1 PRACTICAL RESEARCH 1

2
3 1. HOW TO WRITE AN ABSTRACT
4 2. LANGUAGE PRACTICE: LINKING WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS
5
6
7 Aims:
8 - to engage students in analyzing sample abstracts
9 - to engage students in authentic error correction
10
11
12
13 How to write an abstract
14 1. Introduction
15
16 What is an abstract?
17 Why are abstracts so important?
18 What types of abstracts do you know?
19 How do the specific types of abstracts differ?
20
21
22 Exercise 1. Look at the abstract samples below and answer the following answers.
23
24 a. Which one is a descriptive abstract?
25 b. Which one is an informative abstract?
26 c. Which one is a conference abstract?
27 d. Which one is a research abstract?
28 e. Which one is a dissertation abstract?
29
30 Discuss what features differentiate them.
31
32 1. Economies with Interacting Agents
33 Alan P. Kirman
34
35 This paper discusses economic models in which agents interact directly with each other rather than through the
36 price system as in the standard general equilibrium model. It is suggested that the relationship between micro and
37 macro behavior is very different than that in the standard model and that the aggregate phenomena that can arise
38 are rich. The models considered include ones with global interaction in which all agents can interact with each
39 other and ones in which agents can only interact with their immediate neighbors. Both static and dynamic models
40 are considered and the latter includes the class of evolutionary economic models.
41
42 2. Economics of Organizing Product Development in the Extended Enterprise
43 Paulo Gomes
44
45 Firms are increasingly facing the challenge of organizing product development effort in extended settings, i.e.,
46 across the boundaries of several firms. This dissertation looks at the implications of this trend to the development
47 cost structure, in particular to the coordination cost.
48 The theoretical framework is based on transaction cost economics, design theory and organizational learning.
49 Building on this literature, the dissertation addresses the following questions: what are the indicators of
50 coordination costs for different types of development tasks? Do these help explain the task sourcing decision? And,
51 do firms learn how to coordinate development tasks?
52 Three empirical models were developed to address these questions. The first model proposes that a set of task
53 attributes derived from transaction cost economics, including a proxy for asset specificity, affect both the task
54 sourcing decision and its coordination cost. Then, I test for differences in the coordination cost of 'generation' and

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 55 'test' types of tasks, a classic distinction in design theory. Finally, the dissertation tests a 'learning model' for
56 development task coordination effort. The data was collected from 11 software development projects conducted at
57 a global firm in the medical device industry. The total sample size consists of 71 system development tasks.
58 The main findings were as follows. The proxy for asset specificity, internal problem solving, is a significant
59 predictor of both the likelihood of outsourcing a development task and the associated coordination cost. Moreover,
60 the impact of internal problem solving on the coordination cost is significantly larger for outsourced tasks. The
61 results also reveal asymmetries in the coordination cost for generation and test tasks. Finally, I find evidence that
62 projects were able to reduce coordination effort over time.  
63 The findings of the dissertation should be useful in several ways. Recognizing indicators of coordination cost and
64 the asymmetric nature of coordination costs for different types of tasks may provide a more principled approach for
65 organizing extended product development. By systematically exploring the ability to reduce coordination effort
66 through competence development and management of the task dependence structure, we may be able to discover
67 more efficient ways for engaging external partners in development efforts.
68
69 3. Hurricane Katrina - Storm Stretches Refiners Past a Perilous Point
70 Jad Mouawad, New York Times, September 11, 2005, Page A27
71
72 This article discusses the impact of the storm on the country's oil refining capacity. At one point the article notes
73 that the storm idled 5 percent of the refining capacity in the United States. It then quotes an analyst who comments
74 that this is just 1 percent of world production, and that there is a world market.
75 Actually, for refined products, like gasoline and home heating oil, to a large extent the market is national or even
76 regional. Many states have very specific rules on emissions of various pollutants. Refineries have to be set up to
77 produce fuel that meets these requirements. In many cases, few, if any, foreign refiners will be set up to meet these
78 standards. While they can change over time, at the moment foreign refiners may have little ability to meet U.S.
79 demand for gasoline or other refined products.
80 It is also worth noting that major U.S. oil companies may benefit by deliberately keeping capacity off line. The loss
81 of capacity will push up prices and possibly raise profits.
82
83 4. Disciplinary Writing for Publication in English: Empowering and Equipping EFL
84 Doctoral Students with Writing Tools and Skills
85 Katherine Jenkins and Paul Sonders
86
87 The proposed presentation will draw on and contribute to the research in genre-based pedagogies with a focus on
88 teaching of disciplinary writing in English for publication. Although the concept of genre has been utilized as a
89 research and teaching tool in many different fields of inquiry, attempts at establishing effective EFL writing
90 pedagogies have not completely succeeded in achieving their didactic goals as explicit genre teaching raises many
91 unanswered questions such as: How can a specific genre be taught outside the context of its use? In particular, how
92 can EFL students acquire such a complex and intricate genre as the research article in classroom environments?
93 What tools, skills and knowledge are necessary for these students to apply in order to be adequately equipped for
94 disciplinary writing?
95 Several solutions to these questions will be offered stemming from the experience of the authors with teaching an
96 EFL doctoral writing course focused on publishing in geographical and medical journals. Particularly, two specific
97 approaches to teaching disciplinary writing will be put forward, namely a corpus-based and process-based approach.
98 The last decade has seen a gradual shift from the passive use of large general English corpora (e.g., British National
99 Corpus) to the exploration and application of quite small genre- and journal-specific corpora collected by students
100 themselves (e.g., a corpus of 40 medical case reports from a specific medical journal). This shift has been conducive
101 to greater autonomy of EFL students and their increased self-confidence in learning to write in the disciplines. The
102 authors will offer suggestions how such a corpus-based approach can be applied to teaching writing for publication.
103 In addition, important questions will be tackled regarding the nuts and bolts of creating small disciplinary corpora
104 and ways students can avail themselves of using simple text analysis tools (e.g., TextSTAT).
105 Regarding the latter approach, we will argue for a process-based writing instruction including pre-writing strategies
106 such as ‘free writing’, ‘mind mapping’, and ‘patch writing’. Various revision techniques and strategies will be
107 discussed such as frontal ‘group editing’, organizing and delivering ‘writers’ retreats’ and designing ‘one-to-one
108 writing conferences’.
109 The overall aim of the presentation is to stress the importance of raising students’ awareness of the many complex
110 but often implicit linguistic, disciplinary and cultural aspects of writing in English for publication. Specific
111 examples and illustrations of both the approaches will be included in the presentation to attain the stated aim.
112
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115

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116 Some initial hints
117
118 Here are some other points to keep in mind when writing abstracts. Read and discuss them.
119
120  Your readers expect you to summarize your conclusions as well as your purpose, methods,
121 and main findings. Emphasize the different points in proportion to the emphasis they receive
122 in the body of the document.
123  Do not refer in the abstract to information that is not in the document.
124  Choose whether to write in first person style (“I” or “We”) or third person style (“This
125 dissertation shows…”). If you prefer first person style, however, avoid using “we” unless
126 your work has more than one author. Likewise, avoid beginning each sentence with “I”. In
127 other words, third person style is always preferable.
128  Do not overuse the passives. “The study tested” is better than “It was tested by the study”.
129  If possible avoid trade names, acronyms, abbreviations, or symbols. You would need to
130 explain them, and that takes too much room.
131  Use keywords from the document. For published work, the abstract is "mined" for the words
132 used to index the material--thus making it more likely someone will cite your article.
133  Be coherent and cohesive.
134
135 2. Structure of research and dissertation abstracts
136 A properly written abstract consists of the Title of the study and the Body of the abstract.
137
138 Title
139 Make your title concise, but also descriptive.
140
141 Body of the abstract
142 The abstract is a very brief overview of your entire study. It tells the reader what you did, why you
143 did it, how you did it, what you found, and what it means. The abstract is the chief way that
144 scientists decide which research reports to read.
145
146 The following Abstract Worksheet Form is meant to help you prepare the first draft of your abstract.
147 The sequence of sentences in the worksheet is ordered in a logical fashion, beginning with an
148 introduction and proceeding to your methodology, results, discussion, and conclusions.
149
150 For your final draft, make sure the abstract “flows” logically (again, see below Cohesion section).
151 Give it to friends to read. Ask them to tell you what they think you actually did and what you found.
152 Revise as necessary.
153
154
155 Abstract Worksheet Form
156 Adapted from How to Write an Abstract, online at http://www.okstate.edu/education/jshs/abstract.htm
157
158 Project/Study Title - Keep it concise, but descriptive.
159
160 Body
161 1. Topic sentence - Introduction (optional)
162 Introduces the topic of the study and the reasons for its investigation.
163
164 2. Subject/Purpose
165 What is this project about? Why is this project interesting or important?
166

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167 3. Hypothesis/Prediction
168 What did you think you would find? Why?
169
170 4. Approach/Methodology
171 Briefly explain the approach/methodology you followed in order to test
172 your prediction.
173
174 5. Findings/Discussion
175 What did you find when you performed your test? And are your results
176 consistent with your initial hypothesis and prediction? Why or why not?
177
178 6. Conclusion
179 What do these results mean? Why should anyone become excited or
180 interested in your findings?
181
182 Exercise 1.
183 (from Writing up Research - The Abstract, online at http://www.languages.ait.ac.th/el21abst.htm)
184
185 Here is an abstract from a published paper. It is 220 words long. Read it through looking for the
186 main purpose of each sentence (for example, introduction, hypothesis/prediction, methodology,
187 main findings, or conclusion). Underline sentences that express the introduction,
188 hypothesis/prediction, methodology, main findings, or conclusion.
189

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190 Helwa, N. H. and Abdel Rehim, Z. S. (1997). Experimental Study of the Performance of
191 Solar Dryers with Pebble Beds. Energy Sources, 19, 579-591.

192 Major problems of the arid region are transportation of agricultural products and losses due
193 to spoilage of the products, especially in summer. This work presents the performance of a
194 solar drying system consisting of an air heater and a dryer chamber connected to a
195 greenhouse. The drying system is designed to dry a variety of agricultural products. The
196 effect of air mass flow rate on the drying process is studied. Composite pebbles, which are
197 constructed from cement and sand, are used to store energy for night operation. The
198 pebbles are placed at the bottom of the drying chamber and are charged during the drying
199 process itself. A separate test is done using a simulator, a packed bed storage unit, to find
200 the thermal characteristics of the pebbles during charging and discharging modes with
201 time. Accordingly, the packed bed is analysed using a heat transfer model with finite
202 difference technique described before and during the charging and discharging processes.
203 Graphs are presented that depict the thermal characteristics and performance of the pebble
204 beds and the drying patterns of different agricultural products. The results show that the
205 amount of energy stored in the pebbles depends on the air mass flow rate, the inlet air
206 temperature, and the properties of the storage materials. The composite pebbles can be used
207 efficiently as storing media.

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208
209 3. Language Focus
210
211 A. Topic sentence - Introduction
212
213 The introductory sentence is optional. It allows the writer to focus the reader’s attention on the topic
214 of the study and the reasons why that subject is worth investigating.
215
216 Here are some examples:
217 a. According to recent evidence, racial and ethnic discrimination in housing continues to be
218 widespread. [This paper…]
219 b. Central city households who subsidize local public sector goods through local property taxes
220 have an incentive to flee from the city or to change the jurisdiction's boundary. [The authors
221 focus on…]
222 c. There is an active debate in transition economies about the extent to which employee and
223 foreign ownership ought to be encouraged or discouraged in privatization, but empirical
224 evidence is scarce. [This paper …]
225 d. Since 1978, China has experienced four episodes of economic fluctuations, during which the
226 government used macro controls to restore stability. [This paper …]
227
228
229 Exercise 2. Read the examples above and discuss the following points.
230
231 1. Are introductory statements general or specific?
232 2. Are they in first person style or third person style?
233 3. What tenses are used?
234
235 B. Subject/Purpose
236
237  Third person style:
238
239 The / This paper analyzes, investigates, explores,
240 article examines, re-examines, outlines,
241 thesis describes, shows, introduces,
242 dissertation evaluates, considers …
243
244  First person style:
245
246 In this paper I / we* analyse, investigate, explore,
247 article examine, re-examine, outline,
248 theses describe, show, introduce,
249 dissertation evaluate, consider…
250
251 Exercise 3. Read the sentences below and fill in the gaps with one of the following verbs:
252
253 develops - calls - argues - provides - looks - consider
254

6 * Only in case the authors are more than one.

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255 1. This paper _______________ an axiomatic basis for a representation of personal
256 preferences in which the utility of an act can be expressed as an expected value of
257 conditional utilities of the act given any set of mutually exclusive and exhaustive scenarios,
258 under a unique subjective probability.
259 2. The authors _______________ a broad class of situations where a society must choose from
260 a finite set of alternatives.
261 3. This paper ______________ that the analysis of these games involves a key technical issue.
262 4. This paper ____________ at the effectiveness of the Environmental Protection Agency
263 (EPA) in reducing the time that manufacturing plants spend in a state of non-compliance.
264 5. This study ___________ into question the established view that lack of information on
265 clean-up cost functions represents a serious problem in designing an optimal charge on
266 polluting waste discharged by N point sources.
267 6. This paper _____________ a model of corporate hierarchy in which workers accumulate
268 heterogeneous human capital suitable for different positions within the hierarchy.
269
270
271 C. Hypothesis/Prediction
272
273 In an abstract, the founding hypothesis and related prediction can be expressed in several ways.
274 They can also be included in the introductory sentence or in the Subject/Purpose statement. Read
275 the following excerpts and notice how each author has expressed them.
276
277 1. Henry George (1839-1897) has left an intellectual legacy which is shrouded under a cloak of
278 controversy. Unprofessional economists who focused attention on the single-tax proposal
279 and condemned Henry George's teaching, root and branch, were hardly just to him ..."
280 (Schumpeter 1954). This essay tries to do justice to Henry George from the point of view of
281 economic theory and relevant economic practical questions in 1997. […]
282 2. […] Based on a brief theoretical outline, this paper deals with those two issues. It will be
283 argued in favor of an anti-inflation policy by the ECB, based on monetary targets with
284 securities repurchase transactions (repos) as the central instrument. Rediscount quotas,
285 which should only be available for a market based interest rate, should play a secondary
286 role. To secure and stabilize the need for base money, interest bearing minimum reserves
287 should be held at the ECB, and the ECB should be able to offer banks with temporary
288 liquidity needs collateralized credits for a penalty rate. […]
289 3. […] It is argued that updated preferences necessarily have one affine indifference curve but
290 that other indifference curves are unrestricted. […]
291 4. […] While the model is consistent with some features in the data, we reject the hypothesis
292 that factor markets worked perfectly and find support for the historian's intuition regarding
293 the disproportionate impact of land inequality in the countryside. […]
294 5. […] The hypothesis examined is that the greater the investor's flexibility, the easier it is for
295 him to change his portfolio depending on his results, the more willing he will be to accept
296 risks. […]
297
298 D. Approach/Methodology

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299
300 Sometimes, the Approach/Methodology sentences are expressed in passive form.
301
302 Exercise 4. Read the excerpts below and underline all the passive verb forms.
303
304 1. The single tax proposal is looked at from the point of view of constitutional economics, and
305 the wider applicability of Henry George's basic notions is emphasized.
306 2. Analysis of data on incorporation and investment decisions, the relative sensitivity of the
307 stock prices of firms with different asset mobility to political events, and the market for
308 office space most strongly support hypotheses about credibility, adaption, and demand
309 augmentation.
310 3. A model of farm marketing is developed for the period 1913-28 and is embedded in a
311 general equilibrium model for the Soviet economy.
312 4. We test whether patterns of income inequality were consistent with the predictions of a
313 market-clearing, neoclassical model linking land and labor endowment through factor
314 markets to household income.
315 5. Building on the work of P. N. Courant (1978), the paper develops a housing search model
316 and measures the cost of discrimination by its impact on the gain a household can achieve
317 through housing search. The cost of discrimination is then calculated for a representative
318 sample of households.
319 6. A discussion of changes in the organizational structure and legal environment surrounding
320 gold production is followed by a description of state gold purchasing and storage activities.
321 7. In an application to US GDP, it is found that inferences about the nature of the trend in
322 output are not robust to changes in the specification for short-run fluctuations.
323
324 Exercise 5. Complete each sentence below with the present tense, passive voice, of the verb in
325 parentheses.
326
327 1. The Malmquist productivity index, constructed using nonparametric linear programming
328 methods, _________________ (to employ) for the relevant comparisons.
329 2. Characteristics of the incidence of employee and foreign ownership and associated firm
330 performance _________________ (to examine).
331 3. Respondents' stated preferences for attributes related to various electricity-generation
332 scenarios _________________ (to analyse) using a series of pairwise ratings.
333 4. In the standard case of "adverse-selection," a firm ______________ (to show) to have an
334 unbounded incentive to under-report marginal clean-up costs.
335 5. First the employment expectations of companies for 1997 and in the medium term
336 __________________ (to describe) for eastern and western Germany. This
337 ________________ (to follow) by analyses of the personnel inflows and outflows in the
338 first half of 1996, in which the evaluation differentiates between enterprises with expanding
339 employment, declining enterprises and stagnating enterprises.
340
341 Exercise 6. Transform the following sentences from passive into active starting with the phrase
342 given.
343

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344 1. The notion of civil society is initially considered in the light of intellectual history and
345 differentiated into a number of constitutive concepts such as trust, commercial society, and a
346 civil network of interpersonal relationships.
347
348 This article ________________________________________________________________
349 __________________________________________________________________________
350 __________________________________________________________________________
351
352 2. A simple game-theoretic framework is applied to analyse international cooperation by
353 focusing on the prisoner's dilemma on the one hand and bargaining in the Coasian sense on
354 the other.
355
356 We _______________________________________________________________________
357 __________________________________________________________________________
358 __________________________________________________________________________
359
360
361
362 E. Findings/Discussion
363
364 Research findings can be communicated in a series of different ways. However, they are often
365 introduced by the terms result/results or findings. See below how they collocate with verbs and
366 adjectives.
367
368 1. With verbs
369
370 The results show, state, suggest, uncover,
371 findings indicate, imply, provide…
372
373
374 2. With adjectives
375 striking, contradictory
376 Main / partial / empirical RESULTS (are) different, consistent with
377
378
379 Examples
380
381 1. The main result states that if the payoff functions are semicontinuous and strongly quasi-
382 concave then an Epsilon-Nash equilibrium in pure strategies exists for positive Epsilon.
383
384 2. The results obtained through the estimation of a series of structural VAR models are consistent
385 with this view and indicate also that deflation affected output mainly by increasing real wages.
386
387 3. The result holds for a large class of consistent and monotone rules, including the Constrained
388 Equal Award, the Propositional Rule, and many other well known rules.
389

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390
391 Results, however, are often supported by some evidence.
392
393 1. […] The evidence suggests that five price series exhibit stochastic trends, while the
394 remaining six price series appear to be stationary around a deterministic trend.
395
396 2. […] Furthermore, quantitative evidence is presented supporting the view that Federal
397 Reserve monetary policy was constrained by international considerations.
398
399 3. […] The authors find, on the contrary, consistent evidence that, first, resources went where
400 the benefits to patients were greatest, and, second, resources were appropriately allocated in
401 terms of their opportunity cost once provision exceeded certain thresholds.[…]
402
403 4. We provide new evidence on the effectiveness of disclosure requirements by examining firm
404 behavior in response to disclosures of TRI emissions.
405
406
407 F. Conclusions
408
409 Read the following excerpts and analyse how conclusions are drawn and discussed.
410
411 1. In light of these results, we believe that efforts to eliminate SOES based on volatility
412 considerations are unwarranted.
413
414 2. Analysis of the conditions that have to be met, illustrated with examples ff attitudes and
415 preferences within Europe, leads to the conclusion that we are unlikely to see the end of the
416 nation state in the near future either in Europe or anywhere else.
417
418 3. The main conclusion of the paper is that the Italian depression, comparable to that of other
419 major industrialized countries, was the combined result of a contraction in world demand
420 and of the restrictive monetary policies imposed by the rules of the Gold Standard.
421
422 4. Through his careful discussion of the foreseeable problems, the author reaches the
423 conclusion that Hong Kong is "useful pretty much the way it is" to China and does not see
424 China disturbing the balance.
425
426 5. These conclusions for nine consultant specialties reinforce similar conclusions for two other
427 services, whose allocations were made by central government (the Scottish Home and
428 Health Department) and general medical practitioners.
429
430
431 4. Cohesion
432 Using Repetition and Reference Words to Emphasize Key Ideas in Your Writing
433
434 Cohesion is the glue that holds a piece of writing together. In other words, if a paper is cohesive, it
435 sticks together from sentence to sentence and from paragraph to paragraph. Cohesive devices
436 certainly include transitional words and phrases (linking words and expressions), such as
437 therefore, furthermore, or for instance, that clarify for readers the relationships among ideas in a
438 piece of writing. However, transitions aren't enough to make writing cohesive. Repetition of
439 keywords and use of reference words are also needed for cohesion.
440
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441 Repetition of Keywords
442 We can tie sentences or paragraphs together by repeating certain keywords from one sentence to the
443 next or from one paragraph to the next. This repetition of keywords also helps to emphasize the
444 main idea of a piece of writing.

445
446
447 Use of Reference Words
448 Another way of tying sentences and paragraphs together involves using reference words that point
449 back to an idea mentioned previously. Among the many reference words that can be used to tie one
450 sentence to another or one paragraph to another are words like this, these, those, such, and that.
451 These reference words should not be used by themselves but should be combined with the
452 important words and phrases from previous sentences or paragraphs. In the following paragraphs,
453 we can see how reference words are used not only to tie sentences and paragraphs together, but also
454 to emphasize the main idea. Underline all the transitional words and phrases and all the reference
455 words you can find in the following paragraph.

456
457
458 5. Some final suggestions
459
460 Write the abstract only when the document is finished. Abstracts written before then are just
461 previews.
462 If you are forced to write an abstract before the document is completed, think about its
463 purpose and write a topic sentence. Keep in mind that you'll need to rewrite the abstract
464 when the document is finished because it will no longer accurately reflect the contents of the
465 document.

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466 Before starting the abstract, list your thoughts on the document. Group related items
467 together. Prioritise the list and put the most important group first. The first few groups form
468 the core of the topic sentence. The rest lead to supporting sentences.
469 If you can't create a topic sentence (i.e. the introductory statement), write the supporting
470 sentences first. The topic sentence may then become obvious.
471 Write for an audience not necessarily up to speed in your subject area. This is important
472 because you never know who will read your abstract.
473 Choose acronyms, abbreviations, and technical terms carefully as they may confuse many
474 readers.
475 Define the scope of the project in the abstract.
476 Reread your abstract after several days have passed. Remove all superfluous information.
477
478 References
479 Writing up Research - The Abstract, online at http://www.languages.ait.ac.th/el21abst.htm.
480 How to Write an Abstract, online at http://www.okstate.edu/education/jshs/abstract.htm.
481 LEO - Literary Education Online: Transition Cues, online at http://leo.stcloudstate.edu/style/
482 transitioncues.html.
483
484
485
486
487 LINKING WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS
488 I. Complete the table with examples of linking words and expressions.
MEANING LINKING EXPRESSIONS FOR LINKING EXRESSIONS FOR
BOTH INFORMAL AND VERY FORMAL USE
FORMAL USE
ADDITION and additionally

CAUSE-EFFECT /
REASON

CONDITION

CONTRAST /
OPPOSITION

EXAMPLE

SUMMARY –

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 CONCLUSION

TIME

489
490 II. Decide which type of linking expressions the following sentences belong to (Addition,
491 Cause-Effect/Reason, Condition, Contract/Opposition, Example, Summary-Conclusion,
492 Time)
493 1. Moreover, travel information is very important for route planning.
494 2. We suspect they are trying to hide something, hence the need for an independent inquiry.
495 3. He subsequently became the chairman of the party.
496 4. Estimates suggest that the effects will continue, but at a more moderate rate.
497 5. There is a serious problem in the district, namely unemployment.
498 6. This poses a threat to agriculture and the food chain, and consequently to human health.
499 7. Both the husband and the wife were similarly successful in their chosen careers.
500 8. Some of the studies show positive results, whereas others do not.
501 9. The results are important for scientific research in general and geography in particular.
502 10. There is little chance that we will succeed in changing the law. Nevertheless, it is important
503 that we try.
504 11. Unless I’m mistaken, she was back at work yesterday.
505
506 III. Join together the following sentences.
507
508 1.        She wasn't very rich.  She gave money to the beggar. (although)
509
510 _________________________________________________________________________
511 2.        He left early.  He wanted to arrive on time. (so that)     
512
513 ___________________________________________________________________________
514 3.        You can go out tonight.  You must tell us where you are going. (provided)            
515
516 __________________________________________________________________________
517 4.        I don't earn a big salary.  But if I did, I wouldn't buy a car.  (even if)            
518
519 __________________________________________________________________________
520 5.        Take a sandwich.  There might be no restaurant. (in case)            
521
522 __________________________________________________________________________
523 6.        There was a lot of noise.  He managed to sleep. (despite)            
524
525 __________________________________________________________________________
526 7.        Sue likes Opera.  Joe prefers jazz. (They have different tastes.)  (whereas)            
527
528 __________________________________________________________________________
529 8.        The weather was bad.  They enjoyed the trip. (even though)            
530
531 __________________________________________________________________________
532 9.        He had the 'flu.  He went to work. (in spite of)            

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533
534 __________________________________________________________________________
535 10.      You have to put the alarm on.  If not, it won't work. (unless)            
536
537 _________________________________________________________________________
538
539
540 IV. Test what you have learnt. Select a suitable conjunction in each sentence.

541 1. Polls show that Tony Blair is the most popular Prime Minister this century. ______________ , there are even
542 members of his own party who are uneasy with his approach.

In particular However For instance

543 2. There are some slight variations in temperature, but ________________ 26 to 27ºC should be expected.

consequently otherwise as a rule

544
545 3. The two main Channel Islands, ________________ Jersey and Guernsey, are much closer to
546 France than to England.

for example namely in particular

547
548 4. It was announced that nurses' working hours would be increased by 25%. ______________ , even fewer trainee nurses
549 are expected to join the profession.

As a result So that Likewise

550 5. Sales of CDs have experienced a small but steady fall over the past 12 months. _____________ , vinyl records have    seen an
551 increase in their share of the market, up to 1.7%.

Above all Correspondingly In contrast

552 6. The Vice Chancellor explained that in light of the current financial climate and because of unexpected bad debts, it would be
553 necessary to peg salary levels at their current level for all grades of staff. ______________ , no-one was getting a
554 pay rise.

Nevertheless In other words Similarly

555 7. It is clear, therefore, that the situation in Brazil will improve only slowly. ______________ the economic problems being
556 experienced in Japan, the outlook is slightly more optimistic.

Furthermore In comparison With reference to

557 8. In order to try to reduce car use in the inner cities, the government has announced new restrictions on company parking spaces and
558 ______________ , a new tax on individual car use.

as well as in addition in the same way

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559 9. Essays must be handed in by the deadline, ______________ they will not be marked.

obviously otherwise as a result

560 10. ______________ it has been shown that fractures can occur at even relatively low pressures, the use of the material
561 should not be completely discounted.

Nevertheless Because Even though

562
563
564
565
566
567
568
569
570
571
572
573
574
575
576
577

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