stage of life phase (spore producing plant)

Gametophyte:
- Haploid (n) , life phase (gamete producing plant)

Alternations of generations: most organisms have a diploid ad haploid phase

Non-vascular plants: mosses the first invaders

Heterophyte : liverworts

Bryophyta: moss

Anthocerophyta : hornworms

Bryophytes: moss
- Small, simple structures
- No vascular tissues
- Require water for reproduction
- Life cycle dominated by gametophyte (haploid)
 Others with protected embryos e.g. angiosperm diploid dominate
- Sporophytes are elongated, visible to naked eye
 Diploid generation nutritionally dependent upon haploid generation
 2n Permanently attached to haploid
- Colonize bare soil and rocks to help retain nitrogen
- Life cycle: two stages
1. Protonema:
o Spore germinates to produce protonema
o Anatomy:
 Branched
 Filamentous
  Photosynthetic
 Persist for caring period of time resembles filamentous green algae
o Leafy haploid stage: leafy shoots composed of 3 structures:
1) Leaves
 1 cell thick
 Non vascularized
 Photosynthetic
2) Rhizoids
 Anchored mechanism
 Water and nutrient uptake
3) Stems
 Non vascularized
 Support and connect leaves to rhizoids
2. Antheridia and archegonia:
o Consists of sterile protective tissue ad fertile cells
o Give rise to by gametes by mitosis
o Male gametangia = antheridia  produce numerous biflagellate sperm
o Female gametangia= archegonia  produces single non motile egg

Water needed to reproduce:

- Sperm have flagella for swimming through water
- Sperm travel from antheridia to archegonia in water, eg. Drops of dew or rain
- Zygote retained with archegonium after formation
- Zygote grows into diploid plant

Sporophyte  diploid:
- consists of:
o seta or stalk transport between foot and terminal capsule
o capsule (sporangium)  produces spores (sporophyte)
 meiosis occurs in capsule
 millions of haploid spores
 spore walls made of sporopollenin  resistant to drying out
 spores can survive for years without water
 spore germinate to produce a protonema

An evolutionary leap forward: ferns and fern allies

Ferns: seedless, vascular plants

Common features
- Chlorophyll a
- Protective embryo
- Photosynthetic terrestrial plants
- Reduction of gametophyte; diploid generation dominate
- Vascular plant tissue present
 Phloem: conducts sugar
 Xylem: water conducting
- Absence of seed and flower
- All have roots, stems and leaves worth vascular tissue
- May have rhizome horizontal underground stem  produced leaves and roots
Phylum’s (2):
1) Lycophyte:
- Included club and spike mosses, quillworts (they are not mosses)
- Herbaceous
2) Monilophytes:
- Includes ferns, horse tails and whisk ferns and their relatives
- Most widespread seedless vascular plants

Vascular tissues: provide structural support and ability to carry water and nutrients high above the
ground  outcompete short plants for sunlight and can disperse spores further

1. Xylem:
- Includes deal tube shaped cells (treacheries)
- Carry water and minerals up form roots
- Cell wall strengthened by lignin
- Provides support and enables vascular plants to grow tall
2. Phloem:
- Living cells
- Distribute sugar amino acids and other organic compounds

Roots:
- Anchor plant,  like rhizoids
- Absorb water an nutrient from the soil

Leaves:
- Primary photosynthetic organ of vascular plants
- Greatly increase S:A  capture more sunlight energy

Fern life cycle:

1. (haploid)  gametophytes produce haploid gametes by mitosis
2. (haploid)  two gametes unite (fertilization)  form diploid zygote
3. (diploid)  zygote develops into multicellular diploid sporophyte
4. (diploid)  mitosis  sporophyte matures : produces haploid spores by meiosis
5. (haploid) spores develop into multicellular haploid gametophytes  mitosis to gamete

Sporophyte:
- Horizontal stem (rhizome)
- Large leaves (founds; leaf called pinnae)  spore producing sporangia on underside
o Unique manner of unfurling leaves (circinate vernation)
o Sporangia in underside (sori) protected by scale (indusium)
- Roots  can be part of stem

Gametophyte:
- Non-vascular, photosynthetic, bisexual
 Independent of sporophyte
 Multicellular rhizoids  roots
- Antheridia and archegonia on bottom of thallus
 Archegonium  one nonmotile egg
 Antheridium several flagellated sperm
- Water = gamete transfer agent
Carboniferous period:
- Ferns removed CO2 from the atmosphere
- Contributed to global cooling at end of carboniferous

Summary:
- Vascular tissues:
o Xylem: dead cells; water and nutrients
o Phloem: living cells; sugar, amino acids and organics compounds
- Roots: attachment + water and nutrients
- Levels: increased capture of sunlight
- Sporophyte dominate
- 2 phyla: lycophytes and monilophytes (ferns+)
- Formed first forests in Devonian and carboniferous major cooling; became coal

Lecture 9.2: Plant diversity 2: seed plants (gymnosperm and angiosperm)

Life on land: evolution of seed plants
Major innovations of seed plants (3):
1. Tiny gametophytes large sporophytes  A smaller gametophyte  bigger sporophyte
2. Heterospory
o Microspore male gametophyte (protects pollen grain)
o Megaspore  Female gametophyte (protects ovule)
o Internal fertilization and protection of embryotic sporophyte seed
3. Protected gametophytes and embryo for reproduction
o Micro spore: pollen grain
o Megaspore: ovule  seed
- Can reproduce without water

Arose due to climatic extremes:

 Rainfall less reliable, long dry spells
 Lineally very small distribution by now dominate

Two major clades of seed plants:

1) Gymnosperm: naked seed
2) Angiosperm: contained seed (fruit)

How do seeds plants get the male and female together:

Pollination:
- grains transport by wind and animals, dose not require water
- grains resistant to drying
- do not need water for sperm
- allow plants to colonize dry environments

other differences:
- wood structure
- different pollen
- gymnosperms lack flowers
- gymnosperms have 4 phyla, angiosperm have 1

Gymnosperms : seed exposed

- Vascular tissues, seeds, but no flowers
- Gymnosperm phyla (4)
 1. Conifers (cone-bearing, 600 species)
o Non-motile sperm
o Largest phylum
o Highly adaptable (arid lands, high altitudes)
2. Cycads (palm like, 130 species)
o Motile sperm
o Separate female and male individuals (dioecious)
o Endangered 75%
3. Geophytes: not well understood, 75 species
o 3 unusual genera
o Non motile sperm
o Group united by very similar floral morphology and considered the link between
gymnosperm and angiosperm
4. Gingko: 1 species, planted in cities
o Motile sperm
o Only wild population in weastern china
o Dioecious
 Females: edible seeds
 Only pollen producing males
- Male gametophyte contained with pollen grain,
- Female gametophyte contained with in ovule

Life cycle:
- Tiny gametophyte, large dominate sporophyte
- Separate gametophytes  male and female
o Both lack vascular tissues and non-photosynthetic
- Pollination: pollen grains dispense in wind, grow into female tissues to release sperm into
ovules = internal fertilization
- Fertilized ovules turn in to seeds

Male cones: meiosis produces male plants

- Released from diploid plant as pollen grains
- Immature male plant 4 cells, contain pollen within pollen grain wall
- No antheridium or cellular male gamete

Female cones:
- Megasporangiate comes
- Larger, more complex then male -> woody
- Each scale  2 ovules on upper surface
- Consists of:
o Megasporangium  nucleus
o Surrounded by integument
o An opening in the integument faces center of cone – micropyle

Female haploid (N) plants

- Called megagametophyte
- never released from the nucellus (megasporangium)
o several archegonia develop near the micropylar end of the female plant
 each contains a large egg
 o develop very slowly
o mature stage often 9 months
- Pollen tube has to digest through female tissue to reach eggs and release sperm
o Takes months!
o Forms an embryo

Developing Seed
- ovule (integument + megasporangium) matures into a Seed
- Seeds germinate, and develop into mature diploid plants

Evolutionary innovations:

Angiosperms: flowering plants: seed inside fruit

Angiosperm
- Most diverse and widespread of all plants
o Approximately 250,000 known species, 11,000 genera; 275 families and 49 orders
o Dominate nearly all terrestrial ecosystems
- “angeion” (vessel, container) and “sperm” (seed) → “contained seed”
- Two key adaptations and unique reproductive structures: flowers and fruits
- Very recent: 120 million years ago
- Rise and fall of sea levels- bare land, changing climate, seasonal rainfall
o conifers, cycads, ferns stressed

Flower
- Unique structure for sexual reproduction
- In many species, insects and other animals transfer pollen from one flower to sex organ of
another
o Some angiosperms still wind pollinated
o Insects and angiosperms appeared at the same time
- Animal pollination promotes outcrossing and enhances pollination success
o disadvantage to mate with self
o gymnosperms -wind pollinated passive, costs a lot of energy with small chance of
success

Structures in a flower:
- Specialised shoot with up to 4 types of modified leaves:
1. Sepal: green, enclose the flower before it opens
2. Petal: brightly coloured to attract pollinators if not wind-pollinated »
3. Stamen: produce microspores → pollen grain with male gametophyte (stored in anther)
4. Carpel: “container” where megaspores produced → female gametophyte • Stigma, style
(canal) and ovary (contains one or more ovules)

Sex cycle:
- Diploid (2n)- complex plant with roots, stems, leaves, flowers \
- results from seed germination
- flowers » stamens- male reproductive organ » pistil- female reproductive organ

Male gametophyte: in anther:

- Anthers have sporangia
- produce 4 haploid microspores (n)
- Microspores become pollen grains
 - microspore divides
o 2 cell structure- generative cell, tube cell
o generative cell divides- 2 sperm
- mature male gametophyte (n) is germinated pollen grain

Female gametophyte:
- has 7 cells and 8 nuclei
- meiosis
- produces 7 celled, 8 nuclei structure =embryo sac =mature female gametophyte
o 3 nuclei near micropyle (=egg cell, synergids)
o 2 nuclei in middle- polar nucleii
o 3 at opposite end

Pollination:
- Pollen tube germinates
- Grows down pistil
- one sperm nucleus unites with eggzygote
- other unites with 2 polar nucleii (3N)- triple fusion- endosperm
- called “double fertilization”

Angiosperm innovations: flower and fruit

>250,000; 2 main groups:

1. Monocots:
o 1 leaf in embryo (cotyledon)
o no true wood,
o includes lilies , grasses and palms

2. Eudicots:
o 2 cotyledons
o Typical tree and shrubs

Angiosperms are dominate (>250,000 species; >99.5% seed plant species) because:

- Efficient reproduction (flower and fruit)

- Resistant to drought and cold (tough seeds, deciduous leaves)
- More efficient vascular system (tracheid’s +vessel elements)
- Large chemical diversity (defense)

Lecture 9.3: Plant Anatomy

Plant organization:
- Plants are composed of cells < tissues < organs
- Basic organs (3)
1. Roots:
o Anchor
o Absorbs water and minerals
o Stores products of photosynthesis (sugars)
o Increase S:A tiny root hairs
o Most eudicots and gymnosperms have: taproot system  primary root emerge
from germinating seed
o Monocots have fibrous root system  primary root dies
 2. Stems:
o Elongate and orient shoot of optimal photosynthesis
o Elevate reproductive structures
o Consist of:
 Nodes: points at which leaves are attached
 Internodes: the stem segments in between nodes
o Apical meristem: tip of stem, most growth happens
o Axillary bud: between leaf and stem
o Can from lateral shoot/ branch
o Apical dominance: helps maintain dormancy in most axillary buds
3. Leaves:
o Produce sugars by photosynthesis
o Exchange gases
o Dissipate heat
o Veins:
 Eudicots: branching veins
 Monocots: parallel veins

Shoot system= stems +leaves

Plant tissues:
Basic tissues (3):
1. Dermal: protection
o Tightly packed
o Covered in cuticle (waxy surface  water tight)
o Surface of tightly packed cells  epidermis
o Characteristics on organ:
 Root: enhance water and mineral uptake
 Stem and leaves: protect against water loos
 Leaves; increase gas exchange  stroma
- Stroma:
o Composed of 2 guard cells
 Open when full of water
 close when water is lost
o Open to let in CO2 and O2 out
o Cane let H2O when open
o Close when hot and dry minimize H2O loss

2. Vascular: long range transport  conduction

o Xylem:
 transports water and dissolved minerals
 dead  tracheid  long cell
 include tracheid’s + vessel members
 angiosperms have vessel elements  shorter cexlls
o Phloem:
 Sugars transport  phloem join on sieve plates
 Living
 Mature cells have no nucleus  Companion cells
 3. Ground tissue: all other functions  bulk plant
o Photosynthesis
o Support
o Storage
o Cell types (3)
1) Parenchyma: metabolic function; alive
2) Collenchyma: flexible structure in growing tips; alive
3) Sclerenchyma: more rigid; can be dead (skeleton)

Lecture 10.1: Plant growth and Development

New tissues originates from meristems
- Plants have indeterminate growth: (not animals which have determinate growth)

Mechanisms of growth in plants (2):

1. All plants: primary growth (length)
2. Woody plants (gymnosperms, most eudicots: secondary growth (thickness)

Primary growth
Primary growth: apical meristems produce new primary tissues  extends the plant lengthwise

- Occurs at tip of root and shoots

- Apical meristems;
o All tissue originate for rapidly dividing meristems)
o Two meristem in embryo (root/shoots)
o All meristems at end of root/branches called apical meristems
- Root cap prote3cts apical meristem
- Protoderm  epidermis
- Ground meristem  ground tissue + cork cambium
- Procambium  vascular tissues (xylem and phloem) + vascular cambium

Root: 3 zones of cells:

1. Cell division: stem cells are there immediate products
2. Elongation: new cells elongate  pushed tip further down
3. Differentiation: maturation cells  become distinct cell types

Root arrangement:
- Eudicots: star shape xylem
- Monocots: ring of xylem alternation phloem

Slight differences between roots and shoots

- Roots:
o Root cap  dome shaped cells mass  protects the apical meristem
o Lateral roots from stem cell in ground tissues
o Vascular cylinder  solid core of xylem and phloem
o Cortex: ground tissues
o Root epidermis: absorptive portion
o Lateral roots arise  form stem cells on edge of vascular cylinder
- Shoots:

Apical gives rise to

 Protoderm: dermal
  Ground meristem: group tissue
 Procambium: vascular tissue
o Apical buds
o Lateral growth from axillary buds (inhibited by apical dominance)
o Vascular bundles

Secondary growth
Secondary growth: lateral meristems produce news secondary tissues, which thickens the stem and
roots

- Vascular cambium:
o Grows vascular tissue
o Producing secondary xylem (towards inside
o Producing secondary phloem (towards outside)
- Cork cambium:
o Produces periderm tissue to replace disintegrating epidermis as plant thickens
o Hard and water impermeable cork on the outside
o Filler phelloderm on the inside

Lecture 10.2: resource acquisition and transport in vascular plants

Innovations of vascular plants
Short distance transport
Short distance:
- Can take different paths through cells
o Apo-plastic route: within cell wall
o Sym-plastic route: within cytosol, to connected cell via plasmodesmata
o Transmembrane route: across multiple cell membranes
o Casparian Strip: control entry into vascular tissue in root
- Movement of substances: powered by H+ gradient
- Movement of water: powered by osmosis
o Expressed in terms of water potential: the sum of the solute potential and the
pressure potential
o If cellular water pressure > environment water pressure = water is pushed out
o If cellular water pressure < environmental water pressure = water is pulled in

Long distance transport

Long distance:
- Bulk flow
- Cohesion tension hypothesis:
o pulling tension for water and dissolved minerals in xylem
o evaporation at leaf pulls water from root
- Pressure flow hypothesis:
o Pushing pressure for sugars in phloem
o Sugars reduce water potentials at sugar sources (hyper-osmotic)
o Drawing water in and pushing phloem towards sugar sinks
Lecture 10.3: soil and plant nutrients
What is soil:
Soil composed of;
- Inorganic ions
- Organic matter (humus)
- Wide range of living organisms

Soil are affected by texture and composition:

- Loam: a mixture of;
o sand (largest particles) for aeration
o clay (smallest particles for water retention
- Cations:
o +ve retained bound to soil particles
o cation exchange important in process to release minerals
- Anions -ve often leached away

Australian soils:
Austrian soils:
- Are poor in nutrients
- Have been affected by land use

Nutrient needs of plants

Range of nutrients needed to grow:
- Macronutrients needed in large amounts (C, H, O, N, P, S)
- Micronutrients needed in small amounts

Mutualistic symbionts collaborate with plants

- Symbiont get sugar from plant
- Plant gets N from bacteria on soil and root nodules
- Fungal mycorrhizae, greatly increase surface of roots

Soil conservation:
Improve soil in range of ways (carefully to avoid making soil conditions worse):
- Add fertilizer
- Irrigation
- Adjust soil pH
- Control erosion

Lecture 11.1: plant behavior

Plant behavior:
Behavior  how an organism responds to an external stimuli

Plants can detect external stimuli

- Light
- Mechanical stress
- Gravity
- Environmental stress (water, heat)
- Chemical signals
Plant responses (behavior) involves directed growth and development

Responses to light:
- Light is critical determinate of plant growth
- Plants have photoreceptors for light
o Blue: Involved in;
 phototropism
 Opening of stroma
 Elongation of juvenile roots
o Red: involved in;
 Seed germination
 Shade avoidance
 Internal clocks
 Flowering
- Photoperiod: duration of day light
o Is an important environmental cue to synchronize plant activity within its
environment
o Determine seasons

Other environmental cues detected by plants:

When plants grow in the dark:
Environmental stress can be:
- Abiotic (non-living)
o Water
o Salt
o Temperature

- Biotic (living)
o Mechanical stimulation

Plants respond to both

Plant hormones:
Plants detect and respond to:
- Gravity (straoloths)
- Drought, flooding
- Salt
- Temperature (heat shock proteins, membrane fluidity)
- Mechanical stimulation

Chemical messengers (plant hormones):

- Heavily involved in plant responses to;
o External stimuli
o Direct growth and development

Key hormones:
o Auxin:
 stimulates stem elongation
 promotion of formation of lateral and adventitious roots
  Regulates development of fruit
 Enhances apical dominance
 Promotes vascular differentiation
 Retards leaf abscission
o Cytokinin:
 Regulate cell division in shoot and roots
 Modify apical dominance
 Promote lateral bud growth
 Promote the movement of nutrients into sink tissues
 Stimulate seed germination
 Delay leaf senescence
o Ethylene:
 Promotes ripening of fruit
 Promotes leaf abscission
 Promotes triple response in seedlings
 Promotes root hair formation
o Abscisic acid  ABA:
 Inhibits growth
 Promotes stroma closure during drought
 Promotes seed dormancy
 Inhibits early germination

o Gibberellins:
 Stimulates stem elongation
 Stimulates pollen tube growth
 Promotes seed development and fruit growth and germination
 Regulates sex determination
 Transition from juvenile to adult phases

Lecture 11.2: plant defenses

Physical barriers:
- Plants interact with all other life forms
- Some mutualistic symbiosis (pollinating animals, mycorrhizal fungi, nitrogen fixing bacteria)
- All life forms can also be enemies of plans (herbivorous, parasitic fungi, pathogenic bacteria
and viruses)
- Plants have evolved a variety of physical defenses
o Cuticle
o Thorns
o Trichomes
o Cell wall

Plant immune response

Plant defenses can be:
- Biological: immune system, silencing RNA, mimicry
- Chemical: toxic chemicals
- Behavioral: changing flowering time, calling for help
Lecture 11.3: plant-animal interactions
Plant -animal interactions
Plant – animal interactions (PAI) can be:

- Commensal: (+/0): birds nest, seed hitch hiking

- Antagonistic: (+/-): food, tricking pollinators
- Mutualistic: (+/+): body guard, edible seeds, pollinators

Angiosperm pollination
- Many angiosperms rely on animals for pollination
- Nectar is a sweet reward in exchange for helping plants to reproduce
- Pollination syndromes:
o Bee  yellow, blue, ultraviolet nectar guides
o Flies dark colored small like rotting flesh
o Moths strong smell, white
o Birds large, nectar rich
o Mammals  strong smell

Angiosperm and animal co-evolution

- Co-evolution between animal pollinator and plants:
o Ensures loyalty to the plan species
o Pollen more likely to reach other members of the same species
- Angiosperm co-evolved with insets
- Better adapted to changing climate

Lecture 12.1: principles of ecology

Population ecology:
Organism < population< community < ecosystem=biome< biosphere (the planet)

- Ecosystem: combination of abiotic and biotic factors

Species interactions can be classified by there effect on both species involved, and include:
- Competition (-/-)
- Predation, herbivory, parasitism (+/-)
- Mutualism (symbiosis) (+/+)

The biosphere:
Terrestrial biomes are characterized by:
- Rainfall
- Temperature

Aquatic biomes characterized by:

- Salinity
- Light
- Substance (water or sediment)

Species distribution determined by:

- Geography
- Habitat selection (behavior)
- Biotic (living) factors
 - Abiotic (non-living) factors

Lecture 12.2: no plant B

Direct and indirect human impacts:
Human impact:

- Human part of ecosystem  modern technology cause significant environmental change

 Direct: physical habitat destruction
 Indirect: pollution and disrupt element cycling
- Climate change:
 Human activity releases GHG, which are responsible for climate change

Climate change
Human population growth
Human growth  exponential over last 200 years not sustainable

- Growth seems to be stabilizing

- Carrying capacity of earth is uncertain
- Broad look at sustainability for futureseollapse of civilizations