S T A N D AR D WOR KS FO R EN G IN EER S .

T II I It T B B N T I I E D IT I o N ,
‘

l lu o i ou g h ly l e v is e d . I n P oc k e t Si ze . Le a t h e r .

A P O CK E T B O O K -
OF

M a rin e En g i n e e ri n g R u le s d a n T a b le s .

FOR TH E U S E OF M AR I N E EN G I N EE R N AV AL S AR CH I T ECT S D ES I GN ER S
TS S T TS O T H ER S
. , ,

D R AU G H MEN , U PER I N EN D EN . AN D .

By A E EA
. N, S TO a n d H M R OL N T H W AI TE , M I M e c h E . .
’

. . .
,

Ad I u I m b ly fu lli ls i t s | m r po s — ll a r m c E n g i ne er . . . .

In l a rge S vo . H a n d s om e Clot h . W it h Fro n t is p i ec e , 6 P lt a es , 65 o t h r I ll r ti

e u st a on s, an d 60 T a ble s .

Th e S c re w P rop e lle r
An d o h ert o
C m p e in g I n t s t ru men t s f or M a r in op u l i o e Pr s n
S TO
.

By A E EA N N A
Th h ly t d t S
. . .
,

Con t a i n s a ll t h at I S u s e fu l t o k n ow a bou t t h e scre w p rop e ll r e . orou g u p -

o -
a e — t ea ms h ap .

S K CJ N D Eb I T I oN In L rga e 8 70 H a n d s om e Clot h Pp i n 42 5 W t h 3 77 Ill tr ti i u s a on s a n d

lt
. . . . .

3 P a es .

Th e Th e o ry of th e S team T u rb i n e .

A T R EAT I S E ON T H E P R I N CI P LE OF CON S S T R U CT I O N OF T HE S T EAM TU RB IN E

W I H HI T R I CAL ST O N E ON OT S I TS D EV ELOPMEN T .
,

B y ALEX AN D E R JU D E
t y b k h h ry h
.

"
Th e mos t sa t is fac or oo on t e T eo of t h e S t e a m Tu r bi n e We av e y et s e en — E n q i n eer i n
.
g .

T nN
'

ru E I TI O L rg Crow 8
D N . a e n vo . W it h N um r u Ill t ti e o s u s ra on s .

En g i n e - R o om P ra c t ic e .

A H a n db ook f g i n e e r s a n d O ffi c e r s i n t h e R y a l N a v y
or E n o a n d
M er c ti l
a n e M a r i n e , i n c lu d i n g t h e M a n a g e m e n of th e t
M a in a n d Au i ia r y E n g in e s on B a r d S h ip . xl o
O
B y J H N G L I V E R I D GE, E n g Ca p . S . t
C
.

AN N OT FA I L T o a n APP R ECI AT B D —~ T h c S t ea ms h ip
‘
Il e c on t e n t s
'
.
.

In L rg
a e r
C ow n S vo . C l tho . Pp i .
-
xxv m + 24 4 . W it h 2 5 I lu l tr ti s a on s .

S ea Wa t e r D i s t i l l a t i on .
B y F R AN K N OR S I AN D Y , of the M i d d l T m pl B rr i t r e e e, a s e -
at -
La w
y t l tr h
.

T he a nal i ca eat me n t of t h e p rob le m is c on c i se a n d c o mp re e n s ive in it s s c op e .

”
— l[ a r i n e E n g i n eer
.
.

V ALV ES AN D V ALV E GEAR I N G A B O I L ER S , MAR I N E AN D LAN D

t h r C tr t i t g h By T W
.

l
P ra c t i c a T e x Book ( or t h e u s e of E n g i n e e s ,
-
r T d S
TR I M I C E on s
ei u c on a n t
D ra n g h t s me n , a n d S u d e n s B y CH AS H U R S T t t A LL, FO U R T H n st
re n . . .

lr E I TI P k t Si L th r
. . .

v
. . .

E I G I I TII E n I r I oN , R e is ed a n d En a e d. R i d
F lly ll
u I u s t ra e d t g
.
D ON , e v se . oc e ze . ea e .

l bli h d
Wi l p rove a ve r v a lu able a i d — M a r u e En y '

. Th e m k B i ost v a lu a b le w or on o lers p u s e l l]
an t l er .
En g la n d .
—
S la p p i n g Wor ld .

T HE T HER MO -
D YN AMI C PR I N CI ELECTR I CAL R U LES AN D TAB LES
P LE SHoOF
EN G I N E D E I G N B y L O N EL Sr I ( A P oc k e t B ook of ) By J
l M I ES O N a nd
. -

n es , R N I ns t u c t o i n Ap p i e d
. .
, r AN D R EW JA
. .

T WE N I I ET H '

si e c h a n ic s a n d M a r i n e E n g i n e D e s i n a t ED I I I ON
,

y Nv g
h
‘

t he R o al a a l Co e g e , G e e n w ic In ll r .

Ln r c e C o w n 8 v o r .
.

it
Wor t
— L lect r i c a n
'
hy of t he h h ig e s t c om me n d a t i on w e ca n g ive
L ik e l y t o be come a s t a n d a rd r e fe r e n c e
. .

3 1 w ho u t ea l E n g : n ear .

l oc i m
‘

i ED I TI ON .
Ill u s t ra t e d “ it h P lt a es, D ia g r a ms an d F ig u re s .

w o rt
I t in
hI y o

n t e n d ed
f e xc e t io n a l
p— ' ‘
l lie
p ra is e
li n u m r c r
Alt o g e t h e l . t
.

.
h e w o r k is e x t e lle n t and l
w i l p r ov e of g re a t

PR K N O W YO U R OWN S HI P
E SE
B y T n os
ly
J u l-
T FO U R T T E I TIO F l
.
3
H
.

AL O N EE N
a me n I ll tr t d
.
D N u
h r Ill
.

t
9 P la e : a n d 1 0 3 o t e u s t ra t io n s
W t
u s a e .

M m” b “
h a l on s
'

We r w m ork
’

l o t n ast
wh m w
lu
h llv
'

a rt d it t o a ll w h o g su cc e s s
to d o
.
r eu n n nn e n a ve be c a u s e of i t s u m
w it u h lp u —S t ea u u hm
fi qu e t n e ss I I for o
.
.
h a s be e n w r t t e n i m — Shl
pp o

l ON DON : CHAR LES GR I FFI N CO .

, l TD . EXETER S TR EET. S TR AN D VL C 2
,
, . .

N EW Y ORK : D . V AN N O S T R AN D CO.
 A M AN U AL

C O MP R I S I N G

THE D ES I GN , CON S TR U CTI ON , AN D WOR K I N G OF

MAR / N E MACHI N ER Y .

A . E . S E A T O N ,

TU R R M AR I
T OR M E R L Y L E C E ON N E EN G I N EE R I N G T O T H E RO Y AL N AV AL C O L LEG E GR EEN WI CH ;
M M R OF I S T I TUT I ON O F C I V I L E N G I N E E R S ; M E M B E R O F T H E I N S T I TUT I O N
,

E BE TH E N
O F A A AR C H T CT S ;
N V L I E M E M B ER O F T H E I N S T I TUT I O N O F M EC H AN I C AL
GI RS ; M M E B E R O F T H E N OR T H EAS T C O AS T I N S T I TUT I O N
.

EN N EE -

O F S HI U I PB L D E R S AN D E N G I N EE R S ; M E M B E R O F
T H E I N S T I TUT E O F M E TAL S ET C , .

llIlh t b mu merou s Ca b le s a no S i lu s t ra t ions re b u ce o from w or k i ng

D raw in gs ano lp bowg ra p bs .

EI GHTEEN TH EDI TI ON , THOR O U GHL Y R E VI S ED, GREATL Y EN LAR GED,

AN D MOS TL Y [I E
.
-
WR I TTEN TO DATE .

L ON D ON

CH AR L E S G R I FF I N 85 CO M P AN Y ,
L I M I T ED .

N EW Y O R K : D . V AN N O S T R AN D CO .

1 9l 8 .

[ All R ig h t s R es er ved ]
P R EFACE T O T H E EI G H T EE N T H E D I T I ON .

T H E d e m an d f or th i s n ew Ed iti on ca m e w h en the Wa r , w it h a ll

i t s pom ps an d ci rc u m s t a n ce s , h a s m a d e it d i fficu lt t o pr od uc e

b ot h t o Au t h or an d Pu bli s h er s . S i n ce t h e i ssu e of t h e la s t Ed iti on

t he chan ges in e n g i n e e ri n g pr a ctic e h a v e b ee n m a n y an d g re a t

In s om e m ea su r e th is is du e to th e s
p e c i al d e m a n ds a ri s i n g ou t

of t h e Wa r c on d iti on s , bu t it i s la r g e ly d u e t o the ad v a n ce t h a t
go s e on n ow ,
d a y by d a y ,
f r om th e b ette r k n ow le dg e of s cie n ce
g a n i ed by d i li g e n t r e s e a rc h , an d by t h e b e tte r a
pplic a ti on of it ,

w h er eb y t h a t e x pe ri e n c e is ga in e d w hi ch e n g e n d er s c on fid e n c e a s
w e ll as s t i m u la te s i n v e n ti on ,
an d th i s p r od u ce s i m p r ov e m e n t s o f
l

m an y k i n ds .

Th e e c on om i c s i de of e n g i n ee ri n g h ow ev e r , ,
is a ss erti n g it s e lf
to a d e g re e tha t n ev e r t i ed
ob a n in p r e- Wa r ti m e s , an d it w i ll

s u r e ly r e m a i n as a
p re d om i n a ti n
g f a c t or in a ll ou r e ve ry -
da y

cal cu la ti on s f or m a n y y e a r s to c om e ,
so t ha t we a re c om p e lle d
n ow to r oa c h d t o d eter m i n e p r ob le m s li n e s n ot
a
pp an on c on

t e m pla t e d f or m e r l y . To be su cce s s f u l it w i ll be n ece s s a ry to

c as t as ide a ll
p rej u d ice s , to tre a t li g h t ly th e p rece d e n ts ,
an d to

c on ce n tr a t e t h e s ol vin g of t h em — ea c h on it s ow n m e rit s — by

g i vi n
g fu ll h e ed to th e h
p y s ic a l an d e con om i c c on d iti on s on ly .

N ece ss ity has e v er bee n t h e m ot h e r of i n v e n ti on . T o da y i t

-

w i ll b e li k e w i s e t h e r e m ov e r of prej u d i ce as w e ll as th e a lm a
V l P R EFACE .

m a t er of r e s e a rc h to a ll h er c h i ld re n , so t hat t h ey m a y t hri ve

in a w ay t h ey n e ve r h a v e d on e h it h e r t o in t h i s c ou n try .

D . O . R . A . e x e rci s e s a
pow e r f u l i n flu e n ce o ve r au t h or s an d .

ub li s h er s w h ereby h ey e s tr a i n e d f r om m a k i n g pu bli c
p ,
t are r an
y
of t h e w on d er f u l ad va n c es a c h i e v ed d ur in g t h e pa s t f ou r y ea rs ,

or to a ll u de to the i n v e n ti on s w h ereb y so m uc h h a s be e n a ecom

pli s h ed on th e s ea b y th e g e n iu s that o t h e r wi s e m igh t h a ve

r ema in e d d or m a n t . N e vert h e le s s t h i s Ed iti on d oe s t i
c on a n m uc h

tha t is n ew , an d w ha t was old h a s be en re n ov a te d an d br ou g h t

u t o d a te
p .

S peci a l Appe n d i c e s hav e b ee n a dd ed w hi ch dea l w it h th e

H e a v y Oi l En g i n e ,
G e a re d T u rbi n e s an d S u p e r h e a ter s , as n ow in

g e n e ra l u se, an d al o t g et h e r the at te m pt is m a d e t o m a i n ta i n t h e

c h a r a cte r of t h e Ma n u al a s fa r as cir c u m s t a n ce s w i ll pe r m it .

A . E . S EAT O N .

W E S TM I N ST ER , S ep t ember , 1 91 8 .
 O R I G I N AL P R E FA CE .

TH E followin g Wor k h a s been prep a re d t o supp ly t h e e xi sti n g w a n t of a

Ma n u a l s howin g t h e a pplica ti on of T h e oretica l P ri n ciple s t o th e D e si gn
a n d C on s tructi on of Ma ri n e Ma ch i n ery a s deter m in e d by t he e x perie n ce
,

of le a din g e n gin eers a n d c a rrie d ou t in t h e m os t rece n t s ucce ss ful pr a ctice

, .

T h e da ta on wh ic h it is b a s e d n ow firs t thr own i n t o f or m for pub lic a ti on

, ,

h a ve been collecte d durin g ma n y ye a r s of stu dy a n d pra ctic a l w ork I t .

is h op e d th a t t h e v olu m e wi ll be f oun d u s e ful by th e en gi n eer a n d dr a ughts

m a n e n ga ge d in prac tice a s a H a n db ook of R efere n ce a n d by t h e s tu de n t , ,

la un che d f or the fi rst ti me on t h e i n tric a cie s of Ma ri n e C ons tructi on a s ,

a gui d e s upp lyi n g t o s om e e x te n t hi s la c k of e x perie n ce

, .

T h e rule s a n d f ormu lae in tr oduce d ( whi c h ha ve been di ve s ted a s fa r a s

p oss ib le of c om plex it y a n d given in t h e s i m p le s t for m a tt a in a b le ) ma y be
, .

u s e d by a n y on e wh o de s i gn s wi t h s om e re ga rd t o t h e ory a n d by v a ryi n g , ,

t h e c on st a n t s be ma d e t o s uit his ow n i dea s of s tren gth a n d s ti ffn es s I t

, .

ma y perh a p s be t hou gh t by s om e t ha t in certa in i n st a n ces d et a ils h a ve been

, ,

e n tere d i n t o wit h u n n ece ssa ry mi n uten es s ; but it s h ould be re m e mbere d ,

on the ot he r h a n d t ha t n ot every e n gi n eer h a s t h e c on te n t s of a well filled

-
,

d r a win g offic e t o f a ll b a c k up on in c a s e s of d oubt a n d d i fficu lty

-
.

I t is h a r dly n ece ssa ry t o pre mi s e th a t it is w h oll y i m p os s ib le t o rec on cile

t he pr a ctice of t h e n a v a l de s ign er w h o th i n k s more of e fficie n cy a n d w e ight
,

tha n of c os t with t ha t of the m erca n ti le e n gi n eer w h o s tu di es efficie n cy

, ,

a n d c os t wit h but s ma ll rega r d t o we i gh t a n d t h er e f ore , few rule s c a n be

, ,

g i ve n w h ic h s ha ll a b s olute ly s u i t b ot h H owever the

. m a n uf a ct u rer of
,

m a c hi n ery for the Merch a n t S ervice mi gh t f ollow wi t h a dv a n t a ge m uc h th a t

h a s been pr ove d t o be good in n a v a l pr a ctice a n d t h e Na v a l Auth oritie s ,

mi ght a ga i n on their p a rt b orr ow f rom the Merc a n ti le Ma ri n e a few

, ,

su e s ti on s w h ic h w ou l d re n der a w a r shi p w h ile n o le ss efficie n t t h a n a t

gg ,

pre s e n t per ha p s s om ew ha t less i n tric a te for t hos e wh o h a v e t o w or k h er

,
.

I n c on clu s i on t h e a ut hor c a n but e x pr e s s a hope th a t the pub lic a ti on of

,

thes e n ote s i m perfect a s t h ey n ece ss arily a re m a y te n d t o ma k e a little

, ,

cle a rer s ome of the tec hni c a litie s of Ma rin e D e s i gn a n d C on st ructi on a n d ,

n h owe v er s li ght a d e gree t h e a pp lic a ti on of s cie n tifi c

'

s o h el
p f or w a rd i , ,

i n ve s tiga ti on t o t hos e pr ob le ms w h ich t h e ma ri n e en gin eer is c a lle d up on ,

d a y by da y t o s olve
, .

H U LL , (Ja n u a ry 30t h , 1 883 .

 G E N E R AL CO N T E N T S .

C H AP T ER I .

Gen e ral I ntroduction . pp . 1 18-

E m d a m e n t a l Pri n c i le s— P ad dle Wh ee s — Th e Sc re w—
p d or — M
-
iv e l H y romo t s o t Pow e r
— St m u sea e d Exp a n i e l — Ea rl sv y y
M a rin e En gin es — P o elle r —Mu l i le S rew r p s tp c s .

C H AP T ER 11 .

R esist an ce 01 Shi ps an d I ndi ca ted Horse Power - r

N ecessa y f or S pee d, pp 19 5 5 .
-

Va lu e of
r ps R s t c of S p C f C us of R s st c R s u
Tr ia l T i — e is an e a h i — hi e a e e i an e — e id a l
of
R é s is t an ee— Co e ffie ien t S R s c W tt S of S
Fin e n e ss— k in e is t an e — e K ks
ed ki n a hi p— ir
’

M u m o r s C cu t o of W tt
An a ly si s — f d
'
al la i n S S to s
e ed F o rm f o r
k in — e a n Modi fic a t ion —
’

R qu r S p
e i ed S to s Ru fo r L m t t o o f S p
e ed— ea n le Po r
i i a i n
’
s rye e d— we n ec es a — Tan k

xp r m t —
E e i en a R a n k me s Ru K r s
’
le — ’
Pro r ss
i k s An a ly s is—
'

r C v ofg e i v e T i a ls — u r e R ev olu
to C u r o f Sl
i n s— ve P for
ip — S e a c s o f S t m r Pr o r ss
er m an e ea s fo r ff ct of
e s— g e iv e T ri a l E e
pt
D e h of W t r a e y o r s Fo r
— Ta l
’
fo r D pt s o f W t r
mu la e h r s a e on T ia l .

C HAP T ER II I .

Marine En gi nes : Their Type s an d V ari ations of D esign , pp . 5 6 1 08-

Va ri o u s y
T pe s — P ad dl e w h eel En gin e — B e a En gin e — S id e e er En gin e s m s Lv s
Osc t s tc
illa in g En gin e — Ve r i al D ire e t a in g En gin e —T win ct
lin d e r En gin es — D i a g n al
-
s cy o
l
P ad d e En gin e s — Sc re w En gin e s Ho z o t
ri n al— T u n k En gin e s — R e n Con n e in g r od
-
r tu r ct
tc l t t
En gin e s — V e r i a D ir ec ac in g En gin e s — Co pa rison -
m
f Pre en a n d Pa t Pra i e o s t s ct c
r
Ar an g e en m t of r mp u
Cy lin de s — Co o n d En gin e — T h re e , F r a n d S ix i n d e r Com ou cyl
po u sn d — S in gle a n d Tw o c
ra n k En gin e s — T h re e , F r Fi v e S ix a n d Eigh ra n k
-
ou tc -

s m sl
En gin e s — Oil En gin e s — D i e e l— S e i D ie e — R e v e r a l f Oil En gin e s — Oi Pr -
e ll e r s o op
b c
T u r in e M a hin e r — Ex e ri e n y p m ts t u b s
wi h T r in e — Co in a i n f Tu r in e w i h e i mb to o b s t Rc
p r oc a t ors — e a r e d T u G
r in e — De i n
g O ilb s
E n g ins of
e s — Do le a c in g D ie e l— Tw o le ub t -
s cyc -

s u
D ie e l— F el Con su mp i n of t h e la e r— Ga s En g in e to tt s .

C HAPT E R IV .

t
S e am u se d Expans ively , pp 1 09 1 3 5
.
-

R c ip ro c ti g En gi — Tu r bi — Ex p sio in St g s — M o ist S t m — Ad i b tic

e a n n es n es an n a e ea a a

Ex p s io — Cl r c — Eff ct of Cl r c
an n ea an d Cushi o i g— M
e e P s ur i Com e a an e an n n e an re s e n a
po u d E gi — Actu l M Pr ss r i Pr ctic — Fri ctio l R si t c i S t p V lv s
n n ne a e an e u e n a e na e s an e n e a e

an d Pi p s— W i r d r w i g— Li q f ac t i o d u ri g E x p
e e -
a nsio Tim in g of E xh ust— L d
u e n n an n -
a ea
-
C lcu l tio o f Ex p cte d M
a a n Pr ss r — G r ph i c M th od
e e an e u e a e .

C H APT ER V .

St eam use d pp 1 36 15 1
a ft er Expa ns ion — T urbines ,
.
-

M od r R ctio “ mi
e n M o d r I m pu l s Tu r b i — Com bin t io T u rb i s
ea n n ty — e n e ne a n ne

S h pe of P s g s— C om p o u d T u r b in s— D s ign of S c r w f o r T r b i
a as a e n S h ips— Efli i cy e e e u ne c en
 O
C N TE N TS .

of T u r b i — P o we r d v lo p d b T ur b
ne B a t u s F o r m ul fo r S t m Cons u m ption
e e e y in e — ea
’
a ea

S eaE x p r i c s w i t heT u r b i
en s — T o res i o M t r s— Am s l r s M te r— Fot t i g s M t r ne n e e e
’
e n er
’
e e

Ho p k i s o T h i g M t r— B vis G ibs o M t r Co lli e s Me t er— Den n y Jo hn son M te r

n n -
r n e e e -
n e e —
'
-
e

S h f t Ho r se p owe r— S te a m E gi I dic t o r
a n ne n a .

C HAP T ER VI .

y of Marine Engines pp 15 2 1 73 f
E ficien c ; .
-

W t r c o su m d p S h f t Ho r s p o w r M c h ic l Effici cy— V rtic l E gin s

a e n e er a e e — e an a en e a n e

Effi i y o f T
c en c u b i s d R ci p r o c t o r s — R su l ts o f T r i ls w it h T r ip l c om p o u d
r ne an e a e a e- n

E gi — Y rr o w s Ex p r im ts w i t h T o r p d o B o t S t m Effic i cy— H igh Pr ssu

’
n ne a e en e a — ea en e re

I t Ad v t g s
s d D is d v
an t g s— Effi i y o f t h E gi
a e an M c hi — Frict io of
a an a e c en c e n n e as a a ne n
Pist o — Oi S tu ffi g b ox s Gu id s
n d S lid s— Fr ict i o
n t S h ft Jo u
-
e ls— Of V l v
, e , an e n a a rn a a e
Mo t io s Lo ss fr om P u m ps I r t i of M o v i g P rts Lo ss s d
n — to M c h ni c l D f cts
— ne a n a — e u e e a a e e
an d P h ys ic l Ca us s— Ex p r im ts w it h S up r h t d S t m— R s is t c of P i p s
a e e d en e ea e ea e an e e an

P ss g s
a a e .

H
C APT ER V I I .

Engines — S imple an d Compou n d, pp 1 74 1 94.

-

m t r y S t a m E gi e — G e sis of C om p oun d En gin e— Ex p a siv E gi

Ele en a e n n en n e n ne
E fi t o f I c r s o f Pr ssur
ec s —Pr o r ss m d by E r l y E
ng ea e gi r s R c eiv r C om p o d
e e e a e a n n ee — e e u n

E gi — Ex p
n ne si v d C om p o u d E gin s Com p r d— D i vis io
an e of W o rk Dir ct
an n n e a e n — e

ex p sio Com p o u d E gi
an n R qu isit s i t h M ri E gi —C omp r tiv T h o r tica l
n n n e— e e n e a ne n ne a a e e e

E ffic i cy of V ien M ri E gi e s— F u r t h r Com p ris on o f Effici cy of E gi s

'
a r ou s a ne n n e a en n ne
E x p ri m ts i t h M r c
e en til M ri e T rip l x p s io C om p ou d E gin e— I c r e se d
n e e an e a n -
e e
-
an n n n n a

Pre ss u re of S t m— Com p o u n d S yste m o f C ylin d r s

ea e .

C H APTER VI I I .

Horse power— -
N ominal, I n dica ted , an d S ha ft or r
B ak e .
pp 1 95 20 9.
-

N om in a l Ho r s e p o
r Llo yd s N E P — Est ima te d Ho r se p o w e r I n di c a te d Hor se
-
we —
’
. . .
- -

p o we r— I n dic a t o r D ia gra m— M e a n Pre ssur e— S ha f t Ho r s e p ow er T hr ust Ho r s e p o w er - -

— Br a k e Ho r s e o w er — I n d i c a t e d T hr ust— T ow r o p e Ho r s e p o w e r —N e t Ho r s e p o w e r
p - - -

P ist o n S pe e d a n d R e v olut io n s— R a te of R e v ol ut io n of Ma rin e En gin e s— R e v olut ion s “

L en gt h of S t r oke .

H
C AP T ER IX .

Gen e ral D esign and t h e I nfl uences which oth er It , pp 2 1 0 2 2 7

.
-

G r l D sign d Arr g m ts Th C o
en e a e s r I cli Efi t of E x t r l
an an e en — e n de n e — n na t io n—
’
ec e na

C us s— S upply of M t ri l s I fl
a e o f T o g L w — Oi t h B o rd o f T r d a e a — n u en ce nna e a s e a a e
B l c i g d Av o id c of Vibr t io P itc h o f S c r w d Vib r t io — S uct io C vi
a an n an an e a n— e an a n n , a
t t io
a t — S t l C st i g s Alu m i iu m
n , e c. D u r l u m i F utu r of t h R c ip r o c t or
ee a n — n —
a n ~— e e e a

C HAP T ER X .

yl r an d its Fitt ings pp 2 2 8 26 1 Th e C in de , .

-

S iz — R t s of E p io — D i m t r o f Cy li d r s B c k Pr ssu r
e a e L R C y li d r
x an s n a e e n e — a e e in n e

I t r m di t M P C y li d r— Arr g m t o f C y li d r— S iz of S t m P o r ts T r ip l
n e e a e . . n d e an e en n e e ea — e an
Q u d r up l E gi s R t io of C yli d r s— Dr o p V l v s— M i S t m P ip — Ar t h o u g h
a e n ne — a n e a e a n ea e ea r
V lv s— S t m P o r ts d P ss g s— Op i g o f P o rt t o S t m Ex h ust P ss g s
a e ea an a a e en n ea — a a a e
C y l i d r L i r— Wid t h of S t m P o r ts— P ist o V lv s
n e ne Drop V lv s— D o ubl ea n a e a e e
 O N T EN TS
C .
x i

p o r t d
e V lv s — St m J cak ts e B o r i g Holea s Au x il i ray V l v s — Esc p
e —or R li f n e — a a e a e e e
V l v s Dr i C o c k s— R c iv r S p c — C ol u m F c i g s d F t —Hol d i g d o w B ol ts
a e — a n e e e a e n a n an ee n -
n
— Ho r iz o t l C y li d r sn Osc ill t i g Cyl i d r s— Cy l i d r C o v r s Cyl i d r C o v r S tu d s
a n e — a n n e n e e — n e e
and B olts Cy l i d r F l g s C l r c o f P i t o V l v b ox C o v r s s m ll D oo r s
— n e an e —
ea an e s n— a e- e — a
an d C o v r s L ggin g a d C lo t h i g o f C y li d r s— L P C y li d r B o d y— S t fi
e — a n i g b ox s
n d n e . n e u n -
e an
Gl dsan .

C HAP T ER XI .

Th e Pi ston— Piston -
rod- Connec ting rod -
, pp 2 62 2 8 5
.
-

Pist o R a ms bot t om s R in gs C ommo n P is t o n R in gs P is t o n S p rin g s Ca m e r o n s

n—
’
— — —
’

Pa t e n t — M a t he r Pla tt s Pa te n t — B uc kl e y s P a t en t— Q u a lt er
’

H a ll s P a t e n t ’ ’

B o w e n s— R e st r a in e d P a c k i n g s— B o d y o f P ist o n — P is t o n s o f O r d in a r y M a r in e E g in e s
’
n

De t a il s o f Con st r uct ion — J un k r in g B olts— S a f e ty R in gs a n d L ook B ol t s— S olid Pa c ki n gs

-

— D ia m e t e r o f P ist o n r od— P ist o n r od En d s— C a st st e e l P i st o n r od Cr o ss h e a d —P is t o n r od

’
- - - - -

Gu id e s— S u rfa c e or Gu id e B lo c k —Cr o ss h ea d s a n d Gu dge o n s— C on n e ct in g r o ds — Con -

n ec t in g r od B o
-
lts a n d Br a ss e s — C a ps of C o n n e ct in g r od Br a ss e s— Gu d e o n En d of R e d
g
-
.

C HAPT ER XI I .

t
S h af i n g, C ank s r an d r
C ank - sh af ts , et c. , pp 2 8 6 333
.
-

S h a f t in g of M o de rn En gin e— Cra nk s ha f t of Oil En gin e — T un n el o r I n te r m e d ia t e

S ha f t in g— Alt e rn a t in g S t re sse s — Efie c t of S t r e ss e s on Ma t e ria ls— S a fe W o rkin g S t re ss
Tw is t in g M om en t — R e s ist a n c e t o Twi stin g— T o r s io n a l S t iff n e ss of a S h a ft — B en din g
M om en t— E qu iv a le n t T w ist in g M om e n t — Cr a nk s h a f ts— Cur v e of T wist in g M om en ts -

M om en tu m of M o v in g P a rts— O v e r h u n g Cra nk Pa dd l e S h a fts— Cr a n k s h a ft of S c rew -

En g in e— B u il t Cr a n k s h a f t— C o up lin gs— S ur fa c e of Cr a n k p in s a n d S h a f t Jo ur n a l s
- -

Dr iv e r s— T a p e r B olt s— Cr o ss K e ys— Pr o p e lle r S ha fts— Out e r B e a rin g— S c re w s h a f t En d -

— S t e r n B us h— S t e rn T ub e — T hr ust S h a ft — T hr ust— Fr ict io n Lo ss on T hr ust B lo c k

R e v ol ut ion s per S qu a re I n c h on T hr ust B lo c k Dia me ter o f T hr ust Colla r s— Le n gt h of —

t h e B e a r in g s o f T u n n e l S ha ftin g— D ia m e t e r of S h a f ts ( Rule s f o r Llo y d s B ur e a u ’

Ve rit a s )— S ha f ts fo r P a d dle S t ea m e r s— T u rb in e S ha ft in g— S h a f ts of Oil En gin e— S t e e l

S ha f ts— D ia m e t e r of Pr o p eller S ha ft — De t a ils of Cra n k s h a fts— Holl ow S h a fts— S h a f ts -

fo r Oil En gin es .

C HAP TER X I I I .

t
Fou nda i ons , B ed- plat es h Cq mns , u
G i des, an d F raming , pp 334 34 3 .
-

B ed -
pl t s
a e F o u n d a t ion s— Ma in B e a rin gs Ca ps o r K eeps fo r M a in B e a r in gs
an d —

M a in b ea rin g
-
B olts— Bra ss e s— Colu mn s— Gu id e pla te s— Fra m in g— En t a bla tur e o f Cec il -

la tin g a n d S t ee p le En gin e s .

C HAP TER XI V .

Th e Con dens e r , pp 34 4 3 72.

-

Th e Co n mmo o
r Jet C n den er— T h e A n mo u t o o ct o t
f I n j e i n Wa e r— T h e Are a f s o
ct o l f c o
I n j e i n Or ific e— S n iffin g Va v e — S u r a e C n d ens e r— C n d en e r T o s ub s o
e — C n d en e r s
c cy
E ffi ien — T h e Eff e on E n ct c o om y of o su m pt o
C n u c o s
i n — S r f a e C n d e n e r Effic ie n c y
Eff e ct o mx
f Air i e d wi h S e a — Air e a t t m L ks to o s lo o p o u
C n d en e r— F w f Va r a n d Wa er t
C i n g S r a e— All w a n e f C lin g S r a e— C in g S r f a e p er
ool u f c o c s o oo uf c ool u c r e we rHo s p o -

G t st L
re a e en g h T t of ub
e— C n d en e r T oe — T s ub s ub p l t s ub
e a e — T e Pa ck s t m
in g — S e a S id e -

t
a n d W a e r S id e T e — S of ub s p c o ub s o y o
a in g o
f T e — B d f t h e C n d e n e r— C n r i n s o st uct o of
u c
t h e S rf a e Con d e n s er4 o o o s
h a pe f t h e M d e rn C n d e n e r— S iff n e t ss o l t u c s
f F a S r fa e
u t ty o
Q an i ool t ss o cu l t t
f C in g Wa e r— P a a ge f Cir a in g W a e r— S i e f C ir la in g P z o cu t um p
o I lt sc
P ip e s fi S iz e f n e a n d D i h a rg e P i e — E r a S p s x t upp l y o c k
C — M a n h e — Dr a in Col s o ck s
— Te st
in g —Ce e n in g— Ev a m t
ra r po to s .
 C O N T E N TS .

C H APT E R XV .

Pu mps .
pp 3 73 4 1 1
.
-

pu m p— S in gle cti g V rtic Ed w rd s Air pu m p— D o ubl ti g Air pu m p

Ai r a n e a l— a
’
e - ac n -

W ir s D u l P u m p— Air pu m p I di c t o r Di gr m s— Effi i y of Ai pu m p — Ai pu m ps
e
’
a - n a a a c en c r s r-
th d w i t h o u t F oot V lv s S i z of Air pu mp — C p c i ty— Ai pu m p fo r J t c o d s r
an a e — e a a r- e n en e
— For S u f c Co d r— R o t r y Air pu m ps— P r s o s V cuu m u g m t o r P u m p ’
r a n e n se a a n a a en —
e
R o d s— P u m p B uc k t — V lv s— C Kin gh o r s P t t— T h om ps o s B ld m
e s a e oe n
’
a en n
’
— e a
’
s

Ar ea thr o u gh V l v S ts —S uctio Pip s fr om t h C o d s r to t h Ai pu m p— Ci

a e ea n e e n en e e r- r cu
l ti g P u m ps— S i gl cti g P u m p— D o ubl cti g P u mp— S iz o f Cir cula ting P u mp
a n n e a
-
n e a
-
n e

Ci r cu l ti g P u m p R o d s B uc k ts d V lv s— V l v Ar — Di m t r o f S uctio Pip
a n , e , an a e a e ea a e e n es
R o t r y P u m p — C t rifu g l P u m ps— P u m ps of R M S M r t i
a s en a F d P u m ps . . . au e an a — ee

S ea W t r— N t F d W t r— R li f V lv s— V lv s
a e e ee d V l v b ox s Ai V ss ls
a e e e a e a e an a e e — r e e
F d Pip s
ee P t V lv s
e F d T n k F d pu m p R od— B ilg P u m ps— C p ci ty o f
e a e -
ee a — ee -
e a a
B il g P u m ps— Dir ctin g B ox s— M d B ox s— S ni t ary P mp —Ej ct or s— P ow er for
e e e u e a 11 e

Cir c l t i g P u m ps
u a n .

C HAP TER XV I .

Valve
s an d Valve Gear, pp . 4 1 2 44 3 -

S ea w a rd s Va lv es — Lo c omo tiv e Trick D o uble p o rt e d a n d T r e ble p or te d Va lv e s

’

, ,
- -

T r a v e l o f F l a t Va lv e s— P i sto n Va l v e s— R e li e f Fr a m e s— D o ub l e Va lv es — D a w e Hol t s ’

P a t en t— C ommon R eli ef Fr a m e — Ma rt in a n d An dr e w s Va l ve — T hr o u gh E x h a ust Va l v e ’

B a c k Gui d e s an d S p rin gs— B a l a n ce Pi st on s— Jo y s Assi sta n t Cy lin de r— Va lv e R od s o r ’

S p in dles V a lv e r od B ol ts— Va lv e r od Gu id e s— Pr o p o rt i o ns of S li d e Va lv e s D o ub le
- - - —

p o r te d V a lv e — L in k M o t i o n — S lo t L in k P o s i t i o n of S usp en s i o n Pin — S iz e o f S lo t L in k -

S in gle b a r Lin k — D o ub l e b a r Lin k s— S i z e of B a r Lin k s — S in gle E cc e n t ri c G ea r— H a c k

- -

w ort h s D yn a mi c Va lv e G ea r— M ar s h a ll s Va lv e G ea r— J o y s V a l v e G ea r— S e ll s V a l v e
’ ’ ’ ’

Ge ar— Ex p a n sion Va lves— G rid ir on Ex p a n sion Va lve s— Outs id e Cu t off Va lve s— I n sid e
- -
‘

C ut off Va l v e s— Pist o n Ex p an sion Va l v e s Ex p a n sion Va lv e s f o r Com p o un d En gin e

- —

Ecc en t ric s — Ecc en t ri c S t r a ps— E cc e n t ri c R o d s — R e v e r s in g G ea r— D ia m e te r of W e igh

s ha f t .

CHAPTE R X VII .

V alve Diagrams, pp . 4 44 4 56 -

Motion o f Pis t on — L ea d— I n sid e L a p— Efie ct of N ot chi n g u p — Ex p a n sion

t he -

Va lv e on a n I n d e p en d e n t F ac e Ce n tra l P o sition P o r ts clo se d— Ditto Op en — Exp a n sion

, .

Va l v e w o rki n g on t h e B a c k of M a in Va l v e C uttin g 0 11 a t I n sid e Edge Va ria t ion in C ut off ,

-
,
-

by Va r yin g T r a v el— E x p a n si on Va lve on B a c k o f M a in Va lv e C u tt in g off a t Out s id e Ed ge ,

-

C on str uct io n of Va lv e Dia gra m s— Eff e ct on I n dic a t o r D ia gra m s o f Cra nk S equ en c e

-
.

C H AP TER X VI I I .

P ropellers , pp 4 5 7 5 01
.
-

F u n d a m e n t a l Pr in c ip le—S tr ea m Wa ter— Eff e cts of Wa k e C u rre n ts on S c rew— Th e

P a ddle W he e l— N omi n a l o r App a re n t S li p— R ea l S li p— P a t h o f B la d e T ips— Dim en sio n s
a n d F o r m o f Pr o p e ll e r— P a d dl e w i t h F ix e d F lo a ts— F ea t h e ri n g F lo a ts— C o n t r ol of F lo a ts
—D ia m e t e r of F e a t h e r in W h ee l— Ar ea o f F lo a t — N u m b e r a n d Pr o p o r t i o n s o f F lo a ts
g
I mm e r s io n o f F lo a t— B o sse s — P a d d le Ar m s— P o s it io n o f Gu d ge o n s— Oute r B e a r in g
Th e S c re w Pr o p e ll e r— S u rf a c e — S m i t h s O r igin a l S c r e w— D e v e lo ped a n d Pr o j e ct e d
'

S u rfa c e s— Dia m e te r of S c re w— I n di c a t e d T hr us t — R a n k in e s Ru le fo r T hr ust — Pre ssu re ’

e r S qu a r e I n c h on Pr o pe ll r B la d H D ia m e t e r o f S c r e w su it e d t o S h ip — Li m i t t o D ia m e te r
p e
— P itc h o f S c re w — P it c h R a t io— S u rfa c e R t io — Act in g S rfa c e — T h r us t — T hic k n ess of a ii
 C O N T E NT S . x iii

B la d e — Pr o pe lle r B o ss— B la de s— N u m b e r o f B l a d e s— S h a p e o f B l d e s— S e ctio n o f B l d e s a a

— S tu d s o r B o lts— D ia m e t e r o f B o lts— Ma t e r ia l f o r B la d e s— W e ig h t — F ea t h e rin g S c r ws e
B e v is Pa ten t — Lif tin g S c rew s
-
'
.

C HAPT E R X I X .

S ea Cock s an d V al ves , pp . 5 02 5 1 0 -

K i gst o V lv — D isc h rg V lv s B ilg V lv s— Comm u ic tio B ox

n n a e a e a e — e a e n a n e s— B ilge
S uctio Pipi g— W t r S r v ic — Ex p s io Jo i ts— S f ty C o ll r — Fl g s
n n a e e e an n n a e a s an e .

C HAPT ER X X .

pp 5 1 1 5 3 7 Auxili ary Machin ery , .

-

Cl ss s of Au x ili r y M c hi r y Ex h us t S t m I t rm itt t d Co st t W o rk i g
a e a a ne — a ea — n e en an n an n

E l ct r c L ig h t E gi
e s U of El ctric C u rr t f o r ll A x ili r y W o rk Lo ss o f S t m
i n ne — se e en a u a — ea

F d P m ps E g i r oom P u m ps— R v r si g G r s V til ti g

ee u — n ne d F o rc d e e n ea en a n an e
Dr u gh t F s— H v d li P u m ps d Accu m u l t o r — Ai C om p r ss o r— Br ow s S t m
a an ra u c an a s r e n
’
ea

Till r R f rig r t i g M c h i s— Au x ili r y C o d s r

e — e e a n a ne a n en e .

C HAP TER XX I .

Boilers Fuel etc Evaporation pp 5 38 5 5 6 , , .

, , .
-

Effic i cy of F u r c — C him y Dr u gh t— F u l— P t t F u l — Oil F u l— Oil

en na e ne a e a en e s e
B u r s— V lu of F u l— R t of Com bustio — A t ifi i l Dr u ght — H w d
r ne a e a e S yst m a e n r c a a o en s
’
e
of F o r c d Dr ugh t — Elli e d E v s S yst m— Q u a tity of F u l b u r t o G r t — S i
s an a e
’
e an e n n a e ze
of F u l— Com bustio H t i g S f e S i
nne d H igh t of F u n l— Ev p o r t io
ea n u r ac h
ze an e nne a a n
T ub S ur f e— Ev p o r tiv P o w r Effi c i cy o f B o i l r
a ce a a e e — en e .

C HAP TER XX I I .

B oiler D es ign an d D etails B oilers

pp 5 5 7 5 85 — Tank , .
-

F o rm s of T k B oil d i c l B o il r s wit h T w F
an e r— Cyli
c s— Wit h T hr F u c n r a e o u rn a e ee rna es
Wi t h F o ur F u r c s— N v l B oil r s of T d y — S m ll B o il r s D o ub l
na e d d B o il r
a a e o- a a e — e - en e e

O v l B o il r s— Holt s B oil r— Dry Com bustio C h m b r B oil r— G b o t B o il r s

a e
’
e n a e e u n a e

V r ti c l C yli d i c l B o il r— Lo c omo t iv B oil r— W t B o tt om Lo c omo tiv B oil r s

e a n r a e e e e e e

D o ubl d d Lo c omo tiv B oil r s— S t o s Lo c omo t iv B oil r— Di m io o f B o il

e en-
e e e ea n
’
e e en s ns a er
— Ar of Fir G r t — Co um pt io of F u l H ti g S u f c — T ub S u f c — T o t l
ea e a e ns n e — ea n r a e e r a e a
H t i g S u f c —Efii i y of H ti g S u f — Effi i y of B o il r — Ar t hr o u gh
ea n r a e e en c ea n r a ce c en c e s ea

T b s— C p it y of Boil r Sh ll— S t m S
u e a ac — Ar of U pt k o r F u el S ct io
e e ea a ce ea a e nn e ns

C p c ity of Fu ls— E x mpl of Boil r s

’
a a t il
n ne a es e e a s .

C H APTER XX I I I .

Water tube -
B oile s , r pp . 5 8 6 6 33
-

D evelo p m en t of G rate Are a— T ub e s— Circ u la t in g T ub es — S t a ys— S t e a m Dru m s— Th e

T w o T ype s— H e rre sh ofi B o ile r— B a bc o c k Wil c ox— N or m a n d— Fe rgus on F l e m in g
— S e a t on s B o ile r — Ya rr o w— B le ch yn d en Wh it e F o r ste r— Th orn y c rof t — M u mfo rd — D u
’
- -

T e m ple R e ed
— — — — — —
Be lle ville D ii rr N icla u sse S t irlin g Ho h en st e in M iya b a ra T h o rn y
— —

c ro f t Ma rsh a ll— Amo u n t o f Wate r in Wate r tub e B o ile r— Fe e d Arra n ge m e n ts— Fi r e

- -

Pla e s— Con su m pt io n T ri a ls
c .
 XI V C O N T E NT S .

C H AP TER XXI V .

B oilers— Construction and D etail pp 6 34 6 6 8 . .

-

T st i g by H y dr u li c Pr ssu r — Ad m ir l ty Ru l s B u
e n u V it G r m G o v r
a e e a e , r ea er -
as, e an e n

m t Ru l s f o r T sti g— B o il r S h ll Cy li d ic l R iv ti g G r l Ru l s f o r R iv t d
en e e n e e ,
n r a — e n — en e a e e e

J o ints T r b l r iv t i g B utt Jo i ts w it h D o ubl B utt S t r ps T r b l ri v t d B utt

— — n e a — e e
e e -
e n -
e e
Jo i t— T h ic k ss d Br d t h o f B utt S tr ps T r b l riv t d L p Jo i ts D o ub l B utt
n ne an ea a — e e -
e e a n — e

S tr ps d D o ub l riv t i g B utt Joi ts w i t h D o ub l S tr ps d S i gl r iv t d D o

a an e -
e n — n e a an n e -
e e — .

D o ub l riv t d— B utt Joi ts w it h D o ub l S tr ps T r bl riv t d Tr b l riv t d ( ig

e -
e e n e a , e e -
e e — e e- e e z

zag) B utt Jo i t D o Q u d r up l r i v t d W
n l d d— Jo i ts Ci cu m f r ti l S m s
. a e -
e e — e e n —
r e en a ea
M t h o d s o f Wo r k M t ri l Allo w c f o r W r B o il r E d s— R iv ti g Q u li ty of
e — a e a — an e ea — e n e n — a

P l t — T h ic k ss o f E d P l t s F u r c s Ru l f o r T h ic k ss of P l i F u r c
a e ne n a e — na e — e ne a a n na e
M t h o d s o f S t iif i g F u r c s— M t h o d s o f Co cti g F u r c s t o E d P l t s— C m
e en n na e e nne n na e n a e o .

h st
o i C h m
en b r s — T ub s — S t ya T ub s — St y
e Co ti t l d Br it i h Pr ct ic
e a e a s— n n en a an s a e
W t r Sp c
a e M h ol — W igh t o f B o il r s
a e s— an es e e .

C HAP TER XX V .

B oiler Mountin gs and Fittings pp 6 6 9 6 90 , .

-

S mok bo — F u l F u r c Fr o ts d D oo r s Fir B r s— M r ti s P t t B r s
e- x nne — na e n an —
e a a n
’
a en a

H d rs o s P t t D oo r d B r s Cr u d P tr ol u m R s id u l s S t o p V l v
en e n
’
a en an a —
e e e e a — a e

S f ty V l v —S iz o f S f ty V l v — I t r l P ip s F d V l v s Aut om t i c F d
a e a e e a e a e n e na e —
ee a e — a ee

V lv s Blo w if C o c k S cu m Co ck W t r G u g S te m G u g S t i l V l v
a e — -
o — — a e a e— a a e — en ne a e

Ai V l v — W i s H y d oki t r— S t m W hi tl s— S p r t o r B o il r Clo t h i g
r a e e r
’
r ne e ea s e e a a — e n

C m r o s P t t L ggi g
a e n
’
a en a n .

C HAP T ER XXVI .

Fitt ing in of pp 691 71

Machin ery Starting ,
an d Re versing of Engines, et c. , .
-

F itti g M c h i ry i t o S h ip B o ri g t h S t r P o st — E gi S ti gs— T h r ust

n a ne n a — n e e n n ne ea n
B lo c k S t i g P d st l s f o r T u l S h f t i g B oil r S t i g s o r B r r s— Fitti g
ea n — e e a nne a n — e ea n ea e n
M c h i ry B o rd t h S hi p— Hol d i g d o w B ol ts S t yi g E gi s R mm i g C h o c k s
a ne on a e n -
n — a n n ne — a n

d S t ys B o il r S ts— Co pp r P i p s S t r t i g d R v r s i g E g i s Br o w s
’
an a — e ea e e —
a n an e e n n ne — n

P t t R v r si g G r— S t m G r f o r R v r si g o f Pr o p ll r s d riv by T bi
a en e e n ea ea ea e e n e e en u r n es fl

Bl ki en p Arr
n sog m t f o r
’
s M u v r i g an S h i ps w i t h F o u r S c r w s d iv by T u r bi s
e en a n oe n —
e r en ne
— R u l t i o d S t o p V l v s — S t am T u r i G r A h Ho i sts — Gov r ors D u lo p s n n ea — s —
’

g e a n an g a e e e n n

G o v r o r— S t m G o v r o r D u r h m Ch u r c hill s V lom t r Co utt s d Ad m s o s

e n ea e n — a
’
e e e —
’
an a n
’

G o v r o r— W sti gh o us G o v r o r G u g s— L ub ric t o r s d I m p m t
e n e n e C dm s e n — a e a an er ea ors -
a an
’

P t t L ub ric t o r s C t rif u g l L ub ric t o r s S igh t F d L u bric t o r M c h ic l

a en a —
en a a — ee a — e an a
I m p r m t o r— Dr i P ip s— J c k t Dr i s F d H t r s W ir s F d H t r
e ea a n e a e a n — ee ea e — e
’
ee ea e

E v p o r t o r s— L dd rs— G r t i g s
a a d P l t f o r m s— F d F ilt r s — S t ok h ol V t il t o r s
a e a n an a ee e e e en a .

C HAPT ER XX VI I .

Weight an d o th er Particulars of Ma chinery relating th ereto , pp . 71 8 74 4 -

We igh t o f En gin e s a n d B o ile r s— W a r s h ips T o r p e d o B o a t a n d D e st ro yer— B a tt le —

s h ips a n d Cru ise r s— F ir st S e c o n d a n d T h ird C la ss Cr u ise r s— P isto n S pe e d s— B o ile r a n d

, ,

M e a n Pre ssu re — M a t e ria l s— D e s ign — Efl e t o f Lo a d s a n d S t r e ss s — P a rts sub j e ct t o e e

I n te rm itte n t S tr e sse s— T o Al te rn a tin g S tr e sse s — S he a rin g a n d I o ion — El a stic Lim it ' ‘

rs

S a lc W o rk in g S t re sse s— S t re tc h u n d e r T e n s io n — P a d d l E n g i e s —N a v a l Ex p r e ss a n d e n , ,

C a rgo S h ip En gin e s— H igh sp e e d Cr a ft — B o il r s— Co st — Au x ilia r ie s a n d Appu rt e n a n c e s

-
e
—S a r e G e a r — F u e l W e igh t o f M o d e r n M a c h in e r y
— R e l a t io n o f W e i h t
t o T o n n a ge
p g
-

N At la n t ic S e r vic e — S te a me r s on R o ute s t o I n d ia C a p e a n d Austr a li a — B a tt l sh ips a n d

. , , e

Cru is e rs — S c o uts a n d De s t r o y e r s— Cro ss Ch an n e l S t e a m e r s S h allo w Wa te r S te a m e r s - —

I a ddle w h e e l S t e a m e r s— T u r b in e S t e a m e r s
’
-
.
 C O N T EN T S .
xv
C H AP TER
'

x x v1 1 1 .

Eff ec t 01 Weight— I n e ia rt an d M omentum— B alan cin g th e S a me, pp . 74 5 8 0 1

-

Fi x c d P a r ts M o v i g Pa r ts— M ome n tu m— B a l a n c in g — Pre li m in a r y De fi n it io n s

— n

I l a r mon ic M o t io n I e r t ia o f Pa r ts o f a n En gin e — Of C o n n e ct in g r od— Of Va l v e G e a r

— n -

Oi Air P u m p— S i ngle c ra n k a n d Va lv e G ea r b a l a n c e d by R o t a tin g W e igh ts o n l y— D O

-

by B o b W e igh ts a n d R o ta t in g W e igh ts c om b in e d T o B a la n c e a n En gin e o f a n y N u m be r

.

o f Cr a n k s— C u r v e s of Fr e e F o r c e a n d C o up l e s f o r a M u l t i c r a n k E g in e— F o u r —c r k -
n an

En g in e — Y a rr o w S c h li c k T w ee d y S yst e m— Mod ifie d Pr in c ip le o f B a l a n c in g— Eff e ct o f

- -

I n e rt ia a n d l V e igh t — S t r e ss e s d u e t o I n e r t ia — D e s ign o f B a l n c e W e ig h t s
. a .

C HAP TER XX I X .

M aterials used by pp 802 835 th e Marin e Engin eer , .

-

C s t I ro — Diff r t Ki d s o f Pig C o ld bl st I r o — Mix t r s S p ifi G r v i ty of

a n e en n — -
a n u e — ec e a
C st l — S tr gt h Wr o u gh t I r o R oll d B —M r c h t B st t B r s W igh t
a r on en — n— e ay e an , e , e c .
, a —
e

o f B r s— F o rgi g s— S t l B ss m r S i m s M r ti — S t l f o r B oil r C o str uctio

a n ee —
e e e , e en -
a n ee e n n

Ad m ir lty B o r d of T r d Llo y d s Br i t is h C o r p o r t io Ru l s S iz s of B r s d Pl t s
’
a , a a e, , a n e — e a an a e
—Pr ic — S t e l F o rgi gs C st i gs N ic k l S t l C hr om V
ee n —
di u m S t l S o f t S t l
a n — e ee — e -
an a ee — ee

f o r S olid d w T ub s M g s S t l C o pp r Ti Zi c o r S p lt r L d
-
ra n e — an an e e ee — e — n— n e e — ea

Al u m i i u m D ur lu m i
n —
M t l— G m t l Ad m ir l ty
e a u n
A t i mo y All o ys Br ss M u tz M t l— N v l Br ss— T ub
a n— n n , , a , n e a a a a e
-
e a d P h o sp h o r Br o z s —Cr ot it — I mm di m— T
— a an n e ar e a u u r

b d i m— S t o s Br o z B u ll s M t l— M ll id D lt M t l— P r s o s W hi t Br o z
’ ’ ’
a u ne n e— e a e o — e a e a a n e n e
— B bb i t s Whi t M t l Ad mir lty Whi t M t l— Pl m t i —M g o li F t o s
a
’
e e a —
a e e a u ne a n a— en n
'

W h it M t l— S t o s Wh i t Br o z — G r m S ilv r R ic h r d s Pl stic M t l— T b l s
e e a ne
’
e n e e an e — a
’
a e a a e
lo S t r
n gt h C om p o s i t io
en , Pr o p r t i s d Pric s of M t ls t n, E ff ct o f T m p r tu re
e e , an e e a , e c — e e e a
'
o n S t r gt h of M t ls
en e a .

C H AP TE R XXX .

Oil an d ur
L b i can ts — Engin e Fri ct ion , pp 8 3 6 8 4 4
.
-

Con su m pt io n of Oil— Ki n d s of Oil— An im a l O ils — Ve ge t a ble O il s— M in e ra l O il s

D e n sity— Vi sc o sity— B oili n g S e tt in g a n d Fla s h P o in ts C om p o u n d O ils S o a ps
, ,
— —

Ad u l t e r a t io n — S o lid L ub r ic an ts— T a llo w— G re a s e —Co effic ien ts o f Fr ict io n .

CHAP TE R XXX I .

Tes ts pp 8 4 5 8 5 8
and r
T ials : Th ei r ObJCCt S an d Meth ods ,
.
-

G r l Co sid r tio s— F cto r s o r M rgin o f S f ty Ad m ir lty Ru l s fo r T sti g

en e a n e a n a a a e — a e e n

M c h i ry— I t li
a ne G o v r m t — B ri ti sh Co rp o r tio Llo yd s B o rd o f T r d
a an e n en a n —
’
— a a e

G r m isc h r Llo yd s— T ri ls u d r S t m Ad m ir lty S h i p T ri ls— M r c h t S h ip

e an e a n e ea — a a e an

T ri l — M o d m S t m sh i p T ri ls —Pr o g r ss iv T ri l s— D o
a s e ea t S — E dur c T ri l a e e a . a ea n an e a s

M r c t il M ri
e an e a ne .

APP EN D I X A .

Th e D iesel Oil En gin e, p p 8 5 9 8 75

-
.

f c i en cy— R a t e o f R e v olut io n — T w o cycle En gin e s— D o ub l e a ct in g Oil En g in e s

E fi - -

J u n k e r E n gin e— R e v e r sin g Oil En gin e s— M a n oe u v r in g —T w in sc r ew Oil S h ip F 1 o n a -

— B ox fo rd s D o uble p i st o n En gin e— E x a m p l e s o f Oil e n gin e d Sh ips— S e m i D w s l

'
- - -
c

En gin e s .
 C O N T EN TS . x vii

APP EN D I X M .

fr rating Machinery an d Applian ces Lloyd s

R e ige ,
’
R egis e t rs Rules
’

, pp 94 9 95 4
.
-

APP EN D I X N .

u
R les f or Vesse ls t
Fi t ed f or B u rnin g and Carryi ng Liq id Fu uel , p 95 5
.

APP E N D I X 0 .

B oard of Tr ade R ules for Safety Valves , pp . 95 6 960

-

APP EN D I X P .

B u reau Veritas R ules f or B oiler S afety Valves a nd Metal Tests , et c. ,

APP EN D I X Q .

Admira lty R ules for Testin g Materials f or Mach in ery, pp 96 2 96 4

.
-

APP EN D I X R .

Recommen dations for Mai n B oilers of t he British Marine Engineering D esign

a n d Con struction Committ ee , pp . 96 5 96 7
-

I n dex
 LI ST OF TAB L ES .

S h o win g Pr o gre ss of N a v a l En gin ee rin g— S cr ew Pr o pu l sion ,

En gin ee r in g in t h e M e r c a n t il e M a r in e ,

J Oh n s C o efficien ts fo r C om putin g Effe ctiv e Ho r se p o we r

’
-
,

Co e fficien ts fo r C om putin g I H P by t h e old Ad mir a l ty F o r m ula . . .

,

Coe fficien ts ( Pris ma tic ) o f Di spla c e m en t sui ta b le fo r Va ri o us S p ee d s ,

R ela tion of P o w e r t o S p e ed ( S ir W H W hi te ) . .
,

R e su l ts of T ria l s o f S hips a t S p e e d s from 9 t o 1 2 K n ots ,

to 1 5 12
to 1 8 15
to 2 1 18
d up w rd s 21 an a
fitt d wi t h T ur bi s e ne ,

XI II . P ddl w h ls a e ee
R l tio of Po w r rid D i p l c m ts
,

XI V . e a n e a s a e en ,

XI V a . C om p r tiv T i ls of S hi ps fitt d wi t h T u b i s d R cip ro c t o r s

a a e r a e r ne an e a ,

XV . W t r Co su m ptio of E gi s o f H M S Am t h yst
a e n n d Top z n ne . . . e an a e
C om p r d a e , 93
XV I . R sults of M sur d M il T i l o f Ss Ot ki
e ea e
”
e r a s . . a , 97
XVI I . S t m us d Exp siv l y
ea e an e , 111
X V II I . F ct o r s fo r E t im t im g M
a Pr ssu r o f S t m in Pr ctic
s a ea n e e ea a e, 1 25
XI X . R sults of T ri ls of N v l T w i sc r w S hips
e a a a n -
e
’

, 1 30
XX . M r c h t S t m shi ps e an ea , 1 31
XXI . Tw o st g Com p o u d E gi s -
a e n n ne , 1 32
XXI I . T hr st g T hr c r k E gi s ee -
a e ee - an n ne , 1 33
X XI I I . F o u r c r k E gi s an n ne , 1 34
XXI V . F o u r st g E x p sio E gi -
a e an n n n e, 1 35
X XV . Effi i i y o f s om Ger m
c er c En gi s e an ne , 156
XX VI Y rr o w E x p i m ts o E ffic i cy
’
. a S er en n en , 159
E x pe ri m ts E ffic i cy
’
Ty k ac e s en on en ,

XX VI I I . W o rk d o T h o r tic ll y by O P o u d o f S t m
ne e e a ne n ea , 1 61
XXI X . E x m p l s of T y p i c l E gi s
a e a n ne , 1 76
X XI Xa . R t s o f R v olutio of S c r w Pr o p ll r s
a e e n e e e , 208
X XI X b . S t r ok s o f E gi s i C ommo Pr ct ic
e n ne as n n a e, 209
T r i l of a T yp i c l C rg o S t m r
a s a a ea e , 2 32
XX X I . F ct o r s f o r o bt i i g S i z s o f S t m Ex h ust Pip s t
a a n n e ea , a e , e c .
,
24 7
XX XI I . W ig h t of S t m p ss d t h r o u gh P ip s wi t h Dr o p of 1 L b
e ea a e e a . 24 8
X XX I H S t ffi g b ox s d G l d s S iz s o f
u n e an an e 2 60
R tio o f M xim u m to M T wi ti g M om ts t V r io us C t ofi
.
, ,

X XX I V . a a ea n s n en a a u s, . 2 98
XXXV B o r d o f T r d F ct o r s f o r S h f ts
a a e a a 32 1
Llo yd s F ct o r s f o r S h f ts o f S t m R cip r o c to r s
.
,

XXX VI .
’
a a ea e a ,
32 2
X X XVI I a n
. d XX X V I I Llo yd s F ct o r s f o r S h fts of Oil E gi s
a .
’
a a n ne ,
32 3
XX X VI I I . Britis h C o rp o r tio F ct o r s f o r S h f ts
a n a a ,
3 24
XXXI X . F ct o r s fo r S h ft s p r Aut h o r s F o r m u l
a a e
’
a, 329
XX XI Xa P dd l s h fts p Aut h o r s F o r mu l
a e a er
’
a, 33 1
Cr k s h ft s o f S c r w E gi s p Aut h o r F o rm u l
.
,

X XX I X b 3 32
’
. an a e n ne , er 5 a,

XL . E ff ct of V cuu m
e S t m Co su m pt io
a on ea n n, 36 2
XL I . T m p r tu
e e a L t t H t d V o lu m o f S t m t v ry L ow Pr ssu r
r e, a en ea , an e ea a e e e, 36 3
X LI I . N u m b r o f T ub s
e C o d s r p S qu r F oo t o f T ub P l t
e in a n en e er a e e a e, 36 7
X L III . T r i l s of B ttl s hi p
a I buk i — C r ti s T u r b i s
a e u ne ,
36 8
XL I V . R t io o f Cooli g W t r t o S t m C o d s d
a n a e ea n en e ,
3 70
XX LI S T OF T AB L ES .

T AB LE
X LV . R t io of L P C yl i d r t o Circu l ti g P u m p C p c it i s
a . n e a n a a e ,

X LV I . C t r if u g l Pu m ps f o r Ci cu l t i g Cool i g W t r
en a r a n n a e ,

X L V II . P r t icu l r s f S c r w Pro p ll s S oli d d Loo s blad ed

a a O e e er , an e- ,

X L V III . T h ic k ss o f C o pp r P ip s f o r V r i o us Pu rp o s s
ne e e a e ,

X LI X . S t m d F u l C o su m pt io o f R M S L it i
ea an e n n . . . u s an a ,

L P rt icu l r s o f Ad m ir l ty T yp of F s fo r Ai Circul at io
a a a e an r n,
Fu l s o f ll Ki d s ( S ol id )
.

LI . e a n ,

LI a F u l s ( Li qu id )
e
Com p ri s o o f V rio us D signs o f B o
.
,

LI I . a n il r s a e e ,

L II I . Allo w c of T ot l H t i g S u rf c
an e Pr ct ca ea n a e in a i e,

L II I a C p c ity o f Fu
a a ls nn e
P r t icu l r s o f M ri B o il r s m ad u d r Old Ru l s
.
,

LIV . a a a ne e e n e e ,

LV N w Ru l s e e
B s i i d S go i g T ri l s o f H M S S h ld r k
.
,

LV I . a n a i ea - n a . e a e

L V II P r ticul r s o f S u rf c W igh t t of E xp r ss B o il rs
a a a e, e , e c .
, e e ,

S p c i l T ri ls o f B ll v ill B o il r s H M S S h a rp sh oo t r
.

L V III . e a a e e e e in . . . e ,

LIX . R su lts o f S t m T ri l w it h Nicla s B o il r s

e ea a s u s e e ,

LX . T ri ls of t h M iy b r B o il r
a e a a a e ,

LX I . W t C o su m pt io of M i
a er n d Au x ili r y M c h i r y— H M S
n a n an a a ne H

H rm s e e ,
”

L X II . W t r C o su m pt io o f M in
a e n d Au x ili a r y M c h in r y H M S
n a an a e — . . .

”
Di an a ,

L X II I . R s l ts o f T ri ls o f V rio u s Mo d r M ri B o il r s Lbs p Ho u r
e u a a e n a ne e in . er ,

L XV . T ri l s o f V ri o us N v l S h ips W t r T ub c om p r d w i t h T
a a a k
a — a e : e a e an
B o il r s e ,

L XV I . T r i l s f V r io us M ri
a o a B o il r a ne e s,
L XV II . T sts o f B o i l r M t r i l p r sc ri b d by V ri o us Aut h o r it i s
e e a e a e e a e ,

L XV III . S t r gt h s o f V rio us Ki d s o f R iv et d Joi ts

en a n e n ,

LX I X S i gl r iv t d L p Jo i ts
n e e e a n ,

P r t icu l r s o f D o ubl riv t d L p Joi ts o f Pl t s

.

L XX . a a e e e a n a e ,

L XX I . T r b l ri v t d L p Jo i ts o f Pl t s
e e e e a n a e ,

L XX II . T r b l S p c i l R i v t d L p Jo i ts o f P l t s
e e e a e e a n a e ,

L XX III . D o ubl r iv t d B utt Joi ts of Pl t s e -

e e n a e ,

L XX I V . D o ub l S p c i l R iv t d B utt Jo i ts of Pl t se e a e e n a e ,

L XXV . T r b l O rd i r y R iv t d B utt Jo i ts o f P l t s
e e na e e n a e ,

L XXV I . T r bl S p c i l R iv t d B utt Jo i ts o f P l t s
e e e a e e n a e ,

L XXV II . R l t iv T h ic k ss of S h ll P l t s fo r D iff r t T il S t r gth s

e a e ne e a e e en en s e en ,

L XXV III . V l u s o f F ct o r F F o r m u l f r S h ll P l t s
a e a in a o e a e ,

L XX I X . B o il r T ub s S t d d S i z s d T h ick ss s
e e , an ar e an ne e ,

L XXX . P r t icu l r s d S c t l i g s o f M o d r Cy li d r ic l B oi l rs
a a an an n e n n a e ,

L XXX I . D t il s o f R iv t i g f o r Fu l s C si g t
e a e n nne , a n s, e c .

L XXX II . Al l r o u d R v r si g G r s P rt icu l s o f
-
n e e n ea , a ar ,

L XXX II I . Lim its of S f W o rki g S t r ss s V rio us M t l s

a e n e e on a e a ,

L XXX I V . C o d it io s o bt i i g w it h M c hi r y f M od r S h ips
n n a n n a ne O e n ,

L XXXV . P rt icu l r s o f M c h i ry o f V rio u N v l S h ips

a a a ne a s a a ,

L XXXV I . Oc E x p r ss S t m r s ean e ea e ,

L XXXV II . P ss g C rg o S t m r s a en er a ea e ,

L XXXV III . S m ll P ss g r S t m r s a a en e ea e ,

L XXX I X . P ddl w h l S t m r s a e -
ee ea e ,

XC . Tu rb i S c r w S t m rs ne e ea e ,

XC I . W igh ts o f M o v i g P rts o f B l c i g E gi s
e n a a an n n ne ,

XC I I . Ad m ir l ty T s il T sts f o r B o il r S t l
a en e e e ee ,

XC III . B o rd o f T r d T s il T sts f o r B o il r S t l
a a e en e e e ee ,

XC I V . C om p o s it io o f M t l d t h i r Allo ys
n e a an e ,

XCV . V r io us Wh it ( B ri g ) M t l s a e ea n e a ,

XCV I . Ph ysic l Pr o p rt i s o f V r io u s M t l s
a e e a e a ,

XCV II . C u rr t d P st Pric s o f V rio us M t r i l s

en an a e a a e a

XCV III . S t d rd T sts f o r S t l d o pt d U S Am ic

an a e ee a e in . . er a,

XC I X . C o st itu ts o f S ol id M tt r i R iv r d S W t r
n en a e n e an ea a e

C . d p o s it d B o l rs 9, e e in i e

Eff ct f T m p r tu r
e o M t ls
e e a e on e a ,

C II . S p c ific G r v ity o f V r io us O ils t 60 F

e a a a
°
.
,
 LI S T OF TAB LES .
xx i

P AG E

s ty o f V r o us O l s
D en i a i f r t mp r t
i a t D i f e en T e e a a re s , 8 39
V sc o s ty o f V r o u s O l s
i i a i f r t m p r tu r s
i a t D if e e n Te e a e, 8 39
Bo S tt
ilin g, e in og , a n dF l s P o ts o f V r o us O l s
a h in a i i , 840
Pr c s o f
i e O ls
V a r i ou s i , 840
C f c ts of
oe fi i en o f V r ou s M t r s
Fr ic t io n a i a e ia l , 84 3 84 4
x m p l s of S ps
,

E a e r
Oil En gin e d iv en h i , 8 79
M t o s of r s m ss o fr om u r b t o S c r
e h d T an i i n T in e ew , 8 95
S t m C o su m
ea n S H P ou r
ed pe r . . . h -
r o us c o t o s
( va i n di i n
), 8 98
S up r t S t m t ro u P p s L bs
e he a ed ea h gh i e , M ut
.
pe r in e, 903
B o r of r
a d F ct o r s o f S f ty f o r B o l r s
T a de a a e i e , 90 7
Co st ts fo r Jo ts of B o l r P l t s t D ff r t K s of Riv t i g
n an in i e a e wi h i e en in d e n , 91 1
V l u s of R
a e 2 Fo rmu o f
in t h e la B u r u V r t s f o r B o il r S h ll s
t he ea e i a e e , 92 3
V lu
a e of B u r u V r t s M u t p l r F ct o r f o r Fl t Pl t s
ea e i a l i ie a a a e , 92 7
Bo r of r
a d llo c f o r S f y V l
T a d e A w an e s a et r s a ve A ea , 95 7
 LI ST OF I L L U S TR AT I ON S .

D ES C R I PT I ON OF I LL U S T R ATI ON S .
P AG E
1 . s S te r fo r S h llo w dr ug h t S c r w S h ips
T h orn y cr of t
’
n a a e
Y r o w Dr o p fl p S h llo w dr a u g h t S c r w S hi ps
,
’
F ar 8 -
a a -
e
P ddl S t m r C h rlo tt D d s 1 8 02
,
P a e ea e a e u n a ,

P M c hi er y d W h ls of P d dl S t m r C om t 1 8 1 2
a n an ee a e ea e e
M o d r Am ri c L k P d dl S t m r
, ,
Q e n e an a e a e ea e ,

P T u r bi S t m r D uc h ss o f Argyll
ne ea e e ,

S E gi s n d P d dl W h l s of
ne an S t r W h l r a e ee a e n ee e
Em p r ss Q u
,

I H P
”
P P s . . e ee n , . .

P E rly S c r w Pr o p ll r s of S m it h
a e d E r icss o e e an n,
10 . Ki r k s A lysi — B lo ck Mo d l
’
na s e ,

ll . Curv of I H P fo r V r yi g S pe d s
e . . . a n e ,

12 . Curv s of P o w r t e of s s L usit i Ti ls
e , e c .
, . . an a on r a ,

13 . Tri ls of H M S a C o ss ck in W t r of Diff r t D pth s

. . . a a e e en e ,

14 . H r old Ya rr ow Ex p rim ts i n W t r of Diff r t D pths

a
’
8 e en
'

a e e en e ,
15 .

16 . N D
L loy d s Co 8 . . .
’

17 T h orn y cr oft F ou r Cy lin d e r En gin e s in g igh

.
ils, -
u L tO
18 ell i
. B
an d Mor c om ss eav Oil En g in e , H y
19 Co . mpou
n d D ia g n a l P a d d le En gi n e — Tw o Cr a n k , o s
20 .
— Cra n C led , k s o up
21 T h r ee r a n k C
. c
om p o u
n d P a ddle En gin e ,

22 . T i le o r p c m pou
n d P ad dl e En gin e ,

23 m c t m
A e r i an S e a e r B ea En g in e ,
. m
En gin e t he of om t
C e , 1 8 1 1 1 2, .
-

2 5 S id e le v e r En gin e
.
,

2 6 En gin e
. P S e gen , s of
1 8 1 6, . . R t
2 7 a n d 2 7a illa in g En gin e , . Osc t
2 8 S e e le En gin e ,
. t p
2 9 T w in lin d e r En gin e , cy
s U
.

30 D ia g n a l C
. o
n d P ad dle En gin e , om p o u
S A, . . .

3 1 T r n k En gin e , u s
o
.

3 1a e R tu
rn C n n e in g r d En gin e , o ct
N
.

3 2 Th re e r a n k T i le e
. c
a n i n En gin e ( rp
a v a l) , -
xp s o
33 Ve r i a l Q a d r le e
. tc a n i n En gin e ( E u up re ) , -
xp s o x p ss
3 3a .
( Me r a n ile rd in a r ) , c t O y
3 4 En gin e
. s of H m
M S S a l on ( De s r e r ), t oy . . .

35 i gh H sp us
e e d Cr i e r En gin e ,-
s
C ft
.

3 6 T ri le p c om p o u
n d En gin e s fo s
r F i h in g ra ,
i :
.

3 7 Fi v e
. cy
lin d e r Q ad r u up so
le e x pa n s ion En g in e f s s I r c h du n e -
.

3 8 Eigh
. t cy
lin d e r K W, . .

39 . G
e n e r a Arr an gel en m t of u b
T r in e , e t c o R f MS Lus t i a n ia , . . . .

40 D ia g ra
. ms o
h w in g e l R su ts o s of H
f T r ia l t yst
M S Am e h ”
an d . . . o z
T pa ,

41 C . om b t o of
in a i n t l ub t
a C e n r a T r in e w i h T w in R c p oc to s
e i r a r ,

42 . T w in Tu r in e 8b ’

43 . on gi L tu
din a l S e i n hr ct o t o u
gh En g in e r oom of R O ym p c
MS l i , . . .

4 4 P an
. l of
En gin e r oom of RMS O ym p c
l i , . . .
’

4 5 Th e W h e el ea r in g
. G of
s s sp s
Ve a ia n , . .

46 C
. om b t o of
in a i n b s t
T w in Tu r in e w i h a S in g el R c p oc toe i r a r,
l ct
4 7 Oi] En gi n e , S in g e a in g , M a rin e T
. yp y s
e, S i x C lin d e r ,
48 . o ub
D le a c in g t -

s t
4 9 Mi rr lee s D ie el S in gle a c in g M a r in e En g in e ,
.
-

yc l ct s ytm
50 M a r in e Oil En gin e , T w o c le S in g e a in g, D ie el S s e ,
.
-

5 0 a S e ion . ct of
 I
L ST OF I LLU S T R AT I O N S . X XV

FI G , RI I O
D ES C PT N OF I LL U S T RATI ON S.

1 02 ia g a
. D r ms o
h w in g T n i n ur en g M omat t of v a rio us An g l e s
Cra n k t he ,

1 03 ia g a
. D r m of
t he Cu r o f
v e T w i in g st M om ts o f S l Cr
en a in g e ank ,
1 0 3a ia g a . D r m o f C om bin e d T w i in g st M om ts o f en Cr k s
T wo an ,

1 04 an . Cr k
Eff or t ia g a D r m of a Th e e r cr k an r p l c om p o u n d
En gin e— T i e ,

1 05 T h e ra n C ks of P
a l
a d d le w h e e E n g in e ,

1 06 . Bu t
il u p a n k h a -
Cr s ft .

1 07 Na va . a nk l Cr
ha , s ft -

1 08 Ce d e r v a ll
. ew s S c r S f t F tt s
ha ’
i in g ,
1 09 i hel Th
. M c s rust B lo c k
'

1 1 0 T hr . ust B o c t
l k wi h Ad j ust b C oll r s
a le a
l l Oa ve h n g an (
. O r u Cr k B u r u V r t s
ea e i a ) .

1 1 0b .e D o ub l C k B u r u V r t s
ra n ( ea e i a ),

111 an
. ha Cr k s f t B r
e a in g ,

1 12 I . ved mpro F or m C
of ra n k S h a ft B r
e a in g,

1 13 o id
. ee l S l S t M B r Fr m
a in e a in g a l
e— N a v a En g in e , s
1 14 a . ee l C st S t M B r F m
a in e a in
g Ta e— N a v a l En in e , s
g
1 15 e i U n ifiu x
. W r Co
n den e s r f or
a Tu rbine
1 16 .in d i a C yl r c l C o
n d en e ons r M o r s o s S yst m
i n e
’

1 17 din a
. O r ry M r
a in e En gin e wi h Con t r a fl o t Co sr
n de n e ,

1 1 7a ia g a . D r m o
S h wi n g w F lo o f S t m
ea S yst m
i n t h e Con t rafl o e ,

1 1 8 Con t r a flo
. n d e ns eCo wi h r t F ee d T e mp r t r R u l t o r
e a u e eg a ,

1 1 8a is n .
’
Mor o s D r m for
ia g a Air a s tur t a ed w i h t W t r V p ou r
a e a ,

1 1 8 b I n di a . c t or D r m s o
ia g a h w in g E e ff ct o f H V cu
igh a u m“
1 19 n d en e T
. Co s r ub tt
e fi e d wi h t W oo F rr u l
d en e es ,

1 20 . S cr
e w ed Gl s an d p P
a n d Ta e s a ck in g ,

1 21 . S f ty sc r
a e ew ed Gl s and ,

1 2 2 Air . P ump of Or
din a T r y ype,

1 2 3 Ed w a d Air
. r s Pump
’

1 24 ei
. W r s Du l
a Air
’
P u m ps
,

1 24 a . D i ag a r mm t c S ct o o f
a i e i n ,

1 25 n di a
. I c t o r D r m of
ia g a Ai r P u m ps ,

1 2 6 Air .
, P u m ps M o t o r
dr i v en , -

1 27 n d en e w i h
. Co s r t K tc
in e i Air P u m ps ,

1 2 7a a n
.
’
Va P rs o s cuu m u m t o r
A g en ,

1 28 1 3 2 Air
-
. pu m p V l s o f K s
a ve-
ind ,
1 33 . e lle I mp r or
V Vh ee l a o f C tr f u P u mp
en -
i ga l ,

in h ir la in g -
c C cu t P u m p
C cu t P u m ps by ll f o r B tt
,

1 34 C ir la in g
. A en a a p M u r tan ia
le s hi a n d s s a e
. .
,

1 35 . n C ommo Lo c omo t S
i v e lid e V l
a ve ,

1 3 6 Th e T. h i ck V
a lv e ,

1 37 . n D C ommo o ub p o r t F l t V l
le ed a a v e,

1 38 i . n P st o S l V
id e a lv e ,
1 39 e lf. S b
a la n e d D c
a u lV
a lv e,

1 4 0 Th
’
a en om s P t t P st o V l
i n a v e,

Ho t s P t t R f Fr m O F l t V l s
.

141 awe. D l a en e li e
’
a e f r a a ve ,

142 . C ommo
n Na va e liel R f Fr m f o r F l t V s
a e a a lve ,

143 .in g a n d S pr a P c k R s R l f Fr m
in g in g , e ie a F t
e f or s
la Va lv e ,
1 44 a . M rt
in St An d e w
’
r s V l R l f Fr m
a ve e ie a e,

145 hu h.
’
C rc s P t t V
a en a lv e R l fF m
e ie ra e,

146 a v e w i h E ha
. V l t x ust t r o u
h g h it s B a ck ,
14 7 . A i an Jo y s ss st t C
’
r S
y li n d e f or lid e a v e , V l s
1 4 7b . I n di a c to r D r s of
ia g am ,

148 a lv e r od
. V id e , Gu
149 . i n Pr o p o rt o s of Lo c omo t S l V
iv e id e s
a lv e ,

150 . S lo t L k
in a n d R od En d , s
151 . e bar D o ub l
in k wi h L
-
t Ro
ds i n id e , s
152 . id e , o uts
153 .ar ha ll 8 M sat e n t G r P
Va lv e e a ,
1 54 .
’
Jo y s P t t V v G r
a en al e ea ,
155 E e . ff ct of o tc c t rD
N hi n g u p on I n di a o ia g a , -
r ms
1 56 .ia g a D r m of
t he P st o P t
i n a h,
’
 L ST I OF I L L U S T R AT I O N S .

RI I O I LL RA I ON D ESC PT N OF U ST T S . PAGE

15 7 Z . r s Dia gr m fo r t h M o t io o f S lid V l v
e nn e
’
a e n a e a e,

1 5 8 V lv D i gr m h o wi g E ff ct o f
”
. a e N ot hi n g p
a a S n e c -
u ,

1 5 9 Lin k M o ti o N ot h d up ”
n c e
I d p e d t Exp io Va lv
.
,

1 60 D i gr m of t h M o t io o f
a a e n an n e n en a ns n e,

o f E x p io V lve on t h B c k o f t h e M in V lv e
.

1 61 . an a ns n a e a a a ,

1 62 . o f o t h r E x p sio V lv o t h B k o f t h M in an e an n a e n e ac e a

V lv a e,
sio V lv o B c k of t h Min V l v
O

1 6 3 Ad j ust a ble E x p
. an n a e n a e a a e,

1 64 Eff ct of S e qu
. c o f Cr nk s o t h I di c to r D i gr m s
e en e a n e n a a a ,

1 6 5 P d dle w h l wi t h F ea t h rin g F lo ts
. a -
ee e a ,

1 66 Lo cus o f t h F l t of F t h ri g W h l e a a ea e n ee ,

Flo ts,
.

1 6 7 F t h rin g P dd l w h l wi t h W oo d
. ea e a e -
ee en a

1 68 S t l pla t F lo ts
G r o I n n r S id of W
. ee e a ,

1 69 . h l ea n e e ee ,

1 70 S mi t h s S c r w Pr o p ll r fir st fitt d i n t h N a v y
’
. e e e as e e ,

1 71 D i gr m s h o win g C u r v o f I di c t d T h ru st
a a e n a e

1 72 D i gr m s h o win g B l d e Pr ssu r s o f S c r w Pr o p ll r s
. .

. a a a e e e e e ,

1 73 S olid C st r o S c r w Pr o p ll r a i n e e e

1 74 Br o z S c r w Pr o p ll er wi t h Loo s B l d s O r di n ry Su rf a c e R ti o
. ,

. n e e e e a e , a a ,

1 75 L rg S u rf c R tio a e a e a

r l F orm Of Mo d r M r c til M rin S c rew

. ,

1 76 G . en e a e n e an e a e ,

1 76 T y p i c l S e ct io s of S c r w Pr o p ell e r B l d e s
a . a n e a ,

1 77 Hir sc h s P t t S c r w o f
’
. a en e

1 78 S o lid P r s o s Bro z e S c r w o f R M S M ur t ni’

. a n n e . . . a e a a,

1 79 D a m g d Br o z S c r w s
. a e n e e ,

1 80 B v i s P t t F t h ri g S c r w
‘
. e a en ea e n e ,

1 8 1 Ki n g st o V lv — T y pi c l D s ig
. n a e a e n,

1 8 2 D t il s o f I l t V lv s o S t l S hi ps
1 . e a n e a e n ee ,

1 83 D o ub l R m F ly w h l Au x ili r y P u m p
e a ee a

1 8 4 S ct i o o f W o rt hin gt o D uple x P u m p w i t h Ext r lly p a c k ed R m s

. ,

. e n n e na a ,

1 85 W ir s Au tom a t i c P u m p
’
e

rid Autom tic G e a r

.
,

1 86 . wi t h F lo t T n k a , a , a a ,

1 8 7 Com p o u d E gin fo r E l ct r i c G
. n ra tin g E c lo s ed S lf l ubri ca tin g
n e e en e — n e -
,

g1 c r k
188 .
—Si n e an ,

1 89
‘
—T w o c r k N v l -
an a a
.
, ,

I1 8 9 a . S ctio o f e n ,

1 90 T u r b o E l ct ri c I st ll t io fo r S hi p L ig h t i g t
. e n a a n n , e c .
,

1 91 Air Com p r ss o r s f o r H igh p r ssu N v l W o rk

'
. e -
e re a a ,

1 91 a . S e ctio o f n ,

1 92 S t m S t rin g G e r w i t h H
. ea d G r ee a an ea

1 93
1
.
( h o riz o t l ) n a ,

1 94
‘
. fitt d W r sh ips as e in a ,

1 95 . Br o w s P t t n
’
a en ,

1 96 . R fr ig r ti g App r tus fo r W r shi ps

e e a n a a a ,

1 97 . M r c h t S hi ps e an ,

1 98 . S ct io o f H ll R frig r ti g App r tus

e n a e e a n a a ,

1 99 . Au x ili r y Co d s r f o r M r c h t S hi ps
a n en e e an ,

W r s hi ps a
Ho ld s App t i fo r B ur i g Oil F u l
,
’
2 01 . en a ra is n n e ,

20 1 a . L Lov k i App r tus fo r B u r i g Oil F u l

a ssa c e n a a n n e ,

2 02 . F r c fitt d w it h App r tus f o r usi g Oil F u l

u na e e a a n e ,

2 15 . G old sw o r th y G r y W t r tub B o il r o f 1 8 2 7 u ne
’
8 a e e e ,

2 16 . W r d s H igh p r ssu r C o il B o il r
a
’
-
e e e ,

217 . B bc o c k S Wilc ox B o il r L rg T ub N v l T yp
a t e , a e e, a a e,

2 18 . H d r s f o r S m ll T ub s ea e a e ,

2 1 8a . L rg a e
2 19 . S m ll T ub N v l Typ a e, a a e,

2 2 0, 221 . M ix d S i z s o f T ub s N v e e e ,
a al T yp e,

222 . N o r m d W t r tub B o il r
an a e e e ,

2 23 . F l mi g F rgus o s W t r tub B o il r
e n e n
’
a e e e ,

2 24 , 2 24 S t o W t r tub B o il r
a . ea n 8
’
a e e e ,
 L STI OF I L L U S T R AT l ON S .

n o . n x se mr r ros or I LL U S T R ATI ON S .

2 2 5 Y a rrow . sL
a rg e T e Wa e r
’
ub t tub o l
e B i e r, -

22 6 . S a T e Wa e rm ll ub t tub o l
e B i e r,

2 27 . ol
B i e r as ad e i n a an , m J p
2 2 8 B le c h yn d en
. Wa e r s t tub o
e B ile r ,
’

2 2 9 T h orn y c r of t
. Wa e r s t tub o l
e B i e r,
’

2 30 M . um o s L
f rd a rge T e Wa e r ’
yp of t tub o l e B i e r, -

231 ee d
. R s t tub o l fo
Wa e r e B i er
’
r a ll Cla e f Sh i ,
-
ss s o ps
o ll
2 3 2 M d e rn B e e v ill e B i e r, w i h E n
. ol t c o om s
i e r,
2 3 2a T e and .ub ead e r H s of l l ol
a B e l e v il e B i e r ,
o
2 33 M d e rn N ic la u s s e M a rin e B ile r,
. o
t
2 3 4 S irlin g M a r in e B ile r ,
. o
2 35 Ho st
h e n e in B il e r,
. o
y
2 3 6 M i a b a r a B il e r ,
. o
2 3 7 T h orn y c r of t M a r h a ll B i e r ,
. s ol
pc
2 3 7a S e ia l 9 r iv e Q a d r u le
. t u in ,p Jo t
2 3 7b 1 1 r iv e
. t -

2 38 2 4 0 Me h d
-
. t o so
f Fla n gin g B ile r En d , o s
u c
2 4 1 F rn a e S t i fie n e d w i h a B w lin g
. t o , Hoo p
24 2 . w i h a n Ad a t n m so Jo t
in ,
24 3 . by t
D iff e ren ia l D ia e e r, m t
244 . by o
C rru ga i n ( F t o ox s l
P an ), ’

2 45 . by R s u s
id ge ( P r v e Pla n ) , ’

24 6 . by G oo s o s o
Cu r v ed r v e ( M ri n 8 Pla n ) , ’

247 . by o u t o Holm s l
C rr ga i n ( e P a n ), ’

248 .
( D e i gh to
n 3 Pla n ),
’

24 9 e R mo b u c s l s s
v a le F rn a e ( A h in D e ign ) ,’

C n n e in g t h e Fu rn a c e t o En d Pla e ,
.

2 50 M e h d. t o s of o ct t
2 5 0a . T ub l t
e P a e .

25 1 . En d P a t e , l
25 1a . T ub l t
e P a e,
2 5 2 Ad ira
. m l ty u o
F e rr l e f r F ire En d T s of ub s
e ,

u
2 5 3 F nn el a n d Ca in g
. s fo
r N a v a l S hi , Ya h , e t c ps c ts .

254 . c t ps O
M e r h a n S h i ( rdin a r ) , y
2 5 5 N a v a l B k h e a d S el
. ul l in g Sf c os top
Va lv e ,
2 5 6 S r in g S a f e
. p ty l s tt
Va v e a s fi e d i n M e r h a n S h i , c t ps
2 5 7 Ad a
. F r m s o m of
Valv e a n d S e a f S a fe Va v e ,
’
to ty l s
25 8 C . o c k bu o mo
rn 8 F r f Va v e a n d S e a’
l t of ty l
S a f e V a v e s,
2 5 9 S a fe ty l s fitt
Va v e a s e d i n N a v a l S h i ( S h r T e ) , ps o t yp
th Stop V lve
.

2 60 .
( N a v a l) , C om b
in ed w i a ,

2 6 1 F e e d C h e k Va lv e (
. c Imp o o m fitt t o o s
r v e d F r ) a s ed B ile r ,
26 2 . an d S top
Va lv e C in e d ,om b
2 6 2 41 . Va v e , A l ut om t c
a i , on M u mfo s
rd Pla n , ’

2 63 W e ir
. s Hy o t o
d r k in e e r, r W a e r C i r
’
ta cu l t o
r,
2 64 S e a
. t m y
S re n a n d rga n Wh i le C O st om b
in e d ,
26 4 a S ea t m y
S ren — Ad i ra l T e ,
. m ty yp
2 65 S ea
. t mR s G
e v e r in g e a r , Br w n o sO
rigin a l Pa e rn , tt
2 65 a . I mp o
r v ed S e lf n a in e d , co t
2 65 b . an d an d H G
ea r C om b
in e d ,
2 66 . e v e r in g R s Ge a r f r T w in o sc
r e w T r in e -
ub s ,

2 67 S ea
. t m u G o
M a n oe v rin g e a r f r v e r a rge T r in e , yL ub s
2 6 8 En gin e S
. an d to p R t
e gu la in g Va lv e f r S o m
a ll E n g in e s ,
2 69 . l c fo L
B a a n e r a rge En gin e s ,

2 70 . E i i ri qu l b u m
2 71 Ash E j e
. cto
r, S t e a w r e d m ok -

2 72 C
. om b t o G o
in a i n v e rn r o
2 73 Ce n ri f g a
. t u l Lub c t o o
ri a r f r Cra n Pin , k s
ut om t c
Dra in e r ,
ut o mt c R u t o
2 74 A
. a i

2 75 F e e d wa e r
. t H t
ea e r a n d A a i e g la r
2 75 a .
( iv e S ea ) ,L t m
2 76 2 77 Fr e h W a e r E v a
, . s t po t o
ra r a n d D i i e r , st ll
2 78 Fre h W a e r S
. s t uppl y I st ll t o
n a a i n a s in B a e hi ttl s ps
,

2 79 . G s x t ct o
re a e E ra r a n d Fe e d w a t er Fil e r, o
t
 xxviii LI S T or I LLU S TR AT I O N S .

n o . D ES C RI I ON
PT or mw sr m r i os s
'
.
ma x
2 80 . I n di c t o r D i g r m o f H igh p r s u r Cyli
a a a a -
e s e n de r 74 7
28 1 . W e ig h t 74 7
I n e r t ia 74 7
Cr k s B l c M p
,

2 83 ad u
. Q u r pl
e En gin e , T w o , ed ( Al in e
an te ),
a an
‘
S ys m 75 3
2 84 ank. an d Cr su C rv s
e of e u ad u Fo rc s f o r Q r p
le En gi n e ( Ya w Sc i T w ee d ) , rr o hl ck -
y 75 4
2 85 T i e . r p l c om p o u
n d En g in e w i Tw o an th Cr k s
( Wig z e ll 5 s em ) ,
’
Sy t 75 5
2 86 n n 75 6
287 ia Dg a D
a i r mm t c S
in g e a nk En gin e l cr wi n g e , sh o Fo rc s 75 7
Ba c
.

2 8 8 3 1 9 D i a gr a m s ill. a in g t he ustr t le in l e d in Pro b m s v o v

lan in g
En g in e , s
320 ea . H vy S n ct
Oil E n gin e , i gle a in g T w o cy by M
c le ( N A
‘

Co . . . .

32 1 lin d e
. Cyec i n r S t o of
t he a bov
e E n gin e ,

32 2 ea . H vy
Oil En g in e — ie e D s l S yst m t l
e , I a ian
323 .
— n e Ju k r D s
8 e ign ,
’

324 — e W st r h C r l S yst
ga t a e e m, s s Ev es t on , . .

3 2 5 En gin e ( ie e ) s D s l of
T w in 8 8 Fo
i na,
l
. . .

326 e. i n S ct o o f Cy l
a in d e r o f W st rt h C r
a e ga a e l Oi En gin e ,

32 7 . in d e Cyl rs o f
Oil En g in e , s
32 8 x . d D o f o r s D o ub p st o
le i
’
n Oil En gin e , -

3 2 8a e i . S m D s l
ie e En gin e ( K r om h ou t ) ,
-

32 9 ea e d T
. G r in e , u rb
3 30 . s s N o rm
an n ia ,. .

33 1 . le e dD o ub R uct o G r f o r u r b s
i n ea T in e ,
3 32 Fo t
l a in g F a e ,r m s
3 3 3 Fot t in ge r T
. s u rb
in e T a n
’
r s f o rm r
e ,

3 34 . e S up rh
e at e in a T rs ee h r fu r c B o r
na e il e ,
335 . in n R o b s o s S up rh t r H
’
e ea e eade , r
33 6 T e le i e e d
. r b r v t B utt Jo ts t h
in wi Ha lf Nu m b r R v e of i ets in e w a Ou t r R o s t h t
a r e in t h e nn e I rO s
ne ,

33 7 T e e i e e d
. r b l r v t B utt Jo t t h I r S t r p t
in w i nne a by Iak e n nn e o of i e r R ws R v ts
o ly n

Ill ust r t io o f I rr gu l r S t y i g o f Fl t Su rf ce
,

3 38 . a n e a a n a a a ,

3 39 . G u ge C o c k r qu ir ed by G rm G o v rn m nt f o r T st i g
a e e an e e e n ,
 A M AN U A L

M AR I N E EN GI N E E R I N G .

C H AP T ER I .

G E N E RA L I N TR OD U CT I O N .

Fu n dame n ta l Prin ciples — Th e fir s t obj e ct a i m e d a t by t h e m a ri n e e n gi n e e r

.
,

is t o pr ope l a floa ti n g b od y thr ou gh t h e w a ter a t a ce rt a i n s p e e d the s e c on d ,

s o t o c on s truct the pr ope lli n g a pp a r a tu s th a t the m oti on m a re a d i ly be
y
rev e r se d ; a n d the th ir d t o a dopt s uch a n a rr a n ge m en t of pr op e ller a n d
,

e n i n e a s s h a ll be c on ve n ie n t f or t h e fl oa ti n
g g b od y a n d t h e s ervi ce on w h ich
it is e m p loye d .

Th e pri n cip le on whic h n e a r ly a ll m a ri n e pr op e ller s w or k is the pr o

j e ct ion of a m a s s of w a t e r in the d ir e cti on opp os it e t o th a t of t h e r e quir e d
m oti on . The on ly e x c e pti on t o thi s ru le is t h e c a s e of ferry s t e a m e rs a n d
s om e river cr a ft w h e re a ch a i n or r e pe ly i n g i n t h e b e d of the riv e r p a s s e s
,

over a w h e e l or b a rrel i n t h e s hip it s e lf .

Th e w a ter , in m od e r n pr a ctice i s pr oj ecte d by — ( l ) On e or m ore s crew s

,

a t t h e e n d of t h e s hip ( a s wi ll be d e s cribe d u n d e r t h e he a d i n g of pr ope ller s )

( 2 ) by on e or m ore p a ddle wh e e ls ou t s i d e of t h e s hip ; or

-
by a f or m
of whee l i n t h e i n s i d e of t h e s hip , whic h i s ge n er a lly s p ok e n of a s a j et pr o -

p e lle r a s t h e w a ter i s s ue s in j et s fr om orifice s in the s hip s s i d e

,
’
.

Th e la tt e r h owever , i s s e ld om u s e d , a lth ou gh it h a s s om e f e a ture s th a t

,

m a k e it a ttr a ctiv e in p a rticu la r c a s e s The p a ddle whee l, t oo, is s low ly

.
-

d yi n g ou t ; a n d a lth ou gh there is r e a s on t o b e li e ve th a t f or river s ervic e ,

e s p e ci a lly in the tr opic s a n d cert a i n s p e ci a l duti e s , it wi ll s urviv e it is ,
, ,

n everth e le s s , r a d u a lly bei n d i s p la c e d by t h e s crew i n s om e of th e s e whi le

g g ,

in a ll other s e rvic e s eve n in the s h a llow w a ter on e s which a t on e ti m e s ee m e d

,

re s erve d for it s u s e it is pr a ctic a lly gon e

,
.

Th e pa ddle- wh ee l with fe ath e rin g fl oats h a s c e rt a i n qu a liti e s of it s ow n ,

whi c h r e n d e r it m ore s ervic e a b le th a n the s cr e w in p a rticu la r c a s e s ; for
e x a mp le
I n t u g boa ts quic k m a n oe uvri n g i s of e x tr e m e i m p ort a n c e Th e s u d d e n
.

s t e p in g a n d equ a lly s u dd en a n d c e rt a i n s t a rti n g o f t h e b oa t i s m os t d e s ir

p , ,

a b le ; t hi s c a n n ot be d on e with t h e s crew n or c a n t h e tur n i n g r ou n d in

,
2 a iMAN U AL or Z MAR IN E E N G IN E ER IN G .

c on fin ed s pac e s b e : acc omp li s hed ev e n with twi n s cr e w s s o d e x t e r ou s ly a s

iw
r

w it hi di s co jny e fl dd l h e e ls
‘ ‘

d e p a e .

I li rive r s te amer s ru n n i n g in very s h a llow w a t e r t h e p a ddle whe el e s peci a ll y

'
-
,

whe n fitte d a t t h e s ter n h a s d i s ti n ct a d v a n t a ge s ov e r t h e s cr e w e v en wh e n

, ,

t h e la tt e r is p la ce d i n a w e ll or e n c los ur e a s d on e by Mr Y a rr ow a n d S ir ,
.

J oh n Th orn y c r oft i n a s m uch a s it c a n fr e e it s elf or b e e a s i ly fr e e d of w e e ds

, ,

18 le s s li a b le t o i n j ury a n d wh en i n j ure d i s e a s i ly r e p a ire d

,
.

I n s t e a m e r s m a k i n g fr e qu en t a n d s h ort c a lls a t pier s a n d wh a rf s the .

p a dd le wh e e l p e r m it s of a m ore r a pi d s ervic e on r ou gh a n d wi n d y d a y s th a n
-

ca n s crew s e,
s p e ci a lly t h e s m a ll s cr e w s of t h e turbi n e —d riv e n s hip .

On the oth e r h a n d t h e p a d dle wh ee l i s a h e a vy a n d s om ew h a t c lu m s y

.
-

i n s t ru m e n t e x p os e d t o wi n d a n d s e a a n d s o li a b le t o d a m a ge e ven wh en
, ,

pr ote c t e d wit h b ox e s a n d gu a rd e d with s p on s on s f en d e r s e t c ; it c a n , , .

,

h owever be rep a ire d by s i m p le m e a n s a n d eve n wh en b a d ly d a m a ge d ca n

, ,

Fig 1 . .
-
T h or n y c r oft
’
s S te r n f or S h a llo w Dra u gh t S c re w S h ips .

ge n er a lly s uffici e n tly rep a ire d by the s hip s s t a ff t o per mit of pr ocee d i n g
’
be
on t h e v oy a ge .

I t s p os iti on i n the s hip a n d t h e s p a c e oc cupie d by t h e p a ddle e n gin e

i n terf e r e s with t h e ge n e r a l ec on om y ; t h e m a chi n e ry is he a vi e r a n d m ore
cu m b e r s om e th a n th a t d rivi n g a s crew d ev elopi n g e qu a l p ow e r i n a s m uch ,

a s t h e s p e e d of r e v oluti on i s n e c es s a ri ly re s tricte d t h e wh e e l e x e rt s a thru s t

on a p a rt of t h e s hip le s s c a lcu la te d t o t a k e pre ssu re th a n th a t t o w hi ch

t h e s cr e w a pp li e s : but with t h e m od e r n s t ee l s hip h owev e r th a t c a n be , ,

re m ed ie d a n d pr ovi d ed for in a w a y w hi ch w a s n ot s o e a s y with t h e w ood e n

,

s hi p o f t h e p a s t .

T h e p a dd le wheel w a s the pr opelle r of the fir s t s t e a me r s put t o pr a ctic a l

-

u s e , a n d t o d a y it s e ffici e n cy i s litt le s h ort of th a t of the b e s t s cr e w s

-
.

Th e m od e r n p a d dle e n gi n e s with their lon g s tr ok e a n d ch oice d e s i gn

, ,

h a v e br ou ght thi s a b out t o a v e ry gre a t e x te n t .

Th e s cre w i s much s m a ller th a n eve n t h e s m a ll hi gh rev oluti on p a dd le -

 IN T R O D U CT I O N — T H E S CR E W .
3

w h e e l of t o d a y it is wh olly i mm e r s e d a n d la r ge ly pr ote ct e d by t h e qu a r t e rs
-

o f t h e s hip . I t is ge n e r a lly o f s o s m a ll a d i a m e t e r a s t o be w h olly b low e

t h e w a t e r li n e but in s h a llow d r a ft s hip s thi s is n ot a lw a y s p os s ib le ; it is

, ,

h ow e v e r t ot a lly i m m e r s e d wh e n w or k i n g by s urr ou n d i n g it with p orti on s

,

o f t h e b od y of t h e s hip s o th a t it r e v olv e s i n a ch a n n e l a s d on e by S ir J oh n
, ,

T h orn y c r oft ( fig or by d r oppi n g a fla p b e h i n d i t a s d on e by Mr Y a rr ow

.
, .

( fig
. Th e thru s t fr om the s crew is a pplie d lower d ow n a n d n e a r e r t h e ,

c e n tr e li n e of the s h ip s r e s i s t a n c e th a n i s th a t of a p a ddle whe e l s o tha t

’
-

, ,

t h e tippi n g m om e n t is quit e s m a ll a n d t h e thru s t b loc k i s a tt a che d t o a p a rt

,

of the s hip s s tructur e e m i n e n t ly c a lcu la te d t o t a k e the f orce

’
.

Sp e e d ( S t a t u t e Miles p e r Hou n/ S pe e d S t a t u te Miles p e r h au rj

’

Fig 2
. .
— Y a rro w ’
s Dr o p Fl p fo r S h llo w Dr u ght S c r
a a a ew S h ips .

Th e r e bei n g n o r e s tricti on t o t h e n u m ber of r e v oluti on s of the s crew ,

t h e e n gi n e s c a n ther e by h a v e a hi gh pi s t on s p e e d a n d b e c om p a r a tiv e ly ,

li ght che a p a n d m a d e t o occupy le s s s p a ce a n d m or e ov e r c a n be p la ce d

, , ,

i n p os iti on s m or e c on ve n i e n t t o the ge n e r a l a rr a n ge m e n t s of t h e s hip It .

u s e d t o be ur ge d th a t t h e s cr e w c a u s e d m uch vibr a ti on a n d c on s e qu e n t
d i s c om f ort t o th os e in the s hip th a t it w a s i n h e re n t in the s crew h owev e r , ,

w a s err on e ou s a n d it i s k n ow n n ow th a t vibr a ti on w a s a s m uch d u e t o t h e

,

m om e n tu m of the m ovi n g p a rt s of t h e e n gi n e s a s t o t h e s crew ; a n d whi le ,

i t i s a d mitte d th a t ev e n a good s cr e w m a y c a u s e h oriz on t a l vibr a ti on a t

t h e s t e r n owi n g t o t h e d iff ere n c e in pre s s ure of w a t e r on the lower a n d up per
,
 IN TR O D U CT ION — I
M AR N E S T EAM E G N IN ES . 5

s ma ll cr a ft in h ome w a ter s on ly The s ucce s s of the oil e n gi n e in s uch cr a ft

. .

a n d t h e f a ct th a t e n i n e s u s i n
g g on ly cru d e a n d n on d a n ge r ou s oi ls ca n n o w
-

b e obt a i n e d wi ll n o d oubt le a d t o th e ir u se on la r ge s hip s a n d a m or e e x t e n d e d

, ,

s ervice n ow they a r e m a d e rever s ib le s o t h a t t h e pr ope ller s c a n b e r e v e rs e d

,

with out whee l or other obj ecti on a b le ge a ri n g w h ic h w h e n of s m a ll s iz e d o ,

n ot d eve lop d e fect s s o r a pi dly a s in t h e c a s e whe n la r er p ower is put t h r ou h

g g
the m T h e D ie se l e n gi n e whic h c a n be rever s e d by m e a n s of c om pre s s e d
.
,

a ir a n d u s e s h e a vy oil h a s bee n fitte d t o s ever a l s hip s a n d i s n ow bei n

, , g ,

s upp lie d t o b ot h the m erc a n ti le a n d n a v a l m a ri n e i n quite la r e s iz e s by

g ,

m ultip lyi n g t h e n u mber of cyli n d er s The s ucti on ga s p la n t w hich on

.
,

s h ore i s u s e d wit h f a ir ly s a ti s f a ct ory re s u lt s m a y n ot be f ou n d s o a ttr a ctive

“

o n a s ervice where the w or k i n

g d a y i s twe n ty f our h our s a n d the w or k i n g
-
,

wee k s eve n da y s I t is more over h e a vier th a n a n oil e n gin e i n s t a lla ti on

.
, , .

The s te a m w or k e d ma ch i n ery i s more fle x ib le th a n t h e oil a n d ga s w or k e d

- -
,

is le s s li a b le t o d er a n gem e n t fr om s hoc k s a n d m ore e a s i ly gover n e d in a ,

sea w a y B ut perh a p s the m os t i m p ort a n t fe a tur e t o reme mber in m a k i n g

.

a c om p a ri s on i s the f a ct th a t s te a m is w a ter v a p our pr od uce d by he a t

ge n e
r a te d by t h e c om bu s ti on of a n ythi n g t h a t will bur n s o th a t f or the b oi ler ,

of a s te a m e n in e fue l of s ort s c a n be f ou n d in a ll
g pa rts of the w orld wh e re a s ,

f or t h e i n ter n a l c om bu s ti on e n gi n e on ly cert a i n oi ls a n d c e rt a i n c oa ls c a n be
u s e d a n d if they a r e n ot obt a in a b le t h e e n gin e is u s ele s s There is m ore ov e r
, .
, ,

a n other fe a ture th a t c a n n ot be a lt o et h er ov e r look e d a n d th a t i s w h i le

g , ,

t h e s te a m e n gin e w or k s with a b a c k pre ss ur e of on ly 1 or 2 lbs per s qu a re .

i n ch the ga s e n gin e h a s over 1 5 lbs

. .

Marin e steam engin es a r e of t w o k i n ds the one w or k s by me a n s of t h e ,

e la stic pressu r e of s te a m du rin g e x p a n s i on t h e other by the k in et i c en ergy ,

o f t h e s te a m d eve lope d on e x p a n s i on ; i n t h e on e the a cti on i s s t a tic in the ,

other it i s d y n a mic ; a n d j u s t a s i n hy d r a ulic s t h ere i s t h e c omm on wh e e l ,

wit h it s buc k et s fi lle d wi t h w a ter w h os e wei ght c a u s e s it t o turn ; li k ewi s e

,

the or di n a ry ra m whic h is f orce d outw a r ds a ga i n s t a loa d or a s the recipro ,

ca ti n g hy dr au lic e n gin e w h e n w or k is d on e by t h e pres su re du e t o he a d while ,

the P elt on w h ee l i s m ove d by a j et of w a ter i m pin gin g on it s v a n e s wit h

veloci t
y g e n er a te d by t h e fa ll of the w a ter s o there i s the or d i n a ry rec ipr o
,

c a ti n g e x p a n s iv e e n i n e a n d the turbin e in w h ich t h e s te a m a cquire s a high

g ,

velocity by e x p a n d i n g i n t o a n d t hr ou gh a n ozzle which d irect s it s flow on ,

t o the b la d e s of a r ot or w h ere it give s up i t s e n e r gy by pr od ucin g m oti on

,

in it a ga i n s t re s i s t a n ce The efficie n cy of a recipr oca tin g e n gin e is little

,

a ff ecte d by t h e ve locity of flow of s te a m be it s pi s t on S pee d h i gh or low ,

the rev oluti on f or m a x i m um efficien cy of the turbin e mus t be s uch th a t the

perip h e r a l s pee d is h a lf th a t of t h e flowi n g s te a m T hi s m e a n s th a t t h e r ev olu .

ti on s of a s i mp le turbi n e m u s t be e x cee d i n gly h i gh or t h e d i a m et e r of the

r ot or very la r ge ; a n d f or la rge p ower b ot h B y m et h ods a d opted by Mr . .

P a r s on s a n d other s t h e r a te of rev oluti on h a s been br ou ght d ow n t o rea son

,

a b le li m it s for hi h s pee d s h ip s while pre s ervi n g a good effici e n cy ; but it

g
-
,

is s ti ll t oo h i gh f or s uc h s hip s a s a r e e n ga ge d in c a r go c a rryin g if they a re

t o h a ve s crew s of d ece n t e fficie n cy a n d eff ective n e ss Mr ( n ow S ir Ch a r les ) . .

P a r s on s h a s met t hi s d ifficu lty t h eref ore by fitti n g pin i on s t o the s h a fts of a

, ,

p a ir of turbi n e s a n d ge a re d the m t o a s pur w h eel on the s crew S h a fti n g

,
-
.

T h e e mp loy m e n t of a quic k rev oluti on e n gi n e t o d rive t h e p a ddle s h a ft

-

by me a n s of a w h ee l ge a ri n g w a s pra cti s e d by t h e B u t t erley C om p an y s o fa r

6 MA N U AL or M AR IN E E N G I N E ER I N G .

b a c k a s 1 8 2 3 but it w a s n ot f ollowe d ti ll a lm os t t h e e n d of t h e n i n etee n t h

,

c e n tury whe n it w a s r e viv e d by on e or t w o fir m s for r iv er s t e a m e r s in or d er

, .
,

t o u se the quic k ru n n i n g trip le c om p ou n d thr ee c ra n k e n gi n e

-
- -
.

Wh e el ge a ri n g h a s f ou n d little or n o f a v our i n t h e eye s of t h e ma ri n e

-

e n gi n e e r s i n c e the ge a r e d s cr e w e n gi n e s of the m i ddle of the ni n e t e en th

ce n tury wer e give n up a n d n o d oubt ther e W i ll be much pre j udi ce a ga i n s t
,

it n ow a lth ou gh it m a y b e f a irly ur ge d th a t t o da y t h e teeth a r e d ouble

,
-

h e lic a l m a chi n e cut m a d e of m or e s uit a ble m a teri a l h a vin g n o b a c k la s h

-

, , ,

a n d t h e p i n i on d rivi n g i n s te a d of b e i n g d riv e n ( v fig E e n e
-

x p rie c . .

c on d e m n e d t h e s y s t e m in the p a s t a n d it is the s ucce ss ful e x peri e n c e of Mr

O

P a r s on s which wi ll revive it t o da y -
.

With oil e n gi n e s ther e s ee m s t o be f or pr a ctic a l r ea s on s a li mi t t o t h e , ,

di a m e t e r of t h e cyli n d e r ( 20 i n che s a t pre s e n t ) a n d a ll i n cr e a s e s of p ower ,

is obt a i n e d by a n i n cre a s e in the n u m ber of cyli n d er s More ov e r S i n ce .

,

th ey a r e ge n er a lly s i n gle a cti n g a n d a c t a t m os t on ce in t w o a n d ge n er a lly

'

-
, ,

in f our s tr ok e s th e ir s ize f or the p ower d eve lope d is la r ge c om p a re d w i t h

, ,

t ha t of t h e s t e a m e n gi n e The fir s t oil e n gin e w a s e x h i bite d by it s i n ve n t o r

.

a t C a mbri dge 90 ye a r s a go I n 1 8 1 7 N e epc e pr e p os e d t o u se v ola ti le oi ls

.

Fig 3 . . P a ddl e Stea m e r

— “
Ch a rlotte Du n da s, 1 802 .

i n h is e x p los ive e n gi n e f or pr op e lli n g sh ip s a n d a n i n ter n a l c om bu s ti on , .

e n i n e w a s u s e d s o f a r b a c k a s 1 82 5 t o d rive a S crew pr ope ller in a b oa t on

g
the Th a m e s Th e s y s t e m is eve n n ow on ly e m ergin g fr om it s i n f a n cy a n d
.
,

the r oom for d evelop m e n t s is e x ten s ive I n t h e s ub m a ri n e shi p there h a v e .

‘

bee n t h e gre a t e st d evelop m e n t s a s t h es e e n gi n e s a re a lmos t t h e on ly on e s

,
.

p os s ib le .

S te am u s ed expan sively — The e a rlie s t m a ri n e e n gi n e s were n a tur a lly

.

n e a r a k i n t o th os e on s h ore but it i s very i n tere s ti n

g a n d n otew ort h y th a t
,

t h e on e i n the Ch a rlotte D un da s of 1 802 w a s a h oriz on t a l doub le a cti n g -

e n gi n e h a vi n g a c on n ecti n g r od from t h e pi s t on rod e n d t o the cr a n k pin

- - -
,

and , ther e f or e m uch in a d v a n ce of a n d d i ff eri n g fr om e n tirely t h e e n gin e

,

of J a me s W a tt T h e h on our of d e s i gn i n g the e n gi n e ( s ee fig 3 ) is du e t o
. .

Wi lli a m S y m i n gt on w h o p a te n te d the fitti n g of t h e c on n ecti n g r od 1 78 7

,
-
, ,

P ic k a r d h a vi n g t a k e n ou t h is p a te n t for t h e cra n k a n d c on n ecti n g r od of -

the b e a m e n gi n e in 1 78 0 .

”
The C om et which w a s the firs t s te a m sh ip in t hi s c ou n try t o e a r n
,

mon ey by c on veyi n g p a ss e n ger s a n d good s betwee n Gla s gow a n d Gree n oc k

I NT R O D AR IN E S T EAM E N GIN ES .
8 MA N UAL or M AR IN E E N G IN EER I N G .

in 1 8 1 2 h a d a m od ific a ti on of t h eb e a m e n gi n e of t h e typ e k n ow n la t er on
,

a s a S ide Le ver ( v fig. . The s e s hip s a s t h e on e s th a t f ollow e d the m h a d

, ,

e n gin es u si n g s te a m a t or a litt le a b ov e t h e a t m os ph e ric pr e s sure a n d e x

,

h a u s t in g i n t o a j e t c on de n s er with a n a ir pu m p etc ,
L a te r on a ft e r t h e s crew
.
,

pr opeller h a d b e en a dopte d s om e s ma ll s h ip s a n d even a fe w la r ge on e s in

, , ,

the R oy a l N a v y ha d n on c on d e n s i n g e n gi n es u s i n g s te a m a t 5 0 t o 6 5 lbs
,
,
-

pre ss ure ge n era t e d in cyli n dric a l tubula r b oi le r s Fig 6 is a m odern s tea m e r

. .
‘

a s n ow bu i lt f or s ervice on the C ly d e e s tu a ry a n d d oi n
, g the w o r k t h a t the
IN T R O D U CT I O N — M AR IN E S T E AM E N G IN ES .
 10 MA N U AL or M AR IN E E N GIN E ER IN G .

C om et e s t a b li s h e d ; s h e is h owe v e r d riv e n by thre e s crews a n d tur bi n es

, ,

i n ste a d of f our p a ddl e s a n d a on e cylin d er e n gin e a n d c a rrie s m ore p a s s e n ger s -

,

in a trip th a n t h e C omet in a c oup le of m on th s .

I n t h e e arly marin e en gin e s a s in th os e on la n d t h e cycle w a s a s i m ple , ,

on e . S t e a m w a s a d mitt e d t o on e or m ore cylin d ers dir ect fr om the b oile r

d uri n g a b out 70 t o 8 5 per ce n t of the s tr ok e whe n w or ki n g a t fu ll p ow e r ; .
,

a t or n e a r t h e e n d of the s tr ok e it w a s a llowe d t o e s c a pe t o t h e c on d e n s er ;

t h e cy li n d e r on th a t s i d e of t h e pi s t on re m a i n e d in Open c onn ecti on wit h

t h e c on d e n s e r d uri n g a b out 8 5 p e r ce n t of the retur n s tr ok e a n d c on se .
,

qu e n t ly it s s urf a c e w a s e x p os e d t o the c ooli n g a cti on of the c om p a r a tiv e ly

c old v a p our r e m a ini n g in it The e a rli es t s c rew s hi p s in t h e N a vy h ad th e ir
.
'

b oi le r s a fety v a lve s loa d ed t o 5 lbs per s qu a r e i n ch ; by 1 8 5 1 the loa d h a d .

b e en i n cr e a s e d t o 1 4 lbs a n d t w o ye a r s la ter 20 lbs w a s t a k e n a s t h e s t a n da rd

.
,
. .

I n 1 8 5 5 s ever a l s peci a l s hip s wer e fitte d wi t h n on c on d e n s i n g e n gi n e s of c on -

s id e r a ble s ize s upp li e d with s t e a m fr om 5 0 t o 6 5 lbs pre ss ure gen er a ted i n .

cy lin d ric a l b oi le r s of the s o c alled S c otch type but t h e or di n a ry s hip s with

-
,

c on de n s i n g e n gi n e s c on ti n ue d t o w or k wi th s te a m gen er a t e d i n box b oi le rs
a t 2 0 lbs pre ss ur e I n 1 86 1 t h e n ew ir on cla d s h a d b oi le rs with s a f e ty
. .
,

v a lve s load e d t o 2 5 lbs pe r s qu a re i n ch a n d f ou r ye ar s a fter a furth e r i n cre a s e

.
,

w a s m a d e t o 30 lbs whic h w a s t h e u s u a l or s t a n d a rd pre ss ur e t ill t h e box

.
,

boi le r ce a s e d t o b e ma d e .

Th e cut off in the cyli n der s of t h e s e s hip s w h e n ru n n i n g a t f ll s pee d

-
u

w a s n ever le s s t h a n 6 0 per c e n t of t h e s tr ok e s o th a t t h e m a x i m um r a t e of .
,

e x p an si on w a s n o m ore t ha n un d er the s e circu ms t a n ce s ; but with

t h e i n c re a s e in pre s s ure f r om 2 5 t o 30 lbs c a m e t h e s upp ly of e x p a n s i on .

v a lve s whereby a m uc h e a rlier cut off c ould be obt a i n e d wit h a c orr e

,
-

s pon d in g ec on om y i n f u e l c on s u m pti on With s uch v a lve s a r a te of e x pa n .

s i on of 4 0 c ould be obt a in e d s o th a t the ter mi n a l pre ss ure a t w hi c h the s t ea m

,

e x h a u s te d t o the c on d en s er w a s u n de r 1 0 lbs a b s olute I n the m erc a n tile . .

m a ri n e a b out 1 8 70 the b oil er pre s su r e w a s i n cre a s e d t o 5 0 lbs f or e x p a n s ive .

s i m p le e n gin e s a n d the cut off a t f u ll s pee d w a s a b out 3 0 per ce n t of t h e

,
-
.

s tr ok e gi vi n
, g a r a te of e xp an s i on of 3 3 3 ; a few s hi p s wit h t h e s e e n gin e s
h a d b oi ler s loa d e d t o 6 0 in a ge n er a l w a y 5 0 lbs w a s the h i ghe s t .

pre s s ure with s im p le e n gin e s T h e pre ssur e a t e x ha us t wa s t h e n a b out .

1 5 lbs a b s olute a t f u ll s pee d

The c omp oun d e n gin e in w hic h t h e ste a m a fter d oin g d uty in t h e fir s t
. .

cyli n d er e x h a u s t s i n t o an ot her i n s t e a d of d e liveri n g t o the c on d en s er w a s

, , ,

the i n ve n ti on of H or n b lower a C orn i sh mi ni n g e n gi n eer in 1 771 i m pr oved

, , ,

by W olff in 1 804 a n d firs t u s e d on s hipb oa rd by R a n dolph a n d Eld er in the

,
”
s cr e w s te a m er B ra n d on in 1 85 4 w ith a b oi ler pr e s s ur e of only 2 2 lbs .

Thi s s a m e e n terpris i n g firm s upp li e d t h e fir s t c om p oun d e n gin e s f or E M . .

”
N a vy in 1 8 6 3 a n d fitte d the m i n H M S
, C on s ta n ce I t is w orthy of n ote . . . .

th a t their de s i gn er w a s P r ofe ss or R a n ki n e a n d t h ey w or k e d wi t h a b oiler ,

pr e ss ure of 3 2 5 lbs per s qu a re in ch a n d th a t t h e r a te of e x p a n s i on a t f u ll

.
,

s pee d w a s a b out 5 a n d t h e r e ferre d m e a n pre ss ur e w a s 1 1 3 lbs per s qu a re

, .

i n c h w hic h i s n ot ba d c on si d erin g th a t the t h e oretic a l w ould be n ot more

, ,

th a n 2 2 lbs or 5 1 5 per ce n t e ffici e n cy

.
, . .

I t w a s n ot h owever ti ll a b out 1 8 70 t h a t the c om p oun d e n gi n e wa s

. ,

a cc e pte d a s s uit a b le a n d d e si r a b le f or ma ri n e purp os e s but a fter e x p e rie n ce ,

h a d pr ove d it s ec on om y i n c on su mpti on of s te a m a n d th a t t h e e x p a n s iv e ,
 IN T R O D U CT I O N — M AR IN E S T E AM E N GIN ES . 1]

e n gi n e u si n g hi gh pre ssu r e s te a m d ev e lope d m e ch a n ic a l tr oub le s from whic h

-

it w a s fre e it s oon s upers e d e d a ll oth e r e n gi n e s a n d w a s t h e a cce pt ed type

, ,

u n ti l it w a s fou n d th a t wit h in cre as , 6 0 lbs t o .

1 00 lbs their ga i n in
.
,

ec on om y w a s n ot wh a t
e n gi n eer s h a d re a s on t o
e x pect fr om s uch i n cre a s e s .

I n 1 88 1 the la te D r '

K ir k w h os e n a m e is a s
,

s oc ia t e d wit h th a t o f J oh n

Eld er of the R a n dolp h a n d

,

Eld e r firm a n d him s e lf a ,

m os t a ble a n d e n t e ip r is in g
e n gi n eer d evelope d t h e i de a
,

o f m ultip le cy li n d er s or a s , ,

we w ould n ow s a y of e x ,
»

p a n d i n g by s t a ge s ; he bui lt
a thr e e s t a ge e n gi n e where
-
,

by the s te a m e xha u s ted

fr om t h e fir s t e n gi n e i n t o
the s ec on d an d fr om the ,

s ec on d t o t h e t hi r d e n i n e
g .

D r K ir k h a d h owever in
.
, ,

1 8 74 fitte d a n e n gi n e of thi s
”
k i n d in S S “
P r op on ti s .
,

with cyli n d er s 2 3 t o 4 1
in che s a n d 6 2 i n c h e s dia
,

m eter by 4 2 i n ch s tr ok e -
.

U n f ort u n a te ly t h e w a t e r ,

tub e b oi ler s of t h i s s hi p
pr ove d d a n ger ou s an d ,

c a u s e d the w h ole i n s t a lla

ti on t o be d oubte d L ook i n g .

a t the s ubj ect a n ot h er w a

y ,

it m a y be s a i d th a t he ih
t r od u c e d a t h ir d cy li n d er
betwe en t h e or di n a ry hi gh
pr e s s u r e a n d low pr e ss ure -

cyli n d er s s o a s t o a v oi d t h e
,

big d r op in pr es s ure betwe e n

t h e hi gh a n d low B ut the .

pri n cip le i n v olved w a s on e

of s t a ge wh e reby there w a s
,

a d ecre a s e in d i ff ere n ce
betwee n th e te m pera ture
d uri n g a d mi s s i on t o a n d ,

t ha t a t e mi s s i on of s te a m f rom e a ch h owever ,

m ec h a ni c a l ga i n a s we ll d u e t o t h e d ecre a s e in i n iti a l a n d ge n er a l loa ds

,

on t h e pi s t on s of t h e c om p ou n d s y s te ms a s c omp a re d wit h t h os e obt a in i n g

in t h e e x p a ns ive e n gin e s Th e pre ssure s of s te a m a d opte d by D r K ir k

. .
 IN T R OD U CT I O N — M AR IN E S T E AM E N G IN ES . 13

i m p os s ib le t o pr ovid e me a n s in thi s d ir e cti on t o e n s ur e hi gh e ffici e n cy t o t h e

low pre ss ur e cy li n d er of a c om p ou n d s y s t e m ; wir e d r a wi n g a n d c le a r a n c e
-

loss e s a re gre a t a n d the d iff e r en c e in pr e s s u r e betw e e n t h e cy li n de r a n d

,

t h e c on d e n s e r n ece s s a ri ly gre a t c om p a r e d with th os e of a turbi n e H en ce .

t h e la s t a d d iti on t o a m a ri n e e n gi n e w h ereby s t ea m e ffici e n cy i s c on s i d e r a b ly

,

e n h a n ce d is t h e low pre s s ure turbin e t a k i n g it s s t e a m fr om the e x h a us t

,
-

pip e of the low pr e ss ure cyli n d er a n d e x p a n d i n g it fr om a b out 1 0 lbs t o

-
, .
.

1 lb a b s olut e or eve n le s s
.
,
I t is c la i m e d by Me s s r s D en n y th a t t h e i n cr ea s e
. .

of p ow e r a n d a n ec on om y of fue l h a s b e en f ou n d a s hi gh a s 1 5 per ce n t .

The c om p ou n d turbin e s o m uc h in u s e t o d a y in K M N a vy a n d in e x pr e s s -
. .

s te a m s hip s ( v fig 6 ) of hi gh s p e e d i s c a p a b le of a r a te of e x p a n s i on fa r b e y on d
. .

th a t of a recipr oc a ti n g e n gi n e in f a ct there is n o pr a ctic a l li m it t o it B ut , .

in t h e e a r ly s t a ge s of the c omp ou n d turbi n e the ther m a l efficie n cy is n ot s o

hi gh a s is the trip le c omp ou n d e n gin e ; it f ollow s then th a t the m a x i mu m
e fficie n cy will be obt a i n e d by the c om bi n e d a rr a n ge m e n t of a recipr oc a tor
with a low pre s su re turbi n e t a k i n g t h e s te a m fr om the low pre ss ure cyli n de r
.

- -
,

a t s om ethi n g li k e 1 5 lbs pre s s ure a b s olute which i s a b out t h e ter mi n a l pre s

.
,

s ure oi s uch a n e n gi n e w or k i n g a t 200 lbs b oi ler pre ss ur e . .

”
Propellers — The . Ch a r lott e D un d a s ( fig t h e fir s t s h ip t o be pr o .

e lle d by s te a m i n a pr a ctic a l w a y h a d on e p a d d le wh e e l a t the s t e r n The

p
-
, .

”
s ter n whe e ler a s s h e is n ow c a lle d re ma i n s a s the s urvivi n
, g repre s e n t a tive
,

of the p a ddle s hip i n the c on s tructi on of s te a m cr a ft f or river purp os e s ,

e s peci a lly t h os e w or k i n g i n the tropic s w h ere s h e i s the f a v ourite a n d a pp ea r s

, ,
”
li k e ly t o c on ti n ue a s s uch Th e fir s t s te a m er i n Am e ric a t h e
. C la re m on t , ,

of 1 807 a n d the
,
C ome t in thi s c oun try in 1 8 1 1 a s t h e firs t B riti s h s te a mer ,

t o b e put t o c omm erci a l purp os e s h a d a p a ir of s i d e wh e els — th a t is a whee l

, ,

on e a ch s i d e with a n a x le or s h a ft c om mon t o the t w o I t s h ould h ow e v e r .

, ,
”
be n ote d th a t the C om et h a d t w o p a ir of w h eels ( v fig 4 ) whe n firs t . .

trie d a s y s te m f ollowe d by S ir Ed w a r d R ee d in 1 8 74 for s p e ci a l re a s on s

,

w h e n h e d e s i gn e d the s wi n g s a loon s te a m s hip B e sse m er The p a ir of s i d e .

whe e ls c on ti n u e d t o b e the pr a ctice f or ge n er a l purp os e d own t o r e c e n t ti me s ,

a n d i s s ti ll f ollowe d whe n s uch s hip s a r e bui lt f or the s peci a l s ervice s a lr e a d y

“
a llu d e d t o T h e la s t of the oce a n goi n g p a ddle s hip s w a s t h e
.
-
S c oti a ,

t on s d i s pla ce m e n t 3 6 2 5 fe e t lon g h a vi n g e n gin e s of

, ,

d rivi n g a p a ir of wheels 4 0 feet d i a m eter wei ghi n g 1 5 6 t on s Th e la rge s t , .

m od e r n Am eric a n p a ddle s te a mship is the P ri s cilla 4 2 4 f e e t lon g a n d

”
, .

t on s d i s p la ce m e n t ; sh e h a s e n gi n e s d e v e10 pin g 9 34 5 whi ch ,

,

d riv e her a t a s p e e d of over 1 9 k n ot s per h our Fig 5 S h ow s t h e p a ddle . .

s te a m er a s n ow c on s tructe d i n Am eric a f or la k e a n d riv e r s e rvic e t o c on v e y

p a ss e n ge r s a n d p a rcels e x pe d iti ou s ly The la r ge s t m od er n B riti s h p a ddle .

”
s te a m s hip ( v fig 8 ) is t h e
. . Em pr e ss Q u e e n 3 60 f e e t lon g t ons , ,

di s p la c e m e n t a tt a i n i n g a s pee d on s ervice of
,
k n ot s with I H P . . .

”
Th e f a ste s t B riti s h p a ddle s t e a m s hip is L a Ma r guerit e 3 30 f e et lon g , ,

t on s d i s p la ce me n t a n d h a v i n g a s pee d of 2 2 3 k n ot s
,
.

S cre w propellers br ou ght i n t o pr a ctic a l u se by B e n n et W ood cr oft

, , ,

Fr a n ci s P S mith a n d J oh n Eric s s on in 1 8 36 ( v fig
.
,
. a re n ow t h e m os t
, . .

i m p ort a n t i n s tru m e n ts of pr opuls i on a n d a lth ou gh m uch ti m e ge n iu s , , , ,

a n d m on e y h a v e b e e n e x p e n d e d i n e x p loiti n g s cr e w s of t h e m os t v a ri e d

f or ms e n gi n e er s h a ve t o d a y s e ttle d d ow n t o t h e a lm os t u n iv e r s a l u s e of t h e
,
-

s crew s uch a s u s e d by S mith a n d his frie n d s i n 1 8 4 0 on t h e

,
Archi m e des
 N U AL
MA OF M AR IN E E N G IN E ER I N G .
 IN TR O D U CT I O N — M AR IN E S T EAM E N GIN ES . 15

th a t is , the e ss e n ti a ls— viz m a k i n g it a p orti on of a tr u e h e li x a n d

in .
,

of m od e r a t e d i a m e t e r a n d a cti n g s urf a c e S o f a r a s s h a p e i s c on c e r n e d
.
,

the pra ctice n ow is v e ry li k e th a t of R obert Griffith s of 1 8 6 5 — th a t is the ,

b la d e is n a i row a t t h e tip s c om p a re d with the bre a d th a t mi d d le a n d t h e b os s ,

s pheric a l of c on s i d er a b le d i a m e t e r Th e pr e v a ilin f or m for e x pr es s a n d

.
_

n a v a l S hip s i s of c our s e a m od ific a ti on of t h e Gri

, , t h s i n a s m u ch a s th e ir ,

tip s a re s ome wh a t fulle r a n d r ou n d e d s o th a t t h e b la d e is t h e s h a p e of t h e

,

lon gitu di n a l s e cti on of a dom e s tic h e n s e gg ; a n d in s om e c a s e s wh e r e t h e

’

d i a m et e r i s s m a ll f or t h e p ow e r t h e b la d e i s eve n circu la r
, I n fa ct a ll of .
,

th e m a r e s uch a s w ou ld be f orm e d by t a k i n g t h e Griffith s a n d re duc e the ,

d i a m eter by r ou n d i n g t h e tip s u n ti l t h e m a x i m u m br e a d th is n e a r e r th e t 0 p .

The n u m ber of s crew s h a s i n cre a s e d fr om the on e S itu a te d in a ga p in the

d e a d w ood of t h e s h ip t o t h e f our of the m od er n hi gh s pee d w a r s hi p drive n -

Fran c is P e tt i t Sm it h , 1 8 36 .

Fr an c is P etti t S m it h , 1 838 . Jo hn E ri c sson , 1 8 36 .

by turbi n e s The twi n s cr e w a n obvi ou s d e velop m e n t e s p e ci a lly if require d

.
, ,

t o c om pete with t h e p a ddle whee l in s h a llow w a ter s w a s fir s t i n tr od uc e d

-

by the R e n n i e s in 1 8 5 4 f or s e rvice on t h e N i le s i n ce th e n they h a ve rep la c e d

t h e s i n gle s crew in a ll e x pr e ss a n d oc ea n goi n g hi gh s pee d s te a m e r s -
With -
.

“
s uch twi n sc rew s n ot onl y i s t ot a l i m m er s i on a tt a i n e d a n d the
,
fe e d t o th e m
u n o bs tru cte d but t h e s a f e ty of the S hi p c on s i d e r a b ly i n s ur e d i n a s much a s
, ,

t h e li a bility t o t ot a l bre a k dow n i s re duce d by a h a lf a n d a m e a n s of s t e e ri n g -

i s pr ovi d e d s h ould t h e ru dd er or it s ge a r b e d i s a b le d
, Tw o s cr e w s on e .
,

a t the b ow a n d a n other a t t h e s t e r n with a li n e of S h a fti n g c omm on t o the m

h a ve bee n u s e d freque n tly for tu gs a n d ferry b oa t s with a d v a n t a ge a n d ,

f our s crew s S i mi la rly a rr a n ge d h a v e b e e n u s e d for t h e s a m e s ervice s .

Thr e e s crew s on e in t h e d e a d w ood a n d on e on e a ch S i d e s om ewh a t

, ,

a h e a d o f t h e m i dd le on e h a v e b e e n u s e d i n Fr a n c e G e r m a n y a n d I t a ly a n d
, , , ,

t h e U n ite d S t a te s but t h e s y s te m did no t fin d f a v our in thi s c ou n try till

,
 16 MAN UAL or M AR IN E E N G IN EER IN G .

t he turbi n e w a s u s e d a s t h e pri m e m ov e r The d e v elop m e n t is a n a tur a .

on e , wher e la r ge p ow e r is r e quir e d in a c om p a ra tiv e ly s h a llow v e ss e l a n d ,

a ls o with the view of k e epi n

g t h e e n gi n e withi n m od er a t e di m en s i on s I t a ly .

w a s the fir s t t o give t h e s y s te m a pr a ctic a l tri a l in 1 8 8 6 on th e cru i s e r

‘

Trip oli Fr a n c e f ollowe d on a la r ge s c a le with t h e D upuy d e L om e

in 1 8 90 I n 1 8 92 the U n it e d S t a te s of Am e ric a a d opte d t h e s y s t e m f or
.

t he C olum bi a of t on s di s p la ce m e n t
,
k n ot s S pee d I n the s a m e , .

“ ”
ye a r t h e Ge r m a n Govern m en t fitt e d t h e crui s er K a i se ri n Au gu s t a of ,

t on s a n d 22 5 k n ots with thr e e s crew s whi le in 1 896 R u s s i a a d opte d

, , ,
”
t h e s y s te m f or t h e R os s ia a la r ge” cruis er of t on s a n d ,
I H P . . .

I n ou r ow n N a vy t h e Am e thy s t cr u i s e r of ,
t on s h a v i n g P a r s on s , ,

turbin es oper a t i n g on three s cr e w s w a s t h e fir s t a tte m pt if t h e e x p e ri m e n t , ,

with H M S Met e or in 1 85 5 i s e x c e pt e d To d a y t h e r u l e in t h e B riti s h

. . .
-

N a vy is t o fit f our s cr e w s * t o a ll but the very s m a ll s hip s ; the n e w e s t crui s e r s

”
of H P a r e s o fitte d a s a r e t h e n e w c la s s of
. . D e s tr oyer s I n th e
, .

merc a n ti le m a ri n e ou r la r ge s t a n d f a s t e s t m a i l s te a m e r s h a v e f our s crew s ;

t h e s m a lle r on es thr e e whe n d riv en by turbi n e s or c om b in e d r e cipr oc a t or s
,
”
a n d turbi n e s The n e w e s t a n d la r ge s t s hi p S S Oly m pic h a s thu s thr e e
.
,
. .
,

s cr e w s ( v fi s 4 3 a n d With recipr oc a t or s on ly the t w i n s cr e w is n ow

g . .

a lmos t t h e u n iver sa l ru le f or a ll e x pre s s s te a m er s a n d f or c a r go s t e a m er s of ,

the la rge s t s iz e .

Mu ltiple S cre ws I n s om e s hi p s of s p e ci a l d e s i gn or for s peci a l s ervic e

.
—
, ,

a la r e r n u m b e r of s crew s h a v e b e e n fitte d a n d th e ir a rr a n ge m e n t v a rie d ;

g ,

f or e x a m p le the s a ucer s h a p e d R u s s i a n w a rs hip s

“ ”
,
P opoff s k a s
-
h a d s ix
a n d t h e R u s s i a n i c e br e a k e r
“ ”
s cr e ws ,
Er m a c k h a s three s crew s a t t h e -
, ,

s t e r n a n d on e a t t h e b ow .

Mr P a r s on s h a s a ls o i n s om e f e w c a s e s fitt e d m or e th a n on e s cr e w on
.

e a ch s h a ft a n d m or e rec e n t ly the Ge r m a n N a v a l Auth oritie s h a v e tri e d ,

”
on t h e crui s er L ub e c k e i ht s crew s t w o on e ach of h er f our s h a ft s ; the
g , ,

r e s ult s of thi s e x p e ri me n t a r e by n o m e a n s s a ti s f a ct ory bei n g m uc h i n feri or ,

t o th os e of s i s t e r s hip s h a vi n g twi n s crew s d rive n by recipr oc a ti n g e n gin e s .

T a b le 1 c on t a i n s e x a m p le s of n a v a l s hip s e n gi n e s typica l of the

.
’

p e ri od s s i n c e the i n tr oducti on of t h e s cr e w pr ope ller a n d s h ow s the pr ogre s s ,

m a d e in the u s e of s t e a m e x p a n s iv e ly .

P r ogre s s in t h e u s e of s te a m e x p a n s iv e ly in the me rca n t i le ma rin e d uri n g

t h e p a s t 5 0 y ea r s a s s h ow n by the typ i c a l e x a m p les i n T a b le I I
,
.

Q u it e re c e n tly h o w e v e r t h e r e is a t e n d e n cy in b o t h t h e Br it ish a n d Fore ign N a w c s

, ,

t o r e v e r t t o t h e t w in sc re w s f o r t h e s m a ll e r c l a ss o f sh ip a n d e v e n in s e c o n d c l a ss c ru ise r s
-

,
-
,

w it h a c om p l e t e tu r b in e f o r e a c h p r o p e ll e r a n d s in c e t i n t r o d uct i o n o f ge a r in g t h e
, n e

t e n d en cy i s t o t w in sc re w s f o r a ll k in d s of s h ips
-
.
 IN T R OD U CTI O N MAR I NI 0

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18 MA N U AL OF M AR IN E E N G IN EE R IN G .

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 V AL UE OF T R A I L I
T R PS . 19

CH AP T ER II .

I
R ES S T A N CE I
O F S H P S AN D IN D I CAT E D H OR S E P O W ER -

N E CE S S AR Y F OR S P E ED .

ALT H O UG H str ictly speaki n g it i s

, the p r ovince of the e n gi n eer t o deter
,
n ot

min e the p owe r n ecessar y to d r ive a shi p at a ce rt ai n spee d but r athe r that ,

of the n aval a r chi tect st ill it is a poi n t of gr eat i m port a n ce to the e n gi n ee r

, ,

a n d on e with the i n vestigatio n s of w hi ch he sho u l d b e f u lly acquai n te d .

Ci r cu ms ta n ces so metim es r equi r e i n deed that the e n gin eer shall n a m e the
, ,

powe r as the n aval ar chi tect m a y sub mit that i n a sm uch as he is u n awar e of
, ,

the e fficien cy of the particula r en gin e t o be supplied he ca n n ot say what ,

i n dica ted ho r se powe r will b e n eces sa r y but o n ly what efi

-
ect i ve ho r se powe r
,
-
.

Mo r eover the subj ect is on e possessi n g gr eat i n ter est at all ti m es a n d so m e

, ,

ti m es oi the ut m ost i m po rt an ce to the e n gi n eer as the de ficie n cy of speed ,

obtain ed at the m easu r e d mil e fr om that a n ticipated m a y b e att r ibuted to

the i n e fficien cy of the e n gin e a n d p r opeller This char ge ma y be a n d o ften .
,

has bee n p r oved to be t rue ; but on the other han d it m ay be wi thout

, , ,

f oun d atio n the bla m e r eally belo n gi n g t o the design er w h o has give n the
, ,

shi p l in es u n suited to the speed .

V a l u e of Tri a l Tri ps T r ial tri ps a re n ow co n ducted both in the m er

.
,

c a n t ile m a r in e a n d the R oyal N avy with m o r e ca r e a n d i n te r est tha n obtai n e d

,

f o r m e r ly ; a n d it is n ot sufficie n t t o p r ove at the m easu r ed mi le m e r ely

t hat the s hi p has do n e the speed e x pected or that the e n gi n es have developed ,

the power f or w hi ch they we r e design ed B oth en gin eer s a n d n aval ar chi .

teets d esir e t o deter mi n e whether the spee d has be en obtain ed with the
mi ni m u m of power a n d the e n gin eer c a n satis fy hi m sel f on a m ost i mpor ta n t
,

poin t — v iz the efficie n cy of the p r opeller a n d t o so m e ex te n t the efficie n cy

.
, , , ,

of the m ac hi n e r y whi le the ow n e r if it b e a p r ivate Shi p is e n abled to j udge

, , ,
“ ” ”
whet her he is payi n g f or what he call s big ho r ses or little ho r ses .

An other p oin t ( a n d on e m ost i m por ta n t to the own er ) which t o so m e ex te n t , ,

is d ete r mi n e d on a t rial t rip is — a t what e x pe n ditur e of fuel a t on of dis

place m e n t is ca rried over a m ile I t is n ot a n u n k n own t hi n g to find that
.

the e n gin e whi ch burn s least f uel p er I H P d oes n ot co mpar e so f avour ably . .

wi th ot h e r s whe n m easu r ed by t hi s latte r sta n da r d The appa r e n t c on .

t ra dic t ion he r e is n ot ve r y di ffic u l t to u n d e r sta n d whe n f ully loo ked in to ;

it m a y b e per haps best co m p r ehe n d ed by takin g e x tr e m e cases S uppose
, ,
.

t h e blades of the sc r ew a r e set so as to have n o pitch the e n gin e will wo r k ,

d evelop a ce rt ain powe r n ecessar y to ove r co m e its ow n r esista n ce a n d that

of the sc r ew but it will n ot d r ive the ship a n i n ch ; the coal co n su m ptio n
,

er I H P wi l l p r obably be so m ewhat heavie r t h a n that of the sa m e e n gi n e

p . . .

whe n wo r ki n g wi t h h al f its loa d but still m a y b e ligh t N ow pl ace t h e

,
.

blades f o r e a n d a ft so that the pitch is i n fin ity a n d although the r e m a y be

, ,
 R ES D I U AL R ES S T I A N CE . d l

gr a d ually to r est at the ste r n I f it is n ot d o n e ge n tly a n d t h e wat e r is .

,

r u d ely sepa r ate d a wave is f o r m ed on eith e r si d e showi n g t h at e n e r gy ha s

, ,

bee n spe n t in r aisi n g the wate r of this wave above its n o r m al level Alt h o u gh .

e ve r y ship howeve r well d esign e d to suit t h e i n te n d e d spee d causes t h e se

, ,

w aves of displace m e n t it is the obj ect of t h e n aval a r chitect to r e d uce t h ei r

,

m a gn itu d e a s m uch a s possible .

Th e chief ca u se of res is ta n ce to the pas s age of a s h ip th r o u gh the wate r

i s howeve r the fr ictio n betwee n the su rf ace of t h e i mm e r se d po r tio n a n d
, ,

t h e wate r R esista n ce fr o m this cause is ge n e r ally spoke n of as s kin r es i s t a n ce

.
,

a n d is i n well fo r m ed ships m uch gr eate r tha n the r esista n ce d u e to othe r

-

c auses . Howeve r fin e a ship m a y be the r e is of n ecessity a c e r t a in a rea , , ,

c

o f ski n e x posed to the wate r a n d t h ough the d isplace m e n t be ve r y s m all ,

i n deed a n d the sectio n t r a n sve r se to the di r ectio n of motio n r e d uced to a

,

m i n i m u m it is f ou n d that a co n side r able a m ou n t of powe r is r equi r e d to

,

p ropel the ship thr ough the wate r a n d that r oughly the p owe r is p r opo r , , ,

t ion a l to the wett ed s u rfa c e at the sa m e s peeds I t is fr o m this cause t h at .

the ol d er r ules f or S peed i n volvi n g o n ly displace m e n t or a r ea of mi d ship

, , .

s ectio n togethe r with S p ee d as va r iables a r e f ou n d to b e so m islea d i n g

, ,
.

R esidu a l R es is ta n ce is the te r m ge n e r all y used to e x p r ess the s u m of

all othe r r esistan c es t o be over co m e i n p r opelli n g a s hi p thr ough the wate r
'

a n d i n cludes that d u e to wave m akin g ed d y m aki n g etc I n ta n k e x per i

-
,
-
, .

m e n ts this is di ff e r e n tiate d fr o m ski n r esista n ce a n d asce rtai n ed with accur acy , ,

but it m a y b e calculated wi th a ver y f ai r app r ox i m atio n to it by a f o rm u la

a rr ive d at by Mr D W Taylor . a n d published by h im the r e
. . It , .

is as f ollows v iz ,

R esidua r y r esistan ce in lbs .

wher e b is the block coe fficie n t

D is the displace m e n t in to n s
V is the speed in k n ots
L is the le n gth on the wate r li n e -
in f eet .

V2
Th e f ormula i s applicable o n ly to speeds f or which is less tha n As
i
will be s ee n it co n f o r m s t o the law of co m par iso n a n d co mpa r e d with othe r
, , ,

f o r m ulae g ives ex t r e m ely good r esults f or all classes a n d si z es of shi ps It

“

.
,

has bee n a pplied t o a la r ge nu m ber of di ff er e n t ships a n d the ge n e r al r esults ,

o f the applicatio n a re satis facto r y .

Most of the e x a m ples take n for co m pa riso n have b ee n wa r ships whe r e ,

it was f ou n d in applyi n g the f o r m ula that a slight m o dificatio n gave bette r

r esults .
This m odi fica tio n co n sists in taki n g the le n gth as the e x t re me
le n gth of i mm er sed vessel in place of that on the wate r li n e a n d in calculati n g -
,

t h e block coe fficie n t o n the e x t r e m e le n gth i n stea d of that betwee n per

e n d ic u l a r s as usually take n F or m e r c h a n t ships t h e two le n gths a r e
p ,
.

e n e r ally the sa m e but for wa r ships the d i ff e r e n ce i n t h e two i s a ppr ec 1 a ble

g
.

Mr A W Joh n s fo u n d that f or vessels i n w h ich the block coe ffici e n t va n es

. . .

fr o m 6 to 6 5 the calculated r esults a re ge n e r ally co rr ect f or a spee d such

‘ '

that
g is about 85 B elow this spee d the r esults a re ge n e rally about
°

.
,
22 MA N U AL or MAR IN E E N G IN E ER IN G .

ce n t la rge r w h ilst above t h is speed the r esults a re so m ewhat s m alle r

p er .
,

tha n the e x pe r i m e n tal r esults .

For vessels in which the block coe fficie n t va r ies fr o m 5 to 5 5 the c a lc u '

re

late d r esults a re ge n e rally co rr ect f or a spee d give n by F equal to 1 . Above

f
this speed t h e r esults a r e slightly s m alle r whi lst below they a re ge n e rally
, ,

about 1 0 pe r ce n t gr eate r tha n the e x pe ri m e n tal r esults

. .

Th e resis ta n ce of t h e ordin a ry sh ip r oughly va r ies as the squa r e of t h e

spee d so lo n g as the highest speed does n ot e x ceed that f or whi ch the shi p
,

is suite d a n d so l o n g as the wave f o rm atio n is n ot so gr eat as to caus e

,

co n sid e r able var iatio n in the t ri m of the shi p Whe n such co n d itio n s p r evail .
,

as they do la r gely in m ode rn ve r y hi gh spee d shi ps of s m all si z e a s a r e -

D estr oye r s a n d S couts the va riatio n in r esista n ce does n ot f ollow so si m pl e

,

a rul e a n d m o r eove r the fluctuatio n is appa r en tly cap r icious as m a y be

, , , ,

see n by e x a mi n i n g the figu r es give n by S ir Wil lia m Wh ite f or destr oye r s

(q a )
. Assu mi n g howeve r as we m a y in the case of o rdi n a r y ships tha t
.
, , ,

R va r ies as 8 2
th en to co m plete the e x p r essio n whi ch will give a de fini t e
, ,

value to the r esista n ce of a given s hi p it was n ecessar y to mu ltiply t h e ,

p r o d uct of the above two va riables by a qua n tity f ou n d fr o m p r actice a n d

if the law we r e absolutely corr ect t hi s qua n tity should have a fix ed value , ,

whateve r the si z e a n d fo r m of the shi p a n d would b e a c on s ta n t multiplier ,

f or all cases i n choosi n g values f or C a n d K Actual values for the m c a n .

b e f ou n d in the tables of perfo rma n ces of shi ps on t rial trips .

C effic e
o i n t of F i n en ess — To d ete r mi n e the f o r m of a ship as to wheth e r ,
” “ “
it is fin e f air ly fin e ,
blu ff it is us ual to co m par e the d is place
, ,

m e n t in cubic f eet with the capacity of a box of the sa m e le n gth a n d b r eadth ,

a n d of depth equal to the d r aught of wate r ; the coe fficie n t by w hi ch t h e

capacity of such a box m ust b e mul tiplied t o give the di splace me n t bei n g
called the coefficien t of finen es s Thus .

D X 35

D bei n g the displace m e n t in to n s cubic f eet of sea wate r t o the t on of 35 -

L the le n gth betwee n pe rpe n dic u l a r s in f eet ; B the e x t r e m e b r ea d th of

b ea m in f eet ; a n d W the m ean d r aught of water in f eet less the d epth of ,

the keel S tr ictly speaki n g the le n gth should be m eas u r ed fr o m the s t em

.
,

to a f t pa r t of bo d y post on the water li n e i n ste ad of to a ft part of r udd e r -

,

post ; but as this di m e n sio n is n ot easy t o asce rtain without r e fe rrin g t o

the plan s a n d the calculatio n is m a d e f or the sake of co m pa ris o n r athe r
, ,

tha n as a n ac cur ate co m putatio n n o i n co n ve n ie n ce will a ri se fr o m this s o , ,

lo n g as all the shi ps u n d e r co m par iso n a r e measur ed in the sa m e way .

I t will be easil y see n that the above coe fficie n t o n ly e x p r esses a r elatio n
betwee n the cubic co n te n ts of the i m m e r se d po rtio n of the ship a n d a box
of the sa m e di m e n sio n a n d gives n o ce r tai n clue to t h e fin e n ess of the wa t er
,

lin es whi ch is r eally what is wa n ted for co n side r atio n in deali n g with t h e
,

questio n of powe r for speed .

Two ships m a y have the sa m e di m e n sio n s a n d the sa m e displace m e n t ,

and co n seque n tly the sa m e coe fficie n t of fin e n ess a n d yet on e m a y hav e

, ,

blu ff li n es a n d t h e oth e r fin e— the di ff e r e n ce a r isi n g fr o m the latter hav in g

,

a fl at fl oo r a n d the f o rme r a high r ise of floo r T o take a n e x t r e m e case

,
.
,
 r m: w ar r e n s x rn or A S HIP .
23

the fin e ship m ight have a r ecta n gula r m i d ship sectio n a n d the blu ff on e a ,
”
t ri a n gula r on e ; a n d 1 f the coe fficie n t of fin e n ess w a s 0 5 t h e blu ff ship ,

would have r ectan gula r wate r pla n es while those of the fin e ship would be -
,

two t ria n gles base to base .

N ow i f a coe fficie n t be obtai n ed by co m pa r i n g the d isplace m e n t with

,

the volu m e of a p r is m whose base is the m idship sectio n a n d height the

, ,

le n gt h of the ship it will i n dicate the ge n er al fin e n ess of wate r li n es a n d

-

,
-
,

f o r m a guide in the choice of the co n sta n t s f or speed calculatio n s .

D X 35
The Pris m atic or Coe fficien t of wate r li n es -

Th e Sk in R es is ta n ce is in all classes of ships the m ost se r ious although

, , ,

in dest r oye r s at f ull speed ( say 30 k n ots ) it o n ly a m ou n ts to 4 5 pe r ce n t .

of the total , as co m pa r ed with 80

p e r ce n t at 1 2 k n ots W ith c r uise r s it . .

is as m uch as 8 0 per ce n t at 20 k n ots , a n d m o r e tha n 70 per ce n t at the fu ll

. .

spee d of 2 3 k n ots , while at 1 2 k n ots it is 90 pe r ce n t .

Fr o m e x pe ri m e n ts m ade by D r Fr oude with va r n ished su r faces , such as .

give n by the m ode rn spi r it mi x ed a n ti f ouli n g co m positio n s applied t o s hi p s -

’

botto ms t o discove r n , the i n de x of V , the f ollowin g was deduced

”
j X A R esista n ce X V .

is a f acto which r ies with the le n gth of the ship

’

r v a
7 .

A the a r ea e x p os ed to wate r r ubbi n g

-
.

V the velocity in feet per secon d .

n h a d a value 2 close to the bow at 20 f eet fr o m it a n d at

'

, ,

5 0 f eet The ave rage value th r oughout m a y be taken at

.

At a speed of 1 0 f eetp seco n d the m ea n r esista n ce was f ou n d to a m ou n t

er

t o 0 2 5 pou n d p er squa r e f oot .

Taki n g as a n e x a m ple a n ex p r ess stea me r 4 00 f eet lo n g at a speed of , ,

2 0 k n ots what will b e the r esista n c e per 1 00 squa r e f eet of wetted ski n ?
, ,

He r e j 008 8 6 a n d V 34
‘

.
,

R 0 00 88 6 X 1 00 X 5 6 3 lbs .

The powe r r equi r ed to d raw this su rface thr ough the wate r at the velocity
will be
P owe r 5 6 3 X 3 4 X 60 foot lbs or 3 4 8 H P -
.
, . .

This of cou r se is the n e t ho rse powe r a n d n ot that developed by the e n gi n e

, ,
-
,

d rivi n g the p r opelle r I f however the e fficie n cy of m achi n e r y p r opelle r

.
, , , ,

etc we r e say 0 7 the n

.
, , , ,

The gr oss I H P 34 8 07 4 97 . . . .

Th e Wet ted Sk in of a S h ip should be accu r ately m easu r ed but thi s is ,

a so m ewhat lo n g a n d t r oubleso m e busi n ess a n d , m o r eove r n ecessitate s , ,

havi n g the full li n es of the s hi p which , as a r ule , a re n ot available in the ,

i n itial stages of desig n , a n d ce r tai n ly n ot accessible to the e n gi n ee r as a r ule .

The r e a r e h oweve r , m etho d s of obtai n i n g the a r ea with su fficie n t accu racy

,

f or the pu r pose of esti m ati n g the i n dicated ho r se powe r n ecessa r y to d r ive -

a ship at a r equi r ed speed , a n d ce r tai n ly is accu r acy su fficie n tly close if the
24 M AN U AL or M AR I NE EN GI N E ER I N G .

allowa n ces have been obtai n ed fro m p r actice wit h wette d ski n s calculated
by the sa m e m etho d s .

K irk s An a l ysis is a syste m i n t r oduced by the late D r Ale x a n d e r K i r k

’
.
,

whe r eby the qualities of s hi ps c a n be co m par ed a n d i n ci d e n tally the fit n ess

of a p r oposed s hi p f or the spee d r equi r e d B y the m ea n s he p r ovided the .

wette d ski n is f ou n d a n d for ships wi th a high rise of floor as we r e the r ule

, ,

at the ti m e the ar ea so calculated was with i n 3 pe r ce n t of the act u al a n d .

,

o fte n al m ost ide n tical with it With m o d er n ships t h e e rr o r is o fte n as m uch

.

as 5 pe r ce n t a n d eve n with ships ha v i n g deep bilge keels a n d la r ge fin s

.
,

f or the si d e scr ews the e rr o r is 3 pe r ce n t .

Mu mford s m etho d of calculati n g wetted ski n gives f ai rly accu r ate r esults
’

with ships of n o r m al f o rm a n d p r opo rtio n s but with shallow d r a ft ships ,

a n d flat botto m s the actual sur f ace is so m ewhat in e x cess of that

give n by
h is r ule which is a s f ollows
,

Wetted ski n L d bB) .

L is the len gth between p er pe n dicu lar s d is the depth of i mm e r se d mi d s hi p ,

sectio n B is the gr eatest beam a n d b is the block coe fficie n t of d isplace m e n t

, .

S ea t on s Modifica t ion of Mu m f o r d s m ethod is as f ollows

’ ’

Wetted ski n (0 X d X L)

Whe r e c is a coefficie n t 2 X a r ea i mm er sed m id sectio n B x d For -

.

fl at botto m shallow d r aft ships 0 is 2 0 while for shi ps with a hi gh r ise of

-
,

fl oo r as usual in yachts a n d f ast sailin g ships 0 is 1 6 For o r di n a r y ships

,
-
, .

wi th a dr aught of wate r n ot less tha n on e quar ter the bea m 0 is -

D is the d isplace m e n t in ton s a n d d t h e m ea n m oulde d d r a f t of wate r

,
.

S ea t on s Meth od f or sea goi n g ships whose d r a ft of wate r is m o r e t h a n

’
-
,

on e qua r ter the bea m per mits of a r ea d y co m putatio n of wette d ski n with
-

the sa m e in f o r m atio n ; he re L i s the len gth B is the bea m a n d d t h e , ,

m ou lde d d r a ft .

(1) K L
Q 5 5 B + d) .

(2) F 42 z/K .

3
( ) W etted ski n F x D i — that is 42 i/K x D 3 .

The f ollowi n g a r e the values of F f or va r iatio n s in K

Wh e n K is 4 , t h e va lu e of F is 5 94 Wh en K is 8 , t h e va lu e of F is 70 6
5, 6 2 -9 9, 72 8-

6, 6 5 -7 1 0, 74 7-

7, 68 3 1 1, 76 4

Th e form s u itabl e for a re qu ired s peed is gauge d by the coe fficie n t of

fin e n ess of wate r li n es calle d usually t h e p r is m atic coe fficie n t as al r ea d y
, ,

s t ated ; it also m a y b e obtai n e d f r o m the block coefficie n t by d ivi d i n g it by

the coe fficie n t of m id ship sectio n , whe n k n owi n g the a r ea of m i d s h ip sectio n
-
.

D I s pla c e m e n t x 3 5
Prl s m a t m

T his ma y be called the cri teri on 0 /form .

T o s h i ps w it h m u l t ipl e s c re w s c i s in c r e a se d by 3 5 p e r cen t .
, so t hat t h e mu lt iplie r
is 2 0 7 in s t e a d of 20 .
 D ET ER M N I IN G T H E P OW E R . 25

Th e autho r has devised a r ule for gui d a n ce in desi gn i n g a s h ip as also ,

t o p r ovide a m ea n s whe r eby e n gi n ee r s m a y avoi d t r y i n g to d o i m possible ,

or at least n on eco n o mi c thi n gs in t h e way of f o r ci n g a sh ip beyo n d h e r

, ,
-

c apacity f or speed .

S ea t on s R u l e f or Limita tion of S pee d is as f ollows :

’

S uitable p ris m coe fficie n t F 0 4 i /L i /S .

When is t h e l en gth of ship in f eet a n d S the spee d in k n ots bei n g the

L ,
‘

highest at which t h e ship c a n be d rive n without a n e x cessive e x pe n ditu r e

o f powe r That is with a le n gth of ship L
.
, ,

T he m ax i m u m eco n o m ic spee d S (0 4 U L
I n a ge n e r al way the r esista n ce will va r y ve r y closely with t h e squar e of
the speed w ith o r di n a r y ships which a r e n ot d rive n at a spee d highe r tha n
,

that given by this r ule .

The least le n gth of ship f or a given speed a n d coefficie n t of fin e n ess c a n

a lso be asce r tai n ed thus : ,

Mi ni mu m le n gth L

Table V gives the p ris m coe fficie n t suitable to the le n gth of a particular
.

s hip f or a give n speed ; that I s t o say the actual displacem e n t of the sh 1 p ,

o f a give n le n gth a n d f or a ce r tai n spee d should n ot be gr eate r tha n that ,

give n by m ultiplyi n g the displacem en t of a p ris m of the sam e sectio n as

the midshi p sectio n of the ship a n d the sa me le n gth by the f acto r give n .

For ex a mple — A shi p 300 f eet lo n g f or a s peed of 15 k n ots shoul d have

, , ,

a d isplace m e n t n ot g r eate r tha n 6 74 of the p r is m d isplace m e n t — that is to

°

say she m ust have a coe fficie n t of fin e n ess of waterli n es of 0 6 74

, .

To determin e th e power n ec e s s a ry to d r ive a ship a t the r equi r ed spee d

'

the f acts a lr eady stated m ust b e asce rtai n ed— vi z ” ge n e r al d i m e n sio n s d is ,

place m e n t a rea of midshi p sectio n a n d the wetted ski n The fir st i n vesti

, , .

ga t ion m ust b e t o discove r the hi ghest spee d possible u n de r the s e co n d itio n s ,

a n d that 1 s n ot less tha n that re qu I re d .

Havi n g do n e this a calculatio n should be m a de of the m ax i mu m total

,

r esista n ce R in pou n ds The e fii cien c y of the m achi n e r y a n d p r opelle r

.

m ust also be k n ow n a n d if the ge n e r al e fli c ie n c y is E a n d S the speed in

, ,

f eet per m i n ute

Gr oss i n dicated ho r se powe r -

X S

The total r esista n ce is m a d e up of th r ee co m po n e n ts

( 1 ) That due to the ski n f r ictio n calle d fr i ct iona l res is ta n ce , .

( 2 ) That a risi n g fr o m the m aki n g of waves a n d eddies calle d , r es i du a l

res is ta n ce .

( 3 ) That due to the actio n of the p r opelle r on t he hull cal led the
,
au g
me n t ed res is ta n ce .

In the case of a paddle stea m e r the velocity give n to the wate r by the
wheels is high e r tha n that of the wate r flowi n g past it a n d i n c r eases t h e ski n ,

fr ictio n both be f o r e the w h eels whe n the wate r is flowi n g i n to a n d sai d to ,

b e feedi n g the r ace a n d aba f t the wheels in the r ace

,
B u t with a sc rew .
 26 M AN UA L OF M AR I N E EN G I N EE R I N G .

ste a m e r t h e r e is also t h e i n crease d velocity cause d by t h e f eed bu t a g reat er ,

loss is d u e to the d ec rease in p ressur e at the stern owin g t o the actio n of t h e ,

scr ew pu sh m g the wate r away S o gr eat is this in blu fl shi ps that the wate r
.

flows in to the space behi n d the ste rn on each side o f the r ace a n d so causes ,

a n ed d y st r ea m to f oll ow the ship .

The f ollowi n g table h a s bee n calculated by Mr Joh n s of R C N Con .

, . . .

s t ru c t ors as applicable to all m ode rn ships w ith clea n f r esh pai n ted botto m s
,
-
, ,

a n d ma
y be use d f or esti m ati n g the n e t ho r se powe r n ecessa r y f or ove r -

co m i n g the ski n resista n ce The ho r se powe r to ove r co m e the r esi d ual

.
-

resista n ce c a n be calculate d by m ea n s of Taylo r s f o r m ula

( p The
’
.

two r esults a d d ed togethe r w ill give the total n et ho r se powe r called E H P -

. . .

I f the p r opulsive e fli cie n c y is 0 6 the n ,

I H P
. . . EH F
. . . 06 .

T AB L E III .
— COE FFI CI E N T S FOR CO M P U T I N G EFFE CT I V E H OR S E -
P OW E R
UI R ED SK IN FR I CT I ON B A S ED ON MR FR O U D E
’
R EQ T O OV E R CO M E . S CON
S T AN T S AS GI V E N BY MR A . . W J OH N S
. .

If S is the wetted su r face in squar e f eet then ,

EH F f S wher e f has the values give n bel ow

. . .
, .

L e n g t h of S h ip 115 Fee t .

I n t he a bo ve t a ble sk i n f r ic t ion is t a k en as va ry in g a s V 1 3‘

D3 x S 3
In T able IV . a re the values of C In the old f orm ula I H P
. . .

C
for ships whose le n gth va r ies f r o m 1 00 f eet to 900 f eet a n d the p r oposed ,

spee d f ro m 1 0 k n ots to 2 8 k n ots a n d d esig n ed with a f o rm s u I t a ble f or t h e

.

speed— that is the fin e n ess of the wate r li n es of the ship is such that t h e
,
-

p r is m atic c oe fli c ie n t of displace m en t will be n ot g reater tha n g i ve n by the

fo rm ula 0 4 U L — i / S .

I f the ship is fin e r t ha n dete r m i n ed by this c r i t er I On the value of C ma y

0

be i n c rease d so m ewhat ; also in t h e case Of a ship ha v m g e n g i n es of h I gh

e fficie n cy such as possessed by m ost tu rbi n es a n d hi gh class r e p roc a t ors
-

, ,
 V A LU ES I I
O F COE FF C E N T . 27

o c m « m w w m
w 2 o 2 5 a m
0
m fi
a
w m m o 5 E
fi : m m m m m m m n m m m m N

w m m w m m m w
w m o g m S S e e a n E 8
o
h a
~ : m m m m N w w m m N m m n

c w w m w m
o w o u h w
m w w m m m

m a w w m m a a a
S 8 a 8 8 3 5
2 : N “
a
s
a
s s m m “ m g g s s s

m m m o m m w o o m m c
m 3 2 m m w 5 a a o E h w m m a
~ m m m m n m n n w m m n m m m

m w w n c m w o c m v m m
S S m m e a c E E w w a o o o a
fi N 5 m m w m m N N m n n m w m m

m m « 0 n m fi w fl w c
o
s

m e 5 w a 5 o E E a
g u a
m m m w m g m m w m w 5 n n n

2 w w m o
E a a a
a E 8 8 S 8 3 8 a w
: N s s s s m m m m .
m m ” n n

w a a o « « w m o
m m m
n
a 2 m m
a
s o
s e
s “ “ m m m w n n m m m

u
s
e
“
.

s o c o o c e c c c o o o c c c
o n o
m
m
m
in w o m o a o
w
m
w
o n
“
o
m
o
m
o
m
n w uv n n h .
 D E I ER M I N I N G T H E P OW E R 29
‘

havi n g all the pu m ps disco n n ecte d f ro m the m ai n e n gi n es a n d with e fficie n t ,

p r opelle r s C m a y be so m ewhat high e r 1 11 the latte r case the i n c r ease wil l

,
.

be ge n e r ally about 5 to 7§ per ce n t I f on the othe r ha n d the e fficie n c y .

, ,

of the m achi n e r y is f r o m a n y cause low a s it used t o be w it h the ho r i z o n tal ,

e n gi n es a n d eve n w ith so m e of the ve rtical o n es with a ir ci r culati n g a n d

, ,

f eed pu m ps d r ive n by the m ai n e n gi n e ; a n d if the e fficie n cy of the sc r ew

is for so m e r easo n low the n the values give n in the table a re r athe r t oo
,

high .

Fur the r it ma y n ot b e ass u m ed that such coe fficie n ts will be developed

,

f ro m the t rials of s uch S hips desig n e d for a n d fitte d with e n gi n es to d rive

the m at high S pee d s whe n r u n n i n g at low ; for e x am ple it is a co m m o n ,

e x pe rie n ce to fin d the highest value at a speed 1 0 to 2 0 per ce n t below the .

highest t r ial speed a n d a dec r ease in value with the d ec r ease Of S pee d below ;
,

this is due to the f all in e fficie n cy Of the e n gi n es a n d p r opelle r both bei n g ,

too la r ge f or the powe r developed ; as a m atter Of f act the value of C is ,

a m eas u r e Of the ge n er al e fficie n cy Of a ship .

H oweve r the calculatio n s of r esista n ce a n d n e t ho r se p owe r is scar cely

,
-

the p r ovi n ce Of the e n gin ee r a n d eve n the n aval a r chitect has f ou n d that
,

e x pe r i m e n ts with m odels of ships in a ta n k a re the m ost r eliable way of

asce r tai n i n g r esista n ce a n d p owe r The Ad m i r alty have e m ploye d a ta n k .

a n d t r ai n ed sta ff of e x pe r i m e n te r s for m o r e tha n 30 yea r s fir st u n de r the ,

g u ida n ce of the late D r W Fr oude S i n ce u n d e r that Of his gi ft ed s on D r

. .
, , .
~

R E Fr oude
. . U n til r ece n tly ta n ks we r e a lu x u r y e n j oyed o n ly by a fe w
.

la rge wealthy sh ipb u ildi n g co m pa n ies ; than ks howeve r to the m u n ificen ce , ,

O f the e m i n e n t e n gi n ee r S ir A F Ya r ro w the r e is n ow at B ushey a ta n k

, . .
, , ,

equipped with the ve r y b est appar atus ope n to all w h o desi r e t o have
e x pe r im e n ts m a d e with the m odels of p r oposed ships .

T ank Experimen ts w ith m od els Of ships a r e ve r y i n ter esti n g a n d Of g reat ,

i m po r ta n ce to the build e r s of vessels out Of the co mm o n o r der Of thi n gs

as t o f o rm a n d spee d as it is o n ly by such m ean s that their e x act r esista n ce
,

d er va r yi n g co n ditio n s c a n b e co m pute d with such accu r acy a n d r elia n ce

as to permi t of a n e x act p r ovisio n bei n g m ade of the power f or the p r opulsio n
O f the shi ps such m odels r ep r ese n t I n this way the design e r s Of c ruise r s .
,

scouts destr oye r s etc whose f o r m is u n co mm o n a n d speed high c a n dete r

, , .
, ,

mi n e t h e h or s e powe r n ecessar y f or the m as also t h at for the ver y high speed

’

- -

e x pr ess stea m e r s n ow r equi r ed f or ser vice on chan n els a n d ocean s .

D r Willia m Fr ou d e s e x pe r i m e n ts with H M S a n d h er
’
. Gr eyhou n d . . .

m odel led to hi s establishi n g the laws which gove r n the t r ue r elatio n betwee n
shi ps ge n er ally a n d thei r m o d els as also those betwee n on e ship a n d a n othe r ,

S hip whose f o r m s a r e si m ila r but thei r di me n sio n s di ff e r e n t Dr R . . .

Fr oude has f or m a n y yea r s f ollowed on with the wor k begu n by his f athe r ,

a n d fr o m ti m e to ti m e has published hi s i n vestigatio n s a n d thei r r esults by

r eadi n g pape r s at the An n ual Meeti n gs of the I n stitutio n O f N aval Ar chitects ,

i n whose t r a n sactio n s they m a y be f ou n d r eco r ded a n d r ead with adva n tage ,

.

The f u lle r co n side ratio n of the subj ect however is on e outside the S cope of , ,

t hi s wor k e x cept to say that D r R E Fr ou d e in this cou n t r y a n d Mr

, . . .
,
.

Ta ylor I n Am e r ica have developed m ethods wher eby sc r ew p r opelle r s m a y be

,

e x a min ed a n d tested by thei r m odels a n d thei r e fficie n cy m easu r ed n ot o n ly , ,

per s e but whe n wo r ki n g at the ste rn of a m odel of the ship f or w h ich the sc r ew
, o

i t s el f is i n te n ded B y such e x pe r i m e n ts the e ff ect on the ship of the sc r ew

.
30 MAN U AL OF M AR I N E EN G I N EER I N G .

wor ki n g as t e rn of it is also asce r tai n ed— that is the a u gmen ted res is t an ce d u e ,

to the scr ew .

The ta n k is a ca n al wide e n ough ge n e r ally about 2 0 f eet a n d deep e n ough

, ,

f or such m odels as a r e use d t o pas s thr ough it w ithout ab n o r m al r esista n ce

the m o d el itsel f is m ade of pa r a fli n w a x to a suitable scale a n d towed by ,

mecha n ical m ea n s at a speed given by the f ollowi n g f o r m ula whe n L a n d S a r e ,

t h e le n gth a n d speed of the p r oposed S hip a n d l a n d s that Of the m odel ,

The n speed Of m odel

If the m odel is m a d e t o the scale Of a quar te r of a n i n ch t o the f oot it ,

will b e on e f o r ty eighth of the le n gth of the S hip a n d co n seque n tly t h e spee d

-
,

p r actically i s on e seven th that of the sh ip i t s elf The to wi n g appar atus is on

“

-
.

a tr avelli n g plat fo rm athwar t the tan k whi ch is caused t o move at the speed ,

r equ i r ed by elect r ical d r ivi n g gear The ten sio n on the t ow r ope is ca r e fully
.

auge d a n d r egiste r ed auto m atically a n d gives the r esista n ce O f the m o d el

g ,

when fr ee fr o m the sc r ew The scr ew is the n fix ed t o a n appa r atus on the

.

s a m e plat fo r m in r ea r Of the m o d el a nd sub m e r ged S O as to co m e i n to the

,

e x act positio n r elative to the m odel that the r eal scr ew would be to the
r eal shi p . I t is caused t o r evolve at the r ate of r evolutio n due to the speed
of the shi p a n d desig n ed slip but without p r opelli n g or eve n touchi n g the
,

model ; its thr ust is car efully m easur ed a n d the t or qu e or power n ecessar y ,

t o tu rn it also n oted The te n sio n on the t ow r ope u n d er these n e w co n dition s

.

is also r eco r ded a n d co mpar ed with the p r eli mi n ar y r eco r ds The m o d el is

, .

a lso t r ied in the sa m e way at lowe r speeds so that it has p r og r essive t rials ,

s i mila r t o those the ship will or m a y have B y co m pa r in g the t hru s t with .

the t orqu e at each speed the scr ew s e fli c ien cy is ascer tai n ed a n d c a n be

,
’

plotted on a cur ve ; by doi n g the sam e by the t en s i on of the tow li n e a n d

‘

torqu e the ge n e r al e fficie n cy of the S hip c a n b e co m pa r e d in the sa m e way

, ,

a n d by r e f e r r i n g to the tests w ithout the scr ew the aug m e n t Of r esista n ce

‘

due t o the sc r ew c a n be deter mi n ed I n the case of the ten sio n a n d t h r ust

.
i

t h e S peed in f eet per seco n d or mi n ute is used as a m u lt iple while in that ,

of the to r que 2 qr X r evolutio n s i n the sa m e ti m e is the mul tiplier t o give

the power use fully e m ployed a n d that developed The thr ust m ultiplied .

by the speed is the m easur e Of the scr ew as a pu sher the tow r ope te n sio n
m ultiplied by the sa m e speed is the use ful wo r k do n e a n d the r e f o r e the , , ,

m easu r e of the sc r ew as a p r opeller L e t T be t h e t ow r ope te n sio n T the

.
, ,

scr ew thr ust a n d t the to r que R the r evolutio n s a n d s the speed in f eet
, , ,

f or ti m e u n i t The n
.

Efficie n cy Of sc r ew

Efficie n cy of p r opulsio n
’
For e n gi n ee r s use the r e a r e sever al r ules which m a y be e m ployed with ,

adva n tage a n d which will give the i n dicated ho r se powe r un d e r n o r m al

,
-

co n ditio n s with a f ai r a m ou n t of accu r acy .

( 1 ) Profess or R a n k in e s R u l e m a y be m e n tio n ed although its e mploy me n t

’

is r est rict ed it is as f ollows

 ’
PR O FES S OR R AN K IN E S R ULE . 31

R ule I — Give n the i n te n de d spee d of a S hip in k n ots ; to fin d the least

.

le n gt h Of the a ft er body n ecessa r y in o rde r that the resista n ce m a y n ot

-
,

i n c r ease f aste r tha n the squa r e of the speed : take t hree eighths of the squa r e -

of the sp eed I n k n ots for the le n gth I n f eet T o ful fil the sa m e co n d itio n .
,

the fore body should not b e shorte r than the le n gth of the a fte r body give n
by the p recedi n g r ule a n d may with adva n tage b e on e a n d a hal f ti m es
,

a s lo n g

R u le I I — T O fin d the g r eatest speed I n k n ots s u it ed to a give n le n gth

.

o f a f te r body I n f eet take the squa r e r oot of t w o a n d two thi r d t i m es that

,

len h
n
.

e III .
— Wh e n the speed does
ex ceed the li m it given by R ule I I n ot .
,

to fin d the pr obable r esistan ce in lbs : m easur e the mea n i mmers ed girth .

o f the s hi p on h er b ody pla n multiply it by h er le n gth on the water li n e -

the n mu l ti ply by l 4 ( m ea n squa r e of S i n es of a n gles of obliquity of st r ea m

li n es ) The p r oduct is called the a u gmen ted su rfa ce Then m ultiply the
. .

a ugm e n ted su r f ace m squa r e f eet by the squa r e of the speed I n k n ots a n d ,

by a co n sta n t coefficien t ; the p r oduct will b e the p r obable r esista n ce in

lbs .

Coe fficie n t f or clean pain ted i r o n vessels ,

copper ed vessels , 0 009 t o 0 008

m ode r ately r ough ir o n v essels , 0 0 1 1 a n d upwa r ds .

R ule I I I a — For a n app r o x i mate value Of the r esista n ce in well desig n ed

.
-

steam e r s , wi th lean pain ted botto m s m ultiply the squa r e Of the S pee d
c
-

in k n ots by the s qu a r e of the cube r oot of the dis place m e n t in to n s

'

For .

di ff e r e n t typ es Of stea m e r s the r esista n ce r a n ges fr o m 0 8 to 1 5 Of that

give n by the p r ecedi n g calculatio n .

R ule I V — TO esti m ate the net or efi

. ect i ve h or s e
power e x pe n ded i n pr o
-

pelli n g the vessel m u ltiply the r esista n ce by the speed in k n ots a n d di vide
, ,

by 3 2 6 .

R ule I V a — T O esti mate the gr os s or i n dic a te d h ors e power r equi r ed

.
-
,

d ivide the sa m e p r oduct by 3 26 a n d by the co m bin ed e flici en cy of e n gi n e ‘

,

a n d p r opell e r I n o r di n ar y cases that e fficie n cy is fr o m 0 6 to 0 62 5 ( R a n ki n e ,

R u les a n d Ta bles ) Ma ri n e e n gin es to d ay have a co m bin ed e fli c ie n c y of

.

0 65 to 0 70 a n d so m e eve n hi gher
, .

Al though the m ethod he r e p r oposed has been f ou n d to give m uch m o r e .

accur ate a n d r eliable r esults tha n those Obtai n ed by the older pla n s it is ,

O pe n in p r actice to two ve r y st r o n g O bj ectio n s

'

Fir st it is n ecessa r y to .
,

have a n accur ate pla n of the shi p fr o m w hi ch to m easu r e the di m e n sio n s

"

r equi r ed an d seco n d it is di fficul t in actual p r actice to m easu r e accu r ately

,

the a n gles of obli qui ty Of st r ea m li n es a n d the calc u l atio n r equi r es mo r e ,

ti m e tha n c a n gen er ally b e devoted t o the pur pose Often the ho r se powe r .
-

r equisite to drive a shi p at a ce r tain speed must be calculated at the ti m e

the li n es a r e b ein g got ou t a n d it would b e too late to wait f or a pla n of

,

the ship b e f o r e getti n g so m e idea of the powe r Agai n the si z e a n d fin e n ess .

,

o f a S hip ca nn ot b e fin ally deci d ed upo n u n til the weight of m achi n e r y is

r oughly k n own ; a n d as this wi ll depe n d on the powe r it is n ecessa r y to ,

app r ox i m ate to it on ve r y r ough a n d r ea d y i n f o r m atio n f or which r ough ,

a n d r ea d y r ules a r e m o r e suitable tha n the m o r e r e fin ed o n es He n ce the .

,

r ul es based on i mm e r sed mi d ship sectio n a n d displace m e n t co u ld be c on

32 MAN UA L OF M AR I N E EN G I N EER I N G .

v e n ie n t ly use d to Obtai n that app r o x i m atio n a n d the powe r calculated ,

accu rately fr o m the aug m e n ted surf ace a fte r wa r ds .

D r K irk s An a lysis —A method of a n alysi n g t h e f o r ms of S h ips a n d

’
. .
,

calculati n g the I n dicated H o r se P owe r was devised by the late D r A C -

, . . .

Ki r k of Glasgow a n d m et w ith m uch f avou r on all sides I t is Of te n

, ,
.

used by S hi pbui l d e r s on the Clyd e a n d elsewhe r e f or c om pa rin g t h e r esults

obtai n e d fr o m stea m e r s with those Obtai n e d fr o m ot h er s a n d like wise to ,

j ud ge of the f orm a n d di m e n sio n s O f a p r oposed stea m er f or a cer tai n speed

a n d powe r .

T h e ge n e r al idea p r oposed by h im is to r educe all S hips to S 0 de fin ite

a n d si m ple a f o r m t h at they m a a n d the m agni tude Of
y be easily co m pa r ed
ce rtai n f eatu r es of t hi s f o r m shall deter mi n e the sui tabili ty Of the shi p f or
spee d etc As r ecta n gles a n d t ria n gles a re the sim plest f o rms Of figur e a n d
,
.
,

m o r e easily co m pa r ed tha n sur faces e n closed by cur ves S O the f o rm chose n ,

by h im is bou n d ed by t r ia n gles a n d r ectan gles .

Th e f o r m co n sists of a m iddle body which is a r ecta n gula r pa rallelepiped -

, ,

a n d the f o r e body a n d a f te r body p r is m s havin g isosceles t r ia n gle f or bases

- -

i n ot h e r wo r ds it is a vessel havi n g a r ecta n gula r midshi p se ctio n pa r allel

, ,

mi ddle body a n d wedge S hape d e n d s as show n i n fig 1 0

,
-

, . .

Thi s he called a block model a n d is suc h that its le n gth is equal to that of ,

Fig K irk An a ly s is
’
. 10 .
-
s .

the ship the depth is equal t o the m ea n d r aught of wate r the cap a city equal
, ,

to the d isplace m e n t a n d its a r ea of sectio n equal t o the a r ea of i m m e r sed

,

mi dship sectio n of the S hip The di m ens io n s of the block m odel m a y be

.
-

obtai n ed by the f ollo w i n g methods

S i n ce A G is supposed equal t o H B a n d D F equals E K the t r ia n gl e , ,

A D F equals the t ria n gle E B K a n d they together will equal the r ecta n gle ,

whose base is D F a n d height A G Ther ef o r e the area A D E B K F .

,

equals E K X A H The volu m e of the figu r e is thi s ar ea mu l tiplied by t h e

.

height K L The n the volu m e of the block is equal t o K L X E K X A H

. .

B u t K L X E K is equal to the a r ea of mi d sectio n which is by suppositio n ,

equal to the ar ea Of i mm er sed m idship sectio n Of the S hip a n d the volu m e ,

of the block is equal t o the v o lu m e displaced by the ship He n ce .

,

D isplace m e n t X 35 i m m er sed m idship sectio n X AH ;

AH displace m e n t X 35 i mm e r sed midship sectio n .

H B AB — AH , and AB the le n gth of the ship .

The re fo r e the le n gth of f o r e body of block m odel is equal to the le n gth of t h e

,
-

S hip less the value Of A H as f ou n d above

, .
 A N AL Y S I S 33
'

DR . K IRK S .

Agai n the a r ea ,
of
sectio n K L X E K is equal to the ar ea of i mme r se d
midship sectio n a n d K L is equal to the m ea n d r aught of wate r
,
There for e .
,

EK i mmer sed midship sectio n m ea n d r aught of wate r .

D r Ki r k also f ou n d that the wetted su r face of this block m odel is ve ry

.

n ea r ly equal to that of the s hi p ; a n d as its a r ea is easily calculated fr o m

the model it is a ver y con ve n ie n t a n d si mple way Of Obtai n i n g the wetted

,

ski n .I II actual pr actice the ski n of the m odel is fr o m 2 to 5 per ce n t in

,
.

e x cess of that of the wette d ski n of the S hip f or all pur poses of co m pa r is o n
a n d ge n e r al calculatio n it is Su fficie n t t o take the sur face of the m odel
,
.

The a r ea of b otto m of this m odel EK X A H .

The a rea of sides 2 X FK X K L 2 (A B — 2 H B ) X K L 2

( L e n gth Of ship 2 le n gth of f o r e body ) mea n d r aught of wate r -
.

K L 4 a/L en gt h for e -
body 2
hal f b r e a dth of m odel X m ea n d r aught
2

of wate r .

T he a n gle of e n tr a n ce is EB L ; EB H is hal f that a n gle ; an d the

t a n ge nt E B H EH HB .

Or ta n gen t of hal f the a n gle of e n tr an ce

,
half the b r eadth Of m odel
le n gth Of f or e body -
.

Fr om this by m ea n s of a table of n atur al ta n ge n ts the a n gle Of e n tr a n ce

, ,

m a y b e Obtai n ed .

The block m odel for ocea n g oi n g m e rchan t stea m er s whose S pe ed is fr o m -

,

1 5 k n ots upwa r ds has a n a n gle Of e n tr a n ce fr o m 24 to 1 5 de gr ees a n d a

, ,

le n gth Of f or e body fr o m 0 3 t o 0 3 6 of the len gth

-
.

For that Of oc e a n goi n g stea m e rs whose S peed is fr o m 1 2 t o 1 5 k n ots the

-

, ,

a n gle Of e n tra n ce is fr o m 30 t o 2 4 degr ees a n d f o re body fr o m 0 2 6 to ,

-

R u le — For a n gle of e n t r a n ce of block m odel

An gle in degr ees

L is the le n gth of S hi p in f eet S is the speed in k n ots ,

.

D r Ki r k m eas u r ed the le n gth fr o m the f o r e side of ste m t o the a ft S I de of - -

.

body pos t on the water lin e

-
Thi s is a n un necessa r y r e fin e m e n t whe n scr ew
-
.

stea m e r s alo n e a re bei n g co mpar ed as the n the le n gth m a y be tak en as that ,

”
“
betwee n pe rp e n dicular s However whe n s m all or m oder ate S l z e scr ew
.
,

stea m e r s a re bei n g co m pa r ed with paddle wheel stea m e r s I t m a y b e n eces -

,

sa ry to m easur e i n thi s way .

( 2 ) Th e old Admiral ty ru les a w *

re as f oll o s

I d i cated ho r se power D 3 S 3
C
( )
a n X -
.

a r ea i mm e r sed with sectio S 2

K
'

b
( ) n X .

If D , b e t h e d is pla c e m en t in pou n d s S t h e s p e e d i n f ee t p e r m in u t e R t h e res is t

, , ,

a n c e in f oot pou n d s p e r mi n u te A t h e c on s t a n t t h en
-
, ,

R = D ,?
t

Mu lt iply both sid e s of th is e qu a t ion by S , , th en

R x S , = D ,3

R x S , is t h e w ork d on e in ove rc om in g t h e r e s is t a n c e R , t h r ou gh d ist a n c e S , ,

a

t h e re fore , t h e po w e r re qu ire d t o prope l D , a t a s pee d S , , a n d if B is t h e ific ie n c y

g
a nd is ,
 34 M AN UA L OF MAR I N E E N GI N E ER I N G .

D is the displace m e n t in t o n s , S the speed in k n ots , C a n d K a re coe fficie n ts

‘

d etermi n ed fr o m p r evious p r actice Thei r value varies with the si z e of the .

s hip a n d the S pee d— that is , C a n d K wi ll be less f or a lo n g ship tha n a sho r t

s hip , t h e S peed be i n g the sa m e— a n d if the le n gth is the sa m e, the value will

be gr eate r at the slowe r spe ed tha n at the higher .

The above t w o r ules we r e for m a n y yea r s the o n ly o n es used by S hi p , ,

builder s in det e rmi n in g the n ecessar y power for a given S pee d Thei r .

a r tial acc u r acy depe n ded on the f act that the wetted ski n va r ies ve r y n ea r ly
p
with the dis place m e n t in ships of so m ewhat si mi la r f o r m *
a n d that the ,

pr opo rtio n s Of steam shi ps wer e such that the wetted S ki n va ried n ea rly with
t h e a r ea of i m m e r sed sectio n Thei r use fu ln ess depen de d on the i n f o r matio n
.

in the ha n ds Of the user a n d on his dis c r etio n in c ho osi n g values f or C a n d

,

K These r u l es a re in ex per ien ced ha n d s a goo d chec k on the n ewe r m etho d s

.
, , ,

a n d c a n be use d by the m selves with f ewe r d ata tha n a re r equi r ed whe n r ules

based on wetted S kin etc a re e m ployed Actual values f or C a re give n

, .
, .

in Tables vii viii ix etc on pages 4 1 t o 4 8 deduced fr o m the pe r

.
, ,

f or m a n c es of ships on t r ial t r ips m a d e with ever y ca r e ; but in choosi n g

values discr etio n m ust be e x er cised that the shi p for which a calculatio n
is to be m ade is so m ewhat S i m ilar in fo r m S i z e a n d spee d to the on e whose , , ,

co n stan ts a r e selected The values on T able iv a re m ade t o suit all co n ditio n s

. . .

The value Of C m a y be tak en as app r ox im ately 1 40 X i/L VS 0 .

T able iv gives the m calculate d in thi s way

. .

3
( ) H orse-
power by ca lcu la t ion from wetted sk in .

Thi s is a si mple an d e fficacious m ethod a n d on e givi n g ver y satis facto ry

,

r esults in p r actice . It is based on the assu m ptio n t h at so lo n g as a ship is

N ote —L e t L be t h e
. len gth of ed ge of a c u be j u s t imme rs ed w h os e d ispla c e m e n ,
t

is D a n d w e t t ed s u rfa ce W . T h en

W = 5 x L’ = 5 x '

( i /D p .

Th a t is , W v a r ies a s D .

of t h e m a c h in e ry and p rope ller c o m bin e d , so tha tB X I H P is t h e

. . . e ff ec tive h ors e -

po w e r
e mploy e d i n pr opelli n g, t h e n

(B x D ,3 x s, 3 x A .

§ x A
I H P z D
( , x
m
-

B
. . .

N ow , it is m ore c on ve n ie n t t o e x p r ess t h e di s pla c e m e n t i n t on s a n d t h e S pee d in k n ots ;

s o t h a t if D a n d S be s u b s t it u t e d f or D , a n d
S , , D b e ing e qu a l t o D , 2 2 4 0, a n d S
X
. .

(S , 6 0 80 S, 1 0 1 3 3 , it in volve s t h e in trod u c t ion of oth e r c on s t a n t qu a n t i

ti es , w hic h d o n ot , t h e re fore , a lte r t h e e x pr es sion , s o th a t t h e w h ole of t h ese c on sta n t s
m a y b e re pla c ed by a s i n gle c on st a n t , C, w hic h w ill e x press t h e m T h erefore .

D 3 x s=
I H P. . .
— °

c
D be in g t h e d is plac e m e n t in ton s S t h e s pee d in k n ots a n d C t h e c oe ffic ie n t .

I t w a s a lso s u ppose d t h a t t h e r e s is t a n c e wou ld h ea r a dir e c t re la tion t o t h e a re a O f

se c t ion t r a n s ve r se t o t h e d ir ec t ion of m ot io n , a s t h is w ou ld be t h e mea s u r e of t he
c h a n n e l s w e pt ou t b
y a s hi p ; h e n c e t h e f ollo w in g r u le

K be in g a lso a SO -oa lle d c on s t a n t , bu t r ea lly on ly a c oe ffic ie n t .

 DR. K IR K S A N ALYS I S . 35

n ot over driven — that is the sp ee d doe s n ot ex c eed tha t appr op ri ate to h er

-
,

form— the p ower wi ll va r y as the cube of the s p eed with m achi n e r y whose
e fficie n cy is n ot le ss tha n 0 9 a n d p r opelle r s suitable t o the co n di tio n s both
, ,

a s t o d ia m ete r a n d a r ea of blade surf ace a n all owa n ce of 5 I H P f or eac h . . .

1 00 fe et of wetted S kin at 1 0 k n ots is a f air basis f or calculatio n a n d easily t o ,

be r e m e mbe r ed I t is obtai n ed by supp osi n g that the r esista n ce per squa r e

.

f oot of clea n pai n ted b otto m at that S peed should n ot e x ceed 1 lb Dr . .

Fr oude f oun d with the Alert

,
ha v in g a coppe r ed bottom it was about ,
-
,

1} lbs but a m o d e r n S hip with a s m ooth steel sur face coated with va r n ish
.
,

pain ts will n ot c ause so m uch r esis ta n ce as old copper sheathi n g on a w oode n

s hip The autho r has co m e t o the co n clusio n fr o m a car e ful e x a min ation
.
,

o f the t r ial r esults of a la r ge n u m ber of s hips t hat it is fr eque n tly less tha n ,

1 lh a n d that 1 lb is a f ai r all r ou n d allowa n ce

.
, . The r esis ta n ce the n is -
.
, ,

1 00 lbs f or 1 00 squar e f eet at the velo c i t y per mi n ute of 1 0 1 3 f eet

.
, .

N e t ho r se powe r 1 00 X 1 0 1 3 3 -
3 07 .

T aki n g the n e t ho rs e powe r as 62 p er ce n t of the gr oss the

-
.
,

n ea r ly .

I f the e fficie n cy as is the c ase n owadays with h igh cla s s r ec ip r ocati n g e n gi n e s

,
-

is 70 pe r ce n t the n the
I H P 4 3 86 pe r 1 00 s quar e fe et at 1 0 k n ots
. . . .

T h e sa m e r e m a r ks apply i n thi s case as to the f o r m e r as t o the vari atio n ,

-

i n value assign able due t o the i n flue n ce of le n gth on S peed he n ce a suita bl e

value t o each case m a y b e ca lcul a ted as f ollows
R ate Of I H P per 1 00 f eet wett ed S ki n at 1 0 k n ots
. . . 8 5 i/s f/IT
I f the n the allow a n ce f or 1 0 kn ot basis is Q the n
, ,
-
,

Gr oss I H P . . .
Q f or a S peed Of ‘

S k n ots .

For Ex a m ple Fi n d the I H P r equi r ed to d rive

-
. . . a twi n sc r ew stea m er
-

5 00 f eet l on g at a S peed of 2 3 k n ots whose wetted ski n , is squar e f eet .

Her e as 25 3 2 5 0O 51 0 .

(I )
3
Allowan ce for 2 3 k n ots X 5 1 62 05 .

D
Total I H P 6 2 0 5 X 4 00 . . .

Ex a m ple 2 — H ow m uch I H P will b e n ec essa r y t o p r opel a stea m e r

. . . .

3 00 f e et lo n g at a S peed of 2 1 kn ots the wetted S ki n bei n g square ,

feet a n d the displac em e n t

,
to n s .

—
I n this ca se Q 1 V 300 5 63 .

Allow a n c é for 2 1 k n o t s X 5 63 5 22 .

( )a Total I H P
. . . 5 22 X 1 35
—
i
B y Ad mi r alty m ethods ,
C 1 40 X A/300 1 212 .

D? 156 . S 8

156 X
Total I HP. . .
 G
P R O R ES S V E I TR IAL S . 37

s peci fy a t rial t rip spe ed co n si d e r ably in e x cess of the speed desir ed on se rvice
the hull is as a c on s eque n ce of m uch fin e r f or m with the co rr espo n di n g lack
, , ,

of capacity for ca rr yin g deadweight Mo r eover the power a n d co n sequen t

.
,

weight of m achin e ry is fa r in e x ces s of what is n ecess a r y t o ful fil the r eal

r equi r e me n ts of the se r vi ce .

For e x a m ple s uppose a c r oss cha n n el s t ea m e r is r equi r ed to pe rf o rm

,
-

h er se r vice i n f air aver age weathe r at 2 0 k n ots The ow n er s s peci fy that .

the t rial speed is t o b e 2 2 k n ots their r eal i n te n tio n bei n g t o have a 1 0 per
,

ce n t m a r gi n
. .

N ow as a co n c r e t e e x a mple sup pose she is 35 0 f eet lon g x 4 0 f eet bea m x

, ,

1 2 f eet d r aught wate r havin g a displace m e n t of , to n s the f ollowi n g ,

table of co mpa riso n of h er with what S h e m ight have bee n had a 2 0 per ce n t .

m a r gi n of powe r bee n p r ovided f or co n ti n gen cies I t will b e seen that the .

latte r ship has 1 00 to n s gr eater displace m e n t a n d h er m achi n e r y with , ,

the 20 p er ce n t e x ce ss powe r is 1 2 0 to n s li ghter a n d the cost will b e about

.
, ,

less .

Le n gt h , 3500
B ea m ,
Mea n d ra f t wa te r,
P ris m a tic c oe fficien t,
D is pl a c e men t,
Ar ea imm e rs ed mid s ec t ion ,
Ma xi mu m
I H P f or 2 0 k n ots ,
. . .

Ma x imu m spee d — Ma x im u m
We igh t of m a chi n ery ,
D ifieren c e in c a r go c a pac ity ,
I n cr e a se d c on su m ption of c oa l pe r 1 00
‘

I t w illbe observed in ex ami ni n g the schedules that whe r eas the m er cha n t ,

S hips a re ge n e r ally so m ewhat over dr ive n on tr ial f or their f o r m s the n aval

-

,
'

shi ps a re o ften fin er than dem an ded by the lege nd or even actual speed ,

c o n seque ntly they will attai n t h eir le gen d f ull S peed un der so m ewhat u n
°

f avour able cir cums ta n ces .

The hi gh s peed of torpedo boats a n d destr oyer s depe n ds al most wholly on

their lightn ess of both hu l l a n d m achin er y whi ch e n ables the m t o do with s o ,

s m all a dis placeme n t that they liter ally ski m the water a n d the r es ista n ce ,

per squar e f oot of wetted skin is co n seque n tly co m pa r atively s m all U n less .

s m all b oats a r e m ade t o float at a ve r y light d r aught they ca nn ot be d rive n

at hi gh speeds a n d all e x pe rim e n ts wi th f ast r iver steam er s on the Clyde

,

a n d elsewhe r e have show n the decided adva n tage of light d r aught The .

e ff ect on such shi ps of the depth of water in whi ch they m ove is also c on s id
c r able a n d ve r y i n te r esti n g data have bee n give n al r eady showi n g this
,
.

Progress ive Tria ls I n m ode rn s hi p t rials i n f orm atio n is usually sought

.
-

both as to the p owe r r equir ed for the hi ghest sp eeds a n d ( what is equa lly
i mpor ta n t ) f or lowe r speeds as such k n owledge gives the m ea n s of gaugi n g
,
 38 M AN U AL or M A R I N E E N GI N EER I N G .

the e fficie n cy of s hi p a n d e n gi n es j oi n tly a n d sepa r ately a n d is use fu l in , ,

ship desig ni n g .

The syste m of e x a mi n atio n is as f ollows —Let PI P2 P3 be the power

developed in obtai n i n g the speeds S I 8 2 $ 3
i n k n ots with R I R 2 R 3 r evolutio n s
pe r m i n ute Take a li n e A N as a base lin e ( fig 1 1 ) on it take poin ts B C
. .
, ,

an d D so that A B A C A D a re p r oportio n al to S I S 2 8 3 ; at the poi n t s

, , , ,

B C D e r ect or di n ates B b C c D d so that they a r e p r oportio n al to PI

, , , , , ,

P 2 P3 Through the poi n ts 6 c d d r aw a cur ve whi ch is called the cu rve

.
, , ,

of power or cu r ve of I H P
, a n d it is such that if a n o rdi n ate b e d r aw n thr ough
. .
,

a n y othe r p oi n t X on the li n e A N
, the part X a; i n te rcepted will m easure
, ,

the powe r co rr espon di n g to the speed measu r ed by A X I f the cur ve is .

accur ately d raw n it will b e f ou n d that it does n ot pass thr ough the poi n t
,

A; but above A at a dista n ce A a thi s w orfl d sign i f y that whe n the e n gi n e

,

wa s i n dicati n g the power measur ed by A a the shi p w ou ld n ot mov e a n d s o ,

A a is the a m oun t power r equir ed t o overco me the r esistan ce of t h e

of

machi n er y an d p r opelle r at start i n g or r ather whe n n ot p r opellin g the ship , , ,

a n d he n ce A a is said t o r ep r ese n t the i n i t i a l fr ic t i on of the m ac hi n e ry .

Cu rve of R evol u tion s — A cu r ve of r evolutio n s is co n st r ucted in a si m ilar

.

way by taki n g p oi n ts r1 r 2 r3 on the or di n ates so that B r l Cr2 D r3 a r e

, , , ,

p r opor tio n al to R I R 2 R 3 Whe n the slip is con s tan t the cu r ve of r evolutio n s

.

beco m es a s tra ight li n e .

Cu rve of S l ip — The sli p ma y be show n by a curve whose o r din ates a r e

.

‘
p r opo rtio n al t o the per ce n tage of slip at the speeds S I S 2 S 3 fig .

Examin a t ion of Cu rves will show what i n dicated hor se powe r r evo -

lutio n s a n d S lip co r r espo n d t o a n y speed in te rm ediate to those obse r ved ;

2 the e fficie cy f the e n gi n e at its lowes t os s i ble s peed a n d f r o m it a n
( ) n o p
id ea m a y be f o r m ed of its ge n e r al e fficie n cy a n d a oom pa ris on ma de with
‘

, l

other e n gi n e s ; ( 3 ) t h e efficie n cy of the shi p a s tested by the r ate of i n c r eas e ,

 S E A P E R FOR M A N CE OF S TE M ER S A . 39

of powe r for S peed which is see n by the f o rm Of the cu rve towa rds the higher
,

spee d s— ii it begi n s to mou n t upwa rds sudde n ly it is ce rtai n that the r esist
a n ce has the r e be gu n to i n c r ease ab n o rmally ; ( 4 ) that if the c u r ve is on e ,

fai r ly followi n g the law of r esista n ce i n c r easi n g as the squa r e of the speed ,

a n esti m ate m a y be m ade fr o m it O f the powe r r equisite to d r ive a si mila r

ship at speeds highe r tha n the highest Obser ved cu r ves or lowe r tha n t he ,

lowest ; ( 5 ) a n y sudde n r ise in the slip alo n e i n dicates the pr opelle r t o be

d e fective in eithe r dia mete r or su rf ace or both , .

An other m ethod Of e x pr essi n g the r esults of p r og ressive t rials is by

setti n g ou t A B A C A D p r o po rtio n al t o 8 1 3 8 2 3 S 33 a n d e r ecti n g or di n ates
, , , ,

et c . as be f or e I f the i n dicated hor se powe r th r oughout va r ies as the cub e

,
.
-
°

o f the speed the powe r cu r ve or li n e d raw n thr ough the poi n ts b c d

, , , , ,

will b e a str aight lin e a n d if the power in c reases at a highe r r ate than the
c u be Of the speed at a n y poi n t the li n e will agai n assu m e the cur ved f o rm
, .

The a d va n tages Of t hi s plan over the on e be fo r e desc r ibed lie in the fact
that a str aight li n e is m or e easily d r awn than a n y cu r ve that a n y deviatio n ,

f r o m a st r aight l in e is m or e eas ily dete cte d than that of on e cu r ve fr o m

a n othe r a n d that the p r oductio n Of a str aight li n e is less liable t o e rro r
,

tha n a cu r ve s o that the i n ter ceptio n of Aa is less Open t o e rr o r tha n by

,

the p r evious m ethod Of cour se the cu r ves of slip a n d r evolutio n s can n ot

.
,

b e e x a mi n e d so well by thi s latter m ethod as by the f o rme r a n d it is o n ly ,

the powe r cur ve that shou l d be a n alysed in this way .

”
The values of the di ff e r en t co n stan ts r ates etc f or ships f ou n d fr o m , , .
,

calculatio n s m ade fro m the r esults Of car e fully co n ducted tr ial t rips a re ,

m o r e r eliable tha n those got by taki n g ave r age s whe n e mployed in calcula
tio n s f or p r oposed shi ps Tables vii t o x iii give the values of co n sta n ts e t c
. . .
, .
,

as obtai n e d fr o m the pe rforman ces of so m e well k n o wn ships of va ri ou s -

types a n d si z es .

S ea Performan ce of S t ea mers — That the e n gi n es ma y wo r k eco n o m ical ly

“

b oth i n c on s u m m
,

ion Of coal a n d stor es as well as in wea r a n d tea r it is , ,

advisable t o ru n the m at such a s peed that they develop about 80 t o 90 pe r

ce n t of the m ax i mu m power S tea mship ow n er s do n ot alway s ca r e to
. .

pay f or 20 per ce n t m o r e power t han is r equ i site t o d rive thei r shi ps at t h e

.

speed i n te n d e d but the r e c a n b e little doubt that it is t rue eco n o m y in the

,

e n d to do so For sho r t voyages the r e is n ot the n ecessity f or this r ese r v e

.

o f powe r a n d ve r y f ast stea m e r s coul d n ot a ff o r d to ca rr y the weight e n tailed

,

by such a n e x cess Of powe r beyo n d the actual r equi r e m e n ts ; but o r di n a ry

sea goi n g stea m e r s m aki n g lo n g r un s c an as a ru le easily do this without
-
, ,

m uch sac r i fice a n d the wisdo m Of such a cour se would be show n by the
,
’
sa v in g in work in g e x pen ses at the yea r s en d .

Although as a ru le t r ial t rips a re m ade ho n estly a n d what the e n gi n e

, , ,

has do n e on the day Of t rial it c a n easily b e m ade t o do agai n still with the , ,

li mited staff available f or con tin u ou s ser vice whe n the shi p is at sea the r e ,

ca n n ot b e that atte n tio n devoted t o the wo r ki n g par ts which was bestowed

by the sta ff of the m an u f actur e r a n d the a pplicatio n of wate r to the bear
i n gs a n d b r asses t o pr even t heati n g whi ch is Ofte n dee m ed absolutely n ece s ,

sa r y by sea goi n g e n gin ee r s whe n the e n gi n e is r un n i n g at f u ll speed can n ot

-
.
,

but a fl ec t those pa rts p r ej udicially a n d is a poo r substitute for a n atte n da n t

,
.

U n less the n the e n gi n e is ru n at a powe r so m ewhat below that Of the t r ial

, ,

t rip eithe r a l ar ger sta ff Of e n gi n ee r s a n d atte n da n ts must be e m ployed or

, ,
 40 MA N UA L or M AR IN E EN G I N E ER I N G .

the wear a n d tear ma y be a pp reciable I t is t rue on the othe r ha n d that

.
, ,

so m e e n gi n es wi ll develop m o r e powe r a fter a voyage or t w o tha n was Obtai n e d

thei r t rial trip due to the polishin g Of the r ough su r faces Of the gui d es
'

ou ,

a n d cyli n de r walls a n d to the ge n e r al

,
s m oothi n g Of all the r ubbin g s u r
fa ces but it is also t r ue that eve n such e n gi n es sh ou l d n ot be r u n f or le n gth
e n ed periods at thei r m a x i mu m power The i mp r ove m e n ts in d esig n a n d
.

the e m ploy m e n t Of b etter m at er ials for gu i des a n d bear i n gs howeve r a d m it , ,

Of m o d e r n e n gin es bei n g wor ked at hi gh sp ee ds with less r is k tha n was

the case f o rm er ly The bet te r balan cin g Of the en gin e with t hr ee c r a n ks

.
,

a n d the al m ost pe r f ect bala n ci n g Of the f ou r c r a n k e n gi n e togethe r with

-
,

the e x te n d ed u s e Of super ior w hi te m etal in gu i des a n d bear i n gs m etallic ,

packi n g in the p r i n cipal stu ffin g b ox es have permi tted of a hi gh r ate of

,

r evolutio n with less r isk tha n O btain ed f o r m e r ly with the slow r u n n i n g -

m e r ca n tile e n gi n e but n otwithsta n d i n g all thi s a r eser ve of power f or bad

, ,

weathe r a n d e m e r gen cies is in ever y S h ip highly desir able .

S uch r e m a r ks a r e however sca r cely app licable to the tu rbi n e i n as m uch

, , ,

as it is case d in a n d ever y p r ovisio n m ade f or hi gh r evolutio n s Mo r eove r

, .
,

it is at hi gh speeds that it is m ost econ o mi cal a n d in the mer can tile m ar i n e

,

is fitted to e x p r ess stea m er s whose ser vice d em an ds f ull power Mo r eover .

,

it is clai m ed as on e Of the adv a n tages Of thi s f o rm Of m oto r that i n s pite ,

Of high r evolutio n a s m aller e n gi n e r oo m sta ff c a n b e e m ployed

,
-
.
RE LAT I ON OF P OW ER S AN D S P EED S . 41

m
w
a3
s2
3
0
£E
m
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c
fi
m
o e
S
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”
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$9
5 2
0
m
B 8
a
n 8
S d
O s
5
42 M AN UAL OF M AR N E E N I G I N EER I N G .

a
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.

8
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9 d Q
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R ES U LTS OF T R I AL S OF S T E A MS H I P S . 43

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8 fi5 2 fii
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v
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R ES ULTS OF T R I A LS OF S T E M S A H I PS . 45

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46 MA N UA L OF M AR IN E EN GI N EE R I N G .
R ES U LT S L
OF T R I A S OF T URBIN E S CR EW S T E M S A H I PS . 47

m
,

d t P n
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e f
k
s
i
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p h
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48 MAN UA L A
OF M R I N E EN GI N EER I N G .
 R EL A T I ON O F P OW ER S AN D D I S P LA CEMEN TS . 49

T AB L E X I V .
— R E LAT I O N or P O W ER S AN D D I S P LA CE M EN T S .
‘

N O . 2 . N o
. 8 . N O . 4 . No 5 . .

Le n gt h in f e e t ,
B r e a d t h in f e e t,
M ea n d ra u g h t i n fee t ,
D is pla ce m e n t i n ton s ,
I H P f or 20 k n ots ,
. . .

I H P p er t on Of d is pla c e
. . .

me n t ,

Th e f ollo w i n g h o r se pow e r s w e r e r equi r e d t o d r iv e

-
cr uise rs N OS . 4 an d
5 in t h e above tabl e at t h e sp e e ds n a m e d

N o. 4 . N o . 5 .

T h e fr iction al r e s i s tan ce l an pai n t e d s u r fa ce s va r ies about a s t h e

of c e

powe r of t h e s pee d, b u t r e si s ta n ce d u e t o w a v e m aki n g m a

y v a ry ve r y
”
w i d ely , si n ce it i s d ep e n d e n t on f o r m Th e t otal r e s ista n ce of D estr oye rs
.

has be e n fou n d t o va r y as f ollows

U p t o 1 1 k n ots ,
n ea r l
y as S pe e d
3

At 16 s pe e d
3
3"
1 8 20
-
sp e e d
22 spe e d
2
25 s p e ed
25 30 tica lly a s s p ee d
“33
pr a c
-

an d the r esi s ta n c e s othe r th a n f r icti o n al v a r y as f ol low s

U p t o 1 1 k n ots ,
as sp e e d
2

At 1 2 3. t o 1 3 k n ot s , s pe e d
3

1 4 4} k n o ts ,
s pe e d
4

18 s pe e d ( more th an 5 th power )
2
24 s pe e d

an d at hi gh e r spee d s as st ill low e r po w e r s Of the s peeds .

The r elatio n of t h e f r ictio n al to t he total r esistan ce is

Cru i s e r .

8 0 pe r cen t . 90 p e r ce n t .

70
n ea r ly 80
o erv 70

I f the c o e fficie n t of fri ctio n be doubl ed ( as it m i g h t easily be wit h a foul

botto m ) , t h e m a x i m u m spe ed of t h e D e s t r oye r w oul d fa ll full y 5 k n ots , fl

a n d t h at of the c r ui s e r woul d be r edu c ed t o 1 9 k n ots S e e Tables V I I to x i v . . .

S ir °
W m Wh it e
.
, B r i t is h As s oc ia t ion Ad dr ess , 18 99 .
 50 M A N U A L or M AR I N E EN G I N I G
EE R N .

Progressive Tria ls should be made with all ships whe n at the m easur ed
mi le a n d it s h ould be r e m e m ber e d that f or p r actical pu r poses it is mo r e
,

i m por ta n t to k n ow the power , r evolutio n s slip

, of p r opeller etc
, .
,
at speeds
g

less tha n t h e m a x i m u m th a n those at the utm ost spee d ; it is especially

i mpo rt a n t that the ship s h all b e t rie d at as low a S peed as possible co n siste n t
 EFFECT OF D EP T H OF W A TE R . bl

M A P LI N 7 4 FA T H O M S
S K E L M OR LI E 4 0

Fig . 13 .
— E fiec t of D ep h t of Wa ter on P e rf orm an c e .

S pe ed Tr ia ls Of H M Torp e d o-b oa t D e s t r oy er
. . Coss ac k at M a p li n an d S k e lmorli e .

270
'
x ze
'
x dr a u g h t . D is p la ce me n t , 836 t on s . S H. P.
.
 E FFECT OF D E PT H OF W A T ER . 53

EH P
. . .

by i n sc ribi n g the values of as o r di n ates f or it Fig 1 2 is such a

I H P
. .

. . .

d iag r a m , as it is hi ghly desi r able to have f or all i m porta n t ships S howin g , as ,

it d oes , clear ly the pe r fo r m a n ce of the L usita n i a on t h e m easur ed m ile .

B ei n g a tu r bi n e d r ive n S hip , the powe r is p r actically B r ake Ho r se P owe r ,

- -

bei n g that obtai n ed by Obser vin g the tor que on the p r opelle r S ha fti n g I t .

is usual to S peak of this as S ha ft Ho r se P owe r -

.

T e Effe ct of D ept h of Wa te r on the speed of stea m ships is so m ewhat

h
e r r ati c
,
as ma y be see n by car e fully e x a m i n i n g the cu r ves Of per fo r m an ce
O f seve r al ships a n d m odels at t r ials m ade f r o m ti m e t o ti m e f or t hi s pu rp ose .

S ir Phi li p Watts e x hibited those of H M S

”
Cossack , Obta in ed as the . . .

Fig l 5 — Cu
. r ve of Eff e c t i ve H or s e p ow er a n d S pe e d w it h V a riou
- s D e pth s of Wa t e r .

H
M od e l Ex p eri men t s b y a rold a r row , I N A Y . . .

r e s u lts of h er t r ials at the Ma plin S an ds wher e the wat er is co mpar atively ,

s hallow ( 7 4 f°
atho m s ) a n d those ca rr
,
ied ou t at S kel m o r lie whe r e the wat er ,

is d ee p— v iz 4 0 f atho m s — a n d the i n flue n ce of the b otto m o n ly f elt by

.
,

the la r gest ships at high sp ee d s I t wi ll be see n that at what m a y be calle d

. ,

the c r i t ical spee d s of this ship the r e we r e cha n ges of t ri m corr espo n di n g
,

to the cha n ges in r evolutio n a n d to r que at about 1 8 k n ots ; these we r e

o f a viole n t n atu r e at about 2 0 k n ots while at 2 65 k n ots t hi n gs b eca m e
,

n o r m al agai n ; at S peeds above thi s the powe r r equi r ed was actually less
in the shall ow wate r tha n in the deep fig .

Figs 1 4 a n d 1 5 a re equally i n te r esti n g as bei n g the r esults of special

. ,
54 MAN U AL OF M AR I N E EN G I N EER I N G .

S L V 0 9 O3 2 l $ J O U 3 M 0 4 3 5 8 0 “B A H
'

.
 E FFECT O F D EPT H OF WA T E R . 55

t rials m ade by Mr H ar ol d Yarr ow for the sa m e pur pose Of fin di n g the e fle ct

'

of d epth of wate r on f ast ships Fig 1 4 sho ws t h e cu r ves o f co m pa riso n

. .

betwee n the m o d el e x pe ri m e n ts a n d t h ose m a d e wit h t h e actual ship The .

S hi p he r sel f acte d in m uch t h e sa m e way as did t h e Cossack in 7 4 fathoms

h er c r itical poi n t was 1 8 k n ots bu t beca m e n o r m al at about 2 3 k n ots
, .

The N o rth Ge rm a n L loyd Co m pa n y of B re m en had a n i n teresti n g

, ,

series of e x peri m en ts m ade by H e rr POpper a n d fig 1 6 shows the r esul t s

,

of two sets of the m ,each bei n g made with the b oat a n d h e r m odel ; the
e fie c t s i n bot h cases a r e eve n m o r e st r iki n g tha n the f o r m e r o n es in as much ,

as the cha n ges a r e m or e em phatic a n d p r o n ou n ced .

The full accou n ts of all these t r ials a r e give n in the Tra n sact ion s of the
I n s t i tu t ion of N a c a l Archi t ect s a n d m a y be stu d ie d the r e with adva n tage
, .

D r D W T a y lor s f ormu la for asce rtain i n g the least depth of wate r in

’
. . .

which a Sh ip shoul d u n d e r go h er speed trials for a satis factory perform an c e

10 X d X s
is as f ollows —
Min i mum depth of wate r in f atho m s , wher e
l
d is the dr aught of water Of t h e ship l its len gth between pe rpen dicu l ars
, ,

a n d s the spee d in k n ots .

Ex a mp le — The m i n i m u m d epth of wate r for the t rials of a cr uise r whos e

dr a u ght is 2 6 f eet the le n gth 5 00 f eet a n d the S peed 2 5 k n ots
, ,
.

1 0 x 2 6 >< 2 5
1 3 f at h om s .

5 00
56 M AN UAL OF M AR I N E EN GI N EER N I G .

CHAP T ER III .

MAR I N E E N G I N E s : T HE I R T YP E S AN D V A R IA TI ON S OF D E S IG N .

TH E m a ri n e e n gi n eer whe n deali n g with desig n a n d co n st r uctio n , is faced

,

with , a n d has to solve p r oblems m uch m or e co m plex a n d i n volve d tha n

,

those co rr espo n d i n g o n es f a miliar t o build er s Of la n d en gi n es Mo r eove r .

,

he is ha m per ed by ci r cu mstan ces a n d li mi tatio n s qui te u n k n ow n to the latte r .

The space occupied by , a n d the weight Of the m ach i n e r y Of the S hi p ,

is li mite d at a ll ti m es in the case of the car go ship each t on of weight m ea n s

a t on less car go on which f reight is payable , a n d in tha t Of the ex p r ess stea m e r
a n d wa r shi p whe r e the powe r is la r ge r i n p r opo r tio n to the si z e of the S hi p ,

both weight a n d space a r e of gr eat co n sequen ce a n d gen er ally quite e x t r e m ely

,

li mited The desi gn , ther e for e , m us t b e such t o a llow Of i n clusio n in the

.

m achi n e r y space allotte d whi le leavin g su fficie n t r oo m to p ermi t of accessi

,

bili t y to all par ts as r eq u i r ed f or wor ki n g a n d over hauli n g ; the weight 1 3

as str ictly li m ite d to that shar e of the di splace m e n t p r ovided by t h e n aval
a r chi tect in hi s d esign I n bygo n e year s m o r e than on e good shi p f ailed
.

to co mply with the co n ditio n s p r escr ibe d for h er by h er design er s fr o m a

mi scalculatio n Of the weight Of m achi n er y , or the ad d i n g to it by the e n g in e
builde r s without r egar d to the co ns eque n ces To the f ast paddle stea m e r it
.

was f atal f or , in addi tio n to the e x tr a di splace m en t a n d wetted skin the r e

, ,

was a n i n cr eased i mm er sio n of float whi ch r educed the efficien cy of t h e

,

p r opell er i mm en sely The lar ge e n gin es f oun d in ce n tra l electr ic light a n d

.

powe r statio n s on sho r e a re secur ed on m assive co n cr ete f ou n datio n s w hi ch

n eve r m ove whe r eas those on b oa r d S hi p , whil e bei n g st r o n g a re n ot m assive ,
, ,

a n d m a y a n d do m ove about in a way m ost t r yi n g to the m a n d thei r b e d

plates N ot o n ly d oes the e n gi n e m ove f o r war d with the ship in the li ne

.

O f the cou r se she pur sues , but it is liable to i n e rtia st r esses due to the a cc e ler

atio n a n d r etar datio n O f the velocity of the S h ip fr o m var ious causes , a n d

whe n pitchi n g a n d r olli n g the a n gu l ar m otio n is Often co n side rable , so that
the i n e r tia str esses thus set up a r e eve n m o r e ser ious I t has n ot Oft e n .

happen e d that a m ar i n e e n gi n e was to rn awa y fr o m its bed , but all of t h e m

a r e liable to such a n accide n t if a m ple p r ovi sio n is n ot m ade f or such a

co n tin gen cy .

I n wa r shi ps ver y special p r ovisi on was f o r m erly always m ade f or the

S hocks that woul d be set u p whe n r a mm i n g the e n e m y ; t h is howeve r is , ,

a n autical m an oe uv r e n o lo n ge r co n te m plated by n aval co mm a n de r s as ,

it was apt to b e m o r e f atal to the r a m m er tha n the r a mm ed so that for this ,

a n d othe r r easo n s r a m mi n g is n o lo n ge r spoke n O f I t r e m ai n s howeve r .

, ,

as a co n ti n ge n cy co mm o n to all shi ps f or both n aval a n d m e r ca n t ile S hips

,

a re liable to r u n on a r ock or othe r m assive O bst r uctio n a n d eve n to ra m ,

a n othe r ship acci d e n tally I t is n ot desi rable that t h e displace m e n t of the

.

e n gi n es shall follow such a catastr ophe .

 V A R I OU S T Y P ES AN D D ES IG N S O F E N GI N ES . 57

The m a r i n e e n gi n ee r has also to p r oduce a n e n gi n e th at m a y b e d epe n de d

o n t o keep r u n n i n g without a stoppage f or a n i n de fin itely lo n g ti m e and ,

at a un i f o r m speed as it is hi ghly desi r able that the r e shoul d be n o slowi n g

,

d o wn Of the e n gi n e e x cept whe n so desi r e d by those n avigati n g the ship .

S lowi n g down or stoppi n g the e n gi n es at a c r itical m o m e n t m ight m ea n

the loss Of the ship ; in the case of a n aval ship it might m ea n h er captu r e , ,

or eve n the loss O f a battle which would decide the f ate of a ki n gdo m
, It .

is the r e f o r e of the ver y fir st a n d highest i mportan ce that the m ar in e e n gi n e

, ,

S hall be f r ee fr o m eve r y e x t r a n eous fitti n g w hich mi ht cause te m po r a ry

g
de r a n ge me n t a n d itsel f sho u l d be so car e fully design ed m an u factu red
, , ,

fitted a n d ca r ed f or as to p r eclude the possibility Of co m pulso r y stoppages

, .

Fu rthe r in both n aval a n d m e r ca n tile ships the whole of the m achi n e ry

, ,

m ust b e p r actically n oiseless whe n in m otio n a n d the en gi n es fr ee f r o m ,

vib r atio n whi ch would spoil the gun n e r y Of the on e a n d the co m f o r t of the
,

passen ge r s in the othe r ; eve n the au x ilia r y m achi n er y m ust co m ply with
these co n d itio n s of absen ce O f n oise a n d vib r atio n Fi n ally si n ce the r e is .
,

a li mitatio n to the weight of fuel which c a n be carr ied a n d it is desi r able ,

that it shall last over as lo n g a voyage as possible it is n ecessar y on that ,

gr o u n d as well a s f or the sake of eco n o m y in cost that the co n su mptio n

'

, ,

O f it b e as low as possible co n siste n t with a satis f acto r y co m plian ce with the

co n ditio n s al r eady i n sisted on as esse n tial .

The m ari n e e n gin eer e n j oys on e adva n tage over his b r other on sho re ;
he has a n u n li mited a n d cheap supply of cold water wher eby he ma y c on ,

de n se as m uch stea m as he desi r es a n d wor k with as hi gh a vacuu m as his ,

appa r atus ca n p r oduce a n d m ai n tai n An d if it b e a n adva n tage a n d n o .

,

doubt it is in m a n y ways hi s e n gi n e va r ies i n velocity as its load va r ies

, ,

i n stead Of r u n n i n g at co n stan t velocity whateve r be the load .

V ari ou s T y pes a n d D esigns of Eng in e of which i n t h e ea r ly days of stea m

shi ps ther e was a ver y lar ge var iety e m ployed a n d although so m e of the m
,

wer e develop m en ts Of those co mm o n a n d succes s fu l for lan d se rvice the ,

gr eate r n um ber wer e evolved t o satisfy the co n ditio n s i m posed on the e n gin ee r s
of the day m a n y of the m showi n g co n side r able o r igi n ality i n f o r m as well
,

as ability in desig n so m e of the m display f eatu res which in di cate that thei r
o rigi n ato r s possessed a tech n ical k n owledge for which they have n ot bee n ,

always acco r d ed c r edit On the other han d n ot a f e w had i n he r e n t d e fects

.
, ,

whi ch while n ot bei n g appar e n t in the m odel state or in e n gi n es of s m all

,

powe r we r e ve r y evide n t in the la r ge r e n gi n es a n d soo n caused thei r ea r ly

, ,

di s mi ssal to the scr ap he ap ; such de f ects wer e gen er ally due t o a wa n t of

te ch n ical k n owledge or t o the misapplicatio n s of the e m pi r ic f o r mul ae Of
,

the day whi ch we r e the r ough a n d r eady pilots Of these ea r lie r ti m es

,
.

The e n gin eer of t o day is n ot r equ ir ed to waste ti m e a n d e n e r gy in di ff er

-

e n t ia t in g the clai m s O f m a n y types be f o r e co m i n g t o a co n clusio n as to what

wi ll sui t the ci r cu m sta n ces of his pa r ticula r case f or ti m e a n d e x pe r ie n ce ,

have decided m uch of this f or h im a n d s o n ow for a padd le stea m e r it is ,

al m ost the uni ve r sal ru l e to choose the di r ect acti n g co m pou n d e n gi n e eithe r -
,

ho r i z o n tal or n ear ly s o a n d f or the scr ew the i n ver te d f o rm Of the sa m e

,
.

He m a y howeve r have t o debate with hi m sel f or his adviso r s w h ether his

, ,
‘

is a case f or tu rbines pu r e a n d S i m ple or for r ecip r ocato r s ; he m a y also

co mp r o mi se the matte r by havi n g r ecip r ocato r s at the boile r e n d Of t h e
i n st allatio n with low p r essur e tu r bi n es at the co n d e n se r e n d as is the case
,
-
,
58 MAN UA L OF M AR I N E EN GI N E ER I N G .
V A R IOU S T Y P ES AN D D ES IG N S O F EN GI N E .
59
 A
P DD L E W H E E LS
-
.

On t h e othe r ha n d it has the d e fects of all ho r i zo n tal e n gi n es suc h as

, ,

heavy pisto n s r u nn i n g on the cyli n d e r li n er s or bo dies eithe r u n s u ppo rted or

i n adequately s o whe r eby they a re wo rn ba u e l shape I n cou r se of ti me ; the r e
,

is also t he fr ictio n due t o this which r eta rds the m ove m en t Fu rthe r t h e .
,

mo m e n tu m of the pisto n s a n d r ods I n c on n ectio n the r ewith cause s a pu lsa

t io n f or e a n d a ft ways in t h e shi p whic h in li ght river c r a f t i s sometimes
-
,

Fig . 1 9 — D ia gon a l Com pou

. nd P a dd le En gin es ( J B rown
. Co .
, Cly d e ba n k ) .

by n o m ea n s ag r eeable to the passe n ge r s ; this is especially t h e case i n so m e

O f the olde r r ive r stea m e r s havi n g o n ly on e cyli n d e r the m o r e m o d e r n stea m e r s
,

havi n g th r ee cylin d e r s ( fig 2 2 ) a r e p r actically f r ee fr o m this d e fect a n d I n

.
,

those w ith two c r a n ks at r i ght a n gles it is n ot so se r ious but it is yet Observ

,

able whe r eas with vert ical cyli n de r s it was abse n t altho u gh they had a
, ,
62 M A N U A L OF M A R I N E E N G I N EER I N G .

vibr ation of
thei r ow n a n d the steeple e n gi n es h a d the Obj ectio n able puls a
,

tio n al so .B u t as a r ule t h e paddle stea m e r i n Old days was a m o r e c om

, ,

f ort a ble on e in w hi ch to sleep t h a n we r e the sc r ews .

Of the in cli n ed types the r e m a y be on e or m o r e cyli n d e r s S ide by side

, ,

a s show n i n fi 1 9 ; or whe n the S hi p is n a rr ow a n d fr o m this or othe r cause

g .
, ,

a li mitatio n i n athwa r tships space t h e desig n Of fi

g 2 0 is a good on e a n d
, .
,

Fig . 2 0 — D ia gon al Co mpou

. n d P a d dle En gin es .

w o r ks qui te satis f acto r ily This latte r pe r m its of m or e d ec k r oom ami d

'

ships a n d space available for passen ge r s etc a n d ge n e r ally gi ves a cl ea r

, ,
.
,

d eck f o r e a n d a ft in eve n s m all ships .

The f o r e a n d a ft S pace take n up by the d iago n al e n gi n e is of co u r se ve ry

c o n side r able a n d f o r m er ly i n so m e classes Of ships would be O f g r eat di s a d
,

van tage but in m odern paddle stea m er s thi s is of n o co n seque n ce a n d I s

,
-

,
 P A D D LE -
WH E EL S .

mor e tha n co mpe n sated for by the ad va n tages in other ways n ot the leas t
,

O f w h ich is t h e ease with which a pad d le wheel o f s m all dia m ete r c a n be

-

adop t ed whe r eb y hi gh r evolutio n s a r e r e n der ed p ossible This together

, .
,

with the lo n g str oke of pisto n which c a n be permitted with it allows Of a

,

very high r ate of pisto n S peed a m ou n tin g i n som e lar ge stea m er s to as m uch
,

as 75 0 f eet per m i n ute with a low p r essur e pisto n 108 i n ches dia m eter the
-
,
64 MAN U AL OF M A R I N E E N G I N EER I N G .
 BE AM EN GI N ES . 65

r evolutio n s in thi s case bei n g 5 2 this a n d other e x a mples of these e n gi n es

:m a y be stu di ed on Table x iii .

On the Am er ica n r ive r s the ste rn wheel ste a m e r s of shall ow d r aught have
-

the ho ri z o n tal e n gi n e in ge n e r al use ; a r e m ar kable ex a m ple Of it is f ou n d in

“ ”
.t h e tugbo a t S p rague, Of t on s displace m e n t ; h e r t w o e n gi n es have
c ylin de r s 2 8 i n ches a n d 63 i n c hes di a m ete r a n d a st r oke of pisto n of 1 2 f eet
,

d r ivi n g a wheel 4 0 f eet diam ete r a n d 4 0 feet lo n g At 1 6 revolutio n s the

.

I H P is about
. . .

B eam En gines by t h en fa mily like n ess t o those on shor e S how the i r

, ,

d escen t fr o m th em ; a n d the s ur vi val Of type lo cally is illu st rated in thei r

Fig 2 3 — Ame ric a n St ea m e r B ea m En gin e

. . .

c ase as it is in that of the di rect actin g var iety The seco n d p r acticable
-
.

”
s t e a m boat con s t ru cted was Fulto n s P S Cla r e m o n t b u i lt by him in 1 80 7
’
. .
,

a n d u s e d f or s e r vi ce on the R iver H udso n she was fitted with a n o rdi n ar y

o ve rhead b ea m e n gin e supplied by Boulton Watt fr o m thei r S oho Fou n dr y
,

a t B irmi n gha m En gla n d

.

,
Pr obably as a co n seque n ce this type of ove r
.
, ,

head bea m e n gi n e soo n c ame i n to ge n e r al use in Ameri c a a n d co n ti n ued to ,

b e the f avour ite on e till qui te m ode rn ti mes a n d m a y be still see n on se r vice
,

5
66 M A N U AL OF M AR I N E EN G I N EER I N G .

to d ay with c yli n de r s of e n o r mous si z e wi th d r op valves a n d w oodcn

fr a mewor k etc ( fig, . I n deed it is to this latte r f act that it co n ti n u e d
.
,

so lo n g to hold its ow n f or woode n st r uctu r es a n d woode n c on n e c t in

, g r cd s r

p r ope rly b r aced a n d bolted we r e permissible w ith such e n gi n es a n d w cr e , ,

a n d a r e the pec u lia r p r oduct of the people i n habiti n g a n e w cou n t r y w h c re

,

wood is m o r e ple n ti ful a n d m o r e easily m ani pu l ated than i r o n N eve r .

t h e le ss t h e m achi n e r y of a la r ge Fall R ive r stea m e r co n str ucted on thi s

,

m ethod was a sple n did e x a m ple of e n gi n ee r i n g ge n ius displayin g as it did , ,

the adaptatio n Of what was f oun d to ha n d to t h e n eeds of the p r oble m s .

S ide Lever En gin es a r e a fo r m Of bea m e n gi n e a n d was the type developed

‘

in this cou n t r y fr o m the bea m i d ea The thir d p r acticable stea m boat wa s

.

“
the P S . . Co m et al r eady alluded t o a n d S how n in fig 4 This S hi p w a s . .

Fig 2 4 — En gin e
. , Of t he Com et, 1 81 1 12 -
.

in sta lled by B ell h er ow n e r with a si n gle cyli n de r e n gi n e havin g a bea m

, ,
-

at each side as shown in fig 24 con n ected to the piston r od c r oss hea d a n d

,
.
,
- -

the c r an k pin by r o ds A m odi ficatio n of thi s desig n was adopted m a n y

-
.

year s ago by the buil d e r s Of tug boats especially by the Tyn esi d e b u il d e r s
, ,

a n d called the Gr ass h oppe r e n gi n e S uch e n gi n es a re still in use on tugs

.
,

a n d a re e x ceedi n gly suitable f or the m They a re ve r y cheap in co n structio n

.
,

have a ve r y lo n g str oke of pisto n f or such shallow shi ps the r acki n g actio n ,

when in motion is co n seque n tly co m par atively slight a n d is take n by the ,

keels o n s the s t ifl es t pa r t Of the hull ; whe n o n ly on e cyli n der is e m ployed

,

th e r e is in p r actice n o dead poi n t— that is the cr a n k c a n b e move d by ,

the p r ess u r e on the pisto n fr o m a n y positio n in which it ma y have stoppe d .

T h is latter quality is due t o the positio n of the co n n ecti n g rod with r es pect -
 Le ver En gi n e .

Fig . 2 6 — En gin es
. of T h a me s S t ea m e r R eg e n t ,
1 816 ( Ma n d ala y ) .
 OS CI L L ATI N G EN G I N ES .
69

ships a n d the S cotia the last of the Cu n a rd paddle ships had such
, ,
,

e n g in es with t wo cyli n de rs each 1 00 i n ches dia m ete r a n d 1 2 f eet st r oke

,
,

a n d developi n g I H P Fig 2 6 shows a m o d i fied f o r m i n as m uch as

. . . .
,

the lever is of the be ll cra n k type .

Os cill a ting En in es we r e fir st suggested by T r e v ithi ck ; they we r e u s ed

g

o rigi n ally by D r Golds wo rthy Gu rn ey about 1 8 2 7 for d rivin g his s t eam

.

m oto r ca r s . yea r Joseph Maudslay pate n te d such

. . t
Fi g 2 7a — Osc illa t in g En gi n e — S ec ion t h rou gh V a l ve -
B ox e s .

cyli n de rs a n d in 1 8 30 Wi llia m Chur ch took ou t a p ate n t f or thei r a pplica

,

tio n to d rivi n g paddle wheel sha fts The firm of Maudslay S o n s

-
. Field , ,

howev er develop ed the o s cillatin g m ar in e e n gi n e a n d un til they qua rr elled

, ,

with t he Ad mi r alty over so m e r epair s t o on e had the sole supply of the m

,
.

Th e patr o n age of the Ad mi r alty was t ran s f err ed t o John P en n Son for
t hei r fu rt he r s u pply a n d s in ce the n thi s typ e has bee n always ass ociate d
,
 70 M AN U AL or M AR I N E E N G I N EER I N G .

with this firm I t was m or eove r b rought by the m to a ve ry high state of

.
, ,

efficie n cy a n d e m ployed largely on r ive r a n d c r oss cha n n el se r vices as well

,
-
,

as in all ki n d s of shi ps in the N a vy .

The Gr eat Easte rn steamshi p had fou r oscillati n g cyli n de r s 8 4 i n ches ,

dia m ete r a n d 1 4 5 f eet str oke but perhaps the lar gest a n d m ost i n te resti n g
e x a m ple was that of the R S I r ela n d to n s bui lt by Mess rs L ai r d
.
, , .

f or t h e City of D ubli n S P Co m pa n y f or se r vice b etwee n Holyhead a n d

. .
,

Ki n gsto n which with two cyli n der s 1 02 i n c hes dia m eter a n d 8 5 f eet st r oke
, , ,

.I H P was d eveloped a n d a S peed of 2 3 k n ots was attai n e d

. .
, .

The oscillati n g e n gi n e has su r vive d t o the p r ese n t ti m e as they m a y ,

still b e f ou n d in co mm o n u s e on dockyar d tugs a n d on r iver c r a f t th r oughout ,

t h e wo r ld ; a n d although the r e hav e bee n co m pou n d e n gi n es of this ki n d

with c ylin der s of co n sider able si z e f or stea m p r essu r e of 6 0 lbs the typ e
“

.
,

E
is not so good f or the highe r p r essur es or for t riple e n gi n es as the d iago n al .

Figs 2 7 a n d 2 7a show the m to b e si mple in desig n havi n g o n ly on e r od

.
,

fr om pist on to cr a n k pin r equi r i n g n o guides a n d ge n er ally ar e fr ee f r o m

-

, ,

co m pl icatio n s ex cept that the valve gear i n g m a y b e co n si d e r ed so m ewhat

,
-

co m ple x T hey a re ver y li ght ; occupy little space a n d per m it of a f ai rly

.
,

lo n g str oke eve n i n so m ewhat shallow ships I n the case of the Gr eat
,
.

”
Easte rn ,
they wer e placed d iago n ally two to each cr an k —pin a n d this d esign ,

h as b ee n f ollo wed dow n t o m odern ti m es for the B ritish D ockya r d Tugboats ,

whe r e each wheel c a n be wo r ked i n depen den tly by a pai r of cyli n der s .

I t is n ot n ecessa r y to dw ell on the other typ es of pa d dle e n gi n e as they ,

have h a d thei r d a y a n d disappear ed e x c ept to say that the S t ee ple En gin e , ,

as show n l n fig 28 was a f avou rite on e with so m e Clyde e n gi n ee rs a n d it

.
, ,
“ ”
was the type a d opted by Messr s L ai r d whe n r e fitti n g the P s V iolet . . .

with t r i p le co m pou n d en gi n es of
-
I H P in w hi ch the L P cyli n d e r . . .
, . .

was 1 08 i n ches d ia m eter a n d 6 5 f eet str oke The space occupied by t hi s .

f o r m of e n gi n e was s m all a n d ge n e r ally pe rmi tted of a f ai r ly lo n g st r oke

‘

, ,

but the th rust of the co n n ecti n g rod caused a tilti n g actio n on t h e e n gi n e -

fr a m i n g w hi ch u n less well p r ovided f or by b r aci n g seve r ely st r ai n ed the

, , ,

e n tablatu r e etc ,
.

V erti ca l D irect a ctin g En gin es wer e use d by so m e m ake r s a n d with the

-

old sea —goi n g ships with thei r good d epth of hold a n d a r a d ial wheel of la r ge ,

dia m eter a f air ly lo n g str oke coul d be obtai n ed bu t it was always so m e

, ,

what sho r t co m par e d with that of other types of e n gi n e .

T win cy l in der Engin e of Maudslay Field (fig 2 9) is n ow chie fl y i nter .

esti n g as bei n g the on e fitted I n the fir st sc r ew ship of the N avy H M S , . . .

R attle r I t was gea r e d to the sc r ew sha ft so that t h e latte r m a d e f our

.
,

r evolutio n s to on e of the e n gi n e whose cyli n de rs f our in n u m ber we r e , , ,

4 0 i n ches dia m et er a n d t h e p i sto n st r oke 4 f eet 4

, . .

S cre w En gin es we r e at fir st as in the case of H M S R attle r o f the,

. . .
,

s a m e type as use d f or pad d le whe e ls fig with spu r a n d pi n io n gea r i n g .

co n n ect i n g the m to the sc r ew sha ft a n d what pe r haps was of m o r e i m po r t , , ,

a n ce the n ecessar y r evolutio n s f or the sc r ew we r e got the r eby without sub

,

m itti n g the e n gi n es t o such speeds as they we r e t h e n n ot fit to bea r Gea r in g .

was even tually discar de d a n d di r ect d r ivi n g adopte d both f or sa f ety a n d

,
-
,

eco n o m y Th e highe r spee d of e n gi n e pe r mitted of the use of s m alle r o n es

.
,

which we r e lighte r a n d cheaper ; a n d as toot h geari n g i n volved co n si d e r able -

f r ictio n as well as f r eque n t r epai r s f u r the r eco n o m ies we r e a ffecte d by ,

 S CR EW E N GI N ES .
71

a bolishin g it To day however we a re witn essi n g a r evival of wheel gear i n g

.
-
, ,
-
,

to pe rmit of the use of tur bin es in ca rgo stea m er s whe r e a s m all high re v olu
tio n scr ew is n ot permissible a n d in ships ge n e rally whe n tur bi n es of high
,

r evolutio n a n d co n seque n t eco n o m y ma y be e m ployed I t is of cou r se u n d e r

.
, ,

Fig 2 8 — S t ee ple En gin e

. . .

much m o r e favou r able ci r cum sta n ces that thi s e x perim e n t is bein g ca rr ied
ou this case the tor que of the en gin e shaft is absolut ely u niform in stea d
t , f or in ,

o f bein g hi ghly va riable the pin ion is dr ivin g i n stead of bei n g dr ive n a n d ,

m or eove r the r e ar e t w o on e on each side of the spur wheel fin ally the teeth
, ,
-
,
 TR UN K EN GI N ES .
73

Pla n .

Je t Con de n s e r
Fig 30 — En g in e s o f P S
. .
C D ,
. . . t on s . L a k e S e r v ic e , U S A
l
Cy in d e r s 92 6 2 ” 92 ” d ia m x 1 0 2 ”
. . .

- -
. s t rok e . I H P a t 2 8 re s
. . . v .
74 MAN U AL or MAR I N E EN G I N EE R I N G .

T h ere was , howeve r , co n siderable heat loss by r adiatio n fr o m the tr un ks ,

a n d co n de n sa tio n in the cylin d e r s by their coolin g actio n ; the friction at

t h e s t u ffin g bo x es was also so m ewhat of a dr awback , bem g o ft e n co n s i de r able ,
-

an d co u ld be easily m ade so gr eat as to slow down the e n gI n es .

Fig 3 1 —T
. . ru n k En gin e s .

Fig 3 l a —R et u
. . rn Con n ectin g R od En gin e s
-
.

Their sc ew was ge e ally

r n r left
ha n ded so that the thrust of the con
-
,

meetin g rod when goi n g ahead was upwa r d ; but when at fu ll speed it wa s
-

c o n side r ably in ex cess of the weight of the pisto n so that the rubbi n g ,

was su fficien t to barr el the upper side a n d whe n in ste rn gear t he ,

thr ust a n d weight wer e com bin ed in doin g the sam e th i n g t o t h e lower
s id e
 R ETU R N CON N ECTI N G - R OD EN GIN E . 75

Th e R etu rn Connecting -
rod Engin e is shown in fig 31 a by which it will
.
,

be se en tha t it is a steeple e n gin e laid ho ri zo n tally with the two pisto n rods -

p rolo n ged to the gudgeo n c r oss head i n stead of i n to a ban j o fra me This
- -
.

Fig 3 2 — Th r e e Cr a n k Tr iple Ex pan sion En gin e ( N a va l )

. .
- - .

type was in t roduced by Maudslay Field to the N a v y a n d used by the m ,

ti ll the vertical e n gin e displaced them S everal other bu i l d e rs also ad opted

'

this type i n as much as t h erebv a much lo n ger stroke was possi ble Wi th a mple
,
 V ER T C I AL I
D R ECT -
A CT I N G EN GI N ES . 77

t he r e is n o absolute n eed of such a fit m e n t a n d although the tail r od th r ou gh ,

t hei r cyli n d e r cove r s te n d s n o d oubt to stea d y the pisto n a n d whe n the

, , ,

s hip is r olli n g to p r eve n t e x cessive side play .

Th e V e rt ica l D irec t a ct in g En g in es —
Fi gs 3 2 a n d 33 a re n ow the u n ive r sal .

type of sc r ew e n gi n e e m ploye d thr oughout the wo rld f or both w a r a n d m e r

c ha n t ships ; its adva n tage ove r othe r s a re so obvious as to n ee d n o fu r the r

c o m m e n t a fte r havi n g poi n ted ou t the de fects of those othe r s whose c om

,

petitio n lasted T hi s typ e was fir st e mp loyed by t h e Tho m so n s who f ou n d e d

.
,

the bu s m ess n ow so e x te n sive a n d success fu ll y car r ied on by Joh n B r own

Co at Clydeba n k
. I n the m e r ca n tile m a ri n e it quickly f oun d f avour a n d w as
.
,

soo n adopted by m ost builder s of m ar i n e e n gi n es f or it a n d is st ill la rgely

.
,

used for gen er atin g electr icity o n sho r e For n aval pur poses it w as dee m e d ‘

u n sa f e f o rm er ly as havin g the vital parts of the m achi n er y above the wate r

,

li n e the re f o r e m u ch ex p osed to shot a n d shell in a way n ot obtai n in g wi th

,

t h e ho ri z o n tal e n gi n e Thi s obj ectio n was of cour se fr o m the mi litar y poi n t

.
, ,

o f vi ew a n d f o rm ed a b a r to thei r use lo n g a fte r the i n t r oductio n of a r m ou r

,

plates had p r ovi ded a m ean s for thei r pr otectio n if n aval design e r s had so
d esi r ed a n d as was eve n tually a d opted a n d still p r evails
, ,
.

I n the m e r ca n tile m ar i n e n ot o nl y is the f ou n datio n or b ed plate of

,
-

c ast ir o n but the colu m n s supporti n g the cyli n der s b oth fr on t a n d back
, , ,

a n d f o r mi n g guides f or the pisto n r od e n ds a r e o ft e n of cast i r o n I n the

-
,
.

N avy f or light n ess a n d st r e n gth a n d in a m easur e to r esist co n cussio n the

, , ,

c olum n s a r e of f o r ge d or cast steel a n d the f oun dation s the m selves also of ,

steel Figs 3 2 a n d 3 3 show t w o di ff e r e n t m akes of e ngi n es the on e f or the

. .
,

N avy the othe r f or a n e x p r ess stea m e r

,
Fig 3 2 is that of a n e n gi n e wi th . .

c ast steel f oun datio n a n d fr o n t colu m n with cast ir o n back colu mn s

-
I n fig -
. .

3 3 the colu m n s on both sides a r e of cast ir o n as also a r e the f oun datio n s , .

I n fig 3 4 is see n a n e x a m ple of a wr ought steel str uctur e of e x t r e m e light n ess

.
-

a n d yet so r igid a n d st r o n g as to p e r mit of 3 80 r evolutio n s er mi n ute bei ng

p
r u n q u ite satis f acto r ily The cost of the latte r a n d such str uctur es as see n
.
,

i n fig 35 co m pa r ed with either of the other s but m o r e especiall y w ith the

.
, ,

e n gin es of fig 3 3 is ve r y high . but n otwithstan din g thi s the savin g in

, , , ,

weight co m bin ed w ith the p erf ect r igidity warr an ts the use of si m ilar s t r u c
, ,

t u r es f or the suppo r t of the cylin de r s of e x p r ess stea m e r s of qui te lar ge si z e .

S o m e builde r s of m e r ca n tile e n gin es p r e f e r these w r ought ir o n or steel colu mn s -

f or the fr o n t of the e n gi n es of all ki n ds fig as they permit of fr eer .

a ccess to the m o v in g pa rts m o r eove r whe n secu r e d i n the f oun datio n by a ,

s in gle n u t a n d to t h e cyli n de r s in the sa m e way so that these colum n s c a n ,

be tu r n ed d ow n f r o m a plai n r olle d ba r they a r e eve n cheape r tha n cast ,

i r on o n es .

I n c omparin g t h e en gin e design an d pra ctice of to day w ith that of past -

ge n er atio n s it m ust n ot b e f or gotten that the earli est e n gi n eer s had to m ake
,

a l m ost eve r y pa rt of cast ir o n ; f or ther e we r e n o stea m ha mm e r s a n d the ,

f o r gin gs m ade by the tilt ha mm e r a n d the r olled ir o n ba r s of that pe r io d -

wer e of ve ry li mited si z e a n d f o rm S teel co u ld b e had o n ly in ver y s m all .

pieces a n d was very dear Modern e n gi n ee r s have a n u n li mited supply o f

, .

splen did mi ld steel a n d n ow eve n r eliable hi gh ten sile ste el c a n b e obtai n ed

,

at qui te m oder ate costs Fo rgi n gs r olled bar s a n d plate s of huge si z e c a n

.
, ,

be obtai n ed cheaply fr o m va rious sou r ces of supply a n d qui ckl y co mpa red ,

wi th the t i m e r equi r ed twe n ty fiv e yea r s ago Ou r p r edecesso r s k n ew n ot

-
.
78 M AN U AL or MAR I N E EN GI N EER I N G
.
.

the advan tages of d u m pi n g or of steel casti n gs n or d id they e n j oy such

, ,

whit e m etal a n d st r o n g z i n c br o n z es as we k n ow the m

.

Arran gement of Cylinders in the mode rn m ar i n e e n gi n e is a much mo r e

im por ta n t p r oble m th a n w a s the ca s e whe n ther e wer e t w o cyli n ders o n ly
.

To -
day with a multiplicity of cyli n d e r s thei r a rra n ge m en t is govern ed by
, .

ci rcu m stan ces n ot obtai n i n g a n d n ever d r ea m ed of f or m e r ly We have

.

n ow to co n side r the questio n of bala n ci n g the m o m e n tu m of the m ovin g

a rts as well as t o de t e mi e what is the best seque n ce f or the flow of stea m

p , r n
AR R A N G EME N T OF CYL I N D E R S .
81
 MAN U AL OF M R I N E E N A G I N EER I N G .

li n er s a n d wall s or di fficu l ties due to the positio n of the cyli n de rs

t o cyli n de r s , , ,

wher eby the use of m echa ni cal m ean s for gettin g the m in a n d ou t of plac e
w a s p r eclude d besi d es r e n de r in g the m diffic u l t t o e x a mi n e
,
B u t the r is k .

of casti n g la r ge cyli n de r s is still gr eat ; the cost of r eplacin g such a n on e ,

if da maged gr eat a n d p er haps what is m or e i m port a n t in these days of high

. , ,

pis to n speed the r e is always the i m possibility of design i n g the low p r essure
,
-

o n es with po r ts of su fficien t si z e for a flow of steam slow e n ough to be c on

sisten t with high e fficie n cy The ar ea of p ort possible f or a cyli n der with
.

sli de valves var ies p r actically as the dia m eter i n as much as the le n gth of po rt ,

a x ially does n ot i n cr ease r apidly with i n cr ease in the dia m eter The volume .

of stea m passin g t h r ough it va r ies as the squa r e of the di a m eter When .

p isto n speeds seldo m e x ceeded 5 00 f eet pe r mi n ute por ts wi th a su fficien t ,

,

ar ea for ver y large cyli n de r s could b e design ed easily en ough ; but with a
s eed of pisto n of to f eet it is i m possible to p r ovide the m la r g e
p
e n ough for m oder at e flows a n d with passages s m all e n ough f or m ode r ate
”
clear a n ce .

With the D iesel an d other oil e n gi n es wher e the ini t ia lp res su re s a r e ve ry ,

high whi le the m ea n p r essu r es a r e quite low the latte r co n di tio n r equ i r es
. ,

a l a r ge total cyli n der capacity a n d the f orm er s m all u ni ts he n ce such e n gi n es

h a ve as m a n y as twelve cylin der s per e n gin e when of the large ho rse po we r -

r equir ed on shipboa r d for good speed of s hi p .

Eve n in the stea m e n gi n e of t o day the boiler pr e s su r e g a n d co n seque n tly

-

the i n itial p r essu r e in the H P cyli n der at starti n g is as m uch as 2 30 lbs

. .

whi le the m ea n p r essu r e of the co m poun d cyli n der system is n ot ver y much
m o r e tha n that obtai n i n g whe n it was a fifth I n the N avy with wate r tub e .
,
-

boiler s the p r essu r e is o ft e n even gr eater still but the r ef err ed m ea n p r essu re
, ,

in such ships is m uch highe r tha n i n the m er ca n til e m ar i n e whe n r u n n i n g

full s peed .

With a Compou n d Engine the least n u m ber of cyli n de r s is of cou r se two ,

which ma y b e in li n e ax ially with their pisto n s attached to a co mm o n r od ,

a n d ope r ati n g on on e c r a n k by on e co n n ecti ng r od fig S uch e n gi n e s -

.

wer e at on e ti m e used in certai n car go stea m er s a n d thought well of at t h e ,

ti me in lar ge m easur e o wi n g t o the s mall space occupied by the m an d thei r

,

co m par ative cheap n ess Mo r e co mm o n ly the two cyli n der co m pou n d e n gi n e

.

had the m side by side each oper ati n g on a separ ate cr a n k the on e opposite
, ,

t h e ot h e r whe n the stea m e x pa n ded di r ect f r o m the H P t o the L P cyli n d e r . . .

,

or set at r ight a n gles wi th a r eceive r betwee n the cyli n de r s i n to which t h e

H P e x hausted a n d fr o m w hi ch the L P took stea m
. .
,
I n so m e f e w case s . .

t h e c r a n ks we r e set at a d i ff e r e n t a n gle ge n e r ally about so as to f avou r,

t h e ti mi n g of e x haust fr o m H P a n d fl ow to the L R a n d t o r e d uce the r eby

. .
,

t h e va r iatio n in p r essur e in the r eceiver These latte r e n gi n es wer e how .

,

ever so m ewhat u n han dy i n starti n g an d r ever si n g a n d eve n tually were

, ,

a n d havi n g a so m ewhat la r e r
give n u p in f avou r of the c r a n ks at g
r eceive r betwee n the cyli n de r s .

Th e Th ree cylin der Compou n d En gine each cyli n de r with a sepa r at e

-
,

c r a n k a n d co n n ectio n s was dese r vedly a f avour ite on e for la r ge power s ;

,

for n ot o n ly was the r e with it the adva n tage of havi n g the L P cyli n de rs .

of m ode r ate si z e bu t a much highe r i ni tial p r essu r e could be the reby m ai n

,

t a in e d i n the m , co n seque n t ly w ith the mi n i m u m a m ou n t of d r op betwee n ,

H P a n d L P cyli n der s a f ai r divi sio n of t h e wo r k betwee n the th ree c r a n k s

. . .
 T W O CR -
AN K S CR E W EN GI N ES . 83

was m a d e and
they we r e usuall y set at a n gles of
, This e n gi n e was
a fa vo u r ite for el ect ric ge n e r atio n on sho r e statio n s wit h la rge u n its .

Fou r cy l in der Compou n d En g in es e n able d t h e sa m e sub divisio n of t h e

-

L P p r essu r e m e m be r of the syste m without r eso rti n g to a n a dditio n a l

.

c ra n k by dividi n g the H P m e m be r a n d placi n g on e H P cyli n de r ta n d e m

. .
, . .

with on e L P each pai r side by side ope r ati n g its ow n c r a n k which was a t
.
,
°
90 with the othe r This type of e n gi n e was adopted by Mess rs Maudslay
. .

Field i n the celeb r ated White S ta r stea m e r s

,
”
S on s B r ita n n ic etc ; , , .

m o r eove r it was the m ethod used by m a n y e n gi n eer s as a cheap a n d r ea d y

,

way of co mpou n di n g the old e x pa n sive e n gi n es a fte r the super io rity of the
co m pou n d syste m was assu r ed about 1 8 70 .

S ix cy l inder Compou n ds each pai r of H P a n d L P bei n g ta n de m a n d

-
, . . .

side by side each Oper ati n g on a separ ate c ra n k as with the f ou r cyli n de r
, ,
-

sys t e m of which it is a n ex te n sio n t his des ign was adopted for the Ci ty of
,
”
R o me as a f u r the r sub di visio n of cyli n de r due t o h er the n lar ge powe r
, .

With a Triple expansion Engin e the least n u mber of cyli n de r s is of cou rse
-

, ,

th r ee as with a quad rupl e e x p a ns io n it is f ou r I t does n ot howeve r f ollow

, .
, ,

that each must have its ow n separ ate c ra n k as is the r ul e with the si n gle ,

acti n g oil e n gi n e ; a n d although it is co mm o n p r actice n ow to do so with

,

the ma r i n e stea m e n gi n es it was a fe w year s ago n ot a n unusual thi n g to fin d

,

a t riple e x pa n sio n e n gi n e with two c r an ks a n d the cyli n ders as in fig 73

-
.
,

N os 1 2 a n d 3
.
,
Mo r e over the quad rupl e e n gi n e whe n fir st placed on the
, .
,

m a r ket as a co m petito r with the t riple had o nl y two c r a n ks ( fig 73 N o .

, .

this as a m atte r of f act was at that ti m e placed t o its c r edit as a m ea n s

, ,

whe r eby it occupied n o m o r e S pace tha n a co mm o n t w o cyli n de r co mpou n d -

,

a n d l ess tha n a th r ee c r a n k t ripl e or co mpoun d e n gin e -

When howeve r .
, ,

the de m a n d for a n on vib r ati n g e n gi n e was i n sisted on by the Adm i ralty

-

a n d m uch desi r e d by all i n te r ested in the passe n ge r se r vice the Ya rr ow ,

S chlick Tweedy syste m of bala n ci n g the f our cr an k quadr uple e n gi n e gave

‘

- -

it such a n advan tage over the thr ee c r a n k t r iple that m aker s of the t riple -

e n gi n e had t o adopt the f ou r cr a n k a rr a n ge me n t a n d w ith t wo L P -

, . .

cyli n de rs eithe r as N os 3 or 4 in fig 73 to obtain like adva n tages

, . .
, .

A S in gl e cran k En gin e is sel d o m or n eve r seen to day e x cept in qu i te

- -
,

s m all a n d cheap laun ches or har bou r ser vice boats Eve n sin gle c ra n k ,
.
-

ta n de m co m poun d e n gin es which at on e tim e we r e m uch in f avou r with ,

on e or two shipo w n e r s a n d so m e la w e n gi n ee r s a re n o lo n ge r m ade S i n gle , .

c ra n k paddle e n gi n es a re also a thi n g of the past .

T wo crank En gin es still s u r vive in paddle stea m e r s of m ode r ate powe r

-

with co mpoun d cyli n de r s fig wi th the lar ger powe r co mpou n d .

e n gi n es th r ee c ra n ks a re f avour ed fig as each of the two L P cyli n de r s . . .

a re of m ode r ate si z e a n d the r atio of m a x i mu m to m ea n to r que is lowe r th a n

,

with t w o c r a n ks co n sequen tly the m ove m en t of the wheels i s less j e r ky

, ,

a n d a s m a ll e r sha ft possible T ripl e e x pa n sio n paddle e n gi n e s a re i n va riably

.
-

of the thr ee c r a n k type as show n i n fig 2 2

-
,
. .

Two cran k S crew En gi nes a r e still m ade with co m pou n d cyli n de r s for
-

qui te s mall power s as in tug boats stea m lau n ches a n d othe r s m all c r a ft ;
, , ,

they ma y b e adopted with adva n tage sti ll in cases whe r e p r i m e cost we I gh t , .

a n d space occupied a r e of m o r e i m po rt an ce tha n f uel co n su m ptio n With .

t rip le co m pou n d cyli n de rs such e n gi n es a r e n ow ver y seldo m if eve r made

-
, , ,

but with quad ru ple comp ou n d cyli n ders somet hi n g like those s h own i n fig 75
- . .
 H E AV Y OR CR UD E OI L E N GI N E . 85

wa rships the fou r c ra n k e n gi n e is a bette r on e to a d op t for ve ry s mall shi ps

,
-

or whe r e the e n gi n es a re s mall the thr ee c r a n k e n gi n e has a d va n tages which ,

-

ma y outweigh those w hi ch would favour the four c ra n k in a ge n e r al p roble m -

.

Five cra nk Engines ( fig 3 7) have bee n m ade to a li mited e x te n t with

- .

cylin de r s on the quad ruple syste m thus havi n g t wo L P cylin de rs I t has , . . .

bee n claim ed for the m that the re is a superiority in the m atte r Of bala n ci n g
togethe r with a stea m co n sumptio n as low as a n y othe r S uch a n e n gi n e .

m a y be e m ployed with adva n tage whe n owin g to si ze it is desi r able to have , ,

two L P cylin de rs ; but for s mall powe r it seems a n u n n ecessar y e x pe n se

. .

with co n siderable co mplication ; m o r eo ver the m echa n ical e fficien cy can n ot ,

be so good as that of a three cra n k e n gi n e Of the sa me power -

.

S ix cra n k Eng ines for stea m have bee n used t o a ve ry li m ited e x te n t

-

by m ar in e e n gin eers Fig 38 is a good e x a m ple Of such a n en gi n e Of ve ry

. .

la rge power Oil en gin es have n ow co m e in to u s e on S hips Of co n side rable

.

powe r S O that s ix c ran ks a re comm on ; they a re gen erally in t wo piec es

, ,

a n d so coupled that N O 1 a n d N O 6 c r a n ks are in l in e as a re also N 0 8 2 a n d

. .
, .

5 a n d N os 3 a n d 4 each pair bein g at a n gle Of 1 2 0 with the othe rs With the

°
. .
,

t wo str oke cycle they m a y be in seque n ce at 6 0 a n gles

°
-
.

Eig h t cra n k Eng in es will also be used largely as they a re a lready for
-
,

i n tern al com bustio n sy stem s when the powe r is ve r y great sin ce ther e is , ,

a d e cide d li mit to the siz e of the cylin ders of such en gin es I t ma y be that .

s t ea m en gin es will also be m ade with these n u me rous cran ks t o co mpete

with such e n gin es a n d tur bin es .

Of Oil Engin es the r e are t hr ee kin ds used on shi pboa rd— v iz the pet rol .
, ,

the pa raffin a n d the cru de or hea vy O il en gin e

, .

( 1 ) Th e Petrol Engin e r equ irin g as the f u el supply the light volatile Oil
,

of that n a me hav in g a flash p o in t f ro m 80 to 1 00 F is n ot ad m is sible on

° °
, .
,

boar d ordi n ary passen ger shi ps fro m the da n ger atten din g the carryin g a n d ,

s t o rin g such a hi ghly in flamm able liqui d I t is however used e x t e n sively .

, ,

on laun ches a n d othe r s mall c r a ft for coastin g wo r k or on rive r s a n d s m all

lakes a n d is as e fficien t a n d co n ven ien t in them as in moto r vehicles on sho re

, .

The ease Of star in g a cold en gi n e is always a stron g r eco mmen datio n for
t

this oil .

( 2 ) Th e Para ffin Engine usin g a r efin ed light Oil obtain able al m ost eve ry
whe re a n d sa fer to ca rr y use a n d stor e than petr ol in as much as it is n ot
, , , ,
°
n ea rly S O volatile a n d its flash poin t is co n side r ably highe r— vi z
, 1 20 t o .
,

1 5 0 F — is e mployed for ma n y pur poses n ow as it is al most as easy t o sta rt

°
.
,

a s the fo rmer a n d r u n s quite as well B oth it a n d the petr ol e n gin e wo rk .

.

on the usual Otto or f our stage c cle d r equir e ign itio n by a n electr ic
y a n -
,

spar k whi ch m a y be pro d uced by a secon dary battery or by a s mall d yn a m o

,

wo rked by the en gi n e itsel f called a magn eto _ , .

( 3 ) The Hea vy or Cru de Oil En gin e which is the desider atum for ship ,

boa rd on accoun t of its com par ative sa fety uses oil as f u el whose flash poin t
, ,

is ove r 2 00 F a n d n ot volatile e n ough t o be used in the sa m e way as the

°
.
,

light Oil e n gin es “ M or eove r as the Oil is un r efin ed or else r e fuse special , , ,

t reat m en t has to be accorded to it for the di ff e re n t varieties of fuel used .

Te x as B atou m a n d si mi la r Oils practically free fro m bitu men ma y be used

, ,

with co mparative ease with s u itable carbur ette rs etc a n d with suitable , .
,

en gin es a n d ca re will ru n s u fficie n tly well as t o be used for drivin g dyn amos
for powe r pur poses a n d m ost e n gin es Of this kin d ca n be t rusted ther e fo re
, , ,

t o d rive prOpe llers of shi p s q uite well for co n side r able p e riods if t he re is n o
86 MAN UAL OF M AR IN E I I G
E N G N EE R N .
»

stoppage at a n y ti m e su fficie n tly lo n g to pe r mit of t h e cooli n g of the cyli n de r s

,

etc With a large n u m be r of the Oils obtai n able at ot h e r pa r ts Of the wo rl d

.

the c rude Oil co n tai n s va ryi n g a m ou n ts O f bitu mi n o u s m atte r which n ot o n ly

,
 T H E S EM I -
I
D ES E L EN GI N E . 8 7

c au ses e x cessive deposits of ta rr y m atter but what is w or se a fo rmatio n O f , ,

c oke har d a n d r e fr acto ry w h ic h i f d e pos it e d i n the cyli n de r s or a m o n g t h e

‘

, , ,

valves will cause se rious dam age to the m

,
.

Th e Gri ffin a n d so m e othe r e n gin es we r e d e s ign e d to ru n with t h e gas OI

v apour distill ed fr o m c rude heavy oils a n d their r esiduals by the high t e m

e ra t u r e of t h e e x haust gas ; this vapour m ix ed wi t h a ir was d raw n i n to the

p , ,

c yli n de r s as in the o r d in a ry gas e n gi n e a n d e x ploded the r e by a spa r k The .

ta rry m atte r a n d pitch wer e in this way thr own down in t he distill er a n d
e x cluded fr o m the in te rn al pa r ts O f the e n gin es SO that t h ey r e m ain ed clea n ,

a n d fr ee fr o m grit The early pr o mi se of these e n gi n es was un f ortun ately

.

n ot m ain ta in ed as fully as was desi r able a n d a fter the D iesel e n gin e h a d ,

oved so succe ss ful it d isplace d the m The cyl in de rs etc we r e kept su fli

‘
r
p .
, .
,

c ie n t ly cool by the usual water j a ck et t in g -

.

Th e D ies el Eng ine whi ch is n ow la rgely used for s hi p pr op u lsion difiers

*
, ,

f un da m e n tally fr o m other oil e n gin es in as much as it draws in a cha rge of ,

a ir on l
y a n d co mp r esses it hi ghl y ge n e rally to about 500 lbs per squar e , .

i n ch when it be co m es so hot as t o ig n ite with ce rt ai n ty the sp r ay of Oil in j ected

,
“

in to it at the co mm en ce m en t Of the active str oke ; m or eover the ign ition ,

is gradual i n stea d Of in sta n ta n eous a n d the p r essur e is p r actically that at ,

w hich co m pr ession ceased so that the r e is n o shock due to e x plosio n

, ex

pa ns ion co mm e n ces be f or e com bustion is complete a n d co n tin ues to the ,

e n d Of the stroke whe n the p r oducts escape thr ough the e x haust valve bein g
, ,

d rive n ou t by the pisto n of the four str oke cycle a n d by a blast of fr esh a ir -

in the two str oke cycle -

Alm ost a n y oil will do but gen erally heavy crude
.
,

O ils fr eed from highl y volatile co n stitue n ts or r esiduals Of o ils fr o m which ,

p etr ol par a ffin a n d lub ricatin g p r oducts have bee n e x t racted a re used ; in thi s
, , ,

c oun tr y t ar o il a n d shale Oil r esidues a re ho m e p roducts w hi ch ca n be us ed

°
w ith sa tis facto ry r esults their flash poin t is about 2 20 F , .

Th e Semi D iesel Engine which also uses S imilar fuel wo r ks with less
-
, ,

c o m p r essio n about 1 5 0 lbs or 6 0 per cen t O f the ini tial pr essur e on ign itio n
, . .
,

a n d co n seque n tly r equir es a h ot plate or b u l b on w hi ch the sp r ay i m pin ges

t o e ff ect it I t wor ks on the t wo stroke cycle a n d is scave n ged by a ir pum ped

.
-
,

in t o a r eceive r by the un der side Of the pisto n I t is fair ly e fficien t a n d much .

,

.used on s ma ll ships with cyli n der s up t o 1 6 5 in ches diameter .

The D iesel en gin e like the other Oil en gin es was S in gle actin g wo r kin g
, ,
-
,

o n the f our stage c cle ; a ir o n ly is a dmitted on the fir st desce n t of the

y
-

p is t on on its r eturn it is com p ressed so m eti m es t o the e xt en t of 40 at m osphe r es

.
, , ,

s o that eve n with m ea n s for coolin g the cylin de r the tem per atur e is ve r y

h igh . Just as the pisto n is about to m ake a seco n d desce n t the n ecessar y
s upply O f Oil is S p r ayed in to the cyli n de r t o
p by m ea n s O f a j et of a ir c om

p r es sed hi ghe r tha n that in it ; the fin ely p u l ve rised Oil at o n ce ig n ites a n d ,

b urn s du r in g the early pa rt of the str oke a n d so m ain tai n s t h e p ressur e ,_

a tta in ed by com p r essio n ( r fig 1 01 ) at the e n d of the str oke the e x haust

. .

valve is Ope n ed a n d the piston on r eturn in g to the top scave n ges the cylin d e r
,

— that is d r ives ou t the p r oducts of co m bustio n I t agai n desce n ds dr awin g

, .
,

in a ir alo n e as be f or e .

TO co m pete with the stea m e n gi n e especially on s h ipboa r d whe r e ,

weight a n d S pace a re Of impo rta n ce D r D iesel a n d th ose actin g with him , .

,

at N ur embur g devised the double actin g two stage cycle e n gi n e whereby

,
- -
,

a n e x plosio n takes place at each e n d at eve ry r evolutio n S O that its activities , ,

s o to s eak a re equal to those Of the stea m e n gi n e

p ,
W ith the two stage cycle .
-
,

V rde Appe n d ix A
'
 T U R BI N E M ACH I N ER Y . 89

speed ; the dia m e t e r of r oto r or t h e r evolutio n s must the re fo re be great , , ,

but for ve ry la rge powe r d irect dr ive n the latte r ca n n ot be I n the case O f -
.

the L usita n ia ( fig the L P r oto r is 1 4 0 in ches dia m ete r with . . .

,

the last set Of blades 2 2 i n ches lo n g a n d ru n n i n g on bea ri n gs 3 3 i n che s ,

d ia mete r at 1 94 r evolutio n s pe r m i n ute on tr ial a n d about 1 8 5 on ,

se rvice a n d weighi n g 1 20 to n s For s malle r powe rs the r ate of revolutio n

, .

is m uch highe r a n d in case Of a warship of , H P per sha ft t h e r ate of . .

r evolutio n is as m uch as 5 00 a n d highe r eve n up to 700 r evolutio n s in , , ,

s malle r ships of H P pe r sha ft S uch r evolutio n s n ecessitate n ot o nly . . .

a sc r ew of s m a ll dia m ete r but on e of such ve ry s m all pitch that the pi t ch ,

r atio is so low that the e fficie n cy of the p r o pelle r is lowe r tha n i n co m peti n g
ships The slip r atio however is wo n d e rfully s m all in the turbin e d rive n
.
, ,
-

s hip takin g all these thin gs i n to accou n t bei n g o n ly 1 5 3 per cen t in the
, , .

”
L usita n ia a n d s eldo m ove r 2 5 per ce n t i n othe r s wher e r evolutio n speed
, .

is n ot ver y e x ce ssive Form e rly S ir C Par so n s fitted mo r e than on e scre w

. .

to each sha ft but without the success he a n ticipated the Ge rma n Ad mi r alty
,

also tried the sa m e m ethod for i m pr ovin g the p r opeller e fficien cy of the
”
turbi n e d rive n ship -
L ubeck with the sa me disappoi n tme n t ; c on s e
, ,

que n tly for such a s hi p a si n gle scr ew of mode rately s m all dia m eter a n d la rge
disc r atio is the rule That is the screw is so m ewhat large r tha n would be
.
,

fitted if t h e r ega rd of t h e desig n e r we r e li mi ted t o t u r b in e e ffici en cy o n ly

, .

As a m atte r of fact in all cases Of this ki n d the choice Of scr ew a n d all tha t
,

pe rtain s to it is govern ed by co m bin i n g the e fficien cy of propelle r a n d ge n e

*
r ato r as will be s ee n late r on
,
The tur bi n e when Of a powe r ex ceedi n g .
,

is superior to the best r ecip rocato r in stea m co n su mption

p e r u n it of powe r the tu r bin e of a n
y S i z e has a highe r m echan ical e fficien cy
tha n a r ecip rocato r of equal powe r ; it occupies about the sa m e a m ou n t
of floo r space as the or di n a r y t riple a n d quad r uple e n gi n e but is of less ,

height so that m u ch Of it ca n go u n der deck con sequen tly the e n gi n e hatche s

, ,

c a n be ve r y m uch s m aller for the m tha n the r ecip r ocato r The co n sum ptio n .

of lub rica n ts is less a n d f ewer atte n da n ts a r e r equir ed in the e n gin e r oo m -

whe n on ser vi ce The diff er en ce in weight is trifli n g but the pr im e cost

.
,

a n d the r epai r a n d wea r a n d tea r a ccou n t Of the m ode rn m ake of tu r b in e .

c o m pa r es f avour ably with that Of t h e ave rage r ecip r ocator On the othe r .

ha n d the s tea m e fficien cy Of the t u r bi n e falls Off on r eduction of load a n d

, ,

s in ce the m ar in e tur b in e su ffe r s r eductio n in velocity when the speed

of the s hi p is r educed the f all in e fficien cy is co n sider able ; so m uch S O
, ,
”
i n deed that in the case of the L usita ni a whe r e the co n sum ptio n Of stea m
, ,

per S H P per hour of the tur b in es alo n e was o n ly 1 2 77 lbs at the f u ll spee d
. . . .

o f 2 5 4 kn ots per hour it was as high as 2 1 2 3 lbs

-
at 1 5 77 k n ots
, Th e . .

co rr espo n din g coal co n sum ption s w hi ch however of cour se i n cluded that , , ,

d u e t o the r equir e m e n ts of the au x ilia r y m achi n e ry we r e 1 4 6 lbs a n d 2 76 , .

lbs r espectively per S H P per hour With the r ecip rocato r ther e is n o such
. . . .

r api d i n c r ease in coal co n su m ptio n at the lowe r powe rs ; on the co n tr a r y ,

the r ate is lower at m oder ately r educed speeds tha n at f u ll a n d at quite ,

low speeds is n ot ver y hi gh For e x a mple on the trials of H M S Achilles .

, . . .

the stea m co n su m ptio n at full speed of 2 3 2 75 k n ots with the e n gi n es ,

d evelopin g was 1 9 9 lbs per I H P pe r hour a n d the coal . . . . . ,

2 03 lbs while at 1 4 6 kn ots it was o n ly 1 6 95 lbs of stea m a n d 1 8 8 lbs

-
. .

of coal ; m o r eove r a t 2 1 5 8 kn ots a n d ,

I H P the coal co n su m ptio n . . .

Th e e m ploy ment of gea r in g h a s s olve d t h e proble m of sc re w a n d t u r bin e e ffic ien cy

( ai de Appe n d i x A) .
MAN UA L OF M AR IN E EN GI N EER I N G .
 A D M I R A LT Y T URBIN E T ES T .

was 1 8 5 lbs o n ly H e r e n gi n es we r e f Ou r cyli n de r fou r c r a n k t r iple

1
- -
.

:
e x pa n s ron r ec i p r ocato r s .

Th e Admira l ty t o t est t h e T u rbin e caused to b e ca r r ie d out so m e e x h austive

, ,
”
co m pa r ative t r ials with H M S Am ethyst fitted with P a r so n s tur bi n es
. . . , ,

a n d h er siste r ship the To pa z e havi n g the f ou r cyli n d er t riple co m pou n d

, ,
- -

r ecip r ocato r s T h ese ships a re each 36 0 feet lo n g 4 0 f eet b eam a n d 1 4 5 f eet

. , ,

m ea n dr aught of wate r ; thei r displace m e n t is to n s a n d wetted ski n ,

about sq u a r e f eet with block coefficie n t of fin e n ess of 0 5 03 Thei r

,
.

bo iler s w er e sim ilar in all r espects a n d their t rials we r e co n ducted on e x actly

,

L5 0 0 0

32

30

14

S ca le of Speed .

Fi g 4 0 — T r ia
. . l s of “
Am e t h y s t (Tu rbin e s ) a nd S is ter S hips ( R e c i proc a t o rs ) .

the sam e lin es with the r esult that wher eas whe n the Topa z e was e x e r ti n g
, ,

the m ax imu m p owe r Of h er r ecip r ocati n g e n gin es I H P the spee d ,

. .

“ ”
attai n ed was k n ots the tur bi n es of the Am ethyst develope d a
,

equivale t to about I H P which d ove h r at a speed Of

S H P
. . . n r e . .

k n o t s Fig 4 0 gives the c u r ves Of power co n su m ptio n etc of the

. . ,
.
,

t wo ships a n d thei r S is te r s hi ps fi tted with r ecip r ocato rs .

A m B i
Th e Experimen ts m a d e in t h e O f e rica with the c r uise r r

m i n gh a m
”
fi tted with t i le co m pou d eci r ocato r s a n d the S ale m
r p n r p
-
, ,
,

h avi n g C ru tis tu r bi n es is equally i n te

,
r esti n g These shi p s a re othe r wise .
 COM B I N A T I ON OF T U R B I N ES W ITH R E CI PR OC TOR S A . 93

a like , and4 20 f ee t lo n g, 4 7 f eet be a in , m ea n d r a ft the d isplace me n t ,

ton s , a n d the wetted sk in about squa r e f eet They a re of .

very fin e f orm, the block coe fficie n t bein g The Cur tis tur bi n es d rove
”
the S ale m at a speed of 2 5 94 7 k n ots , with a n d a coal
c o n su m ptio n Of lbs pe r S H P per hour ( equivale n t t o . .
pe r I H P
. . . . .

o f a r ecip r ocato r ) The r ecipr ocato r s d r ove the B ir mi n gha m at 2 4 325

.

k n ots spee d , with co n su mi n g lbs of coal at k n ot s . .

“
wi th I H P the co n su m ptio n of coal of the
. . B i r mi n gha m wa s
“ ”
lbs , agai n st the. lbs of the S ale m at k n ots with
. .

S H P . . .

Experimen ts were made by th e German Governmen t with t h e c ruise r

”
L ubeck of ,to n s displace me n t , 3 4 1 f eet lo n g , 4 3 feet bea m a n d ,

1 6 4 f eet d r a ft Of wate r , d r ive n by tur bi n es Ope r ati n g on f ou r sha fts each ,

S ha ft hav in g two sc r ews at a speed of 2 3 k n ots a n d the twi n sc r ew siste r -

”
shi p , Ha m bu r g , havin g r ecipr ocati n g e n gi n es ; but in this case the supe r i
o r it y of the tu r bi n e was n ot de m on str ated , i n as much as it took HP . .

t o a t t a in a speed Of k n ots with the L ubeck , a n d o n ly f or

’

k n ots with the r ecip r ocato r s D oubtless however , this was in n o .

,

s m all m easur e due to the sc r ew a r r a n ge m e n t which was a bad on e a n d , ,

p r obably the p r opeller e fficien cy was ver y low S in ce those e x pe ri me n ts .

we r e m ade , the Ge rm a n Ad mir alty have f oll owed the lea d of the B ritish ,

a n d n ow a re havi n g t u r bi n es of k in ds fitted in thei r wa r ships .

Table X I V a su mm a r ises the above . .

The f ollo wi n g table is i n ter estin g a n d i n structive S howin g , as it d oes , ,

” ”
the co m par ative stea m co n su m ptio n s of the Am ethyst a n d Topa z e
a t S peeds va r yin g fr o m 1 0 k n ots to 2 2 i n cludi n g the stea m used by the a u x ,

ilia r ies I t m ust be bo rn e in m i n d whe n con side r i n g the sa m e , that the

.
,

e n g in es of the Topa z e we r e n ot design ed p ri m a r ily for eco n o my , Con s e

q ue n tly their co n sum pt ion of stea m
p e r I H P is ve r y high co m pa r ed with . . .

that of the quadru ple co m poun d e n gin es of the mer ca n til e m arin e , such as
-

”
fitted in S a x on ia , co n str ucted by John B r own CO a n d tested by .
,

t h e Ad m ir alty B oiler Co mmi ttee , whe r e it was f oun d t o be lbs per I H P . . . .

when on se r vice At the sa m e ti m e, the therm al e fficien cy Of the Topa ze s

’

en gin es w as m ea n s bad co n side r i n g the co n ditio n s

by no un de r which they
wor ked , f or h er stea m co n su mption in m ai n e n gin es o n ly was but 1 6 91 at
a speed of 2 0 k n ots a n d at 1 8 k n ots

T AB LE XV .
— WA TE R CON S U M PT I ON PE R I H P
. . . H OU R OF
P ER H MS
. . .

”
AM E T H Y S T AN D T OP A ZE ON PR OG R E S S I V E T R IAL S .

S pe e d i n K n ot s . 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

( T u rb a ) , 2 93 26 0

1 96 188 18 4

Combin a ti onof T u rbin es wi t h R eciproca t ors see m s to be the most likely

d evelop m e n t of m a ri n e stea m m achi n e r y in the futu r e , a n d I t has al ready
94 M A N U AL or M A R I N E E N G I N EE R I N G .

bee n a dopted successfully by D e nn y Co also by Har la n d Wol ff .

i n the T r a nsatla n tic stea m shi ps r ece n tly built by the m for the Whi te S ta r
Co mpa n y a n d othe rs S i n ce the t riple e x pa n sio n e n gi n e is m or e eco n o mic
.

tha n is the boile r e n d hal f Of a tu rbi n e wh ile the other or co n de n ser e n d Of ,

the latter is much m or e econ om ic tha n the r ecip r ocato r a n d c a n m ake good ,

use Of a hi gh vacuum such a co mbin atio n of the two is obviously a fitti n g

,

on e a n d a desi r able thi n g

,
Furthe r si n ce at slow a n d cruisi n g speeds the
.
,

tur bi n e is n ot eco n o mi cal whil e the t riple compoun d e n gin e is ver y f ai rly
,
-

so these latter e n gi n es c a n b e e m ployed by them selves to p r opel w ithout

,

usi n g the tur bi n es by e x hausti n g di r ect t o the co n den se r Fig 4 1 shows . .

an a rr a n ge m e n t p r oposed by Par so n s for deali n g with a thr ee screw -

ship he re each wi n g sc rew i s d r ive n by a four cyli n de r t riple ex pan sio n

°
-

e n gin e a rr a n ged to ex haust either to its own con de n ser or to a low pr essur e -

tur bin e operatin g a cen tral scr ew a n d e x haustin g t o the sam e con de n se r .

Fig 4 2 is a n e x a mpl e by the sa m e ge n tle m a n for a f ou r scr ew arr a n ge m e n t

.
-
,

in which each i nn e r scr ew has its own t r iple co m poun d e n gi n e e x hausti n g -

di r ect to its own co n de n ser or to a low p r essur e tur bin e Oper ati ng a wi n g
.
,
.

screw a n d e x hausti n g to the con de n ser

, That is in each case a tu rbi n e .
,

is i n te rposed betwe en the L P cylin de r a n d the co n de n se r in o rder that . .

,

the s t ea m fr om it at 1 0 lbs p r essur e absolute m a y be use fully e m ployed

o .

in e x pa n di n g dow n to the pou n d or eve n less p r essu r e Of t h e

co n de n se r .

Messr s D e n n y B r other s Of D um bar to n fitted the s s

.
, Otaki with , . .

tr iples a n d low p r essu r e tur bin e s a n d de m on str ated that the gai n ove r the
-
,
”
a rra n ge m en t with t riple e n gin es in the sis t er ship 8 S Or ar i w a s as m uch ,
. .
,

as 1 7 pe r cen t Car e ful e x per im en ts with t r iple e x pan sio n e n gi n es at electr ic

.
-

powe r statio n s on sho r e S how that fully 1 5 pe r ce n t m o r e p owe r is Obtain ed .

with the sa m e co n su m ptio n of stea m if a low p r essur e tu r bin e is i n te r posed -

in this way betwee n it a n d the con de n se r .

The f ollo wi n g a re the figu res give n by Com Wisn om of D en n y s fr o m .

,
’

the t r ials Of the above t w o stea m e r s

”
Th e Performan ce of Ota k i havin g t w o sets of o r din ar y t riple ,

e x pan sio n e n gi n es each d rivi n g a wi n g p r opelle r as in a twi n scr ew ship

,
-
,

a n d both e x hausti n g t o a low p r essu r e t u rbi n e d r ivi n g a p r opelle r on the

-

m iddle li n e as in a sin gle scr ew ship ; built by D e n n y B ro s of D u m ba r to n

-
, ,
”
for the N e w Zeala n d S CO a n d sister ship t o the twi n scr ew stea m e r Or ar i
.
-
,

which was howeve r , feet S ho r te r, .

The Otaki has a displace m en t Of to n s on 2 75 mean d r aught ,

a n d h e r p r i n cipal d i m e n sio n s

L e n gth betwee n perpen dicula r s ,

B ea m m oulded ,

D epth

2
53
6 8
Each Of h er r ecip r ocati n g e n gin es has cyli n de r s while each
”
-
69
Of those Of the siste r ships , Opawa an d Ora r i ,
a re ”
48
t u rbi n es of the Otaki has a r oto r 90 i n ches dia meter .
COM B N
I A TI ON OF T U R B I N ES WIT H I A
R E C P R OC T OR S . 95
 ”
PE R FOR MAN CE or as .
“
0 mm .
97

The followi n g is a co mpa rative su mma ry Of r esults of t rials at 1 46 k n ots

sp ee d on the m easured mile

W a t e r Co n s u m p t ion pe r H ou r .

N a m e of Sh ip .

Pe r E H P. . . Pe r I H P . . .

Pe r cen t .

3 -
s c re w S S . . Ota k i ( tu r bo

219
”
2 -
sc r e w S s . . Ora ri ( r ec i
pros ) ,

”
G a in pe r c en t in . Ota k i,

T AB L E XV I .
—
ME AS U R En MIL E T R IAL S O F S S OT A K I . .
,

OCT O B E R 3 1 1 908 O N 2 0 FE E T ME A N D R AUG H T

, , .

M ea n of M ea n of M ean of M ean of
A R u ns . B R u ns . CR u ns . D R u ns .

t l
T o a h ors e p ow e r, be in g I H P -
. . .
( rec ipros )
S H P . . .

Mea n s pee d ,
l t
R e v o u ion s , rec ipr os , ,

u r bin e , t
l t
T ot a w a er c on su m p i on per h ou t r, lb s
pe r H P
i
.

l t
Mean a bso u e p e s su r e a t H P c y lin d er, . .

u r bin e in e , t lt
V a cu u m a t e x h a u s e n d of u r bin e , t t
on c on d en s e r ga u ge ,
t
T e m pe ra u re Of s ea w a er , t
c irc u la t i n g d isc h a rge ,

h ot w e ll ,
t
S e a m c on su mp ion b a s ed on t h e I H P t . . . f
o
S S Ora ri
. . by a n k s , t
As mea su red by pu m ps per 1 H P per h ou r, . . .

Figs 4 3 a n d 4 4 S how the ge n e r al a rr a n ge men t of the m achi n e ry Of the

.

Oly m pic built by Harla n d Wol ff for e x p ress se r vice betwee n

,

En gla n d a n d N e w Yo r k S h e is on e Of the lar gest ships , a n d has wo r ked .

with satis facto ry r es u lts ; S h e is 8 60 ft lo n g , ft bea m a n d 3 2 5 d ra ft . .

,
-

O f wate r , di splace m e n t ton s a n d I H P pr opelled by thr ee , . . .

screws , the two wi n g o n es wo rked by r ecip rocati n g triple co mpoun d e n gin es , -

each havi n g four cyli n der s , 5 4 8 4 , 97, a n d 97 in ches di am eter , a n d 6 3 i n ches ,

str oke , a n d the middle by low pressur e Cu rtis tur bi n e taki n g the stea m -
,

sup ply fr o m the L P cylin d er s Of the r ecip r ocato r s . fig . .

A D evel opment with existi ng Sin gle-s crew Shi ps could be m a d e by fittin g
t wo low p r essur e tu r bi n es aba ft the old t r iple e n gin e , each ope r ati n g a wi n g
-

screw , a n d both e x h austin g to the old co n den se r ; this would p robably

7
98 MAN U AL OF M AR I N E E N GI N EER I N G
'

.
 I
E N G N E R OOM or
-
R M S. . .
99

be qui t e as good for ca rgo a n d mi x e d stea me r s as pulli n g ou t the O ld

e n gi n es a n d fitti n g t w o tu r bi n e s gea r ed to t h e o r i gin al sc re w S ha fti n g fi
( g
.
 OI L EN G I N ES .
101

Tr ouble howeve r is e x pe rie n ced

, ,

s o meti m es with these t r u n k pisto n s

whe n of la rge si ze so that reco u rse is ,

h a d n ow to the pisto n rod type w h e n -

t h e cyli n de r s in c r ease in d ia m ete r at

p r ese n t 30 i n ches dia m ete r is c on
*

s id er ed about as la r ge as should be

m ade for m a rin e e n gi n es on t he D iesel

syste m whe r e the in itial p ressu re is
,

e x ceedi n gly high especially if c om ,

pare d with the m ea n I t is so m eti mes .

.
a s high as 4 0 but is ge n er ally 35
,

. at mosphe res in these e n gin es at

c o mm e n ce m e n t of the st r oke but , ,

owi n g to the high co m p ress ion

e fl e ct e d
'

the r e is little or n o shock

,

at co mm en ce men t of str ok e This .

e n gin e howeve r n otwithstan din g su ch

, ,

i n itial p ressur es has beco me popul ar ,

in thi s coun tr y as it h a d bee n for ,

so me ti m e on the Co n tin e n t whe re ,

it has p r oved successfu l whe n wor k

in g with that co mpa r atively saf e
fu el heavy oil with a high flash poi n t
o r r esiduals .

Th e D es ign of Oil Engin es was at

fir st ve r y S i mi la r to that f ollowed for
la n d en gi n es N ow howeve r the
.
, ,

t e n d e n cy is to co n fo r m t o the m ari n e
“
pr actice f oun d to be the best f or
stea m e n gin es ; their builder s also
adopt the e n closed type with f or ced
lub rication a n d S O Obtai n good a n d
,

sa f e r un n in g at hi gh r ates Of rev olu .

tio n Fig 1 7 is a good e x a m ple of a

. .

Th orn y c r oft 1 00 H P m a r in e petr ol . .

e n gin e the r eve rsin g Of whi ch is m ade

,

by m ea n s of a clutch gear which ,

d oes well e n ough in s m all c r a ft ,

bei n g S im ilar to the m ethod by

wh ic h m oto r dr iven vehicles a re r e
-

ve rse d .

Th e D iesel Engine I s ge n e r ally

d esig n ed to wo r k on t h e usual
f ou r cycle syste m a n d its moda s
-
,

opera n di is as al ready described

figs 5 0 a n d 5 0a )
. but a t ,

t e che d to it is a thr ee stage a ir -

c o m p r esso r which n ot o n l y supplies

,

V i de Appen d ix A
MANUAL o r M AR I N E EN G I N E ER I N G .
 Y L
T wo- C C E D I ES E L EN GI N E . 1 03

the a ir for i n j ecti n g the oil but p r ovi d es a m ea n s O f wo rki n g the e n gi n e a n d

,

r eve r si n g i t whe n r eq u i r e d by usi n g the O il cyli n d e rs as i n a n a i r e n gi n e ,

w he n by special m ea n s it is put ou t Of actio n as a n Oil e n gi n e The e n gi n es

, , .

on the t w o cycle syste m have also on e or m o r e low pr essu r e pu mps

-
fig -
.

5 0a ) to supply the a ir for scave n gi n g a n d filli n g the cyli n de rs I n so m e .

ma r i n e desig n s these pu mps a re wor ked by leve r s a n d l ike the o rdi n a r y ,

a ir pu m ps of a stea m e n gi n e The high r ate of co m p ressio n of the .

a ir p r eve n ts S hock on e x plodi n g t h e m i x tu r e O f a ir a n d Oil vapou r as woul d ,

be the c ase if the load ca m e on sudde n ly as it d oes in the o rdi n a ry e n gi n e

'

whe n t h e r e is n o such co mp ressio n The ratio of m a x imu m to m ea n .

p ressu r e ( 4 3 1 ) is e x ceed in gly high in all such e n gi n es a n d co n seque n tly ,

t h e r ods fr a mi n g c r a n k sha fts etc

, ,
m ust be la r ge by co m pa r iso n wit h
, .
,

those Of stea m e n gi n es it follows that the weight of these e n gi n es pe r ho rse

,

powe r is ver y great a n d n ot m uch l ess tha n that of a stea m i n stallatio n

,

i n cludi n g the boile rs on the othe r ha n d the co n su mptio n Of Oil fuel is o n ly ,

about 4 0 per ce n t that in a n Oil fir ed steamshi p

.
-
.

The double acti n g cyli n de r in w h ich ex plosives take place on both sides
-

O f the pisto n h ave yet to be p r oved equal to co n ti n uous se r vice ; doubtless

the pisto n s must be in that case wate r cooled a n d the s t u ffin g bo x es m ost -
,
-

ca re fully m ade a n d m ai n tai n ed to be satis factory To co m pete with large .

po w e r s the double acti n g en gi n e is desi rable but it still r e m ai n s for e n gin ee ri n g

-
,

S kill a n d r esou r ce to get ove r t h ese p r actical d i fficulties I n ti m e t oo the .

, ,

r eve rsi n g m a y n ot be e ff ecte d by quite such clu m sy a n d i n dir ect m ea n s as

p r evail at p rese n t with geari n g or subsidia ry co m p ressed a ir a rran ge m e n ts .

Fig 4 9 is a section al view of a D iesel e n gi n e as m ade by Mir rlee s

.

B icke r to n Co m pa n y for s m all powe r on the fou r cycle syste m and -

,

n on r eve r sible
-
.

D ou b l e a cting D iesel t wo cycle e n gi n es of co n siderable powe r have bee n

- -

ma d e in la r ge S i zes on the Co n t in e n t Her e the cycle with its co m p ressio n .

a n d co m bustio n f o llows its cou r se as in the si n gle acti n g e n gi n e but in ,

this case on both si d es of the pisto n as in fig 4 8 The powe r develop ed , . .

is thus p r actically d ouble d in a give n S i ze of cylin de r ; or t h e sa me powe r

Obtain e d with about hal f the cyli n de r capacity Ther e a r e the usual p ractical .

O b j ectio n s to this syste m Of overheatin g both piston s a n d cyli n de rs ,

although they a re water cooled a n d the di fficulty with s t u ffin g bo x es e x posed

,
-

to such hi gh te mpe ratur es Mo reover to Obtai n such high co m p r ess i o n

.
,

the clear an ce must be ver y s mall for wi th 35 at m ospher es at ea ch en d it ,

must be less tha n 3 per ce n t Of the cyli n de r capacity a n d co n seque n tly .

,

t h e st roke clea r a n ce about 2 pe r ce n t — that is with a n e n gi n e of 1 0 i n ches ,

str oke I t is n ot more tha n i ch at each e n d a n d must n ot va r y ma te rially

3
n
1 5 ,

fro m this at a n y ti m e .

The s t u ffin g box di fficulty ma y be over co me by havi n g hollow r ods

-
,

thr ough which wate r is passed t o the pisto n s a n d kept in c irc u latio n as ,

D r Ki r k did with stea m for heatin g the L P pisto n s of the ea rly co mpou n d
. . .

e n gin es m ade by J Elder 85 CO for the N avy . I t is howeve r ve ry . .

, ,

d o u bt ful if the two cycle do u ble acti n g e n gin e will be satis facto ry for eve n
-

in te r mit t e n t ru n n i n g a n d ther e I s r easo n to thi n k it is u n likely to be so for

,

co n t in uo u s wo r k on s hipboard in large Si zes .

Th e Two cycle D ies el Eng ine d i ff e r s fr o m the fou r i n as much as the

-

fr esh a ir is a d mitted above the pisto n whe n it is at the botto m O f the s t rok e
 T II E F UEL CON S U M PTI ON . 1 05

on e seve n th fr o m the botto m ; the pisto n co n tin uin g its st roke co m presses
-

it to the e n d whe n the Oil is sp r aye d in as be for e I n this way a n i m pulse is .

m ade at eve ry r evolutio n i n stea d O f at eve r y othe r on e as in the

, Otto
c ycle This still fu rther in cr eases the powe r developed by a u n it Of cy lin d er
.

c a pacity but it likewise i n cr eases the heat productio n a n d the di fficulties

,

that a rise fr o m high te m p eratu res .

Th e Fu el Consu mMion Of these e n gin es is ge n e rally less tha n 0 4 p ou n d

o f O il
per hor se powe r , a n d in ve r y f avou r able cases as low as 0 3 4 8 lb
-
.

Taki n g 1 0 lbs Of stea m as a ve ry go od perf orm a n ce for a turbi n e a n d 1 6 lbs

. , .

Fig 4 9 — S in gle Actin g

. .
-
Mirilees D ies el
-
Ma r in e Oil En gin e .

Of stea m p er
p ound of Oil whe n burn ed to be p r oduced in a good b oile r the n ,

Co n sum ptio n Of Oil per hou r of a tu rbi n e 10 1 6, or 0 625 lb .

If the co n sum ption of the L usitan i a be take n as lbs in the tu rbi n es .

a lo n e an d
, lbs the total f or all pu rposes the Oil fuel co n su m ptio n
.
,

will be 98 a n d 0 903 lb pe r equal t o 0 766 a n d 0 8 6 7 per I H P

. . . .

r espectively .

Taki n g however the co n su m ptio n of the Otaki with the co m bi n ed

, ,

tu r bo r ecip r ocato r s as 1 2 lbs of stea m pe r hou r the Oil fuel for h e r would
-
.
,
1 06 M AN UAL OF M AR I N E EN GI N EE R I N G .

be 0 75 lb Although this co n su mptio n

.
of Oil fuel is co n side r ably g rea t e r
tha n that Of the Oil e n gin e the a mou n t
,
Of lub ricati n g Oil in the D iesel is

very much higher ; in fact e x cessive co mpa red with that Of a reci procat ing
,

steam e n gin e Of equal powe r .

ry for
W n Oil
he e n gin es a r e used on boa rd sea goi n g S hi-

ps it is n e ce s sa
,
 T H E FU E L CON S U M PTI ON .

t he m to have powe r for stee ri n g a n d othe r pu rposes ge n erated by a n in de

p e n d e n t oil e n gin e a n d electrically distributed The whistle m a y be b low n
.

With sto re d co mp resse d a ir fro m the m ai n e n gi n e co m p r esso r so that the re

,

a r e n o i n supe r able di fficulties n ow these e n gi n e s ca n be r elied on to stop st

, ar t
,
 e AM T U R B I N ES . 1 09

CH APT ER IV .

STE AM U S E D E XP A N S I V E LY .

I n t h e R eciproca ting wo rk is do n e by the elastic f o rce of the stea m

en gin e
act in g on the pisto n s a n d pr es s in g the m f or wa r d on thei r str okes agai n st
,

the back p r essu r e behi n d the m du ri n g its e x pa n sio n f r om the ti me it e n te rs

the cyli n d er to the ti m e it is a llowed to escape to the free at m osphe r e in t h e
case of a n on co n de n si n g or to the co n de n ser of a co n d e n si n g e n gi n e
-
.

Fr o m t h e ti m e of e n te r i n g to the ti m e of cut oil e x pa n sion is taki n g plac e -

,

though it is slight a n d o ften n ot ap preciable ; a fte r cut oil it is r eal co n side rable -

, ,

a n d quick it is co n ti n uous to the e n d a n d t h e r ate is e x p ressed by the rati o ,

of the capacity of the L P cyli n de r t o that p o r tio n of the H P which was

. . . .

filled wi th stea m at cut oil This is n o mi n ally the r ate a n d would be really
-
.
,

so if t h e ad missio n valve we r e lar ge a n d wide ope n till it closed a n d cut ofi -

m ade sudde n ly as is the case W ith the Co r liss or d r op valves

, I n p r actice .
,

however at the e x act poi n t of cut oil with the o r di n a ry slide valves t h e
"

-
,

stea m is wir e d raw n down co n sider ably below the p r essur e in the valv e
-
.

cha m be r whi ch latte r m a y be take n as the i ni tial p r essur e

, .

With S team T u rbin es stea m is ad mi tted co n tin uously i n stead of i n ter

-

mi t t e n t ly as in r ecip r ocato r s the e x pa n sio n co mmen ces i mm ediately it

e n te r s the n o zzles or thei r equivalen ts a n d m a y be wholly carried ou t in on e ,

n o zzle a n d the whole velocity due t o the f all fr o m boiler p r essur e t o e x haust
,

p r essur e ge n er ated at o n ce a n d the ki netic e n ergy e x pe n ded on the blade s

,

of a si n gle r oto r as show n in fig 5 2 The well k n ow n D e L aval turbi n e

,
. .

is on this p r in ciple a n d co n seque n tly r un s at a ver y high r ate of re volutio n

, ,

si n ce the velocity acquir ed by stea m in f al li n g fr o m 1 60 lbs to 3 lbs absolut e . .

( vacuum 2 4 in ches ) is f eet per secon d a n d the pe r i phe r al velocity of ,

r oto r f or this flow i f the e fficie n cy is t o b e good m ust b e n ot much less tha n
, ,

feet ; f or a tu r b in e of this ki n d with a r oto r 38 i n ches dia m ete r t h e ,

r ate of r evolutio n should b e 1 8 0 pe r seco n d or

p e r mi n ute as a m atte r ,

of f act a D e L aval tu rbi n e of 3 00 H P has a r oto r 3 0 i n ches dia mete r r u n n i n g

, . .

at 1 0 600 r evolutio n s per mi n ute

,
.

Th e Expans ion may be in S tages howeve r a n d fig 5 2 a shows how thi s , , .

m a y b e acco m plished I n a r udi m e n ta r y way by causi n g the fir st r oto r to r u n .

in a cha m be r whe r e the p r essu r e is below that at e n t r y but is so m ewha t ,

above that at the fin al e x haust to co n de n se r The velocity of flow will the n .

be much less tha n that stated as the d r op wi ll be less ( sa y t o 2 5 lbs a bs o

,
.
‘

lute i n ste ad of The stea m fr o m that cha mbe r will pass i n to a n d thr ough
a n othe r n o z zle whe r e f u rthe r e x pa n sio n takes place wi th a r e n ewal of velocity
,

to the stea m the r eby givi n g it f urt he r ki n etic e n e rgy to b e e x pe n ded on

,

the blades of a seco n d r oto r I n all cases of tu rbi n es the r ate of e x pa n sio n
.
,

is e x p r essed by the r atio of the i ni tial p r essur e t o that at e x h aus t — that 13 ,

3 7
p1 P0
““

In the above e x a mple 7 1 60 3, or 533 .

1 10 M AN U AL or M A R I N E EN GI N E ER I N G .

Modera tel y Mois t Steam expan ds in acco rd a n ce with B oyle Mar riott
’
and s

law whe r eby the p ressur e va r ies i n ve r sely as the vol u me— that is ,

pr 0 .

The n ,

1 hyp log r
The m ean p r essu r e
.

pl r

The hype rbolic logar ith m of a n u mber m a y b e fou n d by m ultipl y i n g the

co mm o n loga r ith m of that n u m be r by 2 302 5 8 5 .

The r e I S a si m plicity I n th is r ule that co mm e n d s it to the p r actical m i n d ,

a n d as stea m i n m a r i n e e n gi n es is usually f ai r ly m oist it m a y ge n e r ally ,

be used t o solve with sufficie n t accu r acy the ever y day p r oble m s con n ecte d

Fig 5 2 — T u r bo Mot oe
. .
- Fig 5 24 — Co mpou
. . nd Tu r b o- Mot or
( D e L a v al s y s t e m ) .
( D e La va l sy s t e m ) .

with the m a ri n e en gi n e . S uch an e x p a ns io n at co n stan t te mpe r atu r e is cal led

isothe rm al .

The termi n al p r essu r e

T he r e f o r e ,

( 1 ) R atio of m ea n p r essur e to te rmi n al p r essu re

(2) R atio of te rmi n al p r essu r e to m ea n p r essu r e

( 3 ) R atio of m a x i mu m p r essu r e to m ea n p r essu r e

( 4 ) D ry stea m is assu m ed to e x pa nd gi l
 S TE M A T U R B I N ES . 11 l

The f ollowi n g tabl e will be f ou n d use ful a n d co n tai n s the m ultiplie r s

,

f or asce rtai n in g the m ea n p r essu r e of stea m whe n e x pa n di n g on B oyle s

’

law as well as whe n e x pa n di n g a dia ba t ic a llv

, .

T AB L E X V I I .
— S T EA M US ED EX P A N S I V E L Y .

Whe n stea m e x pa n ds i n acco r dan ce with the law p r

. co n sta n t the ,

cur ve d r aw n thr ough t h e e x tr e m ities of o rdi n ates r ep r ese n ti n g the p r essu r e

at a n y positio n of the pisto n is a hype r bola The m ea n height of such a .

s y ste m of o r di n ates is f oun d by the f o rm ula give n above ; this m ea n height

will r ep r ese n t the m ea n p r essur e
The m ea n p r essu r e m a y be obtai n ed without t he aid of logar ith m s by
.

r eso rti n g to a r ithm etical calculatio n of the o r di n ates a n d fin di n g the m ea n ,

by the m etho d usually f ollowed with i n dicato r d iag ra m s .

Ex a mple — I n itial p r essu r e 80 lbs r ate of e x pa n sio n 5 S uppose the .

le n gth of str oke divided i n to t en equal pa r ts by poi n ts 1 2 3 9 , , , ,

10 . The cut ofi is 3 or t w o te n ths the st r oke

-
1
,
-
.
 S T EAM T U R B I N ES . l 13

1
17 1 6r " '

7”

i l
‘'
ma y be fo u n d by e x tra c ti n g t he s qu a r e r oot of —
-
fo u r t i mes .
r

Pi "
-

Colu mn 6 gives the value of as calculated f ro m the above f o rmul a .

pl
I t W I ll be see n that e x cept at ve r y hi gh r ates of e x pa n sio n the r e is n o ve ry
, ,

g reat difiere n c e between the r atio as calcu l ated by this metho d a n d by t h e

m ethod f or mo d e r ately m oist stea m .

Cl ea ran ce — I n p r actice the m ea n pr es s ur e in t h e cyli n de r is ve r y m ate ri

.

ally a ff ected by what is called clea ra n ce H owever accu r ately the e n gi n e is .

co n str ucted the r e is always at the co mm e n ce m e n t of the str oke a spac e

,

betwee n the pisto n a n d cut off valve made up of t h e pa r t of the cy li n de r

-
,

b etwee n the pisto n a n d the cove r or cylin de r e n d a nd the passage bet wee n ,

valve face a n d cyli n de r ; thi s is called the c lea ran ce S up posi n g this s pace is .

equal t o on e te n th of the capacity of the cyli n de r, a n d the cut off is at t w o

- -

te n ths the st r oke the efiec tzve cut off is n ot t w o te n ths but so m ethi n g m o r e
'

- -

, , ,

due to the f act that the ex pan sion of a volu m e of steam equali n g thr ee te n ths -

the capacity of cyli n de r is bei n g e ff ected i n stead of that of a vol u m e of t w o ,

te n ths T hi s pr actically a m o u n ts t o m aki n g the cyli n der 1 0 per ce n t lo n ge r

. .
,

a n d cutti n g off at th r ee te n ths the str oke without clea r a n ce

-
I t is the re .
,

f o r e custo m ar y to speak of the clear a n ce as e qual to a ce r tai n fr action

,

of the st r oke This , howeve r , must be disti n guished fr o m the li n eal clear a n ce
.

or dista n ce of the pisto n fr o m the cyli n de r e n ds while at the e x tr e m e

li m its of its str oke T hi s should be e x p r essed always as a de fin ite le n gth

.
,

a n d n ot as a f ractio n of the st r oke ; it m a y be , a n d o ft e n is , c a lled s tr oke

cle a r a n ce while the space is volu me clea ra n ce

,
.

T o allow f or the e ff ect whi ch the c lea ra n ce will have whe n s te a m ex p a n d s

i n a cylin der let r be the n o mi n al r ate of e x p a n sio n a s be for e , a n d r l be t h e
,

a ct u a l r ate allo w i n g f or clea r a n ce , c the clea r a n ce as a fr actio n of t h e cyli n d er

capacity . Then

I
1
c b ei n g t h e volu m e of stea m at cu t off be tw e e n t h e p i s t on an d the cu t ofi

valve a n d which e x pa n d s t o t h e vol u m e 1

,
c at t h e e n d of t he str oke . If
th e r e is n o c ushi on i n g of t h e s t eam bef o r e ad m i ss io n th e n , t he w h ole of t he

space
i a m us t be fill ed at eac h str ok e w ith f r es h s tea m .

Th en the r ea l me a n a bs olu te p r es su re will be

' '

P . p

by mea n s a ctu a l r a t e of
'
p is t h e m ea n p r essu re obt a i n ed of Table x vn .
, the
8
114 MAN UA L or MAR I N E EN G I N EER I N G .

pa sio b i g t ake n d i s t h e absolut e i n i tial p r es su r e I f h oweve r

ex n n e n n a p1 ,
.
, ,

m h
e
th r e i s su ffi cie n t cus h io n i n g t o fi ll t h e clea r a n c e
h
sp a ce wit h ll
s t ea at t
n ly th at
e

in itial p r essu r e the volu m,

e o f s t e a m use d at eac st r oke W i be o
1
s wept by th e e qual to
pisto n at cu t -
off a n d
7
Compres sio n or C u sh i onin g — The r e will be a n i n c r ease of ba ck p r essu re

caused by thi s cu sh ion i n g a n d i t s eff ect on t h e m ea n pr essu r e is as f ollows

,
1
Let p
’
be th e mean absolu t e pr es su r e d u e to the efl bct i v e c u t—
off Po t h e
,
1

a bsolute ba ck p r essu r e c th e clea ra n ce and PI t h e a bsolu t e ini ti al p r essure

as be f or e .

Fig 5 4 . is the i n dicator diagram of a n e n gi n e wo r k i n g u n d e r th ese co n d i

—

t io n s . A B is the str oke A C t h e clea r an ce E F t h e n o m i n al c u t off a n d

, ,
-
.

CB
D F t h e eff ective . Th e ac u t al rate of e x pan s io n is th e r e f o r e CD
D F
re pr esen ts t h e i n itial p r essu r e an d H K t h e ba ck p r essu r e c om . Cus h io n i n g
me n c es at K wi t h p r essu r e Po a n d at A t h e p r essu r e is P r »

The figu r e C D E H K is t h e d iag r am d u e t o the e x pan s io n of s t e a m of a

v olu m e equalli n
g c at a p r essu r e P1 to a p r essu r e Po s o th at t h e r a t e of i t s ,

ex pa n sio n is
gg — N ow p1 x D E 270 x C K, a n d, th e r e fo r e ,

PI CK
_
,

Po D E
S i n ce P 1 and P0 both k n ow n t h e r ate
a re of e x pan sion is k n ow n a n d by ,

r e f e r ri n g to Tabl e x vii t h e m ea n p r essur e

. d u e to th is r ate of e x pa n sio n i s
f ou n d .

Th e a r ea H EFG a r ea CD FG B -
( a rea Q D E II K
-

+ a r ea H K B)

(A B A O)
’

(l )
’
CD F G B p m x
p u
c

H K B p o (A B AK ) =
p,
( 1

CD E H K

H E FG
‘

p" ,
x l , or t h e eff ect i v e m ea n p r essu re .
 S TE M A T U R B I N ES . 1 15

T h e r ef o r e , t h e e ffe c tive me a n p r essu r e

l — c
70 7 -
77
II

( )
' P m
Pm 1 _

Po

(p a . p .) <
1 c ) op
.
( i s) 1 ( C)
Gen eral Eff ect of
Clearan ce an d Cu shi on i n g — L e t p , t h e absolu t e i n itial
’

p r essu r e , be r ep r e se n te d i n Fig 5 4 by C D , p o t h e b ac k p r essu r e by B L , A B

.

t h e le n g th of st ro k e, A C the clea r an ce c, A K t h e co m p r essio n x , E F t h e

n o m i n al cut— off, r the n o m i n al r a t e of e x pa n sio n , the r eal r ate of e x pa n
s io n , & c , & c , as b e f or e
' ’

p m t h e m ea n p r essu r e d u e t o a n i n itial p r essu r e p ,

?
. . .

a r ate of e x pan sio n p m the r eal m ea n p r essu r e of N E F G L H As

ie
n .

or e

l + o
r
l + cr

S i n ce t he s t ea m at poi n t K is shut up in a space ac c, a n d is com p r esse d

a: 0
I n t o a space th e c ompr es s w n rs an d th e p r es su r e af te r c om
. 0, r a te o
f c

a: c
p r ession at N is p ‘
170, a n d r ep r ese n te d by A N or CM le t p f, be
c
t h e m ea n p r essu r e of t h e figu r e M N H K C which is that d u , e to a pr essu r e
x + c x + c
p a, an d a r ate of e x pan sio n
c c

The a r ea N E FG L H CD F G B D EN M MN H K C KE L B .

N EFG L H x 1 .

CD F G B (1 )
'

p c .

“ ”
D EN M
I c =
w u
pp c —
m a

MN c =
q s a + a .

KE L B p, (1 x) .

)
i

P m a 4“ c
Po x
} c ) -
po ( 1
-
w)
— 2x —
( 2)
'

) p c — p0 (l -
c

Ex a mp le I — T o fin d the e ff ective m ea n p r essu r e i n a cyli n d e r h avi n g a

.

c lea r an ce spac e e qual t o on e seve n th its capacity t h e i n itial p r essu r e 8 0 lbs

-

,
.

a bsolute the bac k p r essu r e 1 0 lbs absolute a n d t h e n o m i n al cut off l t h e -

‘ .
,

st r oke
( 1 ) I f n o co m p r essio n

ii g
1
= 5
r = 5 x
g

By r e f e r e n ce to Tabl e x vii 0 6 6 1 5 f or a r ate of e x pan sio n 33 3

 M EA N P R ES S URE IN A COM PO U N D EN GI N E . 1 17

The e ff ective m ea n p ressur e by f o rmula ( C) p 1 1 5 ,

. .

( 79 22 5 ) ( 1 a s ( 1 2 3 9)
-

lbs .

T h us showi n g a l o ss of lbs or 1 0 8 pe r ce n t o n ly The loss fr o m the

.
, . .

c lea r a n ce in a co m pou n d is n ot so se r ious as i n the e x pa n sive e n gi n e and ,

in the H P a n d M P cyli n de r s of a t riple or quad r uple e n gi n e is of n o c on s e

. . . .

u e n c e as the stea m in the f o r m e r ( which has passed fr o m the high p r essu r e

q
-

c yli n d e r without giv in g ou t its f ull wo r k ) will do m o r e wo r k i n the m ediu m ,

p r essu r e a n d low p r essu r e cyli n de r s ; whe r eas with the e x pa n sive e n gi n e the
-
, ,

e x haust stea m passes d i r ect t o the co n de n se r at a highe r p r essur e tha n if the r e

i s n o clea r a n ce Fu rt he r si n ce the cut off in a n e x pa n sive e n gi n e is m uc h

.
,
-

e a r lie r tha n in a co m pou n d a n d the clear a n ce f r o m p r actical co n side r atio n s is

,

v e r y m uch the sa m e the r atio of clea r a n ce to volu m e at cut off will be m uc h

"
-
,
‘
h ighe r in the f o rm er tha n in the latte r Co n side r able loss is howeve r e x .
, ,

p e r ie n c e d in co m pou n d t riple a n d quad r uple e n gi n es i f the clea r a n ce in the

, ,

low p r essu r e cyli n de r is la r ge the re f or e in that it should be as s m all as possible

-
, .

The be n eficial e ff ect of cushio n i n g i s see n in both the p r ecedi n g e x a m ples ,

but its value i s gr eater still whe n the cut off in the high p r essu r e cyli n de r is - -

so m ewhat e a ilier as m a y b e see n by the f ollowi n g

,

Exa mple I I I — The cut ofi i n the cyl in de r of e x a mple ( 2 ) is alte r ed t o

.
-
_

1 the str oke s o that the n o m i n al r ate of e x a n s io n i s 4

3 , p .

( 1 ) N o com p r essio n :
r 4 3 .

1
T he n pm lbs .

an d the e ff ectiv e mean p r essu r e 296 lb s .

The equ i valen t m ea n p r essur e due t o the a m ou n t of stea m used is n ow

of 3 1 1 85 or 4 5 lbs
, thus showi n g a loss of 1 2 per ce n t .

( 2 ) I f f ull co mpr essio n t o 90 lbs .

T h e e ff ective mea n p r essu r e by f orm ula ( C)

13
( 62 1 22 5 ) 5 (1
44
lbs .

T h us sho wi n g a loss of 1 0 8 5 lbs or p e r c en t o n ly .

, . .

The eco n o m y e ffecte d by wo r kin g with a co n sider able a moun t of cushio n i n g

the r e for e v ery a pprecia ble a n d e x pe r ie n ce has p r oved the co rr ect n ess of this
, , .

I n actual p r actice howeve r it o n ly happe n s that s o m uch cushi o n i ng c a n

, ,

b e e ffe cted as t o fill the clear a n ce S pace with steam of p r essur e equal to that
e n t e r i n g i n the H P cyli n de r of a t r iple or qua d ru ple e n i n e which e x hausts
. .
g .

s te a m of hi gh p r essur e but still eve n what is co n ve ni e n tly obtain ed m ate rially

a dds to the eco n o mic wo r ki n g of the e n gi n e I t must n ot howeve r be ove r .
, ,

l ooke d that the efi ec t i ve mean

p res su re is co n side r ably r educed by cushio nin g .

Mean Pressu re in a Compou n d En gine — I f the e ff ective m ea n p r essu r e in .

the high p r essu r e cyli n de r of a co m pou n d e n gin e be divided by the r atio of

-

c apacity of low p r essu r e to that of the hi gh p r essu r e cyli n de r the quotie n t

- -
,

r ep r ese n ts the m ea n p r essu r e n ecessa r y t o d o the sa m e wo r k i n t h e low

p r essu r e cyli n de r as is e ff ected in the high p r essu re cyli n d e r I f this be -

.

a dde d to the e ff ective m ea n p r essu r e i n the low p r essu r e cyli n d e r the s u m -

,

will be the m ea n p r es su r e n ecessa ry t o obtai n fro m the low p r ess u r e cyli n d e r -

118 MA N UA L or M A R I N E EN G I N EE R I N G .

alo n e the whole wo rk do n e by both cyli n de r s a n d m a y be called the equ iva

, ,

lent mea n pr es s u r e I f the r e be n o loss of m ea n p r essu r e owi n g to d rop in

. ,

t h e r eceive r or othe r cause this equi vale n t m ea n p r essu r e will be the sa m e

, ,

as the e ffective mea n p r essu r e obtai n e d by the stea m e x pa n d i n g in on e

cyli n de r at the sa m e r ate as the total e x pa n sio n e ffected in both cyli n d e r s of
t h e co m pou n d e n gi n e I n the two cyli n de r r eceive r f o r m of co m pou n d
.

e n gi n e the r e i s som etim es a con side r able f all I n p r essur e fro m the r elea se
,

poi n t t o the e x haust o wi n g to the low p ressur e m ain tai n e d l n the r eceive r
, ,

or to the late cut off l n the H P cy li n de r . . .

1 ) Two cyli n d e r r e c eive r co m pou n d e n gi n e

(
-
.
o

e t p be t h e i n i tial p r e ss u r e p t h e ba c k p r essu r e i n t h e lo w p r essu r e

0 ,

c yli n d e r p t h e p r essu r e in t h e r eceive r a n d bac k p r essu r e i n t h e hi gh

, ,

p r essu r e cyli n d er R t h e r atio of cyli n d e r ca pacities r t h e tot al r ate of

, ,

e x pans ion r , t h e r ate of e x pan sion in t h e h i gh pr e ssu r e cyli n d e r a n d r th at

,
-
,

in t h e low p r essu r e cyl i n d e r

-
t h e m ea n p r essu r e d u e t o a n I n itial
,
”
p r ess u r e p a n d a r ate of e x pan sion r l z p t h e m ean p r essu r e d u e t o a n
l
, , ,

i n itial p r essu r e p a n d a r at e of e x pan sion r

,,
P m is t h e m ea n p r essu r e d u e , .

t o a r ate of e x pan sio n r a n d a n i n i t ial p r es su r e p 1

,

Th e e ffective m ea n p r essu r e in t h e h i gh p r essu r e cyli n d e r is t h e n

m p a n d th a t m t h e low p r essu r e cyli n d e r 1 3 p p a)
-
.

Als o l h yp log . . r
9
r

1 h yp . log . r
1

S i n ce t h e wo r k pe r f o r m e d i n t h e en g n i e is suppose d to be e q u a lly di v i d e d
be t ween t h e two cyli n d e r s ,
—
Pr = R (P m -
P o) (I)
Bu t if th e r e be n o lo s s d u e t o d r op a n d t h e m ean p r essu r e ,
i n t h e h i gh
p r e s su r e h e r ef e r r ed to t h e low p r es s u r e cyli n d e r t h e n -

f ’
pr
'

i
m
(pm Pm — p 0
R
By s u os t i t u t in g the value of
(p
'

m ( )
1 i n t he above
P p 0) 2
—
P0 ( m
R
pr (Pm Po)
‘

i
L e t x be t h e e fficie n cy of th e syst e m so t hat ( 1
,
x
) is p r opo r tio n of

d u e t o d r op . Th e n
po x ( Pm p 0) 5

R
pr = x P
( m p 0)
- “

To fin d t h e a ct u a l m ea n p r essu r es w h e n th e r e is loss d u e t o d r o p t h e ,

v alue of a: m ust be d ete r m i n e d th is ma y be d o n e by sub s tituti n g t h e v al u e

,
”
of p m a n d p m f ou n d by t h e p r e c e d i n g f o r m ul ae b u t a n app r o x i m a t e valu e
'

m y be f oun d by d e t e r m i n i n g t h e value of p i n e qu a tio n from t h e ,

r

”
v a lu e t h u s f ou n d ca lc u la t e p a n d ref er t h e m ea n p r essu r es of bo t h
 M EA N P R ES S UR E IN A COM PO N D U EN GIN E . 1 19

cyli n d e r s to t h e low p r essu r e cyli n d e r I f ( P m

-
.
'

71 0) be t he equiva le n t m ea n
p r essu r e th us f ou n d th e n app r o x i m at ely
, , ,

’
P m Po
a:
Pm (4)
pO
Ex a mp le — To fin d t h e m ea n p r essu r e i n
a co m pou n d e n gi n e usi n g stea m
of 90 lbs absolute p r essu r e , t h e total r ate of e x pa n sio n bei n
.
g 7, t h e r atio of
t h e cyli n d e r ca pacities 3 5 , a n d t h e back p r essu r e 4 lbs .

Pm 90 x 0 421 lbs . Table x vii .

r
1
7 2 .

90 x 08 4 65 lbs . Tabl e x vii .

p ,
4) lbs .

x 7
1 3 1 3,
PI 90
1 hyp log . .

16 88 1 6 36 .

That is , the e ff ective m ea n p r essu r e in hi gh -

p r essu r e cyli n d e r is
or lbs ,
a n d th at i n low p r essu r e
.
-
cyli n d e r is 4,
or R e f e rr e d t o low p r essu r e cyli n d e r alo n e ,
-

59 3
1 2 36 29 3 lbs .

po 4 lbs .

T h e r ef o r e ,

2 93
{
I =
m9 0 8 65 .

T h e n actual eff ective m ean p r essu r e

4) 5 1 3 1b s
,
0 8 65 ( 3 718 9
°

i n h i gh p r essu r e cyli n d e r s
.
-

T h e n actu a l e ff ecti ve m ea n p r essu r e

,
4 05 °
lbs
111 low p r essu r e cyl i n d e r
.
-

An d h a c t u a l p r essu r e 1 n r ece i ve r
i sph en } lb

( )
2 T h e t h r e e c li n d er
y
-
r ece v er i com p ou n d en g i n e, h a v i n g t w o low p r ess u re

cy lin de r s . R a tio of each low p r essu r e cy li n d e r

-
to the h i gh p r essu r e
-

R
.

2
In th is cas e o nl y on e
-
thi r d of the wo r k is d o n e in ea ch cyli n d e r . Th en
R
” ”

2 (P m

an d as
 ME A N P R ES S UR E IN A COM PO UN D EN GI N E . 121

T h e n e ff ective m ea n p r essu r e i n h i gh p r essu r e cyli n d e r I

p
-

m ea n p r essu r e -

p m
low p r essu r e
-

"0

Th e n ,
if th e r e is no loss du e t o d r op ,
”
P in -
p R O D an d P m
-

P R 1 09 m

0 o
Pm —
P
=
P m
-

T h e r e f or e
o
Pm p
p

I
P
( m
”
p

Th is is tr ue w h e n th e r e is n o loss f r o m dr op but as i n p r acti ce th e re , ,

i s g e n e rally so m e loss f r om this ca use a n app r o x i m atio n m ust be f ou n d i n a ,

si m ila r w a y to th at f or t h e t w o cy li n d e r co m pou n d e n gi n e ~
.

The cut—off i n t h e hi gh p r essu r e cyli n d e r will be as bef o re

-
, ,

1 R
r r
l
"
T h e cut—off i n m ea n p r essu r e cyli n d e r i n o rd e r t o m ai n ta i n a p r essu r e , p ,
-

i n t h e r eceive r betwee n it a n d t h e hi gh p r essu r e cyli n d e r ca n be f ou n d i n t h e -

sa m e way a s bef o r e S i n ce R is t h e ratio of low p r essu r e to h i gh p r essu r e

.
- -

an d R I
th at of lo w -
p r essu r e t o m ea n -
p r essu r e cyli n d e r ,
3
1
will be

of t h e m ea n -
p r essu r e to high p r essu r e cyli n d er the n
-
,

P x 5 . £2

S ubstituti n g t h e value of R e .

I
r
2 p
Th e cu t -
off i n low p r essu r e cyli n d er t o m ai n ta i n a p r essu r e
-
,

re ceive r be twee n it a n d t h e m ea n p r essu r e cyli n d e r -

,
”
1
—
l p l
x ”I x
R I P

S ubstituti n g t h e value of l
r
p r
3

B u t si n ce t h e te r mi n al p r es su r e i n t h e low p r essu r e -
cyli n d e r
t h at d u e t o an i n iti al p r essu r e , p , a n d a r a t e of e x pa n sio n ,
'
r. Th en
il l '

p p 1 p
9 ”I
r r 7 p r
3 3
122 M A N U AL or M A R I N E EN G I N EI :R I N G .

Th e r ef o r e .

Cu t -
off in h i g h -
p r essu r e cy lin de r

m ea n -
p r es su r e

low pr es s u
e re

To a void a n y le n gth y or e labo ra t e ca lculation s a r e s u l t s u fii c i en t ly ,

accu ra t e f or p r a ctica l pu r poses ma y be o bta in e d by as su m i n g a value

f or w a n d us i n g it o nl y in the fir st ste p of the ca lculatio n
,
T hi s value .

will var y f r o m 1 0 to 09 i n well p r opo r t io n ed e n gi n es of th is class wh e n

-
,

t h e stea m p r essu r e is n ot less than 1 20 lbs absolute a n d t h e r at e of .

,

e x pan sion n ot less than 1 0 tim es .

E x a mples —To fin d t h e m ea n p r essu r es in the t h r ee c yli n d e r co n tin uous -

e x pan sion en gin e usin g s t eam of 1 2 0 lbs absolut e p r essu r e a n d e x pan d in g

, .
,

1 2 ti m es The r atio of low p r essu r e t o h i gh p r essu r e cyli n d e r bei n g 6 a n d

.
- -
,

of low p r essu r e t o m ea n p r essu r e cyl in d e r

-
2 5
-
t h e b a ck p r essu r e i n low ,

p r essu r e cy l in d e r bei n g 4 lbs

Ass u m e a: 09 .

1 20 0 2 90 4 34. l bs
}
-
x
T3 bl 3 vii
.

x
1 20 x 0 8 4 65 1 0 1 5 s lbs
-
.

3 4) x 09 5 5 5 3 lbs -
.

”
p 101 5 8 lbs .

°
544 or r
2
1 8 38 .

1 h y p log . .

1 8 38
I f t h e wo r k per f o r m e d in the seco n d cyli n d e r is to e qual th at d o n e in t h e
fir st , th e n
RI
x 55 53 -
x 55 5 3 -
231 4 lbs
R
.

38 231 4 lbs .

1 20
; or r 3
x 12
1 h y p log . .

p p0 4 lbs .

T h e r e f o r e t h e m ea n p r essu r es a r e
,
lbs .
,
lbs .
,
an d 99 6 lbs.
R e f e r r e d to t h e low p r essu r e cyli n d e r
-

2 8 4 71 ,
2 5 6
 W IR E -
D R AW I N G O F S T E M A .
1 23

Th e re f ore,

S O t h at i f t h e wo r k is e x actly e qu ally d ivi d e d b e t w e e n t h e cy l i n d er s th en,

M ea n pr essu r e i n low p r essu r e cyli n d e r

-

5 09 2 3 9 4 9 lbs
-
x .

M e a n pr essu r e i n m ea n p r essu r e cyli n d e r

2 p o) x x 09 23 lbs .

M ea n p r essu r e i n h i gh -
pr essu r e cyli n d e r

% ( Pm P0) 0 92 3 3; x x 09 23 5 6 94 lbs .

Actu al Mea n Pressu I n the p r ec edi n g pages t h e mea n

re in Practice .
—
,

p ressu r e spoke n Of is o n ly such as would b e obtai n ed f r o m a perfect e n gi n e

in which stea m is d ry a n d e x pan di n g at a co n sta n t te mpe r atu r e a n d as s u ch ,

is what m a y b e calle d the t heoret ica l mea n pres su r e I n a n actual e n gi n e , .

howeve r c ar e fu lly design ed m a n u factu r ed a n d wo r ked the r e will be ce rtai n

, ,

causes Of loss of p r essu r e so that the actual i n dicator diag ra m wi ll show a

,
-
.

mea n p r essu r e con side r ably less tha n that due to the i n itial p r essu r e a n d
the r ate Of e x pa n sio n allo w i n g t hat d ur i n g e x pa n sio n wo r k has bee n d o n e
, .

The f ollo wi n g a r e the p r i n cipal causes O f loss of p r essu re in the cyli n der
of a m a r i n e e n gi n e

( 1 ) Fri cti on a l R es is ta n ce in t h e Stop va l ves on th e B oiler an d En gine, -

an d in th e Pipes con n ectin g t h ese — I t the i n itial p r essu r e is take n as t ha t

in the valve case of cou r se t hi s pa rticula r loss d oes n ot a fiec t the i n dicato r
,

dia gr a m at all I f the stop valves a re open e d t o the e x te n t O f on e qua rt e r

.
- -

of thei r dia m ete r a n d the stea m pipe is f ai r ly st r aight a n d sho rt

, a n d Of -
,

sufficie n t dia m eter so that the flow Of stea m at a n y poi n t does n ot e x ceed a
,

velocit y of f eet pe r m in ute the loss of p r essu r e at the valve case wil l -

be ver y slight a n d n ot e x ceed 2 5 per ce n t I f the capacity Oi the valve case

, .
'
-

is n ear ly equ al to th a t p o rtio n Of the cyli n der filled at the cut off poi n t t he -
,

loss will be sti ll less as the case the n acts as a r ese r voi r in w h ich stea m I S
,

stor ed b etwee n t h e cut off a n d ad missio n pe r io d s -

.

( 2 ) Fricti on or Wire dra win g of th e S team du ring admi ssi on an d cu t Off

- -
.

This is on e p r i n cipal cause Of loss of p r essu r e in m ost m ar i n e e n gi n es a n d is ,

ge n er ally d u e to de fect iv e m otio n of t h e valve gea r co m bi n e d wi th s mall -

stea m p or ts a n d passages I f the Ope n i n g to stea m du ri n g a d m issio n is

.

s m all at the m ost a n d the v a lv e c los es slowly lar ge passages a n d po rts a r e

,
'

O f n o avail a n d on the othe r ha n d i f the passages a re too co n t r acted the r e

, , ,

will be co n side r able loss o f p r essu r e in the cyli n der howeve r efficie n t t h e ,

valve gea r i n g m a y be B u t the slow a n d li m ite d m otio n Of the ord i n a ry

-
.

slide valve itsel f is the m ost se rious Obstacle to t h e Obtai n i n g Of goo d diagr a m s
-
.

The slow ope n in g of the valve caus e s n o loss as the pisto n speed is low at ,

that pe riod A pe r fect valve should Ope n wide e n ough t o allow the steam
.

to pass at a velocit y of f eet pe r mi n ute a n d r e m ai n Ope n u n til cut Off ,

-
,

which shoul d take place quickly ; the valve should r e m ai n closed u n til ve r y
n ea r l y the en d of the st r oke whe n it should O pe n quickly a n d wide to ex ha u s t
°

,
 C E L A R A N CE . 1 25

T AB L E X V I I I .

P AR TI CU L AR S OF E N G I N E . . FACTOR .

E x pa n s ive e n gin e , s pec ia l va lve -

ge a r, or wi h t a s e pa ra t e cu t -
ofi
va lve cy l in d e rs j a k ete d c

Ex pa n s ive e n gin e h a vi n g l a rge port s e tc a rid good or d in a ry

, ,

, .
,

va lve s c y lin d e rs j a c k eted 09 to

Co mp ou n d e n gin e s w ith ord in a ry s l ide va lve s c y li n d e rs j a c k e t e d
, ,

, , ,

a n d good port s e t c 08 to
Co m pou n d e n gin e s a s in gen e ra l p ra c t ic e in t h e m e rc ha n t se rvic e
, .
,

w ith e a rly c u t off i n both c y li n d e rs w it h ou t j a c k e ts a n d e x pa n ,

s ion v a lve s , to
T riple qu a d r u ple c omp ou n d e n gin e s , wit h ord in a ry s lid e
and
va lv t
e s , good p or s , u n a c k e ed , m od e ra e p is on s pe e d , j t t t 0 65 t o
t
Fa s r u n n in g e n gin e s of t h e t y pe a n d d e s ign u s u a ly fi ed in wa r l tt
s h i ps , a n d e x pr es s w i h f a s t r u n n in g e n in e s ,
g t -
0 6 to

Ex a mple — To fin d t h e e x pected mea n p ressur e in the cylin de rs of a

m a ri n e e n gi n e usi n g stea m of 6 0 lbs absolute p r essu r e the r ate of e x pa n sio n .
,

4 the clea r a n ce equal t o on e te n th of the cyli n de r a n d the p r essu r e in t h e

,
-
,

co n de n se r 2 lbs the valve gear in g special ly ada pted for a n ear ly cut off a n d
.
,
- -
,

the p o r ts passages etc of a m ple si z e ; co m p r essio n co mm e n ces at é

, , .
,} oi
the st roke The cyli n de r s a r e j acketed
. .

The eff ec tive ra t e of e x pan s i o n is

1
— x 2 = 7 lbs .

0 1 °

a nd t he r ate of e x pa n sion 35 . T h en ,

3 14 3 °

E x pec t ed m ean pr e ssu re = 41

( l 60 x 0 1 0 5

I f the e ffects cus hi o n i n g b e n eglected the m ea n p ressu re

of clear an ce an d ,

6 0 X 0 5 965 2 or 33 8 lbs This is less tha n the r esult obtai n ed by

, .

the m o r e accur ate calculatio n I n this case because the cushi o n i n g l s s mal l ,

for so low a back p r essu r e whe n co mpar ed with the clea r a n ce .

The m ea n p r essu r e in p r ac t ice will be f ou n d n ow by m ultiplyi n g 35 3 lbs .

by 0 94 a n d 1 8 the r e fo r e 3 3 1 8 lbs
, .

Ex a i n ple — T o fin d the e x pected m ea n p r essu r e in the cyli n de rs of a

.

co m pou n d e n gi n e usi n g steam of 1 00 lbs absolute p r essu r e the cut off in . .

both high p r essu r e a n d low p r essu r e cyli n de r s bein g at hal f st r oke ; the -

clear a n ce I n both cyli n der s 1 3 equal to on e te n th of thei r n e t capacity ; the -

p r essu r e in the co n de n se r 1 s 2 lbs the cyli n der s a re j acketed a n d the po rts °

, ,

etc of a m ple si z e n o e x pan sio n valves Co mp r essio n co mme n ces at ?the

.

.
, , .

st roke Cyli n d e r r atio 4

. .
1 26 MAN UA L or M R N E EN A I G I N EE R I N G .

1 0 l °

e fiec t i v e ra
’

H e re t h e te of e x pa n s I On
1 2 x

1 00 2
The theo r e t i ca l p r essu r e In the r e ce l v e r x
1 82
°
4
The ex p e c t e d p r essu r e in r eceive r x lbs .

Th e s te a m is co m p r esse d i n high p r essu r e cyli n d e r -

to

ii
_l
—i 6 x 23 2 -
8 1 2 lbs .
1
TU

Th e r at e of com p r essio n m 1
l

To
Th e m ean p r essu r e du e to a r ate of e x pa n sio n an d an i n itia l p r essu re
of 1 0 0 lbs .

1 h y p log . .

87 lbs .

The m ean p r essu r e du e to a r ate of e x pan sion 35 , an d an in i tial p r essu r e

of lbs .

52 lbs .

Th e theo r etica l m ea n p r essu r e i n h i gh -

p r essu r e cyli n d er
~8 7
( l 1 00 x ( l t 5 °
ol)
°
52 0 1)
lbs .

The exp ec t ed m ea n p r es s u re i n h i gh
p r es su r e cy li n d e r
-

x lbs .

Th e m ea n p r essu r e du e to a r ate of e x pan sio n an d an i n i t ial p r essu r e of

2 3 2 lbs .

1 hyp log
lbs
. .

Th e m ean p r essu r e du e to a r ate of e x pan sio n 35 , an d an i n itial p r essu r e of

7 lbs .

lbs .

T h e n th eo r etical m ea n p r essu r e in low p r essu r e cyli n d e r

-

( 1 23 2 x 0 1 O5 °
0 l)°

1 75 lbs .

An d t h e ex p ect ed m ea n p r ess u re i n low -

p r essu r e cyli n d e r
1 75 x lbs .

E x a mp le — To fin d t h e e x pecte d m e a n p r essu r e i n a co m pou n d e n gi n e as

fitted f o r m e r ly i n m e r ch an t steam e r s ; t h e cyli n d e r s a r e u n j ack ete d, t h e boile r
p r essu r e 8 0 lbs ( 95 lbs absolute) t h e cyli n d e r r atio is
. . a n d t h e c u t off , -

e ff ecte d by co m m on slide valves , is at h al f str oke i n t h e h i gh p r essu r e

- - -

cyli n d e r , a n d 0 6 t h e str oke i n low p r essu r e cyli n d e r Th e clea r an ce in both -

.

cyli n d e r s is on e twel f th t h e cyli n d e r capacity Com p r essio n takes place i n

-
.

t h e hig h p r essu r e cyli n d e r w h e n t h e piston is

-
of i t s st r oke f r o m the e n d ,
a n d i n t h e low p r essu r e cylin d e r at 0 3
-
.

E fficie n cy i n this ca se t ake n at

 CLE A R A N CE . 1 27

Th e e ff ec t i ve r ate of e x pan sio n i n h i gh -

p r essu r e cyli n d e r
1 T?
]
2 1 86 .

1 2
1 5
T h e th eo r etica l p r essu r e in t h e r eceive r
95 1
2 4 3 1k ”
35 x 0 6
Th e e x pecte d p r essu r e in th e r eceive r
24 3 x

T h e ra t e of co m p r essio n in the h i gh p r essu r e cyli n d e r

-

00 8 3
0 05 3-

a nd t he ste a m is com p re sse d to x or lbs Th e m ean p r essu r e

62 .

du e to a r ate of e x pa n sion of an d an i n itial p r essu r e of 95 lbs .

1 by 1 5
95
53
28 so lbs .

T h e m ea n p res su r e du e to a r ate of e x pan sio n and an i n itial p r essu r e of

6 2 lbs .

1 hyp . log .

40 lbs .

T h en theo r etical m ea n p r es su r e in high p re ssu re cyli n d e r

-

1
—1
1 5 ) 95 x
TL
, 1 5 )
58 lbs .

An d t h e e x pected m ea n p r es su r e i n h i gh p r essu r e -
cyli n d e r
58 x 4 3 5 lbs .

Th ebac k p r essu r e in t h e co n d e n se r is 2 lbs .

The eff ective r a t e of e x pan sio n in low p r essu r e cy li n d e r

-

1
T2
1 l
07 5
Th e r a te of c o m p r es sion i n low -
p r es su r e cy li n de r
0 3 0 08 3
0 08 3
S te a m is co m p r essed in low p r essu r e cyli n d e r
-
to x 2, or 92 lbs .

T he m ea n p r es su r e du e to a ra te of e x pan sio n an d an i n itial p r essu r e

lbs .

1 hy l ’g 1 5 8 '

f5 g
j
'

182 3 x 168 lbs .

The m ea n p r essu r e du e to a ra t e of e x pan sio n an d a n i n i t i al p r es su r e

9 2 lbs .

1
x 5 1a .

Th e n t heo r etica l m ea n p r ess u r e i n low p ress u r e c y li n d e r

-

— l
) )
1-
1 68 ( 1 T ?)
1
x
1
T?
2 (1 rg
5 f y
lbs .

An d t h e ex p ec te d m ean pr es s u re in low pr essu r e cyli n d e r

-

x 1 0 6 lbs .
 GR A PH I C M ET HOD . 1 29

A L will the re fo r e r ep rese n t the capacity of the high p ressu re cyli n de r

, ,
-
,

i n cludi n g its clea ra n ce A F .

N ow ta ke poi n t N on A C so t h a t A N r ep re se n ts t h e c lea ran ce i n t h e

, ,

m e d iu m p r ess u r e cy l in d e r
-
.

Ta k e a poi n t V i n A C a n d a poi n t Q i n A C so th at A Q r ep rese n ts

, , , , , ,

t h e vol u m e of t h e m e d iu m p r essu r e cyli n d e r i n clu d i n g i t s clea ran ce A N

-
, , ,

N V
t ofi i n t h e m edium p r essu r e cyli n d e r
'

t he r ate of c u r
-
.

D r aw V V d Q Q pa rallel to A K
' '
an .

Take a poi n t S in A C s o th a t E—
S
t h e r ate of c u t ofi i n low
'

pr es s u r e
- ‘

, , ,
B 0
cyli n d e r .

D r a w S S pa r allel to A K a n d S R p a r allel to A C
' '
.
,
” ”
T h e n F D L L F is t h e th eor etica l h igh p r essu r e d ia gra m
' ' ’
-
.

”
is t h e m ediu m pr essu re d i a gra m a n d B S C C B t h e lo w
’ ’ ' '

N V Q Q N
’ ’ -
'

p r essu r e d iag ra m .

Fi g 5 5
. .
— T h e or e t ic a l D ia gr a m f or T r i le
p Fi g 5 5 a — D ia g r a m s a s i n P ra c ic e , f r om
. . t
Ex pa n s i on . Th e or e t i c a l Ex pa n s ion D ia gra m .

actual pr ac t ic e the i n dica t or d i a g ram s diff e r f r om t h e th eore t i ca l o n es

In ,

f or r eas on s al r ead y give n * T h ey m a y how e ve r be i n scr ibed wi t hin t h e .

, ,

theor etica l d iagr am of t h e mean p r essu r e as sh ow n in fig 5 5 a which h a s bee n ,

.
,
”
d raw n in a cco r d a n ce with t h e m e t h od p r escr ibe d a bove s o th a t F D E i s t h e
’ '

hi gh p r essu r e dia ra m V Q N t h e m ed iu m a n d S C C B the low I n prac

- e
, ,
’
.

tice t h e ar ea of the actual d iag r am of t h e high p re ssu r e is 77 to 8 0 per ce n t

, .

of t h e th eo r etical Th e a ctu al m e d iu m p r essu r e d iag ra m is 70 t o 73 per ce n t

.
-
.

of t h e theo r etical a n d t h e low p r e ssu r e 5 5 t o 60

, pe r ce n t .

I n fas t ru n n i n g e n gi n es t h e pe r ce n ta ge i s of c o u rse l es s tha n t h a t

-
, ,

o bta i n ed fr o m the d iagra ms of slow m ovi n g e n gi n es -

.

I f it is f ou n d by this m ean s tha t t h e po w e r i s n ot s u fii ci en t ly e ve n ly

d ivi de d t h e cuts off i n t h e m e d iu m p r essu r e a n d low p r essu r e cy li n de rs m us t
,
- - -

be m o d i fie d For e x a m ple if t h e powe r i n t h e low p r essu r e cy li n de r is too

.
,
-

s mall t h e cu t off poi n t S m ust be m ov ed n ea r e r t o A s o tha t t h e fig u r e

,
-
, , , .

S 0 C B i s e n la rg e d at t h e e x pe n s e of t h e m e d iu m p res s u re dia gra m

’ ’
-
, ,
I "
I ”
N V Q Q
0
N .

For a r e fin e m e nt in m e t h od of c on s t ru c t ion , r id e Appe n d ix .

1 30 MA N UAL OF M AR IN E EN GI N E E R I N G .

N omi n a l R a t e of
E x p a n s ion
.

N N N 04 0 0 N

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to » ep — a ao se en m e

c m e mx 0 G c h o m c o m 9
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2 2
 R ES U LT S OF T R I AL S . 131

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 R ES UL T S OF T R IA L S . 1 33

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1 34 MAN UA L OF M
’

ARIN E EN G I N EE R I N G .

N omi n a l R ate of
3x pn n s ion .

w
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é
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a
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ea se 0 1 O w h .
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H P Cy lr
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w m m O w m
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R e v olu t ion s .

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. .
 R ES U LT S OF T R I AL S . 1 35

N m Wm ow m
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mm m mn E 2
: ; 2 :

S
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c m p p e o
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é o o e b b

m Q p
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5
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u e . e h a v
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m Q Q O
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b
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w
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m
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m v u o c n s c
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5 S 4 9 i i m
a e
m m ; 5 x a o .

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m m m m m
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m m m
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m
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 COM B I N A T I ON T U R B I N ES . 1 37

what is n ow called the i mpu ls e t u r bi n e e x pa n sio n Of stea m a n d ge n e r atio n

o f velocity take place solely i n the fix e d n o z z les the issui n g j et acts d i r ectly
o n the leadi n g hal f of the r oto r blades gi v i n g up pa r t of its e n e r gy to the m
, ,
°
a n d bei n g the n deflected th r ough a n a n gle of n ea r ly 1 80 gives up the r e m ai n d e r

by r eactio n Ther e is n o cha n ge of p r essu r e withi n the cell co n tai n i n g t h e

.

m ovi n g blad e s n or in the m ovi n g passages e x cept w h at is due to fricti on

,
-

, .

Fig 5 7 — I m pu l s e T u
. . r bin e Co m p ou n d e d f or P re s s u re a n d V e loc it y .

Co n seque n tly the n o zzles m a y be isolate d Or i n gr oups ( v fig T he . .

r ea ct i on t u r bin e as n ow m ade is n ot u n like the above but i n it t h e r e is pr o

, , ,

v i d e d a f u r the r d r op i n p r essu r e a n d the co rr espo n d i n g ge n e r atio n of velocity

,

i n the m ovi n g passages I n thi s case si n ce the r e is a d r op in p r essu r e in

.
,

t hese m ovi n g passages the fix ed passages or n o z zles m ust occupy the whol e
,

o f t h e a n n ulus i n o r d e r to avoid ex cessive leakage by sho r t c ir cu it in g

-
.
,
1 38 MAN UA L OF M A R IN E EN G I N E ER I N G .

co n seque n tly that of blade sectio n depe n d s

'

Th e S h ape of Passages, an d ,

on the d r op of p r essu r e r equi r ed I f that d r op is gr eate r tha n p1 to p_

.

0 5 8 p l the passage should co n ve r ge a n d the n dive r e ; if p2 is greate r t h a n

,
g
0 5 8 p l co n ve r ge n t o n ly
,
Thus i n the e x a mple give n ( fig 5 6 ) of si m pl e
. .

turbi n es la r ge d rop i s p r ovi d e d for a n d the passages a r e the r e fo r e c on

, , , ,

ve r go diver ge n t Mar in e turbi n es bei n g co m pou n ded by n u m e r ous stages

.
,

a n d havi n g to r u n at low velocity r e qu i r e co n ve r ge n t passa es The r eact i o n

g .

t u r bi n e havi n g for co n ve n ien ce a si mi la r r atio of e x pa n si o n f or each fix e d

,

a n d m ovi n g r ow of a give n dia m ete r will have si m ila r bladi n g f or both

, .

Compou n d T u rbin es of both types m a y be m ultiplied i n se ries li m iti n g ,

”
the d r op I n p r essu r e for each stage to a po r tio n of the total hea d This .

is calle d compou n din g for pressu re This co m pou n di n g Of the i m pulse tu r bi n e

.

m a y be supple m e n ted by a n othe r ki n d i n Which the velocity of the n o zzl e ,

j ets e x pa n ded in m o r e tha n on e r ow of m ovi n g passages the velocity of ,

fi g

1: 1 g . 5 7a .

Fi g 5 7b . .

t he latte r bei n g less tha n in the u n co m pou n ded stage This is called com .

ou n din g for e eloc i t y Fi 5 7 shows diag r a m m atically a n i m pul se tu r bi n e

p g
. .

co mpou n d ed f or p r essu r e in thr ee stages each bei n g co mpou n ded f or velocity ,

o n ce The v eiocit y cha n ges of the stea m a re shown l n fig 5 7b a n d it m a y be

.
.

n oted that t h e o n ly f u n ctio n of the r ow of fix ed blades betwee n the m ovi n g

r ows i s to de fl ect the st r ea m .

\
An i m pulse tu r bi n e co mpou n ded for p r essu r e m a y have a ser ies of r oto r
discs with blad es set t r a n sver sely a n d i n te rpose d betwee n a se l ie s of stato r
'
disc s havi n g guide blades f o rm i n g a set of n o zzle like cha n n els I f thes e -
.

blades a re a ll of the sa m e height gradual decr ease in p r ess u r e thr ough t h e

,

se r ies is p r ovided for by sta rti n g wit h o n ly a fe w passages in the fir st stato r

d isc the n u m be r i n the n e x t disc is la r ge r a n d a fu rthe r i n c r ease m a d e in t h e
, ,

thi rd a n d s o on the i n c rease bei n g such at each ste p that the stea m e x pa n d s
, ,

i n acco r da n ce With the n at u r al law .

 COM PO UN D T U R B I N ES .
1 39

Ex pa n sio n howeve r m a y be p r ovided for in quite a n othe r way ; the

, ,

le n gth O f stator a n d r oto r blades m a y be g rad ually i n c r ease d in le n gth so ,

that va riatio n in a rea of the a n ulus is such as to pe r mit of the stea m e x pa n d i n g

in the sa m e way while it f ollows its cou r se th r ough the m achi n e I n eithe r .

case the r e is at each d r op in p r essu r e a co rrespo n di n g ge n e r atio n of velocity

at each stato r a n d a delive r y of ki n etic e n e rgy to each r oto r disc so that
, ,

the e x pa n sio n is co n ti n uous step by step fro m the i n itial p ressu r e at e n t r y

to that at e x h aust a n d the total wo r k do n e dist ributed thr ough the whole
,

of the stato r discs .

The Obj ect Of this syste m of co mpou n di n g is to r e duce the m ea n velocity

of fl ow t o a mi n i m u m so that the r ate O f r otatio n of the m achi n e m a y be
,

r educed do wn t o p r acticable li mits S O fa r as m a ri n e wor k is co n ce r n ed .

,

those li mits must b e such that a r easo n able e fficie n cy ma y be r ealised with
the p r opeller s r evolved dir ect by the tu r bi n e .

The i m pulse tur bi n e is n ot n ecessar ily co mpou n ded for p ressu r e it m a y

be co m pou n ded for velocity a su fficie n t n u m be r of ti m es to use up that ge ne
r ated i n on e dr op f r o m m a x i mu m t o m i n i m u m p r essu r es The n u mbe r of .

velocity stages as they a re calle d depe n ds on the velocity of the blades

, ,

r elative to the i n itial velocity of the j ets On accou n t of the losses by frictio n .

a n d eddies this type is n ot co mm e r cially e fli c ie n t ; if this we r e n ot so they

would displace all othe r types for l a r ge si zes i n as much as they would be of ,

less si z e lowe r cost a n d f ree r fr o m the m echa n ic a l t r oubles so co mm o n in

, ,

t h is i n st ru m e n t .

The tur bi n e howeve r ma y b e t r eated in j ust the sa m e way as a co mpou n d

, ,

or t riple co m poun d e n gi n e by p r ovidi n g m ea n s whe r eby the re a re t w o or

-

thr ee separ ate stages in the ope r atio n s of the m achi n e in each of which ,

the r e is at comme n ce m e n t a partial d r op of p r essur e with a co rr espo n d i n g

ge n er atio n Of velocity f ollowed by the g r adual d r op in velocity a n d the
,

i m pa rti n g of ki n etic e n e rgy by the usual steps above desc r ib ed ; at the

e n d O f the fir s t stage a n d be f o r e begi n n i n g O f the seco n d the r e is a n othe r
, ,

d r op in p r essu r e due to the passage thr ough the seco n d set of gui d e a n d
e x pa n sive n o zzles of lar ge r capacity tha n the first ; the stea m acqui r es
t h er eby a fr esh velocity a n d gives up its e n e rgy step by step t hr ough the
,

secon d stage ; a n d so on in a si mila r way thr ough a third of si mila r c on

str uctio n un til the stea m e x hausted oi pr actically all its pote n tial e n e rgy
,

e n te r s the co n de n se r .

Fig 5 7a shows diagr a mm atically the f all in stea m p r essu r e in a th r ee

.

stage co mpou n d i mpulse turbi n e a n d fig 5 76 the co rr espon di n g ge n er atio n

-
, .

of velocity a n d its gr adual e x ti n ctio n in the t w o steps i n each stage as show n ,

in fig 5 7 I n p r actice the r e a re usually m or e tha n t w o ste ps in each stage

. .

O f a tu r bi n e a n d on shipboa r d it happe n s usually that the r e is a high p r essu r e

-

t u rbi n e d rivi n g its ow n p r opelle r a n d e x hausti n g to on e a n d ge n e r ally two

,

low p r essu r e tur bi n es each with its ow n li n e of sha fti n g a n d p r opelle r The r e
-
,
.

m a y be h oweve r th ree tur bi n es in se r ies high m ediu m a n d low p r es s u r es

, , , , , ,

a s in a t r iple r ecip r ocatin g e n gi n e

-
each with its ow n li n e of sha ftin g a n d ,

scr ew These a rr a n ge m e n ts a re n eces sa ry for m ari n e pu rposes t h at t he

.

r evolutio n s m a y be as lo w as possible to a dm it of sc r ews of such a r easo n able

d i a m ete r as to be se r viceable a n d at t h e sa m e ti m e e fficie n t Fig 5 8 s ho ws . .

a sectio n of t h e L iu n gs t rOm turbi n e with its two i n te rlace d roto rs w hich mo v e ,

i n O pposite dir ectio n s a n d i rreve rsible Fig 5 9 shows in sectio n a Curtis L P .

,
 U I
C RT S T UR B I N E .
141

- o - oc v
"l l l g n

r
r . .
142 ~
M AN UA L or M A R I N E EN G I N EER I N G .

an d aste rn goi n g tu rbi n e for a wa rship

-
Figs 5 9a a n d 5 9b g ive t h e sectio n
. .

a n d ele vatio n O f the Zoe lly tu r bi n e as use d in the G er m a n S e rv ice

, .

Th e D esign Of S crew f or a Tu rbin e S hip m ust fir st of a ll be dete rm i n ed

from the co n ditio n s i m pose d by the ship a n d h er service , a n d the tu r bi n es
d esig n ed to suit the r evolutio n s at w h ich such scr ews c a n ’

be ru n co n sisten t with goo d e fii cie n cy a n d sa fe t y .

Fi g 5 9a — Zoe lly M a r in e T u
. . r b in e . H P . . at 65 0 r .
p m
. .

Fig 5 9b —Ma r in e r bin e of

. . Tu H P . .
( Zoe lly ) .

Th e Efli cien cy fl
of the T u bine *
m ust ,
the re fo r e be dete rm i n ed at va ryi n g
r ,

r evolutio n s n ea r to that r ate at which the p r opelle r s m a be ru n a nd a

y ,

c ur ve plotted i n t h e way usual to e x p ress it The e fficie n cy of t h e sc r ew .

d ec ide d on by co n si d e ri n g the above n a m ed co n ditio n s sh oul d be plotted

-

in a si m ila r way a n d the cu rve f o r m e d a fte r which t h e co mbi n e d e fficie n cy

,

c a n be calculate d a n d e x p r essed by its cu r ve a n d fr o m it the d esig n e r ca n ,

d e fin itely a n d fin ally decide the e x act spee d O f r evolutio n at which t h e

m achi n es shal l ru n .

I t i o ly wi t h d i
s n t d i en t
re c -
b i s t h t t h se ons id
r v u r ne t io a eq i t o b m de (
e c App e d i A)
e ra ns r u re e a 0. n x .
 S E A E X P ER I EN CES W ITH Tu R B I N Es . 143

Power devel oped by T u rbin e ca n n ot be Obtai n e d di rect fr o m it as that

a ,

of a r ecip r ocato r is by mea n s of the i n d icato r so so m e othe r m ea n s O f fin d i n g ,

it has to be adopted Whe n d r ivi n g a d yn a m o to ge n er ate elect rical cu rre n t

.

it is easy to dete rm i n e the powe r e x e rted by a tu rbi n e by m ea n s O f the

elect rical i n str u me n ts used for measu ri n g qua n tity a n d i n te n sity Of c u rren t .

Fr o m data obtai n ed in this way tu rbi n e e fficie n cy h a s bee n de d uce d so that i f

the weight of stea m use d c a n b e accu r ately d ete r mi n e d the powe r output ,

c a n be calculated To da y howeve r m a r i n e e n gi n e e r s have a better m ea n s

.
-
, ,

of gaugi n g the capacity of the i n st r u m e n t d r ivi n g the p r opelle r in the to rsio n

m ete r tha n eve n the i n dicato r eve r was .

Prof R a tea u s Formu la for S team Consu mpt ion is as f ollows

’
.

2 05 l 0 8 P
°

S tea m co n su m pt i o n I n a tu r b i n e 2
°

P is the i n itial p r essu r e absolute is t h e te r m i n al p r essu r e absolute

p . .

Th e S ea Experiences with T u rbin es in the c r uise r Cheste r as re late d ,

by L ieut Yates U S N avy a re i n ter esti n g as well as i n str uctive Thi s

.
,
.
,
.

’
ship is fitte d with P a r so n s tur bi n es of d rivi n g f our sc r ews ;
she attai n ed a speed of 2 6 5 2 k n ots on t r ial The lieute n a n t begi n s by .

e mphasisi n g the e x t re m e i m po rt a n ce of wa r m i n g up the tu r bi n es tho r o u ghl y

be fo r e atte mpti n g to ru n the m othe rwi se ther e is great d a n ge r of stri pp i n g ,

t h e blades This Ope r atio n ta kes m uch lon ge r tha n with a r ecip r ocato r
.
,

a n d should be fr o m 3 to 3 3 2 hou s whe

r n possible ; the tu rbi n e c a n be Of ,

cou r se wa r m ed quicke r but it is n ot a d visable to do so

, ,
.

Wate r in the tu r bi n e causes n o app r ehe n sio n a n d quickly d isappear s

“

, .

Whippi n g of the r otor s occu r s in the H P tu r bi n e in bad weather causi n g . .

,

it to vib r ate a n d gr oa n slightly a n d whe n the aste rn goi n g tu rbi n e is Ope ra ti n g

,
-

ther e a re t r em o r s .

Ma n ce u v r in g was n ot di fficult f or as m a n y as 85 sign als fro m the b r idge ,

wer e r espo n d e d to in 5 0 mi n utes I t is f o u n d that the turbi n es do n ot .

a d apt the m selves to the n e w co n di tio n s i m posed on the m co n seque n t on

c h a n ges of speed m ade du ri n g m a n oeuvr es at sea .

A d r op i n boile r p r essur e fr o m a n y cause ge n e r ally is f ollowe d by wet

stea m a n d t h e I n c r ease in bla d e fr ictio n d u e to it ; the loss O f speed is ther eby
,

aggr avate d a n d a d r op of 1 i n ch of vacuu m cause d a lo ss of spee d Of hal f

'

a k n ot Gr eat ca r e i s n ecessa r y with the bear i n gs for if they get wa r m

.
,

wate r ca n n ot be appli ed as with the r ecip r oc ator ; the r e is n othi n g for it

but t o slow dow n a n d so m eti mes to stop altogethe r for a little h eati n g
, ,

causes su fficie n t e x pan sio n t o m ake thi n gs m uch wo r se ve r y quickly The .

O il se r ved th e r e f o r e shoul d be m ost ca r e f u lly e x a mi n ed a n d kept i n a hi gh

, ,

state of e fficie n cy a n d the Oil u se d should be Of the best a n d fittest for such
,

se r vice Hot th rust bea r i n gs we r e n ot u n co m m o n due to the fin e adj ust m e n ts

.
,

n ecessa r y to the m The wea r i n g d ow n of the b e a ri n gs also is the cause of

.

much t r ouble eve n though it be as little as 2 3 5 5 of a n i n ch f or

,
5
,

the n t h e gla n d packi n gs leak a n d m ake the e n gi n e r oo m s u n bea r able i f the -

ve n til atio n is n ot r eally good I f the p r opeller blades a re i n j ur e d a n d eve n

.
,

sligh tly de fo r m ed the r e is a m a r ked e ff ect on the pe r fo r m a n ce ; but n o

,

cavitatio n was obse r vable in this ship S eei n g howeve r that the sc r ews .
, ,

we r e quite s m all in dia meter a n d well i mm e r se d it i s n ot ve r y asto n ishi n g ,

.

The m echa n ical e flic ien cy of these tu rbi n es was ver y satis facto ry for .
 DR . P OTTI N G ER S T OR S ON I M ET ER .
145

w he n the r e w a s a s mall leak at t h e m ai n stop valve of on e it kept tu r n i n g ,

at 1 00 r evol u tio n s pe r mi n ute while the vacuu m h el d goo d a n d with st e a m

,

shut Off a n d n o vacuu m a n othe r sha ft ra n at hal f the r evolutio n s of t h e s e

the n e n gaged in p r opelli n g the ship d u e to d ra g on its p ropelle r
, .

To rsion Mete rs a r e n ow use d on all t r ia ls of m a ri n e tu r bi n es a n d by ,

the e n gi n ee r s in cha r ge of the m achi n e r y As the n a m e sig n i fies they a r e .

,

the m easu r e r s of the to r sio n or twist of a sha ft — that is to say they r egiste r ,

the r elative a n gula r m ove m e n t Of two t r a n sve r se ci rcula r pla n es at a d e fin ite

'

d ista n ce apa r t by a li n e in a pla n e th r ough the a x is t h us n oti n g the poi n ts ,

on thei r ci r cu m fe r e n ce a n d thei r d ista n ce apa r t whe n t h e sha ft is subj ect to

to r sio n S uppose two cir cula r discs t o be keye d on a sha ft 1 0 f eet apa r t ;
.

they a r e of co n sider able dia m eter so that a n y s m all a n gula r m ove m e n t gives
,

a n app r eciate ci r cu m f e r e n tial on e I f each has a r adial li n e m a r ke d on its

.

face so that t h ese li n es wi ll b e the tr aces of a pla n e th r ough the sha ft s a x is

’

w h e n tr a n s mittin g n o powe r the n whe n t r a n s m itti n g powe r they will b e n o

,

lo n ge r in li n e on e with the other f or the a x ial pla n e th r ough the on e li n e

,

will b e at a n a n gle with that thr ough the other Mo r eove r e x peri m e n t .
,

has show n that the a n gula r m ove m e n t will b e i n p r opo r tio n to the a m ou n t
of to r que a n d the r e f o r e is a m easu r e of it
, , N ow suppose on e of the discs .
,

to have a light m etal cyli n d e r fitted t o it of su fficie n t le n g t h to co m e close ,

to the other disc without actually touchi n g it a n d a li n e is m a r ked on this ,

c yli n d e r lo n gitudi n ally t o i n dicate the positio n of the d isc s r a dial li n e a n y ’

to rsio n Of sha ft w ill be see n at o n ce by its displace m en t past the m a rki n g

on the othe r d isc I n a ge n e ral way this displace m e n t could n ot be Obse r ve d
.

w h e n the s ha ft is r evolvi n g a n d cer tai n ly could n ot possibly b e n oted a t

,

the spee d Of r evolutio n s of tu r bin es .

Amlser s T orsion Meter however is co n st r ucted on this p r i n ciple a n d

’

, , ,

its i n dicatio n s a r e e asily a n d clea r ly see n a n d r ead by the i n ge n ious m etho d

O f causi n g a n elect r ic spa r k t o give a n i n sta n ta n eous m o m e n ta r y illu m i

n atio n of the i n de x as it passes t h e eye wh ich p r oduces the e ff ect of a n

,

appa r e n t stoppage of r evolutio n a n d ad mits of the r eadi n g of it quite easily

, .

D r Fottin ger s T ors ion Met er is a m echa n ical appa r atus so a r ra n ged
’
.
,

that it c a n r egister its m ovem en ts on a sheet of paper as does the co m m on ,

i n dicato r I n this case (fig 6 0 ) the r e is a m echa ni cal co n n ectio n with the two
. .

discs a n d sleeve by m ea n s of a syste m of co m pou n d leve r s the outer e n d ,

o f the last on e havi n g a pe n cil or t r aci n g pi n which r ests on a sheet Of pape r ,

.

lai d on a fix ed cyli n d er surr ou n di n g the sha ft I f n o powe r is bei n g t r a n s .

m it t e d a plai n li n e is m ade on the paper as t h e sha ft r evolves whe n powe r

is bei n g t r a n s mitted by a r ecip r ocati n g e n gi n e a wavy li n e so m e dista n ce
f r o m that base li n e is t r ace d fig 6 0a ) the wavi n ess bei n g d u e t o the
.
,

va riatio n in twisti n g m o m e n t du rin g each r evolutio n of such a n e n gi n e With .

a tur bi n e u n d er loa d t h e r e is n o suc h va r iatio n in s m ooth wate r co nseque n tly

t h e m ete r t r aces a n othe r plai n li n e pa r allel to the fir st a n d its dista n ce fr o m ,

it is the m easur e of the to r que The accu r acy of t h is i n st ru m e n t d epe n d s

.

ve r y m uch on that of t h e m echa ni s m a n d seei n g that what it r ests on is in,

m otio n all t h e ti m e the wea r on it due to this will n ot i m p r ove i t in that

r espect . N eve r theless e ff ecti n g as it does its ow n r egiste r m akes it a
, , , ,

ve r y use ful i n str u m e n t f or obse r vatio n m o r e especially i s it the case whe n

,

applied to r ecip r ocato r s T h e r e a r e howeve r othe r i n st r u m e n ts in ge n e r al

.
, ,

use w h ich have ve r y little or n o m ec h a n is m a n d suc h as t h e r e is ,

10
146 MA N UA L or MAR I N E EN GI N EER I N G .

pe rmits Of n o d oubt to a r ise as to the accur acy of the r esults de r ived

fr o m its use .

Th e H opk in s on Thri n g T orsion Met er has t h e g r eat adva n tages ove r

-

an
y appa r atus p r o d uce d h ithe r to that it r equi r es o n ly a ve r y sho r t le n gt h

of sha f t a n d gives a d i r ect r ea d i n g of the to r sio n o n the sha f t

,
The z e r o .

”
poi n t of the appar atus also c a n rea dily be asce rtai n e d by ba rr i n g the
s h aft The i n st ru m e n t o ff e r s also a si m ple m ea n s of d ete rm i n i n g the frictio n
.

of the sha fts the m selves .

The p ri n ci ple of t h e appa r atus d esig n ed by Pr o fesso r Hopki n so n a n d

MI Th r i n g is a d ifl e re n t ia l on e a n d co n sists in the obser vatio n of the twist
.
,

betwee n two a dj ace n t poi n ts on the sha ft by m ea n s of two bea m s of light

p r oj ected on to a scale fr o m a fix e d a n d a m ovable m ir r o r The bea m pi o .

j e c t e d on the scale by the fix ed mi rr o r is take n as the z e r o poi n t whilst ,

the be a m p r oj ecte d by the m ovable mi rr o r i n dicates the a m oun t Of tor que

on the sha f t B oth m i rr or s r evolve with the sha ft but eve n at m ode r ate
.
,

Fig 6 1
. ,
— H opk in s on and T h r in g
’
s T or s ion Me ter Mou n t ed Compl e te on a S h a ft .

speeds t h e r eflectio n s appea r as co n ti n uous li n es of light ac r oss the scale a n d ,

the r e I S the r e fo r e n o d i fficul t y I n taki n g r eadi n gs

,
“
.

The to r sio n m ete r i s show n I n fig 6 1 m ou n t ed co mplete on a sha ft whilst .

, ,

a diagr a mm atic a rr a n ge m e n t Of the co m plete appar atus is show n in e n d

elevatio n a n d pla n in fig 6 1 a A colla r A cla m ped to the s h a ft of w hich
. .
, ,

the tor que has to be m easur e d is p r ovided with a fla n ge p r oj ecti n g at r igh t

,

a n gles to the sha f t a n d a n e x ten sio n .

A sleeve B ( fig p r ovi d ed with a si m ilar fla n ge a n d e x te n sio n at on e

.

e n d is m d at its fu r the r e n d 0 11 to t h e sha ft I n such a m a n n e r t h a t its

,
cla pe
fl a n ge i s close to t h at on the collar A whilst its e x te n sio n ov e I la ps that of
.

the colla r A 0 11 w h ich it is suppor ted to keep it co n ce n t ric B oth the colla r
, .

a n d sleeve a re quite r i i d a n d it is the r e f o r e Obvious that whe n the sha f t is

g , , ,

twisted by the t r a n s m issio n of powe r the fla n ge on the sleeve B w ill m ove ,

relatively to that on the colla r A the m ove m e n t bei n g equal to that betwee n,

t h e two pa r ts of the sha f t on which these fitti n gs a r e cla m pe d This m ove .

m e n t i s m ade visible by on e or m o r e syste m s of t o r qu e m i r r o r s m ou n t e d

 T HE H OPK I N S ON T H R I N G
-
I
T OR S ON M ET E R .

betwee n the two fla n ges which r eflect a bea m of light p roj ecte d f ro m a
, ,

la n te rn on to a scale d ivide d in a suitable m a n n e r on gr ou n d glass

, .

Each syste m o f to r que mi r r o r s co n sists O f a m ou n ti n g pivote d top a n d ,

botto m 0 11 on e or othe r Of the fla n ges in whic h t w o m i rr o r s a r e a rr a n ge d

,

back to back This m ou n ti n g is p r ovided with a n a r m the e n d Of which

.
,

is con n ected by a flat sp r i n g to a n adj ustable stop on t h e othe r fla n ge An y .

r elative m ove m e n t of the t wo fla n ges wi ll tu rn the to r que m i r r o r a n d the r eby ,

UE M IR R OR

LAS S

Ele v a ti on .

Z ER O M iR R ORs

COLLAR A

T ors ion Met e r

’

6 1 a — H opk in s on
.
and T h ri n g s .

c ause the bea m Of light to m ove on the scale the d ,eflectio n p r oduced b e l n
g
d i r ectly p r opo r tio n al to the to r que applied to the sha ft .

r o m each
W ith the a rr a n ge m e n t desc r ibed a,
r eflectio n w 1 11 be r ece i ve d f
i
m rr r o at eve r y hal f r evolutio n of the sha f t ; but whe r e the to r que va r i es

du ri n g a r evolutio n ( as with r ecip r ocati n g e n gi n es ) a seco n d syste m Of mi rr o r s

,

ma y b e a a
rr n ged at r ight a n gles to the fir st syste m so that f,ou d
r r ea i n gs

re a dm gs
c a n b e take n du r i n g on e r evolutio n ; or i f two scales a r e used e i ght
.
, ,
 1 49
'

COL L I E s T OR S I ON M ET ER .

Coll ie T ors ion Meter ( fig 6 2 ) is also a m echa n ical co n triva n ce of c on

’
s .

i n ge n uity by which the a n gle of twist is cause d to be r egiste r e d

s id e r a b le ,

by a poi n te r a n d d ial n ot u n like the B ou r d o n p r essu r e a n d vacuu m gauge

,

use d o n the L P valve b ox of a co mpou n d e n gi n e I n t hi s a rr a n ge m e n t

. . .

two cou n te r sha fts a r e co n n ecte d at t h e m i d dle by the coa r se th r ea d ed e n d -

of on e e n te r i n g t h e th r ea d ed sleeve tu rn ed by a n d f r ee to sli d e on the e n d

o f t h e othe r Each sha ft is d r ive n i n depe n de n tly by a R e n al d chai n gea r e d
.

up so that it ru n s about th ree ti m es to on e of the m ai n sha ft I f the m ai n .

s ha ft is n ot t r a n s mitti n g powe r the sleeve si m ply r evolves a n d the poi n te r

, ,

G E Y A DL

62 — Coll ie Mec h a n ic a l T orsion Me t er

’
Fi g . . s .

of t h e ga u ge is m otio n less i n m ea n positio n As soo n as powe r is tran s

‘

mi t t e d the sha ft twists a n d on e cou n te r sha ft m oves in adva n ce of the othe r ,

a n d f o r ci n g the sleeve to slide as a co n se que n ce Of its sc r ewed e n d m ovi n g

on the m ale e n d O f the othe r ; the poi n te r is t h us cause d to tu r n r ou n d so as

to i n dicate the e x act a n gu la r d isplace m e n t Of the le n gth of sha ft betwee n

the two d rivi n g wheels B oth these two m ete r s as i n d ee d m ust all
.
, , ,

m echa n ica l o n es depe n d on the accu r acy of m a n u f actu r e a n d the state O f

,

r epai r f or the value of t h ei r i n dicatio n s it is evi d e n t that the m agn i ficatio n

o f the e rr o r s w ill be p r actically at the sa m e r ate as the m ag n i ficatio n O f the
1 50 M A N U AL or M A R I N E E N GI N E ER I N G .

i n dicatio n s I t was n atural t h e re fo re for scie n tists a n d i n ve n to rs to turn

. , ,

to the ot h e r m ea n s of i n dicatio n s a n d m ag n i ficatio n which had p rovide d ,

t he m ea n s f or m easu r i n g othe r f o r ces with a d elicacy that n o m e r e m echa n ica l

co n t riva n ce ca n achieve The m irro r m agn i ficatio n Of r a d ius a n d c on se
.

que n tly of the a re used in telegraphy n o d oubt suggeste d itsel f to othe rs as it

d id to Pr o f Hopki n so n a n d Mr T h ri n g
. . .

Th e D en n y Joh ns on Meter di ff e r s f r o m the ot h e r s i n as m uch as lin a bilit y

-
,

of the poi n ts on the d iscs or othe r wise is i n d icate d by sou n d i n stead of light , ,

as tra n s m itted to a telepho n e r eceiver Whe n the two poi n ts or p r oj ectio n s .

i n this cas e on the disc a re in li n e they a r e so close to two fix e d p r o j ectio n s ,

as to m ake virtually a n elect rical co n n ectio n Whe n to r sio n takes place .

the co n n ectio n is b r oke n — that is t h e m eeti n g of the p r oj ectio n s d o n ot ,

syn ch r o n ise a n d it is o n ly by displace m e n t of on e of these fix e d poin ts

—

equal to the r elative ci r cu mfe r e n tial m ove m e n t Of the poi n t on the d isc tha t .

r es t o r es syn c h r o n isi n g co n tact with the co n seque nt p r o ductio n of sou n d i n

t h e telep h on e The a m ou n t of this m ove m e n t is r egiste r e d in t h e o r di n ary

.

si m ple way a n d fro m it t h e h o rse powe r is esti mate d

,
-
.

S h a ft H orse power t r a n s mitted by a s h a ft ca n be calculated fr o m t h e

- .

t orqu e as f ollows

T is t h e twisti n g m o m e n t or t orqu e in i n ch pou n d -

R , t h e r evol u tio n s m ade per m i n ute by the sh a ft .

0 5 236 T x R
-
T ><E
or O 5 2 36 T . S HP . . .

The tor que ca n be calculated fro m the a n gle of twist or to rsio n by m ea n s .

of t h e f ollowi n g form u lse

a
ais the a re at a r a dius r of the a n gle of tor sio n 0, [3 l is th e le n gt h
r
a n d d the oute r a n d d] t h e i n n e r dia m ete r of sha ft

10 2 X T x l a
( R a n ki n e )
M
.
4
r X d 2 7W
0 x 2 0 10
That 18 [3 3 60
584 X T X l for soli d 5 84 T X l for hollo w
or (i 0
M x 4
d sha fts —
d1 4
sha fts
, ,
) .

0 x d4 x M ,
.

Tha t 18
5 8 4: X l
M is t h e m o d ulus sti ff n ess or r igid ity of the m ate rial which for stee l ‘
.
,
of ,

ge n erally is 1 0 to 1 2 m illio n s With steel sha fts of best make e x pe ri me n t s

.
,

have show n the value of M to be for soli d a n d

.
,
for ,

hollow I n eve ry —day p r actice

. is take n f or solid steel sha fts
0 X d4 X 0 x d4
1 9 64
584 l
23
Su bstitutin g this value of T i n t h e fo r m ula for S H P . . .

0 d 4
S HP. . .

4
0 ( d4 a, ’R
S HP. . . for hollow s ha fts .

X l
 OR D I N AR Y S TE AM E N a i N E I N D C T OR I A .
.
15 1

I t ma y be obse rve d t h at it is usual to e x pe ri m e n t in t h e wo rks h ops with

t h e sha fts of eve r y s h ip to asce rtai n be fo re h a n d what a m ou n t o f to r que is

n ecessa r y to p r oduce a degr ee of a n gula r m ove m e n t i n a d e fin ite po rtio n of

its le n gth ; fr o m such e x pe ri me n ts the m odulus of rigi d ity is asce rta in ed .

I t is the n easy to co n st ruct a d iagr a m fr o m that pa rtic u la r sha ft by which ,

the powe r ma y be r ead off for a n y a n gula r m ove m e n t i n dicate d by t h e tor sio n
mete r a n d the r evolutio n s at the ti m e of obse r vatio n
, Fig 6 3 is such a . .

diagr a m as to n eed n o e x plan atio n .

I t w a s held at on e ti m e tha t the e n d p r essu r e on a ship s sha ft d u e to

’

th rust se riously a ffected the r e giste r of to r que it was suppose d u n t il lately

to a ff ec t it to the e x te n t eve n of 3 per ce n t but m o r e r ece n t in vestigatio n s .

by D r Hopki n son with m o r e se n sitive in stru m en ts see m to h ave r e m oved

.

t h e i m p r essio n a n d t h at p r acticall y e n d t hr u s t m a y be d is rega rded n ow as

, .

a f acto r in the calculatio n of sha ft ho rse powe r -

.

V A a c D E F G n J K a M N O P Q R S T v x

iz u lo 9 e 7 6 s q

f i fi n e Cu N
a l e S HO WS Cr a n k efl b fl t Cu r ve dedu ced fi v m i ndic a t or Di ag r a m L e t t e r s mm pa nd m M i na /1 0! HB C
a nk

”
.

obt a i n e d by Tér s ron Me ta l: N u mbe rs

M am T m s r me M a u zm D IAGR AM ¢O R A R e c lm ou r mo En e ma .

“ ° '
330
' ° ' '
360
‘
2 70 300
' ' ° ° '

o 30 60 90 z
za 15 0 18 0 2 10 240

Fig 63 — Cr an k E ff ort
. . an d T or s ion Me t e r D ia gra m ( J H a m ilt on Gibs on )
. .

Th e Ordin a ry S tea m Engin e I n di ca t or is o fte n spoke n of as a de fective

i n st ru me n t , a n d on e n ot to be r elie d on to give accu r ate r es u l ts I t is quite .

t rue that it is n ot e x actly a pe rfect on e a n d that the po we r r egister e d by ,

mea n s of it co m es sho rt of the actual a m oun t d evelope d in the cyli n de r s ,

but at the sa m e ti m e W hi le a d mittin g this it shoul d n ot be fo rgotte n that

, , ,

it re n de r s a n othe r a n d a ve ry good se r vice to the e n gi n ee r besides that of

givi n g h im the powe r a n d on e t h at is quite as i m po r ta n t to h im I t sho w s
, .

in a r ea d y a n d r api d way whether the i n te rn al a n d u n see n pa rts of the e n gi n e

a re i n g ood wo r k i n g o r d e r a n d e fficie n t f or t h ei r se r vice I t is to h im wha t
, .

the stet h oscope is to a docto r of m e d ici n e .

 V E R T CA I L EN G I N ES . 153

Th e m ai n p r opelli n g m achi n e r y the r e fo r e must be debi t ed o n ly with

, ,

the s e a m it uses a n d t h at used by such of the au x ilia ry m achi n e ry as is

n ecessa r y t o keep the m ai n e n gi n es r u n n i n g .

With such feed a n d othe r pu m ps as a re n ow e m ployed I n the e n gi n e

r oo m s of i m po r ta n t vessels the wate r co n su mpti o n c a n be closely m easu r e d
, ,

a s they a r e capable of acti n g as m ete r s o f the wate r they pass by si m ply

fitti n g the m with cou n te r s t o r eco r d the n u m be r of st r okes they m ake the
chie f e n gi n ee r c a n thus quite easily calculate the actual a m ou n t of wate r

pu mmd fr o m the m ai n co n de n se r a n d fr o m the au x ilia r y co n d e n se r a n d ,

r eco r d the r eby the stea m co n su m ptio n of the m achi n e r y as a whole or of ,

the m ai n e n gi n es o n ly .

To show the cost of the u s efu l wo r k do n e by m a ri n e e n gi n es use d to be

s o m ewhat di fficult a n d could b e calculated o n ly by usi n g assu m ptio n s that
,

we r e always so m ewhat u n ce r tai n That is u n til the to r sion mete r was used
.
,

the wo r k t r a n s mitted to the p r opelle r was e x cept in so m e special e x ceptio n s , ,

p ractically guessed at ; n ow howeve r tha n ks to these i n str u m e n ts we c a n

, , ,

m easur e what is call ed the sha ft ho r se powe r of both tu r bi n es a n d r ec ipr o -

c a t or s a n d the r eby co m pa r e the outputs by r educi n g the m to a co mm o n

“

d e n o m i n ato r thi s bei n g so

Wa ter cons u med per S H P (sha ft h orse power) is the measu r e n ow of
. . .
-

the e fficie n cy of a m ari n e e n gi n e qu ci e n gi n e without co m plicatio n s or ,

'

e x pla n atio n s .B u t by this m ethod the ge n e ral e fficie n cy is show n without

a n y di ff e r e n tiati n g betwee n t h e stea m a n d the m echa n ical e fficie n cy of

t h e syste m .

Th e Mech ani ca l Efficien cy or the r elative value of the e n gi n e as a piece

,

of m echa n i s m is m easu r ed by co m pa r i n g the sha ft ho r se powe r with the

,
-

gross power ge n e rated as shown by the i n dicato r diagr am

,

Mecha ni cal e fficien cy of a m a rin e e n gi n e ther e fo r e is S H P , , . . .

1: I HP
. . .

Mr D e n n y f oun d by usi n g a to rsio n mete r that the m echani cal e fficie n cy

.

of so m e quadruple e n gi n es m ade by hi s firm was as high as 94 per ce n t .

The late Mr Mudd asce rtai n ed the p ower r e qui r ed t o m ove certai n triple
.

co m pou n d e n gi n es sta n di n g in the e r ecti n g shop without sc rew sha fti n g

was at wor ki n g r evolutio n s 4 5 or 5 0 pe r ce n t o n ly of the gr oss powe r .

i n dicated ( 900 ) when wo rki n g a t those sa m e r evolutio n s in a loa d ed ship '

.

Thi s would show then the e fficie n cy to be 95 per ce n t but it m ust be n ote d
, , .

that in thi s case n o all owa n ce i s made f or t h e ex tr a fr ictio n on the valves ,

guides etc due to the gr eate r p r essur e on the m whe n at wo r k at fu l l powe r

,
.
,
.
.

The ol de r ho r i z o n tal j et co n de n si n g e n gi n es had co m par atively a lo w

-

e fficie n cy due to the ge n e r al f rictio n of the ver y heavy m ovi n g pa r ts a n d

the r esistan ce of the t w o a ir t w o f eed a n d t w o bilge pu m ps wo r ke d by the m
, , .

The r e is goo d r easo n to believe that the m echa n ical e fficie n cy of so m e of

the m was sel d o m ev e r 75 pe r ce n t L atte rly howeve r the well m a d e ho ri
.
, ,
-

z on t a l e n gi n es of P e n n s Maudslays etc
,
whe n r u n n i n g at the highe r r e v olu
,
.
,

tio n s a n d developi n g m uch m o r e p owe r tha n f o rm er ly a n d havi n g su r face

,
‘
,

c o n de n se r s had eve n 8 0 to 85 per ce n t e fficie n cy

, . .

V ertica l En gin es with sur face co n de n se r s a n d slow r u n n i n g had a n e ffi

c ie n c y fr o m 5 to 8 p e r ce n t bette r tha n the ho r i z o n tals of si mila r si z e a n d
.
,

wo r ki n g u n de r si mi la r co n ditio n s To day n aval m achi n e ry a n d that of

.
-

e x p ress stea m e r s have a n e ffi cie n cy f r o m 90 to 94 pe r ce n t at full spee d . .

15 4 M AN UA L or M A R I NE EN G I N EER I N G .

whe n w ith o n ly the a ir pu m ps d rive n by it a n d of the t riple a n d quad ruple ,

recip r ocati n g type .

Th e Mech a n ica l Efficien cy of a T u rbin e has bee n dete r mi n ed a pprox i

m ately by obse rvi n g the elect r o m otive p owe r r equi red to r evolve it a t
wo r ki n g speed by m ea n s of a m oto r a n d taki n g it as the mecha n ical loss ,

when wo rki n g I t s e fficie n cy is of cou r se high a n d fro m such obser vatio n s

.
, , ,

m ade with si mila r m ac h i n es in se r vice on la n d it m a y b e take n that the ,

ma r i n e tu r bi n e has a m echa n ical e fficie n cy of about 95 pe r ce n t in a ge n e r al .

wa y a n d that with the la r gest o n es it m a y have a so m ewhat hi ghe r p r obably

, ,

96 t o 975 pe r ce n t .

Th e Mech a n ica l Efficien cy of t h e R eciproca ting En gin e is n ot so high as

th is although that of well design ed car e fully m ade a n d bala n ced e n gi n es
,

of hi gh spee d will n ot be f a r sho r t of the 95

per ce n t whe n r u n n i n g in good .

wor ki n g o rd e r a n d fr ee of a ll pu m ps a n d well lub r icated U n de r these c i r , .

c u m s t a n c es its e fficie n cy I S pr obably 92 to 94 p er ce n t at least I t I s how . .

,

ever s o m ewhat misleadi n g t o e x p ress the m echani cal losses as a fr actio n

,

of the Total I n dicated Hor se P owe r i n as m uch as that va r ies closely w ith -
,

the cub e of the r evolution s while the losses var y m o r e n early as the re v olu
,

tio n s ; so that although a n e n gin e m a y show a n e fficie n cy of o n ly 80 per

,

cen t at 50 r evolutio n s it m ay be as much as 94 at full speed of 75 r evolutio n s

.
,
3
5
that is the loss is 2 X 20— without a n y cha n ge 1 11 the adj ustm en t of
—

a si n gle par t
,
75
.
( >
Mechan ical losses r eally depe n d la r gely on the si z e of the e n gi n e N ow .
,

i n a ge n e r al way the N o m i n al Hor se P ower e x p r esses f ai r ly well the si ze -

of a n y e n gi n e a n d ther e f o r e all othe r thi n gs bei n g equal it will be a su fh

, , , ,

c ie n t ly accu r ate assu m ptio n that fr ic t i on a l los s es a re propor t i on a l t o N H P . . .

Pr actice has de m o n str ated that about 70 per ce n t of these losses will in the .

o rdi n ar y m a ri n e en gi n e var y d i r ectly with the r evolutio n s withi n r easo n able

li m its a n d fur the r that the r e mai n i n g 30 per ce n t i n cr ease at a m o r e r apid
,
.

r ate ; i n f act i n m ode r n e n gi n es total losses r oughly va r y as the cube r oot

,

of the r evolutio n s r aised to the f ou r th powe r— that 1 s as R 3 , .

I t I s obvious that the m echa ni cal e fficie n cy of a n y e n gi n e will va r y fr o m

ti m e to ti m e a n d u n de r so m e cir cum sta n ce the va r iatio n m a y be ver y c on
,

s ider a ble I t is also well k n o w n that at ve r y slo w r ate of r evolutio n the

.

appar e n t m echa n ical losses a re u n certai n a n d always p r opo r tio n ately la rge , .

The o n ly losses that c a n be co n sidere d her e a r e those which i n evitably occu r

with a n y e n gi n e when in quite a good state of r epai r a n d in r eally good wo rki n g
o rde r .

Th e Efficien cy of Ma rin e En gine s whe n well m ade i n this good stat e , ,

of r epair a n d i n goo d wo r ki n g o r de r shoul d be app r o x i m ately i n acco r da n ce

, ,

wi t h the followi n g r ule

Fr iction ho r se powe r-

(y x 2/R ) .

I H P . EH F
Efficie n c y
. . . .

I H P
. . .

N omi n al
ho rse powe r D x -
S K ,

whe r e D is the dia mete r of the L P pisto n . .

,
and S the stroke , both In I n ches .
 EFF CI E N C I Y or M A R I N E E N G I N ES . 155

the two stage co m pou n d e n gi n e K

For -
15 0 .

t riple stage K -
12 6 .

quad r uple stage K -

105 .

R t h e r evolutio n s pe r mi n ute .

For diago n al paddle wheel e n gi n es wit h a i r pu mps o n ly - -

it 15 y 10 .

ve rtical scr ew e n gi n es m er ca n tile with all pu m ps , ,

co n n ec t ed , x 10 ; y 8 .

light quick r u n n i n g sc rew e n gi n es with all pu mps

-

co n n ected , as 07 ; y 7 .

n aval a n d e x p r ess sc r ew e n gi n es ce n t ri fugal c ir ,

la t in g
cu , x 06 ; y 7 .

sc r ew e n gi n es with o n ly a ir pu m ps x
n aval a n d e x p r ess 05 65
, y .

special n aval sc r ew e n gi n es n o pu m ps x , 03 ; y 60 .

fo r ced lub rication n o pu mps x , . 01 y 50 .

Ex a mple 1 — A t ra m p stea me r havi n g a n e n gi n e with cyli n de r s 22

.
,

3 7 a n d 62 i n ches dia m ete r a n d 4 5 i n ches st r oke which at 8 5 r evolutio n s

, ,

I H P what is the e ffi cie n cy 4

’
develops . .

Her e N H P . . . 62 X 4 5 126 , or 22 1 .

22 1 X 85
Frictio n a l H P . .
(8 f/85 ) 220 .

Efficie n cy 2 20 ) or 0 9 04 .

Ex a mple 2 — A des t r oyer has t w o sets of e n gi n es each havi n g cyli n de r s 19

.
, ,

2 8 5 a n d 4 3 i n ches dia mete r with 1 8 i n ches st r oke at 3 70 r evolutio n s ; the

,

total I H P is
. . .

H er e N H P each e n gi n e
. . . 43 X 18 12 6

6 1 X 3 70
Frictio n H P . .
(6 0 3 184 .

Efficie n cy 1 84 ) 09 13 .

Exa mple 3 — A paddle stea me r ha y i n g cyli n de r s 5 6 a n d 1 1 0 i n ches dia m ete r

.

a n d a pisto n st r oke of 72 i n ches develops I H P a t 5 0 r evol u tio n s . . .

,

what is the E H F a n d e fficie n cy ?

. . .

N HP . . . 1 10 x 72 15, or 5 30 .

5 30 x 50 3
EH P . . .
( 19 1 5 J5 0 ) 41 1 .

411
Efli CI e n c y 0 94 2 .

7 1 50

Ex a mple 4 — A n aval ship has two e n gi n es each with cyli n de r s 4 3 a n di

.
,

6 9 i n ches a n d two L P each 77 i n ches the st r oke bei n g 4 2 i n ches

,
. .
, .

He r e the two L P cyli n de r s a r e equivale n t to on e 1 09 i n ches dia mete r

. . .

At 1 4 0 r evolutio n s each e n gi n e develops I H P

. . .

1 26
85
 TR I AL S W I T H I L
T R P E COM P O -
UN D EN G I N ES .

n ot u n de r quite the sa me co n ditio n s as those obtai n i n g with a m a ri n e

m ade
e n gi n e for in these cases the load was a n arti ficial on e ( b r ake ) a n d so m ewhat
, ,

a rbitr arily va rie d .

The f ollowi n g figur es a n d d ia gi a ms S how the r esults of so m e c a re fully

m ade t I Ia ls with t w o t 1 iple co m pou n d e n g i n es by Mess r s B elliss Morc om , . .

B i rmi n gha m They a re of t h eir special e n closed type havi n g thr ee cyli n de r s
.
,

a n d th r ee c r a n ks supplie d with stea m at 1 50 lbs p r essu r e a n d e x h a u s t in

g .
,

i n to a su r face co n de n se r whose p u m p s a re ope r ated by i n depe n d e n t e n gi n es .

The whole of the pi n s beari n gs guides a n d wo r ki n g pa r ts a r e lub ricat ed

, , ,

i t h thei r S pecial Am e r ica n mi n e r al oil f o rced th r ough the m by a pu m p

co n sta n tly at wo r k co n n ected to t h e e n gi n e I t will be see n that the fr ictio n .

pe r r evolutio n both with a n d without load va ries a n d has t w o mi n i mu m

, , ,

a n d t w o m a x i mu m values ; that at f ull speed the frictio n al H P pe r revo . .

lu t ion loaded is r e a lly o n ly a littl e less tha n that whe n r u n n i n g fr ee whe re a s ,

at 2 00 r evolutio n s or h al f spee d the r e is the greatest di ff e r e n ce betwe e n

, ,

the m that at f ull loa d bei n g hal f that r u n ni n g free ; also tha t at dead slow
,

s pee d say 2 5 r evolutio n s the f rictio n pe r r evolutio n both light a n d loaded

, , , ,

is n ea 1 1y f ou r ti mes that of the loaded e n gi n e at 2 00 r evolutio n s .

11 17 24
E N GI N E ( N o . 1 4 01 ) 150 LB S . AT EN GI N E S TOP -
Z
VA VE .

Ta b le of P o w e rs , & c .
, U nd e r L oa d Co n d itio n s .

R ev olu t i on s .

I H P
. . .

B H P . . .

D iffe r e n c e or f r ic i on , H P t . .
,

I H P per r e olu i on ,
. . . v t
B H P . . .

F H P

?
. . .

13 ' P '

e ffici e n cy , 96 8 7 93 9
1 1
.

P ,

Fr ictio n P owe r s U n der N o -

L o a d Co n d i t io n s .

R e v olu t i on s .

Fr ic tion H P
p er re volu tion ,

The above figur es a re e mbo died I n t h e diag r a m ( fig .

The n o loa d ca r ds we r e take n n on co n de n si n g but the load ca rds w ere

- -
,

take n co n de n si n g .

This i s p r obably the reaso n why the frictio n powe r show n a t n o load
158 MAN UAL OF M AR IN E EN G I N EER I N G .
 E X PER M EN T S I W ITH T OR P ED O B O T A . 159

is g reate r t h a n that at full load Th e e ffi cie n cy u n d e r load co n d e n si n g is-

.

i n variably slightly bette r t h a n w he n n on co n d e n si n g -

.

I t is also i n te r esti n g to n ote how r api d ly t h e r ate of frictio n pe r r evolutio n

i n c r eased whe n t h e powe r was high a n d r evolutio n s we r e quite s mall Th e .

e fficie n cy of the la r ge r e n gi n e at f ull load a n d highest r evolutio n s was 0 9 29 ,

a n d the fr ictio n losses we r e 04 7 I H P per r evolutio n at 1 70 ; 0 0 79 at

’

. . .

3 00 r evolutio n s 0 0 78 at 3 5 0 r evolutio n s d r oppi n g to 0 0 73 at 4 00 These , .

,

howeve r a r e e n gi n es havi n g f o r ced lub ricatio n

,
.

Mr Yarrow s Experimen ts with a T orpedo B oa t to a s c eIt a in the e ffi cie n cy

’

o f e n gi n es p r opelle r a n d ship we r e m ade i n a m ost ca r e ful a n d e x haustive

, ,

way a n d a r e m ost i n te r esti n g a n d i n st r uctive They S ho w that the m echa n ical

,
.

e ffi cie n c y Of the e n gi n es va r ied fr o m 0 766 at 9 k n ots to 0 92 3 at 1 5 k n ots ,

a n d that the m echa ni cal losses va r ied at a higher r ate tha n give n by the

a rith m etical p r ogr essio n of r evolutio n s The hi gh e fficie n cy of th ese quick .

r u n n i n g e n gi n es at f u ll powe r whe n ca r e fully m a n u factu r ed a n d adj uste d

is m a n i fested by a n i n spectio n of the figur es in the subj oi n ed table .

T AB LE XX V L — YA R R O W S ’
EX P ER I M E N T S ON EFFI CI E N CY .

S p e ed , k n ot s , 11 0

I n d h or s e p ow e r ,
.
-

Fric t ion , e t c , os s , . l

Mr A H Tyacke
. . Hull m ade a se r ies of t r ials with the e n gi n es of
.
,
Of ,

t w o shi ps m a n u f act u r ed by Ea r les CO to ascer t ai n fr ictio n al r esista n ce at .

d i ffe r e n t speeds I n each case the e n gi n es we r e allowe d to ru n without thei r

.

p ropeller sha fti n g co n n ected ; i n d icator dia gr a m s we r e ca r e fully take n at

va rious r ates of r evolutio n At the sa m e r ates a set of d iagr a m s wer e taken.

w ith the s h ip r u nn i n g with p r opelle r s co n n ecte d The fir st ship h a d cyli n d e r s .

1 2 2 0 a n d 3 2 i n ches d ia mete r a n d a pisto n st r oke of 2 1 i n ches

, ,
The seco n d,
.

s hip h a d so m ewhat la r ge r e n gi n es the cyli n de r s bei n g 2 2 a n d 3 6 i n ches , ,

d ia m ete r a n d a pisto n st r oke of 2 4 i n ches a n d the hi ghest r evolutio n s o n ly

, ,

1 1 1 whi ch is s m all for such s m all cyli n de r s

, U n d e r these ci r cu m sta n ces .

t h e e fficie n cy I s r e m ar kably good esp ecially that of t h e latte r ,

.

T AB L E XX V I I .
— TY ACK E
’
s EFFI CI E N CY EX P ER I M E N T S .

R e v olu t i o n s pe r M in u t e .

I n di c a t e d h or s e pow er, -

Fric t ion a l h ors e p ow e r,

E ff i c i en c y ( I H P FH P . . . . . .
)
I H P , .
 S TE AM E FF C EN C I I Y or I
R EC P R O C T O R S A . 161

t riple e x p a n sio n e n gi n e of t h e m e rca n tile m a ri n e co n su mes 1 6 lbs

Th e -
.

e r ho r se powe r h ou r o r 0 2 6 7 pe r m i n ute I n suc h a n e n gi n e a pou n d of

p
- -
.
,

stea m p ro d uces 3 7 5 I H P . . .

He n ce the stea m e fficie n cy of t h e e n gi n e is 3 7 5 6 1 or 0 6 1 5 , .

An e n gi n e usi n g stea m at 2 5 0 lbs p ressure absol u te r ec e ives it at a t e m .

e ra t u re of a n d r ej ects at givi n g up to the e n gi n e whic h is

p
equivale n t to 6 5 8 H P . .

A qua d ruple e n gi n e u n d e r these co n d itio n s co n su m es 1 4 5 lbs of stea m .

e r I H P hou r or 0 2 4 2 lb p e r m i n ute co n seque n tly a pou n d of stea m

p
-
. . .
,
.
,

p ro duces in it 4 1 3 I H P . . .

He n ce its stea m e fficie n cy is 4 1 3 6 5 8 or 0 6 2 8 , .

A tu rbi n e usi n g stea m O f 2 00 lbs p r essu r e a n d r e j ecti n g at 8 1 will abso rb

°
.

equivale n t to 70 7 H P . .

Assu m i n g it to co n su m e o n ly 1 2 lbs O f stea m the po w e r ge n e r ate d in .

,

by a pou n d of stea m is 4 99 H P -
. .

Th e e fficie n cy of this tur bi n e is 4 99 7 0 7 or 0 7 0 6 - '

, .

Th e S team Efficien cy of t h e B est T u rbin es is as high as 72 pe r ce n t whe n .

of la rge si ze a n d u n d e r f avo u r able ci r cu m sta n ces

,
t h at O f tu r bi n es of goo d
m ake a n d ove r sha ft ho r se —powe r c a n be take n at 6 4 to 66
pe r ce n t .

With supe rheated st ea m t h ose on shor e Of la rge si z e ca n be depe n d e d on to

show a n e fficie n cy of 72 to 75 pe r ce n t .

Th e St eam Efficien cy of R ec iproc a t ors of la r ge si z e good d esig n a n d , ,

goo d co n st r uctio n 60 to 6 3 pe r ce n t is satis facto ry ,

. .

The f ollo wi n g table gives the m a x i m u m a m ou n ts Of wo r k ge n e rated

theo retically by a pou n d of stea m du ri n g ad missio n a n d e x pa n sio n

T AB L E XX V I I I .
— MAX I M U M WOR K D ON E B Y 1 LB . OF S T E AM P R ES S .
pl , E X P AN D IN G
AD I AB AT I CAL L Y To PR E S S .
192 , AN D E X H AU S T N G T o I CO N D E N S E R AT 1 L n PR . ES S .

I n it i a l pr es s u re, 1 00 lb s . 1 2 5 lb s . 1 75 lb s . 2 5 0 lb s .

Te r m i n a l p z H P H P B T U H P B 1 U H P
’‘
B T U
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . B T U
. . . H P . .

h
 1 62 MAN U AL OF M AR I N E EN G I N EER I N G .

S tea m Efficien cy ma y also be asce rtain ed by r e fe r ri n g to Table XXV I I I , .

whe r e it wi ll be see n t h at a pou n d Of stea m e x pa n di n g a d iabatically f ro m

200 lbs absolute to 1 lb whe n i t e n te r s the co n de n se r , c a n theo retically give
. .

332 5 B T U , equivale n t to 7 8 4 ho r se po we r
. . .
-
.

A Tu rbin e pr acticall y wo r ks on these co n di tion s with a stea m co n sum ptio n

Of about 1 1 5 lbs , or 1 1b of ste a m is go od for 5 24 H P . I n this case , t h e n . . .

The e fficien c y 5 24 7 8 4 or 66 8 pe r ce n t _
, .

A triple co m pou n d e n gin e usin g ste a m at 2 00 lbs p r essur e absolute e x

-
.

pa n di n g to 8 lbs ( n o mi n al e x pa n sio n r ate a n d e x haustin g at 1 lb to t h e

. .

co n de n ser requires 1 5 lbs of stea m per H P hour so that 1 lb is good for

,
. . .
-
, .

4 H P a n d t h eo r etically un de r these co n ditio n s d evelop 2 8 5 5 B T U

.
,
equi . . .

vale n t to 6 73 H P Table XXV I I I I n t hi s case

. . .

( a ) Efficien cy 4 6 73 or 0 5 94 or 5 9 4 per ce n t , , .

B u t 1 lb of such ste a m if e x pa n ded to its full e x te n t is show n to be go od for

.

78 4 H P t h e n . .
,

( b) Efficien cy 4 7 8 4 or 0 5 1 or 5 1 0 per ce n t o n ly - -
, , . .

A Qu adru ple En gin e wo r ki n g wi th ste a m at 2 5 0 lbs absolute e x pa n di n g .

,

to 8 lbs or n o min ally 3 1 ti mes e x hausts to the co n de n ser at 1 lb co n sum es

. , , .
,

1 4 lbs O f stea m per H P hour so that 1 lb is good for 4 2 86 H P

. . . B u t 1 lb of
-
, . . . .

steam is theoretically good for 3 02 5 B T U or 7 1 3 H P un der these co n ditio n s .

-
. .

The n e fficien cy 7 13 0 6 0 1 or 6 0 1 pe r ce n t °

, .

Taki n g the full value of 1 lb of such stea m as 8 2 1 ( 0 Table XXV I I I ) . . .

b
( ) Ef fi cie n cy 4 2 86 8 2 1 — that is 5 2 0
per ce n t o n ly , . .

H igh Pressu re : its Adva n ta ges a nd D isad vanta ges B e for e the in t r o ;

ductio n Of t h e co m pou n d en gin e for m ar in e pur poses the boiler pr essu r e had ,

bee n as h igh as 60 lbs in quite large stea m ers in H M ser vice with the .
, . .
,

n on co n de n si n g e n gi n es of 2 00 N H P
-
so m e of these we r e fitted in ce rtai n . . .

battle sh ips d ur i n g t h e 1 8 5 5 R ussia n w a r ; but a fter the co m poun d e n gin e

-

secur e d t h e co n fid e n ce of all classes O f ste am ship own e r s that p ressur e was ,

very m uch e x ceeded with be n eficial r esults .

Pr io r to the ge n e r al use Of the t r iple co mpou n d e n gine 90 lbs was a ve r y .

co m mo n boiler p r essur e a n d m a n y shi ps bo iler s we r e m ade for a wo rkin g ,

’

p r essur e Of 1 00 lbs a n d a f ew for as hi gh as 1 1 0 lbs The triple co m poun d

.
, .
-

e n gin e itsel f was for a lon g ti m e wo r ked with s t ea m O f 1 5 0 lbs the n 1 65 lbs . .

beca m e a fash io n able p r essu r e to be soo n super se d ed by 1 75 lbs ; a n d , .

n ow eve n 200 lbs is ge n er al although the eco n o mi c gain with triples by

.
,

goin g fr om 1 5 0 to 200 lbs is questio n ed by so m e e n gin eer s who have m ade .

care fu l obse r vatio n s of all t h e co n d itio n s in volve d in the

Th e Obj ectio n to still h igh e r p r essu res is r at h e r of a p r actical n atu r e ,

but c a n be sa fely ove r co m e sin ce ste a m superheate d to 6 00 F m a y n ow be ,

°
.

used S te a m at a p r essur e of 2 5 0 lbs absolute has a te m peratu r e Of 40 1 F

. .
°
.
,

or n ea rly that of the m elti n g poi n t of t in I t will the re fo re a ff ect the -

.
, ,

co n di tio n of so m e Of the m etals with which it co m es in con tact r e n d er in g the

su rfaces b r ittle a n d in a bad co n ditio n to withsta n d seve r e r Iibbin g Mo r e
,

over co mm o n u n gue n ts a re vaporise d a n d t h e walls of the cyli n d e r s beco m e

, ,

too hot to co n d e n se t h ei r vapou r w h e n e x posed to ve r y high te m pe ratur es ;

but the h eavy m i n e ral Oils n ow use d however have a boili n g poin t of , ,

T h N E Co t I t E
‘
e d S St
. d d S p ifi t io of 1 91 7 gi s 1 80 lb f o ca go t am ers
. as ns . . an . an ar ec ca n ve s . r r s e
w i t h t r ip le s .
 FR I CTI ON OR T H E PI S T O N . 163

700
°
FThe d i ff e re n ce in e x pa n sio n of d i ff e re n t m etals is so co n side r able
.
,

that the ut most ca re must be e x e rcise d in the desig n a n d m a n u factur e of t h e

cyli n der etc to p reve n t r acki n g which causes leakages a n d b reakages Th e
, .
, , .

pressu re n ecessitates co n si d e r able thick n ess in all cast i r o n wo r k ; a n d

-

n eglecti n g all co n side r atio n s of weight or cost this alo n e co n stitutes a sou rce ,

Of Ob j ectio n a n d da n ge r i n as much as the sudde n e x posu r e O f thick m asses

,

of this m etal to high te mpe r atu r es on on e s ide o n ly is su r e to disto rt a n d ,

.

ve r y l i kely to f I a c t u re I t The liability to leakage i s Of cou r se gr eater

.
, ,

with the h igh e I pre s s u I e i n d epe n d e n t of te m per atu r e a n d the d a n ge r to

, ,

the atte n da n ts fr o m eve n s m all e x plosio n s is ve ry m uch i n c r eased Agai n

, , .
,

in o r d e r to e x pa n d stea m at this p r essu r e s o as to Obtai n fr o m it the m a x i m u m ,

e fficie n cy it will b e f ou n d n ecessary to use a se r ies of cyli n de r s ; a n d although

, ,

as will be show n late r on the e n gi n e with f ou r stages is n ot without v i rtue

, ,

a la I ge r n u m ber will n ot co mm e n d itsel f to e n gin eeI s ge n e r ally f or e n gi n es

of the s m allest a n d la r gest si z es I n p r actice it has bee n f ou n d that a n .
,

e n gi n e c a n be wo r ked with stea m Of a p r essure less tha n that usual but ,

supe rheate d to the te m pe r atur e co rr espo n di n g to the highe r p r essur e a n d ,

yet be m o r e eco n o m ic a n d e fficie n t tha n a si mila r on e wo r ki n g with that

hi gher p r essu re Of stea m .

Efficien cy of th e En g in e a s a Ma chin e — The m a ri n e e n gi n e su ff e r s lo ss .

,

in co m m o n with all m achi n es fr o m ce r tai n physical causes beyo n d the ,

a bs olu t e co n t r ol of the m ost skil ful desig n e r a n d e n gi n ee r s c a n o n ly a im at

mitigati n g the evil without e n tirely over co m i n g it The chie f cause of loss
,

.
,

of e n e r gy is of cou r se fr ictio n ( 1 ) of the pisto n

, , ( 2 ) of the s t u ffin g bo x es -
,
-

( 3 ) of the guides a n d sli d es ( 4 ) Of the sha ft j ou r n als ( 5 ) of the valves a n d

, ,

valve m otio n An other sou r ce Of loss is that fr o m the r esista n ce of the

-
.

pu m ps a n d fin ally the i n e r tia of the m ovi n g pa rts which have a r ecip r ocal
, , ,

actio n as in the pisto n a n d r o d s m a y be the cause of f ur the r waste of e n e rgy

, ,
.

U n less t h e m o m e n tu m is bala n ced or the e n e r gy i m pa r te d a t on e pa r t of ,

the str oke a n d sto r ed I n the heavy m ovi n g m asses i s give n ou t wholly by ,

t h e e n d of the str oke a ser ious loss e n sues a n d the m echa n is m has to susta i n
w
, ,

the str ai n of f or ces whi ch m ight b e other ise use fully e m ploye d .

1 Th e Friction of t h e Pist on in the ve rtical e n gi n e in s m ooth wate r depe n d s

.

on t h e p r essu r e of the packi n g o n the sides of the cyli n d e r ; s o that i f the ,

pisto n we r e soli d a n d S i m ply a good fit the r e woul d theor eticall y be n o ,

fr ictio n a n d i n p r actice n o n e beyo n d that d u e to the visci d ity of the u n gue n t

,

a n d to the p r essu r e on the si d es Of the cyli n d e r f r o m the r olli n g a n d ge n e r al

m otio n of the ship This i s what is r equi r ed in a pisto n a n d that on e is

.
,

m ost n ear ly pe rf ect which is capable Of m ovi n g stea m tight in the cyli nd e r -

with least p r essu r e of the packi n g a n d so app r o x i m ates to the co n d itio n of ,

a soli d on e R esista n ce due to this cause has bee n r e duced to a m i n i m u m

.

in m o d e rn e n gi n es by ca r e in m a n u f actu r e a n d skill in desig n ; the cyli n de r

is n ow t r uly a n d s m oothly bo r ed fr o m e n d to e n d the m etal which shoul d , ,

be ha rd a n d close g r ai n ed soo n beco m es po lished a n d gla zc d a n d in the

,
e
,

best possible co n ditio n f or s m ooth wo rki n g ; the packi n gs of the pisto n a r e

m etallic a n d the m ethods Of p r essi n g ou t the packi n g r i n g such as to e n su r e
,

a u n ifOI m a n d eve n ly S p r ead p r essu r e Of s m all m ag n itu d e The loss fr o m .

packi n g the pisto n s t oo tightly m a y beco m e ve r y gr eat a n d t oo m u ch ca re ,

ca n n ot be e x e r cised I n atte n di n g to this m ost i m po rta n t pa rt of the e n gi n e .

I n ho ri z o n tal a n d d iagon al e n gi n es the u c robt Of the pisto n p r essi n g ,

on t h e S i d e of the cyli n d e r sets up f r ictio n a n d as t h e cyli n de r wea r s i n ,

co n seque n ce m o r e on the botto m tha n t h e top it gets out of s h ape thus , ,

 LO S S P R O M FR I CT ON I . 1 65

whic h the p ressure on the gui des has bee n in mo de r n e n gi n es re d u ce d by

mak in g the co n n ecti n g r od lo n ge r in p r opo r tio n to the st roke Wh e n cast i ro n
-
.
-

has beco m e by r ubbi n g gla zed on the su rface the r e is n o m aterial bette r
, , ,

f or guides Howeve r as so m e e n gin e e r s will n ot wait f or or do n ot t rust t o

.
, , ,

t h is state of m etallic su r face but p r e fe r the r ubbi n g su r face to b e of a so fte r

,

n atu r e tha n the r ubbe d it is n ot u n usual to fin d white m etal fitted to t h e

,
“
shoes That so m e Of the Olde r e n gi n es we r e i n e fficie n t fr o m loss at the
.

guides is p roved by the r apid wea r i n g Of the old b r o n ze shoes ; the wo r k

,

n ecessa r y to co n ve r t so m a n y cubic i n ches of m etal i n to powde r bei n g t h e

measu r e of avoidable loss at that poi n t .

4 Th e L oss from Frict i on a t t h e S h a ft J ou rn a l s et c m a y b e also ve r y

.
, .
,

co n si d e r able as the load on the pisto n is t r a n s m itte d fr o m the c r a n k pin

,
-

to the m in ad d itio n to that caused by the weight of the sha ft itsel f a n d the
,

co n n ectio n s The sa m e m a y be said of the c r a n k pi n s which have p r ess i n g

.
-
,

on the m the whole of that load in ad d itio n to the weight O f the r ods ,
This .

f rictio n m a y b e ve r y seve r e especially in f ast r u n n i n g e n gi n es ,

I t was -
.

fo rm e r ly hel d that fr i ct i on wa s i n de pen den t of in lecit y s o f a r as m ove m e n t ,

t h r ough a fix ed dista n ce is co n ce r n ed that is if a b ody b e m oved through ,

1 0 f eet the f rictio n is the sa m e if the m ove m e n t takes place in 1 seco n d or in

,

1 0 seco n ds but if ti m e be take n i n to accou n t the fr ictio n of m ov in g t h e body ,

t en ti m es ove r the 1 0 f eet in 1 0 seco n d s is t e n ti m es that of m ovi n g it on ce

in 1 0 seco n ds S i n ce M Mor i n made his e x pe r i m e n ts f u r the r i n vestigatio n s
. .

h ave bee n m ost ca r e fully m ade by Mr Towe r a n d othe r s which show that .
,

frictio n does va r y with the velocity p r obably as the squa r e r oot of the ,

velocity ; he n ce f or m odern pist on speeds a la rge r allowa n ce of su r face is

re qui r ed tha n f o r m e r ly I II a m a r i n e sc r ew e n gi n e m akin g seve n ty r evolution s
.

p er m i n ute the f r ictio n is at least seve n ty ti m es that of on e r evolution ;

,

an d ,
co n seque n tly if a paddle e n gi n e havin g the sa m e si z e Of cylin de r s
, , ,

a n d wo r ki n g with the S a m e p r essu r e Of stea m m akes o n ly t h i r ty fiv e r e v olu ,

-

tio n s pe r m i n ute its fr ictio n of j o u rn als will b e hal f that of the sc r ew e n gin e
,
.

per m i n ute As the fir st sc r ew e n gi n es wo r ki n g without gear i n g we r e ge n e

.

r ally d esig n ed by m e n whose e x pe r ie n ce h a d bee n gai n e d wit h the slowe r

w o r ki n g pad d le e n gi n es it is n ot asto n ishi n g to fin d that the bea r i n gs we r e

,

n ot always su fficie n t f or the wo r k on the m a n d pe r haps the spee d of the ,

rubbi n g su r faces p r eve n te d the lub r icatio n f r o m bei n g so e fficie n t as had

bee n t h e c ase p r eviously a n d so aggr avate d t h e evil Again the old pa ddle
,
.
,

e n gi n e a n d gea r ed sc r ew e n gi n e had cyli n de r s of lo n ger str oke co m par ed

with th eir dia m ete r s tha n had the dir ect wo r ki n g sc r ew e n gi n e a n d as the -
,

dia m ete r Of the sha ft depe n ds on the a r ea O f pisto n a n d le n gth of st r oke

“

co mbi n ed while the p r essu r e on the bea r i n gs is a ffecte d o n ly by a r ea Of

,

the pisto n t h e d ia m ete r of the shaf t m ight r e m ai n the sa m e although the

, ,

si z e of t h e pisto n had bee n ve r y m uch i n c r ease d N ow si n ce m ost Of the .

,

Old r ules f or le n gt h of j ou rn als took n O f the d ia m ete r of sha ft

g
co isa ce n
_

o n ly alt h ough the p r essu r e 0 11 the j our n als might have bee n d ouble d the r e
, ,

was o n ly the sa m e su r face to take it .

For e x a m ple a paddle e n gi n e Of 5 f eet st r oke m ight have the sa m e

,

dia m ete r Of sha ft as a sc r ew e n gi n e of 2 f eet 6 i n ches st r oke each havi n g ,

t h e sa m e cyli n d e r ca pacity ; but the e n g in e with the sho r t st r oke woul d

have a pisto n a r ea twice that Of the lo n g str oke a n d co n sequ en tly with the ,

sa m e st e a m p ressu r e ther e would be d ouble the loa d on the j ou rn als a n d .

t h is wit h ge n e ra lly d ouble t h e n u m be r of r evolu t io n s of the sha ft

, , .
1 66 MAN UA L OF MAR I N E E N G I N EER I N G .

Fr i ct ion a n d S u rf ac e — I t was fo rme rly a n a x io m that frictio n was i n de

pe n d en t of su rface ; but there m ust always have bee n li mitatio n s t o such
a state m e n t I t m ea n t that so lo n g as the m ovi n g body was suppo r ted
.

on a su r face su fficie n tly la r ge to p r eve n t the u n gue n t fr o m bei n g squee z ed

ou t , the r esista n ce d u e t o f r ictio n was the sa m e fr actio n of its weight what ,

eve r the a r ea Pr actical e n gi n ee r s howeve r n eve r had u n bou n d e d belie f

.
, ,

in this a x io m I t is n ow clea r ly u n d e r stoo d that whe n two su r faces a r e

.

sepa r ated by a st r atu m of oil, or othe r u n gue n t they do n ot touch on e ,

a n other , a n d the r e fo r e , each is S lidi n g on the u n gue n t I t is also ge n e r ally

, .

suppose d that the pa r ticles of u n gue n t assu m e a globu la r f o rm in t h e p r ocess ,

so that they f o r m a ki n d of ball bea ri n g su r face An yway , so lo n g as the -
.

u n gue n t is m ain tai n e d in p ositio n , the r esista n ce is s m all a n d is co n sta n t .

I t is howeve r , well k n ow n that whe n the sa m e u n gue n t is use d with di ffe r e n t

,

m etals havi n g appa r e n tly equally s m ooth su r faces the r e is a di ff e r en ce in ,

the coeffici en t of fric t ion , as the fractio n is calle d ; a n d , f urthe r that ce rtai n ,

m etals will n ot wo r k at all well on othe r s so ft steel on b r o n z e I t is .

eviden t , the n that either the m etals a ff ect the u n guen t or they d o n ot r eally
, ,

p r ese n t equally goo d su r f aces I t is k n ow n that Oil acts che m ically on .

copper, a n d , the r e fo r e on Coppe r co m pou n ds , while it has n o actio n on t in

,

a n d a n ti m o n y This m a y possibly accou n t f or the di ff er en t behaviou r

.

of white m etal a n d b r o n z e .

Mo d ern e x pe r i m en ts h ave show n that surf ace has its i n flue n ce , eve n
withi n t h e sa f e li m its ; that the coefficie n t is higher with ve r y light l oads
p er squa r e i n ch tha n heavie r o n es so that whe n a n e n gin e is r u n n i n g quite ,

light the pe r ce n tage of loss fro m fr ictio n is highe r tha n whe n r u n n i n g f ull
,

load I n th e case of a m ar i n e e n gi n e r u n n i n g slow t he p r essu r e per squa r e

.
-
,

i n ch on the guide s etc will be m uch less in con seque n ce of r educed load ; so
, .
,

that the coe fficie n t of fr ictio n will be fr o m t ha t cause so m ewhat high e r On , ,

.

the other ha n d as the e n gin e is m ovi n g slowe r a n d i n as m uch as f r ictio n va r ies

, ,

as JV the coe fficie n t shoul d b e less a n d so on e ma y bala n ce the othe r

, ,
.

Towe r f ou n d that at 90 F °
.
,

Coe ffici en t of fr ictio n 200

Whe r e V is the rubbi n g velocity in feet pe r mi n u t e P the n o m i n al p r essu r e ,

in lbs p er squa r e i n ch 0 a coe fficie n t depe n d i n g on the lub r ica n t which

.
, , ,

for spe r m oil is 00 1 4 r ape Oil 00 1 5 m i n e r al Oil 0 0 1 8 a n d olive Oil 0 0 1 9

,
'

,
'

, , ,

t h e oil supply bei n g libe r al a n d co n sta n t .

For e x a m ple the coe fficie n t f or a guide on which the p r essu r e is say
, , ,

1 00 lbs p e r squa r e i n ch the pisto n spee d 900 a n d on which m i n e r al Oil is

.
, ,

fr eely use d ,

If the Oil is o n ly spa r i n gly supplied as with a sypho n lub ricato r the c oeffi , ,

cie n t m a y be f ou r ti m es this or 0 4 3 2 which is ve ry n ea r ly what Mo r in , ,

stated to be the best r esult with well lub r icated su rfaces .

Te m pe r atu re also a ff ect s the f r ictio n ; the coe fficie n t is r educed whe n
the te m pe r atu r e r ises so as t o r e n de r the u n gue n t fluid a n d n ot sticky On .

t h e othe r h a n d fu rthe r r ises of te m pe r atu r e te n d to make it too fluid a n d

,
 LOS S FR OM T H E P U M PS .

thi n With so m e m i n eral Oils r aisin g the te mpe ratu re f ro m 60 to 1 20

.
,
° °

cause d the f ricti o n to be qua d rupled .

Th e a im of the e n gi n ee r m ust be the r e fo r e t o p reve n t m etallic su r faces , ,

f r o m co m i n g i n to a ctu a l c on t a ct f or the n the f rictio n would be ve r y S eve re, ,

a n d soo n cause the su r faces t o ab r ade a n d eve n as is see n so m eti m es in the , ,

case of cast i r o n to st r ike fire The lub rica n t should be i n tr oduced at the
, .

poi n ts whe r e the p r essu re is least in o r de r that those whe r e gr eate st m a y be ,

well lub r icated Fr ictio n at the j ou rn als too m ust always be a sou r ce of
.
, ,

a n x iety though n ot n ea r ly so m uch so n ow as f o r m e r ly Cra n k sha fts a re

, .
-

m or e t ruly tu rn ed although eve n n ow the r e is r oo m for i mp r ove m e n t ; the

,

f ou n datio n s of the e n gi n es a r e m or e stiffly m ade so that the r e is n o sp r i n gi n g ,

at the bea r i n gs ; the bea r in g sur face is pro ra t a la r ge r a n d white m etal is ,

un ive r sally fitted to both c r a n k pin s a n d m ai n bea r i n gs -

.

5 Th e Friction of V a l ve Moti on s a n d of the valves is ve r y Co n side r able

‘

at all ti m es a n d m a y be seve r e when t h e valves a re ru n n i n g dry Eve n

, .

whe n the p r essur e on flat valves is pa r tly r elieved by fr a m es etc on thei r , .

,

back the load on the r ods was so m eti m es so gr eat as t o be n d the m With the
, .

lar ge i n c r ease of pisto n speed of n ecessity have co m e la r ge r valves This .

,

with i n c r ease d boile r p r essu r e f or ce d m ost m ake r s of m a r i n e e n gi n es to

,

r evive the pisto n valve f or the high p r essu r e cyli n de r s a n d latte r ly to fit -

,

the m t o the m ediu m p r essur e a n d eve n to the L P cyli n de r s

-
On the . . .

othe r ha n d a fe w e m i n e n t bu ilde r s stuc k to fl at valves f or all thei r

,

cylin der s a n d that too with a success that was so m ewhat r e m a r kable
, , , ,

but it was with lower p r essur es a n d slower r ates of r e v olutio n th a n n ow

obtai n .

Atte m pts have bee n m ade fr o m ti m e t o ti m e t o use Co r liss a n d othe r

“ ”
quick shutti n g d r op valves i n stead of slide valves S o fa r the r esults
-
.

have b ee n disappoi n tin g a n d the i n c r eased e fficie n cy due to quick cut off
,
-

a n d s m all clea r a n ce which such valves a n d gea r give to la n d e n g in es is n ow

n ot yet attai n able to the sa m e e x te n t with m a r i n e c o m pou n d e n gin es Bu t .

the m ar i n e e n gi n e m a y have its e fficie n cy ver y m uch i mp r oved by so m e

othe r f o r m of valve which while givi n g ple n ty of eg ress f or the stea m to
,

the co n d e n se r ve r y m uch r educes the clear a n ce n ow Obtai n i n g in low p ressu r e

,
-

cyli n d e r s .

6 L oss from th e Pu mps

. I n all e n gi n es whethe r co n de n si n g or n on
.
,

co n de n si n g the r e is a loss of e fficie n cy fr o m the f eed pu m p whe n it is wo rked

,
-

by the e n g in e I t is t rue that the wo r k do n e by it in f o r ci n g the wate r i n to

.

the b oile r is stor ed e n e rgy a n d the re f or e n ot lost but its low e fficie n cy
, , , ,

is a sou rce of loss I t is n ow howeve r the co mm o n p ractice f or the f ee d

.
, ,

pu m p to be wor ked by a n i n depe n de n t e n gi n e This is co n ve n ie n t a n d .

,

has adva n tages which will be disc u ssed elsewhe r e but it m ust n ot be ove r ,

looked that the cost in stea m is gr eater tha n by the old m ethod as the ,

i n depe n de n t e n gin e co n su m es at least double the a m o u n t Of stea m pe r I H P . . .

that the m ai n e n gin es do .

To so m e e x te n t the a ir pu m p ma y be said to sto r e e n e r gy f or it takes

-
,

wate r fr o m u n de r a p r essur e of say 2 lbs per squa r e i n ch a n d places it at , ,

.
,

the disposal Of the f eed pu m ps u n de r a p r essu r e of 1 5 lbs The chie f wo rk

-
.

O f the a ir pu m p is to withd r aw a ir a n d othe r gases f r o m the co n de n se r at the

p r essu r e in it a n d delive r the m at at mosphe r ic p r essu re Th is e x cept as

,
.
,

a mea ns t o a n e n d is all lost e n e r gy while the fr ictio n etc of this pu mp

, , , .
,

adds to t h e loss a n d so r educes the e fficie n cy of the e n gi n e

,
.
 men u or M OV N I G P AR T S . 1 69

d esi gn i n g wo rk m a n s h ip is evi d e n t but w ithi n ce r t ai n li m its a goo d

an d , , ,

e n gi n e m a y p r ove less e fficie n t tha n a r eally i n fe r io r o n e f r o m m e r e lack of

p r ope r atte n tio n f r o m those in cha r ge a n d especially if they a r e n ot supplied ,

with good a n d suitable lub r ica n ts .

Th e L osses du e part ly t o Mech an ica l D efects a n d pa rt l y t o Ph ysi ca l Ca uses

a r e those which ca n n ot be classe d as belo n gi n g t o the e n gi n e as a m achi n e ,

n or to it as a heat e n gi n e si m ply The m ost i m po rta n t of these is c on s e

.

ue n t on the e m ploy m e n t in its co n st r uctio n of m ate r ials havi n g a high

q
powe r f or co n ductivity of heat The stea m pipes we r e ge n e r ally of copper
.
,

a n d w he n of steel a r e co m pa r atively thi n so t h at the r e is m u c h loss o f h e at ,

fro m thei r su r faces Ca r e ful cove r i n g with m ate rial havi n g a low co n ductivity
.

does m uch to p r eve n t this waste but with the high p r essu r es n ow use d a n d
, ,

co n seque n t high te m pe r atu r es u n less the laggi n g is ve r y t h ick a n d the pipe

,

fla n ges well covered t h e r e is still g r eat loss Th e loss too is n ot li m ited .

, ,

to the m e r e heat which escapes f or if satu r ate d stea m— that is stea m c on

, ,

tai n i n g as much wate r as it ca n — is r obbed of a n y of its heat on its roa d to

the cyli n de r s it deposits so m e of its wate r ; this wate r obst ructs the f ree
passage of stea m through valves a n d passages a n d till f or ced thr ough t h e , ,

escape valves or d r ai n cocks o b st ructs t h e pisto n s t h e m selves ,

The .

e ffi cie n cy of the e n gi n e as a heat en gi n e is also m ate r ially a ff ecte d by t h e

p r ese n ce of water in the cyli n de r s The losses a re ve r y m an i fest when .

t h e spee d of the e n gi n e is as o f te n happe n s m ate r ially checked by wate r

, ,

co m i n g with the stea m Th e gai n fr o m super heati n g the steam for the
.

m a ri n e e n gin e a r ose a n d w ill agai n be f ou n d to a r ise la r gely f r o m the

, ,

stea m bei n g quite d r y r athe r tha n fr o m the high e r te m pe r atu r e at the

cyli n de r .

L ique f actio n takes place on e x pa n sio n in the cyli n de rs in spite of ste a m

j ackets a n d supe rheati n g a n d a s m all a m ou n t of water to lub r icate the
,

i n te rn al pa rts is a good thin g especially as t h e use of oils is ve r y r estr icte d

,

or who lly do n e away with n owadays N otwithsta n di n g t h e cyli n de r s should

.
,
“
be as ca r e fully lagged as the stea m pipes a n d the cover s a n d fla n ges ,

of the high p r essu r e cyli n de r shoul d be as ca r e fully cove r e d as a n y othe r

-

pa rt.

I t is ve r y d oubtful if stea m du r i n g e x pa n sio n in the f ast r u n n i n g m a r i n e

,
-

e n gi n e c a n take a n y app r eciable heat fr o m the j ackets that such j ackets a dd

,

so m ewhat to the e fficie n cy of the e n gi n e m ust howeve r be ad m itted whe n , ,

they a re p r ope rly d r ai n e d ; it is p r obable the r e f or e that the gai n is on e of , ,

m ech an ical e fficie n cy fr o m the f act that the cyli n d e r s a r e fr ee r of wate r w ith
,

stea m j ackets in use .

I f this a r gu m e n t is based on f act a j acket to the low p r essu r e cyli n d e r ,

-

m ight be of so m e use a n d eve n outweigh the loss a r isi n g fr o m the r eheati n g

of stea m about to e n te r the co n d e n se r at e x haust .

S upe r heati n g the stea m so that it m ight co n ti n ue w holly in the vapou r

state till it r eaches the co n de n se r has bee n the h ope of so m e sa n gui n e in
ve n to rs S upe rheati n g the st e a m with heat that othe r wise is lost is o bviously
.

the m ost d esir able thi n g as a m ea n s of eco n o m y S upe rheati n g however .

, ,

must have its li m its for in eco n o misi n g stea m the r e m a y be g r eat los s of
,

e n e rgy as f or e x a m ple by e x cessive f r ictio n of the high p r essu r e pisto n

, , ,
-
,

valves a n d r o d s f r o m wa n t of a lub r ica n t whe n the stea m is so d ry as to

,

abso r b it all in the va p o rous state As a m atte r of fact t h e ste a m ma y leave

.
1 70 MA N UA L or MAR I N E EN GI N EE R I N G .

the m ari n e boile r with a la r ge a m ou n t of supe rheat a n d eve n on r eachi n g ,

the cylin de r still have a f ai r m a rgi n but the pisto n will n ot have m ove d ,

m an y i n ches be fo r e it is satu r ated stea m I f wate r d eposit in the high .

p r essur e cylin de r is to be avoided the supe rheate r will r equi re to have ,

special heat supply or its ow n fir e a n d u n less ve r y special m ea n s a r e ,

adopted for lub r icati n g the pisto n a n d valve w ill w or k badly a n d cut the ‘

surf aces .

S upe r heati n g we n t ou t of fashio n on the a d ve n t of stea m of 6 0 lbs p r essu r e .

,

pa rtly due to the f act that its te m pe r atur e 307 F was n ea r ly as hi gh as ,

°
.
,

super heatin g had the n go n e a n d t o the r estr ictio n s put by the B oar d of
,

T ra d e on super heate r s an d thei r so m ewhat r apid d ecay .

Metallic packi n g was u n k n ow n at th a t ti m e a n d the gai n in eco n o m y by ,

the co m pou n d e n gin e ove r the old surf ace co n de n si n g 30 lb p r essu r e o n es -

.

satis fie d fully the e n te r p r ise of the goo d f olks in those days of good fr eights
a n d cheap f uel .

B y supe rheati n g the stea m f or elect r ic light i n stallatio n s on sho r e g r eat

r educti on s in co n su m ptio n of f uel have bee n e ff ected ( fig N o d oubt .

sim ila r r esults m a y also be obtai n ed by e m ployin g satis facto r y super heatin g
appa r atus on board ship as show n below but gr eat car e m ust be take n in
, ,

the design a n d co n str uction of the pisto n a n d valves of the fir st cylin d e r

in to which such stea m e n te r s or the loss m a y e x ceed the gai n in stea m ,

e fficie n cy .

Experimen ts wit h S u perh ea ted Steam in Modern T imes have bee n m ade
*
,

a n d the r esults of so m e ve r y i n te r esti n g o n es we r e give n by Mr Felix Go d a r d .

in a pape r r ead at the I n st N aval Ar chitects These tr ial wer e m ade with
. .
s

the scr ew stea m e r s Gar o n n e a n d R an ce each 300 f eet lo n g 4 0 f eet , ,

bea m a n d 2 5 5 f eet deep Mean d r aft of wate r 2 1 f eet gr oss r egister

,
.
,

to n s .

The Ga r o n n e h a s n o super heate r but h er total heati n g su r face is ,

’
equal to that of the R a n ce togethe r with the su rface in that ship s supe r
heate r That is the total sur face e x posed to heat is the sa me in each shi p
.
,
.

Thei r e n gi n es have cyli n de r s 2 3 i n ches 36 i n ches a n d 5 9 i n ches d ia m ete r , ,

a n d 4 2 i n ches st r oke .

R an ce .

B oil er p r es s u re ,
‘

S t e a m t e m pera t u re ,
H ea t in g s u rf a c e of boile rs ,
S u perh e a t in g s u r fa c e of b oi ers , l
v t
R e olu ion s p er m in u t e}
I n dic a t e d h ors e p ow e r ,
-

Coa l c on s u me d p e r I H P pe r h ou . . . r,

Co a l p er mile on s e r ice , v
I n c r e a se i n powe r,
D ecre a se c on s u m pt ion pe r I H P . .

v
S a in g of f u el on oy a ge , v

Two othe r ships we re fitte d i n t h e sa m e way — that is , on e , the

V id A ppe d i x E f o mo e rece t p i ce
a n r r n ex er en s .
 I
E X P ER ME N TS WITH S U PER H E A T E D S TE AM .

S T E AM Co u s u mw lo u s OF V AR IO U S Eu om s s

U s me S U P E R H E AT E D S T E AM .

A V er tica l f a s t r u n n i n g , 295
c om p o u n d

v a c u u m 2 6 i n c h e s , bo i le r p r e s s u re 1 75 lbs .

B T h re e c r a n k c om p ou n d s low r u n n i n g , 5 5 0 0
-

v a cu u m 2 8 i n c h e s , boi le r p re s s u re

1 5 0 lb s .

C = T r iple e x pa n s i on , 6 70
- a cu u m 26 v
i n c h e s , boile r pr e s s u r e 1 5 0 lbs .

D T r iple e x pa n s ion h ig h s pe e d , 1 92 5
-

v a c u u m 2 6 i n c h e s , boile r p r e s s u r e 1 83 lbs .

E T r iple e x pa n s i on , 3000
- h ig h s pe e d ,
v a c u u m 2 6 i n c h e s , boile r p r e s s u re 1 8 0 lbs .

T r iple ~e x p a n s ion s low r u n n in g , 3000 I H P . .

boile r pr e s s u re 1 99 lbs .

i g
h e r be af n e
g re e s Fa b !

Fig . 64
 A N OT H E R s o o n e r: or L OS S . 1 73

soo n beco m e highly polis h e d a n d so d o n ot radiate the heat so quickly as

they woul d we r e t h ey r ough This loss too ca n n ot be avoid e d or ev e n
.
, ,

r e d uced to a n y app reciable e x te n t.

Fi n ally t h e r e is the loss due to the heat co n d ucte d f r o m the cyli n d e r s

~

pipes etc to the othe r pa rts of the e n gi n e with whi c h they a re co n n ected
,
.
, ,

a n d which pass it away by r a d iatio n at thei r su r faces .

1 74 MA N UAL or M H N E EN A GI N EER I N G .

CH AP T ER V II .

EN GI N ES ,
I
S M P E AN D L CO M P O UN D .

El emen ta ry S t eam En gi n e — The stea m e n gi n e in its most ele m e n tar y f orm

-
.
-
, ,

has o n ly on e cyli n de r i n to whic h the stea m is ad mitted at each e n d

,

alte rn ately so as to m ove the pisto n backwa r d s a n d fo rwa rd s a n d havi n g

, ,

pe rfo r m e d its wo r k is the n allowe d to escape i n to the atm osphe r e Although .

f r o m ce r tai n causes this was n ot the f o r m of stea m e n gi n e as fir st i n ve n ted -

it is n eve r theless the m ost si m ple on e a n d by taki n g it as the o r igin the , ,

ge n esis of the m ari n e stea m e n gin e c a n b e bett er e x plai n ed As the e n gin e s

-
.

for m a r i n e pu r poses a r e still la r gely those havi n g cyli n d e r s a n d pisto n s it ,

will be u n n ecessa r y in this ch apte r to d eal with a n y othe r f o rm s .

Gen es is of t h e Compou n d En gin e The e x haust ste a m issui n g fr o m a n.

-

e n g in e havin g a late cut off a n d a n i n itial p r essu r e of say t wo at m osphe res

-
, ,

( o r 1 5 lbs above
. at m osphe r ic p r essu r e ) would attr act the atte n tio n of a n ,

obser va n t e n gi n ee r fr o m the f o r ce with which it e m e r ges fr o m the e x haust

pipe a n d would n atu r ally lead h im to i n quir e how so g reat a waste of e n e r gy
,

might be avoi d ed I t would be clea r t o h im that the r e w a s s u fli c ien t

. ,

r e m ai n i n g in it to d o use ful d uty a f te r it had acco m plished its wo r k in the

cyli n der B ei n g acquai n ted with t h e stea m e n gi n e of Watt he would suggest

.
-

that i n stead of allowi n g it t o escape i n to the at mosphe re it m ight b e c on

, ,

duct e d to the cyli n d er of a co n de n sin g e n gin e which could wo r k with a ,

stea m p r essu r e of on e at m ospher e a n d while oper a t i n g the pisto n of this

seco n d e n gi n e woul d cause n o m o r e back p r essur e in the fir s t cylin de r tha n
,

be f o r e S uch a n a rr an ge m e n t would be a co mbin ation of a high p r essu r e

.
-

a n d a co n d e n si n g e n gi n e a n d he n ce it was called a compou n d en gin e

, .

The e n gi n ee r to d a y woul d suggest that the stea m b e take n to a low

-

p r essu r e tu rbi n e as is o fte n d o n e a n d the tu r bi n e e x haust t o a co n d e n se r

, , ,

whe re by a bette r use wou ld be m a d e of it tha n the Watt e n gin e did .

T h e i d e a of a c om pou n d e n g i n e h ow e ve r w a s d u e t o t h e g en i u s o f H or n blowe r a
, , ,

Cor n is h e g ni n e e r w h o i n 1
, 78 1 t o o k o u t a p a t e n t i n w h i c h h e c la i m e d “
I u se t wo ,
-

s t e a m ve s s e ls i n wh i c h t h e s t e a m i s t o a c t a n d wh i c h i n ot h e r s t e a m e n i n e s a r e c a lle d
g
-

, ,

c y li n d e rs. I e m ploy t h e s t e a m a f t e r i t h a s a c t e d i n t h e fir s t ve s s e l t o ope r a t e a s e c on d

, ,

t i me i n t h ot h e r by p e r m i t t i n g i t t o e x pa n d i t s e lf wh i c h I d o by c on n e c t i n g t h e
e , ,

ve ss e ls toge t h e r a n d f or mi n g pr ope r c h a n e ls a n d a pe r t u r e s wh e r eby t h e s t e a m s h a ll

,
n
,

oc ca s i on a lly g o i n a n d ou t of t h e s a i d ve s s e ls e t c
'

, , .

Ar t h u r W oolf i n h i s pa t e n t t a k e n ou t i n 1 8 04 s t a te s th a t
,
i f t h e e gi e b e c on , n n

s t r u c t e d or ig i lly w i t h t h e i t e n t i on o f a d op t i n g my s a i d i m p ove m e n t i t ou g h t t o
na n r ,

h a ve t w o s t e a m ve s se ls of d i ffe r e n t d i m e n s i on s a c c or d i n g t o t h e te mpe r a t u r e or t h e ,

e x pa n s ive f orc e d e t e r m in e d t o b e c omm u n ic a t e d t o t h e s t e a m m a d e u s e of i n w or k i n g

t h e e n g i n e ; f or t h e s m a lle r s t e a m ve s s e l o r c y li n d e r m u s t b e t h e m e a s u r e of t h e la r g e r .

T h e m a ll c y li n d e r s h ou ld h a ve a c omm u n i c a t io n bot h a t i t t op a n d bot t om

s , s ,

wi t h t h e boile r wh ic h s pplie s t h e s t ea m u T h e t op of t h e s ma ll c y lin d e r

.

s h ou ld h a v e a c o mm u ic a t ion w i t h t h e bo t t o m of t h e l a r ge r c y l i n d e r a d t h e bot tom

n ,
n

o f t h e s ma lle r on e w i t h t h e t op o f t h e la r ge r wit h prope r m e a n s t o ope n a n d s h u t ,

t h os e a lt e r n a t e ly by c oc k s or a l es et c va n d bo t h t o
v , p a n d bot tom of t h e
.
,

la r ge c y lin d e r s h ou ld w h il e t h e e g i e i s a t wor k c om mu n i c a t e a lt e r n a t e ly w i t h t h e
,
n n ,

c on d e n s i g
n H e pr p pos e d t o u se s te a m a t a p r e s s u r e o f 4 0 lbs .
 Er r Ec r s '
or I N CR EA S E or P R ES S UR E . 1 75

Expansive Engin e . If
the obse rver however happe n e d t o be be tte r , ,

a cquai n ted with the e x pa n sive fo r ce of stea m tha n with the use of a tu r bi n e

a n d co n de n se r he would suggest that the stea m should be cut off at suc h

,

a n ea r lie r pa r t of the st r oke as would e n su r e its p r essu r e at e m issio n bei n g , ,

o n l y slightly above that of the at m ospher e a n d all available e n er gy abstr acted , .

Such a n e n gin e wo u ld n atur ally be called ex pa n s i ve in co n t ra d i sti n ctio n t o ,

the ele me n tar y e n gin e wo rki n g without e x pa n sio n An y f urther atte m pt at

, .

in cr eased e x pan sio n would p r ove less fruitful as the stea m e x pa n ded below , ,

the p r essu r e of the at mosphe r e will f ail t o escape i n to it when open e d t o ,

e x haust ; besides which the back p r essure on the othe r side of the piston
,

would du r i n g the latte r pa r t of the st r oke be gr eate r tha n the f o r wa rd

, , .

The n it is that by co n n ecti n g the e x hau st pi pe t o the co n de n se r in which ,

t h e p r essu r e would be 1 0 or 1 2 l bs below that of t h e at m osphe r e a high e r .

rate of e x pa n sio n could be obtai n ed ,

.

Effects of I ncrease of Pressu re I f a n e n gi n e is to wo r k eco n o m ically so .

,

fa r as stea m is co n ce rn ed it has bee n stated that the te r m i n al p r essu r e be f or e

, ,

ad missio n to the co n de n ser should be as low as possible co n sis t e n t with good ,

wo rkin g .

I t is n ow easy t o m ai n tai n a vacuu m of 28 i n ches in a m ode rn con de n se r ,

but 25 i n ches was usual with the j et co n de n se rs As so m e e n gin ee r s m a y .

still p r ef er t o wor k their e n gin es with o n ly 2 4 t o 2 5 i n ches of vacuu m ( for

the sake of obtai n in g warm f eed wate r) let it be assu m ed f or the sake of -

, ,

argu m e n t that 2 4 i n ches is the vacuu m in the co n de n ser When the full
, .

be n efit of e x pa n sio n is r equir ed the te rm in al p r essu r e should n ot e x ceed ,

7 lbs which will b e 3 lbs above the back p r essur e

.
, With a turbin e ex
. .

p a n s ion m a y go on till the di ff e r e n ce is less tha n 1 lb .

I n o r d e r t o app r eciate f ully what is e n cou n ter ed in m aki n g adva n ces in

b oile r p r essu r es it will be well t o co mpa r e t w o e n gi n es wo rki n g u n de r the
,

co n ditio n s set ou t above S uppose these t w o e n gin es t o have each one .

cyli n de r of the sa me diameter a n d str oke the boile r p r essur e of the fir st ,

t o be 2 at m osphe r es or 3 0 lbs absolute that of the seco n d 3 at m osphe r es

, .
, ,

or 4 5 lbs ab solute the te r m i n al p r essu r e in both cases t o be 7 lbs

.
, a n d the .
,

back p r essur e 4 lbs The cut off in the fir st w ill be 3% of the str oke or a
.
-

rate cf e x pa n sio n of 4 2 85 a n d the m ea n p r essu r e wit h a n i n itial of 3 0 lbs

, .

is lbs deducti n g 4 lbs of back p r essur e the efiect i ce m ea n p r essur e

. .
,

will be 1 3 4 lbs I n the seco n d e n gi n e the cut off will be 1 3 of the str oke
.
7
,
-

an d the r ate of e x pa n sio n a n d the m ea n p r essu r e with a n i n itial of

45 lbs is 2 0 lbs. d educti n g as be f o r e 4 lbs f or back p r essur e the efi

.
, ect i ve , .
,

mea n pr essu r e is 1 6 lbs The efiect i ve i n it ia l p ressu r es will be 30

. 4 or ,

26 lbs a n d 4 5 .
, 4 or 4 1 lbs r espectively , .
,
.

S i n ce the cyli n d e r s a r e of the sa m e capacity a n d the ter mi n al pr essu re s ,

a re the sa m e each e n gi n e co n su mes the sa m e weight of stea m ; but the

,

total heat of evapor atio n of stea m fr o m the te mper atu r e co rr espo n din g t o
4 lbs a n d at that co rr espon di n g to 4 5 lbs is l l 30 F while at that co rr e
°
.
, .
, ,

s pon din
g to 3 0 lbs it is F the r e will be the r e f o r e a n e x pe n dit u r e
. .
, , ,

of f uel t o obtai n the stea m at 4 5 lbs slightly in e x cess of that at 30 lbs As . .

this howeve r a m ou n ts t o less tha n 1 per ce n t it m a y be n eglected a n d

, , .
, ,

the cost of the steam assu m ed to be the sa m e in both cases I t will be see n .
'

t he n that with this adva n ce of boile r p r essu r e ther e is a n adva n ce in m ea n

,

p r essu r e a n d the gai n in powe r a m ou n ts t o n early 2 0 per ce n t ; but the

. .
 R E CE V E RI CO M P O UN D EN GI N E .
1 77

Although such i n c r ease in wei ght of m a c h i n e r y as woul d be n e c es

an

it a t ed by so gr eat a n i n c r ease in loa d m a y n ot be of much i m po rta n ce in

'

so m e shi ps in othe r s it would b e p r ohibitive f or whe n the powe r r equi re d

,

f or ce r tai n S peeds of ship beco m es la r ge co m pa r ed with the d isplace me n t ,

it r equir es the ut m ost ca r e in d esi gn to keep d ow n the weight so as to a d mi t

, ,

of the e n gi n es bein g ca r r ied by t h e ship on the r e qui r ed d r aught of wate r .

For this r easo n in actual p r actice it w a s f ou n d a d visable t o use stea m of ,

u n der 5 0 lbs p r essur e ( above the at m osphe r e ) in ver y f ast r ive r stea m ers
.
.

or eve n in hig h powe r ed stea m e r s f or Cha n n el ser vice of m ode r ate si z e on

-

accou n t of the li m ited speed of pisto n obtain able with the pad dle wheel -

u n til by m ea n s of f o r ced d r augh t con str uctin g the ship a n d e n gin es as

, ,

m uch as possible of steel a n d a special desig n of light co m poun d e n gi n es , ,

p ressu r es of 1 00 t o 1 2 5 lbs could be e m ployed in suc h ships ; n ow in so me .

fe w cases t r iple e x pa n s ion e n gi n es usi n g stea m of 1 75 lbs p r essu r e a r e fitte d

4
.

in paddle stea me r s of h igh s p ee d .

Ex a m ple ( 4 ) i s give n that the e ff ect of t w o widely di ff e r e n t bo ile r p r essu r es

m a y be co m pa r e d whe n t he r ate of e x pa n sio n is the sa m e
, The m ea n p ressu r e .

is of cou rse m uch highe r a n d but f or the back p ressur e bei n g co n st a n t

, , , , ,

would bea r the sa m e p r opo rtio n to that at the bo ile r p r essu r e of 30 lbs a s .

the i n itial absolute p r essu r es— v iz 5 to 3 The weight of stea m used is .

, .

ve ry little less tha n that of 30 lbs p r essu r e a n d owi n g to the r eductio n in .

, ,

the si z e of the pisto n the m a x imu m load in this case is p r actically the sa me
,

as in e x a m ple The p r essu r e at e x haust is e x ceedin gly high bei n g 4 5 lbs ,

.

absol u te or 30 lbs above that of the at m osphe r e so that it is capable of

,
.
,

doi n g co n si d e r ably mo r e wo r k if ad mitted i n to a n othe r cylin de r of la r ge r ,

si z e tha n that of the fir st ; a n d eve n if ad m itte d i n to on e of the sa me

,

s iz e ( p r ovi d e d it fin ally e x hausts i n to a co n den se r ) m o r e wo r k will be ,

obtain ed f r o m the stea m tha n if it is allowed si m ply to escape i n to the

at m osp h er e .

R ece iv er Compou n d En g in e — N ow su ppose that a n e n gi n e wo rki ng .

,

un der the co n ditio n s set ou t in e x a m ple ( 4 ) ( so fa r as p r essur e a n d cut off -

a r e co n ce rn ed ) e x hausts i n to a stea m tight space so that the r e is back p r es -

su r e in fr o n t of the pisto n equal to the p r essu r e in this r eceive r of the e x haust _

stea m ; a n d suppose f ur ther that t h e stea m is take n away by a n othe r , ,

cyli n der fr o m the r eceive r at the sa m e r ate as it is supplie d by the cylin de r ,

ther e will then b e a co n sta n t m ea n p r essu r e m ain tai n e d the r e For the sak e .

of fix in g the applicatio n to e x a m ple supp ose agai n the pr essu r e in it s , ,

r e ce ive r to b e 3 0 lbs a bs olu t e t h e n the m ea n p r es sur e in the cyli n de r will be

.
,

6 7 95 '

30 3 7 95 lbs o n ly N ow suppose a seco n d a n d la r ge r cyli n de r

‘

. .
,

t o b e su p p lied with s t ea m f ro m the r eceiver at such a r ate that the r e is n o

cha n ge of p r ess ur e in it ( thi s bei n g acco m plishe d by so a rra n gi n g t he cut off -

in the seco n d cyli n de r that the weight of stea m take n by it equals t he weight
,

of stea m e x hausted fr Om the fir st on e ) the cut off m a y b e d ete r m i n ed fr o m -

t h e f o r m ula p 1) co n st so that if V be the volu m e of the seco n d cyl in de r .

a n d 1) tha t of the fir st 4 5 lbs the te r m i n al p r essur e in the s m all a n d 30 lbs

,
. .

the i ni tial in the lar ge cylin d e r The n cut off in the seco n d cyli n der .
,
-

45 v )
3 an d if t h e r atio of V to v is 3 the cut off in the seco n d cylin der
w
-

so
,
V
’
2
is 5 str oke a n d the r ate of e x pa n sio n in it 2
,
.

The m ea n p r essur e with a n i ni tial p r ess u r e ,

of 30 lbs . an d a r ate of
12
1 78 MA N UA L OF M AR I N E EN GI N EER I N G .

e x pa n sio n 2 is , lbs ; a n d allowi n g f or a back p r essur e of 4 lbs the

. .
,

m ea n e ff ec t ive p r essu r e in the seco n d cyli n de r is 2 1 3 8 lbs .

S i n ce the a r ea of t h e seco n d pisto n is th r ee ti m es that of the fir st t h e ,

wo rk do n e in the seco n d cyli n d e r is equivale n t to what m ight be do n e by

on e of the sa m e a r ea as the fir st with a m ea n e ff ective p r essur e thr ee ti m es ,

as g reat or ,
lbs per s qua re i n ch I t will b e seen f r o m this that the
. .

tot a l w o rk do n e by the c ombi n e d cyli n de r s is the sa m e as would be don e by

t h e o rigi n al c y li n d e r with a p r essu r e of 6 4 1 4 or lbs per ,
.

squa r e i n ch ; h e n ce we fin d that the r e is a gai n of n early 6 0 pe r ce n t by .

the i n t ro ductio n o f the seco n d cyli n d e r S o fa r the co m pou n d e n gin e woul d

,
.
,

be u n doubtedly mo r e eco n o m ical t h a n the e x pa n sive e n gi n e as e x e mplifie d ,

in e x a m ples and but less so in this pa r ticular i n stan ce tha n

e x a m ple
Expa n s i ve a n d Compou n d En gin es Compared — To e x a m i n e the r elative .

eco n o my of a co mpou n d a n d of a si mple e x pa n sive e n gin e it is n ecessa ry ,

that they should both w o r k w ith the sa m e boiler p r essu r e a n d the sa m e

'

r ate of e x pa n sio n N ow e x a m ples ( 3 ) a n d ( 4 ) satis fied the fir st co n ditio n

.
,

a n d i f the seco n d is also satis fied the n they m a y be co m pa r ed The r ate of

, .

e x pa n sio n in e x am ple ( 4 ) is 1 6 66 a n d sin ce the volu m e of stea m in the ,

seco n d cyli n d e r at the e n d of its str oke will be thr ee ti m es that in the fir st
at the sa m e p er iod the total e x p a n sio n e ff ected by both cylin de r s will be
1 6 66 or fiv e t i m
,

3 ,
es The cut of f in ex am ple ( 3 ) was t w o te n ths the
.
- -

str oke a n d the r e f o r e its r at e of e x pan sio n is fiv e so that these t w o e x am ples

,

m a y b e co m pa r ed as to the e fficie n cy of the stea m The e ffective p r essu r e .

of the co m pou n d syste m m a y be r e f e r r ed to the la r ge cyli n de r in the sa m e ,

way in which it was r e fe rr ed to the s m all on e a n d will be that fic t u a lly on ,

t h e lar ge cyli n de r togethe r with that on the s m all on e di vided by the r atio
,

of thei r capacities ; he n ce e ff ective m ea n p r essu r e r e fe rr ed to the lar ge

?)
,

cy li n d e r is f
i
or 34 0 3 lbs .
per squar e i n ch . It will be see n
that this is lbs less tha n that obtai n ed in the si mple e x pa n sive e n gin e
.
,

a n d t h e r e f o r e a loss has occu rr ed so m ewhe r e in t h e co m pou n d syste m .

S uppose n ow that the cut off in the la rge cyli n de r is s o alte r ed t h at

, ,
-

the p ressu r e in the r eceive r is 4 5 lbs so that it r ecei v es stea m at the sa me .

,

p ressu r e as that which e x hausts fr o m the s mall on e in this case the r e will
be n o d r op in the p ressur e f r o m co m m e n c eme n t of e x haust t o the e n d in
the s mall cyli n der .

The mean e ff ective p r ess u r e in the s m all cyli n de r is n ow 6 79 5 4 5 or ,

lbs p er squar e i n ch
. .

The cut off in the la r ge cyli n de r

- ? or g the str oke which giv e s 45
,
45 V
3 as the r ate of e x pa n sio n .

With a n i n itial p r essu r e of 4 5 lbs a n d r ate of e x pa n sio n 3 the mea n .

,

p ressu r e is 3 1 5 lbs ; allowi n g 4 lbs f or back p r essu re the e ff ective m ea n

. .
,

p r essu re is 2 75 lbs .

R e fe rr ed to the la r ge cyli n der the e ff ective m ea n p r essur e of the syste m

2 2 95
is n ow 2 75
3 or 35 1 5 lbs . on the squar e i n ch , or ex act ly t he sa me as
th a t obtai n ed in the si mple e x pa n sive e n gin e .

Effect of D rop in t h e R eceiver — I t is see n . fr o m the above the n whe n , ,

 I
D R E CT E X P A N S I ON CO M P O UN D EN GI N E . 1 79

d r op occu r s ther e loss but that when the p r essu r e

Is n o of e ffic ie n c y
°
no

in the r eceiver is less tha n the te rm i n al p r essu r e in the s m all cylin de r t h er e ,

is so m ehow a loss of e ff ective m ean p r essu r e This ar ises fr o m the stea m .

bei n g allowed to ex pan d fro m the s m all cylin de r i n to the r eceiver wi thou t
doin g wor k B u t it is k n ow n that whe n this takes place the stea m beco m es
.
, ,

s o m ewhat supe r heated ; for i n as m uch as the loss of p r essu r e has occu r red
,

without con ver s i o n i n to e x ter n al wo r k or loss of heat I n a n y othe r way it ,

must appea r in so m e other fo rm Although this loss 13 n ot wholly r ecove r ed .

,

it must be t o so m e e x te n t r educed by the be n e fit which the stea m de r ives

fr o m the super heatin g in e x pa n di n g in the l a rge cyli n de r .

D ivision of t h e Work — I t will be also see n that as the r atio of the

.
,

cylin der s capacity is 3 a n d the e ff ective m ea n p res su r es

’

, lbs a n d .

2 75 lbs the wo r k do n e in the s mall cyli n de r t o that in the la r ge is as

.
,

while in the f o rmer case it was as

’

t o 2 7 5 X 3 or n ea r ly 1 t o 3 6 to
'

X 3 or n ea r ly 1 to,

Ther efo r e with a n ea r lier cut off in the la rge cylin de r more wor k is
,
°
-
,

developed in it tha n is the case whe n with a late r cut off ; m or eove r with -
,

this r ati o of cylin de r s in o rder t o get the highest e fficien cy of the stea m
, ,

the r atio of the wo rk do n e is as 1 t o 3 6 ; a n d the i n itial p r essu r e on the

la rge p is to n is 41, a n d on the s mall
e x pa n sio n e n gin e of e qu a l si z e ; a n d eve n if the co mpou n d e n gin e we r e
a rra n ged with on e cylin de r ab ove the other the co mbi n ed i n itial p ressur e ,

would be 4 1 1 0 or 5 1 as agai n st 71 of the si m ple e x pa n sive

, , .

D irect Expansion Compou n d Engine — The co mpou n d e n gin e m a y h ow .

,

e ve r wo rk without a n y i n termediate r e e m e r if the pi to n s a r e a r ran ged

, ,
s .

t o m ove si m ulta n eously eithe r in the sa m e or oppos i te dir ectio n s

, To .

co n sider this case— suppose the cyli n der s to be side by side a n d the pisto n s ,

t o m ove in Opposite di r ectio n s as o r igi n ally p r oposed by Wool f so that , ,

wh en the s m all pisto n has receded on e te n th of the st r oke the la rge on e -

,

has adva n ced by e x actly the sa m e a m ou n t a n d the space betwee n the m ,

is 0 9 u 0 1 V ; the volu m e of stea m at co mm e n ce m e n t of e x haust is

v a n d the p r essu r e at that pe r iod
, as befo re 4 5 lbs ; the v olu m e at a n y , , .

poi n t of the st r oke or the space between the pisto n s

10 I
n
” :
(V

a nd si n ce V 3 v, space b etwee n t he pisto n at n- te n ths of t he str ok e

The p r essu r e at this p oi n t z 45

(g The p ressur es at eve ry
ten th of the str oke fr o m 0 t o 1 0
will be 4 5 3 75 25 0 2 2 5 , , , ,

the m ea n of which is lbs pe r squa r e .

in ch D educt th is fr o m
. a n d the e ff ective m ea n p r essu r e in the s m all

cyli n der is deduct 4 lbs fr o m lbs a n d the e ff ective mea n. .

,

p r e ssu r e i n the la r ge cyli n de r is lbs .

The e ff ective m e an p r essure of th is sys te m r e fe rr e d t o the lar ge cylin de r , ,

 T H E OR ET I CA L E FF C E N C I I Y OF V AR I OUS A I
M R N E E N GI N E s . 1 8]

sh e c r an ks at Wh e n th is is t h e case t h e s m all cylin de r be gi n s to e x haust

.
,

j u st a f t e r t h e c r a n k of t h e L P cyli n d e r h a s got we ll ove r t h e ce n t r e a n d

. .
,

te n d s to m ai n tai n a co n sta n t p r essu r e on the lar ge pisto n thr ough t h e ear lie r
po r tio n of its str oke a n d at cut off the p r essu r e in the r ec eive r is n ot m uc h
,
-

below its ave r age p r essur e I f on the othe r ha n d the c r a n k of the la r ge

.
, ,

cyli n d e r leads e x haust takes place on ly a little be f o r e cut off in the la rge
,
~
-

cyli n de r a n d causes a hu mp in the i n d icato r diagr a m s h owi n g a n i n c r ease

’

-
, ,
”
in t h e am ou n t of d r op a n d that with n o di m i n ishi n g in the m ea n back
,

p r essur e in the s m all cyli n de r En gi n es hav in g the low p r essur e e n gin e .

-

cr a n k as the leadi n g on e we r e also ge n e r ally u n ha n d y .

The fir st t riple co m poun d e n gi n es we r e as a rule design ed so that the

led or was i n a d v a rice of the rhediu m p r essur e c r an k
, ,
”
high p r essu r e c r a n k ,
-

a n d the m ediu m p r essu r e c r a n k 1 2 0 in a d va n ce of the low p r essu r e

°
by - -

cra n k ; but I n m ode rn p r actice i t is usual to fit the low p r essure c ra n k in -

adva n ce of the m ediu m p r essu r e c r a n k etc as i n this way the r e I s less va r i

-
.

atio n in te mp er atur e in each cyli n der a lt h oii gh the load on the pisto n s is less
, ,

du ri n g the fir st hal f of the str oke a n d gr eate r dur i n g the seco n d hal f than is
the case whe n the high p r essu r e c r a n k leads a n d the e n gi n e is n ot app r eciably
-
,

less han dy ( v fig . .

The fir st cyli n d e r of a co m pou n d syste m is called the high p r essu r e ,

“
a n d the last the low fr o m thei r associatio n with the co n d e n si n g an d
,

n on co n d e n sin g e n gi n e
-
For co n ve n ie n ce in speaki n g of the m they a r e
.
,

desig n ate d by the i n itials H P a n d L P Hithe r to in t h e chapter all c om

. . . .
, ,

pa r iso n s of the co m p ou n d with the si m ple e x pa n sive e n gin e h a v e bee n m ade

on the suppositio n that the e x pa n sive en gi n e has o n ly on e cyli n d e r of the
sa me cap a city as the low p r essu r e on e of the co m pou n d syste m-
To re n de r .

the co m pariso n pe r fectly f ai r it will be n ecessar y to take such cases as m a y ,

be f ou n d in actual p r actice I n t r iple e x pan sio n e n gin es the m i dd le cylin der

.
-

“ ”
is calle d t h e m ediu m pr essu r e a n d so m eti m es the i n te r m e d iate a n d , ,

desig n ated by the i n itials M P ; a n d in quad ruple e n gin e s t h e thi r d cyli n der
. .

is called the 2 n d M P . .

Compara tive T h eoretica l Effi cien cy of V ariou s Marin e Engin es A

s in gle cy li n der ex a n s i ve en i n e : r ate of e x pa n sio n 5 ; i n itial p r ess u r e 8 0 lbs
p g
-
.
,
.

absolute back p r essu r e 4 a r ea of pisto n A , , .

Mea n p r essu r e lbs .

Eff ective m ea n p r essu r e 6 4) lbs .

Eff ective in itial loa d on pisto n ( 80 4) A 76 A lbs .

Efficie n cy of the syste m

( 2 ) A s in gle cran k tan dem compou n d en gin e r ate of e x pa n sio n 5 i n itial

-
,

pI e s su re 80 lbs absol u te ; a r e a L P pisto n A ; r atio of cyli n d e r s R

, .
, . .
, , ,

ge n e r ally I n p r actice 4 , .

Eff ective m ea n p r essu r e r e f e rr ed to L P p is t o n . .

Te r m i n al p r essu r e in H P . .
, an d i n itial p r essu r e in L P . . X 80 64 lbs .

Eff e ctive i n itial load on H P . . pis t o n ( 80 64 )

L P . .
( 64 4) A GOA .

Effici en cy of t he syste m
182 M N A UAL or MA R I N E E N GI N E ER I N G .

Total loa d on c ra n k is the re fo re 64 A agai n st 76 A with the si n gle , ,

cyli n de r e x pa n sive e n gi n e .

As in actual pr actice the re is i n va ria bly a d rop which will a mou n t to a s ,

much as 1 0 lbs in a n e n gi n e of this ki n d the i n itial p r essu r e in the low

.
,

p r essur e cyli n de rs bei n g dec reased by that a m ou n t a n d that of t h e high ,

p r e s su re i n c reased S o that actually the total loads will be as 5 6 5 to 76

.
, , ,

or a savi n g in the co m pou n d e n gi n e of ove r 2 5 pe r ce n t of the loa d put on .

the r o d s fr a mi n g etc
,
a n d also e n abli n g a la r ge r e d uctio n to be m ade in
, .

the d ia m ete r of the shafti n g The e n gi n e will wo r k much m o r e stea d ily .

owi n g to the r atio of m a x i mu m to m ea n p r essu r e bei n g so la rgely r e d uce d

a n d the h a n di n ess ve r y m uch i n c r eased fr o m t h e cut off in the high p r essu r e - -

cyli n d e r bei n g so late as $ 6

the str oke The f r ictio n of the two cyli n d e rs .
,

etc . is howeve r co n side r ably greate r t h a n that of the on e but this is set off
, , , ,

by the r eductio n in frictio n on the gui d es a n d j our n als a n d the f r ictio n on

t h e valve of the si n gle cyli n de r e x pose d t o high p r essu r e stea m wi ll be
“
-

m o r e t h a n t h e co mbi n e d fr ictio n of the two valves the s mall on e of ,

which o n ly is so e x posed while the e x pa n sio n valve ( which is n ecessa r y ,

to t h e si n gle cyli n de r for so ear ly a cut off ) will also I n c r ease its loss f r o m -

fr ictio n .

Th e co mpou n d e n gi n e co m pa r es m o r e f avou r ably with the si m ple e x pa n

sive whe n both have two cylin de r s a n d two c r a n ks The n each e n gin e has .

t h e sa m e n u m ber of wo r ki n g pa rts of n ecessity a n d the si mple e x pa n sive , ,

besides h avi n g the usual sl id e valves each of which is e x posed to the boile r ,

p ressu re has a n e x pa n sio n valve t o each cyli n d e r in o r de r to e ff ect so ea r ly

, , ,

a cut off The f oll owi n g e x a mples will show the r esults of the t w o syste ms
-
.

u n d er the sa m e CI rcu mst a n oe s

( 3) A s i mple ex pa n s i ve en gin e ha vin g t wo cylin ders , each of whose

A
p i sto n s h as an area of I n ches ; r ate of e x pa n s ron , 5 ; I n I t Ia l p r essu r e ,
2
80 lbs .

Mea n p r essu r e lbs .

Eff ective m ea n p r essu r e 4 lbs .

Eff ective i n itial loa d on pisto n ( 80 4) 38 A lbs .

Effective m ea n load on both pisto n s X A lbs .

Efficie n cy of t he syste m

(4 ) A co mpou n d en gin e
the r atio of whose piston ha vin g t wo cyli n ders ,

a rea is 3 a n d the a rea of low p r essu r e pisto n A ; rate of e x pa n sio n 5 ;

,
-

, ,

i n itial p ressu r e 80 lbs p r essu r e in r eceive r 2 1 lbs

, .
, .

The cut off in high p ressu r e cyli n d e r to e ff ect this r ate of e x pa n sio n
- -

or 0 6 str oke .

The cut off in low p ressu re cyli n de r to mai n tai n 2 1 lbs p ressu re in the
- -
.

r eceive r M the stroke .

21 x 3
 T H E OR ET I CAL I I
E FF C E N C Y OF V A R I OU S MA R I N E E N GI N E S . 183

Eff ective mea n p r essu re in H P . . cyli n de r 21 lbs .

LP
. . 4 lbs .

A
Eff ective i n iti a l load on H P . . pisto n ( 80 21) 1 73 X A lbs
3
.

(2 1 4) A = 17O °

A lbs .

Eff ective mean load on both pisto n s X

g X A

A lbs .

Efficie n cy of the syste m

It will be see n that the i n itial load on e ach of the piston s of the com
pou n d e n gin e is ve r y n ea r ly equal in this case a nd is less tha n hal f that on ,

each piston of the e x pa n siv e e n gin e The wo r k do n e is ver y n early equally .

divided between the t wo cyli n de r s but f alls sho r t of that do n e by the e x pa n ,

s ive e n gi n e by m o r e tha n 1 1 per ce n t .

The co m pou n d e n gin e ther e fo r e is n o min ally n ot s o econ o mic in stea m

, , ,

but I S subj e ct t o much lighter loads a n d to less var iatio n in load a n d t e m ,

pera t u r e .

To test the m e rits of the co mpou n d syste m ca re fully devised e x peri

m en ts wer e m ade by the B ritish Ad m i r alty a n d by the Gove rn m e n t of the ,

U n ited S tates which show that although the di ff e re n ce b etwee n the

, ,

coal co n su m e d per 1 H P in the two syste m s was n ot ve r y gr eat the c om

. . .
,

pou n d e n gin e on the whole is mo r e eco n o m ical The best k n ow n of these

, ,
.

ex per i me n ts was the t rial between the gu n boats S win ge r a n d Goshawk ,

the latte r havin g co m pou n d e n gin es with cyli n de r s 2 8 i n ches a n d 4 8 i n ches ,

dia m ete r a n d 1 8 in ch st roke the f o rm er e x pa n sive e n gin es havin g two

-
, ,

c yli n der s 3 4 i n ches dia m eter a n d 22 i n ch s t r oke a n d those of the siste r ships
-

, ,

give n below I n thes e a n d i n m a n y other cases it was de m o n str ated that

.

while on trial t rips the coal a n d w a ter c on su mptio n s were always less with t h e
co m pou n d e n gi n es it was r eally the results of pr olo n ged t r ials on S e r vice that
,

p r oved co n clusively the r eal a n d p r actical s u pe riority of the co mpou n d

syste m which was n ot alo n e i n con su m ptio n of f uel per
,
but in
m echa n ical e fficie n cy wher eby the co n su m ptio n pe r voyage was m a rked
, ,

a n d the r eductio n in wea r a n d tea r eve n m o r e s o These ar gu m e n ts we r e .

,

of cou r se co n vi n ci n g t o the shipow n e r

,
.

D ia met er of cy li n d e rs an d s t r o e k .

Comp .

31 ” 4 8 ” x 1 8

B oiler pr e s s u r e , lbs , .
63 5 41 5 90
V a cu u m, ms , 20 24 23 3 -
24 4 25 -1
R evolu ti on s pe r min u te , 92 9 1 24 8 98 8
S pee d of pi s t on , fe e t pe r mi n u t e , 404 2 95 4 24 324 3 74 2 96
I n d ic a t e d h or se powe r , 36 7 1 37 38 7 1 80 3 98 2 13
S p e ed of S h i p , k n ot s , 92 5 1 72 32 9 6 34
W a t er c on s u me d per I H P pe r h ou r , . . .
 TR P I LE -
EXP A N S I ON CO M P O UN D EN GI N E . 1 85

th is ca se is ( 5 4 32 ) or 2 2 lbs as a gai n st 33 lbs in t h e t w o cyli n d e r e n gi n e .

, .
-

I t is see n the n that t h eor etically th is e n gi n e i s n e a rly e qual in stea m e th

'

, ,

c ie n c y both to the si m ple e x pa n sive a n d t o the co m pou n d d i r ec t e x pa n sio n

, ,
,
-

e n gi n e On the other ha n d t h e fr ictio n of thr ee e n gin es m ust be set agai n st this

.
,
,

besi d es t h e e x tr a cost of m a n u f actu r e a n d t h e spa ce occupied by m achi n e r y '

Experimen ts in t h e Mercan t il e Ma rin e with e n gi n e s h avi n g cyli n de r s with

'

r atios bette r suite d to the st ea m p r ess u r e a n d othe r co n ditio n s d e m o ns t r ate d

m uch m or e e m p h atically the supe r io r ity of the co mpou n d e n gi n e in econ o m y

of fuel a n d pe rh a ps m o r e decisively the othe r a d va n tage of that syst e m
, , ,

f or it was soon f ou n d that the wea r a n d tear an d Oil co n su m ption of e x p an sive

e n gin es h avin g a wo r kin g p r essu r e of 5 0 t o 6 0 lb s The two cylin d e r a n d
,
.
-

t h r ee cylin d er re ceiver type of co m pou n d e n gin e soo n b eca m e popular a n d

-

r e m ai n ed so u n til steel boil e r s could be m a d e f or such hi gh p re ssu r es as

t o r equi r e a n e x ten sio n of the co mpou n d syste m .

Tripl e Expans ion Compou n d En g ine — The co m p ou n d e n gi n e ha vi n g on e

-
.

high p r essu r e a n d on e low p re ssur e wit h a m e d iu m p r essu r e cylin d er is t h e

-

,
-
,
-

on e m ost co mmon ly f ou n d in use if stea m of ove r 1 2 0 lbs p r essu r e is to , .

be use d eco n o m ica ll y TO e n sur e eco n o m y the stea m must be e xpa n d e d

'

.
,

d ow n to about 1 0 lbs absolut e the i n itial loa d s on the pisto n s m ode r ate
.
, ,

an d the d r ops n ot e x ces s ive Th e low p r essu r e cyli n d e r m a y be r ath e r .

-

s m alle r in si z e tha n that Of the o rdin ar y t wo cyli n d e r co mpou n d a rr an ge m e n t -

d u e t o the i n c r ease d e fficie n cy of the stea m fr o m the high r a t e of ex p an sio n _ ,

a n d the g r eate r r e f er r ed m ea n p r essu r e .

6
( ) Fo r e x a m ple —
To deter m i n e the p a r ticula r s of a t r iple co m pou n d -

e n gi n e on this syste m to b e equal to that set o u t in e x a m ple p a ge 1 82 ,

t h e i n itial p r essu r e bei n g 1 2 7 lbs a n d the r ate of e x pa n sio n 1 0 .

, .

The m ean pr essur e in a si n gle cyli n d er With a cut —off at Tia the st r oke is ,
-

lbs d educt in g fr o m this 4 lbs f or back p r essu r e t h e m ea n efi

.
-
ect i . .

p r essur e is lbs , or n ea r ly the sa m e as t h at of e x a m ple

. page 1 84 .

S upp ose the cut Off i n the high p r essu r e cyli n d e r is 0 6 the st r oke the n the
- -

ratio of the high p r essu r e to low p r essu r e cyli n d e r m ust be 6 to e ff ect a r ate
- -

of a n e x pa n sio n of 1 0 The r atio of the m e d iu m p r essu r e cyli n d er to high

.
-

p r ess u r e cyli n de r m a y b e take n as g a n d co n seque n tly the r atio of low

°
-

, ,

p r essur e t o m ea n p r essu r e cyli n d e r is -

The p r essu r e betwee n t h e
hi gh pr ess u r e a n d m ea n p r essu r e c y li n d e r s I s to be 5 0 lbs the cut O ff in t h e
- -
.
,
-

m e a n p r essu r e cyli n de r will the re f o r e b e 0 6 1 the st r oke

-
The p r essu r e
, , .
°

betwee n the low p r essu r e a n d m ea n p r essu r e cyl ind e r is to be 2 1 lbs the

- ‘ -
s .

cut o ff in low p r essu r e c y lin de r m u s t t he ref o r e be 0 6 the st roke

'

- -

, ,
.

The e ff ective m ea n p r essur e in H P cyli n de r (1 15 5 0) 6 5 lbs

“

. . .

( 45 4 —
21) lbs .

(19 4 1 5 0 lbs .

A
The e ff ective i n iti a l loa d on H P pisto n (1 27 5 0) A lb s

6
. . .

MP . .
(so 21) A 7,
5
12 1 .
A lbs .

L P (2 1 4) A 1 T O A lbs
°

. . .

The e ff ective
pl s t on s
m ea n loa d on all th ree
( 65 X 1
2) (2 4 4 X {2 A) i 1 5 A ' ‘

36 X A lbs .

36
Effic I en c y of t he syste m
186 M AN U AL OF M R N E E N A I GI N EER I N G .

It will be see n that in this case owi n g to d rop the r e is a loss of n ea rly , ,

2 lbs but the wo r k is f ai rly divided betwee n the th ree cyli n de r s a n d the ,

i n itial loads a re by n o mea n s high ; the d rop fro m the high pressu re cyli n de r -

is o n ly 2 6 lbs a n d that fr o m the mea n p ressu r e cyli n der 9% lbs This e n gin e
.
,
-
.

then e ff ects a n e x pa n sio n of 1 0 a n d is the re for e a ver y eco n o mi c on e ; it , , ,

will have a ve r y r egula r motio n a n d shar e in all the be n e fits of a three c ra n k ,

-

e n gi n e a n d the str esses on the wo r kin g pa rts will be ve ry m ode rate .

T o see how f this is t e it i s o n ly n ecessa r y to co m pa r e these r esults

( 7 a r r u ,

with those f r o m a t hree cran k en gine ha vin g on e hi gh a n d t wo low pres su re -

-

cy lin der s , each L P . havi n g a piston a r ea of é

2
.

A
S uppose the h igh p r essu r e c l n de I t o have a p i sto n a rea of " the cut off ° -

4
-

I n the high p r essu r e Cylin de r to e fiect a n e x p an sio n of 1 0 must be 0 4 of the

-
,

st roke the r eceive r p ressur e will be 4 2 lbs a n d the cut ofi I n low p r essu r e - -

cyli n de r 0 3 of the st roke .

The e ffective m ea n p ressu r e 55 1 “

in the H P cylin de r . .
( 97 42)

The e ff ective mea n p r essu re 4) 23 1h q

in each L P cyli n de r . .
(27 7 .
“

The e ffective i n itial load on ] 2 1 25 X A 1133

(127 42)
f
.

the H P pisto n . .

The e ff ective i n iti a l load .

on ] 19 0 X A lbs
each L P pisto n f
.

. .

The e ff ective mea n load on

37 45 X Albs
all thr ee pisto n s

The i n itia l l oad On the hi gh p r essu r e pisto n is he r e 65 per ce n t la rge r tha n in

-
.

the p r ecedi n g case a n d that on each low pressu r e piston 5 6 pe r ce n t la r ge r

,
-
.

t ha n on the m ea n p r essu r e piston a n d p

-
e r ce n t above that on the low ,
.

p r essu r e pisto n ; but the e ffi cie n cy of the stea m is so m ewhat higher in the
latte r case the d r op f ro m the high p ressu r e cylin de r bei n g o n ly 8 8 lbs The
,
-
.

r atio of m a x i mu m p r essu r e to m ea n in the high p r essu r e cyli n d e r is an d -

in the low p r essu r e cyli n d e r 1 6 which a r e about the sa m e as those Of the old
-

e x pa n sive e n gi n e wo r ki n g with a boiler p r essu r e of 4 5 lbs a n d cuttin g off at .

,
-

0 3 o f the st r oke I t m a y n ot be always advisable to set t h e c r a n ks at a n gles

.

°
of 1 2 0 in a th r ee c r a n k co m pou n d e n gi n e ; thei r p r ecise positio n should
-

depe n d on the powe r d eveloped in each cylin de r a n d the relative twisti n g ,

e ff o r ts at a n y pe r io d .

The success of the t r iple e x pa n sio n e n gi n e is n ow so well assu red a n d

-
,

all doubts as to its e fficie n cy a n d good wo rki n g a re s o e ff ectually dispelle d

as to r equi r e n o fu rthe r d iscussio n I t does n ot d i ff e r in a n y esse n tial f eatur e .

fr o m the o rdi n a ry co m pou n d e n gi n e a n d its success was i n n o s m all m easu r e ,

a ssu r ed by the fact that m ost m ake r s of t h e n e w type depa r te d as little as

p ossible f r o m thei r p revious p r actice in its ge n e r al co n st ructio n A f e w .

yea rs e x pe rie n ce de mo n st rated that the t riple e x pa n sio n e n gi n e is m o re

’
-

ec on o mical tha n the o rdi n a ry co mp ou n d e n gi n e ; that the wea r a n d tea r

 I N CR E A SE D PR ESS UR E OF S T E AM . 1 87

is n o m o r e but r athe r less whe n t h ree c r a n ks a re e mploye d tha n with t h e , ,

two of the o r d i n a ry co mpou n d ; a n d that boile r s of the co mm o n ma ri n e

d esig n could be m ade to wo r k satis facto r ily at a p r essu r e of 1 5 0 lbs pe r .

squa r e i n ch a n d eve n hi ghe r while with o rd i n ar y ca re thei r d u r ability a n d , ,

good co n ti n ue d wo r ki n g a re n ot less tha n those of s iin ila r boile rs p ressed

, ,

to 60 lbs per squa r e i n ch u n de r si mila r ci r cu m sta n ces S peaki n g ge n erally

. .
,

the co n su m ptio n of fuel I S 2 0 per ce n t less with a t riple e x pa n sio n e n gi n e .

tha n with a n o r din a ry co mpou n d e n gin e worki n g un de r si m ila r c i rcu m sta n ces .

That I s a t riple e x pa n s i o n e n gin e supplied with stea m at 1 5 0 lbs p r essu r e

, , .
,

uses 20 pe r ce n t less weight of wate r pe r I H P tha n a n o r di n a r y co mpou n d

. . . .

e n gi n e supplie d wit h stea m at say 90 lbs p r essu r e both e n g i n es bei n g , , .

,

equally well design ed m a n u f acture d a n d atte n ded t o Also that a t r iple

-
, , .
,

e x pa n sio n e n gi n e is m o r e eco n o m ical tha n a n o r d i n a r y co mpou n d e n gin e whe n

both a re supplied with stea m at the sa me p r essur e f or all pr essu r es of 95 lbs , .

a n d upwa r d s a n d especially so in the case of la r ge e n gi n es

,
He n ce it ma y .
,

be take n that the supe r io r eco n o m y of the t r iple e x pa n sio n e n gi n e is due -

to two causes v iz To the supe rio r p r essur e of stea m used a n d the

,

higher r ate of ex pa n sio n ther eby possible a n d ( 2 ) the syste m wher eby la rge
i n itial loa d s a n d la r ge va r iatio n s of te mper atu r e in the cylin de rs a n d la r ge
d r op in the r eceive r s a re avoided .

In creased Pressu re of S team is obtai n ed by a ve r y S light i n c r ease of c on

su mptio n of fuel a n d the e ffi ci en cy of stea m r apidly I n cr eases with i n cr eased
,

pI essu r e ; he n ce stea m of high p r essu r e is m o r e eco n o m ical tha n that at

,

i n f e rio r p r essu r es For e x a m ple : .

( i The total heat of evapo r atio n of 1 lb f r o m 1 00 a n d at 2 74 F ( co rre

° °
. . .

s pon d in g t o 4 5 lbs pr e s s u r e absolute ) I S the rmal u n its

.
s
.

( ii ) Fr o m 1 00 a n d at 320 F ( co rr espo n di n g t o 90 lbs absolute ) is

° °
. . .

the r m al u n its .

°
( iii ) Fr o m 1 00 a n d at 3 5 3 F ( co rr espon di n g to 1 40 lbs absolute ) is
°
. . .

the rm al u n its .

( iv ) Fr o m 1 00 a n d at 3 77 F ( co rr espon di n g to 1 90 lbs absolute ) is

° °
. . .

the rmal u n its .

S uppose in each case t h e stea m to be e x pa n d ed to a te r m i n al p r essu r e of

1 0 lbs absol u te t h e r a t e s of e x pa n sio n will the n be 9 1 4 a n d 1 9 res pec
' ’

.
, , ,

t iv ely a n d the m ea n pr essu r es co rr espo n di n g to these i ni tial p r essu r es a n d

r ates O f e x pa n sio n will be 2 5 lbs 32 lbs 36 lbs a n d 3 9 lbs r espectively If .

,
.
,
.
,
. .

the volu m e of a pou n d of stea m var ied e x actly in t he i n ve rse r atio of the
p ressur e these figu re s would r ep r es e n t the r elative values of the e fficie n cy of
,

the stea m at the va r ious p ressur es B u t taken e x actly the r elative value s .
, ,

a r e 25 33 3 3 8 5 a n d
, , thus showi n g that a p ou n d of stea m at 90 lbs
, .

p ressu r e is capable of doi n g 33 pe r ce n t m o r e wo r k th an a pou n d at 4 5 lbs . .

a pou n d of stea m at 1 4 0 lbs p r essur e 1 6 per cen t m o re tha n a pou n d at .

, .

90 lbs . a n d a pou n d at 1 90 lbs p r essu r e 1 0 6 per ce n t m o r e tha n a pou n d at .

, .

1 4 0 lbs p r essu r e or 28 per ce n t mo r e tha n at 90 lbs p r essu r e

.
, I n othe r . . .

wo rds a n e n gin e usi n g stea m at 1 4 0 lbs p r essu r e should apa rt fr o m a n y

, .
,

p r actical co n side r atio n s co n su m e 1 6 per ce n t less fuel tha n on e usi n g stea m , .

at 90 lbs a n d agai n that a n e n gin e usi n g stea m at 1 90 lbs should co n su m e

.
, , .

2 8 per ce n t less fuel tha n on e usi n g stea m at 90 lbs a n d 1 0 6 per ce n t less

. .
,
.

fuel tha n on e usi n g stea m at 1 4 0 lbs .

L ook in g t o see how f a r p r actice ag r ees with these r esults it is f ou n d t hat ,

 TR P I LE -
EXP A N S I ON CO M P O UN D EN GI N E . 1 89

14
be X 8, or 5 6 lbs ; . an d in the M P cyli n de r . . X 8 , or 2 2 4 lb s .
, an d

the f ollowi n g shows the r elative work do n e ,

v z i .

OR D I N AR Y COMPOU N D EN GI N E . T R I PLE EXPAN S I ON EN GI N E

-
.

H igh pr e s su
- r e c y li n d e r , 4 x 42 or 1 68 H ig h p r e s s u
-
r e c y lin d e r , 2 x 56 or 112
L ow 14 x 12 or 1 68 M e d iu m 5 x 22 4 or 1 12
L ow 14 x 8 or 1 12

That is the a ver a ge load on the r ods colu mn s gui d es etc is 5 0 pe r ce n t

, , , , .
, .

mo r e with the o r di n a r y co mp ou n d e n gi n e tha n with t r iple e x p an s io n -

.

To Obtai n a m ea n p r essu r e of 2 4 lbs with a n i n itial p r essu r e of 1 65 lbs .

, .

absolute a n d a p r essu re in the co n de n ser of 2 lbs the r ate of e x pa n sio n is

,
.
,

1 4 with a n e ffi cie n cy of 0 6

, a n d with a n i n itial p r essu r e of 1 00 lbs the r ate .

of e x pa n sio n is 7 .

On e x a mi n i n g diagr a m s take n u n de r these ci r cu m st an ces fr o m actual

_
en gi n es the f ollowi n g is to be obse r ved
,

I n itial p r essu r e in the high p r essu r e c y li n de r of the co m pou n d e n gi n e

“
-

98 lbs back p ressu r e 2 3 lbs e ff ective i n itial p r essu re 75 lbs pe r squa r e

.
, .
, .

i n ch or lea d on t h e pisto n 75 X 4 or 300 I n the low p r essu re t h e i n itial , , .

p r essu r e is 22 lbs back pr essu re 4 givi n g a n e ff ective i n itial p r es su re of

.
,

1 8 lbs pe r squa r e i n ch
. or load on the pisto n 1 8 x 1 4 or 25 2 , , .

The i n itial p r essu r e on the high —p ressu r e cylin de r of the t riple e x pa n sion -

e n gi n e is 1 6 0 lbs back p r essu re 63 lbs e ff ective i n itial p r essu r e 97 lbs

.
,
.
, .

or the load on the pisto n 97 x 2 or 1 94 I n the m e diu m p r essu r e t h e , ,

.

i n itial p r essu r e is 70 lbs a n d the back p r essu r e 2 1 lbs e ff ective i n itial

.
, .

p r essu r e 4 9 lbs ; or the load on the pist on 4 9 X 5 or 245 I n the low

,
.
, , . .

p r essu r e the i n itial p ressur e is 1 8 lbs a n d the back p ressure 4 lbs givi n g . .

a n e ff ective i n itial p r essu r e of 1 4 lbs pe r squa r e i n ch or a load on the pisto n .

of 1 4 X 1 4 or 1 96 Thus showi n g the loa d s in the case of the t r iple e x pa n sio n

,
.
-

e n gi n e to b e much less n otwit h sta n di n g the hig h e r p r essu r e of stea m ,

e mployed .

This too is S how n in actual p ractice by co mpar i n g the i n itial loa d s on

’

, ,

the e n gi n e of the s s N o rthern whose cylin de r s a r e 2 6 i n ches a n d 5 6 i n che s

. .

dia mete r a n d 60 i n ch stroke i n dicatin g -

H P a n d s u pplied with stea m ,
. .
,

at 1 30 lbs p ressur e absolute with those of the t r iple e x pa n sio n e n gi n e of

.
,
-

“ ”
the s s Ariel
. . whose cyli n de rs a r e 2 3 i n ches 35 i n ches a n d 6 0 i n ches
, , ,

dia m eter a n d 5 7 i n ch st r oke i nd icati n g -

H P a n d supplie d with stea m ,
. .
,

at 1 65 lbs p r essu re absolute . .

’
The N o r the r n s high p r essu re pI st on sustai n s a n i n itial load of -

5 30 1 00 or lbs the low p r essu r e

,
x 24 or lbs The
.
-
, ,
.

Ar iel s high p r essur e pisto n sustai n s 4 1 5 x 1 00 or

’
-
lbs the ,
.

m e d iu m p r essu r e 962 X 6 0 or
-
lbs a n d the low p r essu r e
, x 18 ,
.
-
, ,

or lbs — n otwithsta n di n g that the e n gi n es a r e la r ger a n d develop

n ea r ly 2 5 pe r ce n t m o r e powe r with highe r b oile r p r essu r e. .

The m or e eve n distr ibutio n of p r essu r e also ve ry m ate r ia lly a ff ects the
r esista n ce of the slide valves a n d so te n ds in eve r y way to r e d uce the losses
-

due to m echa n ical causes .

Ex pe r ie n ce h a s s h ow n that the wea r a n d tea r of the t r iple ex pa n sio n

_
-

e n gi n e with th r ee c r a n ks is ver y co n si d e r ably less tha n that of o r di n a r y

t wo c r a n k co m pou n d e n gi n e of the sa m e powe r a n d st r oke a n d n o doubt

-
,
 1 90 M A N UAL Q F MAR I N E EN GI N EER I N G .

th is is d u e to those causes al r eady show n to e x ist with this class of e n gin e ,

as co m par ed with the e x pa n sive e n gi n e .

The th ree c r a n k t r iple e x pa n sio n e n gin e has howeve r show n a n othe r , ,

valuable quality a n d on e which m a y easily be sur m ise d f r o m the f o r egoi n g

,

r easo n i n g— v iz that a m uch highe r i n dicated powe r m ay b e develo ped with

'

.
,

a low p r essur e cyli n de r equal in si z e to that of a co m m o n co m pou n d e n gi n e

-
, ,

without a n y i n c r ease in the i n itial loads on the pisto n s This m a y be show n .

”
by co m pa r i n g the per fo r m a n ce of the e n gin es of the Eldor ado whose ,

cylin d er s we r e 2 6 i n ches 4 0 i n ches a n d 6 8 i n ches dia m eter a n d 39 i n ch

, ,

s t I Ok e supplie d with stea m at 1 65 l bs absolute p r essu r e with that of the

,
.
,
”
e n gi n es of t h e Ju n o havi n g cyli n de r s 35 i n ches a n d 69 i n ches diam ete r
,

a n d 3 9 i n ch st r oke supplied with stea m at 1 00 lbs absolute p r essu r e

-
, Whe n . .

’
ru n n i n g at 72 r evolutio n s the Eldo r ado s e n gi n es develop
,

or 2 6 per ce n t m o r e powe r fr o m the t r iple

’
an d the Ju n o s .

e x pa n sio n tha n fr o m the or din a ry co mpou n d although the low p r ess u re ,

-

cyli n de r was 3 per ce n t s m aller ; The i n itial loa d s on the pisto n s of the
.

Eldo r ado a re lbs lbs a n d lbs as agai n st

.
, .
, .
,
”
lbs a n d
. lbs o n those of the Ju n o
. .

S i m ila r r esults c a n be s h ow n with f ou r c r a n k e n gi n es of va r ious si z es ; -

a n d to e x te n d the questio n it m a y be take n as app r o x i m ately co rr ect that a

,

r e fe rr ed m ea n p r essu r e m a y b e used in a t r iple e x pa n sio n e n gi n e 5 0 p e r ce n t -

.

highe r tha n wit h a n o rdi n ar y co m pou n d e n gi n e without a n y se r ious d i ff e re n ce

i n the st r esses on the wo r ki n g pa r ts a n d f r a m e wo r k I t I S for this r easo n .

possible t o m a n u f actu r e a t riple e x pa n sio n e n gi n e at the sa m e p r ice per

1 H P as a n o r di n a ry co m pou n d e ng i n e
. . . The pnopellin g e fficie n cy Of the .

three a n d f ou r cr a n k e n gin e is e special ly n oticeable whe n r u n n i n g at low

-

spee d s a n d it is n o d o u bt on this accou n t they we r e best for n aval pur poses

,

whe re so much c r uisi n g is d o n e at co mpa r atively S low spee d s They a re .

a lso capable of bei n g w o r ked a t much f ewe r r evolutio n s without stoppi n g

on the ce n t r es tha n a two c r a n k e n gi n e which is hi ghly advan tageous in

-

n avigati n g i n t r icate c h a n n els a n d d ocks a n d d u r i n g a f og as stee r age powe r ,

is kept without m uch way on the ship They a r e also whe n well c on .
,

str ucted a n d p r ope rly adj ust ed al m ost n oiseless a n d cause little or n o , ,

vib r atio n w hich is a n a dv an tage in eve ry shin but especially in yachts a n d

, .

asse n ge r stea m e r s
p .

Th e Compou n d Syst ems of Cy l in ders a r e n ow ad m itte d on all ha n ds witho u t

a n y f u r the r co n t r ove r sy t o b e supe r io r t o the si m ple e x pa n sive on e n ot -

w ithsta n di n g that i n the past at each of its stages of d evelop m e n t this clai m
has bee n co n teste d by those w h o see m ed u n able to gr asp the f act that
t h e dete rmi n i n g f acto r s in each pa rticula r co n t r over sy we r e p r actical r athe r
tha n theo r etical o n es a n d much of the sam e n atu r e as the on e which caused
,

Watt to r e m ove the co n den satio n of the ste a m f ro m the cyli n d e r to the
co n de n se r Mo re over it was by p r actical tests r athe r than a rgu m e n t in eac h
.
,

of these stages that e n gi n ee r s we r e wea n ed fr o m thei r love of the old to thei r

faith in the n e w syste m I t is u n n ecessa ry n ow t o dwell on the subj ect
.
,

or to r ecapitulate f u r the r the ea r ly e x pe r i m e n ts made to pr ove that the .

co m pou n d e n gi n e w a s supe rio r to the S i m ple e x pa n sive as m easur ed by the ,

wate r co n su mptio n per I H P or those late r o n es wher eby the c om pou n d

. . .
,

was show n to be i n f e rio r to the t r iple e x pan sio n e n g in e n or eve n t o t h ose -

late r still w h e n t h e advocates of a f u r t he r s ubdivisio n clai me d for thei r

,
 CO M P O UN D I
S P ST E MS OF C Y LI N D ER S . 1 91

uad ruple e x pa n sio n e n gi n e a disti n ct I m p r ove m e n t on the good r esult s

q
-

achieved by the t r iple .

S O f a r n o on e has ve n tu r ed on a qui n tuple stage syste m although e n gi n e s ,

with fiv e cyli n der s a n d c r an ks have bee n m ade besi d es which the i n c rease ,

in boile r p r essu r e n ow possible with cyli n d r ical boile r s has wa rr a n te d suc h

a n adva n ce Although the co n t r ove r sy has ceased a n d a co mpou n d syste m
.
,

of cyli n de r s of so m e ki n d I S always f ou n d I n a m ode rn m a r i n e r ec i p r ocati n

g
steame n gi n e it is well that the r eason s for such a n adoptio n shoul d be clea rl y
,

stated a n d well u n der stoo d for a fter all it is so m ewhat in the n atur e of
,

p r o m ulgati n g a parado x to p r oclai m that if stea m is e x pa n d ed thr ough all

the po r ts p as sages a n d pipes of a co m pou n d syste m of f our stages the
, ,

eco n o mic r esult is bet t e r than if e x pan ded in a si n gle cyli n der in the si m plest
way possible .

The f act I s that theor etically the co m pou n d syste m is w r o n g s o f a r as

, ,

e ffi cie n cy of ste a m e x pa n sio n is co n ce rn e d ; n evertheless in p ractice the , ,

sa me co n ditio n s which caused t he co mpou n d e n gin e to t r iu m ph ove r t h e

e x pa n sive hav e established the super io r ity of the tr iple ove r the co mpou n d ,

a n d giv e n a n adva n tage t o the quad r uple ove r the t r iple The system with .

its ex te n sio n s have pe rmitted the saf e e m ploy m e n t of highe r stea m p r essu r es
with thei r highe r e fficie n cies without m aki n g i n c r eases in the i n itial loa d s
on the r ods c r a n k pi n s bear i n gs guides e t c a n d m o r e i mpo rta n t still
-
.

withou t the lar ge var iati o n s i n te mpe r atu r e in t he cyli n d e r s s o ob j ectio n able
, , , , , ,

whe n stea m e x pan sio n is to be e ff ected without loss .

Whe n the boile r p r essur e was 30 lbs ( 4 5 lbs absolute ) the stea m a t e n try . .

t o the cyli n de r would have a te mpe r atur e of about 2 70 F

°
du ri n g e x hau st
°
the te m pe r atur e in the cylin de r would be o n ly about 1 5 0 F or a d i ff e r en ce
duri n g the cycle of The ex pan siv e e n gi n e usi n g stea m at 75 lbs .

a bsolute would have a r a n ge th r oughout the syste m of while in each

cyli n der of the co mpou n d e n gi n e it will be o n ly about all owi n g for the
usual d rop of p r essu r e betwee n the m I n the t r iple e x pa n sio n syste m u si n g .
-

steam of 1 95 1bs absolute p r essu r e although the var iatio n thr oughout is
. .
,

about i n each cyli n de r it is n ot m uch m o r e tha n

I n the cas e of a co m pou n d e n gi n e the L P cyli n de r is about the sa me ,
. .

si ze as the si n gle cyli n de r of a n e x pa n sive e n gi n e ; or supposi n g the latte r ,

t o be a t w o c ra n k e n gi n e each of its cyli n d e r s will be hal f the capacity of the

-
,

low p r essu r e Of the co m pou n d a n d s o each pisto n is hal f the a r ea of that of

,

the L P pisto n The i n itial p r essu r e pe r squa r e i n ch on the pisto n s of the t w o

. . .

e n gi n es will be the sa m e if the boile r p r essu r es a r e equal ( say 6 0 lbs but .

the a r ea of the hi gh p r essur e pisto n of the co m pou n d would be o n ly about

0 36 of the low p r essur e a n d co n se que n tly the r atio of f o r wa rd load on it
°
-
,

w ould be u n de r these co n ditio n s as 3 6 t o 5 0 of that on each of the e x pa n sive

e n gi n e cyli n de r s but the ba ck p r essu r e of these latte r would be o n ly about
,

3 lbs s o that thei r e ff ective i n itial load would be ( 6 0

. 15 or 72 lbs .

e r squa r e i n ch while the high p r essu re pisto n of the co m pou n d would have
p
-
,

a back p r essu r e of about 22 lbs absolute co n seque n tly the e ff ective m a x i .

m u m load would be i n this case ( 60 15 or 5 3 lbs pe r squa r e i n ch .

on ly. The total loads will be the n m easu r ed rela t iv elv as

Co mpou n d , H . P piston
.
,
36 x 53 1 908
Ex pa n s i v e , e ach pisto n ,
50 x 72 3 6 00
 COMP O UN D S Y S TE MS OF C Y LI N D ER S . 1 93

d w9 /
ne 91 0 95 o
°

qa u , 4 9 .
1 94 MA N UA L OF M AR I N E EN GI N E E R I N G .

Fig 66 is also i n st ructive as by it c a n be

. ,
e the va rious stages
se n of

pr og ress i n t h e use of stea m on shi pboa rd , a n d the e ff ect of a ddi n g a L . P .

2 41 11 2 52 24 4: f ac es /r s

Fi g 06 — Th e
. . va riou t
s s a ge s in t h e u s e of S t e a m ex pa n s ively i n Ma ri n e E n gin es .

tu rbi n e to a co mpou n d cyli n de r e n gi n e studied a n d ,

h ow the at te n uate d a n d
appare n tly f eeble stea m at ex haust is capable of pr odu ci n g i n a s u i t abl e

ge n er ato r qui t e s la rge a moun t of powe r .

 H OR S E P OW E R o
. 1 95

CH AP T ER V III .

H OR S E P OW E R — N O M N
-
I AL I N D I CA T E D
, ,
AN D S HAFT OR BR AK E .

WH EN the stea m e n gi n e bega n t o re pla ce other m otor s it was soo n fou n d , ,

n ecessa r y to i n t r o d uce so m e u n i t by whi ch its powe r coul d be e x p r esse d

Without usi n g such hi gh n u m ber s as f oot pou n d s ra n to as to place it beyo n d -

,

the gr asp of o rdi n ar y mi n d s AS the e n gin e was f r eque n tly taki n g the place
.

O f ho r ses to O pe r ate m i ni n g a n d othe r m achi n e r y it was o nly n atu r al that ,

the wo r k per f o r m ed by a ho r se shoul d be take n as the basi s f or this un it

of m e asu r e m e n t The n u m be r of u n its of wo r k pe rf o rm e d by t h e m ost
.

powerful d r ay hor ses in a mi n ute was f ou n d to be so Wa t t chos e this

”
a s t h e u n it of powe r f or his e n gi n es a n d calle d i t
'

h o r se powe r a n d t h is,
-

has co n ti n ue d to b e the stan d a r d ever si n ce both f or la n d a n d m ar i n e e n gi n e s , .

Watt f ou n d that the m ea n p r essur e usual ly obtai n e d in t h e cyli n de r s of

his e n gin es w as 7 lb s p er squa r e i n ch He h a d also fix ed the p r ope r
. .

piston sp ee d at 1 28 X 3 str oke per m i n ute a n d hi s e n gi n es we r e a rr a n ge d ,

t o wo r k at this spee d so that he esti m ate d the powe r whi ch would be d e

,

v e lo e d whe n at wo r k to b e
p
Ar ea of pist on x 7 x 1 2 8 f/st r oke
”
Th e p ow er s o calculated was called N omin a l because the e n gi n e was ,

de n o m i n ate d as of that powe r a n d in p r actice that powe r was actually

,
,

O btai n ed B u t whe n the boile r coul d b e co n st ructe d s o as to supply stea m

.

a bove the at m ospher ic p r essu r e a n d the e n gi n e r a n with m o r e st r okes pe r

,

mi n ute tha n b e f o r e the p owe r actually d eveloped e x ceede d the n o mi n al

,

p ower a n d fr o m the n a m e of the i n str u m e n t by which the p r essu r e of s t ea m

,

i n the cyli n d e r was O btai n ed it ca m e to b e called the I n di c a t ed P owe r .

The d isc r ep an c y between N o mi n al a n d I n dicated P owe r beca m e in ti m e

s o gr eat that for all sci en tific pur poses the form er ceased to be of value
, .

I t r e m ain s n eve rt heless in ge n e r al use a m on g m a n u factur e r s a n d use r s

, ,

o f e n gin es because it better c on y e y s the co mm er cial value a n d siz e tha n

,

does t h e develope d power for S i n c e the a rea of the pisto n is usually t h e

,

o nl y va ri a ble in the e x p r essio n it f ollows that the siz e of the cylin d e r a n d

, ,

the refo r e the S i z e of all the othe r parts m ust vary dir ectly with t h e ,

N o m in al Ho r se P owe r B u t S in ce I n di cate d Ho r se Powe r d epe n ds on thr ee

-
.
-

f un ctio n s— vi z a r ea of pisto n spee d of pisto n a n d the p r essur e of stea m

.
, , ,

t h e valu e m a y be chan ged by alte ri n g the value of on e or m o r e of these w h ic h ,

a lte r atio n m a y be m ate r ial Without a ff ecti n g t h e co mm e r cial value For .

e x a m ple a n e n gin e ma y be caused to r u n at a m uch hig h e r n u m be r of re v olu

,

tio n s eve n so as to double its I n dicate d P owe r wi th h a rdly a n y additio n al

, ,

c ost whateve r in con str uctio n to the e n gi n e itsel f .

The Ad mir al t y modi fied Watt s r ule to suit the p r actice of the early ’
 ES T I M A T E D H OR S E -
P OW E R .
1 97

An y cha n ge of str oke S h ou ld g iv e a p r opo rtio n ate cha n ge of N HP. .

,
he n ce
?
d d, 2 D S
N H P X
x
. . .

30 D
S ubstituti n g the values of d, d1 an d d2 in te r m s Of D ,
the n
D x S
N H P . . . for a co m pou n d e n gi n e
15
.

for a t riple co m pou n d e n gi n e

-
.

N H P . . . for a quad ruple co m p ou n d e n gin e

-
.

’
Ll oyd s N O N omin a l P owe r ,
howeve r c a n be a n y guide to t h e ,

c apabilities of the e n gi n e u n less the powe r of the boile r s is also i n so m e way ,

x pr e s s e d or u n d e r st oo d a n d as it is n ot easy to i m agi n e how the f or m er

c a n be i n t r oduced i n to a n
y e x p r essio n which shall e ff ect t he l atte r or vice ,

the suggestio n s of L loy d s Co mmi ttee r e m ai ned u n ful filled but the
’
ver s d
, ,

R egiste r n ow co n tai n s a state m e n t of the leadi n g pa r ticu la r s of the boile r s ,

a n d f or pu r poses O f levyi n g the f ees f or the S u r vey a n d R egist r atio n of

M achi n er y L loyd s R egiste r e mploy the f ollowi n g r ule

’

, ,

’
L loyd s n o mi n al ho r se po wer -

p X z

w he r e p i s the boile r p r essu r e ; D is the dia m eter a n d S t h e st roke of L P . . .

i sto n both in i n ches ; a n d H is the heati n g su r f ace i n squa r e f eet

p , .

The value of as is 1 5 f or the o rdi n ar y boiler with n atu ral d r aug h t but ,

w ith f o r ced or i n duced d r aught a; is 1 2 .

The value of z is w he n the boile r p r essu r e is u n de r 1 60 lbs when it .

i s 1 60 lbs p er squa r e i n ch or a b ov e z is 0 393

. .

That the r e is n eed of u n i form p r actice in n a mi n g the power of e n gi n es ,

i s appa r e n t to eve r yo n e havi n g to d o with stea m s hi ps a n d the B oa r d of ,

T r ade D epa r t m e n t which r egiste r s the powe r has s o fa r li m ite d its e ffo r ts
, ,

no cogn i san ce of st r oke it was n eve r satis f actor y t h e D epa r t men t howeve r
, , , ,

i s still satis fied with it f or its pu r p ose but it is su r ely ti m e to fin d so m e othe r ,

r ule w hi ch shall dete r m i n e the r ati n g of e n gi n ee r s a n d such othe r m atte r s ,

as well as be a f a ir i n dicatio n of the power the ship possesses t o p r opel h e r .

Es t ima t ed H orse Power *— As it is d esi r able that a p owe r be n a m ed for

-
.

a n e n gi n e which shall e n able t h e la y m i n d to j u d ge of its capabilities pr o _ ,

bably the better pla n would b e t o re ver t to the p r i n ciple of Watt who as , ,

has bee n show n atte m pte d to speci fy the power whi c h the e n gi n e was actually
,

e x pected to develop such a r ule the r e fo r e shoul d give app ro x i m ately , ,

t h e I n d icated Ho r se P owe r I t woul d of cour se be fa r bette r to r egiste r

-
.
, ,

t h e I H P but as it is n ot always possible to obtai n this t h e n e x t best m et h o d

. .
,

I s to estim ate it a n d call it the E sti m ated Ho r se P ower or E H F

,
-
, . . .

N E Co t I E
. . d S r comm d t h f ollowi g
as . . an . e en e n
 M AN U A L OF M AR I N E E N G I N EER I N G .

Th e foll owin g r u le will give app r o x i m ate ly the ho rse powe r developed -

at f u ll speed by a t w o stage t r iple or quad r uple e x pa n sio n e n gi n e m ad e

-
,
-

in acco rd a n ce with m o d e rn p r actice

D
‘
2
x J?
) x S

Where is the dia m ete r of t he low p ressu r e cyli n de r p the absolute p ressu re
D -
, ,

R the n u m be r of r evolutio n s per mi n ute S t h e st r oke of pisto n i n f eet ,

.

For Ex a mple — To esti m ate the I n dicated Ho r se P owe r of a n e n gi n e -

havi n g cyli n der s 30 in s 4 8 in s a n d 8 0 in s dia m ete r a n d 4 8 in s str oke

.
, .
,
.
-
.
,

r evolutio n s 75 a n d boile r p r essu r e 1 65 lbs

, .

80 2
x J 1 80 x 75 x 4
EH F. . .

3 2 97 .

Ma n y other r ules have bee n p r opoun d ed for N H P so m e of which a re . .

i n ge n ious but i m p r acticable while othe r s f ail to give r esults of a n y value

, ,

w h ateve r so that n eithe r class n ee d s n otice he r e but it m a y be m en tio n e d

,

that whe n n on con den s in g e n gi n es we r e m or e u se d in stea m sh ips tha n they a r e

-

at p r esen t it was foun d n ecessar y t o have a special r u le f or the m whi ch w a s ,

D 2
x 3/S
N H P . . .

20
D bei n g the dia m ete r of t h e cyli n de r in i n ches a n d S the str oke in fe et , .

In dica ted H orse Power m a y b e de fin ed as the m easu r e of wo r k do n e i n

-

the cyli n de r Of a stea m e n gin e as shown fr o m the i n dicator d iagra m s a n d

-
,
-

o n ly f alls sho r t of the actual wo rk by such s m all losses as a re caused by

the fr ictio n of the pin or pen cil agai n st the pape r the frictio n of its wo r ki n g ,

pa rts a n d that in the pipes or passages con n e ctin g the i n dicato r to t h e

,

cyli n d er The latte r d isc r epa n cy is by f a r the m ost i m por ta n t a n d is so m e

.
,

t im es se r ious i n ve r y lo n g st roke e n gi n es whe r e the in d icato r pipe is sev e r al ,

f eet lo n g The other s in the han ds of a skil ful oper ato r a re n ot so se rious
.
, , ,

certain ly n ot i n m ode rn m arin e e n gin es t o the e x te n t stated by Mr Hi m .

,

w h o says he f oun d the I n dicated H o r se P owe r owi n g to losses i n the diagr a m -

,

fr o m the f r ictio n of the i n dicator t o co r r espo n d w ith the u sefu l wor k d o n e ,

by the e n gin e All the sa m e it should n ot be f o rgotte n that with such a n

.
,

i n stru m e n t as the i n d icato r the n ear e r it is to the stea m in the cyli n d e r t h e

,

bette r The r e should be n o pipes if possible a n d if a n y they should b e

.
, , , ,

f ai r ly la r ge .

Th e I n dica tor D iagram — The dia gra m itsel f shows o n ly the p r essu r e
-
.

of stea m acti n g on the pisto n at a n y a n d eve r y pa r t of its st r oke but fro m

it m a y b e calculate d the m ean e ff ective p ressur e actin g du ri n g that st r oke ,

a n d it is assu m ed that t h e pa r tic u la r diag r a m m eas u r e d is o n ly a sa m ple

of what m ight have bee n take n at eve ry st r oke so th at the m ea n p r essu r e ,

thus calculated is the f o r ce acti n g on the pisto n du ri n g the whole per iod
of its m otio n i n which the p owe r is take n — u s ua lly on e mi n ute H e n ce °

.
,

I n dicate d Ho r se Powe r a r ea of piston i n i n ches x m ea n p r essu r e in lbs

-

r squa r e i n ch x n u m be r f eet t r avelled th r ough by the pisto n

p e per mi n ute

Thi s cou rse applies o n ly t o double acti n g e n gi n es as in si n gle acti n g

,
of ,
-

,
-

ngin es the p r essu r e is acti n g o n ly hal f the t i m e on the isto n d h e n ce

e
p n a , ,
 MEA N P N ES S U R E . 1 99

i n stead of takin g the n u m be r of f eet tr avelled thr ough by the pisto n pe r

m i n ute as the m ultiplie r — t he len t h o
g f s t rok e in feet x n u mber of s tr okes
,

er mi n u t e should be substitute d
p .

Mean Pressu re The m ea n p r essur e is usually obtai n e d by divi d i n g the

.
-

i n dicato r diagr a m by a n u m ber of equ id ista n t o rd i n ates pe rpe n dicula r to

the at m ospher ic li n e a n d s o placed that the dista n ce of the fir st a n d last
f r o m the e x t r e m e liini t s of the diagr am is hal f the dista n ce betwee n two
,

co n s ecutive on es ; the s u m of thei r le n gths i n ter cepted by the d iagra m , ,

divide d by thei r n u m be r gives the m ea n len gth a n d this r e f e rr ed to the

, , ,

scale on which the di agr a m was d r aw n will give the m ean p r essur e To , .

illust r ate this — Fig 6 7 is a n i n dic ato r dia gra m whose le n gth A X is say
.
-
, , , ,

5 i n ches a n d take n with a sp r i n g r equi r in g a p r essur e of 3 0 lbs p er squa r e

,
.

i n ch t o co m p re ss it 1 i n ch ; so that if M L I s 2 i n ches it r ep r esen ts a p r essur e ,

of 6 0 lbs a n d if B L I s 2 } i n ches it sig ni fies that at the poi n t L the p r essu r e , , ,

on the pisto n was 2 5 x 30 lbs or 75 lbs p er squa r e i n ch above the li n e .

, .

A X which in this case shall b e t he lin e of n o pr es su re a n d he n ce is 75 lbs

above the at mosphe ric p r essu r e N ow f or co n ve n ie n ce
.
, , , ,

a bs olu t e or 6 0 lbs
, . .
,

of d ivisio n let the re be 1 0 o r di n ates e n closi n g 9 s paces— si n ce the re is to

,

AB C D E
Fig 6 7 — I n di c a t or D ia gra m
. .

be a hal f s pace at each e n d the r e will be in all equal t o 1 0 spaces— s o that ,

—

the dista n ce betwee n the o rd i n ates is 5 i n ches 10 or hal f a n hi ch Measu r e , .

off A B 3 i n ch B C C D D E etc each é i n ch a n d at B C D E etc

“
, , , .
, , , , , ,
.
,

d r aw per pe n dicular li n es cutti n g the diagr a m at M L O N etc Y Z The n , , ,

.
, .

(M L + O N + et c + Y Z) + 10
. a; i n ches a n d w x 30 is the ,
-

m ea n p r essu r e of the diagr a m .

T h is diagr am is fr o m on e side of the pisto n o n ly a n d when on e o n ly is , ,

obtai n able it is so m etim es assum ed to r ep r esen t bot h a n d the m ea n p r essu r e

, ,

thus Obtai n ed use d t o calculate the power but it seldo m happe n s although ,

it is m uch t o be d esir ed that the m ea n p r essur e is preci s ely the sa m e on,

b oth S ides of the pisto n co n seque n tly a n y r esult Obtai n ed in this way is n ot
, ,

satis f acto r y I f the e ff ective ar ea of the pisto n is the sa m e on both its sides
.

— that is if the r e is the sa m e a r ea on w hi ch the stea m acts to p r opel the

'
,

pisto n f or wa rd on the on e side as on the other— the m ea n p r essur e fou n d

,

f r o m the diagr a m take n fr o m t h e on e side m a y be added to that f ou n d fr o m ,

the d iagr a m take n f r o m the oth er a n d divided by 2 t o give the t rue mea n ,

p r essu r e per r evolutio n .

 S H A FT H OR S E -
P OW ER . 20 1

and without load The frictio n al r esistan ce of gla

.
t
n ds pisto n s pu m ps D , , ,

tun n el sha ft j ou rn als high p r essu r e pisto n valve a n d su n dr y s m all gea r

-
,
-
, ,

is the sa m e per revolu t ion at a n y speed whatever be the load or powe r , ,

develope d The t otal r esistan ce or n on use ful wo r k of e n gi n es the r e f o r e

.
-
, ,

p r obably var ies n early dir ectly as the r evolutio n s .

S h a ft H orse Power is a te rm n ow Ofte n use d a n d well k n ow n t o t h e m a r i n e

-

e n gi n ee r a n d is likely t o be m or e so than the I H P which hitherto has bee n

, . .

in s uch ge n e r al use t o e x p r ess the pe r f or m a n ce of a n e n gi n e

“

I n as m uch as the i n dicato r was of n o se r vice t o the m ake r of tur bi n es ,

n or coul d a n y i n str u m en t which m e r ely S hows the p r essu r e of ste a m be a

m ea n s of dete rmi n i n g the power developed by a velocity m achi n e so m e ,

o the r m ethod had t o be devised f or that pu r pose Whe n a tu rbi n e was .

d r ivi n g a dy n a m o it was easy t o calculate the m echa n ical powe r of the d r iver
by the m easu r e of the electr ical output fr o m a dyn a m o whose e fficien cy was
k n own The b r ake hor se power of a tu r bi n e could be fou n d by causi n g it
.
-

t o ope r ate on a wate r b r ake a n d so f or so m e co n side r able ti m e th at was the

,

o n ly way i n which t u r bi n e powe r was dete r mi n ed

.

I t is t r ue whe n the r e .

wer e t w o siste r ships whose actual r esistan ce was k n ow n a n app r o x i m atio n

, ,

t o the powe r de veloped by the tur bi n e was m a d e by m ea n s of t h at of the

r ecip r ocati n g e n gi n e in the othe r shi p as give n by the i n dicato r This , .
,

however was n ot a satis f actory state of thi n gs especially as I H P is looke d

, , . . .

o n with suspicio n a n d that n ot without j ustificatio n f or eve n with a slow

, ,

r u n n i n g e n gi n e the hu m a n ele m e n t is a f acto r i n volved i n the accu r acy of

'

the I H P while with a ver y f ast r u n n i n g e n gi n e the diagr a m m ade by the

. .
-

best of i n dicato r s han dled by a m a n i s i n flue n ced by the skill of the Oper ato r .

T he r e is howeve r a n i n dicato r the p r oduct of Pr o f Hopki n so n s ge n i us

’
, , , .
,

that d oes give a diagr am which I s fr ee fr o m suspicio n by which the actual ,

c ycle of p r essu r e i n a cyli n de r m a be viewed as it r eally I S a n d fr o m it the

y ,

po w er m a y be dete rm i n ed B u t i t is as i n applicable t o the tu r bi n e as the

.

R icha r ds or othe r i n dicato r f or the r easo n s gi ve n above .

I t was n ecessity the r e f o re w hi ch sti m ulated i n ve n tio n a n d caused to

, ,

b e b r ought f o r th the to r sio n m ete r wher eby the power t r a n s mitted by a sha ft ,

c a n be d ete r m i n ed by obse r vi n g the a n gle of twist of a de fin ite le n gth of that

s haf t. The r e a r e various ki n ds of such m ete r s all of which show a co n si d e r ,

a b le a m ou n t oi i n ve n tive ge n ius m echa n i cal k n owledge a n d skill , I n so m e , .

O f the m m easu r e m e n t is m echa n ical m a d e b a sel f r egiste r i n g i n st ru m e n t

y
-
, ,

in othe r s the eye is e mployed a n d in othe r s the e a r to fix the a m ou n t of

, ,

disto r tio n at a n y given ti m e whe n the shaft is t r an s m itti n g e n e r gy I t is .

c e r tai n ly m ost d esi r able t o eli m i n ate the hu m a n ele m e n t i f possible but in ,

doi n g so at p resen t other f acto r s of a n equally u n desi r able kin d a re i n t r o

d u c e d ( v Chap . .

S h a ft Horse Power calculated as on p 1 5 0 — d is the dia m ete r of a sha ft

- .
,

l the le n gth u n de r obse r vation b oth in i n ch es T is the tor que in i n ch pou n d s

, ,
-
,

0 is the a n gle of twi st in the le n gth l a n d Mr is the m odulus of r igidity which , ,

is about in solid sha fts a n d in hollow o n es .

5 84 x T X l
’

0 in degrees f or solid sha fts

4
Mr ><d

5 84 T x 1
for shafts with a bo re of dia m ete r d,
Mr ( d
.
4 4
( 11 )
2 02 M A N U A L OF M AR I N E E N G I N EE R I N G .

55 23
i

{
I
The S haft Ho rse -
P owe r at revolutio n s R — T X R
é 0 0

The fo r m ula i n d aily use is therefo re ( v p . . 1 50)

0d 4
X R '

4
R
SHP for s olid a n d 0 (d
4
d1 ) for hollow shafts
X l
.

X l
. . .

Q Q
Q is usually take n at 3 2 this assu mes the m odulus to be 7
whi ch is below what is ge n er ally f ou n d for steel sha fts of ver y goo d quality -
.

Ex a mple 1 — What is the total H P of a ship havi n g th r ee sha f t s

. . .

6 i n ches I n d a met er r evolvi n g at 6 00 ti m es per mi n ute a n d twisti n g 0 4 I n

° °
,

40 i n ches 2
X X 6 00
S H P of each sha ft
x 40
. . .

32 7

The total p owe r of the ship is the r e f o r e , ,

3 X or HP
. .

Erra mple 2 — A . tu n n el sha ft is r evolvin g 300 ti m es per m i n ute , an d is

1 0 i n ches dia m ete r the a n gle of twist in 4 0 i n ches is what power is it
t r a n s mitti n g 2
X X 300
S HP . . .

X 40

The a n gle of twist is at all ti m es ver y s m all seldo m e x ceedi n g 1 3 in ,

0

1 2 0 i n ches of len gth at f ull power s o that the pai r of discs of a to r sio n m ete r
a re n ecessa r ily of la r ge d ia m ete to give accu r ate a n d fin e r ea d i n gs especiall y
r
,

as in m an y ships it is possible t o use o n ly a ver y sho r t le n gt h of sha ft Whe n .

possible h oweve r it i s cer tai n ly d esir able to cover as lo n g a po r tio n of a

, ,

tu n n el shaf t as possible .

Th e sha fti n g of a ship howeve r has a n other load on it besi d es that of

, ,

tr a n s miss i o n of t h e powe r ge n er ated by the e n gi n e for the thrust block is ,

usu a ll y close to t h e e n gi n e r oo m a n d co n sequen tly t h e whole of it fr o m the ,

scr ew to t h e block has to r esist the thrust This ma y a m ou n t t o as much a s .

to e qual 20 per ce n t of the to r que f or ce but its i n fluen ce on the t wist is r eally
.
,

ver y slight p r obably o n ly about 1 5 per cen t at m ost ; gen er ally it is s o

,
.

s m all as to be n egli gible as stated by Pr o f Hopki n so n fr o m a co n si d er able

,
.
,

e x perien ce gai n ed in testin g hi s tor sio n m ete r Each shaf t should be a n d is .

tested by leve r s a n d weights t o ascer tai n its actual r esistan ce t o tor que a n d ,

to defini tely d eter mi n e the r eal a n d ex act a m ou n t n ecessa r y to twist t h e

b a i t thr ough a de fin ite a n gle Fr o m the o bse r vatio n s so obtai n ed it is
.
,

easy t o m ake a d iagr a m to which r e fer e n ce m a y be m a d e on tr ial whe n

,

the to r sio n m eter is showi n g the value of 0 to obtai n the co rr espo n di n g S H P . . .

r r evolutio n s o that by m e r ely m ultiplyi n g by the n u mber of r evolutio n s

’

e
p ,

e r mi n ute the fu ll S H P is d ete r m i n e d

p . . .

I t 1 3 howeve r n ot su fficie n t f or a m a r i n e e n gi n ee r to k n ow o n ly the pow er

, ,

develope d by the e n gi n e or tu rbi n e ; he m ust be acquai n ted equally wel l

with the power take n a n d d elive r ed at e v e c ritical po i n t of the ship a n d
m ach i n er y so that he m a y m ake up a bala n ce sheet which sha ll show on t h e
on e side the m a x i m
,

um gr oss powe r the e n gi n e has give n ou t a n d on t h e ,

o t her side t h e disposal O f t h e sa m e so that n othi n g I s m i ss i n g a n d u n accou n te d

,

for I n f act the eco n o mies of e n gi n ee r i n g a re of the ve r y highest i mpo rta n ce

.
, ,
 T H R U S T H OR S E POWER -
.
2 03

an d can n ot be t oo ca re fully studi ed by all co n ce rn e d fro m the desig n e r to the

e n gi n ee r in charge Each a n d eve ry part of the m achin er y of a shi p m ust
.

be In such a state as to be wo r kin g at the hi ghest r ate of e fficie n cy a n d h ow ,

to ascertain that r ate e x actly m ust be the co n sta n t ca r e of those I n c h ar ge

of it a n d r espo n sible for its good a n d eco n o mi c wo r kin g .

Thru st H ors e Power 1 8 a n e x p r essio n that will be m or e o fte n used in the

-

n ea r futur e tha n in the past in as m uch as m ea n s m a y be soo n p r ovide d whe r e

,

by the actual thrust on a lin e of screw shaftin g will be as easily show n as the
p r essure in the co n de n se r n ow is I n ven tor s have for so m e ti m e turn e d .

their atten tio n t o devise so m e sim ple a n d ea sy m etho d of do in g this a n d ,

on e of the m Mr Heck fully disclosed t o the m e m be r s of the In stitution

, .
,

of N aval Ar chitects ( Tr a n s a ct wn s 1 909) t w o or thr ee such m ethods that a re ,

withi n the bou n ds of p r actical politics while n ot qu i te satis fyi n g e n gi n eer s ,

that they a r e the o n es t o be fin ally adopted They a re all i n ge n ious a n d .

capable of gi vi n g r esults f airly fr ee fr o m i n accur acy S o f a r these a n d so m e .

,

other s a r e based on the p ri n ciple of sho wi n g by m ean s of a hydra u li c ra m or ,

its equ i vale n t the p r essur e pe r squ a r e in ch in the cha mber or the total
, ,

loa d on the equivalen t r a m a n d how to m ak e allowa n ce f or the fr ictio n of

,

packi n gs et c A m or e r ecen t idea is to m ake the fl an ge coupli n gs ho llow

, .

a n d elastic fit the m togethe r wate r tight a n d fill the space b e t vi ee n the m

, ,
-
,

with water whose p r essur e is i n dicated by a gauge in the usual way The .

t h rust block mig ht also be used to give its own i n di catio n s of thr ust ( as also
suggested by Mr Heck ) i f it wer e m oun te d on r oller beari n gs or suspen ded
.
,
-

on a sti rr up a n d its thr ust take n by a pai r of hyd r auli c r a m s with cha m be r s
co n n e cted a n d the water in the m acted on a gauge a n d sp r i n g or loaded
,

r esista n ce of so m e ki n d as the hydr auli c b r akes On a gu n ca r r iage

,
.

Th e Gross Power of a S team En g in e is of cou r se that ge n er ated in the , ,

cyli n d er s by the ste a m p r essur e on the piston s acti n g thr ough t h e s pa ce

'

t r aver sed by the m Thi s is k n o wn t o the m ar i n e e n gin eer as the I n dica ted
.

H orse Power
-
.

S h a ft Horse Power is that tr a n s mitted t hr ough the tu n n el sha ftin g fro m

-

the en gi n e to t h e p r opeller a n d i s ther e f or e the n e t p r oduct of the e n gi n e

, , ,

or t h e gr oss power less that abso r bed i n m ovin g the e n gi n e a n d its a ppu r

t e n a n ce s c alle d the Friction H orse Power

,
-
.

The m echa n ical e fficie n cy of the e n gi n e is ther e f o r e S H P I H P , , . . . . . .

B ra k e Horse Power is also that t r a n s mitte d thr ough the sha ft to a r es ista n ce
-

capable of bs or bin g it j ust as the p r opeller does that fr o m the m ar in e e n gin e .

I n this ca the b r ake n ot o n ly takes the power but i n dicates e x actly the ,

to r q ue or twisti n g m o m en t fr o m whi c h the E H P m a y be calculated B r ake . . . .

h o r se powe r should a n d does coi n cide ve r y closely wi th S H P

-
. . .

Th e T hru st Horse Power is that ex er ted by the scr ew in pushi n g the ship
-

f o r wa rd a n d is measu r ed by mu ltiplyi n g the actual thr ust in poun d s by the

,

n u mbe r of f eet m oved th r ough by the ship i n a mi n ute a n d di v idi n g by

I f S is the speed in k n ot s per hour a n d T the thr ust in pou n ds , ,

T hr ust ho rse power -

T X S 326 .

This m easu r es the capacity of the scr ew as a p r opeller co n seque n tly ,

The e ffi cien cy of the sc r ew TH P. . . S HP . . .

 P S T ONI S P EE D AN D R EV O LU T I ON S .

of so m e la rge ve rtical e n gi n es in firs t class c ruise r s have r e ached a velocity of

-

eve n f eet while highe r speeds still have bee n attai n ed in to r pedo boa t -

destroyer s whose pisto n s m ove whe n r u n at e x p ress speed at a velocity ove r

, , ,

f eet per mi n ute Althou gh ther e is n o di ffic u lty in causi n g a pisto n t o

.

m ove at eve n higher spee d s tha n these it is d oubt ful if the r e woul d be a n y ,

a d van tage in doi n g so besides which the r isk of causin g ser ious d a m age t o
,

the cyli n d e r s a n d p r ecipitati n g a b r eak dow n without a n y war ni n g is ve r y

,
-
,

gr eat. The r e is n o doub t that a well fit t e d pisto n m ovi n g in a s m ooth a n d

-
,

t r ue cyli n der at a speed of f eet per m i n ute wi ll wo r k well so lo n g a s ,

the r ubbi n g sur faces r eceive so m e lub r icatio n fr o m the m oistur e of the stea m
or the Oil i n j ected a n d ther e is n ot the sli ghtes t f ea r of da n ge r u n der these
,

cir cu m sta n ces but if with a little p r i mi n g scu m is carrie d i n to the cyli n de rs
, ,

a n d causes ab r asio n of the r ubbin g su r faces a n i mme n se a m ou n t of m ischie f ,

m a y be do n e in a fe w seco n ds Mo r eove r whe n the cyli n de r s wea r a little

.
,

ou t Of shape fr o m on e cause or othe r so that the packi ng ri n gs will have

,
-

late ral m otio n the da n ger in cr eases with the velocity of the pisto n I n t h e
, .

N avy e n gi n es supplied with stea m fr o m wate r tube boile r s have n o i n te rn al -

oi l lub r icatio n beyo n d what passes in on the r od s u rf aces so that in destr oyer s ,

whose pisto n s a re m ovin g at a speed of 2 0 feet per seco n d ther e is o n ly t he ,

moistur e fr o m the stea m to lub r icate the m .

Al thou gh the r evolutio n s of a s cre w e n gi n e m a y be within ce rtai n li m its , ,

as few or as man y as the desig n er chooses e x perie n ce or p r ej ud ice has fix e d ,

very closely in p r actic e the li mits beyo n d which it is n ot co n side r ed e x pe die n t

to go I n the days Of the gear e d e n gin e the screw r evolved three or fo u r
.
,

ti m es to on e of the e n gin e a n d n o Obj ectio n was r aised to the s m all sc re w

,

a n d the high n u mber of r evolutio n s ; late r such a thin g was deem ed ve ry

O bj ectio n abl e— on the gr ou n d of e x cessive speed of pisto n a n d e x cessiv e

fr ictio n in j ou rn als The slow m ovi n g e n gi n e was quoted as a p r oo f of t h e

.
-

eco n o m y of slow pisto n speed a n d s m all fr ictio n without bein g a r eal f ou n da

tio n for the a rgum en t .

The fin e li n es of the olde r stea mships ad mitte d of the s m all scr ew whi ch ,

was the acco m pan i m en t of the e n gi n e by n ecessity gear ed B lu ff shi ps a s ,

.
,

n ow built f or m er ca n tile pur p oses r equi r e a m uch lar ge r scr ew f or the sa m e

,

power of e n gi n e a n d di m e n sion s o f hull tha n f orm erly obtai n ed a n d it is n ot

t o the s lown e ss of the pisto n s that they ow e thei r eco n o m y but r ather to t h e ,

s ma ll n u mbee of str o
°
kes per mi n ute m ade by the m in tur n i n g t h e lar ge sc r ew . .

An e n gi n e r equi r es a cer tai n power to be e x pe n d ed in m ovi n g it thr ough

_

on e revolu t i on t o over co m e i n te r n al r e s i sta n ces if the n u mbe r of r evolutio n s;

is 8 0 per mi n ute this power will be double that at 4 0 a n d r o u ghly will
, , , ,

var y di r ectly with the r evolutio n s B u t the r esista n ce of the p r opeller cause d
.
,
.

by fr ictio n of the water on the surfa ce of the bla d es will i n c r ease r oughly ,

as the squar e of t h e r evolutio n s so that the power e x pen ded t o over co m e

,

th is r esi sta n ce at 8 0 r evolutio n s is eight ti m es that r equi r ed at 4 0 r evolutio n s .

I f n ow the scr ew c a n be so alte r ed with r espect to pitch that at 4 0 rev olu ,

tio n s the sa m e speed of ship is Obtai n ed as at 8 0 r evolutio n s the i n d icate d

, ,

ho r se power will be f ou n d to be co n si d er ably less ; a n d although the coa l

-

c on su me d per I H P w i ll n ot be less a n d m a y possibly be m or e tha n be f o r e

°
. . . . ,

the co n sum ptio n per day will b e co n sider ably less N ow although th i s .
,

eco n o m y is c o e x iste n t w ith d ec r ease d pisto n speed it is n ot d u e t o it

-
,
.

The obj ect of a high r ate of pisto n v elocity is t o dec r ease the pisto n ar e a
_
.
2 06 MA N UAL or M AR IN E EN GI N E ER I N G .

an d that ge n e rally for the sake of r educi n g the si z e of the e n gi n e B u t a n .

i n c r eased velocity m a y be obtai n ed either by I n c r easi n g the str oke of pisto n ,

or b y I n c r easi n g the n u m be r of r evolutio n s ; if the f o r m er m etho d I s a d opted

t he r e will be n o dec r ease i n the si z e O f e n gi n e ; but on the co n t r a r y a n , ,

i n c r ease in space occupied a n d in the weight I f a high pisto n speed is .

obtai n e d by a high n u m be r of r evolutio n s a s m alle r cyli n d e r W ill s u ffic e for ,

'

a ce r tai n i n d icate d ho r se power tha n if t h e sa m e pisto n spee d wer e obta i n ed

-

by le n gth of str oke alo n e I n other wor d s e n gi n es which a re r equi r ed to

.
,

d evelop a ce r tai n p owe r i n a m i n ute will va r y in si z e of cyli n d e r i n ve r sely

as the n u m be r of r evolutio n s pe r m i n ute all other thi n gs r e m ai n i n g co n sta n t ; ,

a n d i f the cyli n de r s a r e of the sa m e dia m ete r the st r oke w ill va r y i n ve r sely ,

a s the n u m b e r of r evolutio n s .

Th e pisto n spee d of m a n y e n gi n es is gove r n ed e n ti r ely by ci r cu m sta n ces

'

beyo n d the i mm e d iate co n tr ol or will Of the d esign er An e x a mple of th is .

is the case of the pad dle wheel e n gin e with ver tical oscillati n g cylin d e r s
-
.

I f the positio n Of the sha ft is deter mi n ed by the str uctur a l a r r a n ge m e n ts of

the hull as is o fte n t h e case th e n the dia m eter of the wheel is fix e d a n d t h e
, , ,

speed Of S hip fix es t h e n u m ber Of r evolutio n s to be m ade by t h e wheel the

le n gth of st r oke of pisto n is li mite d by the d ista n ce fr o m the ce n tr e of the
sha ft to the floo r s or keelso n of the shi p Fur ther if the e n gin ee r is fr ee to .
,

d ecide the positio n of the sha ft a n y atte m pt t o i n c r ease t h e pisto n S pee d by

,

placi n g the sha fti n g hi gh 1 3 fr ustr ated by the f act that t h e higher the sha f t ,

the lar ger will be the wheel a n d co n seque n tly t h e f ewe r the r evolutio n s I f
,
.

the e n gi n e is i n clin ed the n t h e desig n er ma y fix the diam eter Of the wheel

,

t o sui t the r evolutio n s whi ch he dee m s m ost advisable or he m a y fix the ,

’

p ositio n Of sha ft t o s u it the shi p s structure a n d still b e fr ee t o choose the

’

s tr oke of pisto n .

Agai n the ho r i z o n tal e n gi n e had t o b e desig n ed so as t o acco m m o d ate

,

itsel f to the space allotted t o it in the s h i p which m ea n s that o n ly a li m ite d ,

le n gth Of str oke was perm issible Th e r evolutio n s however in this case .
, ,

c oul d be va r ie d co n sider ably ; but the r e is a f te r a ll a li m it to the n u m be r ; , ,

beyo n d this li mit a n y i n c r ease will r esu lt i n ver y little gai n in speed a n d a ,

ver y certai n loss Of e ffic ien c y I f the scr ew is of c om par atively s m all dia m ete r
.
_ ,

owi n g to the shallow d r aught of the s h ip a higher n u mber of r evolutio n s than ,

usua l is absolutely n ecessar y t o p r oj ect a s u fficien t m ass of wate r back to ‘

p r opel the ship for war d with the n ecessar y velocity ; a n d it is the m e d iu m
’

n u m be r or that n u m ber at which the e n gi n e c a n be r u n with out loss of

,

e ffi cie n cy so as to ob t ai n the m a x i mu m speed of s h ip that is so d i fficul t to

d eci d e a n d wh ich c a n o n ly be d eter mi n ed with a n y degr ee of cer tai n ty by
,

e x peri m en t .

On e great f eatu r e which p la ces the ve r tical e n gi n e s o m uch above all

t h e other f o r ms of sc r ew e n gi n e as a n eco n o m ic a n d goo d wo r ki n m achi n e
,
g ,

is its super ior le n gth of stroke P owe r for power t he ver tical e n g i n e always
.
,

h a s ex ce e d e d the hor i z o n tal in th is r espect ; a n d although in the p r ac t ice of

‘

the past ther e wa s n o ve ry great d i ff er e n ce in this m atter betwee n the two

types the te n de n cy is n ow t o m ake the s t roke as lo n g as is possible or c on
,

v en ie n t i n the e n gi n es of all ships .

The adva n tages of the lo n g s t roke a re d u e t o the co rr espo n di n g d ec r ease

I n pisto n a r ea Two e n gin es of the s a m e po wer a n d wo r ki n g a t the s a m e
.
,

Il mb el of r evolutio n s m ust have the sa m e volu me of cyli n de r or to speak

‘ ‘

, , ,
 R EV O LU T I ON S . 207

m or e co rr ectly the pisto n s m ust sweep,

sa m e volu m e if their e fficie n cy ou t the
is the sa m e The c r a n k shafts will be of the sa m e dia m eter a n d the c r an k
.
-
,

pi n s also p r actically of t h e sa m e di m e n sio n s N ow the on e with the lo n g

, ,
.

str oke w ill have s m aller pisto n s tha n the oth er co n seque n tly the to t al p r essu r e ,

o n t h e pisto n s w ill be s m aller— a n d i n f act is i n ver sely p r opo r tio n al t o the , ,

s tr oke ; co n seque n tly the p r essu r e on t h e gui d es c r a n k pi n s a n d j ou rn als wi ll -

, , ,

vary in the sa m e way a n d the fr ictio n on the m co rr espo n d also The later al
,
.

p r essu r e of the pisto n packi n g ri n gs will var y with the dia m ete r s o th at a n y ,

r eductio n i n d ia m ete r w ill p r o d u ce a co rr espo n d i n g r e d uctio n i n the fr ictio n .

B u t pe r haps s o f a r a s ec on om y i n wor ki n g is co n cern e d the r e i s n o m or e

, ,
.
,

i m por ta n t co n side r atio n tha n the r eductio n in clea r a n ce S pace e ff ecte d in

the low p r essur e cyli n d e r by the r ed u ctio n in pisto n _ar ea The stea m po rts
-
.

w ill be n ear ly t h e sa me in sectio n whethe r the e n gi n e be lo n g or sho r t st r oke ,

but the space betwee n the pisto n a n d c y li n der en ds is ver y co n si d er ably -

r educe d a n d wi ll va r y i n ve r sely as the le n gth of str oke because the a x ial

, ,

d istan ce of pisto n fr o m the c li n de r e n d s is co n sta n t

’

Th e R a te of R evolu tion of Ma rin e En gines

-
.

at f u ll speed varies r oug h ly

in ve r sely as the squa r e r oot of t h e n o mi n al h or se powe r w hi ch for this
"

-
,

pur pose m a y be taken as N H P D x S K . . .

D I s the dia m ete r of the low p r es su r e cylin d e r ( or the equi vale n t if the r e -
,

a re two ) I n i n ches .

S is the st r oke of pisto n also in i n ches .

K is a coe fficie n t of 1 5 for two stage co m pou n d 1 2 6 for t r iple co m pou n d -

,
-

a n d 1 0 5 for qua dr uple co m pou n d e n gin es Then -

.

R ate of r evolutio n pe r mi n ute Q x/ N H P . . .

For the o r din a r y ca r go boat Q ,

For e x p r ess stea m ships Q ,

For n aval a n d ve r y fast e x p r ess S hips Q 2 25 0 ,

—
, .

E xa m ple ( ) The p r ope r r ate of r evolutio n for a n e x p r ess stea m ship

a —
.

h avi n g cylin de r s 30 i n ches 4 5 in ches a n d 70 in ches dia m ete r X 4 2 i n ches ,

stroke .

Her e N H P 70 X 4 2 1 2 6 or 2 33 . . .
, .

R evolutio n s per m i n ute X/ fi or 1 1 8 , .

Ex a mple ( b) — R ate of r evolutio n for a wa r ship havin g e n gin es 33 in ches

.
,

5 2 i n ches 6 4 i n ches a n d 6 4 in ches d ia m eter X 48 i n ches st r oke

, , .

D = V 2 x 642, or
N H P = 90 5 X 4 8
. . . 1 2 6, °
or 345
R evolutio n s per min ute v 34 5 , or 1 21 .

R evolu tion s — Alt h ough the r e is a ve r y co n side r able r a n ge for choice of

n u m be r of r evolutio n s of the e n gin es of m ost m e r cha n t stea m e r s , t h e r e a r e

c e rtai n well d e fin e d li m its beyo n d which ver y f e w p r actical e n gi n ee r s go .

V e ry fe w scr ew e n gi n es a r e n ow wo r ked below 75 r evolutio n s pe r min ute

when In good co n d ition ; a n d it is at this speed that m ost of t h e e n gi n es of
the lar ge m ail stea m er s a r e kept r u n ni n g on the voyage so lo n g as t h e weath e r
per mi ts The en gin es of war ships , for two ver y goo d r easo n s wo r k at m uch
.
,

hi gher S peed s Their m achi n er y m ust be ligh t , a n d go i n to a s m all space ,

.

so that it i s n ecessar y to m ake a n e n gi n e O f ce rtai n d i m e n sio n s to suit these

T h e N E Coa s t
. . I n st . E . and S . re commen d the f ollow i n g a s the ru le for ra t e of re v olu t ion of ca rgo
s h i p e n g in e s wh en on voy a g e :
1 28
-
S or — 32 .

S
 LEN GT H O F S TR O K E . 2 09

Th e str oke of ho r i z o n tal e n gin es va r ied fr o m 1 8 i n ches of the gun boat to

5 4 i n ches Of the la r ge a r m ou r clad a n d the ve rtical e n gi n es of the N avy va ry
-
,

fr o m 1 8 i n ches in the destroyer s to 5 1 i n c h es in t h e fir s t class c r uise r s -

a n d battleships L atte r ly with the f our cyli n de r e n gi n es the st r oke has

.
,
-
,

bee n 4 2 to 4 8 i n ches in the lar ge sh ips .

Len g th of S trok e —For ve r y m a n y yea r s the r e e x isted a s ta n d a r d scale

.

for the st roke of the ver tical e n gi n e of the m e r ca n tile m a r i n e a n d althou gh ,

the r e was n o writte n law whi ch guided en gi n eer s in the choice of this i m por tan t
di m en sio n it was s o well k n ow n that o n ly t he di a met er of the cyli n der s was
,

m e n tio n e d in spea k i n g of the si z e of e n gi n e a n d in m ost of the r ule s f or ,

n o mi n al ho r se powe r used by m a n u factu r i n g e n gi n ee r s i n thei r deali n gs w i t h

-

shipowne r s n o dir ect allowan ce was m ade for le n gth Of str oke With the
,
.

w a lls of the cyli n der s o n ly j acketed the best r elatio n of d ia m eter to str oke
.

was as 1 to 1 5 S o the r atio of str oke to d ia m eter of H P cylin de r is usually

. . .

1 7 a n d t h e r atio of str oke to dia m ete r of L P cylin de r 0 9 to 0 6

-
. .

The f ollo wi n g Table gives the str oke co rr espo n d i n g to the d i ff e r e n t

power s ; the on e colu mn givi n g the stan d ar d a n d the other the str oke a s ,

e x i sti n g in or din ary ever y day p r actice in the m er ca n ti le m a r in e

-

S t ro k e , as in St ro k e , asin
common pra c t i ce c ommon
.
prac t i c e .

'

T AB L E XXI XC — . R E V O LU T I ON S AN D P I S T ON S PEED S . A CCOR D I N G To R ULE S

R E CO MM EN D ED B Y N E CO A S T I N S T E a N D S
. . . . . FOR CA R G O S TE A M E R S
ON S ER V I CE .

R e v olu t ion s . P i s t on S p ee d . S t ro k e . Pis t on S p e e d

2 10 MA N UAL OF M AR I N E EN GI N E E R I N G .

CH AP T ER I X .

G E N ER AL D ES IG N AN D TH E I N FLU E N CE S W H I CH A FFE CT IT .

Th e Gen era l D esig n a n d Ar ran g emen ts of Mar in e En gin es a r e to day cha r ac -

t er ise d by si m plicity per haps m o r e tha n a n ythi n g else , n otwithsta n d i n g that

multiplicity O f pa r ts a n d co n n ectio n s gives the m o d er n e n gi n e r oo m a n a ir O f -

co mplex ity that was wa n ti n g in the older shi ps Fo r ty yea r s ago ther e .

wer e as a rule o n l y two cylin der s to the m ai n e n gi n es ; both a ir a n d c ir

, ,

c u la t in g pu m ps , as well as the f eed a n d bilge pu mps we r e wo r ked f r o m t h e ,

pisto n s di r ect in the N avy a n d in that way or by m ean s of lever s i n te r pose d

, ,

i n t h e m e r ca n tile m a r i n e Ther e was, as a r u le o n ly on e au x ilia r y feed

.
,

pu m p a n d in lar ge ships on e fire e n gin e in ad ditio n which d id d uty f or a

, ,

bil ge pu mp as well as f or deck service when r equi r ed m er cha n t ca rgo ships

with ballast ta n ks had also the seco n d au x i liar y pu m p f or e mptyin g the m ,
a n d a rr a n ge d to act f or ge n e r al pu r poses St ea m sta r ti n g ge a rs w e r e bei n g
.

used gen er ally with ver y lar ge e n gi n es but n eve r with s m all o n es S tea m , .

stee ri n g gear s wer e equally r ar e , a n d ther e was , of co u r se , n o electric light

e n gi n e n or a n y r e fr ige r ati n g pl a n t D istiller s had be e i i n t r oduce d f or
,
. i
gi v i n g fr esh water as au x i liar y f ee d to the boiler s by Hall , of co n d e n ser f a m e,
th i r t y year s b efor e thi s per iod but the idea h a d n ot take n on T h e r e wer e,
,
.

however , in gen er al use the well k n ow n N o r m a n dy distiller s for p r oduci n g

-

d ri n ki n g water ; ever y N ava l ship had a set a n d they wer e to be f ou n d ,

in the better class passe n ge r stea m e r

-
The m er ca n tile e n gi n ee r h a d f or the
.
,

e x er cise of his tale n ts a n d the occupation Of spar e ti m e the car e of the stea m ,

wi n ches j u st as the n aval e n gi n eer had in so m e shi ps the char ge of the turr et
,

a n d tu rn table e n gi n es a n d a m m u n itio n hoists , etc outside his ow n do m ai n

‘

. .
,

V e r y fe w ships h a d m o r e tha n on e m ai n en gi n e or a stea m lau n c h or pi n n ace ,

a n d n o ship had a ir co m p r esso r s All these thi n g s have bee n ad d e d on e a fte r
.

a n o t he r un til the car e a n d an x iety of the chie f e n gi n eer is n o lo n ge r ce n t r e d

,

a n d co n ce n t r ated on the m ai n e n gi n es but n ow it is r athe r the ve r y n u m e r ous

,

pa r asites Of the m a n d Of t h e c r owd of outsi d e m ach i n e r y —m achi n e r y so

n ecessa r y to the wel l bei n g of the m ode rn wa r s hi p a n d e x p r ess stea m e r
-

that gives h im the m ost co n cern B u t , in S pite of a ll this the r e is about

.
,

the m ai n e n gi n es especially if they be tur bi n es a si m plicity t h at is c om

, ,

m e n d able u n de r suc h ci r cu m sta n ces The da y for f a n cy d esig n a n d odd

.

arr a n ge m en ts of m achi n e r y has go n e ; in thei r place ther e is n ow o n ly a

ste r eotyped syste m th at m a rks the fin al stage of n atur al selectio n a n d the
sur vival of the fittest The e n gi n e of on e m odern e n gi n e buil d e r s d i ff er s
.

ve r y little in esse n ce fr o m that of a n other ; the tur bi n e , it is t rue has its ,

v a r iatio n in p r i n ciple as well as i n a rr a n ge m e n t , but it too is g ravitati n g , ,

to the ste reotyped d esig n alth ough m ake rs ma y still each h ave his ow n ,
,

di ffe r in g in f o rm of d etails a n d fitti n g s .

 D ES IG N AN D AR R A N G E MEN T S OF M AR IN E EN GI N E S . 211

The accepte d a n d app r ove d type of r ecip r ocati n g e n gi n e is Of co u r se , ,

t h e ve rtical i n ver ted d i r ect act i n g on e whethe r i t be wo r ke d by stea m or by

-
,

the i n ter n al co m bustio n of Oil or gas The cylin d er s a re placed in li n e e a ch .

‘

o ve r its ow n c r a n k a n d as a r ule t h ey a re sepa rate d on e fr o m a n othe r ; each

, , ,

h a s its colu mn s b r ace d a n d secu r ed so as n ot t o be depe n d e n t on its n eighbou r

for stability or stea di n ess The co n n ectio n s f or stea m t r a n s mi ssio n a re by
.

pipes so fitted as to e x pan d a n d co n tr act fr eely u n d er t h erm al or p r essur e

fo r ces wit h out acti n g or r eacti n g on the cyli n de r s a n d s o cause the m h a d
a lig n m e n t At t h e sa m e ti m e the gen era l s tru ctu r e O f colu m n s is br aced
.

together so a s t o give it as a whole ad ditio n al stability agai n st e x tern al

, , ,

d istu r ba n ce as fr o m the shock or str ai n of r olli n g pitchi n g a n d collisio n s

, , , .

S m all m e r ca n tile e n gi n es however a r e still m a d e with the cyli n der s cast

, ,

o r bolte d togethe r i n pair s but the te n de n cy is i n the di r ectio n Of sepa r ati n g

,

a ll of the m especially whe n the str oke of pisto n a n d co n seque n tly thei r
,

le n gth is gr eater than that usual with the high speed la n d e n gi n es of equ a l -

p owe r Each cyli n der n ow oper ates on a si n gle co m plete piece of c r a n k

.

s ha ft r u n n i n g in two bea r i n gs coupled t o the n ex t c r a n ks ; this is so in all

but ve r y s m all en gi n es ( un der 1 00 or i n la r ge r e n gi n es whe r e we ight ,

a n d space have t o be cut dow n t o the m i n i m u m whe n the S ha ft is the n in on e ,

piece The valves a r e n ow seldo m placed on the cyli n der outer sides but
.
,

g e n er ally on the f or e or a ft side s o that the val ve spi n d le is i mm e d iately ,

o ve r the sha f t a n d co n seque n tly capable of bei n g d r ive n by the doubl e

,

e cce n tr ics a n d li n k m otio n dir ect with out the i n ter positio n O f weigh sha fts

a n d leve r s S tea m r ever si n g gear s a r e fitted t o all but the ver y s m allest
.

e n gi n es a n d a re ge n er ally O f the push a I I d pull type i n t r oduce d a n d still

,
- -

s upplied by B r ow n B r o s of Ed i n bu r gh f or the m e r ca n t ile m a r i n e

,
while , ,

the all r ou n d wo rm a n d wheel gear is m ost fr equen tly use d in the N avy .

T h e fo rm e r is d eci d edly the ha n d ie r a n d c a n n ow be Obtai n e d at quite as low ,

a cost as the all r ou n d gear but the latter c a n be use d to tu rn the m ai n e n gi n es

, .

S im ilar push a n d pull gear s Of va r ious design s a r e e m ployed to ope r ate

” -
, ,

the ver y large stop valves of the r ecip r ocatin g a n d turbin e e n gin es as they ,

d o also the he a vy cha n ge valves of the latte r wher eby the tu rb in e 1 3 r eve r sed ,

by chan gin g the i n co m in g steam fr om the hea d goin g to t h e ste rn goin g -

a r t o f it or wh e n t h e e x h aust stea m fr o m the L P cyli n de r 13 d ive r te d to

p , . .

a L P turbi n e The cir culatin g pu m p is n ow in all but the s m all m e r can tile
. . .
,

e n gi n es Of the cen t ri fugal type d r ive n by a n i n d epe n de n t e n gi n e

, in all ,

s o r ts Of fast r un n in g e n i n es the a ir pu m p is also as a r ul e abse n t a n d it

g
-
, , , ,

t oo has it s separ ate e n gin e

,
With tur bi n es wher e hi gh vacuu m is a n ecessity
.

f or high eco n o m y of stea m the d ouble stage a ir pu m p of Mr Wei r is Ofte n ,

-
.

e m ployed ; t h e r e is still a p r ospect of the ce n tr i f u gal pu m p bein g e m ploye d

in se r ies on thi s ser vice as i t has bee n used for boile r f eedin g a n d delive ri n g
,

w ater gen er all y again st a high hea d on la n d .

The Admir alty lo n g ago in itiated a n d the m er ca n tile m a rin e fo llowe d

i n e x pr ess stea m e r s the p r actice of r ein ov in g the w h ole of the f ee d a n d bilge
,

p u m ps fr o m co n n ectio n wit h the m ain e n gi n es Th e m e r cha n t ship how .

,

ever was r eally first in the e m ploym e n t of the in d epe n d e n t f ee d pu m p with

,

auto m atic r egulati n g gear wher eby its spee d was o nl y such as to gi ve j ust
,

the n ecessar y sup ply of f ee d d em an d e d by the stokeh ol d watch k cep er -

.

N ow in all i m por ta n t stea m e r s a n d ce rtai n ly in all tu r bi n e dr ive n s h ips

, ,
-
,

the f eed bilge fir e a n d gen e r al service pu m ps a re absolutely separate a n d

 D ES IG N OF E N GI N E I N FLU E N CE D BY E XT E R N AL A
C U S ES . 2 13

do n ot always tell t he whole t ruth ; what they supp r ess o ften co mes ou t a s
a ghastly t r uth whe n the f ull s i z ed wo r k i n g e n gi n e is p r oduce d ; wh at was
-

a t rI flI n g m atte r a n d hardl y ta n gible in the m in iatur e beco m es in t h e gr eat a

in cubu s p r oducin g t h e m ost da mni n g co n sequen ces ; what was a

t e rr ible ,

pigmy in the s m all e n gi n e a n d quite easy of co n tr ol beco m es a ver y Fr a nk en

stein in the la r ge on e i rre d ucible a n d carr yin g all be f or e it a n d S poilin g
, , ,
 ”
214 A UAL
M N OE M AR I N E EN GI N E ER I N G .

ever ythi n g . It
behoves eve r yo n e ther e for e t o use m odels a n d m odel , ,

e x peri men ts with gr eat disc r etio n .

Th e S u ppl y of Ma teria ls e x e r cises a powe r ful i n flue n ce on the desig n e r —

of e n gi n es ge n e r ally but especially on h im who has t o cut d ow n to a m i ni m u m

,

the weight of a n d space occupied by machi n er y in the way the m ar i n e e n gin e

builder is co mpelled t o do When B ru n el design ed the Gr eat B ritai n .
”

th e r e was n o stea m ha mmer in e x iste n ce a n d n o f o r ge capable of m aki n g

so lar ge a sha f t as tha t r equir e d for the ship ; co n seque n tly he h a d to be
co n te n t with on e of cast ir o n when at that stage ; fo rtu n ately for him ,

N as m yth i n ve n ted j ust the n the stea m ha mm er a n d m ade on e in ti m e t o ,

pr o d uce a wr ought ir o n sh a ft with whi ch the fir st voyage of that shi p w a s

-

made Cast i r o n was la rgely use d f or all pa r ts of m a r i n e e n gi n es a n d d esi gn s

.
,

wer e m ade acco r di n gly When Copper was boo m ed up to £8 0 per t u rf “a n d? .

eve n higher by a n e n terp risin g but so m ewhat short S ighte d sy n d icate t h e -

,

equally e n ter p risin g a n d versatile m ar i n e e n gin eer ado pte d ste el a n d ir o n for
pipi n g a n d had other thi n gs m ade of cast steel whi ch for m er ly had bee n
,

e x clusivel y of b r o n z e S teel castin gs doubt ful a n d o ften u n satisfactor y

.
,

as they m a y be have ser ved their turn in chan gi n g the design Of ma n y

,

parts of a n e ngi n e but what has e ff ec t ed the gr eatest depart u r e fr o m Old

,

p r actices to t h e} which p r evails to day is the cheap a n d u n li mi ted supply

.
-

of e x celle n t m ild w r ought stee l B y its m ea n s the p r ess u r e of stea m possible .

in cyli n dr ical or ta n k boile r s has bee n r aised fr o m 1 00 to 240 lbs per squ a r e .

i n ch a n d thei r possible dia m eter i n cr eased fr o m about 1 4 f eet t o 1 8 whil e

, ,

thei r cost has been r educed ver y co n sider ably The i n ter n al plates of such .

”
boiler s used fo r m erly to be m ade of L ow m oor quality at a cost of £2 7 -
,

pe r t on a n d upwa r ds ; S i m ila r plates in the super io r m etal ( m ild steel ) a n d

of ve r y la r ge si z es c a n be pu r chase d n ow f or a thir d of that s u m S hell plate s

of ir o n i n ches thi ck could be bought but they wer e n ar r ow a n d n ot ver y

, , ,

lo n g ; m o r eover if of the fu ll ar ea the mil l coul d tu r n ou t they wer e ver y

, ,

costly N ow plates up t o 5 0 f eet lo n g a n d 1 2 5 feet wide ca n be r olle d up to

.
, ,

a thi ckn ess Of 1 8 in ches s hell plate s a re Often 1 g in ches thick a n d 30 f eet
'

lo n g so that on e or at m ost two plates when si n gle e n ded a re s u fficie n t ;

, , ,
-

ci rcular en d plates a re m ade up t o 1 3 f eet in dia m eter Fo rgin gs of eve ry

-
.

descriptio n a n d siz e ca n be m ade of this m ater ial a n d if n ee d ed steel of a , , ,

higher te n sile say 4 0 to n s ulti m ate with quite a good am ou n t of stretch

, , ,

ca n be Obtai n ed also i n la r g e si z e a n d at m o d e r ate cost for special pur pose s

at costs by n o m ea n s p r ohibitive va n adi um n ickel or othe r hi gh class steels , ,
-

a re m a d e a n d supplie d of a q uality a n d fit n ess beyo n d r ep r oach

, .

R olle d ba r s of e x celle n t steel c a n be obtain ed O f a n y d ia m ete r up t o

1 5 i n ches a n d squa r e ba r s to 6 in ches
, r ecta n ula r sectio n ba r s c a n also be
g
h a d in va r ious si z es up to 1 5 in ches by 2 i n ches a n d 1 1 i n c h es by 2 5 i n ches ,
-

so that steel caps for beari n gs rod e n d s a n d othe r si m ilar pur poses c a n be m ade ,

in w r ought steel at a cost ve ry little in e x cess of that of cast in gs in ir o n

, With .

the sel f ha rde n i n g tool steel a n d high speed lathes a n d m achi n e tools n ow in
- -

use these r olled bar s c a n be co n ve rte d i n to b right o n es at a trifl i n g e x t ra cost

, .

Th e fr a m ewo r k Of a n e n gi n e in w r ought colu mn s a n d tie ba r s is the r e fo r e , ,

n ow a m uch less e x pe n sive lu x u r y tha n it was f o r m e r ly eve n for la r ge e n gi n es , .

The n too the othe r sectio n al steel n ow obtai n able in such va riety has pe r
, ,

mit t e d d esig n e r s to fashio n e n gi n e beds a n d t h ei r fr a mi n g in ways n ot possible

witho u t it wher eby great savi n g in weight is e ff ecte d a n d i n as m uch as littl e
, ,

N ow £1 5 0, d u e t o war c on d it ion s .
 TH E I N FLU E N CE O F T ON N AG E LA W S . 21 5
or n o patter n m aki n g is r equi r ed f or such d esign s it is a n eco n o mic m ethod
-

whe n the e n gin e r equi red is a special on e with f e w or n o r epetitio n s Of it

ex pecte d .

The m etho d Of obtai ni n g sectio n al m ater ial (i n tr o d uced by Mr D ick ) .

by the e x trusio n of the z i n c b r o n z es thr ough d ies has pe r m itte d of multiplyi n g

va r ieties without n ecessitati n g the e x pe n se i n volve d in cutti n g r ol ls This .

a n d the othe r ways in which t h ese high class tough str on g br o n zes m a y
-

be used have had n o s mall i n flue n ce also on the d esign of the s m alle r S pecial
e n gi n es .

S uch thi n gs pe rmi t of r e fin e m e n ts in d esign n ot possible in the day s

when e n gi n eer s wer e li m ited t o the choice of wr ought i r on of 2 0 to n s ulti m ate
ten sile str e n gth or by payi n g a hi gh p rice 2 5 to n s at m ost Cra n k a n d
, , , .

st r aight sha fts Of al m ost a n y S i z e c a n be for ged a n d m achi n e d at p r ices that

we r e i mpossible f or even s m all o n es a f ew year s ago Even cast i r o n has bee n .

i m p r oved by selectio n a n d m ix i n g that without payi n g f a n cy p rices for a n y

,

of the goo d b r a n ds the ten sile a n d be n di n g tests of casti n gs a r e equal t o the

,

ver y best give n by Fair bairn Whi tw orth Al u mi ni u m has n ot y e t ser i

.

ou s ly i n flue n ce d the m a r i n e e n gin e design er ; that it wi ll i n the n ea r f u tur e

is ce r tai n its light n ess alo n e will attr act hi m a n d p r obably alloys will be ,

fou nd which wh ile n ot addi n g ser iously t o thei r weight will i m p r ove their
, ,

str en gth a n d r esistan ce to corr osio n .

Th e I n flu en ce of T on na g e La ws on the b u lls of sh ips is well k n ow n a n d

obvious but it is n ot li mi te d t o the m
,
I t pe r vades the w h ole of a ship m o r e
.

or l ess a n d per haps m o r e so the m ac hi n e r y space tha n elsewhe r e

,
L atte r ly .

that I n flu e n ce has bee n m or e poten t a n d i n sidious in it s e ff ect on m a ri n e

e n gi n e design than believed to be possible y ear s ago S tea m ships have had .

fr o m the ear liest days of thei r co n str uctio n so m e co n side ratio n give n f or
t h e disadva n ta ges u n de r w hi ch they we r e wor ked co m pa r ed with the saili n g
ship The space occupie d by the tm achi n er y has always bee n de ducte d
.

fr o m the gr oss to n n age i n as much as it could take n o ca r go later on in or d e r

, ,

to en cour age shipow n er s in m aki n g t h e spaces n ot o n ly habitable but health , ,

f u l f or t h ose in char ge of a n d those labouri n g at the m achi n e r y S pecial

, .
,

al lowa n ces wer e m a d e f or the light a n d a ir spaces to e n gi n e a n d boiler roo m s ,

as well as f or those r oo m s the m selves I f the actual total of the spaces .

w h ich a r e allowed off the gross to n n age of a shi p a m ou n t to 1 3 per ce n t of it .

,

the a ctu a l dedu cti on permitted s o as to arr ive a t t h e n et or r egiste r to nn age

is n o less tha n 3 2 per ce n t I n the d ays of low fr eights costly fuel etc
.
, , .
,

it is highly n ecessar y t o keep the r e giste r to n n age d ow n as on it the shi p is ,

ta x e d N ow wher eas in N aval S hips t h e space allotted to m achi n er y is

.
,

a lways s m all f or it as i n deed it was f o rm er ly o n ly too o fte n the case in the

,

m e r ca n tile m ar in e u n til it was f ou n d that the e n l ar gi n g of it e n ab led a c on

,

s id e r a ble savi n g in wo r ki n g e x pe n ses to be e ff ected at l ittle cost a n d wi th

i n co ns i d er able dr awbacks Form er ly with the t w o c y lin de r e n gi n e Of te n

.
-

of quite s m all powe r but r equir i n g la r ge supplies of f ue l it was quite impos

, ,

sibl e to a rra n ge for a r eductio n of to n n age m easu r e m e n t s o la r ge as 1 3 per

ce n t with out a m uch t oo se r ious sacr ifice n or i n deed did the n t h e e x ige n cies
.
, ,

of the ti m es p r ess f or suc h d r astic m easu r es to Obtai n it co n seque n tly it was ,

o n ly tug boats a n d e x p r ess stea m e r s havi n g ve r y la r ge e n gin es in p r opo rtio n

,

to th eir si z e that e n j oyed these libe r al co n cessio n s as i n d eed the y alo n e ,

we r e in te n de d s o to d o co n seque n tly t o the m aj or ity Of stea mer s the r e was

TH E I N FLU E N CE O F T ON N AG E LA W S .
MAN UAL OF M AR IN E EN GI N E E R I N G .
 THE I N FLU EN CE O F T ON N AG E LAW S . 219

li mitatio n s set n ow s o that the allowa n ce ma y n ot am oun t t o a public scan dal ,

as it did quite r ece n tly t o the D ock Co m pa n ies Har bou r B oard s etc N ow it
, , .

wo u l d see m as if a n e n gin e r oo m coul d n ot be t o o lar ge but si n ce the B oard

-

, ,
 TH E I N FLU E N CE OF T H E B O R D A or TR AD E . 22 1

go n e a n d in thei r place the Old a n d well tr ied pair of eccen tr ics with thei r
,
-

li n k m otio n is r evive d in th ei r best f or m s so that they a re n ow with a mple ,

bear i n g sur faces su fficie n t b r ea d th Of str ap etc t h ey a re m o r eo ve r quite

, ,
,
.
, ,

accessible; The co n d en ser for per haps the sa m e r easo n s o m eti m es is placed
, ,

i n the wi n gs a n d the pu m ps Of var ious ki n ds scatte r ed about each with its ,

allotted a n d a mple space N O lo n ger a r e t h ey a n d all other au x iliar y e n gin es

.

a n d m achi n es squee z ed i n to odd co rn e r s a n d n iches which wer e n arr ow ,

a n d i n accessible Ofte n a n d always c r a m pe d an d co n fin ed

, .

All this m a y n ot be altogether the r esult of the ton n age laws alo n e but ,

it is p r etty cer tai n that if ther e wer e n ot such goo d allowan ces off gr oss to n n age
ther e would n ot be such liber al spaces a n d if th er e wer e n ot r oo m y spaces , ,

then the e n gi n es woul d have to be cut to fit the m such as they might be '

, .

Th e I n flu en ce of th e B oard of T rade on m ar i n e e n gi n e d esign a n d p r actice

in othe r di r ectio n s has bee n a n d is still ve r y great a n d on t h e whole be n e
“

, , , ,

ficia l The better co n structio n a n d d esign Of the cyli n dr ical boiler was
.

lar gely due t o the actio n take n by Mr Tho m as T r aill a n d his sta ff Officials of .

the B oar d about 1 8 73 in f or mulatin g R ules a n d R egulatio n s which while , ,

be i n g so m ewhat ar bitr ar y a n d Ofte n u n n ecessar ily r igid in applic atio n we r e

'

, ,

n eve r theless on e of the chie f m ea n s wher eby the m a r i n e boiler has bee n s o
,

f r e e fr om acci d e n t slight a n d se r ious for so lon g

/

, The in vestigatio n s carri ed , .

ou t by the late Mr P ete r S a m pso n when assista n t to Mr

. T r aill b r ought to .

light a n en or m ous a m ou n t of use ful i n fo rmatio n for the u ida n c e of e n gi n ee r s

ge n e r ally as well as f or their ow n in d r awi n g up the R u es That they the n
, , .

viewed all steel with a suspicio n that did n ot see m warr an ted was the subj ec t
of m uch r egr et by those w h o f elt su r e that good steel could a n d woul d be

p r oduce d at a cost which m ust in cour se of ti m e dr ive wr ough t ir o n ou t , ,

of the m a r ket if it was give n the s a m e fr eedo m as acco r d e d to wr ought i r o n

“

of eve r y m a ke a n d so r t N eve r theless it m ust be ad m itte d n ow that in thus

.
,

keepi n g all steel u n der str ict sur veillan ce m uch that was bad was p r eve n te d ,

fr o m co m i n g i n o ge n e r al u se a n d all m ake r s Of the m ate rial wer e ther eby

t ,

co m pelled t o e x er cise the gr eater c ar e in m a n u factur e a n d t r eat m en t which ,

n ow pe r m its of the g r eate r fr eedo m in its use At the sam e ti m e ther e has .
,

been a n d still is though in a lesse r de gr ee the r e gr et that m o r e e n cour age

, , ,

m e n t is n ot give n t o those m a n u f actu r e r s w h o ho n estly str ive t o p r ovide

goo d a n d sa f e m ater ial f or en gi n eer s ge n er al use havi n g vi r tues super ior ’

, _

to those Of the co mm o n sor t I n a ge n er al wa y perh aps low ten sile stee l.

, ,

is sa fer tha n the higher ki n ds but it does n ot ther e f o r e f ollow that n o high
, , ,

ten sile steel c a n co mm a n d t h e s a m e co n fide n ce r epo sed in it that Obtai n s with

“

”
t he best mild steel I n this r espect thei r p r ogr ess ha s bee n slow i n the
.
’

m er ca n tile m a r i n e The high te n sile steel s a re e m plo yed ve r y spa ri n gly

.

co m par e d with what might have bee n the case h a d the r estr ictio n s on thei r ,

u se bee n e x e r cised in accor d a n ce with thei r r eal m e r its i n stea d Of i n c om ,

“ ”
plia n ce with t h e polic y of the B oa r d I t is Of cou r se fr eely ad m itted .
, ,

that a Gover n m en t D epar tm e n t h a s t o be ver y discr eet in its actio n s whe n

deali n g with on e m an u f actur e r a n d a n other especially seei n g that the desir e ,

is gen er ally of all co n cern ed for the p r actice by all Officials t o be u ni for m a n d
absolutely i m par tial ; that the tr eat m e n t of all shall be on the sa m e li n es
without di ff e r e n t iatio n baseless or othe r wise I n the use of a n Old a n d
, .

t r ied m ater ial like cast i r o n however ther e a r e n ot the sa m e co n flictin g

, ,

causes for si n gu lar t r e a t me n t by the B oar d Of T r ade a n d its Ofiic ia ls ; yet

_
‘
,
2 22 M N A UAL OF M AR I N E EN GI N E ER I N G .

while at on e ti m e n early the whole of the e n gin e was m a d e O f cast i r o n a n d ,

so m e Of the m ost i mpor tan t par ts a r e still f or m e d of it whe r e it coul d b e ,

squee ze d ou t it has bee n by the policy of both Ad mi r alty a n d B oa rd of T r a d e

,

O f late yea r s to do so Yet this m ate rial has som e disti n ct vi rtues which r e n de r
.

it n ot o n l y a co n ve ni e n t bu t a sa fe on e f or the co mpositio n Of certai n pa r ts .

U n de r te n si le st r ess it str etches m or e tha n steel d oes up to the elastic li m it ;

t o r esist co m p r essio n it has n o equal so that so m e str uctur es whi ch a re liable
,

when u n der load to be subj ect t o a co n si d er able a mou n t Of co mp ressio n

a r e r eally bette r m ade of i t tha n of steel N otwi thsta n di n g this howeve r
.
, ,

the te n de n cy I s to avo id its use lar gely due to the policy a n d r ules of these
,

Gove rn m e n t D epar tme n ts on the gr ou n d Of its co m pa r ative b rittle n ess a n d

liability to c r ack . The co n ti n ued testi n g by e x pe n sive m etho d s of the steel
m ater ial both I n the cast f o r ged a n d r ol led state as n ow used I n e n gi n e
, , , ,

c o n str uctio n , has te n ded t o r etard the use of it for a co n si d er able peI iod
after steel m aker s had f ou n d the m ea n s Of pr oducin g it cheaper tha n wr ought
i r o n S i n ce ver y little if a n y r eductio n I n sca n tli n gs was c lai m ed by e n gi n eer s
.
, ,

whe n substituti n g steel for wr ought Ir o n in m an y parts it was Of little or n o ,

c o n sequen ce what its u lt i ma t e te n sile str e n gth was ; it was however i m po r , ,

tan t a n d I s still n ecessar y t o be assur e d that it is t ou gh a n d du ct i le This

, , .

could be quite cer tai n ly a n d satisf acto r ily asce rtai n e d by S iI bmit t in g sa mples
t o a si m ple cold be n di n g test a n d f ur the r to pu n chi n g a n d upsett i n g tests
-
,

such as applied t o r ivets Had such sim ple a n d i n e x pe n sive m ea n s bee ri

,

adop ted this super ior m aterial might have take n the place Of co mmo n wrough t
,

i ro n a n d eve n of cast i r o n in m a n y places lo n g a go

, , .

The r estr ictio n s of Govern m en t D epar t m en ts as a r ule ten d to stag , ,

n atio n i n e n gi n eer i n g p r actice while ful filli n g the f un ctio n f or which they
,

e x ist to p r otect the public fr o m the d a n ger s that m ight ar ise if gr eate r f r e ed o m
wer e give n to e n gi n e builder s B u t n either at the Ad m ir alty n or at t h e
.

B oar d of T r ade I s th e r e n ow r aised that dead wall to r atio n al a n d d esir able

pr ogr ess ; i n deed t h e Ad mir alty du rin g the past two d eca d es have beco m e
,

al m ost too p r ogr essive f or the eco n o mic wo r ki n g Of those who se r ve the m .

Th e B alan cin g of En g in es an d Avoidan ce of V ibra tion is a d isti n guishi n g

f eatu r e in latte r d a y m ar i n e e n gi n eer i n g p r actice a n d the adve n t Of t h e
-

tur bi n e on shipboar d has r ather accen tuated the n ecessity for the e x er cise
of the a r t of bala n ci n g th a n ab r ogated it ; f or alth ough that i n st r u m e n t
,

itsel f is fr ee fr o m the i n er tia defects of the r ecip r ocati n g e n gi n e it r equi r es ,

n eve r theless the m ost car e ful of bala n ci n g itsel f ; but to co m pete with the
'

tur bi n e d r ive n stea m er t h a t on e havi n g r ecip r ocati n g e n gi n es m ust have

-
,

the m so that they r u n with a n abse n ce Of vib r atio n as f a r as is possible .

Tha n ks to th at veter a n en gi n eer a n d p r actical scie n tist D r Otto S chlick w h o .

,

gave us so fr eely t h e ben e fit of hi s year s Of patien t la bOiI r a n d car e ful r esea r ch

,

we u n der sta n d n ow as we did n ot befo r e the r easo n for a n d the causes of

, ,

all vib r atio n in a stea m sh ip a n d bette r still he h a d d evise d m ea n s for

, , ,

corr ectly asce r tai ni n g th e m a n d cur i n g their e ff ects for w hi ch we we r e m o r e ,

i n debted to him Fo rm e rly it was n ot u n co m mo n to attr ibute all the vib ra

.

tion of a scr ew ship to the actio n of the p ropeller that so m e of it m igh t be

due to the m o m en tum Of the m ovi n g par ts Of the en gi n es was Of cour se , ,

appa re n t to a ll en gin eer s havi n g even a n ele m en ta ry kn owledge Of dyn amics ;

attem pts of a f eeble a n d ten tative ki n d we re m ade t o check the m by fitti n g
bala n ce weights to the sha fts Opposite t h e cra n ks of the hor i z o n ta l e n gi n e ,
 B LA D E S OF A S CR E W .

or by casti n g wit h the tur n i n g wheels bala n ce weigh ts Of segm e n tal f o rm .

N O d oubt t h e i n er tia e ff ects of the piston s a n d r o d s wer e to so m e e x te n t

n eut r alised by these bala n ce weights but it woul d appear that wha t the ,

m aker s of these e n gi n es r eally ai m e d at was m e r ely to bala n ce the weight

of the c r a n k pin -
ar m s a n d co n n ecti n g rod e n d s r ather than the hor i z o n tal
, ,
-

fo r ces d u e to the m ove m e n t Of the pisto n s e t c B ala n ce weights wer e ve r y , .

seldo m fitted to ver tical e n gi n es n otwithsta n di n g that fr o m these statical

,

co n sid er atio n s they wer e r ea lly t h e m o r e n eeded i n the m than in the hor i
'

z on t a l .

N owadays balan ce weights fr ee ly used in all classes of e n gi n e a n d

a re

for all s i zes but the applicatio n Of the m is e ff ected w ith m or e d iscr etio n
,

a n d j udg m e n t tha n f o r m e r ly p r evailed so that m uch better e ff ects a r e ,

O btai n ed wit h co n si d e r ably less m ate r ial a n d cost The f ou r cr a n k e n gi n e .

,

bala n ced on the syste m i n tr oduced by D r S chlick a n d pe r fected i n this .

cou n tr y by Messr s Twee d y a n d Y a rro w is without ad d e d weights a n d n ow

.
, ,

in ge n e r al use a n al m ost p er f ect bala n ce with a n abse n ce O f vib r atio n I s

O btai n e d by this syste m wit h the special a rr a n ge m e n t of the a n gles of c r a n ks

t o s u it the m o m e n t a of the m ovi n g par ts .

Wh ether the e n gin e be a thr ee f our or fiv e c r an k on e it m ust b e satis -

,

f a c t or ily bala n ced in ever y war ship a n d e x p r ess passe n ge r stea m er a n d eve n ,

in the ca r go stea m er s which m a y a n d o fte n do co n vey passe n ge r s it is

, ,

d esi r able to avoid u n n ecessa r y vib r ation .

Th a t V ibra ti on arises in part from th e Action of t h e S crews I s o n ly t oo true

n ow as it was f or m er ly f or the sa m e causes e x ist i n f ull f o r ce to day n ot
,
-

withsta n di n g ou r better k n owle d ge of t h e sub j ect tha n ks to D r S chlick , .

,

for a fter the e n gi n es have been m ost ca r e fully a n d pe r fectly bala n ced the r e
, ,

o fte n is m a ni f est a r esidual vib r atio n or t r e m bli n g whic h while it m a y be

'

, ,

qu i te local a n d n ot ge n er al is n eve r theless di sagr eeable

,
Mo r eove r the sa m e .
,

d ef ects a r e obser vable in as p r o n ou n ced a m a n n er in tu r bi n e dr iven stea m e r s

n otwithsta n di n g t e u n i f or m ity o f to r que a n d abse n ce Of a n y u n bala n ce d
h
I n ert ia f o r ces .

Ther e a r e v arious ways in w hi ch a scr ew m a y set up vibr atio n s all of ,

which even the s m allest is capable Of cr ea t in g the evil if its applicatio n

, , _

is i n ter mitte n t a n d r e g u lar a n d its periodicity coi n ci d es with t h at of the

n atu r al vib r atio n Of the shi p as a si n gle st r uctu r e or of a n pa r t of it which
y ,

is fr ee to vib r ate U n der such cir cu m sta n ces of syn chr o ni s m quite s m all
.

a n d i n sig n i fica n t f o r ces a r e capable of p r o d uci n g e n o r m ous r es u l ts as is we ll ,

k n own to all e n gi n eer s a n d the m ost f a mili ar illustr atio n is per haps that
,

o f a discipli n ed f o r ce c r ossi n a b r idge w h o if walki n g I n step a r e li able to

g , , ,

s e t up d a n ge r ou s oscillatio n s I n the m ost substa n tia l of str uctu r es .

I t th e B l ades of a S crew are of D ifferen t Pit ch especially at or n ear the ,

tips the pr essu r e on Opposite blades is n ot the sa m e the p r op eller will be

, ,

r un n i n g ou t of bala n ce a n d as each blade should take its due p r oportio n of

,

t hr ust to r u n in per f ect bala n ce such di ff er en ces in pitch or b la d e sur face

,

will easily cause V ib r atio n to be set up as the tr ue ce n tr e of p r essu r e w ill n ot

c oi n ci d e with the sha f t a x i s but h ave a n o r bit O f its ow n t h e ce n t r e of
, ,

which is on that a x is The d esir e f or the utter abse n ce Of vib r atio n a n d the
.

e co n o m y of high e fficie n cy have i n d uce d so m e e n gi n eer s t o have t h e bla d es

o f p r opelle r s c hi ppe d a n d gr ou n d so that n o t o n l y a r e the w o r ki n g f aces

, ,

s m ooth a n d t r ue to pitch t h r oughout but each bla d e is of equal pitc h with ,

 THE I N T R OD U CT I ON OF S T E E .
L CAS T I N G s .

ever yd ay p r actice ma y a n d probably does lead to a co n sider able a m ou n t of

, , ,

vib r atio n I t is well k n own t h at whe n a ir is d r aw n i n to the sc r ew r ace the r e

.

is a d i mi n utio n O f thr ust a n d the r e m a y be a n d Oft e n is a m o m e n tary

, , ,

cessatio n Of it ; if this beco m es per iodic a n d t h e e ff ects cu m ulative a m ost

, ,

u n pleasan t form of bu ll distur ba n ce will be ex pe rie n ced This a ir suctio n .

occu r s the m or e r ea di ly with sc r ews whose bla d e tips a r e n ea r the su r face ,

a n d eve n whe n the r e is a f ai r a m ou n t of i mm e r sio n in still wate r the suctio n

or f ee d to the p r ope lle r whe n r u n n i n g f ast p r oduces a hollow or dep r essio n

“ ”
of the su r face s o as to r e n de r a ir
,
spouts easy of f o r m atio n The sa m e thin g .

h appe n s whe n ther e is quite a ge n tle swell on so that t h e heave a n d pit qh ,

of the S hip causes the blade tips to app r oach t oo close to t h e su r f ac e .

Cavita t ion ma y a lso be a ca u se of V ibra t ion w he n t h e sc r ews a r e quite

thor oughly i m m er sed especially whe n the sc r ew is d rive n by a stea m e n gi n e
,

with a to r que of gr eat var iatio n or with a n i n te rn al co m bustio n e n gi n e

,

with the sa m e or wo r se de fect so that the p r opeller h a s sudde n a n d seve r e

,

accele r atio n in a n gular velocity wher eby the p r essu r e per squar e i n ch is
,

i n c r e a sed bey o n d the li mit of goo d wor ki n g so that cavities a re f o rm e d ,

by the r eductio n in p r essu re behi n d the bla d es per mi tti n g of a ir separ ati n g ,

fr o m the wate r a n d f o rmi n g m asses of bubbles which whe n liber ate d m a y , , ,

have the sa m e e ff ect on the scr ew as the a ir d r aw n d ow n fr o m above by

”
suctio n.

All t h ese T hin gs ma y cau se V ibrat ion a n d al wa y s a re sou rces of loss of

“

e fficie n c y The fo rm er c a n be gen er ally r educed to a m i n i m u m if n ot alto

.

g ethe r d a m ped ou t by causi

,
n g the e n i n es to ru n at a r ate of r evolutio n
g
that p r ecl u d es syn ch r o n ism with a n y Of the i m po r ta n t m asses of the hull
‘

The efficie n cy of p r opelle r a n d hull c a n be little e ff ected by such m ea n s bu t

‘
,

d oubtless the hull that d oes n ot vib r ate is likely to per m it o f m o r e g r oss
power bei n g applie d to p r opulsio n tha n on e that d oes .

Th e N ecessity for Perfect B a lan ce of Engin e an d a qu iet ru nn ing S crew -

is i m posed on t h e desig n e r a n d h e m ust stu d y the qu estio n s i n volved as

,

ca re fully as f or m er ly he h a d to do those i n volvi n g the safety a n d eco n o m ic

r u n n i n g of the m achi n e r y o n shipboa r d .

Th e Au xil iary Mach in ery mu st al so be f ree from V ibra tion a n d u n eve n n ess
fr o m t h e powe r to p r odu ce it for to j d ay with tu rbi n es a n d the beauti fully,

bala n ce d r ecip r ocato r s it wo u l d be gr otesque to fin d t h e shi p v ib r ati n g fr o m

,
’
a d on k e y pu m p s u n bala n ce d f o r ces ; a n d n ow t h at a ir pu m ps as well as ,
.

all othe r pu m ps a re separ able fr o m the m ain e n gi n es it is i n cum be n t on

, ,

thei r m ake r s to supply the m fr ee fr o m a vi ce fr o m w hi ch the m ai n e n gi n es ,

have bee n e ra di cated The m ake r s O f electric power gen erati n g e ngi n es h ave
.
-

bee n com pelle d lo n g a go to bala n ce the m so that they create n o n uis a n ce

to the n eighbou r h ood in which th ey a r e situate d by the m selves vib r atin g
or causi n g a n y t r e m ble in the n eigh bou r i n g houses the re f o r e as a r ule the , ,

make r s of these en gi n es who have had such shor e e x per ien ce c a n be t ruste d
to suppl y the m on shipboar d quite fr ee fro m vice .

Th e I n t rodu ction of Steel Casti n gs was haile d with d elight by e n gi n e d esig n e r s

thi rty fiv e yea r s ago as it r aise d the h ope t h at the weight of m achi n e ry
-
,

ge n e rally a n d the cost Of m a n y of its parts woul d be ve r y m ate ria lly r e d uce d ,

a n d that in othe r pa r ts t h e r isks r u n co n seque n t on t h e n ecessa r y e m ploy m e n t

-

o f cast i r o n
‘

, a n d ev en with cast b r o n z e in t h ei r m a n u factur e wo u ld cease , .

To d a y the en gi n e design er is still livi n g la r gely in the sa m e hope i n as m uch

-
,

15
226 MAN UA L OF M A R I N E E N G I N EER I N G .

as t he sou n d pe rfect casti n g at m o d er ate cost in a m etal st ron g a n d tough

,

a n d capable of wo r ki n g at quite a hi gh te m pe r atu r e r e m ai n s yet to be pr o

d u c e d in qua n tity a n d p ro m ptly B ritish steel f oun de r s c a n a n d d o m ake

.

hu ge casti n gs which for ship wo rk a re in valuable ; th ey also simply en gi n ee rs

, ,

w it h so m e ve ry fin e a n d use f u l o n es but t h ey h a d t o look to a n oth e r coun try

,

f or t h at sou n d n ess a n d un i fo r mity I n q u ality so m uch to be d esi red by those

w h o a r e re spo n sible for a n d take t h e r isks of such thin gs I t is a m atte r O f .

gr eat r egr et t h at t h e r e lacks su fficie n t ce rtai n ty in t h e ho m e p r od uct to

e n cou rage its m or e e x t e n d ed use f or such pa rts Of a n e n gi n e as m ust be
sou n d or m ach i n ed all ove r This is a d isappoi n tm e n t to t h ose who h av e
.

looked yea r a fte r year for the i m pr ovem e n t so lo n g hope d for .

Th e U s e of Alu miniu m in e n gin e co n str uctio n has bee n so m ewhat d elayed

f ro m S o m ewhat si mila r caus es in spite of the f act that the m ate rial was
,

sol d at S ti ch a low p r ice as to pe rmit of its fr ee use in e n gin e co n structio n .

N ow howeve r the ve ry beauti ful casti n gs supplie d for m oto r c a r m achi n e ry

, ,

m u st i n duce the ma rin e e n gi n e desig n e r s to u s e the m m or e fr eely in th ei r

p r o d ucts The m etal n ow used is a n alloy a n d is o nl y a tr ifle h ea v ie r tha n
.
,

pur e alu mi n iu m ; t h e casti n gs a r e shar p a n d sou n d in outlin e a n d clea n in

surface ; the te n sile str e n gth is su fficie n t bein g as goo d as o rd in ar y b ro n ze , .

I t will n ot howeve r withsta n d the actio n of sea wate r as d oes b r on z e so that

, , ,

it ca n n ot be used for the part s e x posed to it but th ere a re ve r y m a n y othe r ,

parts which a re qui te free fr o m co n tact with sea wate r a n d othe rs whe r e a -
,

co at of pain t will give su fficien t pr o t e ction .

D u ra l u min a 90 pe r ce n t alloy of alu min ium i n t r oduced b V icke r s

, .

y ,

L t d h a s such good qualities as soo n to comm a n d the atte n t i o n of the

.
,

m a ri n e e n gi n e d esign er in as much as it is q u i t e st r o n g ( 28 to n s te n sile with

,

1 5 pe r cen t e x te n sio n ) a n d will r esist shock ; it is ve r y light ( s p gr 2 8 )

.
,
. .

a n d m alleable a n d c a n be t r eated as the zi n c b r o n zes a r e by d r aw in g out i n to

, ,

bars of var ious section s also r olle d i n to plates a n d sheets a n d sol d at quite
, ,

m ode r ate p rices so as to be e x ten sively use d in the co n st ructio n of a ir cra ft

,
-
,

m oto r car s etc , it ca n n ot howeve r be use d for castin gs as yet

.
, , .

In t h e Fu tu re t h e R eciprocat or w ill p r obably u n de rgo m o r e cha n ges ,

n ecessa ry to its success in co m petitio n wi th the ste a m t u r b in e a n d also that

it m a y hold its ow n with the Oil e n gin e it m a y be n ecessary to f ollow so m e ,

of the featur es peculi a r to that e n in e Fo r a m ple t h e O il e n g in e at p r ese n t

g e x .
,

has certain li mi tatio n s which he d ge it in co m plete ly The ste a m e n gi n e

m ake r ma y i m p ose on hi m
, .

sel f if he chooses so m e of the m with a d va n tage

, ,
.

For i n sta n ce the huge cyli n d e r s of the p r ese n t t riple a n d quad ruple e n gi n e
,

m a y give place to a multiplicity of s malle r o n es so s m all m a y the y be i n d eed

that the low pr essur e o n es m a y have r elativel y such lar ge po rts a n d valves
-

as w ill e n able the m to ben e fit use fully by t he hi gh vacua n ow attai n able in

c o n d e n se r s on boa rd ship at a t riflin g e x tr a cost .

S upe r heatin g of stea m to a n e x ten t n ow p r actically i mpossible also m a y be

f ollowed with co m plete success in s m all cylin de r s in cludi n g a m a r ke d r e due ,

tio n in the co n su m ptio n of f uel The re m a y be even m odi ficatio n s in the

.

m etho d s of r eve r si n g the e n gi n es whe reby th e r e will be e ff ected savi n gs in

,

fir s t cost a s well as eco n o m y in wo r ki n g costs

, The fle x ib ility of the r eci .

proca t in g stea m e n gi n e is a stro n g a n d m a r ked featu r e in t h e e y es of the

m a ri n e e n gi n eer especiall y of h im w h o has to wo r k a n d be r espo n sible for
,

the machi n er y of a ship it sho u ld cou n t likewise with own e rs u n de rwri t e rs , ,

 F UTUR E I A
O F T H E R E C P R O C‘ T O R .

a nd all those who go d o wn to t h e sea in s h ips as a fai r set o ff f or s u ch

s avi n gs in f uel as clai m e d , eve n though they be substa n tial ; especially
s hould this co n side r atio n weigh heavily I n the cou n sels of citi z e n s O f a cou n t r y

havi n g a n abu n d a n t supply of e x celle n t coal but little Oil a n d that little
,

li m ite d to on e or two r e m ote dist ricts To have to i m po r t foo d i n to a coun tr y

.

i s r egr ettable but to i m po r t f uel wher e it c a n be avoided l s fo lly

, I f ou r
.

ships a re to be la rge ly fitted with i n ter n al co m bustio n e n gin es or have boile rs

,

c apable of bu r n i n g Oil fuel o n ly ,

its state in case of a w a r with a cou n t ry
h a v m g a powe r ful fleet will be a pe r ilous on e a n d lead to a wo r se disaste r
,

t h a n a te m po ra ry sho r t n ess of f ood .

 E CON OM Y IN PR A CT I CE . 22 9

d eveloped on se r vice is ge n e r ally well below the f ull capacity Of t h e e n gi n e ,

t h e pe r iods o f f ull powe r d evelop m e n t a re f e w a n d O f sho r t d ur atio n , a n d

o f suc h a n atu r e is t h e ser v i ce that d e m a n d s the m that t h e cost of p r o duci n
g ,

t h e powe r is i n sig n i fica n t co m par e d with that of the ge n er al wo r ki n g so t h at ,

if e x t ravaga n t by co m par i so n with the ordi n ar y e x pe n d itu r e it i s n ever , ,

t h e le ss quite wa rr a n ted
, I n oth e r wo r d s s o lo n g as the i n c r ease in powe r
.
,

is obtai n able on d e m an d the cost of it is of li ttle co n si d e r ation ; co u se

,

que n tl y the e fficien cy u n der tho se co n dition s m a y b e q uite low if by th ese ,

t e m po r a r y sac r i fices the gai n in e fli c ien c y u n d e r the n o r m al co n d itio n s of

service is the r eby attai n ed a n d substan tial High e fficie n cy du r i n g the lo n g .

pe r iods Of ser vice is ther e fo r e , the fir st con sider atio n of the d esign er , as well
,

as that of the pur chase r O f the e n gi n e, a n d j ust as electrical e n gi n ee r s on

shor e de m a n d e n gi n es which c a n on a n e mer gen cy, a n d f or a sho rt ti me ,
d evelop som ethi n g like 2 0 pe r ce n t mo r e tha n their n or mal m a x i m u m output
.
,
”
a n d call it ove r load so the m a r i n e e n gi n eer should b e con ten t with such
,

o v erlo ad s on the sa m e ter m s f or t rial tr ips a n d spur ts at sea , i n stea d of

r equiri n g a la rger e n gin e which will r eally r u n the gr eatest part of its li f e at
,

o n ly 75 per ce n t of t h e full powe r at which it c a n ru n to d o that full powe r at

.
,

m a x i mu m e fficie n cy .

To th e En g in es of Warships the sa m e a r gu m e n t m a y be applied I n a ge n e r al

w a y but t o the m so m e other co n sider atio n s a r e a p plicable which m a y m o d i fy
,

the decisio n of the design er H er e in o rd er that the ut m ost power m a y be

.
,

obtai n ed u n d e r the m o r e r estricted co n ditio n s of weight a n d space the r e ,

m a y be n ee d O f the highest e fficie n cy in or d er t o get t h e gr eatest possible ,

output of power fr o m the boiler s B u t j u d gi n g by m o d ern p r actice in such

.
,

ships the s m all cyli n der s with the n ecessar y low r ate of ex pan sio n f or the m
, ,

at f u ll power p r evails t o a greater e x ten t tha n in eve n the m er ca n tile mar i n e

, ,

because a war ship seldo m r u n s at eve n so s m all a r eductio n of S peed as the

1 0 p er ce n t with her a r eductio n of speed of 4 0 per cen t is com m o n a n d
. .
,

that m ean s o nl y about 2 2 per cen t of the f u ll power i s r equir ed . .

Th e Larger t h e Cylin ders are the m or e costly they must be to m a n u

f actur e a n d m ai n tai n ; mo r eove r the clear a n ce losses a n d those fr o m c on
_ ,

d e n satio n will be gr eate r in the lar ge r tha n the s malle r cyli n d er s Fu r the r .
,

the pipes a n d co n n ect i o n s the r ods valve gear s colu mn s sha fts a n d fra mi n g
, , , , ,

var y with the si z e of t h e cyli n d er man y of these par ts bein g i n flue n ced by
, _

t h e m a x i m u m r athe r tha n the m ea n p r ess u r e or load on the m I t 1 3 of cou r se .

, ,

obvious that for a give n power a n y dec r ease in cyli n der capacity must be
acco m pan ied by a decr ease in r ate of e x pa n sio n all other thi n gs bei n g the ,

sa m e B u t all other thi n gs a re n ot the Sa m e the stea m p r essur e fr o m the

.

boiler s a n d the p r essur e in the co n de n se r are the sa m e but the stea m e fficie n c y ,

in the s m alle r set of cyli n de r s ma y b e such that the actual mea n p r essu r e
at the s am e n o r m al r ate of e x pan sio n u n der wor ki n g co n ditio n s is co n sider ably '

gr eater tha n in the lar ger o n es due t o less wi r e dra wi n g r adiatio n etc
,
-

, , .
,

cyli n de r co n de n satio n a n d d ecr ease in back p r essur e due to lar ger ports
, ,

Econ omy is fou n d, t h erefore, in Practice with r ates of e x pa n sio n lowe r

t ha n theo r y i n d icates a n d co n seque n tly of late yea r s gr eat i n c r eases of boil e r
,

p r essur es have n ot bee n acco m pa ni ed by the co rr espon di n g i n creases in ra te

of x e pa n sio n such as was f o r m e r ly a n ticipated ~
He n ce , f or the f ull powe r s .

r e ui r e d f or t r ial s eed the r ate of e x pa ns io n is e x p re ssed by p 1 5 whe re

q p ,
2 30 MA N U AL O r M A R I N E E N GI N EE R I N G
.
.

p is the a bsolute p r essu r e of the stea m supplied to the e n gi n e . Followi n g ;

t h is r ule
R ate of e x pa n sio n of t r iple stage e n gi n es st ea m
-
1 8 0 lbs

quadr uple 2 10 lbs .

22 5 1bs

On se r vice such ships will wor k with r ates of e x pa n sio n O f 1 6 in the t r iple s
a n d 1 8 to 2 0 in quad r uples .

I n N ava l S ervice an d Express Cross Ch an nel Steamers the r ates of e x -

a n s ion a r e so m ewhat less so tha t thei r m easu r e is m a d e by d ividi n g the

p ,

a bs ohI t e i n itial p r essur e by 1 8 For t h e t r iple e x pa n sio n e n gi n es of suc h

.
-

s h ips wit h stea m at 2 00 lbs gauge or 2 1 5 lbs absolute .

, .

R ate Of e x pa n sio n

Th e Service S peed of S h ort D istance Express swamers is about 5 pe r ce n t

u n der the m a x i m u m or t r ial t rip speed a n d si n ce t h e m ea n p r essur e r e fe rr e d ,

to the L P cyli n d e r will va r y app r o x i m ately with the squa r e of the spee d
. .
,

the m ean p r essu r e on ser vice wi ll be ( 0 95 j 2 or 0 9 of that on trial I n» '

, .

design i n g the e n gi n e ther e for e it should be born e in mi n d that it is des ir able

, ,

to have m a x im u m e fficie n cy w ith a m ea n p r essur e 1 0 per ce n t below that .

of the m a x i m u m possible fro m the cyli n de r s a n d as a co r olla r y the cyli n de r s ,

must be la r ge e n ough to d evelop 1 1 per ce n t mo r e powe r tha n whe n on .

ser vice— that m ea n s the over load is 1 1 per ce n t in p ressu r e but it wil l
"

.
,

be 1 6 7 per cen t of the I H P . . . .

In stead of S peed Margin With su Ch S h ips, it woul d be better t o have a

power on e for it is see n that with o n ly 5 per ce nt of the f or me r ther e i s
, .

1 6 7 of the latte r a n d a fte r all it is m o r e i mpo r ta n t in a ge n er a l w a y t o '

, , ,

have a r ese r ve of powe r which will e ns u r e m ai n tai n i n g the se rvic e

,

spee d .

Wi t h Cargo S tea mers th ere is a D is tu rbing Elemen t n ot e x pe r ie n ced with

the war shi p or passen ger stea m er— v iz the di ff e r e n ce in d r aft of water .
,

with d i ff e ren t ca r goes a n d the possible di ff e ren ce in speed O f r evolutio n

,

in fact it is equivale n t in e ff ect on the e n gi n es Of a cha n ge in si z e of p r opelle r

,
.

The e n gin es c a n n ow m ove at a much hi ghe r r ate Of r evolutio n with a s malle r

“ ”
m ea n p r essu r e O f stea m a n d u nl ess checked by t h r ottli n g or
,
li n ki n g up ,

p roceed at a r ate fa r in e x cess of that a n ticipate d by t h e d esi gn e r a n d pro ,

v id e d f or by h im U n de r such co n d itio n s the p r opelle r is ve r y liable to

.

sudde n a n d seve r e r aci n g in spite of gove r n o r s a n d ha n d gover n i n g S uch

,
.

e n gi n es m ust t h e r e fo r e for sa fety sake have in the mselves that w hich goes
, , ,

to ward r estr ai n t u n d e r such co n ditio ns .

Th e I n dica te d Horse power of a n e n gi n e is the p r o duct of the m ea n p r es

-

sur e the pisto n a r ea i n squa r e i n ches a n d feet passed through by the pisto n
,

in a m i n ute d ivi d ed by I t m a y be sai d the r e fo r e that the powe r , ,

depe n d s on t h e a rea of the pisto n on t h e S pee d of pisto n a n d the p r essu re on

 D IA M E T E R or C Y LI N D ER S or A A I
M R N E EN GI N E . 23 1

“ With a give n e n gi n e the two latter be var ie d a r bitr ar ily i n as m uch may ,

t the p r essu r e m a y be i n c r ease d or d ecr ease d by the t h r ottle valve at will

as ,

or m a y be alte r e d p e r m a n e n tly by cha n gi n g the cut off of the d ist r ibuti n g

valves on the cyli n d er s ; the speed of pisto n all othe r thi n gs r e m a i m n g the ,

sa m e bei n g d epe n de n t on it will va r y with the m ea n p r essu r e B u t with

, .

the sa m e m ean p r essu r e the pisto n speed m a y be pe rm an e n tly r educed by

in c r e a s mg the pitch of the sc r ew Whe n designi n g a n e n gi n e the m ea n .

i e s s u re a n d speed of pisto n I n te n ded m ust be deci d e d on in o r de r t o cal

p
culate the a r ea of p i sto n As a m atte r of f act it is r eally the r ate of re v olu
.
,

tio n t h at m ust be decided on as a basis of calculatio n f or a r ecip r ocati n g

e n gin e j ust as it is f or a tu r bin e With a ver tical e n gi n e u n d e r o rdi n ar y
, .

co n d itio n s the le n gth O f st r oke m a y be gen er ally of a n y r easo n able a m ou n t ,

s o that the r eal li m it a f te r all is the p r actical on e of h ow f ast m a y a pisto n

, ,

m ove with sa fety a n d co n siste n t with co n ti n uous good wo r ki n g .

I t m ust n ot be ove r looked that the ma x i mu m veloc i ty of m ove m e n t of a

pisto n is 7 or 1 5 71 ti m es the m ea n , so that if the m ea n speed is fe e t

2
pe r m i n ute , the velocity of the pisto n at about the mi dd le of the str oke is
at the r ate of f eet .

Th e D iameter of Cy l in ders of a Marin e En gin e is ascer tai n ed by fir st dete r

mi n i n g that O f the low p r essu r e fr o m the r e fe rr ed m ea n p r essu r e a n d speed
of pisto n decided on a n d m aki n g the high p r essur e of such a si z e as t o pe r m it
,

of t h at m ea n p r essu r e with the boile r p r essu r e p r ovided The ge n e r ality .

of e n gi n es n ow i n use a r e of the co m pou n d type t r iple or quad r uple The , .

r ate of e x pa n sio n will be chose n with r ega r d t o the co n ditio n s u n de r which

t h e e n gin e has m ostly to wo r k I n a ge n e r al way it is t r ue as al r eady stated

‘

.
, ,

that the s m aller the cyli n d e r s a re the bette r both in p r i m e cost a n d eco n o m ic ,

wo r ki n g I t has bee n sh own that the co n sum ptio n of stea m i n N aval r eci
.

p r oc a t in
g e n gi n es at f ull speed
p er I
,
H P p e r hou r is so m ewhat hi ghe r tha n . . .

at a so m ewhat r educed on e whi le on the other ha n d at low speeds n ot w it h

, , , ,

stan di n g the hi gher r ate of e x pa n sio n O btai ni n g the co n su mptio n is o fte n ,

eve n gr eate r tha n at full speed Thi s m ean s that with the co m par atively .

s m all cyli n de r s the eco n o m y at a n e x tr avaga n t r ate Of e x pan sio n is bette r

tha n that in the sa m e cyli n der at a high a n d p r esum abl y eco n o mi c r ate .

I n the m er ca n tile m ar i n e the lowest r a t e of stea m co n su m ption pe r ho r se

powe r is also Ofte n at a hi gher r ate of e x pa n si o n tha n that at the m ax i mum
power but n ot m uch m or e s o With the car go stea m e r whe r e eco n o m y
, .
,

of fuel is of p r i m e i m po r ta n ce a n d the en gi n es a re r u n n ea r l y always at full

,

spee d the co n su m ptio n Of stea m per I H P is a mi n i m u m or n ea rly so at

, . . .
, _

t h at S peed Mr P ar so n s f oun d that the steam co n su m ptio n of the tr iple

. .

”
e x pan sio n e n gi n es of the s s V espasia n at 70 r evolutio n s was 1 6 9 lbs
. . .

per ho r se powe r hou r at 6 5 r evolutio n s it was 1 7 6 lbs a n d fr o m that the

'
-
.
,

r ate g r a d ually r ose as the r evolutio n s f ell till at 5 0 r evolutio n s it was as m uch ,

as 1 9 8 At 6 5 r evolutio n s the r ise was s m all as it was o n ly 1 76 lbs a n d

.
,
.
, ,

assu mi n g the sa m e r ate of slip the f ollo wi n g co m par ative r esults a r e t rue ,
.

The total co n su m ptio n of wate r at 70 r evolutio n s was lbs per hou r .

,

while at 6 5 r evolutio n s it was lbs For the sa m e dis tan ce ther e f o re .

, ,

i f at 70 r evolutio n s the co n su m ptio n is while whe n do n e at 6 5 re v olu

tio n s it will be o n ly — that is as to l o— or a savi n g Of 1 4 per ce n t ,
‘
.

in spite of a n i n cr ease pe r I H P of 4 1 4 per ce n t . . . .

 D IA M ET E R OF T H E L P . . C Y LI N D ER . 233

r evolution s r aised fr o m 5 8 to 6 4 t h e r ate of con su mptio n woul d n ot h ave ,

e x cee d e d t h e 1 5 1 lbs but pr obab ly h ave been less

.
, .

Th e B a ck Pres su re in th e L P Cylin der should be n ot m o r e tha n 1 5 lbs . . .

g reate r tha n that in the co n d en ser— that is with a vacuum of 28 i n ches it ,

s h ould n ot ex ce ed 2 5 lbs absolute I n a well d esig n ed low p r essur e cyli n d e r

. .
- -

at m oder ate pisto n speeds the vacuu m in it at e x haust sh ould be 95 per ce n t .

o f th at I n c oiI d e n ser whe n that I s n ot m o r e tha n 28 i n ches

, 93 per ce n t is , .

c o mm o n e x per ie n ce w ith good e n gi n es whe n wo r ki n g with a vacuu m Of tD

2 7 0 i n ches at full spee d For pu r poses of calculation ther e fo r e a n all ow

.
, ,

a n ce of 90
p er ce n t will be quite on the sa f e side
. W ith m ode rn a ir pu m ps .

a n d a good co n d e n se r 2 8 i n ches c a n be m ai n tai n ed eve n i n the t r o p cs 90 pe r i

c e n t of this is
.
— that is the back p r essu r e is about 2
g lbs I f the ship ,
.

is likely t o see m uch service in t h e tr opics 2 7 i n ches will be saf e a n d 90 per , ,

c e n t of it is 2 4 3 i n ches s o that the back p r essu r e the n will be 2 8 5 lbs

.
,
With .

a tu r bi n e the back p r essu r e in it is ve r y n ea r ly that i n the co n de n se r t op as ,

t he r e is p r actically n o e x haust pipe a n d ce r tai n ly n o valve obstr uctio n s ,

.

For ge n e r al t r a d e r s the back p r essu r e shoul d be assu med at 3 lbs a n d f or .

,

t hose othe r ships casually visiti n g the t r opics 2 7; lbs i s sufficie n t allowa n ce
3
.

f or calculatio n s .

Exa mple — TO asce rtai n the p r obable m ea n p r essu r e r e ferr ed t o the

L P cyli n de r of a passe n ger stea m e r whose se r vice will be thr ou gh the t ropics
. . ,

t h e boiler p r essu r e t o be 1 8 5 lbs .

He r e the i n itial absolute p r essur e is 2 00 lbs .

The r ate of ex pan sio n 200 15 1 3 33 .

p
R e f e rri n g to Table x vii for this r ate of e x pa n sio n t h e r a t io . 0 2 69 ,
.

17
B ack p r essu r e is 3 .
1

The n theo r etical m ea n p r essur e ( 200 x 0 2 69 3) 5 0 8 lbs .

The actual m ea n p r essur e will be f ou n d by multiplyi n g this a m ou n t by

t h e f acto r give n f or such e n gi n es on ( Table x viii p say Thus .
, .
,

Pr obable mea n p r essu r e 508 x 0 7, or 35 5 6 lbs .

Th e D iameter of t h e L P y lin der m a y be f ou n d t h e.n as f ollows. z C

— Whe n *
.

p m is the r e f e rr ed m ea n p r essu r e L e t d be the d i am ete r i n i n ches , R the .

n u m be r of r evolutio ns , a n d S the str oke in f eet .

2
I H P X
Then a r ea of pisto n
. . .

-
4 p m X 2S
'

I H P X I H P X
D Ia m e t e r L P
' '

R u le — c y lI n d er
. . . . . .

. . .

pm X S X R i0 m x piston speed
If the stroke is n ot d ecided S x R is hal f the m ean pisto n speed , .

The v olu me of stea m at cut off for a r ate Of e x pa n sio n E m ust be capacity -

of L P cyli n de r
. . E .

The equivalen t cut Off in the H P cyli n de r for this will be e x p r essed
-
. .

as a fr actio n of the str oke r atio of cyli n d e r s E .

II t h e cut off is to be ea r ly as it S hou ld be to avoi d e x cessive

’
-
d rop , , ,

Th N E C e t I t E
. . d S R l f
oa s thi i
ns .
go h i p i
. an . u e or s n car s s s

wh i le on v oy a ge.
2 34 M A N UAL M R N E EN A I GI N E ER I N G
‘

or .

it will be see n that the r ati o of c y li n der s m ust be s m alle r tha n if a late r cut
off we r e a d missible or desi r able .

The n if x be the cut O ff as a fr actio n of the st r oke a n d clea r a n ce is

, ,

n eglected

The n the r atio of L P to H P c y li n de r E X x . . . .

,

or a: cyli n de r r atio E .

Taki n g the cut Off at 0 5 5 of the str oke the r atio of L P t o H P will b e
-
, . . . .

0 5 5 X r ate Of e x pa n sio n a n d if that is take n as absolute p r essu r e 1 3 f or ,

econ o mic e n gi n es .

R u le — R at io
to H P cyl in de rs
of L P . . . .

abs olute wo r ki n g p ressu r e

23 6

Ex a mple T O fin d the S i zes of cyli n de r s f or a s h ip whose e n gi n es a re t o

—

develop I H P on the co n ditio ns n a med be f o r e with the pisto n spee d

. . .
,

at a m ea n of 700 f eet per m i n ute .

He r e the d ia m et er of cylin de r 78 i n ches .

R atio of LP . . to HP . . cyli n de r 73 '

D ia m ete r of HP . . cyli n der 28 8 .

Th e S ize I n termedia te Mecfiu m Press u re Cy linder to avoid d r op should

of -

be la r ge r than it woul d be if d ete r mi n e d by such p r actic a l co n sid e r atio n s

as low i ni tial loa d s to avoid shock va r iation in te m pe r at u r e etc The t r u e , , .

m ea n betwee n the L P a n d H P cyli n d e r woul d be as f ollows — Whe r e d

. . . .

is the dia m eter of the H P a n d D t h at of the L P c y li n d e r . .

,
. . .

D ia m ete r of MP . . c v lin d er

This howeve r is t oo la rge a n d n ot in acco r da n ce with p ractice ;

, , , t he
f ollowi n g r ule m a y be f ollowe d the r e f o r e with t r ip les , ,

R u le .
— D ia m ete r of m ediu m —p r essu r e cyli n de r

or , S i m ply d ¥ D
( l ) x 0 45 .

For the e n gin e in the above Ex a m ple ,

D ia m ete r m ediu m cyli n de r

such d ia m ete r s of cyli n de r in a n o rdi n a r y passe n ge r stea m e r the st rok e

Fo r
would be 4 8 i n ches The n t h e e n gi n es would have cyli n d e rs
.
48 a n d ,

78 i n ches d ia m ete r a n d 4 feet st r ok e t h e r e volut io n s a r e the n 700

'

, 8 or ,
,

8 75 pe r m i n ute .
 AR R AN G E MEN T S OF C Y LI N D ER S . 2 35

Th e Arrangemen t of
a m a ri n e e n gi n e is n ow a much m o r e
th e Cy l in ders of

i m por tan t as also a m o r e i n te resti n g p r oble m th a n was the case f o r me rly:

, ,

w h e n the r e wer e o n ly two Of the m To day with the m ultiplicity of cyli n de rs .

-
,

a n d c r a n ks that a r e co mm o nl y f ou n d especially in Oil i n te rn a l co m bustio n ,

e n gin es the arra n ge m e n t is gove rn ed by ci rcu m sta n ces quite beyo n d t h e

,

k e n of the olde r e n gi n e builder w h o was n eve r t r ouble d with p roble ms ,

i n volvi n g the n i c e balan ci n g of the movi n g parts so as t o avoi d vib r atio n ,

or to stu d y the eco n o my of stea m pipi n g i n volved in dete rmi ni n g the seque n ce

of cyli n d e r s so as to get the best flow of stea m fr o m boile r t o co n de n se r with

the least e x pe n d itu r e on bala n ce weights .

N ow the d esig n e r has to f ace such questio n s as well as all that is i n volved ,

i n the d ivision Of cyli n de r s to b ri n g the m withi n r easo n able li m its of si z e

when the power to be d eveloped is lar ge L ar ge cyli n de r s c a n be m ade a s .

well n ow as f o r merly but m o d er n e n gin eer s p r e fe r t o have t wo of mode r ate

,

si z e in the place of the on e of 1 30 or eve n 1 4 0 i n ches d ia m ete r fitte d by thei r

p r edecesso r s eve n though the hi ghest p r essur e in the m is onl y hal f that
'

in these Olde r a n d la rge r o n es Mor eove r the solid steel pisto n s of to d a y

.
,
-

a re lighter a n d ce r tai n ly sa f e r tha n the old hollow cast i r o n o n es a n d in the -

,

ve rtical e n gin es they a re s o ver y much easie r to ex a min e ove r hau l or re m ov e , ,

than those of the hori zo n tal e n gi n e of old days N eve rtheless the te n de n cy .
,

is t o split the L P me m ber of a co mpou n d syste m i n to two or m o r e portio n s

. .
,

f or the r eby a t riple stage e n gi n e ma y have f ou r c r a nks a n d be bala n ced on

-
,

the S chlick syste m a n d each L P cyli n de r c a n have a la r ger r atio of po rt

, . .

a n d stea m passage sectio n whe r eby the back p r essur e in it is less tha n that
,

Obt a in in g in the si n gle la r ge cy li n de r a n d ther eby be n e fit by a hi gh vac ,

in t h e co n de n se r .

Th e S ize of t h e S t eam Ports in a Cyl in der do n ot va r y in p r actice with

the s qu a re of the d iam eter but at a so m ewhat less r ate i n as much as the
, ,

t r a n sve r se m easur e m e n t m a y be in p r oportio n to the diam ete r w hi le the ,

lo n gitudi n al or a x i al b readth does n ot i n cr ease so r apidly ther e f o r e the ,

la rge r is the cyli n de r the s m aller is the r atio of m ax i mu m po rt to pisto n -

a rea ; con seque n tly with the sam e speed of pisto n the flow of stea m is Of
n ecessity hi gher t hr ough po rts a n d passages I f the r e f o r e the n u m be r .
, ,

of c y li n de r s be m ultiplied s o as t o keep thei r si z es co m pa r atively s m alle r

, ,

the highe r will be the ste a m e ff icie n cy The m echan ical e fficie n cy h owever .
, ,

will p robably be co n side r ably less on accou n t of the multipli city of wo r ki n g ,

par ts gla n ds etc On the whole howeve r withi n r eas on able li mi ts a n d

, , .
, ,

with m ode rn wo rk m a n shi p a n d m ate rial the gen e r al e fficie n cy Of the e n gin e ,

with the la r ger n u mbe r of cyli n de r s is h igh er t h a n a n y older on e w ith the

'

less.

The r e a re other i n flue n ces at wo r k to d ay whi ch i n cli n e the m ar i n e en gi n e ,

buil d e r to m or e sub division of cylin der s The Oil e n gi n e with its ve ry

'

.
,

high i n itial p ressu r es a n d te mpe r atur es r equi res n ot o n ly a ver y str o n g a n d ,

si m ple cyli n de r but on e of quite a li mited d ia m eter

,
S i n ce the si n gle .

acti n g two cycle e n gi n e is likely t o be the type for co mpetitio n with the
-

'

tu r bi n e a n d r ecip r ocato r on shipboard it is m or e tha n ever su r e t o have ,

c y li n d er s of li m ited dia m ete r The D iesel Oil e n gi n e ( fig . usi n g heavy .

Oil of so r ts a n d wi thout special ig ni to rs

,
is looke d t o as the on e specially ,

suitable a m o n g i n tern al co mbustion e n gi n es for m ari n e pu r poses This .

e n gi n e with its i ni tial p re s sur e of 5 5 0 t o 65 0 lbs pe r squar e i n c h a n d li able

,
.
,
 A R RA N G E MEN T S OF C Y LI N D ER S . 2 37

to a te mpe ratur e e x ceedi n gly high r equi r es to be q u ite m o d e r ate in si z e a n d ,

str o n g in co n st ructio n .

E ve n the stea m e n gi n e of to day is subj ect to quite high p r essu r es a n d -

whe n the stea m is supe r heate d it m a y have a te mpe r atur e of 6 00 F w ith °

.
,

a p r essu r e of 2 30 lbs per squar e i n ch w hi ch r equires si milar car e a n d .

,

li mi tatio n s as the oil e n gi n e al t hough in a lesse r degr ee howeve r to be , , ,

O bse r ved in the desig n of the H P cyli n der U n d e r these ci rcu m sta n ce s . . .

lub r icatio n of the i n te rn al wo rki n g p ar ts is at all ti m es u n ce rtai n a n d n eve r ,

t o be depe n de d on as bei n g positive he n ce the s m alle r the c y li n d e r the les s , ,

liability t o ser ious de r an gem e n t .

Th e Arrangemen ts of Cy l in ders possible for a Tripl e a n d Qu adru ple S tage -

Engin e m a y be stu d ied by r e fe r r i n g t o thei r d iagr a m s on figs 73 t o 74 Th e . .

e a r ly t r iple e x pa n sio n e n gi n e of D r Ki r k had al w

-
ays thr ee c r an ks with t he .
,

n atu r al seque n ce of cyli n de r s fig The ve r y earliest t r iple stage .

-

e n gi n e howeve r had o n ly two c r a n ks wi th the H P a n d M P cyli n d e r s in

, , , . . . .

ta n de m ove r on e a n d the low p r essur e ove r the othe r as in fig 73 N O 1 ,

.
,
. .

I n as m uch as the Ol d e r co m pou n d e n gi n es we r e m ade with the L P r o ds . .

a n d valve gea r m uch heavier tha n those of the high p r essu r e it was f ou n d ,

b ette r when tr iplin g such e n gi n es to fit the thi r d or n e w H P cyli n de r ov e r

, , .

the low p ressu r e ( fig 73 N o 2 ) the e n gi n e so t r eated was n ot o n ly safe r

.
,
.

but bette r bala n ced a n d easie r to sta rt tha n whe n the n e w H P was placed . .

ove r the o rigi n al H P cyli n de r . . .

Whe n the lar ge r t w o stage co mpou n d e n gi n es we r e t ripled two n e w H P l

-
.

cyli n de r s wer e fitte d on e ove r each of the Old o n es as show n in N O 3 the n , .

,

t h e load was eve nl y d ivi d ed on t h e c r a n ks a n d the co m bi n atio n ve r y quic k

i n ha n dli n g S o m e of the Old a n d la r ge t wo stage r s we r e t r ipled by t h e
.
-

a d ditio n of a co m plete n ew H P e n gi n e be fo r e the old o n es an d couple d t o . .

,

t h e m in the best way cir cu m sta n ces pe r mitted .

The Old thr ee cr an k t w o stage co mpou n d e n gi n e s we r e tripled by addi n g

- -

a n e w H P : cyli n de r ta n de m to each low p r essu r e a n d so m e n e w e n gi n es of ,

la r ge si z e have bee n m ade on this pla n .

N o 1 design of fig 73a is on e r athe r for t r eati n g a n e x isti n g e x pa n siv e

. .

e n gin e havi n g t w o equal si z e d cyli n de r s tha n to copy f or a n e w e n gi n e I f

-
.
, .

howeve r la r ge powe r we r e wa n ted in s mall floo r space but with u nl i m ite d

height it is quite a s u i table a rr a n ge m e n t The sa m e ma y be said for N o 2:
, ,

. .
,

on the sa m e page whe n la r ge r e n gi n es still a r e wa n ted on a li m ited floo r

S pace .I n this case h oweve r ther e is a si m plicity in design a n d li m itatio n

, ,

in di m e n sio n s that a r e att r active I n fig 73a Ex 2 the r e a r e t h r ee cyli n d e rs . .

,
.
,

in li n e Of equal dia m ete r ab ove the m ta n de m Wi se a r e three othe r cyli n d e r s -

.

in li n e a n d of equal dia m ete r Of these the fir st is the high p r essu r e of t h e .

syste m the n e x t t w o a re the mediu m o n es a n d the lowe r three a re the L P

, ,
. .

cyli n der s Th e r atio Of M P t o H P is thus 2 a n d as that of the L P to the

. . . . .
,
. .

H P is 6 that of L P t o M P is 3
. . , As a co n c r ete e x a m ple t h e L P cyli n der s
. . . . .
,
. .
.

m a y be take n as each 6 0 i n ches dia m ete r the H P a n d t w o M P cyli n de r s , . . . .

.

D iagr a m 3 ( fig 73 a ) s h ows the f ou r c r a n k t hr ee stage co m pou n d

.
- -

a rr a n ge m e n t of cyli n de r s with t h e two low p r essu r e of equal weight of m ovi n g

,

par ts at t h e e n d s as is the co m m o n p r actice D iagr a m 4 shows a va r iatio n

, . ,

with the t w o L P cylin d e rs n e x t on e a n othe r, with a valve box co mm o n

.
. .

to t h e two a n d thei r c r a n ks at r igh t a n gles s o t h at t h e flow of stea m is; ,

 MA N UAL OF M AR I N E EN GI N EE R I N G .

No . 3 .

Fou r crim k s ,
L P
. . r od s r e d u c e d .

No . 4 .

Fou r c ra n k s , a ll r od s s a me s iz e.

F ig 73a
. .
-
V a ri ou s Arr a n ge me n t s of t he Cy li n d e r s of T ri ple Ex pa n s ion En g i n e s
-
.
 AR R A N G E ME N T S OF C Y LI N D E R S .

No ,
3 .

Fou r Set s Of V a lv e - G e a r .

No . 4
T w o S e ts of V a lv e ~G e a r .

74 — V a ri ou s Arr a n g e me n t s of t h e Cy lin d e r s of Q u a d ru ple Ex pa n s i on

-
.

Tw o Th re e an d Fou r -
Cr a n k En g in e s .
 D I AM E T E R or L P . . C Y LI N D E R .
24 1

D esig n s 3 and 4
show the cyli n d e r s as a r ra n ge d for fou r c r a n ks the latte r ,

bei n g the n atu r al seque n ce of cyli n de r w h ile with the f o rm e r the s m alle r ,

cyli n de r s a re outsi d e a n d the thr ee last in seque n ce so that the r ocki n g ,

actio n is r educed by the a r m of the couple bei n g a mi ni mu m .

Figs 6 9 a n d 70 a r e e x a m ples of m u l t i cyli n de r e n gi n es Ope r ati n g on

.
-

on e c r a n k the a x is of each e n gi n e bei n g vi r tually in the sa m e t r a n sve r se

,

pla n e as the othe r s Co n si d e r able f o r e a n d a ft space i s saved by such

.

a d esig n a n d although ve r y m uc h ou t of bala n ce staticall y such e n gi n es

, ,

will wo r k satis f acto r ily a n d a r e qui te suitable a n d use f ul for tug boats a n d
,

r ive r c r a ft wo r ki n g i n s m ooth wate r whe r e space a n d p r i m e cost a re of gr eat ,

im po rta n ce They a r e la r gely e mploye d on the Amer ica n river s a n d har bour s
.
,

w he r e the to n n age questio n d oes n ot a ff ect the desi gn er .

Fig 28 3 is a n othe r e x a m ple of co m pact n ess whe r eby f ou r cyli n de r s a re

.
,

cause d to ope r at e on two c r a n ks without bei n g in ta n d e m I n t hi s case .

,

however the e n gi n es a r e bala n ced both statically a n d agai n st i n e rtia f or ces

, .

Th e R a tio of Cyl in ders in Practi ce depe n ds so m ewhat on the serv ice of

the ship The car go boat with t r iple thr ee c r an k e n gi n e s an d a wor kin g
.
,
-

p ressu r e of 1 8 5 lbs the r atio of L P t o H P cyli n der is about 6

. whil e . . . .

with a high e r boile r pr essur e up to 2 00 lbs it is 7 0 With e x p r ess stea mers .

-
.

a n d such p r essur es the r atios wil l be fro m 5 5 to 6 C In N aval ships the r atio
- °

is n o m o r e th a n 6 3 whe n the wo r kin g p r essur e is over 2 00 lbs a n d 70 whe n .

,

2 5 0 lbs Q uad ruple e n gi n es a r e li mi te d to se r vi ce in the m e r ca n tile m a ri n e

.
-

a n d with the m t h e cylin d e r r atios a re fr o m 8 to 9 the latte r bein g the ru l e ,

with b oiler p r e ssu r es up to 2 30 lbs per squar e i n ch I n s mall hi gh speed . .

-

c r a ft as to r pe d o boats d estr oyer s a n d other simi lar shi ps the r atio with
, , , ,

180 to 2 00 was o nly to 5 0 -

.

To det ermine th e R a ti o of the L P to the H P cylin de r in a n y co m poun d . . . .

syste m the followin g sim ple rul e holds good —Whe n p is t h e absolute p res
,

su r e of the steam at H P valve box r atio of cyli n der s p . K wher e in

.
-
, ,

t h e m er ca n tile m a r i n e K is 2 7 for car go s t ea m e r s a n d 3 4 for e x p r ess stea m ers , .

I n the n aval se r vice K is 3 5 for cruise r s a n d battleships a n d 4 2 for scouts ,

a n d d est r o y e r s The eco n o m y of these vessels at low speeds is quite good a n d

.
,

eve n at hi gh a re n ot so ve ry e x tr avagan t co n siderin g the low stea m e fficien cy .

Havin g determin ed th e D iameter of t h e L P Cylin der n e c essa ry for the

’
. .

powe r r equi r ed fr o m the e n gin e a n d deduced fr om the con di tio n s a n d cir ,

cu m st a n c e s of t h e pa rtic u la r case the dia m ete r of the H P a n d M P cyli n de rs . . . .

,

t h e d esign e r ca n p r oceed with the di m e n sion s a n d a rra n ge m e n ts of all that

pe rtai n s to th em I t is howeve r of p ri m e importan ce that the pipe through
.
, ,

which the stea m is supplie d to the e n gin e fr o m t h e gen er ator s a n d that ,

thr ough whi ch it passes away fro m it to the con den ser a r e of adequate si ze ,

a n d as sho r t as ci r cu m sta n ces w ill pe r mit f or othe r wise t h e r e m a be a d r op o f

y ,

p r essur e m or e tha n is desir able fr om the boiler to the valve chest a n d what , ,

is wo r se still a m o re se rious dr op fro m the L P cyli n der to the co n de n ser I f

, . . .

the r atio of L P to H P cyli n d e r is 7 0 the loss of a poun d of pressur e at the

. . . .
-
,

L P cyli n de r will r equi r e a n i n cr ease of 7 lbs m ea n p r essu r e at the H P

. . . . .

cyli n d e r to m ake co m pen satio n Fur the r if the re fe rr e d m ean p r essu r e c a n .

,

be r aised fr o m 33 to 3 4 lbs by a good co n den se r a n d a d equate ex haust pipe . ,

t he gai n in m ea n p r essu r e is 3 per cen t a n d the gai n in powe r so m ewhat m o r e .

,

if the e n gi n e is quicke n e d by it as it wo u ld be I n all r ecip r ocati n g e n gi n es t h e .

N E Co t I t E
8
. . d S h e d p t d T 5 i t h ir s t an d d pe i fi t i on f o 1 8 0 1
as ns . . an . av a a e n e ar s c ca r 5 .

1
2 42 MA N UA L or MAR I N E E NG I N E E R I NG .

flow of stea m t o a n d fr o m the m is i n te r m itt en t m o r e or less ; the highe r the

rat e of r evolutio n the s m alle r i s the va r iatio n due t o it W

. ith slow r u n n in g
-

en gi n es the HP valve
. . b ox m a y
- be with adva n tage of such a si z e a s to act

as a r
’
eceive r and so p r eve n t the wi r e d r a-
wm g act i o n at e n t r v of stea m be ing
,
 Sin ce w ith s li d e valves at both stea m e n tr y a n d e x haust the o r i fice is a n
e x pa n di n g a n d co n t r acti n g on e w hi le the sectio n of t h e cha n n els or passage s
,

is co n sta n t a n d co n s ide ri n g that clear an ce space is detr i m e n tal to e co n o m y

, ,

t h e latte r n eed n ot be of the sa m e a r ea as the po rts ; or what pe r haps is the ,

s a f e r di ct u m the ports should always have a la r ger a r ea tha n the passag e

,

s ectio n s ( 17 fig. . Also the passages shoul d b e m ade as sho r t as possible ,

a n d as fr ee f r o m turn s a n d co rn e r s whe r e eddie s m a y se t up as the ge n e ral

d esig n pe r mits ; especially should this b e f ollowed with the L P c v lin de r . .

w he r e the loss fr o m clea r a n ce is i rr ecove r able .

D rop V a l ves have bee n used success f ull y with e n gi n es of the m a r i n e type
o n sho r e ; these , however a re n ot r equi red t o r evers e a n d do n ot a s a
, ,

r ule wo r k a 2 4 hou r day or a 7 day week ;

-
m o r eove r a stoppage f r o m a n y
-
,

c ause is n ot likely t o be f atal at a n y ti m e I f such valves coul d be t r uste d

.

o n boa r d s hi p a n d a rr a n ged for r eve r sal

, m uch of the stea m a n d the r m al
,

losses of the m ar i n e e n gin e woul d be avoi d e d a n d b e si d es the p r etty , ,

i n dicato r d iagr a m s p r oduced be without the d r awbacks for w hi ch fr o m the , ,

m a r i n e e n gi n ee r s poi n t of view they a r e i n adequate co mpe n satio n

’

,
Ju d gi n g .

by what is occurri n g in the m otor c a r wo r l d the dr op valve is n ot the d e s id e r

-

a tu m of the oil e n gi n e b u i l d e r f or on e by on e they a re r ever ti n g t o slide valves

,
.

M a in S te a m P ip e —
The m ai n stea m pipe which supplies a cyli n de r with
.
,

s tea m should be of such a si z e that the m ea n velocity of flow thr ough it

,

d oes n ot e x ceed f eet per mi n ute Wh en t hi s is n ot e x ceede d the loss

.
,

o f p r essur e betwee n the boile r a n d the valve chest is ve r y slight i n dee d -

.

I f howeve r the valve chest is la r ge the cut off i n the cyli n de r is be f o r e

, ,
-

,
-

hal f st r oke a n d the r ate of r evolutio n m o d er ate the a r ea of t r a n sve r se sectio n

-

o f t hi s pipe m a y b e s m alle r tha n give n by thi s r ule f or as state d the

_
,

pisto n speed is below the m ean velocity at the e ar ly pa r t of the str oke a n d ,

t h e space in the stea m chest acts as a r ese r voi r f or stea m s o as to keep u p

-
,

a ste ady su pply dur i n g ad mi ssio n I f the space is n ot less tha n on e hal f -
.

the volu me swept t hr ough by the pisto n at cut ofi the velocity of stea m -
,

i n the pipe m a y be a s su me d t o be f or e n gi n es of 1 5 0 N H P to . . .

a nd f or those above that p owe r ; f or s m alle r e n gi n es owi n g to the ,

co m par atively la r ge r r esista n ces of s m all pipes it is n ot advisable to take ,

a highe r sp ee d tha n On the ot h e r ha n d if the cut ofi is late r tha n , ,

-

hal f str oke a n d the valve box s m all the assu m ed velocit y s houl d be a t
,
-
,

least 1 0 per ce n t less tha n that give n above

. .
 L ow P R E SS U RE CY LI N D ER .
245

Fi g .
77a . Cy li n d e r ( N a v al ) t
wi h T r iple S te a m Pa r “
.
246 MAN UA L or MA R I N E E NG I N E E R I NG .

Taki n g fee t as the m ea n velocity S the m ea n ,

spee d of pisto n in
f eet per mi n ute , a n d D the dia m ete r of the cyli n de r t h e n , ,

D ia m ete r of m ai n steam pipe

E xa mple — T o fin d the dia m ete r of the m ai n stea m pipe to a cyli n de r '

4 5 i n c h es d ia mete r a n d 5 f eet st r oke the r evolutio n s at f ull spee d to be 6 0 pe r

'

m i n ute.

Her e S 2 X 5 X 60 600 a n d D 4 5 i n ches;

,
The r e fo r e ,

D ia m ete r of m ai n stea m pipe J600 1 2 2 5 in s .

Whe n the mai n stea m pipe is ab n o rm ally lo n g as is the case with la rge ,

s hi ps with lo n g boile r r oo m s the d iviso r should be 85 to 8 7

, .

Area t h rou gh St op an d Thrott le V a lves Al though the loss of p r essur e .

-

a t the valve b ox is o fte n att r ibute d t o wa n t of sectio n al a r ea in the m ai n

-

stea m pipe it is m o r e freque n tly d u e to co n t r acted ar ea past these valves

, .

Th e fr ictio n th r ough a n u m be r of s m a ll ope ni n gs is con si d e r ably m o r e tha n

t h r ough on e of a n a r ea equal t o the collective ar eas of those ope n i n gs especially ,

i f the su m of the per i m eter s of the latte r lar gely e x ceed that of the si n gl e
ope n i n g a n d the loss of head w ill be large if due allowa n ce I s n ot m ade
,

For this r easo n the r e should be always a n e x cess of a rea a r ou n d valves a n d

oth e r obstructio n s to the fr ee passage of steam a n d the passages leadi n g t o ,

a n d fr o m the m should be as easy as possible so as to avoi d viole n t cha n ge s ,

both of di rectio n a n d velocity of flow .

S team Ports an d Passages — S i n c e in most e n gi n es the stea m has t o e x haus t

.
, ,

t h rough the sa m e por ts a n d passages by which it was ad mitted their si ze ,

m us t be gove rn ed by the p r ope r flow of e mi ssio n r athe r tha n of ad m issio n .

T he a r ea of Sectio n of stea m po r ts shoul d be such that the m ea n vel ocit y -

of flow at e x haust should n ot e x ceed f eet per m i n ute The po rts shoul d .

be so m ewhat lar ge r tha n the sectio n of the passages especially whe n ce r tai n ,

k i n d s of valves a r e use d w hi ch will b e dealt with later on ; as a r ule they

, ,

have n early the sa m e a r ea as the sectio n al ar ea of the passages To avoid .

e x cess i ve c lea ra n ce howeve r the capacity of the passages shoul d be as s m al l

, ,

as possible co n siste n t with free fl ow of stea m a n d as this depen ds gr eatly ,

on thei r sectio n al a r ea so that the r eductio n i n capacity ca n o n l

, y be attai n ed
by m aki n g the m as sho r t as possible N ot o n ly will the evils a risi n g fr o m
.

c lea ra n ce be avoi d ed but the loss thr ough r esista n ce be ve r y m ate rially
,

lesse ned by sho rte n in g the d istan ce betwee n the valve f ace a n d cy li n de r
h
a n d t ei r c ooli n g e ff ect on the I n co m i n g stea m te m pe r a t u r e .

Ar ea of ste am po rts a n d of sect i o n thr ough passages

Ar ea of pisto n
~
x Sp eed of pisto n
6 , 000

( D ia m ete r of cyli n de r) 2 spee d of pisto n

7, 63 6

Open in g of Port t o S t ea m — I t is advisable . so to d esig n th e valve ,

t hat t h e Ope n i n g for ad m is sio n of stea m to the cyli n de r is su fficie n t to avoi d

 E XH AU S T P A SS AG E S AN D I
P PE S . 24 7

a n y se r ious loss by wi r e d r awi n g ; but in actual p r actice u n less S p e cial

-

gear i n g is design ed so as to give a quick m otio n to t h e valve at the i n stan t

o f cut off the r e is ve r y co n si d e r able loss o f p r essu r e show n on the i n dicato r
-

d iagr a m a n d what is worse still fr o m d e ficie n t ope n i n g the loss is ge n e r ally

, , ,

n ot li m ited to the pe r io d n ea r to cut off bu t d u r in g the whole ti m e of a d m issio n

-
, .

The o r d i n ar y valve gear s do n ot give that quick m otio n eithe r at ope n i n g or ,

at cut Off which is such a d e s id e ra t u m S epa r ate e x pa n si o n valves a n d special

‘

-
.
,

valve gear i n gs ad mit of such a m otio n a n d co n seque n tl y the Ope n i n g t o

-
,

stea m with the m ma y be s m alle r th a n whe n cut O ff is e ff ecte d by t h e o rd i n a ry -

sli d e valve a n d li n k m otion ; they a re howeve r the cause of m o r e loss tha n

- -

, ,

gai n a n d a re n ow n eve r use d

,
.

He n ce whe n o n ly co m m o n valves a n d gea r a re t o be used the a r ea for

, ,

O p en i ng to stea m whe n at its g reatest should be such that the m ea n velocity

o f fl ow does n ot e x ce e d feet per mi n ute I n actual p r actice the a m ou n t .

of ope n i n g is o fte n m uch less tha n that give n by the above r ules but it alway s ,

r esults in loss of p r ess u r e i n the cyli n d e r t h r oughout a n d e x cessive wir e ,

d r awi n g p r evious to cut off a n d the re fo r e shoul d n ot be le s s but -

, ,

greater .

Exh au s t Passage d Pi — The a r ea of sectio n of e x haust passa g es

'

s a n p es .

shoul d be such that the m ea n velocity of stea m does n ot e x cee d feet

e r m i n ute a n d i f the dista n ce fr o m the cyli n d e r to the co n d e n se r is c om
p ,

p a ra t iv e ly g r eat a m u ch la r ge r a r ea is a d visable
, The r e shoul d n ot be a .

greate r di ff e r e n ce tha n 1 % lbs betwee n the p r essu r e in the cyli n de r a n d th a t

.

in the co n de n se r whe n e x hausti n g eve n with a high v acuu m , .

T AB LE XXX I .

The e x haust passages f ro m the high p r essu r e cyli n d e r of a co m pou n d -

e n gi n e t o the n ex t cyli n d e r shoul d b e such that the fl ow of stea m d oes n ot

e x ceed f eet per m in ute in o r de r that the di ffe r e n ce betwee n the p ressur e
,

N E Co t I t E d S o
as mm d
ns f h t f om H
an P Ey li drec f t f m M P y li d
en or e x au s r c n er ee ro c n er

f d f f
. .
. ,

ff work i n g
. . .
. .

d 1 } lb s at
rom L P c y lin d e r eet , a n d di e re n c e i n p res s u re s e a s p ee s
ee t
_

an
.
.
. .
,
 C Y L I N D E R LI N E R . 24 9

li n er . This li n e r shoul d be m ade of a hard close gr ai n ed m etal havi n g c on ,

s id e ra ble st r e n gth but n ot so ha r d as to r esi st the actio n of a cutti n g tool or

,

file a n d capable Of taki n g a n d kee i n g a poli sh whe n r ubbe d by the pisto n

,
p
r i n gs lub r icate d with so f t wate r ; i t shoul d also be such that t h e e x pa n s i o n

c aused b y heat is p r acticall

y the sa m e as the cast i r o n of which the cyli n de r

itsel f 1 3 m ad e I t is usual to m ake these li n er s of cast i r o n st r en gthe n e d

.
, ,

c lose d a n d ha r de n ed by m i x i n g with it ce r tai n ki n d s of pig i r o n

, or by the ,

a dditio n Of a s m all qua n tity O f steel ( a ide Chap x x x ”) The Ad mir alty .

p r e f e r the li n er s to be m a d e of steel ha m m e r e d or r olled t o a p r ope r si z e ,

f or m achi n i n g a n d so m e e n gi n ee r s use cast steel Although t h e steel gives .

good r esults it c a n be equalled by the specially m ade cast i r o n s o f a r as

,
-
,

good wear i n g is co n ce rn e d but of cour se steel e x cee d s cast i r o n in te n sile

, , ,

s tr e n gth this latter quali ty was n ecessar y to a higher degr ee f or the ho r i

,

z on t a l e n gi n e tha n f or the ve r tical e n g i n e the Ad mi r alty wer e j usti fied I n ,

goi n g t o the e x pe n se of the steel however as it e n able them t o fit m uc h , ,

lig h te r li n e rs tha n would be ad m issible if m ade of cast i r o n I n the m e r cha n t .

s e r v i ce with the ve r tical e n gi n e the cast i r o n li n e r does e x ceedi n gly well

,
-

a n d it is n ot likely to be supe r seded by steel eve n if this m ater ial c a n be ,

m a n u factu r e d m uch cheaper tha n at p r ese n t Li n e r s a r e usually m ade with .

a n i n side fla n ge at the botto m e n d ( fig 7 which fit s i n to a recess in the .

cylin de r e n d a n d is secu re d ther e by s c rew bolls The u ppe r e n d is tu rn ed

,
-
.

for a fe w i n ches s o as t o fit tightly i n to the cyli n de r shell at that pa r t

, The .

j oi n t at the cyli n de r botto m is m ade with r e d lead pai n t while leakage -

,

betwee n the li n e r a n d the cyli n der S hell is p r even te d at the othe r e n d by

s tu ffin g a fe w r ou n ds of asbestos r ope or Tuck s packi n g i n to a r ecess f o r m ed
’

for that pu r pose a n d p r eve n ti n g it fr o m co m i n g ou t by secur i n g a fl a t w r ought

,

i r o n r i n g t o t he lin er s o as to cove r the packi n g S o meti m es in lieu of a .

'

s t u ffin g b ox the oute r edge of the li n er a n d the edge Of the tu rn ed pa r t of

'

-
,

the cyli n der shell a r e c h a m ph ere d s o as t o f or m a gr oove ; i n to this g r oove

’
a tu rn of Tuck s packi n g or asbestos r ope is pr essed with a r i n g as bef o r e .

S om e e n gi n ee r s p r e fe rr i n g t o r ely on m etallic co n tact tu rn a S light r ecess

, ,

i n stead of ch a m ph erin g t h e e d ge of the li n er a n d ca u lk in t o i t a r i n g of so f t ,

0 0 pper The Ad mi r alty m ethod of m aki n g a stea m tight j oi n t a t the oute r

.
-

e n d of the li n e r I s by m ea n s o f a flat Coppe r r i n g cove r i n g t h e j o i n t a n d secu r ed

.

to the li nger as also t o the cyli n der by m ean s of I r o n r i n gs a n d sc r ew bolts

, .

T h e coppe r r i n g is deeply gr ooved betwee n these 1 r on r i n gs s o as t o pe rm it

o f a S light m ove m e n t of the li n e r e n dways with r espect t o the c y li n de r ( r ide

fig 78 a )
. The li n e r s a r e so m eti m es secu r ed without a fla n ge at the botto m
.
,

by sc r ewi n g studs t h rou gh t h e cyli n de r S hell a n d li n er a n d m aki n g the e n ds ,

stea m tight as be f o r e
-
.

Th e space betwee n the li n e r a n d S hell should n ot be less tha n 1 i n ch a n d ,

m a y b e filled With stea m s o as t o p r eve n t co n de n satio n I n t h e cyli n de r a n d ,

heat the stea m du ri n g e x pan sio n I f the cyli n de r has t o be j acketed this .
,

is r eally a better pla n of doi n g it tha n by casti n g the cyli n d er a n d i n n er

cyli n de r together a s was v e r y ge n e r ally do n e f o r m e rly I nd epen d e n tly of
,
.

the adva n tage der ived fr o m the har de r m etal of which the li n e r m a y be
m ade c o m pa r ed with that wh ich is suitable f or s o i n t ricate a casti n g a s a
,

c yli n de r the r e is a n othe r ve r y g r eat adva n tage to the m a n u factu r e r

,
S i n ce .

it is a necessity that the i n side walls Of the cyli n de r s be sou n d a n d fr ee fr o m

spo n gi n ess as well as blowholes a casti n g ma y be co n de mn e d f or a de fect
, ,
25 0 MANU AL or M A R I N E E N G IN EE R I N G .

which in n o way det racts fr o m its st r e n gth or use ful n ess e x cepti n g that it d oe s ,

n ot a d mit of the pisto n wo r ki n g on it stea m tight I f a li n e r is t o be fitted -

.
,

a litt le spo n gi n ess or eve n a blowhole in the cyli n de r casti n g is of n o c on

,

seque n ce a n d the r e fo r e the e x tr a cost of fittin g a li n e r d oes n ot as a r ule

, , ,

e x ceed the r easo n able p r e m iu m which would be allowe d for assur i n g good “

a n d sou n d c a sti n gs a n d this is especially so i n the case of la r ge cyli n d e r s .

Fa l se Fa ces — For the sa m e r easo n that li n e r s a r e fitte d to t h e cyli n de r s

'

.
,

the cyli n de r f ace on which the valve sli d es n eeds a f alse f ace This is usually
, ,
.

m ade of ha r d close g rai n e d cast i r o n Of the sa m e quality as t h e li n e r a n d

,
-

, ,

secur ed t o the cyli n d e r ( fig 78 ) by b r ass S cr e ws havi n g chees e heads su n k

.

Fig 78
. .
— S e c ti on th r o
u
gh Cy li n d e r . Fig 78 a
. .
— Ad mir a lt y M e th od of t
Fi t in g L i n e rs .

'

in a r ecess so as to be co n side r ably below the su r face Car e shoul d be take n

,
.

to lock these sc r ews s o t h a t they ca n n ot S lack back ; the si m plest way of

'

doi n g this is to cut a S light n ick i n the si d e of the r ecess a n d caulk or d r i ft ,

the m etal of the sc rewhea d i n to it a fte r the sc r ew is tigh te n ed in place

,
.

False f aces we r e so m eti m es m ade of ha r d gu n m etal or p h ospho r b r o n z e - -

in t h e e n gi n es of wa r ships The supe r io r st r e n gth of these m etals ove r

.

cast i r o n a d m its of the f ace bei n g m uch thi n n e r but besi d es bei n g much ,

m o r e e x pe n sive t h e r e is g r eat r isk of d a m age to the cyli n d e r itsel f owi n g to

, ,

t h e g r eate r e x pa n sio n of the b r o n z es by heat ; they n eve r pe r m it of s u ch a

 D O U B LE -
P OR T ED V AL V E S . 25 1

goo d wo r ki n g su r face as does cast I r o n a n d eve n if da n ge r fr o m this I s slight

so m e d ifficulty has bee n e x pe rie n ce d in keepi n g the j oi n t betwee n the t w o
,

m etals stea m tight -

.

B y co n n ecti n g the r ecesses for the s cr e wh e a ds with gr ooves cut i n the

face the r ubbi n g su r faces a re well lub r icate d a n d a co n side r able a m ou n t of
, ,

r e lie f give n t o the valve itsel f by the r e d u c t ioh of the e ffective p r essu r e on it
,

cause d by the stea m flowi n g thr ou gh these gr ooves etc '

,
.

The co rn er s of the po r ts both in the false f ace a n d cyli n de r face should , _

,

be well r ou n ded as the casti n g is ve r y apt t o c r ack at the m i f they a re sha r p

, .

Th e Width of th e S team Ports i n t h e di rectio n pa r allel to the cy li n d e r ,

bo ttom is usual ly 0 6 t o 0 8 of the d ia mete r but e n gi n es of lo n ge r st roke

, ,

tha n usual r e qui r e a la r ge r p r opo rtio n than this to obtai n the n ecessa ry po rt
a rea without havi n g e x cessive le n gth ( measur ed in d rectio n pa r allel to t h e i

a x is ) I t is obvious that at the cyli n d e r bo r e the w idth of po rt ca n n o t

.
, ,

e x cee d t h e dia m eter a n d must r eally be so m ewhat less ; i n actual p ractic e

,

it sel d o m e x ceeds 0 8 of t h e dia m et er ; but at the cyli n d er f ace it ma y a n d ,

so m eti m es does e x ce ed the d iam ete r the le n gth bei n g such that the a r ea of
, .

sectio n in the passage is u m for m t hr oughout

Pis t on V a l ves —I f the ve r y b r oad cyli n de r f ace i s be n t i n to the f o r m of
.

a cyli n d er ther e will be the sa m e a rea of o r ifice w hi le the space occupied

, ,

i n di r ectio n of the wi dth of the po r t is less tha n on e thi r d of that r equi r e d -

f or the flat f ace The valve for s u ch a face m ust be cyli n d rical or co m pose d
.
,

of two ci r cula r di scs or pisto n s havi n g the sa m e depth of edge as the r e

would be of bea r i n g su rf ace at each e n d of t h e o rdi n a r y sli d e valve .

S uch a valve ( fi 1 38 ) is called a i s t on va lve a n d besides possess in g t h e

g p .
,

a d va n tage of occupyi n g little S pace has the m o r e valuable on e of bei n g fr ee ,

f r o m late r al p r essur e r equi ri n g n o bala nci n g or r elie f a n d m oy in g with t h e

, ,

least r esista n ce of a n y slide valve For these r easo n s the p i sto n valve is .
,

a n e x ceedi n ly good f o r m whe n hi g h p r essu r es O f stea m a re used a n d f or ve r y

g
la rge e n gi n e s I t I S a ve r y ge n e r al thi n g f or e n gi n ee r s to fit a pisto n valve t o
.

the high p r essur e cyli n de r of co mpou n d e n gi n es of all si zes a n d types ; m a n y

‘

maker s als o fit t h e m ediu m p ressu r e c y lin de r wit h pisto n valves a n d a f e w -

,

fit the m t o all t hr ee \c y li n de r s especially of la r ge e n gi n es a n d of e n gi n e s , ,

r u n n i n g at h igh r evolutio n s as i n tor pedo boat destr oye r s The ea r lies t

“

.
,

co m pou n d e n gi n es of Wool f m ade in the ear ly yea r s of the n i n etee n th ce n tu ry

, ,

had pisto n a lv e s
y
.

D rop V a l ves w ith so me f orm of Cor liss valve gea r ma y take t h e place
’’

, ,

of pisto n valves I n la r ge r e n gi n es at least i f supe r heated stea m co m es i n t o ,

m o r e ge n e r al use They a re e x te n sively used on the la rge slow speed m a ri n e

.
-

type of in e on S ho r e a n d in the slow r evolutio n p addle stea m e r in

America (e rngg 30 p
,

. .
,

D ou b le Port ed V a lves
-
Al though the r e is of n ecessity o n ly on e ope n i n g
.
-

of the ste a m passage i n to the cyli n de r the r e ma

y be t wo or m o r e o pe n in gs ,

t h rou gh t he cy li nd er f a ce in to the stea m passage The combin ed a re a of these .

O pe n i n gs n eed n ot m ate riall y e x cee d t h at of the sectio n of passage

.
but it ,

is bet te r to m ake it so ; as each will be ope n to stea m by the sam e a m oun t

.

as the sin gle port if t h e valve has t h e sa m e t ravel lap etc t h e total O pe n i n g
, , , ,

is in this case double th at of the si n gle port for a d ouble port e d fa ce a n d -

,

t r eble f or a treble po r ted f ace Whe n the face I s treble ported the valve I s .
,

g e n er ally a rr a n ged s o as t o admi t stea m th rough all three po rts but to e x h a u s t ,

 C O L U MN A I GS
F C N AN D FE ET . 25 3

Esca pe or R el ie f V a l ves — These a re si m ly S p r i n g loa de d sa fety valves

p
-
.
,

to allow of the escape of wate r caused by p ri mi n g or co n d e n satio n whe n the

pisto n d r ives it to on e e n d of the cyli n d e r They a r e fitte d to each e n d of .

the hi gh p r essu r e c y li n de r s of all f ast r u n n i n g m a r i n e e n gi n es I t is s u ffi

- -

cie n t i n ve r tical e n gi n es if the r e is o n ly a n escape valve at the botto m of t h e

m ediu m p r essu r e a n d low p r essu r e cyli n d e r s
-
The d ia m ete r of these valves
-
.

should be on e fift een t h the dia m ete r of the L P cyli n d e r of a co m pou n d

-
. . .

e n gi n e I n the N avy it is u sual f or all la rge cyli n der s to have a pa ir of escap e

.

valves at each en d .

D ra in Cock s — These shoul d be place d whe r eve r a n y wate r is likely t o

accu m ulate I n the cyli n de r a n d casi n gs , a n d thei r si z e 0 02 3 the dia m eter of
cylin d e r + 14 i n ch They should be co n n ecte d to a pipe lea di n g i n to t h e
.

co n d e n se r botto m ; f or if led to the bil ge the e n gi n e r oo m i s filled with stea m

whe n Ope n a n d the r eceive r a n d low p r es sur e cyli n de r will sel d o m d r ai n — in
,
-

f act du r i n g the gr eate r pa r t of the st r oke , i n stead of letti n g wate r ou t they

, ,

let a ir i n to the low p r essur e cyli n d e r a n d sp oil the vacuu m Ca I e S ho u l d be

-
.

take n whe n the d r ai n p i pe i s led to the co n den se r that the wate r etc d oes
-

, .
,

n ot i m pi n ge on the tubes or eve n on the co n de n se r si d es so as to do se r iou s

,

da m age a n d a n on r etu r n valve fitted to p r eve n t wate r getti n g back

,
-
.

R eceiver S pace — The space b etwee n the valve of the high p r essu r e
.
-

cyli n d e r a n d that of the m ediu m p r essu r e cyli n der , a n d that betwee n the -

valves of the m ediu m p r essu r e a n d the low p r essu r e cyli n de r s shoul d be

- -
,

fr o m 0 6 to 1 l ti m es the capacity of the e x hausti n g cyli n de r , whe n the

°

c r a n ks a re set at a n a n gle of
‘

Whe n the c r a n ks a r e opposite or n ea rly .

S O, thi s S pace m a y be ve r y m uch r educed The p r essu r e in the m e d iu m .

p r essur e r eceiver s hould n eve r e x ceed 0 7 the boiler p r essur e a n d is ge n e r ,

ally m uch lowe r tha n this I t is usual to fit a sa fety valve to the low p r essu re
.
-

r eceive r , loaded by weight or S p r i n g to a p r essu r e of 2 0 t o 3 0 lb s pe r squa r e .

i n ch othe r wise , owi n g to the lar ge flat sides betwee n the two cyli n de r s , a n d
in the valve b ox whe n a flat valve is e m ployed , gr eat r isk of e x plosion woul d
-

be ru n This sa fety val v e is usually Of the sa m e si z e a n d d esign as t h e

.

cyli n de r esc a pe valves The r eceive r s of thr ee c r a n k co m pou n d e n gi n es n e ed

.
-

n ot be so la r ge as the above , as the c r a n ks a r e usually at a n gles of

i n the ca s e of tr iple co m pou n d e n gi n es with the m ediu m pr essu r e leadi n g

- -

the high p r ess u re a s m alle r r eceive r will do

-
,
.

Col u mn Facin gs a n d Feet — I t was ve r y usual at on e ti m e t o f o rm m er el y .

f aci n gs for the j oi n ti n g of the cyli n de r to the fr a m es a n d colu mn s ; but as

t hi s n ecessitated the use of studs or else d r ive n bolts with the heads i n side ,

t h e cyl i nde r s it is n ow aba n do n ed dis ti n ct p r oj ectio n s or f eet bei n g cast to

, ,

the cyli n de r botto m havi n g fla n ges co rr espo n d i n g to those on the colu m n s

,

or fr a m es S O t h at they m a y b e co n n ected by d r ive n bolts w hi ch a r e always

, ,

accessible The o n ly obj ectio n s to t hi s m etho d a re t h at it is m or e e x pe n sive

.
,

to m ould a n d a cer tai n a m ou n t of r isk I s r u n of getti n g the casti n g sou n d

,

a n d st r o n g whe r e the f eet m eet the m ai n casti n g The f or m e r shoul d be .

d is r ega r ded in co n side r i n g S O i m po r ta n t a pa r t as the cyli n de r a n d the latte r ,

is always avoid e d by a good moul d er .

Gr eat ca r e S houl d be e x e r cise d in desig n i n g these colu mn f eet f or thr ough ,

t he m the load due t o the stea m on the cove r ( which is gr eate r t h a n that
on the pisto n ) is t r a n s m itte d a n d as the load 1 8 a recurr e n t on e a n d alwa s
,
y
a pplie d sudde n ly v er v a m ple sectio n O f m etal s h oul d be p r o v ided t o susta i n
,
254 MAN UA L or MAR I N E E NG I N E E R I NG .

it The a r ea of sectio n th r ough t h ese f eet shoul d be such that the s t ress
.

d oes n ot e ceed 6 00 lbs er squa r e i n ch —

that is the a r ea i n squa r e i n ches
x p .

is n ot less t h a n that give n by d ividi n g the ma x i mu m load on the cove r in “

pou n ds by 600 The webs fr o m the fla n ges Of the f eet S hould b e well sp rea d
.

o ve r the c y li n de r botto m a n d towa rd s the sides so as t o dis t r ibute the st r ai n , .

H oldin g down B ol ts The bolts co n n ecti n g the cyli n de r to the colu mn s

-
.
-

or fr a m es shoul d be such that the str ess on the m does n ot e x cee d lbs .

e r squa r e i n ch taki n g the sectio n at the botto m o f the th r ead a f i d whe n

p , ,

the r e is a la r ge n u m ber of co m pa r atively s m all si z e it should n ot e x ceed

3 0 00 lbs per squa r e i n ch
,
. Chap x x viii . .

H ior z o n ta l Cy l in d ers —I n additio n t o the f aci n gs or f eet f or co n n ecti n g

.

to fr a m es a d ditio n al f eet we r e n ecessa ry f or t h e cyli n d er s Of ho ri z o n tal

,

e n gi n es to r est on a n d be secu r e d to the e n gi n e b ed These f eet too h a d .

, ,

webs so a rr a n ged as to dist r ibute the str ai n caused by the r eactio n f r o m the
wei ght of the cyli n de r pisto n s etc The fr o n t pa r t of the cyli n de r was
, ,
.

rigidly bolted dow n while the back e n d especially of lo n g cyli n de r s was

, , ,

held down o n ly a n d fr ee to m ove h o ri z o n tally whe n e x pa n d ed by the heat

,
.

B u t si n ce ca s t i r o n will e x pa n d o n ly on e te n th of a n i n ch in 8 f eet by a n -
.

i n c rease of 1 8 0 Fahr of te m pe ratur e ther e was seldo m n ee d to m ake a n y

°
.
,

S pecial p r ovisio n beyo n d bo r i n g the holes f or the back bolts r athe r la r ge r or

, ,

m aki n g the m slightly oval in the c y li n de r f eet .

ll i C l i d —Th e chie f peculia r ity of these cyli n de r s is the

Os c i a t g
n y n ers .

method of suppo r ti n g by t ru n n io n s which a lso se r ve as stea m a n d e x haus t ,

pipes ( t i de fig . Hal f the load on the pisto n is take n on each t r u n ni o n ;

a n d si n ce they a r e of such a m ple dia m ete r it is su fficie n t t o assu m e that the ,

m etal is subj ect o n ly to shea r i n g str esses a n d the r e f o r e the a r ea of sectio n ,

sh ould be suc h that the st r ess does n ot e x ceed 95 0 lbs pe r s qua r e i n ch The . .

dia m ete r of the t r u n n io n s is gove rn e d by the S i ze of the e x h aust pipe si n ce -

t h e stea m m ust e x h aust th r ough on e of the m a n d it i s usual a n d co n ve n ie n t ,

t o m ake the m both of the sa m e si z e I n the case of a co m pou nd oscillati n g .

e n gi n e the t r u n n ion s of both cyli n d e r s S hould be of the sa m e S i z e which

,
’

will depe n d on the S i z e of e x haus t of the low p ressu r e cyli n de r The t r u n n io n s

"

-
.

of the high p r essu r e cyli n de r bei n g so m uch la r ge r tha n I s n ecessa r y to aeco m

,

m oda t e the stea m p i pe allow Of a space betwee n the oute r or wo r k in g pa r t

-
,

a n d the I n n e r pa r t or s t u fli n g b ox w hi ch if le f t Ope n to the a ir i s well ve n ti

-

, ,

lated a n d so r educes the hea t on the bear i n g due t o stea m of high te m pe r atu r e
, .

The len gt h of the t r u n n io n j ou r n al or bea r i n g S houl d b e suc h that t h e

p r essu r e p er squar e i n ch on the a r ea m a d e by the m ultiple of its d ia m eter ,

a n d le n gth does n ot e x ceed 3 5 0 lbs

,
ge n er ally it is f ro m on e thi rd to on e .
-

hal f of t h e d ia m ete r .

The t r u n n io n s have i n te r pose d betwee n the m a n d the c y li n de r bo d y a

belt which co n veys the stea m to a n d f r o m the valve bo x es This belt s h ould
,
-
.

be ve r y st r o n g a n d well I ibbe d to the body of t h e c y li n de r i m m e d iately ,

above a n d below the tr u n n io n s a n d whe n t h e cyli n d e r I s fitte d with a lin e r

, ,

it i s bette r to f o r m t h e oute r shell I n the shape of a bee r ba rr el so that the ,

belt p r oj ects i n si d e a n d n ot outsi d e as it woul d be w e I e the r e n o lin e I ; the .

st r ai n fr o m the t r u n n io n s is the n at o n ce take n by t h e cyli n d e r S ides wi t hout

the i n te r ve n tio n of webs a n d ribs .

The cyli n d e r valve f aces Of oscillati n g e n gi n es shoul d be set s o that the e d ge

n e x t the stea m e n t r a n ce shoul d be the n ea r est poi n t to the cyli n d e r— that is ,
 C Y LI N D E R C OV E R ST UD S AN D B O T S L . 255

the pla n e of the cyli n d e r f ace touches a cyli n d er whose a x is coi n ci d es with
the a x i s of the cyli n de r bo r e at this e d ge Wh e n this is so the lea d of the
-
.
,

s t e a mw a y i n to the valve b ox is sho r t a n d easy a n d the ope n i n g i n to the ,

e x haust belt on the side Opposite is la r ge without causi n g the valve spi n d le ,
-

c e n t r e to be u nn ecessa r ily f a r ou t fr o m t he cyli n d e r .

Cy lin der Covers L ike the cyli n d e r e n d or botto m the cove r has to be
.
-

s t r o n g e n ough to take the f ull stea m p r essu r e but a s a r ule it has n o loa d ,

t o d ist r ibute to a n y othe r par t The sa m e r e m ar ks as to webs etc equally .

,
.
,

apply to the cover s a n d all above 2 4 i n ches di a m ete r f or high p r essu r e

,

c yli n de r s a n d 4 0 i n ches d ia m ete r for low p r essu r e cyli n de r s should be m ade

,
-
,

hollow with two thi ck n esses of m etal Those of ver tical e n gin es a r e bette r .

m ade in that way f or all S i z es i n as m uch as it is n ecessa r y to fill in the spaces

,

betwee n the webs whe n they a r e s o m a d e to p r eve n t the lo d gm e n t of wate r

, , ,

et c
.
,
a n d it is usual to a dd a f alse cove r eithe r polished or cast with a patte r n ,

to give a good appear a n ce This c a n always be acco m plishe d by casti n g the

.

c ove r s h ollow The cyli n d e r cove r s of n aval e n gin es a n d f or lar ge e x p r ess

.

s tea m e r s a r e m ade of cast steel a n d f o r m ed wit h r ibs havi n g bull n ose d

,
-

fla n ges to st r e n gthe n the m I n s m all n aval e n gi n es such as those of des tr oy er s

.
, ,

t h e cove r s especially of the m ediu m p r ess u r e a n d low p r essu r e cyli n d e r s a re

,
- -

o fte n m ade of m a n ga n ese or other st r o n g b r o n z e ; which has a n elastic li m it

higher than tha t of o rdi n ar y steel a n d per mits Of t h e m bein g cast m uch ,

thi n n e r a n d lighte r Cove r s whe n of steel or b r o n z e a re so m eti m es c or

.
, ,

r ugated as well as co n ed to get the n ecessa r y sti ff n ess without t h e co m plica

tio n s of r ibs The depth of the cyli n de r cover at the m i dd le shoul d b e about
.

o n e qua r te r of the di a m ete r of the pisto n f or p r essu r es of 8 0 lbs a n d upwa r d s ;

-
.

that of the low p r essu r e cyli n der cover of a co m pou n d e n gi n e S hould be

-

a t least its di a m eter S in ce however the S i z e of the pisto n r od is the

.
, ,
-

best m easur e d the p r essu r e on the cove r it is bette r s o t o desig n t h e cove r ,

t hat its d epth at the m iddle is n ot less tha n ti m es the dia m eter of t h e
p isto n r od
-
The d epth of the cover at the edge depe n ds on the stea m po r t
.

a r ecess bei n g f o r m e d f or the stea m way a n d the i n side of the cove r other wise -

bei n g pa r allel to the piston .

I t is the custo m with so m e e n gi n ee r s to e n d the cyli n de r a li ttle beyo n d

t h e e x t r e m e t r avel of the pisto n t h e stea m po r t ope n i n g bei n g the n in t h e ,
-

s a m e pla n e w ith the c y li n de r fl a n ge ; the cove r has a la r ge r ecess in it ,

a n d its fla n ge S O e x t e n ded as to e n close the p or t Ope n i n g ( fig The -

.

a d va n tage of thi s m ethod is the dec r eased le n gt h a n d weight of c y li n d e r a n d ,

bei n g able to secu r e the cove r in way of the stea m por t di r ect to the
‘

m a i n casti n g i n stea d of to the co m par atively weak b r i d ge of m etal ac r oss the

,

o rt On the othe r ha n d howeve r the cove r occupies co n si d e r ably m o r e

p .
, ,

r oo m a n d n ot bei n g of ci r cula r f o r m at the fl a n ge ca n n ot be tu rn e d so easily

, ,
.

For lar ge r e n gi n es t hi s pla n is a ver y goo d on e a n d m a y b e a d opted with ,

a d va n tage but for s m all o n es a n d those of m o d e r ate si z e it is n ot always

,

s o co n ve n i e n t as t h e ol d e r on e .

Cy l in der Cover S t u ds an d B ol ts shoul d be m ade of the best steel a n d of ,

s uch a S i z e that the st r ess on the m d o e s n ot e x cee d 5 000 lbs per squar e i n ch ,
.

Of sectio n at t h e botto m of the t hr ea d as they a re subj ect to su dd e n a n d ,

i n te r m itte n t loa d s a n d seve r e a n d su dd e n shocks whe n p ri min g occu r s also ,

t o co n si d e r able wea r a n d tea r fr o m the f r eque n t r e m ovals of the cove r s f or

e x a mi n atio n of the pisto n s I n la r ge e n gi n es it is u S u a l t o fit the cyli n d e r
.
 L AGG I NG AN D C L O T H I NG OF C Y LI N D E R S .
25 7

st eel pl a te p r essed to shape T he r e should be whe n possible a doo rway in .

, ,

the botto m a n d cove r a n d to the valve casi n g of the low p r essu r e cyli n de r
,
-
,

la r ge e n ough to a d mit a m a n To the valve bo x es of all cyli n d e r s the r e

.
-

s hould be peep holes th r ough which t o as certai n the leads a n d cut off of the
-

,
-

'

valves a n d to p r ess the flat valves t o the cyli n d e r f aces shoul d they have
,

beco m e blo wn off .

La gg in g a n d Cl oth in g of Cyl in ders — All hot su r f aces fr o m whic h loss of ,

heat m a y ar ise by r a d iatio n S hould be cover e d with” a n on co n d ucti n g sub

,
-

sta n ce Felt was f o r m e r ly e mp loyed a n d well suited for t h is pu r pose bei n g

.
,

e n cl osed in polishe d teak or m ahogan y l aggi n g secu r ed wi t h b r ass ba n d s ,

wher eve r in view in the e n gin e room a n d by pi n e l aggi n g or ca n vas whe n n ot

’

-
.
,

in V ie w S heet s teel is ho w eve r n ow use d as bei n g m o r e e n d ur i n g tha n

.
-
, ,

wood a n d when car e fully fitted a n d hi ghly bar f ed looks as well as polished
“
'

wood an d it lasts m u c h lo n ger

,
.

Ce m e n t of ki n d s silicate cott on a n d asbestos a r e S peci fied by e n gi n ee r s for

, ,

the cyli n d e r cove r i n g but silicate is ve ry obj ecti o n able on the gr oun d that
, ,

t h e dust co m i n g fr o m it th r ou gh the laggi ng owi n g t o the vib r atio n etc is , , .

,

Fig 79 . .
— Sh or t e n e d Cy lin d e r w i t h P or t i n Cov e r .

ver y apt to ge t i n to the beari n gs a n d gui d es a n d cause se r ious tr oubl e , .

Asbestos fibr e a n d m a g n esia m a y howeve r b e use d with adva n tage , , ,

especia lly 0 11 the high p r essu r e cyli n d er s ; a ce m e n t m a d e of this fibre etc

- -
, .
,

has bee n f ou n d ve r y success ful a ce m e n t c on sist i n g la r gely of ca r bo n ate of ,

mag n esia has als o p r ove d a n e x cell e n t cove r i n g for t h ese a n d othe r hot
,

su rf aces I t is ve r y n ecessar y t o cove r up a ll hot su r fac es whe n usin g stea m

Of such high te m per atur es as a r e n ow co m mo n a n d co n sid e r able gai n is
.

obt a i n e d by putti n g mu ffle s on t h e cylin de r cove r s a n d a lllm et a llic e x pose d "

su r faces The valu e of t he di ff ere n t n on co n ducti n g m ater ial s a r e give n in

.
-

Ch a p . xv

Th e f ollow i n g les or the t li n g s f t he c y li n d er d I ts

ru are f sca n o an

c on n ect i on s

D is t h e d iamete r cyli n d e r i n i n ch es
Of the .

t h e loa d o m t h e sa f ety valves i n lbs pe r s qua r e i n ch

p
- .
.

pl t h e absol u te p r essu r e of stea m at H P valve b ox . .

-
.

a co sta t m ultiplie th ic k n e ss of ba r r el 2 5 I n ch
f
'

n n r .
258 MA N UAL or M A R I N E E N G I N EE R I NG .

T h ick n ess m e t al
of of cy li n d e r ba r r el or li n e r , n ot to be less th n
a
p x D 3 000 w he n of cast i r o n * .

D
T h ick n ess of c y li n d er ba r re l (p 5 0) 02 .

6000
x
j .

pu rposes of calculatio n p ma y be take n as f ollows

H P . . cyli n de r p boile r p r essu r e , or p, 15 .

M P . . tr iple p 06 x boile r p r essu re

M P . . quad r uple p 07 x

MP . .
2 p 04 5 x

L P
. .
p X
L P
. tr iple p 0 25 x

Th i ck n e ss of li n e r w h e n t
of s e e l
me t a l of s t e a m por t s
va lve -
box s id es
c o v e rs X f
c y lin d e r bot t om x f if s in gle thick n e ss
, .

x f if d ou ble
,

x f if s i n gle
,

x if d ou ble
c y lin d e r fla n ge x
c ov er fla n ge
v a lv e b ox fla n ge
-

d oor fla n ge
fa c e over por t s X f
x f, w h en th ere is a fa ls e
f a ls e f ace x I, wh en c a st i ron .

For torp edo b oats a n d g u n boat s , de st roy ers , a n d oth er s uch S hips whe re
e x t r e m e li h t n ess i s a n ecess i t , a n d f ull
g y pow e r is o n ly d e ve lope d a t i n te r v als
a n d f or a s ho r t ti m e, t h e s ca n tli n
g ma y be r ed uced by 2 5 pe r ce n t .

Pit ch of S t u ds or bolts i n cyli n d e r c ove r or valve box d oo r i n i n ch es - -

x 1 30
s hould n ot e x ceed , t bei n g th e th ick n ess of the Cove r or d oo r
29
fla n ge i n S i x t ee n t h s of a n i n ch , p, t he p r essu r e pe r squar e i n ch in poun d s
on i t .

Flat S u rfaces All fla t su r faces of cast i r on shoul d be sti ff e n ed by webs

'

-
.
,

2 50
i
or s ta y s of s om e f o r m w h os e pitch ,

webs sh o u l d be of the sam e t h ick n ess as the fl at su rfa ce a n d t r d epth at

S houl d n ot e x ce ed
V 2
hei
These
,
lea s t 2 5 ti m e t h e th ick n ess
s .

The L P Cyl inder B ody or B arrel S hould be sti ff e n ed by e x te rn al fla n ges o r

. .

w ebs at about 1 2 ti m es the thick n ess of m etal apa rt ; these webs shoul d
,

be 1 5 X thick a n d sta n d at least 0 75 x I beyo n d the su rface of the

,

cyli n de r S o m e e n gi n ee r s howeve r p r e f er to do without these sti ff e n i n g

.
, ,

webs a n d m ake the cyli n d e r so m ewhat thicke r i n stead

,
The low p r essu r e .
-

cyli n de r howeve r di ffe r s fr o m the other s in si ze a n d in bei n g e x posed to

, , ,

e x ter n al p r essur e in e x cess of the i n tern al ; the re fo r e it shoul d have webs ,

especially when of la rge d ia m ete r .

W h e n ma d e of e x c e e d i gly good mater ia l a t le a s t twic e me lte d t h e t h ic k n e s s ma y

n , ,

be of t h a t g ive n by t h e a bov e r u l e s .
 ST U FFI N G -
B O X E S AN D GLA N D S . 25 9

St u ffing B oxes a n d Glan ds —For obvious r easo n s it is useless givi n g

-
. ,

a n y de fin i t e r ules f or the si z es of these as they will d ifl e r fr o m difl er en t

,

Ci rc u ms ta n ces , a n d m a n y of the pa r ts do n ot va r y whe n othe r s a r e va r ie d .

Sp r i ng

Fi g . 80 . Combin a t ion M e ta llic P a c k in g .

Fi g . 80 a P ig . 8 0b
.

f ollowi n g Table of si z es gives such as a re f ou n d in goo d p r actice ,

an d
w i ll b e of m or e u s e tha n a n y abst r act r ules
 S T U FFI N G ~B OX E S .

liabi lity to le a k a n d the t r ouble of packi n g the m

, . Th e packi n g of the
s t u ffin g bo x es whe n i n the cyli n de r cove r s of ve r tical e n gi n es is ve r y lia ble
-

t o give t r ouble with stea m of hi gh p r essu r e fr o m the wa n t of m oistur e the

lub r ica n t a ff ects o n ly the top laye r s of packi n g , a n d keeps the m so f t ,

while the botto m o n es get har d a n d charr ed Metallic packin gs ( v fig 8 0 )

. . .

a r e the best f or use with stea m of high p ressu r e , a n d although so m e pate n t

-

vegetable packi n gs wo r k ver y well , the s e latter a r e gr adually bei n g supe r sed ed
by the fo rm e r The m etallic packi n gs a r e gen e r ally a rr an ge d in a se ries of h oops
.

o f t r ia n ula r sectio n , the p r essu r e on the r od bei n g caused eithe r by a seco n d

g
s e t of hoops outside the fi r st , causi n g a wed gi n g actio n on the gla n d be in
g
p r essed ho m e , or el s e by a n a rr a n ge m en t of s prin gs or sp r i n g clips Th e .

n ewe r a n d bette r f o r m s a r e n ow givi n g g r eat sa tis factio n , a n d have take n the

place of vegetable a n d asbestos in the hi gh p r essur e cyli n der , a n d the m edi u m

-

p r essu r e cyli n de r also Ma n y e n gin ee r s fit m etallic packi n g in the low pr es

.
-

s u r e cyli n de r gla n d s , othe r s st r o n gly obj ect t o d o s o, m uch p r e f e rr in g good

vegetable packi n g on ac c ou n t of t h e ex ce ss iv e m oistu re in this cyli n der .

Metallic pa ck in g is , h owe ver that n ow alway s used in m a ri n e e n gi n es

,

o f 5 0 N H P a n d upw a rds for pi s to n r o ds , an d ge nerally for a ll rods e x pos ed

. . .
-

t o s t ea m a bove 3 in ches di a meter .

262 M N A UAL or MAR I N E E N G I N EE R I NG .

CH APT ER XI .

I I
T H E P S T ON — P S T O N R OD — CON N E CT N -
I G -

R OD .

Th e Pi s t on is esse n tia lly o n ly a disc s t r o n g a n d sti ff e n oug h st r uctu r ally t o

,

w ithsta n d t h e p r essu r e of t h e ste a m on it a n d fitti n g stea m tigh t in the ,

-

cyli n de r The pisto n i n this si mple f o rm is see n in the R icha r d s I n d icato r

.
’

a n d is o fte n s o fit t e d to s m all e n gi n es .

I n the ea r ly days of stea m e n gi n e co n s t ructio n , whe n the r e e x isted n o

-

m achi n e capab le of t r uly bo r i n g ou t a cyli n de r , the b o r e was n ot pe rf ectly

cyli n d rical n or the si d es ve r y s m oo t h , a n d co n seque n tly , u n less so m e f o r m
, ,
'

of elastic packi n g was i n te r pose d betwee n the pisto n a n d the cyli n d e r si d es ,

it could n ot wo r k steam tig ht I t was custo m ar y to f o r m t h e pisto n with

-
.

a r ecess on the rim i n to w h ich r op e or j u n k was coiled j ust as i t was usual

, ,

t o d o_with all pum ps This packi n g could n ot be e x a m i n ed or r e n ewed

.

without d rawi n g t h e pisto n f r o m the cyli n de r , a te d ious Ope ratio n at all

ti m es ; t o r e m edy this the r ecess w a s m ade without a fla n ge at the top or
side of the p i sto n n e x t the cyli n de r cove r , but a f alse fl a n ge or loose r i n g
.

wa s b olted to the pisto n so as to r etai n the j u n k packi n g I n place a n d ad m it ,

of its bei n g r e m oved or added to without r e m ovi n g the pisto n fr o m the

”
cylin der This r i n g was called the j u n k r i n g a n d r etai n s that n a m e
.
‘
-
, ,

although j un k I s n o lo n ge r used to pack p i sto n s Afte r a fe w weeks wo r k

’
.

the cylin d e r was r ubbed s m ooth a n d f ai r ly t r ue , whe n the pisto n wo u ld wo r k

stea m tigh t with ve r y litt le fr ictio n , a n d with m oist stea m of low_ p r essu r e a n d
- -

te m pe r atu r e the packin g lasted a co n side r able ti m e .

A sol id pisto n — that is on e without packi n g— is r eally the best f or good

,
.

wo rki n g so lo n g as it r e m ai n s stea m tight ; but as the r e is always so m e

,

slight a m ou n t of wear especially whe n the cylin de r 1 s f r esh fr o m the bo r i n g

,

m i ll a n d leakage past the isto n is m ost se r i ous m o r e pa r ticula r ly whe n the

,
p , .

en gin e is stan di n g still it i s n ecessa r y to have so m e m ea n s of adj ust m e n t

, ,

wher eby the pisto n is m ai n t ai n ed a stea m tight fit in the cyli n d e r -

.

I n lieu of the vegetable packi n g which I s n ot ad m issible with stea m of

,
‘‘ ’
high p r essu r e e n gi n ee r s n ow fit m etallic r i n gs called
,
packi n g r i n gs , ,

va ri ous f o r m s which a re p r essed outwa rd s agai n st the si d e of the cyli n d e r

,

by thei r ow n elasticity or by sp r i n gs These r in gs a re mai n tai n ed in positio n

.

steam tight by the j u n k r i n g as of old

- -
.

Wh e n these m etallic r i n gs a r e o n ce in place so as to fit closely to the

cylin de r sides the r e is n o n ee d of fu r ther late ral p r essu r e un til by wea r t h e
,

pisto n beco m es slack a n d stea m pe rmitted to pass it H owe v e r n ea r ly all

,
.
,

e x i sti n g pisto n s a re auto m atic in this r espect a n d the co n seque n ce i s that ,

the packi n g r i n gs p ress so tightly on the cyli n d e r sides that the loss by
’

frictio n se r iously I m a i i s t h e e fficie n cy of the e n gi n e ; a n d it is o n ly whe n

p
t h e r i n g or cyli n de r 1 s co n side r ably r ubbed away that the pisto n wo r ks wit h ,
 P S T ONI S PR N I GS .

ease . Fr o m these causes m a n y r eally good pisto n s have bee n co n de m n e d

a fte r ha vin g been ma de to cause se r ious da m a ge .

P e r haps the fir st r e m ove fr o m the p r i m itive pisto n is t o be f ou n d in the

f o r m usually fitted in loco m otives a n d ge n e r ally k n ow n as R a ms bott om s
’
, .

R amsbot t om s R in gs ( fig —The late Mr R a m sbotto m o f the L

’
, . .
, .

N W E Co , was the fir st to pack pisto n s by on e or m o r e n a r r ow m etal r i n gs

. . . . .

tu rn e d so m ewhat la rge r in e x te r n al dia m ete r tha n that of the cyli n de r bor e ,

a n d which a fte r bei n g cut ac r oss so as to be capable of bei n co m p r esse d

,
g
to suit the b or e of the cyli n de r a r e fitte d i n to r ecesses turn ed I n the p i sto n ,

edge The r i n gs fit easily i n to these r ecesses a n d as they a re s o place d

.
,

that n o t w o of the j oi n ts a re in a li n e the pisto n is p r actically stea m tight ,

-

a n d wo r ks ver y well in loco m otives a n d othe r quick wo r ki n g e n gi n es of

s m all si z e ; but f or la rge e n gi n es a n d e n gi n es u n d e r goi n g the sa m e v ic is s i ,

tu d es as those on shipboar d the r e I s a n obj ectio n to this f o r m of pisto n I t

, .

will be see n that the r i n gs can n ot be e x ami n ed or r e m oved without d r awi n g

the p is to n a n d that the r e is n o m ea n s of p r eve n ti n g stea m fr o m passi n g
,

wher e the sp ri n g is cut ac r oss , besi d es wh ich the r ubbi n g su r face I s ve ry s m all ,

a n d the sp r i n g is a lways e x e r ti n g its m a x i m u m e ff o r t The fir st of these ’

obj ectio n s I s ove r co m e ( fig 8 l a l by fitti n g a j u n k r i n g havi n g cast with it -

w
.
,

a s igot or r i n g which goes do n i n to t h e r ecess a r ou n d the pisto n f or the

p ,

pac ki n g r i n g a n d m ade stea m ti gh t : i n to gr ooves t u r n e d I n the outer sur fac e

,
-

of this S pigot the R a m sbotto m r i n gs a re fitte d .

For s m all e n gi n es these r i n gs a re m ade of steel for such e n gi n es as m a y

be st a n di n g u n used for ma n y days , e n gi n ee rs p r e fe r t o fit ha rd b r o n z e r i n gs .

For la r ge r e n gi n es , wher e the sectio n m a y b e th r ee qua rter s of a n i n ch squa r e -

a n d upwa r ds the r i n gs a r e be t t e r of to u g h a n d ha r d cast i r o n

'

, which wo rk s ,

ve r y well i n d eed .

Common Piston R in gs ( figs 8 2 8 5 e 86 a n d 8 7) co n sist o n ly of a si n gle

-
.
, , ,

hoop m ade of ve r y tough , close grai n ed cast i r o n m ad e on the sa m e p r i n ciple -

m
, ,

as t he R a sbotto m r i n gs , but fitted stea m tight betwee n t h e pisto n fla n ge -

a n d the j u n k ri n g a n d f r ee t o m ove late r ally

, Thi s packi n g r i n g is usually .

tu rn ed t o a dia m ete r about 1 per ce n t in e x cess of that of the cyli n de r, a n d .

eith e r cut ac r oss diag o nally, or f o r m ed s o that on e e n d has a to n gue fittin g

in to a r ecess in the other ( fig a b r ass cover piece bei n g fitted behi n d the
.
-

gap so as to pr eve n t stea m leaki n g i n to the space behi n d the r i n gs The

, .

ri n g is the n fitted to the pisto n fla n ge stea m tight by sc r api n g both su r faces

-

the ri n g is r aised by i n te rposi n g ve r y thi n pieces of pape r betwee n it a n d the

fla n ge a n d the j u n k ri n g i s the n fitted st ea m tight to the pisto n a n d packi n g
,
-

r i n g by sc r api n g etc S o m e m ake r s of pisto n s p r of ess t o tur n the pis t dn

,
.

a n d r i n gs so accu r ately as to r equi r e n o sc r api n g , a n d w ith the p er fectio n of

the m o d e rn lathe a n d the high class tool steel n ow used this I s possible wi th -

car e ; oth er e n gi n eer s p r e fe r to gr i n d the r i n gs tight a fter comi n g fro m the

lathe I n whatever way the obj ect I s attai n ed I S of s m all m o m e n t co m pa red
.

wi t h the n ecessity of havin g the r i n g per fect ly stea m tight be t wee n the fl a n ge -

a n d j u n k r i ng -
.

Pis t on S prin gs — Whe n the pisto n is of co m pa r atively s mall dia me te r t h e

.
,

elasticity of the packi n g r i n g itsel f is su fficie n t t o keep it steam tight again st

- -

the cyli n de r si d es f or a ve r y co n side r able ti m e a fte r it is fitted ; a n d eve n

la r ge r r i n gs ma y be m ade of su fficie n t st r e n gth to d o this but they woul d ,

th e n be ope n to the sa m e obj ectio n as r aised agai n st the R a m sbotto m r i n gs .

 V AR I O U S FO R M S OF P I S T O N P A CK I N G S . 2 65

wea r th r ough thei r cu r ve d e n d s These d e fects we r e pa rt ia llv r e m e died by .

a dd i n g t o e a ch on e or m o r e subsi d ia r y sp r i n gs on the p r i n ciple of coac h

s p ri n gs
,
but that o n ly te n d ed to aggr avate the othe r evil spoke n oi— v iz .
,

t h e I ea c t ion of the isto n itself

p
.

Whe n a pisto n i s m ovin g th r ough its cour se a n d gui d ed the r ei n by t h e ,

r od at on e en d a n d the tail r od ( or back gui d es I n case of a ho r i z o n tal e n gi n e )

a t the othe r it shoul d be quite fr ee late r ally f r o m the packi n g r i n which

g
-
, ,

m a y f ollow its cou r se fr eely Whe n the bo r e of the cyli n de r 1 8 qu i te t rue

.
,

a n d its a x is coi n cides with the li n e of m otio n of the pisto n ce n t r e it i s of n o ,

c o n seque n ce i f the sp r i n gs do bea r 0 11 the pisto n ; but if the cyli n de r wear s

so m ewhat out of t ruth I n eithe r d ir ec tio n it is i mpo rtan t that the sp r i n g r i n g ,

s hall f ollow the si d es of the cyli n de r fr eely it ca n n ot do this if the sp r i n gs

r eact fr o m the pisto n bo d y .

Cameron s Pa te n t — Fig 8 6 shows a pisto n r i n g p r essed out with a c orru

’
-
.

ated ibbo n of steel the late r al p r essu r e he r e is obtai n e d by the r esista n ce

g r

o f the sp r i n g to bei n g be n t i n to a ci r cle a n d by the p r essu r e e x e r ted by the ,

c o rr ugatio n s whe n the e n ds of the S p r i n g a re p r essed apa r t T hi s sp r i n g .

e x e r ts a n al m ost u n if o r m late r al p ressu r e on the packi n g ri n g without touchi n g

t h e body of the pisto n a n d by m aki n g the packi n g r i n g co m pa r atively thi n
, ,

it will a d apt itsel f to the shape of the cyli n de r whe n wo rn The p r essur e .

o n the r i n g c a n also be easily a n d n icely adj usted by packi n g pieces betwee n

t h e e n ds of the sp r i n g On e gre at adva n tage of this sp ri n g is that it c a n be

.

fitte d t o a n y pisto n without co n de m n i n g a n y of the pa r ts beyo n d the sp ri n gs .

Mat h er I t was f ou n d that m etallic pac k i n g r i n gs n ot

’
a n l
d P tt
a s Pa t e n t — .
-

o n ly wo r e s i d eways but also on the edges so as t o beco m e slack betwee n the

, ,

fla n ge a n d j u n k r i n g a ve r y slight a m o u n t of play with heavy ri n gs

-

c auses a ve r y la r ge degr ee of slack n ess fr o m the co n ti n ual co n cuss io n on

c ha n ge of m otio n at ever st r oke To obviate this the r i n g was f o r m ed with

y .

i n si d e fla n ges as show n I n fig 8 3 a n d split i n to t w o a spi r al h OOp havi n g

.

t h r ee or f ou r tu rn s bei n g coiled iris ide the r i n gs whose actio n is to pr ess the

, , , ,

, ,

acki n g r i n gs outwa r d agai n st the cyli n de r sides a n d up a n d dow n agai n st

p
-
,

t h e fla n ge a n d j u n k r i n gs This fo r m has bee n ge n e r ally ve r y successful a n d

-
.
,

p isto n s s o fitte d have wo r ked ve r y well i n deed ; but the r e is the obj ectio n
t hat n o adj ust m e n t of the sp r i n g is possible a n d it is always e x e r ti n g its ,

m a x i mu m e ff o rt The chie f par t Of the elasticity of the s p ri n g howeve r is

.
, ,

e x e r ted I n p r essi n g t h e r i n gs agai n st the fla n ge a n d j u n k r i n g a n d t h e f rictio n ,

s o caused helps to p r eve n t u n due p r essu r e on the cyli n de r side s o that I n .

,

p r actice it is n ot f ou n d that the r e is e x cessive si d e p r essu r e whe n fir st fitted ,

n or lack of it whe n the cyli n de r is wo rn These sp r i n gs a r e m ade of ste el or .

,

ve r y str o n g cast i r o n ou t out of a r in g of eithe r m e t a l They a r e also so m e

,
.

t i m es cast to the f o r m r e ui r ed
q .

B u ck l ey s Paten t co n s i sts of t w o ri n gs of sec t io n as show n I n fibg 84 ; a

’
.
,

S pi r al coil of s t eel wi r e is be n t i n to a ci r cle a n d i n se r ted betwee n the t w o ,

packi n g ri n gs Pr essu r e is e x e r ted in the sa m e way as in Ca m e r o n s sp r i n g

-
.
’

a n d te n ds t o p r ess the packi n g r i n gs both outwa r ds a n d agai n st t h e fl a n ge-

a n d j un k rin g -
This f o r m of pisto n is still o fte n use d at the p r ese n t ti m e
.
-

a n d whe n p r ope r ly adj uste d wo r ks ve r y well The sp r i n g howeve r is a ve r y .

, ,

s ti ff on e a n d r equi r es but little e n d d isp lace m e n t t o e x e r t a ve r y co n si d e r able

,

re s s u I e on the sides of the cyli n d e r

p .

l H ll — This pisto n has t w o packi n g r i n gs of t r i

’

G u a t er an d a s Pa t en t .
266 MAN UA L or MAR I N E E N G I N EE R I NG .

a n gula r se ctio n with a thi rd r i n g i n side a n d bet wee n the m as show n in fig

, , .

8 5 so that on this i n n e r r i n g bei n g p r essed outwa rds it e x e rts a wedge actio n

, ,

on the two packi n g r imgs so as to f o r ce the m agai n st the fla n ge a n d j u n k r i n g

- -
.

Coach sp r i n gs a r e e m ployed to p r ess the r i n g outwa r ds which a r e each held

-
,

in a b r ass fr a m e havi n g a tape r e d piece on t h e back which fit s i n to a r ecess ,

in the piston a n d agai n s t a tape r ed cott er ; t hi s cotte r c a n be p r esse d d ow n

by a set sc r ew in the j u n k r i n g a n d a n y r equi red p r essur e is i m pa r ted to the
-

r i n g th r ough the sp r i n g in this way This pisto n has the r e fo re the a dv a n

.
, ,

tage of bei n g capable of a dj ust me n t without r e m ovi n g the j un k ri n g a n d the -

,

adj ustm e n t c a n be m ade to a ni cety with ve r y little t r ouble a n d also in , ,

case of the e n gi n es n ot bei n g r equi r ed f or so m e weeks the p ressu r e on t h e .

sp r in gs ma y b e r elieved u n til r e qui r ed agai n

Fig 8 8 . .
— R e s t ra i n e d Pa c k in g -
r i n gs ( Ad m ira lt y Pla n ) .

MacLa in e s Pa ten t each co n sists of two str o n g ri n gs

’ ’
R owa n s Pa ten t a nd
of squa r e sectio n or , of U sectio n p r essed outwa r d s by sp r i n gs at the c r oss
,

cut a n d held agai n st the flan ge a n d j u n k ri n g by wave sp ri n gs fitted in a

,
-

g ro ove between the m Thi s a rr a n ge me n t has bee n f ou n d t o wo rk well :

.

R estra in ed Pa ck in gs — I n the ear ly days of pisto n m aki n g desig n e r s we r e

.
-

chiefly co n ce rn ed in p r ovid i n g m ea n s for keepi n g the packi n g r i n gs on t h e -

cyli n d e r walls ; as p r essu r es of stea m i n c reased they still e x pe rie n ced the
sa m e a n x iety lest t h e r e should be loss by leakage T o d a y we have less .
-

a n x iety on that sco r e but a m o re se rious how to avoi d the loss due to the
, ,

r i n gs bei n g p ressed u n d u lv ha rd on the cyli n de r by the stea m n ow used

 FOR G ED AN D A
C S T S T EE -
L P I S T ON S . 2 67

getti n g be h i n d the m , We ca n n ot p reve n t the stea m fro m getti n g behi n d

t h e r i n gs so it is n ecessar y to r est r ai n t h e m
, this was fir st d o n e by secu ri n g
the en d s or locki n g the m togethe r by the s a me dev ic e that set the m With .

the ve ry high p ressur es n ow e m ployed eve n that is n ot su fficie n t so it is the

p ractice in the N avy to fit solid r estr ai n i n g ri n gs as s h ow n in fig 88 to kee p -

, .
,

the cut ri n gs in place whe n fitte d as in r ight ha n d illustr atio n Of sa m e ,

-
.

B ody of t h e Pis t on — Pisto n s of s m all si z e a r e usually m ade of a S i n gl e

.

thick n e ss of metal without of cou rse a n y sti ff e n i n g web s or ribs

, fig , .

Fig . 89 .
— For ge d -
t
s ee l P i s ton s .

Pisto n s ve r y co n side r able S i ze have bee n m ade of cast steel i n this way ;
of

they a r e in the f o r m of a co n e a n d S haped to suit the cyli n der e n d

,
fig .

by that m ea n s they have the r equisite degr ee of sti ff n ess ; o r ig i n ally they
we r e m a d e in thi s f o rm t o save weight bei n g f or f ast r u n n i n g ho ri z o n tal ,
-

e n gi n es but n ow they a r e used ex te n sively in all f ast ru n ni n g e n gi n es Cast

,
-
.

steel pisto n s a re freque n tly used in the m er ca n tile mari n e in e n gin es of all
si z es chiefly however w he n in those r u n n i n g at high S peeds a n d always in
, , ,

those of lar ge S i ze They m a y be used with adva n tage in most e n gi n es a n d

.
,

a r e n ot m u ch m o re costly tha n hollow cast i r o n o n es especially whe n of la r ge -

,

Fig . 90 .
— Ca s t -
Ste el Pi ston s .

i e The pisto n s f or ve r y light f ast r u n n i n g machi n e ry a re usually made of

S z .
,
-

f o rged steel a n d a r e ve r y thi n at the fl a n ge a n d n ea r it

, S olid cast i r o n .
-

co n ed pisto n s c a n be use d with adva n tage .

Pist on s of ordi nary marine en gines above 2 0 i n ches d ia m ete r f or H P

,
. .
,

a n d 4 0 i n ches dia m f or L P cyli n d e r s a r e usually m ade of cast i r o n cellu la r

.
-
. .
,
-

— that is with t w o thick n esses of m etal sti ffe n ed or co nn ected by ribs a n d

,

webs a n d eithe r by t he thick n ess of m etal or by t h e depth of body m ade

,

stro n g e n ough st ructu r ally to sa f ely withsta n d n ot o n ly the load due to ,

 SO LI D P A CK I N G S .
269

S O LI D PI S T O N S

Thick n e s s n ea r boss
ri m

FO RG E D S T EE L P I S T ON S
-
.

Thick n ess n ear boss

rI m

Whe n e x ceptio n ally goo d m etal at least twice m elted the thick
m ade of , ,

n esses of cast i r o n pisto n s m a

y be as m uch as 2 0 pe r ce n t less tha n give n by
-
.

the r ules ; but on the othe r ha n d if m ade of othe r tha n r eally goo d m etal
, , ,

they S hou ld be th icke r The pisto n should be m ade of goo d m etal always.
,

a n d f or f ast r u nn i n g e n gi n es it is bette r m a d e of steel The packi n g r i n g "

- -
.

w a s so m eti m es m ade thicke r i n t h e pa r t opposite the ou t tha n give n above ,

in o r de r t o have su fficie n t elasticity O f itsel f t o p r ess stea m tight agai n st t h e -

cyli n d er ; but it is bette r t o let t h e S p ri n gs perfo r m thei r fu n ctio n wholly ,

a n d leave the r i n g to act o n ly as the packi n g .

Ju n k ring B ol ts — Whe n sc r ew bolts a r e used to hold the j un k ri n g in

-
.
- -

place they a r e either scr ewed i n to a b r ass n u t let i n to a r ecess in the side
,

of the pisto n ( 0 fi 85 a ) or else scr ewed i n t o a b r ass plug w h ich has bee n
g . .
, ,

sc r ewe d tightly i n to the pisto n The f orm s ?pla n is m ost ge n e r al a n d h a s .

,

the a d va n t a ge that if the bolt thr ead is to r n away the n u t c a n be easily

replace d a n d owi n g t o the le n gth of body the bolts ca n n ot s lack the m selve s
,
-

back S o m e e n gi n ee r s h owe ve r p r e fe r t o sc r ew the bolts di r ectly i n to the

.
, ,

cast i r o n m aki n g the tappe d hole as deep as possible ; a n d although it m ay

,

be suppose d the bolts would set f ast by r ust p r actice has show n that su c h ,

does n ot take place n or do the cast i r o n th r ea d s wear quickly away

,
-
.

S tuds a re o fte n used i n stead of sc r ew bolts ( c fig but although to -

. .
,
,

so m e e x te n t pos se ssi n g adva n tages over the latte r they a r e n ot so c on

, ,

v e n ie n t a n d have all to b e withd raw n whe n a n y r e fitti n g of the p a cki n g

, _
a n d j u n k r i n gs is n ecessa r y
-
.

S a fet y rin gs an d Lock B ol ts

-
The vib r atio n of the j u n k r i n g has a te n d
.
-

e n cy to S lack back the bolts a n d although it is a r ar e occurre n ce t o fin d ,

suc h a thi n g happe n in a ve rtical e n gi n e ve r y se rious acciden ts have fr e ,

que n tly bee n cause d by the j u n k r i n g bolts getti n g loose in a ho r i z o n ta l -

cyli n de r To p r eve n t the possibility of a casualty the piston bolts of a ll

.

e n gi n es shoul d have a light w r ought i r o n r i n g secu r e d to the j u n k r i n g by - -

stud s havi n g squa r e bodi es a n d n uts secu r ed wit h split pi n s ; this r i n g

,
-

( r
. fi g 8 8.
) fi t s close to the heads of the bolts a n d p r eve n ts the m the n f r o m ,
.

tu rn i n g Whe n stu d s a r e used thei r bo d ies S houl d be squa r e or hea r t S hape d

.
-

with a p r oj ecti n g side the holes in the j u n k ri n g co rr espo n di n g in S i z e a n d

,
-

f or m t o t h e m s o that whe n on it p r eve n ts the m fr o m u n sc r ewi n g the n ut s

, ,

m a y be p r eve n ted fr o m slacke n i n g by a r i n g or each stud m a y have a S plit ,

i
p I I t h r ough its en d .

T h e r e a re so m e othe r m ethods but n o n e of the m a r e eithe r S O e fii c I e n t or ,

so i n e x pe n sive as the above 0

S ol id Pa ck in g s — I n o r de r that t h e we i ght of the p i ston of a h or rz on t a l

0

e n gi n e m a y b e take n by the b r oad packi n g r i n g i n stea d of by t h e co mpa r a -

,

t iv e lv n a rr ow fla n ge a n d j u n k r i n g it was custo m a r y a n d a d v I s a ble to fit a

-
,
2 70 M A N U AL or M A R I N E E NG I N EE R I NG .

c ast ir o n packi n g betwee n the bo d y of the pisto n a n d the packin g r i n g f or

- -

a bout on e thi r d of the ci r cu m f e r e n ce i n lieu of sp r i n gs

-
The pisto n s of .

d i a go n al a n d oscillati n g cyli n de r s a r e also bette r if fitted in this way a n d ,

Fi g . 93 .

Pi s t on -
r od En d s an d G u ide B loc k s , & c .

heavy p is ton s of v er tic a l e n gi n es ma y be also dealt with in this way t o pr ovide

f or the heavy r olli n g of the s hi p .
 I
P S T ON -R OD . 2 71

Piston -
rod. I t is
usual t o have o n ly on e r od t o e ach pisto n of a di rect
-

a cti n g e n gi n e but so m e m a n u f actu r e r s t o suit a pa r ticula r style of c r osshead

, ,

a n d co n n ecti n g r od fit t w o The S i n gle r od is pr e fe r able fr o m p r actical

-
, .

c o n si d e r atio n s , eve n f or la r ge e n gi n es because it r equi r es ve r y co n side r abl e

‘

,
'
c a r e on the pa r t O f t h e w ork m a n t o bo r e the t w o holes in the pisto n cyli n d e r ,

botto m a n d c r osshead s o exa ct ly that the r ods will fit i n to thei r place without
,

a dj ust m e n t ; the frictio n of the t wo s t u ffin g bo x es will be ve r y co n sider ably -

m or e tha n that of the on e la r ge r on e t h e cost of labou r will also be n ea r ly

double that f or the si n gle r od a n d ther e a re two s t u ffin g bo x es which r equi re
,
-

packi n g a n d two gla n ds d eman di n g atte n tio n i n stead of on e

, , .

R etu rn co nn ecti n g rod a n d la r ge steeple e n gi n es of n ecessity r equi r ed

-

t wo f od s t o each piston a n d Mess r s Hu m phr eys fitted f ou r r ods i n the case

'

.
_ ,
”
of the ve r y la r ge pi s to n s of H M S Mo n a r ch the better t o distr ibute the
. . .
,

load over the piston face a n d t o ad mit of a bette r f o rm of c r osshead , .

D iameter of Pis t on rod —S i n ce the pisto n r od is secu r ed i n the pisto n

-
.
-

a n d u sually well guide d at t h e other e n d so that it ca n n ot be n d without

’

m eeti n g wi t h co n si d e r ab le r esista n ce it m a y b e t r eated as a s t r u t or colum n , ,

s ecur e d at both e n ds ; but w h e n the oute r e n d fit s i n to a c r os s hea d which ,

would o ff er little or n o r esistan ce to be n di n g as in a paddle wheel diago n al ,

-

e ngi n e the n the r od m ust be t r eated as a colu mn loose at on e e n d a n d secu r ed

,

a t the othe r .

Fr o m Mr Hodgki n son s Mr L Go r do n s i n vestigatio n s

’ ’
. . .

the f ollo wi n g a re the f o r mulae for co mputi n g t h e stre n gth of colu mn s :

(1) For a colu mn fixe d at both en ds ,

( 2) For a colu mn loose at both e n d s , P

l 4 a

( 3 ) For colu mn fix e d at on e e n d o n ly P
'

a ,

P is the l oad I the le n gth of the colu mn in i n ches d the d ia m eter in i n ches
, , ,

a f or soli d w r oug h t i r o n a n d m ild steel s o e s a n d f

l
lbs per squar e ,
-
.

i n ch S bei n g the a r ea of sec tio n of the rod in squ a r e i n ches Taki n g this
,
-
.

value of f in the above f o rmul ae P is the b r eaki n g load si n ce it is usual to ,

have a f actor of saf ety f or all i m po rta nt pa rts of a m ar i n e e n gin e of at ,

leas t 6 the value of f f or thi s r easo n should n ot e x ceed

,
lbs f or .

m e r e str e n gth ; but as the pisto n r od is liable t o gr eat S hock is always -

_ ,

w ork i n g with al t ern ati n g str esses a n d always r eceives its load sud d e n ly , ,

a n d m ust be r igid a n d without quive r lbs shoul d be take n as the ,

.

value of f t o calculate the diam eter These f o rmul ae however a re t oo c om .

, ,

plicated f or gen era ] use but the si z e of a pisto n r od m a y be checked by them

'

,
-

e asily a f te r havi n g bee n calculate d by a n e m pi rical f o r m ula .

S i n ce howeve r a n app r ox i m ate value m a y be sa fely take n f or the r elati o n

, ,
 I
P S T ON R OD -
E ND S . 2 73

The m a x i mu m p r essu r e r epeated ly applie d on the pisto n s whe n wo rki n g

f ull S pee d a r e app r o x i m ately as give n by the f ollowi n g f o r m ul ae —Whe r e
p is t h e absolute p r essu r e at or n ea r t h e e n gi n es a n d m a y be take n as t h e
, ,

loa d OII sa f ety valve plu s 1 5 lbs for pur poses of calculatio n of si z es of pisto n
-
.

r o d s co n n ecti n g r o d s colu m n s etc

, a n d thei r bolts a n d fitti n gs
-
, , .
'

V a lues of p or ma x i m u m e ff ective wo r ki n g pr ess u r e in e

High p r ess u r e cyli n de r of a co m pou n d e n gi n e

-

p ,
X
L ow p r essu r e
-

p , (R x
H igh p ress u r e
-
t r iple co m pou n d e n gi n e p
-
, , X
Mediu m p r essu r e -

p a

L ow p r essu r e
-

p , (R X
High p r essu r e
-
quad ru ple co m pou n d e n gi n e p
-
, , X
l s t m ediu m p r essu r e cyli n de r of a quad r uple co m pou n d e n gi n e p
- -

, , (71 X
2nd p , (72 x
L ow -
p ressur e p, (R x

The pisto n r ods in a co m pou n d e n gi n e a r e all of on e si z e e x cept in the

-

case of the t r iple with two low p r essu r e c y li n de r s whose r ods m a y be a n d

,
-
,

usually a re s m aller than those of the high p r essu r e a n d mediu m p r essu r e - -

cyli n de r s I t is at all ti m es d esir able that the pisto n r od shall m ove thr ou gh
.
-

the s t u ffi n g box without vib r atio n bu t especially is this so whe n m etallic
-

packi n g is used I t is the r e fo r e a good thi n g to have the pisto n r ods la rge r
.
, ,
-
,

r athe r tha n s m a lle r tha n give n by t h e above r ules ,

.

Pis t on rod En ds I t is a bs p lu t e ly n ecessa r y that the r od S hould fit perfect ly

-
.
-

s t e a IrT tight i n to the pisto n

-
a n d also be of such a tape r as n ot to ,
d r aw
in the least whe n subj ect t o S hock I f the r od e n d we r e m ade cyli n d r ical or .

”
a allel as it is tech n ically called a n d fitted i n t o satis fy the above c on
p r , ,

d it ion s it wo u ld be ve r y te d ious a n d di fficult t o get it ou t agai n

,
For thi s .

r easo n p r i n cipally it is usual t o tu r n the pa r t fitti n g stea m tight i n to the -

pisto n tape r or co n ical I f the tap e r is ver y S light the r od c a n be easily .

m a d e a tigh t fit but u n less fo r m ed with a S houlde r at the e n d of the tape r

, ,

it would in ti m e beco m e S O tightly hel d by the pisto n as to withsta n d all

atte mpt s at withd r awal ; m o r eove r the r e would be at all ti m es a g r eat ,

d a n ge r of splitti n g the pisto n by the wedgi n g actio n I f the tape r e x te n ds .

the whole depth of the pisto n it S hould b e at t h e r ate of i n ch t o the f oot ; ,

that is t h e d ia m ete r of the r od at back is less tha n that at the fr o n t by on e

,

si x tee n th of the le n gth of tape r Even with so libe r al a n allowa n ce as this .

g r eat d iff iculty is o fte n e x pe r ie n ced in withdr awi n g the r od a f te r a fe w m o n ths

wo r k ; f or this r easo n a n d t o Obtai n a lar ge r scr ewed e n d so m e e n gi n ee r s
, ,

d o n ot e x te n d the tape r the f ull depth of the piston

'
The m ost co n ve ni e n t .
,

a n d at the s a m e t im e r eliable p r actice is to t u r n t h e pisto n r od e n d with a ,

-

s h oul d e r of T]; i n ch f or s m all e n gi n es a n d g i n ch f or la r ge o n es m ake the

1
, ,

tape r 3 i n ches to the f oot ( fig 94 ) u n til the sectio n of t h e rod is thr ee fou r th s
.
-

of that of the bo d y the n tu rn the r e m ai n i n g pa r t pa r allel ; the r od S houl d

,

t h e n fit i n to the pisto n so as to leave g i n ch betwee n it a n d the S houl d e r

f or la rge pisto n s a n d 133 i n ch w h e n s m all ,
Th e S hould e r p r eve n ts the r od .

f r o m S plitti n g the pisto n a n d allows of the r od bei n g tu r n ed t rue a fte r lo n g

,

wea r without e n cr oachi n g on the tape r .

2 74 MANUA L OF M A R I N E E NG I N E E R I NG .

I t wa s t o p r olo n g t h e pisto n r ods of ve r tical e n gi n es t o ad mit of

usual -

”
the tail e n d passi n g th r ough a stu ffi n g b ox in the cyli n der cover a n d s o - -
,

help t o giI ide the pisto n a n d p r eve n t its u n duly wea r i n g the c y li n de r S i n ce
‘

.
,

g ravity p r eve n ts m oistur e gettin g t o the packi n g of this st u ffin g b ox a n d the -

,

lub rica n t applied e x t e rn all y soo n gets carried thr ough to the cyli n d e r so m e ,

trouble is e x p erien ce d in keepi n g it ste a m tight ; the r olli n g of the shi p also -

causes the pisto n t o e x er t p r essur e S ideways on the gla n d a n d packi n g a n d ,

fu r the r agg r avates the evil ; in othe r wor ds it is a n u n satis fac t o r y gui d e , .

For these r easo n s it i s p r e fe r able t o S i m ply fit a b r ass or whi te m etal bush

”
in the cove r f or the tail e n d to wor k in a n d case it w ith a do m e or S heath ,

fitted s tea m tight a n d t r ue on the cove r ; a couple of spi r al g r ooves in t he

-

S ide of the bush will ad mit a n d r elease t he stea m B u t on the whole i t .

, ,

is ve r y d oubtful if these tail r o d s a r e e fficacious a n d ce r tai n ly they ca n n ot

-
,

be s o be n e ficial t o the good w ork in g of the cyli n de r as a pisto n with b r oa d

bea ri n g su r faces I t should be n ote d that wh e n the packi n g r i n g i s p r essed
.
-

ou t by S p r in gs acti n g i n d epe n de n tly of the body of the pisto n it i s advisabl e ,

to f o r m the pisto n with gr eate r d epth of fla n ge a n d j u n k r i n g -

.

The pisto n is secu r ed to the r od by a n u t a n d the S i ze of the rod at the ,

Fi g 94
. .
— P is t on -
r od Cr os s h e a d .

nu should b e such tha t the stress on the sectio n at the bott om of the th r ead
t
does n ot e xceed 7 000 lbs The dept h of thi s n u t n eed n ot e x ce e d the d ia m ete r
, .

whi ch would be determ i n ed by allowin g this str ess To avoid the lar ge cavity .

which is n ecessar y in the cyli n der cover f or the piston r od n u t so m e e n gi n e

- -

bui lde r s r ecess it i n to the pi sto n ; this r ecess does n ot m aterially a ff ect the
str e n gth of the pisto n a n d the pla n m a y be f oll owe d with adva n tage Al
,
.

though pisto n r od n uts seldo m wo r k loose a n d those of ve r tical e n gi n es a r e

-
,

less liable t o this tha n a r e other s still as a m eas u r e of sa fety in all cases a
,

t ape r S plit pin S h ould be fitte d t o the r od behi n d the n u t a n d in the case of
-
,

la r ge e n gi n es it is us ual to fit a lock plate t o the n u t itsel f or to a d opt ,

so m e othe r m ea n s of p r eve n ti n g it fr o m m ovi n g at all whe n at wor k .

C as t s te e
-
l Pis t on rod Cross h ea d —
Fig 95 r ep r ese n ts the m ode rn f o r m of
-
. .

c r ossh ead m ade of cas t steel a n d d esig n ed in such a way as a casti n g pe r m its
Of . I t is of cou r se m uch lighte r a n d cheape r tha n that of f o r ge d m ate r ial
, , ,

show n in fig 94 a n d is especially sui ted to f ast r u n n i n g e n gi n es which r equi r e

.
,
-

a la r ge bea r i n g su r face T h ese c r osshea d s c a n n ow be cast quite sou n d a n d

.

o f e x celle n t m ater ial so as to be r actica lly as goo d as a steel f o r gi n g

p .
 I
P S T O N R OD -
GUI D ES .
2 75

The str esses on the var ious sectio n s a re as a r ule ligh t as t h e gove rn i n g , , ,

r equir e m e n ts of su r f ace n atu r ally causes it to be m uch la r ge r tha n would b e

t h e case f or m e r e st r e n gth The gudgeo n s c a n be cast soli d or lighten e d

.
,

o u t as show n The e x a m p le S how n in fig 95 has white m etal fitted t o both

. .

t h e head goi n g a n d ste rn goi n g S ides a n d is without a loose slippe r

- -
S uc h , .

howeve r c a n always be fitted t o this type of c r osshead if desi r e d

, .

Fi g . 95 .
— Ca S t -
s t ee l Cr os s h e a d .

Whe n c a st steel is obj ected as m ate r i a l for the gu d geo n s a co mposite

to ,

d esig n has bee n adopted whe r eby the c r osshead is m a d e of ha r d w r ought -

s teel a n d fitte d t o the cast steel S lippe r etc a n d secu r e d by stu d s a n d n u t s

-
, .
, .

Pis t on rod Gu ides —The p r essu r e on the pisto n is t r a n s mitted thr ough
-
.

t h e pisto n rod t o the co n n ecti n g r od a n d the r eactio n of the latte r r od acts

- -
,

i n the dir ectio n of its l e n gth ; co n se que n tly whe n the co n n ecti n g rod is n ot ,
-

i n li n e with the pisto n r od the f or ce Of its r eactio n c a n be r esolve d i n to two

-
,

c o m po n e n t f or ces on e i n the di r ectio n of the pisto n rod a n d the othe r p er

,
-
,

pe n d ic u la r t o it This latter f or ce is usually called the th r ust of the

.

”
co n n ecti n g r od a n d un less speciall y p r eve n ted woul d te n d to be n d the
-
, ,

pisto n r od To p r eve n t such a n occu rr e n ce a n d t o p r ese r ve the pisto n rod

-
.
,
-

in its t rue cou rs e a guide is p r ovided a n d the pisto n r od e n d fitted with

, ,
-

blocks or slippe r s t o wo r k in it This thr ust var ies fr o m O at the e n d of the

.

s tr oke to it s m a x i mu m poi n t which is towa r ds the poi n t whe n the c r a n k is

,

Fi g . 96 .

i t. a right a n gle to the ce n tr e li n e thr ou gh the cyli n de r a n d depe n di n g on ,

the cut Off poi n t ; w h e n stea m is cut off past hal f st r oke the n n eglecti n g
- -
, ,

i n er tia e ff ects th i s is e x actly t h e poi n t of m a x i m u m t h r ust To dete r mi n e

,
.

the m agn itude of the t hr ust whe n P is the total e ff ective load on the pi sto n ,

S the st r oke a n d L the le n g t h of co n n ecti n g r od r ep r ese n te d by A B fig 96

,
-

, , .

c o m pleti n g the pa r alle l ogr a m by the dotted li n es A E B E A C the n the , , ,

 I
P S T ON R OD -
ca os s n n An s AN D GU D G E ON S . 2 77

s h ould have gui de blocks such that the m a x i mu m p re ss u r e

-
er
p s qua r e i n c h
1 76 0
55 lbs
’

or .

Guide blocks desig n ed on these li n es f or a hea d m otio n have always a mpl e

p r ovisio n f or a s t ern 90 mg The n i n a n y e n gi n e
-
.
l

R u le — Gr oss a rea of gu i de block shoe -

T x J (s + 1 00 )
60

Cast i r o n ha rd a n d close gr ai n ed 1 8 r eally goo d m ate r ial for the gui d e

,
-

plates its sur face a f ter a f e w d ays wo r k beco m es e x cee di n gly ha rd a n d

'

, ,

h ighly polis h ed a n d o ffe r s ve r y little re sista n ce to the slippe r or guide block

,
-
.

S o lo n g as this ha r d ski n r e m ai n s i n tact n o tr ouble will be e x pe r ie n ce d but , ,

i f ab r asio n takes place fr o m heati n g or othe r cause it r a r ely wo r ks well a fte r ,

a n d shoul d b e at o n ce pla n e d a f r es h or bette r still g r ou n d s m ooth , , , .

The slippe r s or f aci n g plates fitte d to the pisto n rod or c r osshead we re -

s o meti m es m a d e of b r o n z e but b r o n z e n eve r g ets t h a t s m ooth ha rd ski n s o

esse n tial to good a n d e fficie n t wo rki n g a n d whe n on ce the su rf ace is gr oove d ,

a n d sc r atche d it will wea r away ve r y r apidly

,
Fi n e g r ai n cast i r o n is a fte r .
,

a ll the best m etal f or this pu r pose i f ca r e is take n at the fir st wo r ki n g of the

, ,

e n gi n e to r u n f or a f e w hou r s at easy spee d s o as to r u b dow n a n d polish

‘

, ,

the su r f aces ; a fter this is o n ce thor oughly do n e cast i r o n sur faces will ,
-

c o n ti n ue t o wo r k well with ve r y slight atte n tio n White m etal i s however .

, ,

n ow ge n e r a lly used f or the f aci n g of slippe r s a n d wo r ks ve r y well a n d f or , ,

high spee d i s r eliable for good a n d sa f e wo rkin g The best way of usi n g .

whi te m etal for this pur p ose i s to fit st r ips of this m ater ial i n to gr ooves pla n e d
a c r oss a cas t i r o n slippe r a n d leave the m sta n di n g fr o m 1
1 5 to i n ch above
-

the cast i r o n The str ips should be about 2 i n ches wi d e a n d the space
.
,

between the m fr o m it t o 1 1 i n ches i n to which the lub rican t c a n c olle ct a n d , _

l odge , as be f o r e d es cr ibed A slipper fitted in this way is shown in fig 92

. . .

I t is cheape r howeve r a n d m o r e ge n e r al t o cast the whi t e m etal p ractically

, ,

o ve r the wh ole su r f ace of the slippe r w he r e it is r etai n ed in place by

, ti n n i n g ,

a n d u n d e r lyi n g the e d ges of the r ecess p r o vided f or it I t is usual t o c u t .

o il ways i n the f ace of the guide which d ist r ibute the oil ac r oss it a n d m etal
-
, ,

c o m bs secu r e d t o t h e slippe r di p i n to the oil r eceive r at the e n d of the guide ,

a n d s mea r the f ace on the r etu rn st r oke .

The guide plates a r e so m eti m es pla n e d ac r oss i n stead of the slippe r s f or , ,

t h e sa m e pu r pose of r etai n i n g the lub r ica n t or have ci r cu la r g r oove d r i n gs ,

d ot te d ab out thei r su r face .

Pis t on rod Crossh eads an d Gu dgeons — Whe n the r e a r e two pisto n r ods
‘

- -
.
,

a s i n the case of the r etu rn co n n ecti n g r od e n gi n e they a re u n ited t o a -

c omm
,

o n c r ossh ea d havi n g a tu rn e d j ou rn al in t h e m i dd le f or the co n n ecti n g

,

r od to wo r k on or e lse a bea r i Il i s fitte d to th e c r osshea d i n which a gudgeo n

g
n ,

o n the co n n ec t i n g r od wo r ks I h e f o r m e r ( fig 97) is t he bette r a n d usual

‘
-
. .

p la n u n d e r or di n a r y ci r cu m sta n ces T h is c r osshead is of w r ought i r o n or -

.

s teel a n d m a d e of a f o r m suitable t o the ci r cu m sta n ces

,
~
a n d a rr a n ge d to ,

wo r k in gui d es The dia m ete r at the m idd le m ust of cou r se be su fficie n t

.
, ,

t o withsta n d the be n di n g a c t ion a n d ge ne r ally fr o m this cause a m ple su r f ace ,

'

i s p r ovi d e d f or good w or ki n g ; but in a n y case the a r e a calculate d by mu lti ,

plyi n g the d ia meter of t h e j ou rn al b v its l e n gth shoul d be s u ch that t h e ,

2 78 MANUA L or M AR I N E EN GI N E E R I N G .

pr essu r e does n ot e x ceed lbs per squa re i n ch t aki n g .

,
the m a x i mu m
loa d on t he pi st on as the total p r ess u r e on it .

L e t L be the d ista n ce of the ce n t r es of the pisto n r ods in -

i n ches , a nd P
the m a x i mu m loa d on the pisto n in pou n ds the n for st re n gth ,

D ia m ete r of c r osshea d shoul d n ot be less tha n i /P X L

18
For good wea r i n g ,
I bei n g the le n gth of the j our n al ,

D ia m ete r of c r osshea d should n ot be less tha n

,

Wit h f ast ru n n i n g e n gi n es the f ollowi n g r ule m a y be f ollowed wher e P

-

is the m a x i mu m loa d on the pis t on d is t h e dia m eter a n d l the total le n gth

,

of gudgeo n or c r osshead a r m s i n i n ches a n d R the r evolutio n s

per mi n ute
, .

P X A
'
s
/R “

i
“
W0
T he n for an y e n gi n e
P X N R 1 00
D ia m ete r of c r osshead

Fig . 97 — Cros s h e a d
. an d G u id e bloc k f or d ou ble P is t on
- -
r od s .

Of course the m a x i mu m l oad on the c r osshead is r e a lly the r eactio n of

.

the co n n ecti n g rod but to avoid a n y co mplicatio n of the calculatio n it is

-
, , ,

sufficie n t to take the load on the piston .

Whe n the d ia m ete r of the c r osshea d j our n al is calculated by the fir st

r ule the le n gth is usuall y m a d e equal t o it
, .

D i r ect acti n g e n g in es have so m eti m es a gu dgeo n secu r ed t o the co n n ecti n g

-

r od ( fig . which wo r ks in a bea r i n g in the pisto n r od e n d ( figs 91 a n d -

.

92 ) or have the gu d geo n at the pisto n r od e n d ( fi s 93 94 an d and

g
-
.
, ,

c on n e c t in g r od ( figs 99 a n d 1 00 ) swu n g on it by b rasses etc

. on eithe r side , .
, .

B y the latte r pla n la r ge r bear i n g sur faces a r e obtai n able a n d the b r asses ,

bei n g on t h e outsi d e of t h e r o d s a r e m uch easie r watched a n d adj uste d

,

o n the ot h e r ha n d t h e r e a r e two sets of bolts b rasses etc to lub r icate

, , ,
.
,

a n d keep in o rde r a n d the r e is the liability by ca r eless a d j ust m e n t t o put t h e

,
 I
P S T ON - R OD CR OS S H E AD S AN D GU D G E ON S . 2 79

whole of t h e load on on e sid e o n ly I n the m ai n howeve r this pla n is a

“

.
, ,

p re fe r able on e f or la r g e a n d heavy r ods a n d it is on e which ad mits of the

,

isto n r od bei n g fitt ed i n to its e n d ( figs fi94 a n d 95 ) i n stea d of f o r ged with

p
-

it This latter adva n tage is well wo r thy of co n sider atio n f or it is highly

.
,

i mpo rtan t that the piston rod shall be quite fr ee fr o m flaws a n d reeds on its
-

Fig 98. . Fi g 99
. .
— Con n e c t in g -
r od s .

su r face othe r wise the packi n g soo n gets da m aged a n d it is the n f ou n d im

, ,

p ossible to keep the gla n ds fr o m leaki n g A steel rod r ar ely has the m but
.
,

i f the r od si m pl y fit s i n to the c r osshe a d or r od en d t h is latte r m a y wit h ,

advan tage be m ade of cast steel while the r od m a y be of f o r ged steel of a n y

,

desir e d quality easily r etu rn e d or gr ou n d in the lathe a n d cheaply r eplace d

,
.

S m alle r e n gi n es a re better with the gudgeon sh ru n k i n to the j aws of the

 CON N E CT N I G -
R OD S 28 1

less t h a n twice the st roke Q uick ru n n in g y e r t ic a l e n gi n es have al m ost

.
-

i n va r iably the co n n ecti n g rods twice thei r st r oke in le n gth ; oth e r ve r tic a l
-

e n gi n es f r o m twice t o th r ee ti m es but ge n er ally t w o a n d a qua r te r ti m es is

,

n ot e x ce ed ed .

A co n n ecti n g r od ma y be viewed as a str ut loose at both e n d s t h e

-
,

f o r m ula f or w h ich as ive n on p 2 71 , is R f S

, g .

12
1 4: “
(i f

Th e value of B will be f oun d by m ultiplyi n g t h e load on t h e piston by t h e

secan t of t h e an gle of obli quity of t h e con n ecti n g r od ( s i de p Or by -
.

g eo m etr y
2 L
R s ’
L2 s2
P bei n g t h e load on t h e pisto n S the str oke a n d L , ,
the le n gth of the
c o n n ecti n g r od as be f o r e
-
.

S i m pli f yi n g t h e above f o r m ula by assu m i n g a value r f or t h e r atio of

2
substit uti n g 1 i
7

5
”

l to d, an d f or S 5 an d t a ki n g t h e value of f at 3 00 0 lbs .

4 85
E x am p le — To fin d the d iam ete r at t h e m i dd le of t h e co n n ecti n g r od of
.
-

an en gi n e , 6 0 i n ch es str oke , whose le n gth is 1 2 0 i n ch es , a n d t h e load on t h e

piston lbs .
, bei n g take n at l b .
,

x 2 x 1 20

J4 x 2
1 0 2
6 02

D ia m ete r at m i dd le 76 in che s .

The followi n g a re the values of r . in p r ac t i ce

N aval e n gi n e s — D i r ect -
acti n g r 9 to 11 .

Me r ca n tile en gi n es ,
r 12 .

l o n g stroke 7 1 3 tic 1 6 .

Taki n g 1 0 as t h e ave r ag e va lue ,

of f or n aval e n gi nes ,
and 1 3 f or me r c tile an ,

th e n ,

For a n aval e n g i n e ,

D iam ete r of co n n ectin g r od at -

m i dd le

For m e r ca n tile e n gi n es ,

D iam ete r con n ecti n g r od m i dd le

m
'

of -
at .

T h e siz es g ive n by th ese r ules , alth ou gh la r g e e n ou gh f or st r e n gth , a r e

s o m ew h at s m a lle r t h a n f ou n d i n a ctual p r ac tice i n t h e m e r ca n t i le m a r i n e

ge n e r all y .
 28 2 M A N UA L or M AR I N E EN GI N E ER I N G .

T h e f ollo w i n g
e m pi r ica l f o r m ula will be f ou n d a ve r y usef ul on e ,
and the
r esults g iven by it ag r ee ve r y closely with oo d m o d e p ractice
g rn :

D ia m ete r of co n n ecti n g rod at -

m i dd le M
L is t he le n g th of t he r od in i n ch es , an d

K 00 3
JEfie c t i v e load on t h e pis t o n i n x lbs .

Ex a mp le — To fin d t h e d ia m ete r of t h e c on n ecti n g r od -
1 00 i n ch es lon g
, ,
for a n e n i n e h avi n g a load of lbs
g .

K 0 03 -
x
~
/ 5 , ooo
5 7 07
-

D ia m e t e r 6 6 i n ch e s .

The dia mete r of the co n n ecti n g r od at the e n ds ma y be 0 8 75 of it s -

dia m ete r in the mi d dle The tape r i n g of r ods or m aki n g the m barr el .
, _

shaped is usual in the case of those havi n g si ngl e b r asses at both e n ds ;

,

t he n the dia m ete r of the c r a n k i n e n d is 0 9 2 5 of the dia m ete r at mid dle

p
-
.

D i r ect acti n g e n gi n es have usually the co n n ecti n g r o d s tape ri n g fro m the

- -

gu d geo n e n d to the m id dle a n d the n par allel or n ea r ly so to the c r a n k pin , , ,

. -

en d .

is howeve r si m ple r a n d sufficie n tly accu r ate t o f ollow in the case of

It , , ,

co n n ecti n g r ods a si m ilar r ule to that laid dow n on p 2 72 for pis to n r ods
-
, .
-

viz .

D ia m ete r of cyli n der

D ia m et er of co n n ecti n g -
r od —
J;
F
'

H er e p is as calculated by the f o r mulae on p 2 73 T m a y be take n at 5 5 for . .

the c r osshead e n d of f ast r u n n i n g light e n gi n es a n d 5 2 of m e rca n tile e n gi n e s

-
,

of o r di n a r y type The dia m eter of the r ods at the m iddle m a y be got by

“

divi d i n g by F L wher e L is the le n gth of co n n ecti n g rod in feet

,
-
.

C on n ec t in g rod B ol t s — The dia m eter of the bolts m a y be calculated by

-
.

allowi n g the sa m e str ess per s quar e i n ch as that give n f or pis to n —r od bolts .

I t is usual n ow fr o m p r actical co n side r atio n s to m ake the bolts of both

, ,

pisto n a n d co n n ecti n g r od of the sa m e si z e the bolts the r e fo r e s hould be

-
'

calcu lated fro m t h a loa d on the co n n ecti n g r od I n o r de r that the w hole of -

. _

the str etch shall n ot co m e on on e sectio n as at the botto m of the last thr ead ,

of a n o r di n a r y bol t it is bette r to tu rn pa r t of the body of co n n ecti n g a n d

,

pisto n r od bolts to the sa m e dia m ete r as at the bot to m of the thr ead leavi n g
-
,

it a little lar ge r than t h e d ia m ete r ove r the th r ead close to the hea d a n d in ,

w a y of a n y j oi n t — that is the bolt i s m ade with a plu s th r ead a n d bea r i n g , ,

colla r s whe r e r equi r e d .

Conn ectin g rod B rasses — The c r a n k pin b r asses a r e m o r e seve r ely t ried
-
.
-

tha n a n y othe r s about a n e n gi n e a n d the r e f o r e should be m ost car e fully , , ,

des ig n e d a n d m ade of the ve r y best m ate r ial S o m e e n gi n ee r s m ake t h e

,
.

b r asses to f o r m the e n d of the r od ( fig a n d r etai n ed to it by bolts a n d a . .

steel cap ; othe r s pr e f er that the y shall o n ly act as bushes or li n e r s to t h e

co n n ecti n g r od ; so m eti m es fitti n g th e m i n to a squa r e or octago n al r ecess in
-

the r od e n d a n d held in place by a flat cap a n d bolts j ust as is ge n e rall y

, , '

d o n e to pisto n r od e n ds ; but m o r e ge n e r ally t h ey a re fitte d in d uplicat e

-

,
 CO N N E CT N I G -
R OD BR A S S ES .
28 3

halves as show n in fig 98 The f o r m er pla n is a n e x pe n sive on e whe n they

, . .

a r e of la r ge si z e a n d m a d e of b r ass on accou n t of the g reat weight r equi re d , _ ,

a n d co n seque n tl y a re also costl y t o r e n ew whe n wo r n besi d es which they ,

a re ve r y liable to get ou t o f shape whe n heate d a n d to c r ack th r ough the ,

c r ow n s The latter pla n avoi d s t h e use of so m uch b r ass gi ves a goo d solid
.
,

bed to the b r asses a n d leaves t h e bolts f r ee of all str ess e x cept te n sio n Whe n
, .

r ods a re m a d e in this way it is usual to f o r ge the head of the r od solid a n d

,

t u r n it a n d the cap at the sa m e ope r atio n the hole f or the b r asses is bo r ed

or slotted ou t ( the latte r whe n the hole is 9 i n c hes a n d upwa rds i n d ia m ete r )

r oughly the head is the n slotte d thr ough or parte d in the lathe so as t o cut
o ff t h e cap the space le ft by the tool bei n g e qual to twice the d i ff e r e n ce in
,

thick n ess of the b r ass at the c r ow n a n d sides ; the cap is the n bolted clos e
to the r od a n d the hole bo r ed ou t t o the dia m ete r of the b r a sses m easu r ed
,

ac r oss the r od The b r asses a re kept fr o m t u r n i n g by a b r ass d ista n ce piec e

.

secur ed betwee n the cap a n d r od a n d p r oj ecti n g betwee n the b r asses a n d in ,

the case of lar ge b r asses a sho r t f eath er is fitted close t o each flan ge in t h e -

c r ow n All b r asses have a te n de n cy to close on the pin or j ou rn al a fte r

.

havin g b ee n hot bec a use the i n n er su rf ace beco m es warm fir st a n d t h e

, ,

m etal in e x pa n di n g te n ds to s t ra I gh t e n the cu r ved pa r t ; this is r esisted by

the othe r pa rt of the b r ass a n d the bed in w hi ch it is fitted a n d i n c on Se ,

q u e n c e this i n n e r u r face gets co m p r essed pe rm a n en tly so that on cooli n g

s
,

d ow n it co n tr acts a n d t ries the n t o give the b r a s s m o r e cur vatu r e a n d s o

, ,

p r esses h a r d on the j ou rn al I t is f or this r easo n that so m e bear i n gs will .

n eve r wo r k cool but always a t rifle wa r m this sli ght a m ou n t of heat cause s
the b r as s to e x pa n d so as t r uly to fit the j ou r n al I t is n ow n ot at all u n .

co mm o n to m ake these fit t i n gs of good cast or m alleable cast i r o n whe n li n ed

with white m etal ; i n d ee d cast i r o n carr ies white m etal bette r tha n b r as s ,

d oes a n d whe n of r eally good mi x tur e is quite as st r o n g a s gu n meta l a n d

,
-
,

str o n ge r tha n the co mmo n b r ass so o fte n used wit h white m etal .

Fig 1 00 is a n e x a m ple of a m ode rn co n n ecti n g r od with the j aws m ade

.
-

as pa r t of a co n e i n stead of as in fig 99 ther eby p r ovi d i n g a bette r co n n ec

,
.
,

tio n between each j aw a n d the bo d y of the r od as well as per mitti n g of it s ,

bei n g m achi n ed m uch m or e cheaply This r od is fitted with cast i r o n beari n gs .

-

at each e n d li n ed with white m etal This f o r m of r od a n d b r asses is n ow

,
.

ve r y ge n er ally used in the m er ca n tile m a ri n e a n d N a v v f or e n gi n es of all i

s 1 z es .

White m etal is bette r tha n b r o n z e f or the r ubbi n g su r face of the c r a n k

”
p in b r asses it is i m po r ta n t the r e f o r e that the w hi te m etal shall p r oj ect
, , ,
.

”
beyo n d the b rass so that it alo n e shall b ea r on the pin For t hi s pu r pose
, .

st r ips of white m etal should be fitte d i n to gr ooves pla n ed in the b r ass

a n d be well ha mm e r e d so as to tho r oughly fill the spaces a fte r which it
, ,
.

sho u ld be s m oothly bor e d a n d fitte d to the pin B r asses which have n ot . .

bee n o r igi n all y d esign e d for w hi te metal m a y be fitted in this way or by ,

bo r i n g so m e shallow holes whose dia m ete r at the botto m is m o r e tha n at t h e

,

sur f ace casti n g i n to the m butto n s of white m etal w h ich a fte r ha mme ri n g
, , ,

d ow n a re bo r ed ou t so that the white m etal sta n d s ou t beyo n d the o r igi n a l

,

wea r i n g sur face .

A ve r y good pla n but so m ewhat m o r e e x pe n sive a n d n ot m o r e e fficie n t

,

tha n the on e above desc r ibe d is t o r u n the w hi te m etal i n t o recesses cast ,

with the b r ass ha mme r it well in place bo r e ou t a n d the n pla n e out the b r as s
, , ,
 GU D G E ON EN D or R OD .
2 85

i n place while the shell is wa rm Whe n cold bo r e ou t as usu a l t r i m the

.
,
’

e d ges , etc a n d cut grooves f or the oil to ci r culate in the su rface of t h e met a l
. ,

fig .

Ca ps of Con n ectin g rod B rasses —Th e wi d th of the co n n ecti n g r od e n d -

should be such as t o e fficie n tly suppo r t t h e b 1 asses ; its th ick n ess ( in di r ce

tio n of the len gth ) 0 6 X dia m ete r at mi ddle of r od .

Th e thick n ess of cap at m i ddle

,
0 8 x d ia m ete r of bo dy of bolts
X pitch of bolts .

Thick n ess of cap at e n ds dia mete r of bolts at botto m of thr ead .

For ease of m a n u factu r e caps a r e ge n e r ally m a d e st r aight a n d of thick n es s

give n by the fir st r ule .

Gu dgeon En d of R Od — The j aws of eve r y co n n ecti n g i od a re subj ect t o -

for ces which te n d t o ope n the m on the dow n st r oke a n d close t h e m on t h e

up Whe n fitted with a gudgeo n pin secur ed I n the eyes as in fig 98 the
.
, .
,

j aws a r e subj ect t o be n d in g m o m e n t s at t h e var ious sectio n s , which bec o me

m a x i m a at a poi n t j ust below the gu d geo n a n d also at a n a n gle of about 4 0 °

to the ve r tical thr ough the ce n tr e of cu r vatu r e of the i n n e r po rtio n Whe n .

the r od is fitted w i t h b r asses wo r ki n g on a c r osshead , as in fig 99, the .

m a x i mu m be n di n g m o m e n t is at a n a n gle of about 4 0 to the ve r tica l or a x i s

°

of the r od , a n d is gr eater tha n whe n with a gu d geo n secu r ed t o the r od e n d s .

Whe n t he dia mete r of the gud geo n or cr osshead e n ds is

t h en
L et P be the m ax i mu m re curr e n t load on the pis ton
-
.

L the wi dth fr o m cen t r e t o ce n tr e of gudgeo n ri n gs -

or of c r osshead
b ras ses w he n so fitte d .

D ia m ete r of gudgeo n ri n g dia mete r of gudgeo n x F

.

Thic k n ess 0 85 X F .

Width of j aw 1 3 5 x F, or 1 1 X dia m eter of ro d .

l in e at
.

Thickn e ss of j aw 4 8 F x L whe n wit h gu d geo n

°
in 40 '
.

5 2 F X L when with b r as ses .

Fig 100a — Con n e ct in g

. .
-
rod En d ( Mic h el) .
286 MAN U AL A
or M R I N E E N GI N EE R I N G .

CH AP T ER XI I .

S HAFT I N G— CR A N K S AN D CR A N K S H A FT S
-
, ET C.

Th e S h a fting of a Modern Marine En gine is m a d e wholly of m ild steel ,

p r oduced fr o m a S ie m e n s furn ace , a n d ge n e r ally havi n g a ten sile ultim ate

st r e n gth of about 30 to n s I n sectio n it is , of cour se cir c u lar , a n d in the
.
,

m e r ca n tile m ar i n e ge n e r ally solid i n N aval shi ps it is always m ade hollow

by bo r i n g ou t the ce n tr e s o as to r e m ove the co r e of doubt f u l m etal a n d
p r ovide the st r o n gest sha ft with the least weight , i n as mu ch as , with a lar ge
r e d uctio n i n m ate r ial ther e is o n ly a s m all r e d uctio n in str e n gth by this
,

t r eat m e n t For e x am ple , if a sha ft have a bo r ehole in dia m eter hal f that
.

o f the outside the r eductio n i n weight is 2 5 per ce n t , w hi le the st r e n gt h is

, .

d i m i ni shed by 1 2 5 per ce n t o n ly The cost of hollow sha fts is , of cour se

. .
,

gr eatly in e x cess of that of solid o n es ; n otwithstan din g , it is f ou n d wo r th

while to fit the m to m a n y of the hi gh speed e x p r ess stea m er s c r ossin g cha n n el s
-

a n d e n ter i n g shallow ha r bou r s .

I n Practice every S h a ft in a S hip is subj ect to to r sio n , a n d , ther e fo r e t o ,

the shear i n g str esses caused by to r que I t has also t o r esist the additio n al
.

sheari n g str ess due to its own weight but thi s additio n is as a r ule n ot g r eat
, ,

, ,

by co m par iso n B u t the weight causes a be n di n g m o m e n t to act on eve r y

.

par t of the shaft which if the be ar i n gs a re wide apar t will cause a st r ess
, , ,

a n d de flectio n which m us t be take n accou n t of .

Th rou gh ou t th e Lin e of Sh aft ing fr o m the moto r t o the p r opelle r is t r a n s

mi t t e d t o the latter the to r que ge n e r ated in the f o r m er, a n d whe n the sc r ew
is heavy a n d r aci n g badly in a sea way the r e m a y be a n d o fte n is a r eve rse
-

, , ,

actio n by the i n er tia sto r ed in the latter tr an s fe rri n g back a tor que t o the
m oto r.

Th e Prope ller sh a ft of every Sh ip is subj ect to a m o r e s eve r e load f r o m

- —

the ove r hu n g heavy i n stru m e n t setti n g up seve r e be n d i n g m o m e n ts d u e to ,

g r avity in s m ooth water a n d in r ough water t o the i n er tia e ff ects a n d t h e

,

u n eve n actio n of the blades on the water Whe n a s hi p is pitchi n g in a h eavy

.

sea the ste rn d r ops w ith gr eat r api d ity s o that the vertical velocity of a heavy
,

sc r ew is ser ious ; thi s velocity is checke d with sufficie n t ab r upt n ess to put
a ve r y heavy be n d i n g m o m e n t a n d shea r i n g f or ce on the sha ft e n d whe r e ,

it ceases to b e suppor te d by the ster n bush as is equally the case whe n the ,

w a v e m otio n causes a r api d r ise of the ste rn The si d e thr ow or lur ch at the.

ste rn f r o m wave actio n sets up ho r i z o n tal i n er tia f o r ces also seve r e a n d ,

t ryi n g although n ot so i n te n se as t h e ve r tical o n es The d i ff e r e n tia l p r es

, .

su r es on opposite blades of the sc r ew also p r oduce be n di n g m o m e n ts with

the co rr espo n di n g shear i n g f o r ces H e n ce the stern sha ft of a ca r go stea m e r
.
,

w h ich is so m eti m es deeply lade n a n d so m eti m es light a n d always so m ew h at ,

lively at the stern is t r ied ve ry seve r ely a n d should always be of a mple si z e ;

, ,
 T U N N E L S HAFT I N G . 28 7

i n fact lar ger tha n th at of the fin er li n e d e x p r ess stea m e r of the sa m e powe r

,
-

but with a sc r ew lighte r because of s m alle r d ia m eter a n d o ften of b r o n z e

Cr a n k sh afts of r ecip r ocato r s a r e subj ect t o co m
, .

-
ple x lo ads at thei r v ar ious
pa rt s a n d always have be n d i n g m o me n ts of ki n d s as well as to r que t o r esist
, ‘
.

T h e sh a fts of tu rbin es also have to bea r co n sider able be n di n g m o m e n ts ,

d u e to the weigh t of the r otor but in thei r case both it a n d the to r que a r e ,

c o n sta n t a n d u n i f o rm the r e is n o va r iatio n i n tor que thr ough the r evolutio n

a s with the r ecip r ocator I t does h oweve r have to r esist i n e r tia f o r ces of
.
, ,

a ki n d w h e n the ship is i n a sea —way a n d whe n the tu r bi n e is well a f t as in , ,

fig 4 0 the str esses due t o the m will be heavy in b a d weathe r

.
, .

Th e Cra nk sh a ft of t he ord in ary Oil En gin e is subj ect to seve r e ben di n g

-

m o m e n ts a n d t o s hocks whi ch p r oduce heavy shea r i n g f o r ces

, I t is clai m ed .

f or the D iesel e n gi n e that owi n g to the ve r y gr eat a m ou n t of co m p r essio n

, ,

ther e is lit t le or n o shock at e x plosio n a n d the di a gr a m ( fig 1 0 1 ) would ,

.

s ee m t o p r ove thi s The c om bi n ed tor que diagr am fr o m a n oil e n gi n e on the

.

I N D I CAT O R D I AG R AM O F D E S E L I
2 S T R O K E CY CL E E N G I N E

M EAN P R ES S URE
s u e L B S . P ER 3 0 m
.

Fig 1 01 . .
— D i e s e l En g in e D ia gr a m .

f ou r cycl e syste m however ; shows a ver y lar ge r atio of m a x i mu m t o m ea n

-
,

to r que as well as the big ben d in g m o me n t .

Th e Tu nn el or I n termedia t e S h a ftin g of a ship is subj ect theo r etically

’

t o t or que o n ly ; it is of cou r se in co m p r es s io n a x ially f r o m the sc r ew sha f t to

, ,

the th r ust block but this a ff ects t he to r que s o lit t le as to be n egligible ( about
'

l}; p er ce n t ) I f the tu n n el
. bea r i n gs a re close togethe r a n d the r ate of re v olu ,

tio n is n ot high the n tor sio n alo ne is the govern i n g f acto r in dete r mi ni n g its
,

size . B u t si n ce the ra t e of r evolutio n h a s i n cr eased s o lar gely especially

, _ ,

where tur bi n es a r e e m ployed it is n ecessar y n ow to co n side r the be n di n g

,

m o m e n ts that m a y or d o co m e on these sha fts Ho wev er close in r eason .

, ,

the bear i n gs m a y be t o on e a n other the weight of the sha ft must cause a ,

ce r tai n a m ou n t of sag ; if the cen tr e of gr avity of the shaft do e s n ot coi n ci d e

w ith its a x is of r otatio n it may then whirl— that is the C G will t e n d to
, , .
‘

m ove in a cir cle whose ce n t r e is on the a x is of r otatio n

,
At low spee d s .

the whirli n g actio n is co m paratively sm all a n d n ot su fficien t to f u rthe r ,

be n d the sh a ft but at highe r speeds the cen tri fugal for ce m a y be s o great
,

a s to be h a r mful .
 S A FE W OR K I N G S TR ES S . 2 89

B u t t h e Arm of a Cran k which is a leve r m ovi n g alwa y s a n gula r ly

sh a ft ,

in on e di r ection is subj ect to n o such cha n ges of st r ess On t h e on e si d e

'

.
,

on whic h the f o r c e 1 3 applie d the m ole cules a re subj ect to te n sio n o n ly a n d ,

tho s e on t h e Opposite sid e to co m p r essio n o n ly ; but I n the case of a n e n gi n e

c r a n k the lo a d a n d st r ess as m easu r e d by t h e tu rn i n g m o m e n t a r e n ot s o
, ,

ab rupt I n thei r applicatio n etc a n d t h ey also a r e m o d i fie d by i n e r tia f o r c e s

,
.
,

a n d cus h io n i n g Wit h the r eve r sal of the e n gi n e i n to aste r n gea r thes e

.
‘

str esses a re of cou r se r eve r se d

, ,
.

Th e B ol t s of Conn ect in g rods Ma in B earin gs Cy lin der Feet

-
, a nd , ,

Cy l in der Covers a r e all su bj ect to a load of on e ki n d but it is applie d

.
,

a n d r elease d the n ceases f or a m o m e n t to be agai n applied m or e or

, ,

less sudden ly S uch loads a n d the str esses cause d by t h e m a re calle d

.

I n t er mitt en t .

I ron , St eel , a n d a ll Ma te ria l s su ff e r m o r e or less seve r ely f r o m these i n te r

mitte n t a n d alte rn ati n g st r esses but m uch m o r e so fr o m the latter as the
, ,

e ffect on t hei r st r uctu r es is to g r a d ually d estr oy th e m The highe r the str ess .

a n d the gr eate r the n u m be r o f alte rn atio n s or i n te r m issio n s per m i n ute t h e ,

q u icke r is t h e st r e n gt h or vi rtue of the m ate rial a n n ihi late d Of steels so m e .

va rieties have a lo n ge r li f e tha n oth e r s a n d of the b ro n z e s i t i s eve n mor e ,

m ar ked . I t does n ot f ollo w of n ecessity that because a s t e e l or b r o n z e h a s

a ve r y high elastic li mi t that it c a n be use d with gr eate r lo n gevity i n a r api d ly
ac t ive structur e tha n on e whose elastic li m it is less P r o f esso r Arn ol d has .

s h own that b a r steel by r ollin g a n d dr awi n g col d, m ight have its yield
‘

poi n t r aise d by as m uch as 8 to 1 2 to n s whi le the e n dur a n ce was r e d uce d ,

by 38 per ce n t ; in the case of alu m i n iu m copper alloys the e n dur a n ce

. _

of on e was m o r e tha n d ouble that of othe r s n ot di ff e r i n g la r gely fr o m it in

co mpositio n .

Th e I n flu en ce of N u mbers of R eversa ls of Stress a n d thei r m ag ni tu d e s

has bee n d e m o n str ate d also by Pr o f Arn old a n d othe r s a n d the r esults of .
,

e x pe ri m en ts on steel a n d i r o n is star tlin g .

Wohler s e x pe r i m e n ts showed that t h e i r on used f or a x les the n ( 1 8 70 )

’

r equi r ed r epetit i o n s wi t h a plus a n d mi n us load of 1 5 3 to n s e r squa r e

p
i n c h t o p r oduce fra ctur e while with 8 6 to n s each it r equi red ove r 1 9 millio n s
,
°

S i mila r e x pe r i m e n ts with K r upp 8 steel showed that with plus a n d mi n u s loa d s

’

of 2 0 1 to n s p e r squa r e i n ch r epetitio n s p r oduce d f r actu r e at 1 5 3 to n s ;

it was d o n e with a little ove r 3 m illio n s w hile so m e ba rs with to n s took

,

over 4 5 millio n s I t is clea r ; the n that si n ce so m e d e fin ite n u m be r of alte r

.
'

n atio n s will b r eak d ow n the te n acity of a m etal a n d that the g r eate r the ,

str ess the f ewer they will be that f or lo n g li f e a low w o r ki n g stress is

,

n ecessary .

S a fe Work in g S tress on the m ate r ial m ust the r e f or e va r y with the c on , ,

d it ion s u n d e r which it pe r fo r m s its d uty I n a ge n er al way t h e highest .

str ess allowable u n de r a n y ci r cu m sta n ces i s on e h al f t hat of the elastic li mi t -

,

a n d f or m a r gi n s of sa f ety to cove r i n accu r acies a n d s mall hidd en de fe cts

the highest wo rki n g str ess should n ot e x ceed 40 per ce n t of the elastic li mit . .

I f the m ate r ial I s subj ect to i n te r m itte n t st r ess 90 pe r ce n t of this m a x i mu m ,

.

or 36
p er ce n t of the elastic
. li m it should be obse r ve d i n the desig n I f .

h oweve r t h e st r esses a re alte rn ati n g 66 of the m a x i mu m or 2 6 4 pe r ce n t ,

°

o f the elastic li m it shoul d n ot be e x ceeded .

The elastic li m it of m ild steel as f ou n d in a n y wo r ks h op is about , ,

19
2 90 M A N UA L OF M AR IN E EN GI N E E R I N G .

lbs The wo rki n g st r esses on it with m o de rate spe e d O f r evolutio n

.

should be an d lbs per squa r e i n ch in te n sio n . .

For hi gh r ate Of r evolutio n eve n the s e all owa n ces a r e too great a n d ,

over 500 r evolutio n s per mi n ute the r eductio n i n st r ess shoul d be qui te
1 0 per ce n t so that f or sc r ew sha fts O f f ast r u n n i n g e n gi n es the st r ess
.
,
-

a llow e d in calculati n g the si z es should n ot e x cee d lbs f or co n ti n uous .

wo rki n g .

For wo r k whe r e the alte r n atio n s or i n te r mi ssio n s a r e e ff ecte d with c on

s ider a ble shock the wo r ki n g st r ess should be at least 1 0 pe r ce n t less tha n .

whe n e ff ecte d ge n tly .

I t should be n ote d howeve r t hat ce r tai n qualities of ste el a n d b r o n z e

, ,

s t an d shock a n d alte r n atio n of st r ess m uch bet t e r tha n oth er s .

Twis t in g Momen t — I f a f o r ce is act in g on a sha ft so as to tu rn it or te n d

. ,

to tur n i t r ou n d on its a x is it is called a t wis t in g for ce a n d the ef ort of this

, , ,

f o r ce is m easur ed by multiplyi n g it by its dista n ce f r o m the a x is a n d called ,

the t wis t in g momen t or t orqu e S uppose P is the thr ust alo n g the co n n ecti n g
.

r od whe n at r ight a n gles to the c r a n k a n d L i s the dista n ce o f the ce n t r e ,

of the c r a n k pin f r o m the ce n t r e of the sha f t P x L is the t w isti n g m o m e n t

-
,

on the s h a f t .

Wh e n on e f o r ce is acti n g on the shaft as above desc r ibed the seco n d ,

f or ce which co mplete s the c ou ple is the r eactio n O f the bea r i n g which is

, , ,

e qual t o P but acts i n the Opposite di r ectio n I f the f o rce P a n d the r eactio n
,
.

R act i n a pla n e per pen dicu la r t o t he a x i s of the sha ft they will cause n o ,

be n d i n g actio n on the sha ft but the r e will be a f o r ce R te n di n g to shea r

,

the sha ft ac r oss B u t in actual p r actice it is al m ost impossible tha t P a n d

.

R shall act i n such a pla n e a n d they usually act in pla n es pa r allel to on e

,

a n other a n d pe rpe n dicula r to t h e a x is ; hen ce the shaf t is also subj ec t

, ,

to a be n di n g actio n B u t if a sha ft is tur n ed by m ea n s of t wo equ a l f o r ces

.

ac ti n g in o pposite di r e ctio n s on e on eithe r side O f the shaft a n d eq u idis ta n t

,

fr o m the a x is a n d in the sa m e pla n e the n the sha f t is bala n ced these f o r ces , ,

will cause n o pr es sur e on the bear i n gs a n d it is subj ect ther e fo r e to t wisti n g , , ,

str ai n s o n ly I f on e sha ft is coupled t o a n othe r s ha ft fr o m which it is to

.
,

t ran s mi t powe r by t w o coupli n g bolts equidistan t fr o m t h e ce n t r e it will ,

o n ly r eceive a twisti n g str ai n S uch is the state of the sha fti n g fr o m the
.

c r a n k shaf t to the p r opelle r sha ft Of a sc r ew stea m shi p

- -
.

R esista n ce t o Twi sting — L et T be the twisti n g m o m e n t on a sha ft in

.

i n ch pou n ds d the d iam eter Of the sha f t in i n ches a n d f the st ress pe r

, ,

s quar e i n ch on the t r a n sve r se sectio n of the sha ft The n ( R a n ki n e Applied .

,

M echa n ics p 3 55 ) f or solid sha fts Of dia m ete r d

, .
,

j
i f
g -
: 0 1 96 4 f d ;
°
3
or d x 5 1.
-

For hollow sha fts with a bo r e diam eter dl,

d4 d 4
T 0 l 964 f
°

Exa mple — TO fin d t h e dia m e t e r Of a sha ft subj ect to twisti n g o n ly the ,

 D I AM E T E R OF A S H A FT S U B J E CT T O T OR S O N I . 291

f o rc e bei ng lbs . acti n g at a dista n ce of 24 i n ches stre ss t o be

, lbs .

T x 24 i n ch lb s -
.

ll 5 °
i n ch es .

i t u t T — I f a con s t an t f o r ce P we r e applied
D am e er o f a S h aft s bj ec t o or s i on
c
t o the r a k i n ta n e n tia lly t o its pat h th e n t h e wo r k d o n e pe r r evolut i on
n p g
-
,

$
2 11
will be P x L bei n g the len g th of the cr n a k in i n ch es th e n if R be
2
t h e n u m be r of r evolutio s n pe r m i n ute ,
2 77 L
W o r k d on e per mi n u t e P R
,

x x .

12

B u t th is wo r k is e qual t o I H P
. . . x an d t h e t w i s t in g
P x L co n stan tly . T h en
2 or

( P x L) x — x R I H P . . . x
12
and
I H P x 3 3 000 x 12
P x L
2 W x R
That is
'

D ia mete r of sha ft (4 )
B u t as sha ft s m ust be st ro n g e n ough t o r esist the ma x i mu m twisti n g st r ess ,
i t i s n ecessar y always t o base calcul atio n s on it i n stead of on the m ea n twisti n g
m omen t . The f acto r m ust the r e fo r e be m ultiplied by the r atio of , ,

m a x i mu m t o m ea n m o m e n t as give n in Table x x x v , .

P r o f es so r R a n ki n e di r ects ( R u les a n d T a bles p in or de r to fin d the , .

gr eatest twisti n g m o m e n t from the m ea n : if a sha ft is d r ive n by a si n gle

e n gin e m ultiply by 1 6
,
if by a pair of e n gi n es with c r a n ks at r ight a n gles ,

by if by th r ee e n gi n es with c r a n ks at a n gles of on e thi r d Of a r evolutio n -

,

by '

T h ese values a re howeve r ver y mu c h low e r tha n usually Obtai n ed in

, ,

m o d e r n p r actice if the e ffect of i n e r tia f or ces a r e n eglected .

For a th r ee c r a n k e n gi n e c r a n ks at
-
cutti n g Off at half t o t w o thi rds
,
-

s t r oke multiply by
,

For a t w o a n d f ou r cr a n k e n gi n e havi n g c r a n ks at r ight a n gles cutti n g

-
,

O ff stea m at hal f t o th r ee qua r te r str oke m ultiply by -

,

For a si n gle cyli n de r e n gi n e cutti n g O ff stea m at hal f st r oke by 2 0

-
, .
 D IA ME T E R OF A S H AF T S U B J E CT T O T O R S ON I . 291

f or c e bei ng lbs
. . actin g at a dista n ce of 24 i n che s stre ss t o be
, lbs .

T x 24 i n ch —lb s .

115 i n ch es .

D i ame t u b t t T i I f a co n sta n t f o r ce P we r e applied

er o f a S h aft s j e c o ors on —

to the r c a k i t n e n tial l y t o its pat h th e n t h e wo r k d o n e pe r r e v olu t 1 on

n p n a g
-
,

2
w ill be P x L bei n g the le n gth of the cr n a k in i n ches th e n if R be
t he n u mbe r of r evolution s pe r m i n ute ,
2 cr L
W or k d on e per min ute P R (1)
,

x x .

12

B u t th is wo r k is e qual t o I H P . . . x an d th e twis ti n g mom e n t is

P x L co n stan tly T h en .

( P x L ) x i ”
x R I H P x ? . . .

12
an d
I H P x 3 3 000 x 12
P x L
2 77 x R
That is ,

M ea n twisti n g m omen t x

An d as be f or e

R x
f

V R f
I f f be tak en at 7, 5 00 f or mild steel

D ia m ete r Of shaft (4 )
Bu t as S ha fts m ust be st ro n g e n ough to r esist the ma x i mu m twisti n g st r ess ,

it i s n ecessary always t o base calcul ati o n s on it i n stead Of on the m ea n twistin g

m omen t Th e f acto r
. must ther e f o r e be m ultiplied by the r atio of , ,

m a x i mu m t o m ea n m o m e n t as give n i n Table x x x v , .

P r o f es so r R a n ki n e di r ects ( R u le s a n d Ta bles p i n o r d e r t o f n d the , . i

gr eatest t w isti n g m o m en t f rom the mea n : if a sha f t is d r ive n by a si n gle

e n gin e m ultiply by 1 6
,
if by a pair of e n gi n es with c r a n ks at r ight a n gles ,

by if by thr ee e n gi n es with c r a n ks at a n gles of on e t hi r d Of a r evolutio n -

,

by '

These values a re however ver y m u c h low e r tha n usually Obtai n ed in

, ,

m o d e rn p r actice if the e ff ect Of i n e rtia f or ces a r e n eglected .

For a thr ee c r an k e n gi n e c r a n ks at
-
cuttin g O ff at half t o t w o thi r d s
,
-

s t r oke m ultiply by
,

For a t w o a n d f ou r c r a n k e n gi n e havi n g c r a n ks at r ight a n gles cutti n g

-

O ff stea m at hal f to th r ee qua rte r st r oke m ultiply by 1 3-

,

For a si n gle cyli n de r e n gi n e cutti n g off stea m at hal f st r oke by 2 0

-
, .
2 92 MAN UA L OF M AR I N E EN GI N E E R I N G .

T he f ollowi n g r ule holds good for the o rdi n a ry e n gi n es as foun d in ge n e ral ,

use i n the m e rcha n t se r vice

D ia mete r Of the tun n el S ha fts

Tw o -
stage co m pou n d e n gi n es c r a n ks at r i ght a n gle s
,

F 8 JP ,

w h er e is the absolute actual p r essu r e or boile r p r essu r e 15 lbs

p
.
,

co m pou n d thr ee c r a n ks at
°
Tr iple
r
-
,
-
1 20

Q ad ruple co m pou n d e n gi n es two c r a n ks right a n g les

u -
, , ,
F 5 5

f ou r c r a n ks , F : 5

Ex pa n sive e n gi n es c r a n ks at
,
an d the r ate of e x pa n sio n 5 , F
Tu r bi n es F 5 4 ,
:

S i n gle c r a n k co mpou n d e n gi n es p r essu r e

-

, 8 0 1bs .
, F 10 "
I:
The sha fts of to r pedo boats destr oye r s a n d f ast c ra ft which a re r u n at
-
, ,

full speed o n ly occasio n ally a n d f or sho r t pe r iods m a y be desig n ed by taki n g

, ,

F at about a hal f of the above values .

J

Th e T ors iona l Stiff n ess of a S h af t is of mo r e i m po r ta n ce to the m a r i n e

e n gi n ee r to d a y tha n it has eve r bee n be f o r e i n as much as i t is e m ploye d a s ,

the m easur e of the tor que of the turbi n e a n d fr o m it the ho r se powe r t r a n s , .

-

mit t e d I S m easu r ed
m
The to r sio n m ete r e pl oyed on shipboa r d to obtai n t h e m easur e Of t h e
owe r O f a tu r bi n e i s r eally l n esse n ce o n ly a n i n st r u m e n t f or i n dicati n g the
p
a n gle of twist of a defin ite po r tio n Of on e of the sha fts that p revious to fitti n g
i n the ship was tested by to r que to asce r tai n the a n gula r displace m e n t s

co rr espo n d in g to the m ag n itude Of ea ch applicatio n The f ollowi n g f o rmula .

is a m ea n s for co m puti n g what that a n gula r displace m e n t should be in degrees ,

with a sha ft whose e x te rn al dia m ete r is d a n d the dia m ete r of bo r e d1 § the

twisti n g m o m e n t or to rque is TI in i n ch pou n ds a n d C is the m odulus of -

sti ff n ess which f or soli d sha fts of best m ild steel is

,
a n d f or hollo w

sha fts 0 is the a n gl e in deg r ees ; L is the le n gth of the s ha f t

u n de r Obse r vatio n in i n ches R the r evolutio n s per m i n ute
, .

f or solid s ha fts .

5 84 x T, x L
C x (d *
dl 4 )
for hollo w sha fts
x
.

TI L
4
(d
 B EN D IN G M OM E N T .
2 93

S H P X 33 0( X
H ) .
,
fOOt l ‘

X i n ch -
lb

0 x cl
4
S H P
Fr o m idn
.

T]
. .

e qu a t (a ) L R
x

d ‘
d 4

( b) TI 0 X X

T he n S H P
. . . f or solid sha fts ,

4
R d ‘
dl
SHP
. . . x for hollow sha fts
L
.

2 98

Ex a mple — Fi n d the value of 0 f or

. a sha ft 9 i n ches dia m ete r a n d 6 i n ches
b o r e w h e n t r a n s m itti n g 5 , 000 S H P . . . at 3 5 0 r evolutio n s pe r m i n ute The .

l e n gth u n de r obse r vatio n i s 4 0 i n che s .

.

He r e the to r qu e X or i n ch -
lbs .

X 40
E quat i o n of a d egr ee .

B en din g Moment — I f a f o r ce is acti n g on a sha ft te n di n g to be n d

.

i t o n ly, its e fiO rt is called the ben din g momen t , a n d is m easur ed by

m ulti plyi n g the f o r ce by the dista n ce at which it acts fr o m the s u ppo rt
o f the s h a ft .

I f the sha f t is ove r hu n g like a ca n tileve r , a n d a f o r ce P is applied at a

d ista n ce L fr o m the poi n t of supp or t ,

The be n di n g m o me n t P X L

If suppor ted on t w o bea r i n gs whose d ista n ce apar t is , L, an d a f or ce P is

a p li ed at a poi n t mi dwa y b etwee n these t w o bea r i n gs
p ,

Th e be n di n g m o m e n t

If the bear i n gs a r e l o n g— that is e x ceedi n g the d ia m ete r of the S ha ft in

,

len gth a n d a r e also str o n g a n d rigid , so that the sha f t is held by the m s u ffi
,

c ie n t ly t o p r eve n t fl ex u re taki n g place i n the bea r i n g ,

T he be n di n g m o m e n t
 U
C R V E OF T w I S T I N G M O ME N T S 295
'

Cran k S h aft s T h ese S h af ts a r e subj ect always to twisti n g be n d i n g a n d

—
, ,

s h ear i n g str esses t h e latte r a r e S O s m all co m par ed with t h e f o r m e r th at

th ey a r e usually n eglecte d d i r ectly but allowe d f or i n d i r ectly by m ean s of
,

t h e f acto r j ; as al r ea d y state d .

Th e two p r i n cipal st r esses var y th r ough out t h e r evolutio n a n d t h e m a x i ,

m u m e quivale n t twisti n g m o m e n t ca n o n ly be Obtai n e d accu r ately by a se r ies ,

of calc u latio n s of be n d i n g a n d twisti n g m o m e n ts take n at fix e d i n te r vals ,

a n d f r o m th e m con st r uct a cu r ve of st r ai n s .

Curv e of T wistin g M omen t s — Th e twisti n g m om en t at a n y positio n of t h e

c r an k is equal to the p r essu r e on the piston m ultiplie d by t h e d istan ce i n te r
c e pt e d by a li n e th r ough t h e co n n ecti n g r od on a l i n e at r i gh t a n gles t o ce n t r e
-

li n e th r ough ce n tr e of cyli n d er .

Fig 1 02 . .

L e t A B ( fig 1 02 ) be t h e ce n tre li n e of t h e e n gi n e th r ough t h e cy li n de r a n d
'

sh af t ce n tr es , A C t h e position of t h e cr an k , B C t h e co n n ecti n g r od , a n d A D
'

a li n e at r i gh t an g les to A B P r oduce B C t o cut t h e li n e A D , a n d dr op

.

f r om A a li n e A E pe r pe n d icular t o B C P is t h e loa d on t h e piston , a n d R

.

is t h e th r ust on the con n ecti n g r od I t will easily be p r oved th at the an gl e

-
.

D A E is equal t o the a n gle A B D , ca lled f or co n ve n ie n ce a Th en .

P = R o os a ; an d AE = A D c os a .

Th e t w is t i n g m om e n t R x AE R x A D cos a P x AD .

°
L e t t h e twisti n g m om en t be ca lculate d at equal i n te r vals of say 1 0 of
a n gular m ove m en t of the cr an k , S O that i n t h e wh ole r evolution th e r e will be
3 6 Obse r vatio n s or 1 8 i n t h e h al f r evolutio n
, D r aw a li n e A B fig . an d .

d ivi d e it i n to 1 8 equal par ts , A “1 1 a l a 2 , &c e r ect at th ese poi n ts pe r p on

.
'

d ic u la rs , a n d cut o ff par ts a l bl , a 2 b2 , &c , to r ep r e sen t t h e value of the twisti n g

.

m o m e n ts at each co r r espo n di n g positio n of the c r an k to a suitable scale .

T h r ough t h e poi n ts b1 b2, &c , d r aw a cu r ve , which r epr esen ts t h e cu r ve of

.

s t r ai n on t h e shaf t d u r i n o wa d move m e t f h by p r od uci n g

‘

g t h e f r r n o t e pi s t on

A B , a n d g oi n g th r ough a si m ila r ope r ation f or the seco n d hal f of t h e r e v olu

tio n , the cu r ve of str ai n d u r i n g the backwar d m ovemen t of the piston c a n be
obtai n e d .
2 96 M A N UA L I
or MA R N E E N GI N E E R I N G .

D ivide the a rea e n closed betwee n this cu r ve a n d the li n e A B by the

le n gth of A B , a n d the quot ie n t is the me an twisti n g m o m e n t , a n d r ep t e
se n ted b y A M in fig 1 03 , S O that the r ecta n gle A M N B is equal in a r ea to
.

the figur e A B C .

The value of A M m a y be calcula t ed by taki n g a m ea n of t h e values of

a l bl , etc .

Whe n the r e a re t wo e n gi n e s — that is , t w o pisto n s Ope rati n g 0 11 on e S ha ft

— the co m b i n ed t w 1 s t 1 n m o m e n t is f ou n d by d rawi n g the cu r ve of twisti n g
o

A 3 ) 3 2 8 ,

Fig 1 03 — Cu
. . r v e of T wis t in g Mome n ts .

m o m e n ts each c r an k s epar ate ly t r a n sposi n g that of on e on that Of the

of ,

othe r i n a positio n corr espon di n g t o the r elative positio n of the c r an ks I n .

fig 1 03 a A C B is the cu r ve of str ai n on on e c r a n k a n d AI CI B 1 that on the

.
,

othe r which is at a n a n gle with it Of degr ees r ep r ese n ted by AA,

,
The .

co mbi n ed twisti n g m o men t at a n y per iod a is r ep r esen ted by a d whi ch is ,

equal to a b a c a n d the dotted cu r ve CdOl etc r ep resen ts the c u r ve Of

, , .
,

co mbi n ed twi s t in g m o me n ts .

The m a x i m u m twisti n g mo me n t will be at the poi n t whe r e t h e cu r ve is

Fi g 10 3a — Cu
. . r v e of Com b in ed T w istin g Mome n t s .

highest a n d the o r di n ate m a y be m easu r ed a n d its value f ou n d by r e fe rri n g

,

t o the scale t o whi ch the cu r ve is d r awn The m ea n twisti n g m o m e n t m a y be.

f ou n d by m easu r i n g the a r ea i n cluded betwee n the dotte d cu r ve a n d the base

li n e a n d te rmi n al o rdi n ates a n d d ivi d i n g by the base li n e or by taki n g a
, ,

m ea n value fr o m the o r di n ates as be fo r e .

I f the r e a r e th r ee e n gi n es a si mila r oper at i o n W 1 11 1 n d i ca t e the m a x i mu m

,

twisti n g m o m e n t .
 C UR V E OF T W S T N I I G M OM E N T S . 2 97

Ther e is a n othe r a n d per haps a better m eth od of S howi n g the cu r ve of

, ,

to r que wher eby the m agn itu d e of the twisti n g m o m e n t at a n y a n gle th r ough
o u t the r evolutio n is f ou n d by taki n g the le n gth of the r adial li n e i n te r cepted
b etwee n the c r a n k pin ci r cle a n d t h e cu r ves which a r e co n structed by usi n g
-
,

t hat ci r cle as a r e f e r e n ce i n stead of a base li n e Fig 1 04 is a goo d e x a m pl e . .

of this m ethod as p r epar ed by P r o f esso r Ja mie s on f or a t riple co m pou n d

. ,
-

thr ee c r a n k e n gi n e wo r ki n g u n der o r di n a ry co n ditio n s as given below a n d

-
,

w ill be f ou n d i n st ructive .

Fig 1 0 4
. .
— Cra n k E ff or t D ia gra m of a Tr iple Ex p a n s ion En gi ne
-
.

R a t io Of e xpa n s ion , 10 4 .

Le n gt h Of c on n e c t in
g
-
r od 9 f ee t . S trok e 4 -5 f ee t .

t
e ffic ie n c y of s e a m, or ra tio of a r e a of w ork in c y lin d er t o fu l l th e ore t ic a l d ia gra m
5 5 pe r ce n t .

H P . . I P . . L P
. .

” ” ”
Cy lin d er
’
s d ia m e ter , 28 46 77
Area ,
6 1 5 -8 4 65 6 6 -

R a tio, 1 2 -80
Mea n pres su re s , lbs p e r. sq . in .
, 6 7-6 2 8 -2 97
R a n ge of te m pe ra tu re s Fa ir , , 64 3
°
74 9
°
80 6
°

S te a m 1 6 4 lb s V ac u u m 2 6 s in s
, R ec eive rs , .
, 52 an d 5 lbs
R evolu tion s 6 2 5 pe r m in u te , .

Cu t -
O ff H P . . 33 1 in s . P 71 0 L P . .

799
L P . . 764 H P . .

2 73 tot al I . H P . .
 OV ER HUN G CR AN K .
2 99

Overh u n g The S i mplest f o r m of c r a n k is that k n own as the ove r

Cran k —

hun g c r an k such as is usuall y fitte d in m ill e n gi n es but ha r dly f ou n d n ow

, ,

in m a r i n e e n g 1 n es The S ha ft p r oj ects beyo n d the bea ri n g a n d has keye d t o

.
,

its e n d a leve r or disc in which is secu r ed the c r a n k pin

,
-
.

The pin I S subj ect to be n di n g a n d S hear i n g f o r ces due t o the thr ust on ,

the co n n ecti n g r od The m a x i mu m be n di n g m o m e n t on the par t of t h e pin

-
.

close to t h e c ra n k is f o u n d by m ul tipl y i n g the gr eat e st thr ust of co n n ecti n g

r od by t h e d ista n ce to the ce n t r e of the co n n ecti n g r od -
.

If R is the th rust of the co n n ect i n g r od a n d l the le n gth of the pin t h e n -

, ,

R x l
B e n d i n g m om e n t on cr a n k pin -

an d d ia m ete r Of pi n x

Ex a mple — TO fin d the dia mete r of the c ra n k -

i
pn whose le n gth is 14 i n che s

Fig 1 05 — Cra n k s
. . of Pa ddle w h e el En gi n e
-
.

and t he thrust of co n n ecti n g -

r od is 1 2 5 , 000 1bs .
, f bei n g of s t e el and t a ke n at
lbs .

D ia m ete r i n c hes .

The c r a n k a r m ( fig 1 05 ) is t o be t r eated as a leve r s o that if a is the

-
.
,

thick n ess in di rectio n par allel to the S ha f t a x is a n d b its b readth at a s ec t l on ,

x i n che s fr o m the c r a n k i n ce n t r e the n

p
-
.

B e n di n g m o m e n t M at t h at se ctio n R x x,
a x b2 M
’
6 f
6 M
a = '

n f
i

If a c r a n k a r m we r e co n structed s o that b v a rie d as s / x ( as give n by the

-

a bove r ule ) it would be o f such a f o r m as to be i n co n ve ni e n t of m a n u f actu r e

, ,

a n d co n seque n tly i t is custo m a r y in p r actice to fin d the m a x i m u m value of

For oth e r c on d it ion s a s t o si ze of pin s vi lle p 3 09 ,

. .
3 00 M N A UAL or MA R I N E E N GI N EE R I N G .

b,
an d d r aw tan ge n t li n es to t h e cu r ves at the poi n ts these li n es a r e ge n e r
a lly f or the sa m e r easo n ta n ge n tial to the boss O f the c r a n k a r m at the S ha f t
-
.
, ,

The be n di n g mo m e n t d ec r eases as the d ista n ce f r o m the c r a n k pin -

d ec r eases while the shea r i n g st r ess is the sa m e th r oughout the c r a n k a r m ;

,
-

c o n seque n tly this latte r st r ess is la r ge co m pa r ed with the be n di n g st r ess

close t o t h e c r a n k pin a n d so it is n ot su fficie n t to p r ovi d e the r e o n ly f or

-
,

be n d i n g str es s es The sectio n at this poi n t S hould be such that i n ad d itio n

.
,

t o what is give n by the calculatio n fr o m the be n d i n g m o m e n t t h e r e is a n ,

e x t r a squa r e i n ch f or eve r y lbs Of thr ust on the co n n ecti n g r od . .

,
-

Mo r eove r the c r a n k a rm is subj ect to twisti n g fr o m the actio n of the pin ;

,
-
.

s t i ic t ly S peaki n g the r e f o r e it s h ould b e calculate d f r o m t h e f o r mula

, ,

T M JM 2
T 2
.

The le n gt h of t h e boss h i n to which the S ha ft 1 8 fitte d is fr o m 0 75 t o

, ,
°

1 0 O f the d ia m ete r of the S ha ft a n d i t s tt hick n ess e m ust be calculated f r o m ,

t h e twisti n g str ess R X L .

The c r a n k tu rn s t h e S h a ft ( fig 1 05 ) by ex erti n g a f o rce S o n t h e key . ,

whose ce n t r e O f e ff o r t is on the cir cu mfer e n ce a n d the r ef o r e at a dista n ce ,

o f h al f the dia m et er fr o m the ax is O f the sha ft so that ,

g
D
0r S = 2 R x .

I f t h e c r an k i s loose , t h e a r ea of the sectio n Of t he key par allel to

s h a f t m ust th e r e f o r e n ot be less th a n S l bs . A n d t h e load
t h e s ectio n of t h e c r a n k boss Opposite t h e key is -

2 L
Q .
I
) .

Th e str ess on t he section of the boss cr ossways is T so that

.
,

D + e L
R H “ ’

2 D H

T he str ess on this sectio n shoul d n ot e x cee d 9 000 lbs ,

.

To avoi d a co m plicated e x pre s s ioii it is co n ve n ie n t to assu m e a r elatio n ,

betwee n h a n d e a n d to substitute t h e valu e Of e thus f ou n d 1 n t h e above

,

h
p r essio n The value —— i n f ro m 2 ,
.

ex . of p r actice va ries whe n the re is n ot

e

m uch space the c r a n k to 3 when the r e is a mple r oo m

f or , ,
.

Ex a mple — To fin d the sectio n of the boss of a w r ought steel c r a n k 8 i n ch es -

lo n g ; the p r essu r e on t h e c r a n k pin is lbs the dia m ete r of the sha ft -

.
,

h
10 i n ches ,
an d assu m ed at 2 2 . S t r oke of pisto n 60 i n ches .

He r e assu m e
i n c h es .

30
T 2 X lbs
10
.

Area s qua r e i n che s .

An d si n ce h 8 i n ches ,
e
63
2 3
3 3 i n ches .

8
 P A D D L E S H A FT S
-
. 30 1

The c r an ks of m ar i n e e n gi n es a re a lways of steel w r ought or cast a n d , ,

e n e r a lly of the sa m e m ate r ials of whi ch t h e S ha ft is m a d e so that t h e le n gt h

g ,

a n d thick n e s s of boss m a y bea r a co n sta n t r elatio n to the dia m ete r of the sh e dt .

Whe n h D the n e D , .

h 09 D , e D .

h D ,
e D .

h D ,
e D .

The c r a n k eye or boss i n t o whi c h the pin is fitted shoul d bea r the sa me
-

r elatio n t o the pin that the boss does to the S ha ft .

Cr a n ks a re always shr u n k on t o both S ha ft a n d pin a n d whe n this O pe r a ,

tio n is ca r e fully a n d well do n e a k e y t o the latte r is al m ost u nn ecessar y a n d

, ,

so m e e n gi n ee r s have latte rly o m itted t o fit on e to ev en ve r y large pi n s so m e

e n gi n ee r s si m ply d rill a b ole hal f i n to t h e sha ft a n d hal f in to the c r a n k a n d
’

d r ive i n to it a s teel pin so as to a n s we r t h e pu r pose of a key .

The d ia m ete r of the S ha f t e n d on to whi ch the c r a n k is fitted shoul d b e

dia m ete r of the j ou rn al Ove r hu n g c r a n ks a r e n ever fitt ed n ow t o
.

s cr ew e n gi n es as they o f te n p r oved to be v er y u n satis facto r y f r o m the f act

, ,

Of the whole O f t he p r essu r e co mi n g on on e bea ri n g a n d the whole of t h e

“

,
.

ben d i n g a n d twisti n g st r esses bei n g take n by on e c r a n k a n d j our n al .

Paddl e sh a fts — The c r a n ks of a pa d dle wheel e n gi n e ( fig 1 05 ) a re stil l

-
.
-
.

O f te n ove r hu n g a n d i n the case of d ouble e n gi n es the a r m to w hi ch t he pin

, ,

is secu r e d is t h e on e fitted to the i n te r m ediate sha ft the pin fit s loosely in t o

a n eye on a c r a n k or d isc secu r e d to the pa d dle s h a f t a n d so d r ives this latte r
-

S h a ft
. The e ff ect Of this a rr a n ge m e n t is t o give a ve r y equable str ai n to t h e
pa dd le sha ft for the p r essu r e of the p in is always at r ight a ngles to the c r a n k
-
,

o n the pa dd le S ha f t ; a n d i n s m ooth wate r the powe r of each e n gi n e is ve r y

-

n ea r ly equally divided betwee n the two wheels a n d the ben din g actio n on
‘

the pa ddle S ha f t n eve r e x ceeds hal f that due to its ow n cyli n de r f or w h e n

-
,

n ea r the d ead poi n ts the be n di n g m o m e n t is at its m a x i m u m a n d is wholly

'

take n on the c r a n k a r m t o whic h the pin is secu r e d For these r easo n s the
-
.

S ha f t to w h ich t h e a r m havi n g the c r a n k pin secur ed is fit te d m ust be st r o n ge r

-

tha n t h e oute r sha fts especially whe n the S hip is i n te n d e d to wo r k i n r o u gh

,

wate r as it i s li a ble the n to have to t r a n s mit t h e whole twisti n g f o r ce of on e

,

e n gi n e a n d a lwa ys takes du ri n g ce r tai n pe r i ods of the r evolutio n the whol e

, , ,

be n d i n g f o r ce fr o m that e n gi n e He n ce if T b e the m a x i m u m twisti n g

.
,

m o m e n t fr o m on e pisto n of a d ouble pa dd le wheel e n gi n e a n d M the m a x i -

m u m be n di n g m o m e n t fr o m that pisto n the ,

Ma x i m u m equivale n t twisti n g m o m e n t on t h e 1 n t er me d ia t e s h a ft

An d m a x i mu m equivale n t twis t i n g m o m e n t on the paddle S ha ft -

M
2
Ex ceptio n m a y be take n to the latte r S i n ce at ti m es whe n on e wheel is ou t ,

O f wate r the whole O f the twisti n g f o r ce of both e n gi n es is t r a n s m itted

thr ough the S ha f t of the wheel which is deeply i mm e r se d , but whe n the
m a x i m u m co m bi n ed e ff ect of t w isti n g is on this on e S ha ft , the be n d i n g
M
m om en t on the c r a n k j ou rn al 1 s p r oba bly less tha n
- — an d 1s that du e t o t he
2
 CR AN K -
S H A FT OF S CR E W EN GI N E S .

M ax i mum equivalen t twisti n g m om en t

D ia m ete r of shaf t
1 1 8 88 i n ch es .

The oute r e n d of a paddle s h a ft is subj ect t o alte rn atin g str esses d u e t o

t h e weight of w h eel a n d the i n n e r par t to i n te r mi tte n t o n es
,
Table
The c r an k sha fts of paddle e n gin es a re n ow m ad e in t h e sa m e way a s those
-

o f sc r ew e n gi n es S o m eti m es they a r e m ade in on e piece fr o m a

. soli d
f o r gin g a n d so m eti m es i n on e piece
, built up ( r fig Those in V e r y . .

la r ge e n gin es have a separ ate sha f t for each cylin d e r coupled as in sc r ew ,

e n g1 n es .

Cra n k sh a f t of S crew Engin es —l n case o f the f o r w a r d c r an k of a double

‘
-
.

o r t r eble e n gi n e a n d the c r a n k of a si n gle e n gi n e havi n g t w o a r m s the r e is

, ,

t h e actio n of on e e n gi n e o n ly on it On the for wa r d j ou r n al a n d c r a n k a r m

.
-

t he r e is a twisti n g actio n su fficie n t to ove r co m e the f rictio n a n d t o d rive the ,

e c e n t r ics if fix e d in t his pa r t a n d hal f of the whole be n di n g m o me n t due to

c ,

t h e th r ust on the c r a n k pin On the a ft wa r d j ou rn al t h e othe r hal f of the

-
.
,

be n di n g m o m en t a n d the wh ole of the twisti n g m o m e n t e x cept the s m all

, ,

po r tio n r equi red as above ; th is por tio n i s at ce rtain p er iods of the rev olu
tio n s so s m al l that i n calculatio n s for the j ourn als it m ay be n eglecte d
,
.

The n equivale n t twisti n g m o me n t on a ftward j ou rn al

M
4
5
.

31
S t r ai n on f o r w ar d j ou rn al .

2
I n m u lt iple c ra n
k
en gin es the af twar d cr an k has n ot on ly t o r esist t h e
a cti o n of i t s ow n p i s t on , but a lso t o tr ans m it the twis ti n
.

. g
st r a i n s of t h e
f or ward e n g1 n es T h e r e w ill be str ain s f r om its ow n pis t on , wh ich m a y be
.

ca lculate d in the sa m e way as those on the f o r wa r d c r a n k s a n d t o t hese m us

, t
be a dd e d t h e twis t i n g str ai n of th e f or war d e n gin e .

L e t T 2 be t h e m a x im u m t w ist in g m o m e n t on t h e af t e r e n gi n e f r o m its ow n
pis t on , a n d M 2 t h e co rr espon din g ben d in g m om en t, TI t h e twisti n g m om e n t on
the f or ward e n gm es at t h e sam e pe r io d .

The n on t h e f or w a r d j ou r n al of the af ter cr an k , t h e t wisti n g m omen t is T

M2
and th e be n d i n g strai n ——
2
so that
Equi va le n t twisti n g m om e n t f o r war d ou al af te r cra n k
on
j r n of

M3
3
On t h e a f te r
j ou rn al of t h e aft war d cr an k , the twisti n g mom en t is
T2 T an d th e ben di n g m om en t s o th a t _

Equi v ale n t twisti n g mom e n t on af te r j our n al of af twar d c r ank

304 M A N UAL A I
or M R N E E N GI N E ER I N G .

Th ebe n d i n g m o m e n t on t h e af te r a r m of t h e a f twa rd c r an k W l ll be f ou n d
-

by calculati n g the ma x i m u m f or ce on t h e c r a n k p i n t en di n g t o t wi s t t he s haf t .

L e t T be t h e m a x i m u m co m bi n e d twisti n g m o m e n t a s f ou n d by t h e
,, ,

meth od s i n d ica t e d bef o r e L the le n g th of t h e c r an k or hal f str oke of pis t o n

,
-
.

T h e n the m a x i m u m twisti n g f o r ce at t h e c r an k pi n is T e L -

,,
-
.

The m a x i m u m be n d i n g m o m e n t at a n y sectio n of the af te r c r a n k a r m of -

t h e af twa r d c r a n k wh ose d ista n ce f r o m t h e ce n t r e of the c r an k pi n is x

,
-

T
i n ches is ,
x :r
.
.

L
The m ax i m u m be n d i n g m om e n t on a sectio n of t h e f o r wa r d a r m of the

sam e cr an k is — 1 x x .

E x a mp le —To fin d t h e si z es of t h e par ts of a c r an k s h af t of a d ouble -

e x pan sive e n gi n e of 1 000 t h e le n g th of st r oke is 4 0 i n ches the cut ,

off 0 6 a n d t h e st r oke a n d t h e c r a n ks at r i gh t a n g les

,
R evolutio n s 6 0 pe r .

5 00
m i n ute . M ea n twisti n g m o m e n t of on e e n gi n e x S i n ce t h e
60
cu t —off is
the r ati o of
06 ,
m ax im um to m ea n twisti n g m o m e n t is 1 8 35
( Tabl e x x x iv ) t h e r ef o r e
.

M a x i m u m twisti n g m om e n t of on e en gin e
89 )
1 8 35 x
6 3 x i n ch lbs-
.

M ea n twisti n g m om e n t of both e n gi n es
1 00 0
x

R atio of m ax i m um to m ea n twisti n g m o m e n ts is ( Table

t h e refo r e

M ax i m um twisti n g m om en t of both e n g i n es
1
28
0
1 27 0
x x in ch -
lbs .

M a x i m u m tu rn i n g f o r ce on f o r wa r d pi n
96 3 3 ” lbs .

M a x i m u m tu r n i n g f o r ce on af twar d pi n

lbs
20

Assu mi n gthe d istan ce betwee n t h e h ea r i n g s on w h ich the b r as s e s

be dd e d to be 3 0 i n ches ,

Th e m a x i m u m ben d i n g m om e n t on each of t he two f o r wa r d j ou r n als

x 30
i n ch lbs
-
.

8
°

T h at o n the two j ou rn als of af twa rd c r an k

x 30
i n ch lbs
-
.
 TW ST N
I I G M OM EN T .
305

Th en d ia m e t e r of f o r e m ost j ou r n al
61 3 i n ch es .

Th e m a x i m u m e quivale n t twisti n g m om en t on af te r j ou r n al of f o r wa rd
cran k
J ,
1 8 0 6 3 0 2
i n ch lbs -
.

D ia m ete r of j ou r n al
90 4 i n ch es .

T h e m a x i m um e quivale n t twisti n g m om e n t on f ore j our n al of af twa r d

c r an k

Diam ete r of j our n al

i n ches .

M a x i m u m equivale n t twisti n g m om e n t on af te r m ost j ou r n al

.F 13 3 i n ch lbs -
.

D ia m e t ei '
of j ou rn a l
51 lO l '
i n ches .

Th e af te rm ost c r an k a rm will -
be 1 1 i n ches acr oss the f ace ; to fin d i t s
th ic k n ess 1 8 i n ch es f r om t h e pi n .

B e n di n g m o m e n t at that section x 18 i n ch lbs -

.

6 x
Thick n ess 74 4 i n ch es .

In actual p r actice the cr an k shaf t woul d n ot be m ad e wi t h the f ou r

-

ou r n als all of d i ff e r e n t d ia m ete r but so m e e n gi n ee r s m ake the sha f ts pa r tly

j ,

i n acco r da n ce with theo r y by a r a g i g the t o or a i d j ou r n als of the sa m e

w f w i ‘

r n n ,

d ia m ete r a n d the two af twar d j ou r n als of t h e sa m e diam ete r ; th at is f or

, ,

t h e e x am ple g ive n above the j ou rn als of t h e f o r wa r d c r an k woul d be each

,

90 4 i n ches d iam ete r a n d th ose of the af twar d on e 1 0 1 i n ches d iam ete r

, .

E x a mp le — To fin d the di m e n sio n s of t h e c r an k sh af t of a si n gle e n g i n e

.
-
,

w h ose cyli n d e r is 3 0 i n che s d iam ete r a n d str oke 5 0 i n ch es the stea m used is ,

6 5 lbs pe r s qua r e i n ch absolute p r essu r e a n d the c u t off at 0 3 t h e st r oke

.
,
-
°

_ .

Th e d ista n ce between f ou n d ation f aci n g s f or shaf t b r asses i s 4 0 i nch es The .

co n n ecti n g r od is 1 00 i n ches lo n g
-
B ack p r essu r e a n d loss at pisto n a r e
. .
-

5 lbs .

Th e m a x i m u m p r essu r e on the pisto n is 6 0 x 706 lbs .

T h e m a x i m u m twisti n g m om e n t occu r s j ust at t h e cut off i n this ca se a n d -

,

is x 24 or , i n ch lbs -
.

Th e be n d i n g m om en t on each j ou rn al at that per iod

i n ch —lbs
 B UIL T CR AN K -
S H A FT S . 30 7

I n the p r evious e x a m ple Ll may be supposed to be 23 i n ches , and P is

4 2 , 3 6 0 1bs .
,
a is 7 lbs the n .

X 23
2
3 6 I n ches ,
2 X 7 x

so t hat the f o r wa r d c r a n k a r m m ust n ot be less tha n this thi ck n ess at

-

a n y pa r t .

Cr a n k sha fts f or m e r ca n tile sc r ew e n gi n es whe n above 1 0 in s dia m ete r a r e

“

-
.
, ,

ge n e r ally m a d e in duplicate pieces so that in case of da m age to on e o n ly a ,

par t of the sha ft is co n de mn ed a n d a spar e piece c a n be easily ca rr ie d on ,

f or eig n voyages An d also by this pla n ther e is less labour in r eplaci n g the
.

d a m aged pa r t tha n if the whole sh af t is m oved

, .

B u ilt Cra nk sh a fts —S ha fts above 1 0 i n ches d ia m ete r a re bette r built up

-
.
~
_

than in on e f o r gi n g a n d they c a n the n be m ade of steel at m uch less cost

,

tha n a soli d on e ; i n deed ma n y e n gin ee r s n ow m ake c r an k shafts of all

,
-

s i z e s on this p r i n ci le The c r a n k a r m s a re usually of the sa m e t hi ck n ess

p
-
.

a t the
pin as at the sha ft a n d equal to t o 0 8 of the dia m ete r of sha f t
,

Fig . 1 06 .
—
B u ilt u p Cr a n k -
s h a ft .

j ou r n als ; the e n d view as in fig 1 06 shows the usual shape for la r ge

, .
,

c r an ks— s m alle r o n es a r e o fte n st r aight on the sides Gr eat car e is .

r equi r ed p r ope r ly t o co n str uct such a sha f t so as to b e pe r fectly t rue

whe n fin ishe d a n d to h ave the a rm s shru n k on su fficie n tly tight w ithout

,

lea vi n g the m etal a rou n d the pi n s a n d sha f t e n ds in such a stat e of te n sio n ,

-

a s to be da n ge r ous .

The thick n ess of the m etal a r ou n d the sha ft etc c a n be calculate d as , .

, ,

be f o r e state d f or the ov ei h u n g c r a n k .

The c r a n k a r m s a r e so m eti m es f o rged wi th the s ha ft e n ds a n d the pi n s

-

s h ru n k i n to eyes i n t h e a r m s This m ethod has adva n tages but it is ve r y

.
,

u n sightly a n d m isses on e of the c hi e f m e r its of a built c ran k s h a ft An othe r

,
-
.

a rr a n ge m e n t is to m ake the c r a n k in a n d a r m s i n on e piece ge n e r ally a

p
-

steel casti n g a n d sh r u n k it on the sha ft e n d s or sha n ks a n d so m eti m es

,
-

it is secu r e d to the latte r by fl a n ges bolts etc , ,

.

The r e a r e a n u m be r of othe r pate n te d f o r m s of c r a n k sha f ts so m e havi n g -

the c r a n k a r m s of cast steel a n d so m e of f o r ge d steel a n d i r o n s o a rr a n ge d

-

,
“

a s to couple t h e s h a fts at the c r a n ks i n stead of betwee n t h e m .

3 08 M A N UAL or A I
M R N E EN GI N E E R I N G .

Fig 1 07 shows a piece of c r a n k sha ft as ge n e r ally m ade f or fast ru n n i n g

'

- -
.

e n gi n es a n d i n dicate the m odi ficatio n s m ade whe n fu r the r weight is to b e

,

saved as in n aval a n d othe r high speed s h ips

,
-
.

Cou pl ings — I t is usual n ow to have the coupli n g f o r ge d with the sha f t

.

i n stea d of keye d on as f o r m e r ly The tube sha fts of twi n sc r ew e n gi n es .

-
,

howeve r ge n e r ally have on e coupli n g keye d on As a r ul e the on ly str es s

,
.
,

to which a coupli n g is subj ect is d u e to twisti n g ; he n ce if t be t h e ,

thick n ess of the fla n ge a n d 7 the dista n ce of a n y pa r t of it f ro m the ce n t r e

,

of the sha f t which is subj ect to a twisti n g m o m e n t T the sec tio n o f m etal -

r esisti n g the f o r ce is 2 7r 7 t ; a n d i f f be the st r ess pe r squa r e i n ch on thi s

“

s ectio n acti n g at the dista n ce

, r the n

T 2 er r tf x r .
f . t, th at is th ick n ess
, of fl an ge

If r is the r ad ius of the s h af t subj ect to twisti n g o n ly so that ,

—
f
2
eq ual to T . T h en
r
T h ick n ess of fl an g e 2 7” f or
I
.
,

Fig 1 0 7 — N a va l Cr a n k
. .
-
s h a ft .

Fr o m
p ractical co n sider atio n s the thick n ess of the fla n ge should n ot be
less tha n the dia m eter of the coupli n g bolts a n d si n ce the st re n gth of a ,

coupli n g is so m ewhat im pai r ed by the holes d r illed for the bolts it should ,

be about 27 the dia m eter of the sha ft subj ect to twisti n g o n ly

‘
.

Cou pl in g B olts — Whe n sha fts a r e close coupled a n d the bolts a r e a good
.
,

fit in the holes t h ey a r e subj ect to a shea r i n g f o r ce o n ly cause d by the

, ,

to r que on the sha f t ; hen ce if d be the di am ete r of the bolts whos e , ,

n u m be r is n K is the d ista n ce fro m ce n t re of bolts to ce n t r e of sha ft T t h e

,
-
,

t wisti n g m o m e n t a n d D the d ia m ete r of the sha ft subj ect to twisti n g o n ly

, .

The n
7r d T
T K 5 d
a
= X °r

H en ce , D ia m e te r of bol t s
 S U R FA CE or CR AN K -
P NS I AN D S H A FT J OU R N AL S
-
. 30 9

If K is alway s ta k en at x D . Th en
0

D ia m e t e r of bolts
T he n whe n ther e a re 5 bolts ,

D i a m ete r of bolts
08

b olts d i a me t e r of bolt s sh a ft

The n u mbe r of bolts in a coupli n g d epe n ds so m eti m es on c ir cu m stan c e s ,

but usually ther e shoul d be two a n d a n allowa n ce of on e m o r e for each

“

2 i n ches of d ia m ete r of sha ft a n d the above p r op or tio n s a r e base d on this

,

allowa n c e ; but whe n it is n ecessa r y to have the coupli n gs as s m all as possible

the n u m be r m a y b e i n cr ease d a n d with the co n seque n t dec r ease in diam ete r
, ,

the ce n tr es of bolts ma y be n ear e r to the ce n tr e of sha ft .

The coupli n gs of a t w o c r a n k e n gi n e whose shaft is in dupli cate halves

-
,

a t r ight a n gles should have f o u r or a m ultiple of f ou r bolt s ;

,
an d f or those
o f a thr ee c r a n k e n gi n e whose sha f t is in th r ee d uplicate pi e ce s the n u m be r
-
,

of b olts m ust be a m ultiple of th ree .

With sha fts o f m ild s teel the bolts shoul d be of a ha rd e r ki n d ; i n dee d

, ,

a s they a r e s u bj ect to shea r i n g st r esses o n ly they m a y be m ade with ,

a dva n tage of a steel 4 0 t o 4 5 to n s t e n sile st r e n gth .

d Sh f — Measu r i n g as in the c ase of

S u rface of C ra n k p i
-
ns a n a t j ou rn a l s -
.
,

udgeo n s a n d c r osshea d s the e ffective bea ri n g su r f ace as the dia m ete r m ulti
g ,

lie b the le n gth of the bear i n g the be ar i n g su r face of c r a n k pi n s was

'

d y
“ -

p ,

s uch that the p r essu r e per sq i n d id n ot e x ceed 500 lbs . this howeve r is
. .
, ,

h a rdly su fficie n t for the pi n s of high speed e n gi n es which should be such -

,

t h at t h e p r essu r e p e r squar e i n ch does n ot lbs — that is ,

‘

i f d is the d ia m ete r of the c ra n k pin a n d l it s le n gth L the m a x i m u m -

, ,

r ecu r r e n t load on pisto n R the r evolutio n s per mi n ute the n

, ,

L JR + 1 00
d x l = L .

Whe n the b r ass is recessed so that it bea rs o n ly in par ts 0 11 t he sha ft the

,

a ctual bea r i n g su r f ace should n ot be e x posed to m o r e tha n 6 00 lbs r essu r e

p .

e r squa r e i n ch
p .

The pi n s of pa d dle wheel e n gi n es ow i n g t o the co m par ati vely slow s pe ed

0

o f sha f t m a y be d esig n ed i f n ecessa r y to take a p r essu r e of 8 00 t o 90 0 lbs

, , ,
.

p er s qua r e i n ch .

The m ai n bear i n gs in which the c r a n k sha ft r u n s should be such that the -

r essu r e n eve r e x cee d s 6 00 lbs e r sq i n i n paddle e n gi n es a n d in sc r ew

p p . . .
,

e n gi n es it sho u ld n ot e x ceed 4 00 lbs The m ai n bea ri n gs of sc r ew e n gi n es .

,
 P R OP E LL E R S H A FT S
-
. 31 1

Propell ha fts , so m eti m es calle d

er-s
*
sc r ew sha fts a n d so m eti m es tail ,
”
en d sha ft s Th e p r opelle r sha ft is sub j ect always to t h e to r que of t h e
.

e n gi n e a n d to be n di n g d u e to the weigh t of the p r opelle r I n r ou gh weathe r

,
'
.
,

whe n t h e ship is p itchi n g the str ai n s a r e i n c r e a sed a n d o fte n beco m e

,

ve r y seve r e ; f or whe n the sc r ew is par tially i mm e r sed , in a dditio n to the

twi s ti n g m o m e n t by the r eactio n of the wate r acti n g on on e side o nl y , the r e
is a be n d i n g stress as on a pad d le shaft ; besi d es which the m o me n tu m of -

t h e sc r ew whe n pitchi n g also ad d s seve r e be n di n g st r esses , all of which a re

m or eove r alte rn ati n g .

I n still wate r the be n di n g mo m e n t on the sha f t is the weight of the sc r ew

m ultiplie d by the dista n ce of its ce n t r e fr o m the ste r n bush To p r ovid e .

f or the st r ai n s i n r ough weathe r the be n di n g m o m e n t should be take n at ,

twice this value ; f or ships whi ch m a y c r oss the Atla n tic at a n y ti m e in

ballast t r im eve n th is is i n su fficie n t t o p r o d uce a sha f t sufficie n tly la r ge to
,

last a satisfacto r y le n gth of ti m e i n as m uch as the m ate r ial of a sha f t wo r ki n g

,
.

u n de r such co n ditio n s is subj ect to alter n ati n g str esses of co n side r able i n te n sity ,

which te n d to degr a d e it a n d r e n de r it u n fit to r esist s uc h st r esses as co me ‘

on it The d ia m ete r of the scr ew is also a n i m po rta n t f acto r i n determ i n i n g

.

the si z e of scr ew sha fts of ships subj ect t o r ough weather .

He n ce if T is the m a x i m u m twisti n g m o m e n t on the c r a n k sha ft W the

,
-
,

weight of the p r opeller in poun ds a n d L the dista n ce of it s ce n t r e fr o m the ,

ste rn bush ,

M a x i m u m be n d i n g m o m e n t 2 W x L ;

M a x i mum equi va len t tw i sti n g m om e n t T I

an d as bef ore ,

D iam ete r of s c r e w ~s h a f t x

E x a mp le — To fin d t h e d ia m ete r of t h e sc r ew sh af t f or a n en gi n e w h os e -

m a x i m u m twisti n g m o m e n t is in ch lbs Th e weigh t of t h e scr ew -

.

is 6 000 lbs , a n d t h e d ista n ce of i t s cen tr e f r o m ste rn bush is 2 0 i n ch es

.
.

Th e m a x . ben d i n g m om e n t
2 x 6000 x 20 i n ch lbs -
.

Th e m a x . equiva len t twistin g mo m en t

D ia m ete r of s h af t
1 12 i n ch es .

It
is such a ve r y se r ious m atte r whe n the sc rew sha ft b reaks tha t I t -

should always b e of a m ple si z e a n d for ships in the Atla n tic t r ade it should
'

be specially str o n g I t was usual t o m ake it the sa m e d ia m ete r as the c r a n k

.

s h a ft but in s om e s hips eve n thi s is n ot sufficie n t a n d it is n ow n ot at all

, ' ,

a n u n usual thi n g to m ake the m 2 0

p er ce n t st r o n ge r than the c r a n k s h a ft
-
. .

Whe r e t h e sc r ew is fitted in a ba n j o fr a m e f or li fti n g above wate r whe n

t h e ship is u n de r sail the sha f t is of cou r se n ea r ly wholly fr ee fr o m be n di n g
, , ,

str ess es .

*
f
Th e ou t bo a rd s h a t s of n a v a l s h ip s a n d la rge e x p ress s t ea me rs a r e g en e ra lly h ollow, a nd f or s t i lf n es s
of la rg e d ia m et e r, wit h t h e h ole a s mu ch a s 0 7 x t h e e x t er n a l d ia me t er
‘

a re .
 '

312 MA N UAL A I
or M R N E E N GI N E E R I N G .

Ou ter B earin g — I t was f o r m e r ly custo ma r y to p r ovi d e a n oute r bea ri n g

.

on or i n the r udde r post f or the e x t r e m e e n d of the sc r ew sha ft to r est upo n

-

,
-

but si n ce the r ud d e r post p ractically gives n o suppo r t si d eways a n d a ve r y

-
,

p r ecar ious on e in a n y d i r ectio n the p r actice is n ow obsolete Als o it was ,

.
,

f ou n d that whe n ships so fitte d touched the g r ou n d with the heel the sc r ew ,

sha ft was o fte n be n t a n d so meti mes da n ger ously so The st r o n gest a r gu

,
.

m e n t in f avou r of this oute r bea r i n g is that it p r eve n ts the loss of the sc r ew ,

whe n the sha ft is b r oke n ; bu t if the sha ft is b r oke n a n d the s h ip has to ,

depe n d on the sails it is bette r pe r haps to b e wi t hout the sc r ew a n d if the

,

sha f t is b r oke n diago n ally as is o fte n the case a n d the sc r ew is cause d to

, ,

r evolve f r o m the m otio n of the s hi p the r e is g r eat r isk of splitti n g t h e ste r n ,

tube I f t h e r e i s n o oute r bea r i n g a n d the fr actu r e is well withi n the tube

.
"

, ,

the sc r ew will n ot b e los t but will go back u n til the s h a ft e n d butts agai n st
,
-

t h e r u dd e r post a n d r evolves the n without da n ge r

-
,
I f the sha ft b r eaks close .

to the p r opelle r a n d ther e is a n oute r b ea r i n g the da n ge r of d a m age to the

, ,

r u dd e r post a n d r u d de r is ve r y g reat i n deed f r o m the w r e n chi n g of the bea r i n g

-
,
'

o n the pr ope lle r f a llin g out .

S crew s h a ft En d — The sha f t e n d fitte d i n to the sc r ew boss shoul d be

-

tur n ed to a taper of é} i n ch to the f oot if the taper is less tha n this as was
“

so m eti m es the case e x t r e m e diffic u lt y is e x pe ri e n ce d in getti n g the sc r ew off

,
'

Th e sc r ew should be secu r ed by a key e x te n d i n g the whole le n gth of the

boss a n d d rive n i n to place a f te r the sc r ew is thor oughl y well d r ive n on The
,
.

scr ew is r etai n e d I n place by a n u t the scr ew thr e ad of which I s the r eve r se ,

-

h a n d of that of the sc r ew itsel f A tail key thr ough the s h a ft e n d was pre .

f e rr e d by so m e e n gi n ee r s as a m ea n s of r etai n i n g the sc r ew in place ; but

alth ough it is a ver y sa f e pla n it is n ot so c on ve ni e n t as the n u t Whe n a ,
.

n u t is e m ployed a sa f ety key or

p in is fitted in r ea r of it fi g o r else .

a set sc r ew or othe r si m ple m ean s of look in g it is used These n uts a re n ow

-
. ,

o fte n of c ast steel or b r o n z e a n d m a d e so as t o cove r the e n d of the sha ft

, .

Whe n the p r opelle r is of b r o n z e a cap n u t of the sa m e m ate r ial is

“ ”
n ecessa r y S uch n uts a r e secu r e d by set scr ews i n the e n d out of ce n t r e
.
-

or set sc r ews i n t h e boss fit t in g I n r ecesses in t h e si d e of the n u t ( 0 fig

- -
. .

S c r ew sha fts a re e n case d with b r o n z e fr o m the p r opelle r to the I n n e r e n d

o f t h e ste r n tube I n H M N avy in m e r cha n t s hi ps this I s n ow f r eque n tly
. .

t h e case although obj e cted t o pa r tly on accou n t of the e x pe n se a n d pa rtly

, ,

becaus e it p r eve n ts e x a m i n atio n of t h e sha f t a n d the detection of flaws which ,

m a y e x te n d u n obse r ved u n til r uptu r e takes place B r o n z e casi n gs 0 11 the .

,

bea ri n g par ts a r e used n ot so m uch to p r otect the shaf t fr o m co rr osio n as

, ,

to p r ovi d e a bette r wear i n g su r face whe n r u n n i n g on lig n u m vit ae a n d to a d m it ,

’
o f wea r without weake n i n g the sha ft t he r eby L loyd s R egiste r n ow r equi r e .
0

all casi n gs to be the full le n gt h of t h e s te rn tube .

Whe n wo rki n g in sa n dy wate r lign u m vit ae wea r s ve r y quickly a n d gri n ds

away t h e b ro n z e casi n g S hips which a r e o fte n e x pose d to this a r e bette r
.

without the b r o n z e casi n g a n d the lig n u m vit ae a n d should be fit t e d I n lieu ,

with Fe n to n s white m etal , a n d the sha ft eithe r with out casi n g or cased
’

with a ha rd steel li n er whic h m a y b e r e n ewe d whe n wo rn ,

.

Th e S tern B ush should b e of such le n gth that t h e p r essu r e per squa r e

i n c h ( m easu r ed as stated f or bear i n gs ) d oes n ot e x ec

bush has to sustai n the wei ght of t he p r opelle r and that of a co n side ra ble
 T H E S T ER N B US H .
313

po r tio n of I t s sha f t ; in a seaway it h a s also a dd e d to its load tha t d u e to

i n ert ia The ab ove allowa n ce howeve r f or s m ooth water co n d itio n s p r ovi d es
.
, ,
-

a la r ge e n ough bush f or sea goi n g o n es I f d is the d ia m ete r o f t h e sha ft

-
.

ove r the b r o n z e casin g d1 0 9 d that of the sha ft u n de r it ; l t h e le n th

,
g
of the bea r i n g part of t h e bus h all in i n ches a n d W the weight of the p r opelle r
, ,

in pou n ds a n d the le n gth of sha ft whose weight is bo r n e by t h e bush as

, , ,

1 5 dia m ete r s or 1 5 d1 ,
1 35 d .

Weight of shaft X 1 5 d1 X 0 2 8 3 3 d1 3 , or 2 4 d3

The n total weight on bus h W 2 4 d3 pou n ds .

5 00
Th en l x d X

W
”

1 05
(d 2 4 d 2
) X
JR
5 00

In a ge n e r al way this total weight on the bush 13 W f or solid sha fts .

and 1 2 2 5 W f or hollow o n es .

The n le n gth
,
of bush
F X d
whe r e f or soli d S ha ft s F 3 8 5 a n d f or hollow sha fts F 4 08 , .

Ex a mple ( l ) — What should b e the le n gth of the bea r i n g st r ips of a ste rn

.

bush f or a ship whose sc r ew weigh s lbs r evolves at 1 00 pe r m i n ute .

, ,

a n d the sha ft is 1 7 i n ches ove r the li n e r .

L e n gth 60 3 i n ches .

Ex a mp le ( 2 ) — For a tu r bi n e d r ive n shi p the sc r ew -

is lbs . in weight ,

the sha ft 1 2 i n ches ove r the li n er , r evolutio n s a r e 5 00 .

L e n gth 33 i n ches .

*
The ste m bush in pr actice is of a le n gth equal t o thr ee to f ou r ti m es t h e
dia m ete r of bo r e The ste r n shaf t shoul d be suppo rte d on a bea r i n g in the
.
-

tun n el whe n possible ; whe n this is either n ot possible or in c ony e n ien t it ,

should r est on a bush i n the s t er n t u b e j ust aba ft the stu ffi n g b ox -

.

I n the m e r ca n tile m ar in e the sc r ew sha ft whe n pa r tly cased with b r o n ze

‘

-
, ,

a n d r u n n i n g on bushes fitte d with lig n u m vit ae the b r ass casi n gs shou l d ,

e x ten d fro m the scr ew boss to a n i n ch or two beyo n d the i n n e r e n d of bush ,

a n d S ho uld d o so also whe r e the sha f t passes th r o u gh the s t u ffin g b ox and -

,

i n n e r bush whe n ther e is on e Of late year s the r e has bee n a te n d e n cy t o

.

f ollow the Ad mi r alty m ethod of e a s in g i n the whole le n gth cove r e d by the

.

ste rn tube I n o r de r to m ake the p r ocess as easy a n d i n ex pe n sive as possible

.
,

the stern tube is m ade ve r y sho r t so that t h e casi n g is ver y little lo n ger ,

tha n the s u m of the le n gths of the two li n e r s as f o r m e rly fitte d .

Th e T hi ck n ess of B ra ss Casin g at bea r i n g par ts is 0 3 i n ch 0 0 35 X

d ia m ete r I n o r de r t o easily wit h dr aw t h e s h a ft t h e d ia m ete r of the i n n e r
.
,

ea s in g shoul d be i i n ch la r ge r t h a n the oute r .

L loy d
’
s R e g is t e r re q u ires i t t o b e at le a st 4 d ia met ers in len gt h .
3 16 MA N UA L or MA R I N E E N GI NEER I N G .

Fr o m ti m e to ti m e atte m pts have bee n m ade to e x clu d e sea wate r fr o m '

t h e ste r n tube a n d lub ricate the sha ft bea r i n gs with oil or soapy wate r
, .

Ordi n a r y s t u ffin g box gla n d etc have bee n fitted to the tube e n d a n d the
-
, ,
.
, ,

l ub r ica n t f e d th r ough a pipe fro m the uppe r d eck so as to give a hea d ,

s upe r io r to t h a t of the sea wate r a n d s o p r eve n t a n y le a k a ge i n wa r d N0 '

.
,

r eat d eg r ee of success has f ollowed t hi s pla n as n o p r ovisio n is m a d e f or t h e

g ,

wea r of the bush B u t if t h e bush d id n ot we ar the viole n t actio n of the

.

sc rew in a seaway would i n evitably cause leakage This di fficulty has bee n .

got ove r by Mr Ce derv a ll who p r eve n ts wate r fr o m e n te ri n g by the m ea n s

.
,

show n in fig 1 0 8 whi ch have bee n ge n e r ally success f u l in p r actice

.
,
.

Thru St-sh a ft — Although the c r a n k s h a f t was so m eti m es m ade with a

.
- -

c olla r or colla r s on it to take the t h r ust it is n ot goo d p r actice especially

, , ,

f or la r ge e n gi n es The c r a n k sha ft sho u l d be r equi red to take o n ly such

.
-

{loa d s a n d m otio n s as a r e d u e to the d i r ect actio n of the pisto n s a n d be fr ee ,

:to m ove a r ou n d in its be a r i n gs without e n d p r essur e ; a n d si n ce a n y lo n gi

t u d in a l d isplace m e n t of the c r a n k sha f t te n d s to th r ow ab n o r m al st r ai n s -

on t h e wo r ki n g pa r ts it is bette r to r e m ove a ll causes of such a de r a n ge m e n t

, .

To this e n d the th r ust colla r s shoul d be on on e of the i n te r m e d iate sha fts ,

i
a n d f or co n ve n e n ce on that on e n e x t the c r a n k sha ft I f possible t h e thr ust -
.

bear i n g should _b e dn the e n gi n e r oo m a n d it is f or this pu r pose chiefly that -

t h e colla r s we r e so m eti m es ou _ the c r a n k sha ft -

.

Th ru s t — To fin d the thr ust alo n g the sha ft of a scr ew e n gi n e it is n e c es

.
,

sa r y t o k n ow the s peed of the ship a n d the e ffective hor se powe r The -

.

e ff ective ho r se powe r is i n this case the powe r actually e m plo e d i n

y p ro
-

du c in g th r ust a n d of cou r s e its r elatio n to the i n dw a t ed ho r se powe r depe n d s

, , ,
-

o n the co m bi n e d e fficie n cy of the e n gi n es a n d p r opelle r This r atio m a y be .

t ake n as 0 77 with the best high sp eed e n gi n es a n d 0 68 with t he o r di n a r y

.
-
,

m er cha n t stea m e r s m achi n e r y With tur bi n es it is p r obably 0 8 I f P be

’
. .

t h e p r essu r e in pou n d s e x e r te d by the p r opelle r agai n st the th r ust bea r i n g ,

a n d S the spe ed of the ship i n f e e t per m i n ute the n ,

W o r k d on e i n m ovi n g t h e s h ip P x S ,

a nd th e r e f o r e Eff ec t ive H P . . P x S

I H P
. . . x
f

P I H P
. . . x

N ow , if K be the spee d in k n ots ,

S K x

P I H P
. . . x

P is calle d the mea n n orma l t hr u s t .

Th rust m a y be asce r tai n ed fai rly accu r ately fr o m t h e f o rm ul a

Thr ust in pou nd s P M 2

i l
2
 T HR U S T . 31 7

D Isthe d ia m ete r I n f eet A the acti n g su r face I n squar e f eet V i s pitch

, ,

revolutio n s
pe r seco n d G 0 4 to 0 5 a n d P is the pitch r atio , .

Exa mple — To fin d the th r ust on the sha fti n g of a n e n gi n e whose I H

. . . P .

is 2 000 a n d the speed of t h e ship 1 2 k n ots the e fficie n cy 0 66

, ,
‘

326 X 0 6 6
lbs .

12

N ow , it will be see n that P varies with the I H P a n d i n ver sely as t h e . .

,

s pe ed so that the th r ust of a pa r ticula r sc r ew m a y va r y ve r y co n si d e r ably

,

f or i f fI om so m e cause the spee d i s dec r ease d w ithout a co r r es po n di n g dec r eas e ,

i n the powe r the t t s t m ust of n ecessity i n c r ease

, This actually occu rs .

in p r actice a n d m ust be p r ovided f or always

,
The ti m es whe n the actuai .

th rust e x ceeds the n o rm al th r ust a re whe n the e n gi n e fir st m oves a n d it s ,

owe r is e m ployed I n ove r co mi n g the i n e r tia of t h e s hi p also whe n the ship

p ,

i s towi n g a n d whe n d r ivi n g agai n st a head wi n d or sea

, I t is also to be .

n oted that the speed of s hip m ea n s speed t hr ou gh t he wa t er ; f or I t is on thi s

accou n t t hat so little st r ai n co mes on the m oo r i n gs of a ship whose e n gi n e s

a r e wo r ki n g at f ull speed whe n i n a d ock or co nfin ed piece of wate r I n thi s .

case it is o n ly at fir st star ti n g that a n y gr eat te n sio n is thr ow n on the m oo r

i n gs for as soo n a s the wate r is set i n to m otio n so as t o flowpast the ship in
,
“

a s t eady st r ea m the powe r is abso r bed in f aci n g the str ea m a n d r eally pro
,

pelli n g the ship thr ough the wate r .

An othe r ca u se of va r iatio n in the thr ust is the va riatio n in the twisti n g

m o m e n t which is as be f o r e show n v er y gr e a t in ce r tai n classe s of e n gi n es
'

.
, , ,

The su rface e x posed to thr ust m a y howeve r b e calculated fr o m the m ea n , ,

n o r m al th rust a n d allowa n ce m ade for all e m e r ge n cies

,
This sur face should .

be such that t h e p r ess u r e per squar e I n ch fr o m the m ea n n o rm al thr ust does

n ot e x ceed 70 lb s a n d f or tugboats or ships es pecially e x posed t o s eve re
.

weathe r or se r vice a n alogous t o eithe r of these it shoul d n ot e x ceed 5 0 lbs

, ,
.

Or d i n a r y m e r chan t ships have usually such su r face t hat the n o m i n al th r ust

does n ot e x ceed 60 lbs a n d n aval ships 4 5 lbs ; as they m a y have to t ow
.
, ,

or do a n alogous wo r k at f ull owe r

p .

Friction Loss a t th e Th ru s t B IOCK is n ot s o g r eat as ge n e r a lly supposed '

by those who devise a n d pate n t special m ea n s f or its r eductio n As a m atter .

o f f act with ca r efully tu rn ed steel sha fts w ith m ultiple c olh rs ru n n i n g

, ,

agai n st good white m etal well lub r icated the loss i s n eve r mo r e tha n pe r
ce n t of the I H P t r a n s m itted by the sha ft a n d ge n er ally I S as f ollows :
. . . .
,

The or di n a r y m e r cha n t stea m er , 0 4 pe r ce n t .

Ex p r ess stea m e r s a n d lar ge n aval ships ,

High r evolutio n stea m er s a n d n aval shi ps

-
.

Tu rbi n e ste a m e r s of lar ge si z e ,

high r evolution ,
10 to per ce n t .

The followi n g r ule holds good for all

L oss pe r ce n t . r evs .
per m in .

*
Pro
s su In on a T hru s t B ea rin g sho u l d n ot e x ceed
re per S q . . 00 v R d + 1 00 ,
R bein g the r evs per min a n d d the di a m eter of t h r ust sha ft in in ches
.
-
.

D ia met er of T hru st Collars — L e t P be the m ea n n or m al thr ust , of t he .

~

Wit h M ich e l b ea rin gs t h e p re ss u re ma y b e as mu ch as x/ Rd 1 00 .

 T H R U S T B L OCK S
-
.
319

s qu a r e i n c h ,
w ha t e ve r the th rust p ressur e ma y be ; the heat ge n erated is ,
t here fo re ,

B TU
. . . n u mbe r of s quare in ches x speed 2 x 778 .

Fig 1 09 — S e1f
. .
-
t
c on a in e d Mic h el Ma r ine T h ru st B ea r in g .

I n pr actice the coe fficie n t of frictio n is on ly 0 0 0 1 5 , a n d a pressur e of 5 00 lbs

pe r squa r e i n ch is n ot ex cessive u n de r o rdi n a ry wor ki n g co n ditio n s With highly .

v is c ous oil as m uch as 5 ton s per s qua r e i n ch has bee n m ain tai n ed satis f acto r ily .

Fig 1 1 0
. form of block ge n e r ally used Here hor se shoes fit .
-

Fig 1 1 0 . .
— Th ru st -
block w it h Ad j u s t a ble Colla rs .

o ve r t wo screwed bar s on e on either side of the block ; n uts a re fitted to

,

t hese ba rs s o that each colla r m a y be ad j usted by its ow n n uts or the whole

, ,

of them by the n uts at the e n d A si m ple r a n d cheape r m eth od I s t o turn

.
320 A UAL
M N OF M AR IN E EN GI N E ER I N G .

'

t h es e ba r s so t hat there is a colla r betwee n each pair of shoes i n stead

s id e
— that is the ba r s have a set o f colla r s co rr espo n di n g to those
of a pai r of n uts ,

o f the sha f t —
a n d take the t h r ust of the shoes as be f o r e .

B oth these pla n s a r e m ost success f ul in p rac t ice in g reat m easu r e ,

due to the fact that the colla i s a r e ope n a n d e x posed at the t op s o ,

as to be easily lub r icated a n d cooled by the a n a n d to thei r r u n nin g ,

in oil or i n a mi x tu r e of oil a n d soapy wate r co n tai n ed in the t r ough

,

below the m .

I t is m ost i m po r ta n t that a bea r i n g be placed close to the t hr ust ,

so that t h e sha f t ca n n ot vib rate a n d cause u n eve n p r essur e over the

su rface of the collar s The fu n ctio n of the thr u s t bear i n g is to take
.

o n l y en d p r essu r e This is pa rticula rly the case whe n desig n ed with

.

ho r se shoe r i n gs
-
.

Th e Leng t h of th e B ea rin gs of Tu n n el S h a fting will depe n d on the si z e of

the sha ft a n d thei r dista n ce apa r t I f at is t h e dia m ete r a n d L the dista n c e
.
,

i n i n ches the weight of the sha ft which each bea r i n g has t o suppo rt is
,

X L X 0 2 8 2 , or
2
d x L .

The bea ri n g su r f ace is take n at l x d squa r e i n ches a n d the p r es su re ,

shoul d b e about 6 0 lbs pe r squa r e i n ch I n s m ooth wate r whe n the r ate of

.

revolutio n does n ot e x cee d 1 00 per m i n ute ; tak i n g

8 00
0 2 2 d2 X d X l X
m
’

J
,

d X L X JR 1 00
L e n gth of bea ri n g i n ches .

Ex a mple — What should be the le n gth of tu n n el shaft bea ri n gs in a tur bi n e

ship havi n g sha fts 6 i n ches dia m ete r r u n n i n g in bea ri n gs 1 0 f eet apa r t at
8 00 r evolutio n s pe r m i n ute

6 x J8 00 + 1 00
L e n gth of bea r i n g I n ches .

D iameter of S ha fts , R u l es for, I n Pra cti ce — As al m ost eve r y ship 1 3 cla ss e d

with on e or othe r of the shippi n g registe r s the sha ftin g m us t i n n o case be ,

s m alle r tha n p r ovide d f or I n the r ules of the co r po r atio n wi t h which she 1 8

cl a ssed , a n d f r o m who m a machi n e r y cer ti ficate is n ecessa r y All Br itish .

shi ps ca rr yi n g m o r e tha n 1 2 pas s e n ge r s m ust have a ce rti ficate f ro m t he

'

B oa i d of T r a de whose su r veyo r has to I e por t that i n t er a li a , the s ha fti n g 13

, ,

fit a n d p r ope r etc ; in hi s case it m ea n s that the dia m ete r s a r e n ot less t h a n

, .

give n by the B oa r d s R ules .

The Ad mi ralty n ow ge n e r ally speci fy the si zes of the va r ious s ha fts ,

which a r e al most in va riably hollow steel .
 BO R D A or T R AD E R UL E S .
32 ]

T R A D E R UL E S FOR S H A FT S
B OA R D or .

For co m pou n d c o n de n si n g e n gi n es with t w o or m o r e cyli n d ers wh e n , t he

c ra n ks a r e n ot ove rhu n g

2
C x D

W he r e S d i a m e t e r of sh af t in in che s .

dz squar e of d iam e t e r of high p r e ssu re cy li n de r in i n che s or s u m-

of s qua r es of di a m e t e r s whe n the r e a r e t w o or m o r e h i gh

p ressu r e cyl in de r s .

D2 squar e of di a m e t e r f of low pre ssu r e c yli n d e r i n i n ch es or s u m

'

l -
l

of squa r es of d i am e t e r s whe n th e r e a r e t w o or m or e low

p r essu r e cyli n d e r s .

absolute p r essur e i n lbs pe r s quare i n ch— t h a t is , boi le r .

pr essure plus 1 5 lbs .

0 le n gth of c ra n k in i n che s .

f c on sta n t f r om f ollow ing ta bl e .

N ot e— I n te r me d ia t e pre ss u r e cy lin d e r s d o n ot a ppe a r in t h e f orm u la .

For o r d i n a r y co n de n si n g e n gi n e s with on e , t w o, or mo re cy li n de r s ,
w h en
th e cr an ks a r e n ot ove r hu n g
—
C x P x W 3 x f
i’

2
3 x C x D

W r he e D 2
s qua r e of di a m ete r of cyli n de r in i n ches or s u m of s qu a r e s

of di a m eter s whe r e ther e a r e t w o or m o r e cyli n de r s Othe r sy mbols as a bov e .

T AB L E XXXV .
— B OA R D or T R AD E FA CT OR S FOR S H A FT S .

For Cra n k an d Th ru st f
Sha t s . For T u n n el Sha t f .

For p a dd le en gi n e s of
ord i n a ry t yp e mu lt ip ly
c on s t a n t i n t h is colu mn
su it a b le f or an g le of
c ra n ks by l 4
°
.

For Th re e Cr an k
s .

°
1 20

N ole —1 W h e n th e r e is on ly on e c r a n k t he c on s t a n t s a p lic a b le are t h os e i n

.
p
t h e T a ble opp os it e

T h e port ion of t h e propelle r s h a f t w h ic h is fo rwa rd of t h e s t e rn g la n d , a n d a ll .

t he t h r u s t sh a f t , w it h t h e e x c e pt ion of t h e pa rt e n close d in t h e t h r u s t bea rin g, m a y be

t he sa m e d ia me te r a s t h e in t e rm e d ia t e t u n n e l s h a f t in g .
 '
B R I TI S H COR P OR A T I ON RU L ES . 323

TAB LE XXXV I I .
— CR A N K COEFFI CI E N T S .

Fou S i n gl e
r - c y c le -
a ct i n g V a l u e of Coefic i e n t , f
En g i n e . En g i n e . AS BL .

a
b
c
d

For aux ilia ry e n gi n es values 5 per ce n t less . .

I n solid f o rged sha fts b r eadth of webs , di a m eter , an d th ick n ess

0 5 6 d ia m ete r of sha ft or of equivalen t str e n gt h
-
.

( 3 ) Whe n n o flyw heel is fit t e d

D ia m eter i n term ediate
of sh a fts coe fficien t i
x/ D 2
x S .

The value of this coe fficie n t is as f ollows

T AB LE XXXV I I A .

N B Wh e n t h e
. .
-
”

s t r ok e is n ot le s s t h a n
4 c y lin d e rs . 1 2 n or m ore t h a n 1 6
d ia m e t er of c y lin d er,
16 c y c le s .
t h en
tern a l sh a ft c oe ffic ien t
D ia m e t er of in D °
2 73 S ) .

( 4 ) When flywheels a re fitted then coe fficien t ,

T AB LE XXXV I I B .

( 5 ) D iam ete r of scr ew shaft

T b ei n g dia m ete r of i n term e di ate sha ft a n d D that of pro eller in i n ches
Th e B oard of T ra de R u l es f or S h a ft in g of Oil En gines is t ile sa m e as the
.

’
a bove r ules of L loy d s R e is t e r
g . .

TH E B R I T I S H COR P OR A T I ON R
UL E S FOR S H A FT S .

D iamet er of S h a f tin g — The mi ni m u m d ia m ete r s of c r a n k th r ust pro

.
, ,

pelle r a n d i n te rm e d iate sha fts ma y be f oun d fr o m the followi n g f o rmul ae

, ,

e x cept wher e the r atio of le n gth of st roke t o dista n ce betwee n mai n bea ri n gs
i s u n usual whe n they will r eceive special co n si d er atio n
,

Whe r e
'

D dia m eter of sha ft .

P absolute p r essu r e— t e bo ile r p r essu r e 1 5 lbs

m str oke of e n gin e in i n ches
.

I
I
.
,

b I dia m ete r of low p r essu r e cyl in de r in i n ches -

,
.

fi
t 1 0 f or c r a n k a n d th r ust sha f ts
I
I -
.

d
b f or i n t e r m e d iate sha fts
I
I
.

for p r opelle r sha fts t o be take n fr o m the f ollowi n g Table

d
b
I
I
32 4 MAN UAL OF M AR I N E EN GI N EER I N G .

T AB LE XXXV I I I .
— B R I T I S H CO R P OR A T I O N FA CT OR S FOR S H A FT S .

R at io of D ia me t e r of Pr op eller t o D i a m e t e r of Cra n k -
sh a ft .

£
2
Th e value of t h e d iviso r C i n t h e f o r m ula d epe n d s on the r atio 3,

whe r e L di am e t e r O
f low -
p r essu r e cyli n d e r an d H of hig h p r essu r e
-

c yli n d e r i n i n ches
,

Fou r Cra nk s a t
Q u ad ru ple Ex pa n s i on .

Ex p an s ion .

R a t io
 S H A FT S FOR S CR E W EN GI N ES .
32 5

R ULE B V
'

S O F T H E U R E Au E R I T As .

S h a fts f or S crew S teamers .

( a ) Cran k S ha fts 7 Wh e n the c ra n k of a s cr ew e n gi n e is n ot ove r

'

. .

hu n g the diam ete r of the sha ft shall be deter mi n ed by on e of the f ollowi n g

,

for m ul ae
For n on co m poun d co n d e n si n g e n gi n es
-

For d ouble , tr iple , an d quad r upl e e x pa n sio n e n gi n es

-

( )
B

For shaf ts havi n g a sin gle over h u n g cr an k

-

, t h e f or m u n d e r the r adi ca l
S i gn is t o be m ultiplie d by
J 32 l
I

s .

For two c ylin der sin gl e cr an k ta n d e m e n gi n es

- -
t h e f o r m ul a will th e r e f o re

Inthose f o r mulae
d dia m ete r of the aft e r S ha ft bear i n g in i n ches .

n1 n u m be r of high p r essu r e cyli n de r s -

.

D1 dia m eter of each hi gh p r essur e cyli n der in i n ches I f the r e a re -

.

seve r al high pr essu r e cyli n der s the d ia m eter s of whi ch a r e n ot

-

t h e sa m e n 1 D 1 r ep r ese n ts the s u m of the squa r es of t h e n

2
,

r espective d ia m ete r s .

n n u m be r of l ow p r essur e cyli n de r s -

D d ia m ete r of ea ch l ow p r ess u r e cy li n de r in i n ches I f the r e a re

-
.

sever al low p r essur e cyli n de r s the dia m ete r s of which a r e n ot the

- -

m r ep r ese n ts the Su m of the squa r es of thei r r espective

2
sa e n D ,

d ia m ete r s .

N B — For t r ipl e or quad r uple e x pa n sio n e n gi n es the i n te rmediate cyli n de rs

. .
-

d o n ot co m e i n to accou n t in the f o r mulae .

L le n gth of str oke in in ches co m m o n to all pisto n s , .

P boil e r p r essur e above at m osphe r e in poun ds per squar e i n ch .

3 9 ( see fig 1 1 0a)
. o r de r t o d eter mi n e a B is supposed to be situated
. In ,
r
hal f way the l e n gt h of the bea ri n g u nl ess the latte r be lo n ge r
-
,

than 1 % ti m es the dia m eter in this case B C ma y be co n side r e d

as bei n g equal t o of the d ia m ete r .

C a co n sta n t the values of which a re given bel ow for cer ta in cases

,
.

The values give n apply t o n avi gatio n in a sea way for s m ooth -

water ( tugs e x cepted ) the co n sta n ts m a y be i n cr eased by

3 0 p er ce n t .

I f it is above 1 5 i n ches it should be i n c r eased by a n a m ou n t t o be

,

d eter m i n ed by the Ad mi ni str atio n ; f or built u p sha fts h owe v e r this latte r -
, ,

i n cr ease will n ot b e r eq u i r ed .
HOR S E
-
PO W E R TR A N S MI S S I B LE T H R OUG H SH AFT S . 32 7

N w o w “
m o c
3
N p
bg w
w a a Em o o
5 mm mw ; i n v a m e
4 d fi m ” w d a d fi d
. . .

n .

t — —u —u —N N
n u N

fi -u -u ei mm co m co b cs —w t co m ce

—u -u —t r-I N N M Q ' IO D GJ O
C N Q ‘
F Q CO CQ
—n —u —n —u —
u
v NN N

fi fl fi fi N N m fi ‘ lfi fio w O N fi‘ w Q N

fl fi fi fi m mm v m o w a fi m m b

M A H N N M fi‘ m QO l‘ w Q —m fl

—
o s e n e n 0
e e
0

w W O w M fi ‘ lfl t
CO QO P l‘ Q Q
— — — — — — — — — 8 35 g
N fi
‘
4 n ¢n i p 1 i v 1 n i v 1
32 8 MA N UAL OF M R N E E NA I GI N E ER I N G .

the lat t e r ( see A of the f oll owi n g sketch ) m ust have its d ia m ete r calcul ated
fr o m the f o r m ul a

wher e the l etter s ha ve the sa m e m ea n i n g as be f o r e ex cept that a, for

a
deter mi n i n g s is to be measur ed as show n i n the sketch below the poi n t _ ,
r

B bein g the middl e of the bea r i n g

Fig l l Ob
. .

For t w o -
cyl in de r co m pou n d r eceive r e n gi n es with t wo c r a n ks at
C f or n avigatio n in s m ooth wate r .

f or coasti n g vessels .

for s ea goi n g vessels

-
.

For triple ex pa n sio n e n gin es with t hr ee cyli n de r s

-
an d c r a n ks at
C f or naviga t io n i n s m ooth water .

for coasti n g vessels .

for sea goi n g vessels

-
.

The d ia m ete r of the oute r bear i n g of the pa ddle sha ft a n d of t h e i n ter

m e diate s h a f t t o be sub m itte d t o the Ad mi n ist r atio n or the S u r veyo r s f or
-

app r oval The sa m e applies t o othe r cases n ot d ealt with in this pa r agr aph
. .

Tu rbin e Sh a f tin g (Bu r ea u V er ita s ) .

H P
D ia m ete r of tu n n el shaf ts
. .

HP . . is the sha ft ho r se powe r -

, R the co rr espo n di n g r evolutio n s per m i n ute .

The r oto r sha ft d ia m ete r x d, at least .

d ia m ete r of sc r ew ih i n ches
'

D ia m ete r of sc r ew sha f t
-
d,
1 60
 S H A FT S OF O I L E N GI N E S .
329

Sha fts of Oil Engines ( Bu rea u V er ita s ) ;

D ia m ete r of c a k r n sha ft C”D A

2
x S,
w he r e D is the dia m ete r of cyli n d er , and S the stroke of _pis t on in I n ches .

C isa f actor whi ch varies i n ver sely as and is 0 4 93 whe n is 20 , an d 0 5 60

w he n it is o n ly Is fr eque n tly The n 0 0 5 20
D
.

S teel S h afts (Bu rea u V er ita s ) .

§ 9 S ha fts m ade of steel m ust have a ten sil e st r e n gth O f 2 6 to

. 30 % to n s ,

a nd test pieces cut fr o m the f o rgin g m ust satisf acto r il y withs ta n d the pre ,

sc r ibed t ests Whe n it is de si r ed t o m ake use of steel of so fte r or harde r

.

uality the co e po di g alt at i o n in the dia m ete r m ust b e sub mitte d

q , rr s n n e r

t o the Ad mi n i st r atio n ( of the B u r eau V e ritas ) f or app r o v al .

S u mmary — Th e f ollowi n g is a
. su mma r y Of c r e tain pa rts of this -
Chapte r
w hich will be use fu l f or r e f e r en ce ;

R UL E 1 .
-
D ia m ete r of sha ft

The various values of F c a n b e ascer tai n e d from the f ollowi n g table, whe re
p is the absolute i n itial p re ssur e or that at which t h e sa fety valves a re loa d ed
,

1 5 lbs whe n the r e is n o r educi n g valve :

.
,

T AB L E XXX I X — . V ALU E S OF FA CT OR F IN FOR M ULA FOR S H A FT S

F f or Cra n k
S h af t .

S in gle -
c ra nk e x pa n s i ve 1 c yl . Cu t -
off , s t rok e ,

1 0 6
c om pou n d 2
T wo cra n k 90
-
°
e x pa n si ve 2 02
2 06
c om pou n d 2

qu a d ru ple 4 06
c om p ou n d
°
T h ree -
cr a n k 1 2 0 3 0 5
-

t riple 3 06
Fo u r c ra n k
-
°
90 t ri p le 4 06

qu a d ru ple 4 06
T hr e e -
cr a n k t riple c om pou -
n d na va l e n gi n e s ( h ol low )
Fou r - c ra n k

Tu r bin e s t a kin g
_
 D ET AIL S OF CR A N K S H A FT S
-
.
331

T AB LE XXXI Xa — . S H A FT S F OR PAD D L E EN GI N ES .

D e scrip t i on of En g i n e .

S i n gle c r a n k s in gle c y li n d er
Tw o c r an k t w o c y lin d er c ra n k s
v ir t u a ll at r ig h t an gle s , a n d c on
y
n e c t edby li n k ,
T w o c ra n k t w o c y lin d er , w i t h in t e r
m e d ia t e s h a f t c ra n k s at ri gh t
a n gle s ,
d
T w o cra n k t w o cy lin er , s olid cr a n k
s h a f t ; cra n k s a t r igh t a n les ,
g

For paddl e stea m e r s wo r ki n g o n ly in s m ooth w ate r the above values of F

ma y be r e d uced 20 pe r ce n t .

Th e above values of F we r e f or i r o n sha fts but it is bette r n ot t o ,

reduce the m whe n e m ployi n g m ild steel u n less the fo r gi n gs a re fr o m i n gots ,

of the hi ghest quality .

D etails of Cran k -s h a fts .

Cr an k a r m s if f or ged soli d w i t h t h e
-
s h af t
*
B r ead th l x d iam ete r of s h af t .

T h ick n ess x

D iam ete r of coupli n g x

T h ick n ess x

N u m be r of c oupli n g bolts 2 di am e t e r of s h af t in i n ch es
4” 19
D iam ete r di am ete r of s h af t .

D iam ete r of c r an k pi n s -
l t o l l x d iam e t e r of sh af t
'
.

L en g th l t o l é t h e d iam ete r of sh af t .

L en g th of j ou r n a ls l to l é

The followin g c on r en ien t r u les gi r e s i zes c los e ly a ppr ox i ma t in g t o those f ou n d

in p r actice a n d ma y be u sed t o obtai n the di am ete r of the sha ft s p r eli mi n a r y
, ,

to m aki n g a m o r e elabo r ate calculatio n They a re the r e for e ver y use ful I n .
, ,

the i n itial stages of a m ar i n e e n gi n e design t o e n able the d esign e r to get on

with the wo r k ; but bei n g pur ely e mpi r ical they should be used with so me
cautio n
d is the dia m ete r of t he cyli n de r in i n ches .

MP . .

D L P . .

S the st r oke also I n i n ches .

F a f acto r which f or the c r a n k

,
o rdi n a r y co mpou n d e n gi n es
-
shaf t of
W ith c r a n ks at 90 is 1 2 ; a n d f or the tu n n el sha fts I s 1 3 ; f or
°

thr ee c r a n k tr iple co m pou n d e n gi n es F is 1 4 for the cr a n k sha ft

- - -

a n d 1 5 2 for t h e tu n n el sha fts f our cra n ks 1 3 an d 1 4 2

-
,
.

B re a d t h ’ x t h ick nes s 0 9 x vi ?
"
3 32 MA N UAL OF M AR I N E EN GI N EER I N G .

( 1 ) Or di n ary co mpou n d e n gi n es
D ia m eter of sha ft

( 2) Tr i ple co m poun d thr ee cr an k e n gi n es

- -

d + dm + D + S
D ia m ete r of sha ft
F
Taki n g the sa m e e x a m ple as be f o r e

D ia m eter of c r a n k Sha ft-

i n ches .

14

Ru l e for D etermin ing qu ick ly t h e D iameter of Cra nk sh a ft — Taki n g D -

.

a s the d ia m ete r of each L P cyli n de r of a co m pou n d syste m a n d S the st r oke

. .
,

both in i n ches a n d p the i n itial p r essu r e absolute The n the dia m ete r of
,
.

t h e c r a n k sha f t m a y be f ou n d r apidly a n d with close app r o x i m atio n t o co rr ect

-

n ess by the f ollowi n g

T AB L E XXXI Xb — .
~
CR AN x -
S H A FT S OF S CR E W EN GI N E S .

D e scr ipt i on of En gin e .

T wo c ra n k s a t 90
°
co mpou n d , t w o c y lin d ers ,

T h re e c ra n k s a t 1 20
°
c om p ou n d , th re e c y li n d ers ,

T h ree c ra n k s a t 1 20
°
triple -
c om pou n d , t hr e e c y li n d e r s ,

Fou r c ra n k s a t 90
°
triple Com pou n d
-
, f ou rcy li n d e rs

pl e c om
2 5 13 S
f ou l in d e rs
; E
x/
°
Fou r c ra n k s a t 90 qu a d r u pou n d r cy
-
, ,
22

Th e tu n n el - sh a f t s s h ou ld be d ia m e te r of c r a n k s h a f
-
t .

B oard of Tra de R u le for Sh a f ts of Tu rbin e S h ips is as f ollows

D ia m ete r X 40 2 X C,

w her e R is the n u mbe r of r evolutio n s per m i n ute .

For the i n ter m e d iate or tu n n el sha fts -

,

p ro
pe lle r ~s h a ft ~s .

H oll ow S h a ft s n ow so e x t e n sively use d i n special ships a r e especially

, ,

s uite d f or the p r opelle r sha fts of m ultiple scr ew ships i n as m uch as t h ey a r e

- -

less liable to sag u n de r t h eir own weight a n d ther e f or e f r eer fro m the t e n , , ,

d e n c y t o whi r l tha n solid o n es woul d be u n d e r the sa m e ci r cu m sta n ces .

 D ET AIL S O F CR A N K S H A FT S
-
.
3 33

If the dia m ete r of the hollow sha ft is d , an d that of its bo r e dl , the n

3
The dia m ete r of the solid sha ft of equal str en gth d, d i
d 4

The r elatio n of the weights of these sha fts will be

d2 dI 2

In pr actice d1 is about a hal f of d assu mi n g this to be so ,

( lg
?
R at i o of we i ght Ol S Oll d to hollow
‘

'

z
d
d, i/d ( 1 3
0 0 625 ) 6 979 d .

S ubstituti n g this value of d, ,

R atio of weight of solid to hollow

322
7
, or 1 2 78 .

That is the solid sha ft of the sam e str e n gth is n ear ly 2 8 pe r ce n t heavier
,
. .

Th e Ou tbo ard Sha fts of la r ge n aval s hi ps with t wi n sc r ews a n d o rdin ary

b rackets are of lar ge diam ete r as m uch as 28 in ches ) with a bor e hole 0 7 of ,
- -

the ex te rn al di a m ete r U n der hese cir cum stan ce

.

0 9 1d .

2
( 0 9 1 d) -
8 28
°

( 6) The r atio of weights 2

( o u t)
2
at .
5 10

That is the solid sha ft is 1 6 ti m es the weight of the hollow On e bu t in salt

,
-

water the di ff er e n ce is g r eater Takin g the specific gravity of steel as 7 86

.

an d salt wate r as 1 0 3 t h e n ,

(0) Hollow sha ft d (12

x 78 6 l 03d
° 2
29 8 .

S olid sha ft (0
°
91 d) 2
X 1 0 3)
The r atio is n ow 1 9 -
.
 M AI N BE AR I N G S . 3 35

u n supporte d by the bed built in the ship but spa n the space betwee n the fo r e ,

a n d a ft bea r e r s This is co n ve n ie n t so m eti m es especially whe n the sh af t

.
,

m ust be low d ow n in ships havi n g a good r ise of floo r a n d also f or v e r y s m all ,

e n gi n es but it m u s t be of st r o n g f o rm a n d as it depe nd s for st re n gth o n ly ,

on the co n n ectio n t o the lo n gitudi n al pa r ts of the f ou n d a tio n it is a most ,

c o n ve n ie n t f o r m whe n steel casti n gs a r e u sed as also for ve r y light e n gi n es ,

additio n al suppo rt ma y be a n d Ofte n is give n in the case of la rge e n gin es by

, ,

boltin g t o the s hi p at t h e mid d le ( fig Whe n this pa rticular style is .

a dopted gr eat c a r e should be e x e r cise d in d esig n i n g the f ou n datio n s o that ,

t h e t r a n sve r se po r tio n s have a good e x te n d ed co n n ectio n t o the lo n gitudi n al.

on es espec i al ly I n the di r ectio n of the colu m n bases

,
I f the lo n gitudi n al .

par ts a re flat a n d s tr aight on the botto m so as to be in the sa m e plan e as ,

t h e r est of the f ou n datio n they ma y be f o r m e d with fla n ges a n d bolted t o the

,

s teel seati n g in the S hip a n d f r o m it r eceive suppo rt a n d st r e n gth

, .

Ma in B earin gs — The bea r in gs in which t h e shaft j ourn als ru n should

.

a pp r o x i m ate as f a r as possible t o a hole thr ough a solid suppo r t

, ,I f it we re .

r acticable a hole with a bush of suitable m eta l in it would f o r m the bes t

p
p ossible bea r i n g f or a sha f t ; but si nce the bea r i n g howeve r well desig n e d ,

a n d m ade is liable i n cou r se of ti m e t o wea r so mew h at it beco m es a n e c es

, , , ,

S I t y that the r e shall b e so m e m ea n s of adj usti n g the b r asses s o as to p r eve n t ,

t h e shaf t f r o m havi n g t oo much m ove m en t whe n they a re wo r n * I n the case .

O f the ve r tical en gi n e the weight of the sha ft a n d the p r essu r e fr o m the

, ,

pisto n act ve r y n ea r ly in the sa m e di r ectio n s o that the wear is on ly ve r ti

, ,

c ally above a n d below the sha f t the adj ust m e n t is n ecessa ry

'

n en
co sequ tly .

o n ly in a ve rtical dir ectio n The gr eatest loads on the beari n gs however .

, ,

a r e du r i n g the fir st hal f of the st r oke a n d co n seque n tly the positio n of m ea n ,

p r essu r e on the j ourn als is n ot e x actly v er tical this is also so m ewhat m odi
h e d on the upst r oke by the te n de n cy of the sha f t t o r oll on the su r face of the
b r asses a n d on the dow n st r oke it is aggr avated fr o m the sa m e cause
, In .

fitti n g the b r asses f or a ve r tical e n gi n e t hi s should be bo rn e in m i n d a n d , ,

e ve r y allow an ce made f or taki n g the wea r due t o these causes I t is of the .

.

ut m ost i m po rta n ce f or the good wo r ki n g a n d e n dur a n ce of a cr an k sha ft -

t hat the bea ri n gs be r igid i n the m selves a n d that the fr a m ewo r k co n tai n i n g ,

the m shall be rigid e n ough to sustai n the m pe rfectly in li n e on e with a n othe r .

‘

Cr a n k sha fts a re m o r e seve r ely t r ied by the givi n g or sp r i n gin g of the bea r i n gs
-

t ha n a n y othe r cause a n d they we re m o r e o fte n b r oke n fr o m wa n t of r igidity

i n the bed plates a n d S eatin gs t h a n fr o m the n o r m al st r ai n s fr o mthe pisto n s
,

-
, ,

s o that a sha f t m a y be of a mple si z e to bea r the twisti n g a n d be n di n g m o m e n ts

i f p r ope r ly suppo rted in its bea r i n gs a n d yet give way a fte r a fe w weeks
'
’

wor k because it is in a light f ou n datio n in a weak ship .

The b r asses wer e usually f orm ed as show n in fig 1 1 1 a n d ca r ef ully bedded .

,

i n to the r ecesses p r ovided f or the m in the f ou n datio n At on e ti m e it was .

u sual t o desig n the m with p r oj ecti n g f aci n gs called chip pi n g st r ips t o avoid , ,

the labou r of chippi n g a n d fili n g the whole of the su rf ace ; this was however , ,

fou n d t o b e highly obj ectio n able as e n gi n es i n c r eased in si z e ; with the in

c r ease of boile r p r e s su r e a n d co n seque n t i n c r eased pe r cussive actio n d u e
,

t o the high i n itial loads such a n e ff ect was p r oduced on these st rips a n d
,

the cast i r o n surf ace on whi ch they wer e born e that e n gi n eer s have gr adually
-
,

a ba n do n ed the p r actice ; the plani n g m achi n es also have r e n de r ed such a .

device u n n ecessar y as it is p r actically as cheap to fit b r asses n ow t o bear

,

Wit h f orce d lu bri ca t i on an d t h e b ea rin gs sh u t off f rom d u st , et c .

, t h e re i s i n p ra c t ice n o wea r.
336 A UAL
M N A I
or M R N E E N GI N EE R I N G .

ove r the whole su rface as t o do s o o n ly on strips The squa r e botto m b ras s .

is obj ectio n able on two grou n ds ; on e bei n g that it is i mpossible to r e m ov e

it in m ost e n gi n es wi t hout li fti n g the shaf t a n d the othe r that whe n it beco m es
,

hot it is i n va riably d isto r te d fr o m the va riatio n in thick n ess of m etal wit h

, ,

the ultim ate r esult that it is b r oke n thr ough the mi ddle lo n gitudin ally .

Fig l l l
. . Cra n k
- -
sh a ft B e ari n g .

The first of these evils is avoided by makin g the botto m b r ass r ou n d a n d

,

of eve n thick n ess so that it c a n be got ou t whe n r elieved of the weight of

,

Fig 1 1 2
. .
— I m prove d Form of Cra n k -
s h a ft B e a rin g .

the shaft by bei n g m oved a rou n d u n til it is on the t op of the j ou rn al The

,
.

seco n d evi l is also pa rtly avoided by m aki n g it of a n eve n thick n ess ; bu t

this f o rm of b r ass is o f te n f ou n d c r acked a n d is liable t o heat f ro m its wa n t
,

of sti ff n ess . B oth these b r asses whe n fir st h eated by a bn orm a l f r ictio n

, .
,
 M AI N B E AR I NG
-
L
B O TS . 3 37

te n d t o ex pa n d alo n g the i n n e r sur f ace w hi ch is in co n tact with the sha ft ,

t h is would ope n the b r ass a n d m ake the bo r e of lar ge r d ia m eter if n ot r esiste d

, ,

by t h e cooler pa r t n ear the cast i r o n a n d by the b ed plate itsel f I f the ,

-
.

b r ass has beco m e hot quickly a n d e x cessively the r esista n ce to e x pa n sio n ,

p r o d uces pe rm a n e n t set on the laye r s of m etal n ea r the j ou r n al co n seque n tly ,

on cooli n g this co n t racts the b r ass closes a n d te n d s to gr ip the sha f t

, it wi ll
the n set up su fficie n t fr ictio n to beco m e agai n hot a n d e x pan d sufficie n tly ,

to ease itsel f fr o m the sha f t whe n s o lo n g as that te m per atur e is m ai n tai n e d ,

’
the sha f t r u n s easily in the bea r i n g T h is is the r easo n why so m e bear i n gs .

always a re a t r ifle warm a n d will n ot wo r k cool A co n ti n ua nce of heati n g

, .

a n d cooli n g will set up a m echa n i cal actio n at the st r uctu r e of the b r ass ,

which m ust e n d in rupturi n g it j ust as a piece of sheet m etal is b r oke n by ,

co n tin ually be n di n g backwar d s a n d for wa r d s about a ce rtai n li n e .

Thi S p er ni c iou s actio n of t h e b r ass c a n b e p r eve n ted by secu r i n g it to the

‘

be d plate alo n g its two lo n gitudi n al e d ges as show n in fig 1 1 2 by a n H

-
, ,
.
,

shaped str ip whi ch holds both t op an d botto m b r asses s o that they ca n n ot

, ,

m ove in thei r beds Thi s m etho d is a ve r y si mple on e a n d has bee n f ou n d

.
,

m ost success ful in e n gi n es of all si z es .

I t is also esse n tial that t h e bear i n g t o be e fficie n t sho u l d be r i gid thr ough
out its whole le n gth ; this is n ot the case whe n the b r asses have lo n g ove r
ha n gi n g e n ds w hi ch a ff o rd little or n o suppo r t t o the sha ft To this en d
,
.

it is better whe n possible to e x te n d the bed f or the b r asses s o as to suppo rt

, , ,

the m ove r the whole of thei r le n gth as shown in fig 1 1 2 ,

. .

Ca ps or K eeps f or Ma in B ea rin gs a re ve r y ge n e r ally made of w r ought i r o n ,

but as sti ffn ess is as n ecessar y as st r e n gth c ast steel as in figs 1 1 3 a n d 1 1 4 o r , ,

.
,

eve n cast ir o n as in fig 1 1 2 m a y be use d with advan tage in thei r co n st r uctio n

, .
,
.

A wr ought stee l cap w hi ch m a y b e a m ply st r o n g is o fte n f a r fr o m sti ff e n ough

-
, , ,

whi le a cast i r o n cap which is sti ff e n ough f or good wo rki n g is gen er all y
-
, ,

a mply str o n g
,
.

L et d be the d ia m ete r of the m ai n bea r i n g bolts ( whe n the r e a re o n ly two

,
-

to each cap ) t the thi ck n ess of the cap a n d b its b re adth l is the pitch of the
, , ,

bolts all in i n ches f a f acto r w hi ch f or wr ought i r o n a n d f o r ge d steel is l

, , ,

f or cast steel 1 2 a n d f or cast i r o n 2 , .

T hi ck n ess of ca p

Thic k n es s of b r ass at m i dd le
3 3
.

Main beari n Bg o
-
l t s — Each cap is usually held by t wo bolts but ve r y
.
,

lar ge bea ri n gs have f ou r bolts t w o on e ach side so as t o avoi d lar ge bolts , ,

a n d heavy n uts a n d to dist r ibute the load ove r the cap

,
Wh e n eve r ythi n g .

is in goo d o r d er a n d p r oper ly adj usted the load fr o m the pisto n shoul d be ,

equall y d ivided betw e e n t h e bolts but sin ce fr o m a ve r y s light di ff e re n ce in ,

setti n g of the n uts the load m a y co m e on thr ee a n d so m eti m es eve n on two

, ,

b olts o n ly due allowa n ce m ust be m a d e f or t h is To m eet t h is it shoul d be

,
.

assu m ed that each bolt is capable of sustai n i n g on e thi rd the l oad on t h e -

p i s to n I f P
.
is the m a x i mu m load on the piston in lbs

Area of each b olt at b ottom of thr ead

 BR AS S ES .
3 39

a ll
. Cast i r o n is ha r d e r t h a n o r d in a r y bea ri n g b r on z e a n d w h e n o n ce wo r n ,

t o a s m ooth su r f ace gives equally go od r esults but it is liable to f r actu r e

fr o m co n ti n ue d shocks a n d to c r ack whe n coole d su d d e n ly White m etals .

o ff e r least r esista n ce , or p r oduce least f r ictio n , but m ost of t h e m a re too

so ft to be use d alo n e Of t h e pate n t b r o n z es the r e a r e f e w which a r e s u itable

.

for heavy bea r i n gs , a n d n o n e of t h e m have s o f a r bee n show n t o be m uch

s upe r io r to goo d gu n m etal -
.

Wh ite m etal c a rrie d in a b r o n z e or cast i r o n shell is beyo n d d oubt the

‘

best bea r in g f or a ll qualities of steel j ou r n als a n d if kept well lub r ic a ted,

t h e r e is p r actically n o wear on it or the j ou r n als .

Whe n a bear in g is of a m pl e si ze, p r ope r ly d esign e d a n d co n str ucte d , well

lub r icated a n d l ooke d a fte r , i t m a y be of al m ost a n y of the whi te m etals I f, .

howeve r , t he bear i n g sur f ace I S li mi ted ther e I s a co n si d er abl e d i ff e r e n ce I n

t h e behaviou r of the d i ff e r e n t m etals ; but if badl y design ed a n d co n st r ucte d
e ve n t h e best m etal will give t r ouble , m o r eove r , i f n ot p r ope rl y looked a fte r

by the e n gi n ee r , t h e best m etal a n d the m ost car e fu l design a r e of n o avail .

Ce r ta i n of t h e white m etals have give n t h e b est r esults as a bea r i n g sur fa ce

a n d the r e I s eve r y r easo n f or thi s , i n as m uch as they d o n ot cause a bra s i ori
,

of the s h a f t a n d i f t h ei r ow n sur f ace is i n j u r e d it w ill n ot , as a r ule f o r m

, ,

i n to fin e h a r d gr it w h ich gr i n d s both the su r f aces as all the har d br o n z es d o

, , ,

m o r e or less .Whe n white m etal is use d it is highly im po r t a n t that the

sha ft shall bea r w h olly on it a n d n ot par tly on it a n d par tly on the m etal
,

c o n tai ni n g it a n d also that e fficie n t cou r ses f or the d ist r ibutio n of the lub r ica n t
,

a r e p r ovi d e d For heavy loa d s the t in co m pou n d s a r e the best

. .

The r e a r e th r ee co m m o n m etho d s of fitti n g the whi te m etal i n to a setti n g

o f othe r m etal— ( l ) B
y casti n g it i n to oblo n g r ecesse s ( 2 ) by casti n g it i n to
a la r ge n u m be r of s m all ci r c u l a r r ecesses ; a n d ( 3 ) by d r ivi n g st r ips i n to

lo n gitu d i n al grooves I n the sa m e way as the li gn u m vit ae in a ster n bush .

The last pla n is on the whole , t h e m ost satisf acto r y wit h lar ge bea r i n gs for
, ,

t h e st r i ps a r e well secur e d a n d e x te n d ove r the w h ole le n gt h of the bea r i n g

, ,

leavi n g sever al oil cou r ses lo n gitu d i n ally , a n d t h e s h a ft bea r s on the w hi te

m etal o n ly ; t his a lso possesses the a d va n tage that a d a m age d st r ip m a y be
take n ou t , a n d a n e w on e r e fit t e d wi th ease a n d without he a ti n g t h e b r ass
-

a n d r u n n i n g t h e r isk of d isto r ti n g it Cast ir o n is n ow ve r y o fte n use d as

.

a setti n g f or t h e w h ite m etal a n d a n swe r s the pur pose ve r y well i n d ee d ,

,

:bei n g m uch ha r d e r t h a n b r ass a n d the r eby a ff o rd i n g the so fte r m etal a bette r

,

s uppo r t . Whe n cast i r o n is use d t h e sh ell is ge n e r ally m a de t h ick e r tha n

wh e n of b r ass ; a n d so m eti m es advan tage is take n of this to cast t h e shell
hollow so as to a d mi t of wate r cir culati n g thr ough it
,
.

The thi ck n ess of b r asses in the c r ow n depe nd s p ri n cipally on the

d ia m ete r of j ou rn a l .

Whe n ofbr on z e 0 1 0 x dia m of j ou rn al 0 10 In . .

cast ir on 0 15 x 0 1 5 In .

When fitte d with w hi t e m e tal th ick n ess 0 20 x d ia m ete r : 0 1 5 1 11 .

Wh e n fitted with white m etal st rips as f ollows

T hi ck n ess of st r ips 0 0 4 X dia m of j ou rn al in . .

B r eadth 0 16 Q
S pace betwee n st r ips t h ick n ess of st rip .

T h ick n e ss of m etal beyo n d x d ia m of j ou r n al i f b r o n z e . .

X i r on .
3 40 . M AN UAL or M AR IN E EN GI N E ER I N G .

Col u mn s
The colu mn s which suppo r t the cyli n der s of a ve rtical e n gi n e
.
—

a r e subj ect t o a lt e rn a t e te n sile a n d co m p r essive st r esses f r o m the stea m

‘

p r e s su r e act i n g on the e n ds a n d cove r of the cyli n d e r to a stea d y co mp r essive

s t r ess fr o m the weight o f t h e cyli n d e r s etc a n d to c r oss b r eaki n g st resses ,
.
-

whe n the ship is r olli n g a n d pitc h i n g As a r ule colu m n s if desig n ed f r o m .

, ,

co n side r atio n s of m er e st r e n gth o n ly would n ot be sti ff en ough for good ,

wo rki n g The sa m e r easo n s ther e f or e which decide the usi n g of cast i r o n

.
, ,

f or f ou n datio n s st r o n gly i n fl ue n ce m ost e n gi n ee r s to choose this m etal f or

colu mn s The fr o n t colu mn s a r e o fte n m a d e however of wr ought i r o n or
. , ,

steel tu r n ed s m ooth ( vi de fig a n d all the colu m n s f or e x ceedi n gly .

,

ligh t e n gin es a re m ade of w r ought steel well b r aced togethe r to p r eve n t ,

vi br atio n ( vi de fig S i n ce cast i r o n is so supe r io r to w r ough t i r o n

.

or steel f or r esisti n g co m p r essi on a n d so i n f er io r to eithe r f or r esisti n g ,

te n sio n a goo d co m posite colu m n is f o rm ed by fitti n g a steel tie ba r or ba r s

,
-

thr ough a hollow cast i r o n colu mn the latter suppo rti n g the cyli n de r while
-

the f o r m e r h olds it d ow n The chie f obj ectio n however to both t hi s c om .

,

o s it e colu m n a n d those of w r ought steel for la r ge e n gi n es is the di fficulty of

p
getti n g good atta ch m e n t to the cyli n de r ; a n d si n ce it must be outside the
cyli n d e r the colu m n s a r e n ecessa r ily fa r apar t a n d away fr o m the ce n t r e ,

li n e of co m pou n d e n gi n es To avoid t hi s difficulty wr ought steel colu m n s .

-

a r e f o r m e d with a fl a n ge at each e n d like a sha ft coup li n g ; but eve n the n -

t h e loa d on the cyli n de r is ve r y m uch co n ce n t r ated Colu mn s whe n of .

cast i ro n or of cast steel fig 32 ) a re m ade of va r ious shapes a n d n o r ule .

,

ca n be laid do w n i n f avou r of a n y pa r ticula r f o r m .

The colu m n s should be so arra n ged as to suppo r t the cyli n de r s a n d r esist

the r eactio n on the f ou n datio n S o m e e n gi n ee r s in tho r oughly e ff ecti n g t h e .
,

latter com pletely hi d e fr o m view the wo rki n g pa r ts a n d m ake all the bear i n gs
, , ,

etc ve r y i n accessible ( r fig
.
,
They sho u ld be so placed at the cyli n d e r
. .

b ot t om s t h a t the pisto n r od a x is is with i n the li n es d r a wn thr ough the

i
-

e x t r e m e poi n ts of back a n d fr o n t colu m n s ; a n d whe n the r e a r e o n ly t w o

colu m n s to each cyli n de r the fr o n t o n es a r e better to be sp r ead ou t so m e
,

what s o as to act as struts t o r esist a n y te n de n cy to m otio n of the cyli n d e r s

,

whe n the ship is r olli n g a n d pitchi n g a n d the r eby leave the wo r ki n g pa r t s ,

m o r e ope n to view Whe n there a re gu i des on both back a n d fr on t colu mn s

.

or whe n the f r o n t colu m n s o n ly have the guides the n this is n ot p o ssible , .

B ack colu m n s a re ge n e r a llv of d i ff e r e n t f or m f r o m the fr o n t o n es to suit

the guides a n d b ea ri n gs f or the pu m p weigh sha ft of the lever s whe n s o -

fitte d .

S o m e e n gi n ee r s have utilised the back colu m n s as e x haust pipes to t h e

co n de n ser but this is n ot good p r actice i n as much as the heat of the stea m
, ,

causes the m to e x pa n d a n d whe n the guid es f or the pisto n r o d s a re on t h e m

,
-

the heat is co n ducted to the m with p r ej u dicial r esults this latter d i fficulty ,

howeve r was so m eti m es ove r co m e by plac in g the gui d es on the fr o n t colu m n s

, .

I t is also bad p r actice to e x pose a n y i m po r ta n t pa r t of the e n gi n e st r uctu r e

subj ect to heavy st r ai n to u n n ecessa r y wea r such as wasti n g of the i n n e r
, ,

s u r faces o f t h e casti n g by co r r osio n .

Gu ide pla t es — I n o rd e r to have a sou n d a n d ha r d su r face f or the pisto n ~

-
.

r od s lides or shoes to wo r k on the guide p lates shoul d be sepa r ate fr o m but ,

-

secu r e d to the colu mn s ; whe n so fitted t h ey also a d mit of a d j ust m e n t a n d ,

may be cast hollow s o as to pe r mit of a flow of cooli n g wate r th r ough the m

,
 FR AM IN G . 34 1

( 0 . fig . This is especially n eedful f or lar ge quick r u n n i n g e n gi n es whe r e -

,

t h e spee d of pisto n is ve r y high a n d a n y casual wa n t of lub r icatio n wo u ld

,

soo n cause m ost se r ious d a m age Cast i r o n whe n o n ce wo r n s m ooth pr o

: .

vi d es a sple n d id surface f or a slide but if by a n y m ischa n ce this sur face

,

s u ff e r s a little ab r asion it is m ost d i fficult to get in goo d wo rki n g o r d e r

,

a gai n a n d ca n n ot be r elied on t o w o r k well u n til r epla n ed or gr ou n d

'

s m ooth .

The f ace of the guide plates shoul d h ave good oil cour se s cut on it so ,

t hat the lub r ica n t is well d istr ibuted a n d they shoul d be cut d eep e n ough
,

?t o r etai n it a n d also p r eve n t the m bei n g choked with the soapy d eposit fr o m
so m e ki n ds of oil . The pisto n rod sli d e should always be p r ovi d e d with
-

a co m b which will ca rr y the lub r ica n t fro m t h e d r ip bo x es a n d sp r ea d it

,
-
,

ove r the face of the gu i d e at eve r y str oke ; _the plate m a y with adva n tage
h ave r ecesses in the up pe r par t to catch the oil s o sp r ead whe r e it is ,

r etai n e d a n d sto r ed to t r ickle d ow n at leisu r e .

Framin g . e n gi n es r equi r ed a di ffer e n t a rr a n ge me n t of be d

late a n d fr a m i n g f r o m that of the ve r tical type T r u n k a n d r etu rn c on
p .

n ec t i n g r od e n gi n es had n o s ole plate p r ope r as the cyli n de r s we r e co n n ected

- -
,

t o the co n de n se r casti n g ( fig 3 1 ) by A fr a m es w hi ch co n tai n the m ai n bea r i n gs ;

.
,

t h e t r u n k e n gi n e r equi r ed n o gui d es a n d those f or the c r ossh eads of the

,

r etu rn co n n ecti n g r od e n gi n e we r e on each side of the co n d e n se r

-
These .

fr a m es had t o be su fficie n tly st r o n g to take the whol e load fr o m the pisto n s ,

a n d sti ff e n ough t o be r igid u n de r the m other wise the c r a n k sha ft was -

liable to distor tio n The usual f o r m app r o x i m ated t o the lette r A the two
.
,

f eet bei n g co n n ected t o the cyli n de r fr o n t on e at t bp a n d on e at botto m , .

i n li n e with the b r ackets on w hi ch the c y li n de r sat a n d by which it ,

w a s s ec u r e d to the seati n gs in the ship Pr oj ecti n g f eet we r e cast on the

.

cyli n de r fro n t t o m eet those of the fr a m es s o that the co n n ectio n was ,

m ade with d r ive n bolts .

U sually the r e we r e o n ly thr ee fr a m es to a t w o cyli n de r e n gi n e a n d f ou r ,

f r a m es to a t h r ee cyli n d e r e n gi n e the mi ddle o n es bei n g ve r y m uch st r o n ger

-
, tD

tha n the other t w o as they wer e r equir ed to take pa r t of the st r ai n of both

,

e n g1 n es .

Ho r i z o n tal d i r ec t acti n g e n gi n es have a sole plate which co n n ects the

- -

c y li n de r s to the co n den s er c asti n g a n d co n tai n s the gui d es for the pisto n

,

r ods a n d the b r ackets f or the m ai n bea r i n gs

,
these latte r a r e usually staye d
-

t o the cyli n d e r tops by tie b ar s th r ough cast ir o n str uts or by steel tie r o d s
- - -

o n ly .

The fr ami n g f or the older diago n al paddle wheel e n gi n es wa s m a d e so m e -

w hat on the s a m e p r i n ciple as that f or the ho r i z o n tal scr ew e n gi n e wit h -

,

m o d i ficatio n s fig 1 9) t o suit the alte r ed co n ditio n s The m ai n pa r t of these

. .

fr a m es must ex te n d fr o m the cyli n d e r t o sha ft a n d dow n agai n so as t o f o r m ,

a suppo r t for the latter a n d havi n g guides f or the pisto n r od c r ossheads

,
-
.

I n ter m ediate suppo r ts or colu mn s co n n ect t hi s mai n fr a m e t o the f ou n d atio n .

I t is n ow usual to m ake these fr am es of steel ba r s ( vi de fig a n d f or so m e .

ver y light dr aught stea m er s of la r ge p owe r fr a m es m ade of steel section s

a n d plates have bee n f ou n d co n si d e r ably lighte r tha n the o r di n a r y f r a m es ,

a n d ca n be desig n ed to a d d m ater ially t o the sti ffn ess a n d st r e n gth of the

ship in the n eighbou rhood of the ma chi n e r y ( r fig A mo d ified f orm of . .

this ki n d of fr a m e i s i mpe r ative whe n e x ceedi n gly light d r aught i s a n ecessity

, ,
 EN T A B LA T U R E O F OS C ILLA T I N G AN D S TE E P L E E N GI N ES . 34 3

If the colu m n s h appe n to co m e in li n e or n ea r ly so with t h e ce n t r e of t h e

, ,

sha ft j ou r n al
, they m a y be 1 0
p e r ce n t less i n dia m ete r tha n give n above
. .

'
The b r ea d th of the r ocke r s should be n ot less t ha n the d ia m ete r of t h e sha ft
j ou rn als a n d t h e depth at the ce n t r e shoul d be calculate d as for a box gi rd e r
,
-

subj ect to sudde n loa d s applie d at the m id d le of its le n gt h w hi ch is m easur ed ,

fro m colu m n to colu m n .

R oughly speaki n g the de pth of the r ocke r u n de r the bea ri n g b r ass should
,

n ot be less tha n f ou r ti m es the dia m ete r of the pisto n r od f or e n gi n es of

-

o r di n ar y di m e n sio n s .

The th ick n ess of m etal of sides of r ocke r s

04 d dia m eter of pisto n -
r od .

Thick n ess of t op an d botto m 0 6 J dia m e t e r of pisto n -

r od .

The botto m b r asses of the m ai n bea ri n gs shoul d be r ou n d s o that t h e ,

r ecesses f or the m m a y te n d to st r e n gthe n the r ocke r s r athe r tha n weake n

the m as would be the case if squa r e botto m ed

,
-
.
3 44 MA N UAL A I
or M R N E E N GI N E ER I N G .

CH AP T ER XI V .

T HE CON D E N S E R .

T H E fu ctio n of the con de n ser is to cool the stea m on leavi n g the e n gi n e s o

n ,

as t o r ed uce its pr essur e t o a mi n i m u m ; in d oi n g this the stea m is co n ve r ted

back i n t o wate r i n e ve r y ea r ly e n gi n es could o n ly wo r k by the a id of
' ‘

co n d e n satio n as t h e stea m with whi ch they wer e supplied was ge n er ally

,

of a li ttle l owe r p r es u r e tha n the at m osphe r e

s it is in f act owi n g to this , ,

that the stea m e n gi n e owes its bi r th for stea m was p r ef e rr e d by the ea r ly

-
,

m echa ni cia n s because it was so r eadily cha n ge d f r o m vapou r to liquid a n d ,

so p r o d uce d that vacuu m which N atur e was suppose d to abho r a n d t o fill ,

which she woul d per f o rm the wo r k of ho r ses The p r oper r elatio n of the .

co n de n se r to the e n gi n e i s better u n der stoo d by f ollowi n g the ear ly histor y

of the stea m e n gi n e f r o m the day whe n the cooli n g wate r was a d mi tte d t o
-

the cyli n d er co n tai ni n g stea m a n d the n allowed to ru n fr eely away fr o m the

,

botto m on the desce n t of the pisto n to the ti m e whe n Watt havi n g per , ,

c eiv e d the waste of e n er gy i n always f o r ci n g the pisto n up agai n s t the at m o

spher ic p r essur e a n d in ad mitti n g the h ot stea m i n to the cold cyli n der m ad e

, ,

the e n gi n e double acti n g a n d e ff ecte d the co n den sation in a separ ate cha mbe r
,
.

The j et or sp r ay of water co n tin ue d lo n g a fter Watt s ti m e as the m ean s of ’

coolin g the stea m a n d gave in later d ays the disti n gu i shi n g n a m e t o the
,

co n de n se r whi ch is n ow n ea r ly e n ti r ely supe r seded by a m or e per f ect

,

appa r atus .

Th e Common or Jet Con den ser n ow r eally u n c ommon on shi pboa r d c on

'

, ,

sists esse n tially of a n a ir tight cham ber i n to which the stea m flows fr o m the
-
,

cyli n d e r a f ter havi n g bee n e x hausted of its available e n er gy ; at its e n tr y

the stea m is i n ter cepte d by a sp r ay of water caused by the i n r ush fr o m t h e ,

sea thr ough s m all holes or n ar r ow slits I n a pipe place d acr oss the stea m
way I f the spr ay is fin e like a shower of r a m i t mi x es m echa ni cally wi th
.
, ,

the stea m as well as cools it by sur f ace co n tact ; shoul d the p i pe have sli ts
, ,

so as to cause the water to fl ow in thi n b r oad str ea m s like r ibbo n s the cooli n g ,

is e ff ecte d p r i n cipally by sur face co n tact The r esult in either case is the .

tur n i n g of t h e stea m i n to water which f alls t o the botto m a n d is pu m ped away

, ,

by the a i r pu m p I t m igh t be supposed t h at the m er e t u r ni n g of the stea m

-
.

i n to wate r ther eby c a u s m g it to occu py fa r less space will p r oduce the

, ,

vacuu m in the co n de n ser ; in p r acti ce i t d oes but to s o slight a ri e x te n t ,

a n d of such a n eva n esce n t n atu r e that u n less so m e other m ea n s wer e a t

,

ha n d this co n de n se r woul d be n e a r ly useless

,
Wate r r ea dily abso r bs a ir .

whe n fr eely e x pose d to the at m ospher e a n d gives it up agai n on bei n g heate d , ,

or r elieved of at m ospher ic p r essu r e Fr esh f eed wate r co n tai n s a ir whi ch

.
-

beco m es m echa ni cally mi x e d with the stea m in the boiler a n d passes with it ,

th rou gh its va r ious passages u n til it e n te r s the co n de n ser when it par ts c om

, ,

pan y with it a n d r emai n s as cooled ra rifie d a ir a fte r the ste a m is co n ver te d

,
 AM O UN T or I N J E CT I ON W A TE R . 345

to water The cooli n g wate r also co n tai n s a ir a n d r ea dily gives m ost of it

.
,

up on beco mi n g heated by the e x haust ste a m especially u n d e r the d i mi n ished ,

p r essu r e of the co n d e n se r After a f e w st r okes of the e n gi n e a sufficien t

.

a m ou n t of a ir will be accu m ulate d to r aise the p r essu r e t o t h at of the at m o

sphe r e a n d a lthough the co n de n se r ma y be kept quite cool the r e will be

,

n o vacuu m but t h e r ever se The pu m p ther e f or e which e x h austs the

,
.
, ,

c o n de n se r d r aws away the a ir as well as the wate r but si n ce the latter could ,

ru n away by gr avity it is o n ly the f o r m e r whi ch is of n e cessity pu m pe d ;

,

hen ce this pu m p is r ightly n a m ed the a ir pu mp -

.

The s ha pe of a j et co n den ser is i m m ater ial so lo n g as the i n let for the

s tea m is high e n ough t o p r eve n t the wate r r u n n i n g back i n to the cyli n de r ,

a n d the botto m so shaped that the wate r will all d r ai n i n to the a ir pu m p -

botto m I t was ge n e r ally f o r m ed to s u i t the shi p a n d the wo r ki n g p ar ts of

.

the e n gi n e a n d was o fte n a par t of t he e n gi n e fr a mi n g ; the back colu m n s

,

o f ve r tical e n gi n es we r e o fte n utilised for the p u r pose a n d d id ex t r e m ely ,

well e x cept that occasio n ally r apid co rr osio n s o weake n ed the m as t o beco m e
,

d a n ge r ous The fr am es of the ho ri z o ntal e n gi n es we r e a rr an ged by so m e

.

e n gi n ee r s t o do duty f or co n de n se r un til the Ad m i r alty fin ally f o r bade the ,

p r actice .

The ca pa ci ty of the j et co n d e n ser should n ot be less tha n on e f our th that -

o f the cyli n de r or cyli n de r s e xh austi n g i n to it a n d n eed n ot be m o r e tha n ,

o n e hal f of it u nl ess the e n gi n e is a ve r y quick r u n n i n g on e ; on e thi r d the

- .

,
-

c apacity is ge n e r ally howeve r su fficie n t Th e obj ectio n t o a la r ge co n de n se r

, , .
,

beyo n d its cost a n d weight is that a lo n ger ti m e is n ecessa ry to f o r m a ,

good vacuu m in it ; a n d the obj ectio n t o a s m all co n den se r is its liabili t y

t o floodi n g a n d over flowi n g t o the cyli n de r s u n less the e n gi n ee r is most ,

a tte n tive .

Th e amou n t of inj ecti on wa t er d epe n ds on t h e weight of stea m t o be c on

d en se d a nd i t s t emper a tu re the ex a ct qua n tity of wate r per pou n d of ste a m
d epen ds on the te m pe r atu r es of the stea m of the c oolI n g wate r a n d of the , , ,

”
h ot well
-
or r eceptacle i n to which the a ir pu m p d elive r s the p roducts of
,
-

t h e co n de n se r As the supply of water t o the boile r s ( called the feed wa t er )

.
-

is take n fr o m the hot well a n d it is a n obvious adva n tage f or it to be as

-
,

war m as p ossible the cooli n g wate r used is o nl y such as su fficie n t to p roduce

,

a good vacuu m With the j et co n de n ser a vacuu m of 2 4 i n ches w as c on

.

s ide re d f ai r ly good a n d 2 5 i n ches as m uch as was possible with m ost c on

,
e

d en se r s the te m pe r atur e cor r espo n d i n g to 2 4 i n ches vacuu m or 3 lbs p r essu r e ,

.

a bsolute is ,
I n actual p r actice the te m pe r atu r e in the h ot well va r ied -

fr o m 1 1 0 to
°
a n d occas io n ally as m uch as 1 3 0 Wa s m ai n tai n ed by a °

c a r e ful e n gi n ee r T o fin d the qua n tity of i n j ectio n wate r per lb of stea m

. .

t o b e co n de n s ed
L e t TI be t h e te m pe r atu r e of the steam whose late n t heat is L ; TO the
t e m pe r atu r e of the cooli n g wate r whose qua n tity in lbs is Q T2 the t e m, .

er a t u r e a fte r co n d e n satio n or that of the h ot well

p
-
.
,

The t ota l hea t of the stea m T1 L .

The heat abso rbed by the c oolin g _ w a t e r will b e ( TI L) T2 .

B u t the heat absor bed by the cooli n g wate r is also r ep r ese n ted by
Q ( T2 Tal H e n ce '

Q
 S U R FA CE -
CON D E N S ER . 34 7

r eadily Ope n ed or shut a n d r egulated the a m ou n t of wate r The ha n dle

, .

or l eve r f or wo r ki n g the i n j ectio n valve m ust be ve r y n ea r the sta r ti n g gea r ,

so that the wate r m a y be shut off as soo n as the e n gi n e stops .

S n i f fin g V a l ve —
I t is usual to fit at t h e botto m of a j et co n de n se r a
. _ , ,

n on r etu rn valve th r ou gh which the wate r

-
,
etc m a y r u n or be blow n ou t ,
.
,

by stea m it shuts by its own weight a n d is held on its seat by the p r essu r e ,

of the at m osphe r e This is called the s h i ft in g valve a n d it allowe d of the

.
,

co n d e n se r bei n g e m ptied of wate r a n d a ir by stea m be f o r e sta r ti n g the e n gi n e

it likewise p r eve n ts the p r essu r e in the co n d e n se r e x ceedi n g that of the
at m osphe r e t o such a n e x te n t as t o be dan ger ous in case of m ishap with the
i n j ectio n water or steam a n d on that accou n t is a use ful a n d n ecessa ry
,

adj u n ct to the co n de n se r s of tur bi n e e n gi n es as the r e is n o hi n dr a n ce t o ,

the f ull a n d di rect flow of stea m i n to it should the r oto r stick The valve .

thr ough which the stea m i s ad mitted is called the blow t hr ou qh va lve a n d -

was a si m ple m ushr oo m valve r aise d by m ea n s of a lever a n d close d by the , ,

stea m p r essur e on the lever bei n g r eleased .

The s n i fti n g valve was usual ly ex posed without a casi n g s o as t o be ,

easily i n specte d or r e m oved in case of bei n g gagged with di rt etc t o p r eve n t , .

the water fr o m bei n g spu rted about the e n gi n e r oo m the valv e was f or med -

with a cu r ved r im w hi ch co mpletely cover ed a n d over hu n g the seat like a n

,

i n ve r te d saucer .

The i n ter n al i n j ectio n pI pe or rose s hould be placed below t h e flow of

stea m s o that the cooli n g water ma y pass in a showe r t wice thr ough the
,
.

stea m .

Su rface Con denser — I t has bee n see n that with j et co n de n satio n the c on
- .

te n ts of the h ot well co n sist of a m i x tu r e of co n de n si n g a n d co n de n sed wate r

-

in the p r oportio n of about 30 to 1 s o that the water available f or f eedi n g the ,

boile r was n ear ly as salt as sea wate r I f the cooli n g wate r is kept sepa r ate .

fr o m the co n de n sed stea m the latte r w hi ch is pu r e wate r m a y b e used as

, , ,

feed w ate r
-
The idea was by n o m ea n s n e w si n ce s o f a r back as 1 794 Car t
.
,

w right took ou t a pate n t for a n e n gi n e in which the stea m was co n de n sed ,

on the col d su r f aces of two m etal cyli n de r s placed on e withi n the othe r a n d ,

havi n g cold wate r thr ough the i n n e r on e a n d about t h e outer An e n gi n e .

was m ade on this pate n t a n d is said t o have give n great satis factio n , .

B ru n el in 1 822 took ou t a pate n t f or the sa m e obj ect ; his i n ve n tio n was

, ,

design e d m o r e especially for ships a n d co n sisted of gr oups of s m all tub e s ,

.

I n 1 8 3 3 L He r b er t a n d J D on pate n te d a n a rr a n ge m e n t whe r eby

, . . the
a ir a n d stea m fr o m the eductio n passage is d r aw n by a f a n th r ough or a m o n g
”
s m all tubes s o as to be co n de n se d The tub es m a y be below the water
, . .

I n 1 8 3 5 W S ym i n gt o n pate n te d a pla n
,
. for co n de n si n g the stea m fr o m the
cyli n der a n d cooli n g the su r plus wate r fr o m the a ir pu mp by tubes laid
,
-
,
”
alo n g the keel ex posed t o water outside a stea m vessel I n 1 8 38 I B .
, . . .

Hu m phr eys took out a pate n t f or surface co n de n satio n by leadi n g the -

”
stea m thr ough tubes in a vessel kept cold by a flow of water The p r actical .

success however of this m ode of co n de n satio n is chi efly due to Mr S a muel

, ,
.

Hall with whose n a m e the surface co n den ser is ge n e r ally a n d p r operl y

,
-

associ a ted He took ou t a pate n t in 1 8 3 1 f or a syste m of su rf ace co n d e n sa

.
-

tio n a n d in his speci ficatio n clai m s a m o n g other thi n gs to co n de n se t h e

, , ,

waste stea m fr o m the sa fety valves a n d t o distil f resh water t o m ake up -

, ,

loss by a n appa r atus in p r i n ciple si m ila r t o the distille r s of to d ay

, , On e .
3 48 M N A UAL or M R N E EN A I GI N EE R I N G .

‘ ’
of the fir st ships fitted w t h Hall s c o n de n se r a n d appu rte n a n ces was the
”
S i riu s whic h made the fir st voyage u n de r stea m f r o m En gla n d to Ame r ica
,

in 1 8 38 I n 1 83 7 e n gi n es m ade for the

. Wilbe r fo rce we r e fitted with
,
”
,

Hall s co n de n ser a n d it is i n te r esti n g to n ote that these e n gi n es had pisto n

’

valves etc p r etty m uch as n ow used I gn o r an ce a n d p r ej udice d r ove

,
.
,
.

Hall s i n ve n tio n off the m ar ket f or m a n y year s s o that it was n ot till 1 8 6 0

’

that the su rface co n de n ser came i n to ge n e r al use a n d the n o nly slowly ;

-
,

i n deed it was n ot u n til mi n e r al oil was used e x clusively f or i n te rn al lub ricatio n

,

that obj ectio n s t o su r face co n de n satio n ceased I n Hall s co n de n ser s the .

’

stea m p assed th r ough t h e tubes a n d the ci rculati n g wate r outside the m ;

had the cooli n g wate r go n e th r ough the tubes it i s hi ghl y p r obable they would
n ot have choked with mu d a n d sa n d a n d bee n co n demn e d as they we r e ,

in the case of the Wilber f o r ce in 1 8 4 1 .

Conden ser T u bes — I t is esse n tial that t h e m ater ial on the su r f ace of
.

which stea m i s to b e co n de n sed should be m etallic thi n a n d a goo d , ,

co n ducto r of heat str o n g e n ough to r esist the p r essu r e of the wate r on

,

it a m ou n ti n g to at least 1 5 lbs pe r squa r e i n ch a n d capable of W i t h st a n d i r g

.
,

s ridd en cha n ges of te m pe r atu r e without fr actu r e a n d the co rr osive actio n of

,

salt wate r a n d distilled water .

The ci r c u lar sectio n bei n g best suited t o r esist both i n ter n al a n d e x te r n al

p r essur es tub es we r e n atu r ally c h os e r as the m ean s of separ ati n g the stea m
,

fr o m the wate r a n d s m all tubes ad mit of a ve r y la r ge a m ou n t of su r f ace I n

,

a s m all space .

Coppe r bei n g highly ductile a n d on e of the best co n ducto r s of heat was

, ,

at fir st ch osen as the m ater ial fr o m which to m ake the tubes B u t it was .

soo n f ou n d t h at the acids der ive d fr o m the f atty m atte r fr o m the cyli n d er s
dissolve d so m e of the copper a n d p r o d uced soluble salts of that m etal which
, ,

we r e pu m ped i n to t h e boile r with the f ee d water a n d the r e cause d gr eat -

,

i n j u r y to the i r o n sur f aces This f or a ti m e gave the s u rfa ce c on de n se r

.
, ,

a n ill r epute as it was f ou n d that the value of f uel saved by the m was e x
,

c ee d e d by that r ep r ese n ti n g w ea r a n d tea r of the boile r s This was eve n tually .

obviated by havi n g the copper tubes coate d with t in a n d by disco n ti n ui n g ,

the u se of tall ow in the cyli n der s

. B u t n otwithsta n di n g this the boile r s .
, ,

in H M N avy co n ti n ued to show sign s of p r e m atu r e decay such as was

. .
,

n ot custo m a r y with those r ecei i n g wate r f r o m a j e t co n de n se r I t was

v
-
.

attr ibute d to the highly co rr osive powe r of r edistilled wate r on the ba r e

surface of the ir o n together with t h e im possibility of keepi n g a p r otective
,

scale on t h e sur faces when such water was used ; later r esear ch has show n also
that so m e gases w h ich e n ter ed t h e boiler with the or igi n al wate r chemi ca lly
combi n ed with bases w h ich kept th e m co m pa r atively i n n ocuous we r e fr ee d
, , ,

a n d ca m e back m echa n i ca lly m i x ed or in solutio n with t h e f ee d wate r fr o m -

the hot well capable of high ly d estr uctive actio n on i ro n sur faces car bo n ic
-

, ,

aci d bei n g a co mm o n a n d ve r y corr osive on e .

Copper tubes we r e of cour se e x pe n sive a n d the ti n n i n g adde d to thei r

, , ,

cost v cry co n side r ably thereby r e n d e rin g the first cost of a sur face c on
,
-

de n ser a n appr eciable additio n to that of the e n gi n e I n 1 860 b r ass tubes .

h a d lo n g bee n use d for boile r s a n d as this m ate rial was ve r y duct ile a n d , ,

its galva n ic actio n on i ro n feeble it was trie d as a substitute for copper in ,

the m a n u factur e of co n de n se r tubes with at fir st m ix ed success the wa n t ,

“

of co m plete success bei n g pa rtly due to wa n t of ca r e in m a n u f actur e a n d ,

 CO N D E N S E R T UB ES . 34 9

partly t o p r ej udice The par ti a l has si n ce beco m e a co m plete success a n d all

.

t on de n se r tubes a re n ow m a d e of b r ass but som ewhat r ic h e r in coppe r

-
, .

The Ad mir alty a n d co n seque n tly all f o r eign govern m en ts r equi r ed b r as s

, ,

tubes t o be ti n n ed whe n the co n de n ser was of i r o n a n d so me of the la r ge ,

stea m ship co m pa ni es also adopted thi s p r actice but as a r ule n ow the tube s , , ,

a r e u n ti n n e d The ti n ni n g adds l i d per poun d e x tr a t o t h e cost of t h e

. .

tubes a n d a m ou n ts to a n i n cr ease of 1 6 per ce n t

,
it is n ot n ecessar y but ’

.
,

is a n additio n al saf eguar d agai n st the f o r m atio n of copper salts on the on e

side a n d t o the corr osive actio n of sea wate r on the other B r ass tubes
,
-
.
,

u n ti n n e d a fter twelve year s co n sta n t use have bee n f oun d on b ei n g clean ed

,
’

, , ,

t o be n ea r ly as good as whe n n e w ; on the othe r han d b r ass tubes hav e ,

pitted ba dly a n d in plac es bee n perfo r ated in a fe w m o n t h s fr o m cause s

,
.

p r actically u n k n own *
I t was co n j ectur ed that g a lva ni c action had set up
.

fr o m ir on fi l in gs carr ied on to the tube sur face by the stea m or cir cu l ati n g
,

water causin g a separ atio n of the copper a n d zin c a n d the di ssolvin g away
,

of the latter The in vestigatio n s Pr o f B en gough m a d e for the I n stitut e

. .

of Metals has thr own m uch ligh t on the m atte r a n d wi ll eve n tually clea r
‘

up what was som ewhat of a m yster y As the co n d en ser s of war shi ps a re .

n ow always m a d e of b r ass or steel the tubes a r e un tin n ed but the Admir alty , ,

r equir e the addi tio n of 1 pe r ce n t of t in to the mix tur e of c opper a n d z in c .

,

as thi s co mposition does n ot usually pit or corr ode so r eadily a s the ordin ary
b rass mix tur es have so o ften do n e .

Th e loss fr om blowi n g off the b oile r s t o p r eve n t d a n ge r ous i n cr us t tio n a

whe n fe d fr o m the h ot well of a j et co n de n ser a m ou n ted t o a s m uch as- -

2 5 per ce n t a n d was seldo m less in ge n e r al p r actice tha n 1 2 pe r ce n t

.
,
Thi s .

loss is al m ost wholly avoide d by the use of a surfa ce co n den se r a n d a n addi -

t ion a l savi n g of n o m ea n i m po r ta n ce is e ff ected by cessation of n ecessit y

to scale a n d clea n ou t the boile r s as was the case whe n j et con de n se r s we re -

used T he n et s a vin g of fu el by the use of a sur fac e co n den se r ave r ages 1 5 per
.
-

ce n t a n d in the ha n ds of a care fu l e n gi n eer the eco n o m y has bee n f ou n d

.
,

to e x ten d t o eve n 20 per ce n t .

Whe n sea water is r aise d t o a te m per at ur e of 2 8 0 F which corr espon d s

-
°
.
,

t o a p r essu r e of 5 0 lbs absolute or 3 5 lbs above the at m osphe r e what a r e

.
,
.
,

called its ins olu ble sa lts a r e wholly p r ecipitate d a n d these f o r m a ha r d scal e ,
.

on the h ot sur f aces The p r i n cipal i n soluble s a lt in sea water ( v Chapte r x x x )

.
-
. .

is s u l phate of li me ; it is called i n soluble becaus e it does n ot diss olve in ,

water u n der o r di n ar y cir cu m sta n ces a n d co n seque n tly whe n deposited on ,

~
the su rf ace of the tubes etc will n ot easily r e d issolve a n d wash off agai n ,
.
, .

The car bo n ate of li m e a n d the salts of so d a a n d m agnesia a r e co m pa r ativel y

, ,

ha r ml ess f or although the f o rm e r is p r ecipitated it is onl y in a so f t mudd y

, ,

state a n d mi x e d wi th the b r i n e p r oducts of the latter c a n be blow n off a n d

, ,

easily r e m ove d fr o m the boiler whe n in por t I t is f or thi s r easo n that a .

su r face co n de n se r is a n i m pe r ative n ecessity f or e n gi n es u sin g stea m above

-

3 5 lbs p r essur e or 5 0 lbs absolute

.
,
. .

For the sa m e r easo n it is advisable t o fit a s ur face co n de n s er to stea m e r s -

r u n n i n g i n m u d dy f r es h wate r as othe r wi se the boile r soo n fills with d eposit , ,

whi ch u nl ess r e m oved a n d the boile r thor oughl y clean ed will cause se rious
, ,
.

d a m age a n d be a sour ce of da n ge r a n d e x pe n se as well as a co n sta n t cause

, ,

oi p r i m in g .

I t is seen the n that by the use of a sur face co n de n se r s t ea m of hi gh er

, ,
-

V id R po t s of t h e Corro io Commit t
‘
eof t h In t of M t ls
e r s n ee e s . e a .
 CO N D EN S E R I I
E FF C E N C Y . 35 1

p r essur e i n the co n d e n ser t h e r e will be n o n e in the cyli n der whatever its

,
,

ports a n d passages be That ther e i s so m e d ec rease is cer tai n a n d such

.
,

decr ease will e n able a gr eater powe r to be d eveloped ; a n d that the d ec r ease
m a y be co n side r able m a y be see n on e x a m i n i n g the diagr a m sho wn in
fig 1 1 86
. . E ach pou n d of back p r essu r e m ea n s 2 5 t o 3 per ce n t d i ff e r e n ce .

in the powe r developed by a t r iple or quad r uple co m pou n d e n gi n e a n d -

s uch a n i n c r e m e n t as this is qu ite p ossible in a p r ope r ly desig n ed e n gi n e by

Fig 1 1 5
. . We ir - U niflu x Con d en s er f or a Tu r bin e of S H P
. . .

me r ely i n c r easi n g the vacuu m fr o m 2 6 to 2 9 i n ches . Mo r eove r if m a r i n e

,

recip r ocati n g e n gi n es a re design e d with a m ultip licity of cyli n de r s that

e ach m a y b e kept of s m all si z e as they a re on the li n es of the oil e n gi n e s o ,

th at i n stead of on e or at m ost t w o L P cyli n d er s per e n gin e the r e a re

, ,
. .

t r ee or f ou r the n the po r t a n d passage r atios m a y b e s o m uch la r ge r th at

h ,

hi g h vacuu m woul d be of advan tage t o such e n gi n e s .

35 2 MA N UAL OF M AR IN E EN GI N EER I N G .

Th e mption is a n other m atte r a n d has to be

eff ect on econ omy of cons u ,

co n sider ed f r o m quite a d i ff er e n t s t a n dpoi n t Mo r e e n er gy w i ll be r equi r ed .

by the a ir pu mps to m ai n tai n such highe r vacuu m ; a n d as the te m pe ratur e

-

due t o 29 i n ches is agai n st the of 2 6 i n ches the f eed wate r m ust .

leave the co n d e n se r so much coole r ; but whethe r the r eheati n g will b e

m o r e costly tha n t h e gai n is r athe r a m atte r of e x pe r ie n ce a n d t r ial tha n of
calc u l atio n ; f or so gr eat a d i ff e r e n ce p r obably it is so ; but as 2 8 i n ches
c a n be m uch m o r e c h eaply obtai n e d tha n 2 9 i n ches a n d the te m pe r atu r e ,

d i ff e r e n ce is the n o n ly 2 5 agai n st as above the loss if r eally a n ythi n g

°
, , ,

ca n n ot be gr eat in these days of f eed heate r s .

Mr Wei r attaches n o i m po r ta n c e to the questi on of wate r deposit on the

.

tubes in a surf ace co n de n se r a n d thi n ks the r e is n oth i n g to be gai n ed while

-

, ,

the r e is so m ethi n g lost by fitti n g collecti n g a n d t rai n i n g plates a m o n g the

, , ,

tubes whe reby , is co n d ucte d away as soo n f o r m ed without f u rthe r

Moris on S y ste m
’
Fig 1 1 6. .
— Cy lin d rica l Con d e n s er on s

co n tact ; whe reas Mr Mo riso n advocates a n d fit s the m t o all hi s co n de n se rs

. ,

a n d clai m s to get the r eby a disti n ct be n e fit The f o r m e r autho rity is h ow .

,

eve r a n e qually st r o n g advocate f or havi n g wa r m hot well water a n d h e

,
-
,

shoul d ther e f o r e n ot obj ect to a n y r easo n able n atur al m ea n s of attai ni n g

, ,

that ve r y desir able e n d With that e n d i n view the e x posu r e of the wate r
.
,

whe n o n ce f o rme d to a f ur the r cooli n g actio n ca n n ot be help f ul ; on the

co n tr a r y the al r eady co n de n sed wate r m ust lose so m e of its ow n heat a n d
, ,

a dd t o that of the cooli n g wate r the r eby r educi n g its e fficie n cy

o
,
Fu r the r .
,

by m ea n s of such plates as Mr Mo riso n a n d othe r s fit the stea m a n d a ir a r e

.
,

dispe r sed ove r the whole of the cooli n g su r face without scatte r i n g the wate r
’
whe n co n d e n se d B u t on ex am i n i n g the desig n of these ge n tle me n s c on
.
,

d en sers on e is st r uck by the n ecessity f or such a r r a n ge m e n ts i n the on e a n d

,

its abse n ce of it in the othe r Mr Wei r s co n de n se r is of t ria n gula r c r oss

. .
’
 S U R FA CE CO N D EN S E R .
35 3

sectio n or hear t shaped as a n app r o x i m atio n t o it ( fig

-
, S te a m e n te r s .

at the butt e n d th rough such a n e n o rm ous o ri fice as to e n able it to sp r ea d

at o n ce ove r the whole br eadth a n d len gth ( whic h is g en e r ally li m ite d ) of
the top of the co n de n se r a n d gravitate to the co n t r acted botto m as it cools
,

a n d s h r i n ks i n volu m e I n this case t h e wate r as it f o rm s c a n a n d d oes

.
, , , ,

d r op on to t h e i n cli n e d sides on which it cour ses to the botto m which is, ,

n ot ve r y fa r dista n t He re the r e is little cha n ce of a n y of the wate r d rippi n g

.

on t o t h e colde r lowe r r ows of tubes fr o m the m aj o r ity of t h e uppe r o n es .

B u t the shape of the co n de n ser is n ot eco n o m ical of space or suitable t o

r esist u n aided e x ter n al p r essur e On the othe r ha n d the cyli n d rical .
,

co n de n se r of Mr Mo riso n ( fig 1 1 6 ) o n ly r e qu i r es i n e x pe n sive gui d e plates a s

. .
,

does als o t h at of Mr Mor c om w h ich shall cause a pe r fect ci rculatio n of t h e

.
,

stea m a m o n g the tubes a n d the leadi n g away of the wate r whe n f o r m e d

is acco m plished by the sa m e m e a n s su r ely with so m e advan tage I n the .

case of the co mpact r ectan gula r sectio n co n de n ser fo r m i n g pa rt Of the e n gi n e ,

an d ec on o m i c of r oo m a n d cost as in co m m o n m e r ca n tile p r actice the Con, ,

t r a flo syste m ( fig with the si mi lar dr ai n age sche m e is also adva n ta geous

.
,

— in
othe r wo rd s ci r cu m sta n ces alte r cases Fig 1 1 7a is a diagr a mm atic
, . .

fo r m of a Con t r a flo a n d shows how the actual on e as in Fig 1 1 7 i s

, , .
,

vi r tually the sa m e as the wedge shaped or tr ia n gula r sectio n on e -

.

For e fficie n cy a co m ple te a n d r apid ci r culatio n of the stea m ove r t h e

,

w h ole of the cooli n g su r face is esse n tial as i s also the co n cen t rati n g of the ,

a i r a n d wate r i n to a n a tu r al flow towa r ds the p assage to the a ir pu m p the -

si m ples t m ean s of e ff ecti n g these t w o t hi n gs a re p r obably the best .

Eq u ally i m por ta n t is t h e questio n of co oli n g wate r distr ibutio n Its -

.

qua n ti t y de pe n ds on the di ff e r e n ce in te m pe r atu r e betwee n it as it e n te r s

a n d that of the co n de n se r whe r e it leaves it the weight of stea m to be c on ,

d e n se d a n d the r apidity of flow

,
I n p r actice co n de n ser tubes a r e usually .

i n ch in e x te r n al di a m ete r i n the m e r ca n tile m a r i n e

g a n d 3 i n ch on n aval ,

ships N ow a tube i n ch dia m eter 1 8 gau ge thick a n d 1 0 f eet lo n g has

.
, , , ,

a su r face of squar e f eet a n d i n a s m uch as 30 lbs of stea m per squar e

, .

f oot pe r hou r m a y be co n de n sed on it whe n clea n it will be n ecessa ry for a ,

vacuu m of 2 8 i n ches that about lbs of cooli n g wate r should pass thr ough .

it per h ou r in wi n ter ti m e in the te m per ate z o n e a n d 3 6 00 l in the t r opics , , .

the flow the n will be at the r ate of 4 00 f eet per m i n ute i n the latter case ,

which is so m ewhat ex cessive a n d would r equ i r e co n side r able powe r to obtai n

, ,

as the f rictio n hea d would be about 3 5 f eet per tube le n gth On the othe r .

ha n d i n the te m p er ate z o n e in win te r t h e flow would be t oo m o d e r ate

,
.

This m ea n s that if a good vacuu m is t o be m ai n tai n ed in the t r opics

the tubes m ust n ot be very lo n g with so s m all a dia m ete r while on the othe r , ,

han d if a ship is n ev er to be wher e the cooli n g wate r is above

,
the tube s
m a y be lo n g with adva n tage As however the r ate of fl ow will va r y as t h e
.
, ,

squa r e of the dia m ete r of tub e whi le its su rface is di r ectly as the d ia m ete r
, ,

a s m all i n cr ease i n d iam ete r will ad m it of co n sider able i n c r ease in le n gt h .

I n p r actice the cooli n g water m a y have su fficie n t heat i m pa rte d to it

'

t o r aise it to a te mpe r atu r e ve r y little below that of the co n de n se r top be f o r e

leavi n g it As this warm i n g up howeve r is u sually d o n e i n sta ges that is
.
, ,
—
,

the wate r passes a n d repasses thr ough the tubes on its j ou r n ey fr o m the
e n ter i n g in to the leavi n g the m — th ree stages is the m ost co mm o n so that ,

i n a ge n e r al way the i n cr e m e n t added to the te mpe r atu r e of t h e ci r culati n g

23
 S U R FA CE CON D E N S ER . 35 5

w at e r at each pass should be o n ly on e thi r d of the to t al i n cr ease To do this -

.

the n u mber of tu bes in the lower or fir st gr oup shoul d be mu ch less tha n

that in the seco n d a n d less ther e tha n in t he thi rd as the e fficie n cy owi n g
, ,

t o di ff e r en ce i n te m perat u r e betwee n it a n d the co n d e n se r is dec reasi n g at

ea ch sta ge T h is ci r cu ms t an ce acce n tuates the r ea son for shorte r tubes
“

o r of la r ge r dia m eter whe n the wate r is wa r m a n d a hi gh vacuu m d es i r ed .

S u rfa ce Condens er Effi cien cy has howeve r beco m e a m atte r of fir s t r ate , ,

-

i mpo rtan ce eve r si n ce the i n t ro ducti o n Oi the t u rbi n e on shi pboa rd f or

- _
,

it was the r e d iscover ed h ow seri ous ly t h e e fficien cy of that i n st r u m en t was

a ug m e n te d whe n wo r ki n g with the v e r y low back p r essu r es obtai n able the r e

at co m par atively cheap r ates owi n g t o the u n li m ite d supply of cooli n g ,

water obtai n able wi th little sac ri fice Of power due to the s m a ll r esis t a n c e ‘

head ”
.Mr P a r so n s a n d those i n terested in t h e success of the tur bin e
.
l
,

tu rn e d thei r atte n tion to i m p r ovi n g the mea n s wher eby high vacuu m coul d
be Obtai n ed a n d m ai n tai n ed ; Mr Moriso n ably assisted by P r o f Weighto n .
, .
,

o f D ur ha m f ollowed on w ith a se r ies O f m ost i n te r esti n g a n d i n str uctive

,

e x per i m e n ts a n d thei r i n vestigatio n s have bee n the m ea n s of thr owi n g

,

qui te a flood of light on the subj ect a n d clearly de m o n str ati n g e x actly wha t ,

ta kes place in a co n de n ser a n d its pu mps .

Th e eff ect of Air mi xed with S tea m or wate r vapo u r had bee n n oted by
Pr o f Osbor n e R ey n olds a n d othe r s yea r s be f o r e a n d it was well k n ow n
.
, , ,

that the p r ese n ce Of a ir was a lways a cause of r eta r datio n of co n de n satio n ,

a n d the r eductio n of a m ou n t of water deposite d on a cold su rface in a fix e d

ti m e I f stea m alon e e n te r e d a su rf ace co n d e n ser it would be wholly t ra n s

.
-

f o r m ed i n to wate r a n d a vacuu m co r r espo n di n g t o the te m pe r atur e wou ld

,

be m ai n tai n ed in it The a m oun t of stea m co n de n sed per squar e foot of

.

s u r f ace would be ve r y high s o lo n g as the tube r e m ai n e d clea n i n side a n d,

outside a n d t h e cooli n g wate r supply ple n ti ful with the flow through the
t ubes r apid The o n ly pu m p n ecessa r y u n de r these ci r cu m stan ces would be
.

on e t o withd r aw the co n de n se d wate r as it f all s t o the botto m B u t as a .

m atter of f act it is i mpossible in p r actice t o wo r k with a cir cuit so c om

,
-

le t ely close d that n o a ir gets i n to the syste m whe n o n ce the wa t e r put i n to

p
t h e boile r s has bee n dep r ived of the a ir it o r igi n ally held in solutio n f or ,

ever y co n den se r of a m ari n e e n gi n e co n tai n s m o r e Or les s a ir always a n d , ,

ther efo r e a n a ir pu m p is n ecessar y to it i n o r d e r to m ai n tai n a n y sor t Of

,
-
,

s te a d y vacuu m a n d if the vacuum is to be high the a ir pu m p m ust be e fficie n t ,

-

a s well as su fficie n tly la r ge f or howeve r la r ge it m a y be if it is n ot e fficie n t l

, ,

n o hi gh vacuu m at all is p ossible .

Air Leak s t o t h e Con den ser m a y have o rigi n ated at the gla n d s of the
l

m ai n a n d au x ilia r y e n gi n es whe n t h e p r ess u r e i n side the m is less tha n that

o f the at m osphe r e Much a ir co m es fr o m the f eed water which if take n
.
-

, ,

fr o m stor age ta n ks will co n tai n fr o m 2 3 to 4 per ce n t by volu m e of a ir Eve n -

. .

the water of the hot well is char ged wi th a co n side rable a m ou n t a n d t h is

-
,

Mr Wei r e n deavour s to eli mi n ate i n hi s f eed heate r s be f o r e it c a n e n ter t h e

.
-

boiler Au x ili ar y f eed wate r is subj ect t o the sa m e actio n in the f ee d h eate r s
.
- -
.

L ea kage ma y a n d d oes a r ise at ti m es fr o m f aulty or da m aged j oi n ti n gs of

, ,

t h e co n d e n se r a n d co n n ectio n s ; these leaks howeve r should be f ou n d , ,

o u t a n d stoppe d ; f or thi s pu r pose a pe rio d ical e x a mi n ation is m a d e by

so m e car e f ul e n gi n eer s in charge Of turbi n es those with r ecip r ocato r s sho u l d
d o the sa m e The leaka g e f r o m aux ilia r y m achi n e r y however is o fte n a
.
, ,
356 M AN UAL OF M AR I N E EN GI N E E R I N G .

m os t serious ca u s e Of loss a n d is sa id t o a mou n t to as much as the c o s t of

,

the whole po we r developed in the m N O doubt the Ad mi r alty a re wise t o

.

have sepa r ate co n de n se r s f or the au x iliar y m achi n e ry a n d in la r ge m er chan t

,

s te a ms hi ps the sa m e p ractice mi ght be f ollowed wi th co n side r able advan tage :

eve n if such co n de n ser s wer e si mpli fied s o that the water ci rc u l ati o n w as
”
n atu r al, a n d the co n de n sed wate r allowed t o d rai n i n to a ta n k by gr avity ,

it is better to have the m r athe r than to ru n the r isk Of spoili n g t h e main

-

con den se r effici en cy by ad mitti n g a er ated aux i lia r y e x hau s t t o it .

Fig 1 1 8 — Con t ra flo Con d ens er

. . wit h Feed T e mp era t u re R egu la t or.

Air is h eavier t han Wa ter V apou So that if the e x haust steam c on t a i ns

r, ,

but a ve ry s m all qua n tity it will accu mulate at the botto m of the co n de ns e r
, ,

a n d u n less r e m oved it p r actically bla n kets the cooli n g su r face the r e a nd ,

vi rtually r educes the si z e of the co nde n se r E ve n whe n the a ir pu m p d r aws

.
-

it away if o n ly at the sa m e r ate as i t flows i n ther e ma y be a por tio n of the

, ,

su rfa ce co n stan tly s u rrou n ded by a ir a n d e ffecti n g n o co n de n satio n I t is .

 ’
M OR I S ON S D IAG R A M . 35 7

s a
n e ce s ry , t he r ef o r e that the a ir pu m p shall be lar ge e n ough t o k e ep t h e
-

inside of the c on de n ser fre e fr oma ir l od gm e n t

,

I t f ollows the n that in ad d itio n to the lar ge e fficie n t pu mp m e a n s

, , , ,

s hall be p r ovided th a t the flow t o it will be as d i rec t a s poss ible a n d a t t he

24 0 0

22 0 0

2000

18 0 0

0 ’ o o
4 5 so so 70

T EM P ER AT U R E IN D EG R E ES FAR R .

Fig I I Sa — Moris on
.
’
s D ia gr a m . Air S a t u ra t e d w it h Wa ter V a pou r .

Cu rves sh ow i n g re lat i on be t wee n vacu u m , t e mp era t u r e , v ol u n i e , an d ra t io of a ir to v a pou r.

e ve r y par t of t h e c old surface should be a c t iv e ; hen ce t here

'

s a me t ime t h a t
mu s t be no oc k et s o r ed di es a n yw he re a n d if the design of co n d e ns er d oes
p ,
 COO LI N G S U R FA CE . 35 9

s ur f ace pe r hou r in a vacuu m of 2 6 75 i n ches whe n the sea water is as h ot -

as 8 0 F a n d the h ot well te m pera tu r e as high as

°
.
, With sea wate r
- -

at 5 4 F a n d the vacuu m 2 8 i n ches as m uch as 2 8 6 lbs we re co n d e n se d per

°
.
, , .

squa r e f oot pe r hour He also d e m on str ates h ow as much as 35 lbs c a n be . .

co n de n se d with the vacuu m at 2 7 3 i n ches with the cooli n g wate r a t the '

sa m e te m per atur e but with the h ot well te mper atu re r e d uced t o

,
-

n ea rly that I n the co n de n se r .

I t would see m the n fr o m these f acts that 1 squa r e f oot of coo ling su rface
, ,

e r I H P is su fficie n t f or a n y ship s o lo n g as the co n de n se r I s f ai r l clea

p . . .
y n ; ,

a n d f u r the r it is evi d e n t that

, ,
squar e f oot pe r I H P is a m ple allowa n ce . . .

f or such ships as wo r k in te m pe r ate z o n es with cooli n g wate r u n de r

Mo r eove r as m ost ships on ser vice r u n with less powe r tha n d evelope d on
,

t rial the allowa n ce f or t r ial co n di tio n s p ra ctically p r ovides a ma r gi n f or

loss of e fficie n cy of surf ace a fter war d s Ex pe rie n ce with tu r bi n e d rive n .

ships h a vi n g a vacuu m in the ir co n de n se r s of 28 5 t o 2 90 i n ches has estab

'

, ,
°
lis h e d the f act that with cooli n g wate r at 5 0 F a n d the hot well kept at .
-

8 0 to 8 5 F as m uc h as 2 5 lbs of stea m ca n b e co n de n sed pe r squa r e f oot

° °
. .
,

of su r f ace p er hou r .

Th e All owan ces of Cool in g S u rface ma y b e co m puted in the f ollow in g

way — S hi ps t r adi n g to all par ts of _the wor ld a n d the r e f o r e so m eti m es in , ,

the t r o pics shoul d have 1 squa r e f oot of coolin g su r face f or each 1 6 lbs of
, .

stea m co n de n sed Tu r bi n e stea m e r s wor ki n g u n d e r the sa m e co n ditio ns

.

sh ould t o m ai n tai n high e fficie n cy have 1 squa r e f oot for eve r y 1 2 lbs
, , .

S hips li m ited to se r vice in te m pe r ate z o n es or whose se r vice i n the , ,

t r opics is shor t or whe n the r e high e fficien cy is n ot of co n seque nce 25 lbs

, ,
.

for r ecip r ocato r s a n d 2 0 lbs for tu r bi n es is n ot too la r ge a n a llowa n ce

-

. .

The te mper atur e of the co n den se r with a vacuu m of 2 9 i n ches is 8 0 F °

.

it is obvious ther ef o r e that wit h sea wate r at this or a so m ewhat highe r

_ , , ,
-

te m per a t ur e su ch a vacuu m is i m possible whateve r be the su r face a n d

, , ,

eve n with 28 i n ches the a m oun t of coolin g water r equir ed would be so g r eat
as to be al m ost p r ohi bitive in co mm e r cial p r actice .

The te m p er atur e of the co n de n se r 1 3 so m ewhat highe r n ea r the e n te ri n g

in of the stea m tha n at the botto m whe n the e n gi n e i s wor ki n g at f ull powe r ,

but at r e d uced power the di ff e r e n ce I s ve r y t r ifli n g at f ull speed ther e fo re , ,

the ci r culati n g water m a y be n ear er the te m per atur e at botto m of co n de nse i:

tha n at low power s The wat e r s hould ther efor e f or this a n d other reaso n s
.
, , ,

always fl ow in the opposi te cour se t o that of the stea m— that is the coldest ,

water should be wher e the stea m is coldest a n d wher e the stea m is e n te ri n g ,

the co n den ser a n d the r e fo r e at its hottest the heated cooli n g water ma y still
, , ,

take up m o r e heat fr o m it leavi n g it with heat still in it f or abstr actio n belo w ,

.

Th e Cool in g S u rface per H orse power m a y b e as follows -

T r iple c ompou n d e x pr e ss s te a mer s 0 8 0 s q f t h om e w a ters 1 2 5 s q f t t ropics

-
,
.
, . . .

ec on o m ic

Qu ple
a d ru

T u r bin e d r iven -
or d in a ry
0 80
'
l 25
'

e x pr e ss

For o r di n ar y car go stea m ers goi n g t o all parts of the wo rld 1 squa re
f oot of su r face pe r t rial t r ip I H P is suffi cie n t as the te m peratu re of sea
“

. . .
,

wate r does n ot ex ceed 8 5 F a n d is n ot ofte n over This allowa n ce is °

.
,

s u ffi cie n t t o pe r mit of good v a d i n m bei n g m ain ta in ed on s er v ic e co n ditio n s

’

At 8 0 F t h e °
. coolin g wa t er mu st b e 6 3 t imes t h e we igh t of s t e a m ; a nd a t 85° n o les s t ha n 1 5 3 .
3 60 MA N UAL or M AR I N E EN GI N E E R I N G .

with the sur face so m ewhat f oul D estr oyer s with r ecip r ocatin g e n gi n es on .

trial in su mmer ti m e have co n de n sed 2 8 lbs of stea m per squar e f oot a n d .

,

the allowa n ce per I H P was o n ly 5 squa r e f oot a n d the vacuu m 2 5 to 2 6

. . . ,

i n ches at full powe r .

Pr o fesso r Wei ghto n with a Con t ra flo co n d e n ser got 33 lbs co n de n sed , , .

er squa r e f oot f r o m a t r iple co mpou n d e n gi n e : a n d eve n 4 0 l bs have bee n

p .

got by othe r e x pe r i me n te r s .

Cool in g S u rface — Pr o f esso r R a n ki n e suggeste d the f ollowi n g as a m ea n s

.

of asce r tai n i n g the a m ou n t of cooli n g su rf ace L e t t de n ote the te m pe r atu r e -

of a film of liquid at on e side of a m etal plate S the e x te n t of cooli n g su r f ace ; ,

let heat be co m mu n icated to the liquid at a te m per atur e t by so m e such

p r ocess as the co n den satio n of stea m a n d let that be abst racte d by the ,

flow of a cu rr e n t of a ir wate r or other flui d in co n tact with the m etal plate ;, , ,

the weight of fluid w hich flows past pe r seco n d bei n g W its speci fic heat ,

0 its i n itial te m pe r atu r e T1 bei n g lowe r tha n t but highe r tha n T2

, ,
The n , ,
.

in all the equatio n s t TI is t o be substituted f or TI t an d t T2 f or ,

E
{
1 l
T2 —t in the equatio n but he also a dd ed
SW
‘

a
T2 _
t Tl — t
that the r e su fficie n t data t o obtai n the value of the co n sta n t s
a re n ot .

An oth er B asis for Cal cu la tin g Cooli ng S u rfa ce is obtai n ed by assu mi n g

that t h e m ax i mu m m ean flow of cooli n g wate r per missible is 4 00 f eet per
mi n ute a n d the u n its of heat to be abstr acted bein g that late n t at the di ff e r e n t
,

p r essur es a n d the cooling w a ter in the tr opics 80 F a n d in ho m e waters

,
°
.
,

The d ia m ete r of the co n de n ser tubes is take n as 3 i n ch for n aval p r actice ,

t i n ch in ge n e r al m e r ca n tile a n d 1 i n ch in e x ceptio n al c ases

i ,
.

The w eigh t of wate r passi n g per min u t e t h r ou gh a g in eh tube a t this

'

r ate w ill be 4 4 lbs thr ough a g i n ch 6 0 lbs a n d thr ough a tube 1 i n ch in

.
,
-
.
,

d ia m et er 1 0 7 lbs The te mper atur e of the wate r at d ischa r ge f r o m t h e

.

co n de n ser will be ta ke n a t about 2 pe r ce n t below that of the hot well water .

,

or that o f the co n de n ser s o that f or a vacuu m of 2 8 i n ches it wi ll be 0 ,

°
90 4 88 U n de r th ese ci r cu m stan ces in the t r opics the heat abst r acted ,

will be 8 8 6 8 0 or The late n t heat with this vacuu m will be l O5 1

, ,
°

1 9 1
he n ce the w eight of cooli n g water pe r lb . of stea m
82 1 22 lbs .
;
44
a

t u be 3 i n ch in e x ter n al dia meter will co n de n se the r e f ore in a n hou r 6 0 x , ,

1 22
or 2 1 6 lbs .

Th e g rea test l en g th of t u be thr ough which the wate r flows should n ot

e x ce ed 4 00 dia m eter s a n d ther efo re if the water passes thr ee ti m es as is
, , , ,

Co mm o n p r actice the g s
i n ch tube should n ot be I n the aggr egate m o r e tha n
,
-

(8 X ) or 2 1 f eet a n d each tube is co n seque n tly on ly 7 f eet lo n g or if

é OQ — —
,

o n y twice th r ough 1 0 5 f eet

l .

N ow 2 1 f eet of 3 i n ch tube has a su rface of 3 4 3 7 squa r e f eet

,
-
I t f ollows .
,

the n that the coolin g su rface I n a co n de n se r havi n g g i n ch dia meter tubes

,
-

f or se r vice in the t r opics whe n 28 i n ches vacuu m is r equi r ed m ust be at the

r ate of 1 squa r e f oot f or each 2 1 6 3 4 3 7 or 6 3 lbs of stea m to be co n de n sed , , . .

Taki n g the co n su m ptio n of stea m in a tur bi n e stea me r at 1 2 5 lbs per .

S H P the n
. . .
,

Cooli n g su rf ace of tubes 3 i n ch in dia m eter pe r S H P for

. . . t ropics 28 i n ches
vac u u m is 2 squa r e f eet .
 COO LI N G S U R FA CE . 36 1

I f s ea wate r is
-
the r e w ill be the n the f ollowi n g vi z ,

H eat abst r acte d 6 0 or ,

Weight of cooli n g water : 2

2 8 6 or 3 6 7 lbs per lb of stea m ,
. . . .

Wate r c o n de n sed per hou r 6 0 x 4 4 36 7 or 72 lbs , .

R ate of co n d e n s atio n pe r squa r e f oot pe r hou r 72 3 4 3 7 or 2 1 lbs , .

For ho m e se r vice the r e f or e 1 2 5 , 2 1 or 0 5 96 squa r e f oot per , ,

is su fficie n t for g i n ch diam et er tubes -

.

For t h e Merca n tile Ma rin e with ift i n ch tubes -

an d a 28 i n c h es vacuu m the ,

f ollowi n g will hold goo d , v iz .

Heat abstr acte d in the t r opics as be f or e 8 6 u n its , , .

Wate r passed per h im 6 0 X 6 0 or lbs , , .

Weight of cooli n g wate r per lb of stea m 8 6 or 1 2 2 lbs .

, , .

Weight of stea m co n d e n sed per hou r 1 2 2 or 295 lbs , .

Ma x i mu m len gth of tubes X 4

or 25 f eet , .

Each tube bei n g 8 3 3 f eet lo n g i f th r ee ti m es thr ough or 1 2 5 if twice , .

The sur f ace of 2 5 f eet Of g i n ch dia meter tube is 4 9 1 squar e f eet

-
.

Q uan tity of wate r con de n sed pe r squa r e f oot is the n 2 95 4 9 1 or 6 lbs , .

I f howeve r the co n de n se r we r e m ade the sa m e le n gth as that wit h g i n ch

, ,
-

t ubes t h e su r f ace would b e as be f o r e 3 4 3 7 squa r e f eet a n d the qua n tity

, ,

o f wate r co n d e n sed p e r squa r e f oot 3 4 3 7 or 8 6 lbs u n de r these , .

c i r cu mst an ces .

The cooli n g su rface pe r S H P 12 5 8 6 or .squa r e f eet . .

, .

I f the co n d e n se r tubes a re m ade 1 i n ch in e x te rn al dia mete r the wate r ,

p asse d per hou r is 60 X 1 0 7 or lbs ; weight Of cooli n g wate r as be fo r e

,
.
,

1 22 lbs .

Stea m co n d e n sed pe r hou r 1 22 or 5 2 6 , ,

.

Max i mu m le n gth of tube 1 x 1 2

4 0 0
or 33 3 f eet ,
.

S O that in this case each tube ma y be 1 1 0 f eet lo n g .

The sur f ace Of 33 f eet of l i n ch tube is 8 6 4 f eet -

.

261
2 3
Q ua n tity of stea m co n de n sed per squar e f oot 7 7, or 6 1 lbs .

If the cooli n g water has a te m pe r atur e of t he n u m be r Of heat u n its

a bst racte d b y each pou n d will be as be f o r e 88 6 60, or

The w e igh t . of wate r f or ea c h pou n d of stea m or 36 7 lbs .

S tea m c o n de n sed 6 4 20 3 6 7 or 1 75 lbs , .

S tea m co n d e n sed per squar e f oot 1 75 8 6 4 or 2 0 3 lbs , .

Fr o m the above it will be see n that if the m a x i m u m co m bi n ed le n gth

o f 4 00 dia m ete r s of tube is f ollowe d as the r ule f or co n de n sers that ,

a vacuu m of 28 i n ches should be m ai n tai n ed with a r ate of co n d e n satio n

o f about 6 lbs pe r squar e f oot Of su r f ace whe n in the t r opics a n d 2 0 lbs

.
, .

in the te m pe r ate z o n e For the stea m co n su m ptio n pe r ho rse powe r thi s

.
-

would i n dicate that the cooli n g surf ace f or t r opical wo r k m ust be at l e ast
t h re e ti m es that for cool cli m ates whe n hi gh vacua a r e r equi r ed a n d n ecessa r y
a s with tur bi n es I t has bee n howeve r poi n ted ou t that u n de r t r opical
.
, ,

c o n ditio n s much m o r e tha n 6 lbs O f stea m per squa r e f oot of su r face ca n .

be co n de n se d I t f ollows the n that the le n gth of tube must be reduced

.
, , ,

a n d the co mbi n ed le n gth be i n v ers elv as that ua n tity is t o 6

q .
 CO N D E N S E R T U B ES .
363

T AB L E XL I .
—
T E M P ER A T U R E L A T E N T H E AT AN D
, , V O LU M E OF
S T E A M O F V E R Y L OW P R E S S U R E '

L a te nt
T e mp e r a
t u re F
H ea t
F0 .

V acu u m .

Con denser T u bes — They a r e as a rule m ade of b r ass soli d d rawn a n d

.
, , , ,

tested b oth by hyd r aulic p r essu r e a n d stea m the latte r test is a ver y use ful
on e as f aults which escape detectio n u n d e r wate r p r essu r e a r e Ofte n f oun d
,

out by stea m ; these f aults a re due gen e r ally to m i n ute par ticles of flu x or
slag in the o r igi n al i n got a n d so m eti m es the faults a r e in t h e f o rm of c r ack s
,

do n e in the p r ocess Of d rawi n g I t is by n o m ea n s a n u n co mm o n thi n g to .

find a f e w tubes i n a n e w co n d e n se r leaki n g thr ough m i n ute holes of va r ious

shapes these holes soo n beco me e n la r ge d if the tube is n ot at o n ce stoppe d
or with d ra w n These f aults a r e n ot con fin e d to the tubes of a fe w m ake r s
.
,

but m a y be f ou n d in those of all m ake r s at so m e ti me or other Ti n n i n g is .

,

as a rule a p r even tive as the def ective places a re in the p r ocess cove red
, ,

or fi lle d with that m eta l but it is seldo m r eso rted t o n ow The Adm i r alty
, .

m ethod of addi n g a small a moun t of t in t o the alloy of Copper a n d zin c ha s

,

p r oved a good p reven tive of co rrosio n a n d Mr Philip Ad mi ralty Chemist has .

, ,

s hown by statistics its effica cy in a la r ge n um ber of co n de n se r s in H M N a v y . . .

Co n de n ser tubes wer e usually m a d e Of a co m position Of 68 per cen t of bes t .

selecte d cop pe r a n d 32 per ce n t of best S ilesia n spelter * The Ad mi ralty

, . .
,

howeve r always speci fy the tubes to be m ade of 70 per cen t of best selecte d
, . .

copper a n d to have 1 per ce n t of t in in the co m position a n d test the m

, .
,

to a p r essur e of 300 lbs per squa r e in ch To p rove that the tubes a re of the
. .

alloy a few poun ds of the m a r e m elted in a closed crucible a n d su fh

, ,

cie n t spelter added t o b rin g the m ix tur e to co n tain 6 2 per ce n t Of coppe r . .

The m etal is then cast in to a n i n got whi ch when cold is r olled i n to a sheet , ,

strips a re cut fr om it a n d tested a n d if satisfacto r y should have a n u ltim ate ,

te n sile stren gth of 2 4 to n s per square i n ch I n the m er ca n tile m ar in e t h e .

tubes a re as a ru le é} in ch d ia m ete r ex te rn all y a n d 1 8 L S C thi ck

, , , . . .

i n ch ) ; a n d 1 6 L S C u n d e r so m e e x ceptio n al cir cu msta n ces I n

. . . .

H M N avy the tubes use d to be 1 8 to 1 9 L S C thick ti n n ed on both sides

. .
, . . .
,

Th e t u b e s of t h e m e rca n t i le ma ri n e a re u s u a lly 70 !3( L mixt u re wit h ou t a d d it ion s , bu t la t t erly 2 pe r

c en t of lea d h a s b een t r ie d wit h su c ce ss
. .
364 MAN UAL A I
OF M R N E E N GI N EER I N G .

but n ow t he Ad mi ralty d o n ot r equi r e the tubes to be ti n n ed On accou n t .

o f the eco n o m y of space a n d weight that is e ffected with s m all tubes all
N aval e n gi n es a re n ow fitte d with co n de n se r s havi n g tubes 5 i n ch dia m ete r .

The s malle r the tubes the la r ger is the surface whi ch c a n be got in a
,

c ert a i n space S i n ce lar ge r tubes a r e of n ecessity so m ewhat thicker tha n

.

t h e s malle r o n es a squa r e f oot of s u r f ace costs m o r e whe n they a re adopte d

, ,

a n d is n ot so e fficie n t P ate n t tubes m ade fr o m sheet b r ass 2 2 E W G

. . . .

thick a n d j oi n ed at the sea ms like a ti n s mith s j oi n t a n d s oft sol d e red have

,
’

bee n t rie d The adva n tage clai med f or the m is t he u n ifor mi t y w h e reby as
.
,
.

little as 2 2 E W G is su fli c ien t t h ic k n e s s while it woul d n ot be sa f e t o use

. . .
,

d r aw n t u bes s o thi n .

The le n gth of the tube depe n ds on the a rr an ge m en t of the co n de n ser but ,

w he n they a r e n ot held tightly I n the plates but o n ly packed thei r u n su p , ,

por t e d le n gth should n ot e x ceed 1 00 dia m eter s ; when held with tight fitti n g
fe r ru les it m ay be 1 20 dia m ete r s .

T u be pl a tes a r e n ow always m a d e of b r ass either cast or r olled i n to plates

-
,

o f suitable si z e ; the latte r I s p r e f e r ab le as the r olled b r ass I s ve r y tough a n d ,

Cl os e g rai n ed a n d as st ro n g as w r ought Ir o n Form e rly it was n o u n co m m o n

,
.

t hi n g t o m ake the tube plates of cast i r o n fr o m 1 3 to 2 g i n ches thi ck a n d

-
,

while so m e we r e co n verted i n to a substa n ce r ese mb li n g plu mbago a ft ei two '

’
o r th r ee yea r s wo r k othe r s have bee n f ou n d sou n d a n d good a fte r twelve
.

y ea r s co n ti n uous wo r k .

R olled b r ass tube plates should be fr o m to

-
ti m es the d ia mete r of
tubes in thi ck n ess depen di n g on the m ethod of packi n g When the packi n gs
, .

go co mpletely thr ough the plates the latte r but when o nl y partly thr ough , ,

the f o rm er I s su fficie n t Hen ce f or i n ch tubes the plates a re usually 53: to

3
.
,
-

1 i n ch t hi ck wi th gla n ds a n d ta pe p acki ng s a n d 1 t o I i i n ches thi ck with -

,

wood e n f e rr ul es I n the N avy the tube plates a r e ge n e r ally I to g i n ch

.
-

t hick the tubes bein g 3 i n ch dia m ete r a n d 1 9 L S C thi ck but in the

'

. . .
, ,

D estr oye r s the plates a re o n ly 541 in ch t hi ck in thei r case howev er the , ,

plates a r e of s mall diam ete r a n d stayed in the mi dd le a n d it m a y be ad ded

that leakage of tubes was n o u n comm o n occu rr en ce in such ship s so that ,

this is as thin as they c a n sa f ely be e m plo y e d .

The tube plates shou l d be secu r e d to thei r seati n gs by b rass studs a n d

-

n uts , or b r ass sc r ew bolts ; i n f act the r e m ust be n o w r ought i r o n of a n y

-
,

ki n d on the sea wate r side of a co n den ser Whe n the tube plates a re of
-
.
-

lar ge a r ea it is advisabl e t o stay the m by b rass r ods to p reve n t the m fr om ,

bulgin g or col la psi n g .

T u be Pa ckin gs — All atte mpts t o d r i ft or e x pa n d the tubes tightly in to

.

h oles i n a b r ass plate f ail owi n g to the so ft n ess of both plates a n d tube s ; a n d
,

if it could be do n e it woul d be f ou n d i m possible to d raw the tubes for e x a mi na

tio n a n d clea n i n g without da m age Fig 1 1 9 shows a ver y S i m ple pla n a n d . .
,

on e that p r oved e ff ective u n de r a ll ci r cu m st a n ces a n d esse n tial with cast i r o n ,

-

pla t es The f e rrule I s m ade of so ft woo d such as pi n e or li m e t r ee ver y dry

.
,
.

a n d well seaso n ed ; they we r e m ade n early a n eighth of a n i n ch la r ger In

diame t e r than the hole i n to which they had to fit a n d a good fit on the tube .

B e f or e fitti n g the m i n to place they we r e squee z ed thr ough a die in a p r ess

u n til they could be easily d rive n i n to thei r holes soo n a fte r bei n g fitted in to
’

place they abso rb m oistu r e a n d e x pa n d ci r cu mfe re n tially at each e n d a n d ,

becom e e x ceedin gly tight on the tube a n d in the hole Afte r twelve yea rs
’
.
 T U B E P A CK I N G S AN D FE R R UL E S . 36 5
-

se rvice they we r e f ou n d quite sou n d I t is u rged agai n st t h e m that they a re

.

a pt 130 8 11 1 1 a a n d d r op ou t w h e n the Co n de n se r is n ot i n u s e but th i s is n Ot ,

the case as the swe lled pr oj ecti n g e n ds f o r m colla r s to p r even t t his a n d

, ,

they d o n ot shr i n k so m uch as is ge n e r ally suppose d u n less by u n usual heat , .

This is on e of the cheapest f o rm s Of tube packi n g a n d although n ot used -

,
.

n ow was of te n e m plo ye d i n the m e r ca n tile m a r i n e of this a n d othe r cou n t r ies

, .

Th e pla n adopted in H M N avy a n d ge n e r ally i n the m e r ca n tile m a r i n e ,

. .
,

I s that show n in fi Each tube en d passes thr ough a s t u ffin g box fitte d
g 1 20
-
. .

Fig 1 1 9
. .

Fig 1 2 1
. .

Figs 1 1 9 1 2 1 — Con d en se r T u be Pac k in gs

.
-
.
a nd Fe rr u le s .

with a scr ewed glan d a n d kept tight by a tape washe r or so m e so ft co rd

, ,
.

as packin g T hi s m ethod is so m ewhat e x pen sive but it a d mits of the

. ,

wate r bei n g on either side of the tub es the packi n g is n ot a ff ecte d by heat
"

and the co de se m e m ai u used f a ve y lo n g ti m e a n d be quit e

n n r a y r n n o r r ,

ti ght at the en d of it ; f or these r easo n s it was chose n by the Ad mi ralty .

i f n de n se r s a n d on
’

is likewise the l d by Hall i h ea ly su ace —

co
‘

It n s r r .
an u s e
p ,
 CO N S TR U CT I ON OF S U R FA CE c oN D EN S E R . 36 7

for 1 in ch tub es 1 1 6 i n ch
-
The tubes a re ge n e r ally a r rang ed z ig zag
, .
, and

t h e n u m ber w hich m a y be fitted i n to a squa r e f oot of plate I s as in Table x 1ii .

T AB LE XL I I .

Pi t c h of T u be s . Pi t ch of T u bes Pi t c h oi T u be s .

I n ch es I n ch es

fl i e B ody of th e Conden ser The su r face con den se r was ge n er ally in the
'
-
.

f or m Of a cyli n de r or a r ecta n gu l a r pa r allelepip ed a n d so m eti m es a He te n ed ,

c yli n d e r ; the fir st a n d last f o r m s a re t h e best s u ite d whe n w eight 1 3 a g r eat

c o n side r a t io n a n d the seco n d a n d m ost co n ve n ie n t whe n space is of firs t

,

i m por tan ce the cyli n dr ical f o rm I s by fa r the cheapes t as the pat t e rn s a re

, ,

ve ry si mple— the body whe n n ot m ade of ste el Coppe r or b r ass sheets

, , , ,

bei n g s t ru ck o u t the cove r s tube plates a n d co rr espon di n g fla n ges c a n all

,
-
,

be faced in a lathe t hi s f o r m also is by fa r the lightest , f or the two r easo n s ,

that the cir cular plate is the f o rm givi n g the m in i m u m pe ri m ete r f or a give n
a r ea a n d co n seque n tly a m i ni m um ba r r el a n d that the cyli n d r ical f o r m for
, ,

either i n te rn al or e x te rn al p r e s sur e is the str o n gest so that the thick n ess of ,

m etal will be t h e m i n i m u m A modi fica tio n of the cylin drical f o rm possesses

.

m a n y of these a dva n tages .

The w ate r wa ys or cha m ber s at each e nd of the co n d e n se r a r e so m eti mes

, ,

cast with it a n d so m etim e s cast sep ar ately in the latte r case the r e I s a n
,

ad di tio n al j oi n t bu t thi s I s mitigated by its also f o r mi n g the tube plate j oi n t ,

,
-

in the f o r m e r case the r e is o nl y on e j o i n t less at each e n d thr ough w hi ch a i r

c a n leak but the plates a re m o r e t r oubleso m e to fit a n d e x cept in the case
, , ,

o f the cyli n d rical f o r m the tube plate fla n ge is di ffic u l t to f ace

. .

Gr eat ca r e should be take n i n d esign i n g a co n de ns e r t h at fr ee outlet is

given to a n y a ir that m a y collect n ea r t h e t ubes a n d all pockets whe r e i t or , ,

dead w a t e I could li e sho u l d be avoi d e d as a fe w of t h e tubes m ay t0 et hot

, ,
°

a n d leak f r o m the above causes .

Th e Cons t ru cti on of t h e S u rfa ce Con denser is to d ay i n all n aval shi ps in ,

e x p r ess stea m e r s a n d eve n in so m e ca r go ships of steel sheets O

,
r plates fr o m

7 t o 4 i n ch t hi ck i n t h e b od v a n d of cast i r o n or b r ass in the wate r ways a n d

1

par ts e x posed to sea wate r in n aval ships a n d of cast i r o n in t h e m e r ca n tile

-
,

m a ri n e whe r e weight is n ot O f pa r a m ou n t co n side r ation I t is r ecogn ised .

'

n ow that the r e i s n o COI r os iv e a ct i o n on the body e x pose d to ste a m a n d

co n d e n se d water si n ce the use of sea wate r as the supple m en ta r y f ee d has

,
-

bee n given up a n d b r ass I n t h e wate r wa ys c a n be p r otected by z i n c slabs or

, ,

even by a f e w steel studs ; cast i r o n also is easily p r otecte d by z i n c slabs .

The co n d ens er s of such c r af t as destr oyer s wher e the last oun ce m ust be . ,

save d shoul d be of s h eet b r ass c y h n d ric a l in f o rm a n d of s u fli cien t thick n ess

, , ,

t o withsta n d at m osp h eri c p r essu r e a n d its ow n wei g h t With such co n de n se r s .

,
3 68 M A N UAL OF M AR I N E EN GI N EER I N G .

as also with t h e b r ass wate r ways t h e m udh ole a n d peephole doo rs m ay b e ,

O f cast i r o n or steel wit h adva n tage as t h e n t h ey f o r m t h e p r otecto r s a ai n st

g ,

co rrosio n of t h e b r ass f ro m sea wate r a n d c a n be easily a n d cheaply r eplaced -

.

Th e sh ape of t h e modern con den ser is eithe r as a n app r o x i m atio n t o

a t r ia n gle or what is k n ow n as hea r t shape d in t r a n sve r se sectio n a s
,
-

S h ow n in fi The cyli n dr ical co n d e n ser is ge n e r ally fitte d with ba ffl e s

g 118 . .

of so m e ki n d alth ough with t h e m o d e r n e n ter i n g in so m uch e n la r ge d

, ,

especially as it i s f or t u r bi n es t h e n ee d to p r otect the uppe r r ows O f tu be s ,

fr o m the pulsati n g i m pact o f the stea m has al m ost cease d t o e x ist With
“

'

t h e o rd i n a r y r ecta n gula r or n ea r ly r ecta n gula r co n d e n se r of the m e r ca n til e

-

m a ri n e a n d the ci r cul a r sectio n e x h aust pipe the r e should still be this sc r ee n ,

as well as m ean s f or dr ai ni n g the co n d e n sed water whe n f o r m e d without

fu r the r co n t a ct with other tubes .

T AB LE X L lI I . T R IAL S
—
OF I J B A TT L E S H I P
. . I B UK I -
CU R T I S
,
T U R B I N ES .

T emp e r a t u re ( D eg .

M a i n Con d e n s e r .

sea Wa t e r F°

Au g 1 2 , 190 9 Fu ll po w e r 2 9 9 95
. 218
Au g . 2 9 990
-
15 0
J u ly 3 1 1 90 9
, ,
2 9 9 00 9 8
J u l y 2 6 1 909 g
, ,

J u ly 2 4 1 909 1
, ,
«
3 0 32 0
-
3 1 -

i éhggii
v t
B oi le r M a i n Con d e n s e r M a in E n g i n e
h i
. . .

N ot Con d e n s e d
Con t ed CI
q:g
D ate at
S H P Corre c t e d
e
s Wa t e r per
.

B u ck e t
. . .

t
per to
Con t ra ct S e a Wa t e r S peed
S q Foot Con t ra c t COOli n g '

Con d i pér Lb i 11 Fe e t
.
- ' ' -

of Con d i S u rf a c e
.

‘m
G
ra t e t ion s . .
t I ns
q
P e r l ou r ) p er ou r
.

H of S
m fij 5
, per S e c .

i n L bs
. °

Au g . 15 0 50 1 37 7 1 1 5 05 4 4 2 96 5 2 -4 5
Au g . 7 1 909
, . 12 8 0 15 6 86 9 0 99 3 96 85 114 7 7
-
0
-
4 8 95
-

Ju l y 3 1 , 1 90 9 . 9 72 1 6 5 05 7 253
-
4 1 1 13
-
.
1 36 2 -
4 6 30
Ju ly 2 6 , 1 909, 9 23 13 6 52 1 77 5 5 0 38 310 2
2
l 18 4
‘

4 0 70
-
°
°

Ju ly 2 1 , 1 90 9, 9 05 -
2 1 0 74
-
20 5 7 3 0 65 30 9 95 6 0
-
35 1 0
-

Th e S t ifien in g of Fl a t S u rfaces shoul d be by m ea n s Of r ibs cast with i t

whe n of cast i r on or cast b rass a n d 2 5 t h ick n esses apa rt f or cast i r o n a n d
'

4 0 f or tou gh b r ass a n d sheet steel a n d b r ass w hi ch s h oul d have a n gle or ,

f i r o n sti ff e n e r s r ivete d on
-
Malleable fl at su rfa ces c a n be sti ff e n ed b
.

y
 Q UA N T I T Y O F COO LI N G W A T ER . 36 9

co rrugatio n s f o r m ed with it about 35 thick n esses pitch if fai rly d ee p ; if

t h e co r r ugat in g is li ght the pitc h sho u l d be m uc h less
, .

Q u a n ti t y of Coo l in g Wa te r — The n ecessa r y a m ou n t of ci r culati n g wate r

.

m a y be calcu l ated in the sa m e way as that for in j ectio n wate r ( see p .

on the p ri n ciple that the e x haust stea m has a cert a in qua n tity of heat whic h

is to be e x pe n ded in r aisi n g a m ass of sea wate r Of a ce rtai n te m pe r atu re to -

n ea r ly that co rr espo n d i n g t o that i n the co n d e n se r The qua n tity of sea .

wate r will ther e f o r e depe n d on its i n itial te m per atu r e which in actual
, , ,

p r actice m a y va ry f r o m 4 0 in the wi n te r Of te m pe r ate z o n es to 8 0 of the

° °

West I n dies a n d othe r subtr opical seas I n t h e latte r case with a vacuu m .
,

of 2 8 i n ches a pou n d of wate r r equi r es o n ly 20 the r m al u n its to r aise it to

,

while 6 0 a re r equi r e d in t h e f o r m e r Fr o m thi s it is see n that the

_
.

qua n tity of ci r culati n g wate r r equi r e d in the t r opics is thr ee ti m es that Of

the N o rth Atla n tic in the sp r i n g of the yea r .

As bef o r e let T I be te m per atur e Of the stea m on e n te ri n g the co n de n se r

, ,

a n d L the late n t heat TO the te m pe r atu r e of the ci r culati n g wate r a n d Q

°

its qua n tity T2 the te m pe r atu r e of the wate r on lea v i n g the co n de n se r a n d ,

T 3 the te m pe r atu r e of the hot well -

.

The heat t o be absorbed by the cooli n g water is n ow ( TI L) T '

a n d thi s a m ou n t Of heat m ust b e equal to Q ( T To) He n ce .

,

Q
0 3 TI T3
T2 TO

Exa mple .
; the a m oun t of ci r c u l ati n g wate r r equi r ed by a n e n gi n e
Tq fin d
whose stea m e x hausts at 8 lbs p r essu r e absolute the te mpe r atu r e of the
.
,

sea bei n g a n d ( 2 ) the a m ou n t r equir ed whe n the te m pe r atu r e Of the

sea is The te m pe r atur e of t h e h ot well to be a n d t h at of t h e

-

wate r at the discha r ge V acuu m 2 6 in ches The te m pe ratu r e co rr e .

s p on din g to 8 lbs is .

0 3 X 1 83 1 20
26 22 .

1 00 60

That is the wate r r equi r ed is

,
ti m es the weight of stea m .

With the j et co n de n se r u n der si mila r co n ditio n s the qua ntity was o n ly

ti m es ( 0 p . .

( 2 ) Whe n the sea is at 75

°

0 3 x 1 83 1 20
ti m es .

1 00 75

It is usual t o p r ovide pu m pi n g p ower sufficien t t o supply 30 ti m es the weight

of steam f or ge n er al t r ade r s a n d as m uch as 4 0 ti m es for shi ps wo rki n g in
,
-

subtr opical seas As will be sho wn in a n othe r chapte r it the ci rcu l ati n g
.
,

pu m p i s d ouble acti n g its capacity ma y be 5 3 in the f o r m er a n d 41 2 in the

-
,
1
— -
,

latter case of the capacity of the low p r essu r e c y h n de r -

.

Table x liv shows the least weight of coolin g wate r r equi r ed in p ra ctice
.

e r pou n d of stea m e n te r i n g the co n de n se r at a p r essu re of 1 2 lbs absolute

p . .

Modern a ir pu m ps ca n mai n ta i n a vacuu m Of 29 i n ches but it will b e se e n ,

24
 I
S Z E OF P P ES . I 3 7]

If the m a x i mu m flow of wat e r be take n as a n ave r age of 600 in te mpe r ate

z o n es whe r e K d oes n ot e x ceed 6 4 a n d 800 in the t r opics whe n K ma be
,
y ,

1 30 The w e1 gh t of a cubic f oot Of sea wate r bei n g take n at 6 4 lbs

.
-
.

The n volu m e of wate r C X 64 x I H P

. . .

used per mi n ute cubic f eet

60 X 64

Cx I H P . .

cub i c f eet
.

60

C x I H P
of te mper ate zo n e
.

The a rea secti o n

. .

pI
pe _ —
squar e f eet In
60 x 6
.

C x I HP
for
. .

s quar e feet
.

t r op i cal work .

3 0 X 8 00

T h e d l a m et er of the I
p pe
85 4 X 0 785 4

1 65

Or ,
dia m eter of ci rculati n g JC x I H P . . .

water pipes in i n ches 2:

wher e f or Eu r opea n wate r s as tr opical water s 1 1 5 1 3 8, and f or °

-
.

Ex a mple —A shi p i n te n d ed
. to c r oss the equato r is to b e of I HP . . .

h er e n gi n es r equi r e altogethe r 1 6 lbs of St ea m per I H P pe r hou r what . . . .

,

si ze ci rculati n g pipes shoul d she have 2

D ia m ete r J16 x 116 or 15 6 i n ches .

S ize of I n l et an d D isch arg e Pipes

should be such that the flow of wate r *

t h r ough the m whe n the e n gi n es a re wo r k i n g at f ull spee d d oes n ot e x ceed

700 f eet pe r mi n ute I n te m per ate z o n es 7 lbs pe r m i n ute of cooli n g water
. .

pe r I H P is su fficie n t for a t r iple co m pou n d e n gi n e a n d 6 lbs wi ll d o for

-
. . . .
,

a quad r uple e n gi n e or a t r iple wo r ki n g at a f ai r ly hi gh r ate of e x pa n sio n

with 2 75 i n c h es vacuu m but f or t h e s a m e vacuu m i n the t r o pics it will

, ‘

r equi r e 1 2 a n d 1 0 6 lbs ( a Table He n ce . .

I I
é
P
Ar ea sectio n i n let
' ' '

an d discha rge sq . in s .

Wher e C 32 t riple and quadru ple high e x pa n sio n ge n e ral , ,

30 m ode r ate
26 t r opics (if 2 75 vacuu m) .

Extra S u ppl y Cock — To p r ovide for the wate r l ost i n waste leakage ,
.
,

e t c , i t is usual t o fit a s m all cock , th r ough whi ch so m e of the ci r culati n g

.

wate r ma y be passe d to the stea m side of the tubes The pipe for t hi s shoul d .

b e a bout on e thi r d the dia mete r of the m ai n f eed pipe , the velocity of flow
-

bei n g n early n i n e ti m es that usually p r ovi d ed for i n f eed pipes N ow that

'

e vapo r ato r s a r e i n ge n e r al u s e , s o that the waste c a n be m a d e up with fr esh

°

wate r the n ecessity f or such a fitti n g scar ce ly e x ists but as a n e m erge n cy

.
,

p r ovisio n it ma y r em ai n . For r eserve water such a cock is con ve n ie n t .

T h e flow sh ou ld n ot e x ce ed t h e ra t es g i ven b y t h is ru le —
0 = 3 5 0 V d ia me t e r pI pe .
372 MA N UA L or M AR I N E E N G I N EE R LN G .

Man h ol es
-
_
an d Mu d h oles — A ma n hole i s
-
. ecessa ry f or the pu rpos e
-
n

of ad mitti n g m e n t o clea n r ep a i r or tube the co n de n se r a n d s m a lle r hole s

, , ,

should be p r ovided th r ough wh ich mu d scale etc m a y be sc raped out , ,

.
, . .

Peep holes a re so m eti m es f o r m ed in the doo r s especially if they a re la r ge

-

a n d heavy th r ough which the tube e n d s m a

, y b e see n a n d e x a mi n e d These .

latte r a re use ful whe n stea m is con de n sed i n side the tubes to ad mit t h e ,

n o z zle of a stea m j et t o wash away deposit .

D ra in Cock s sho u l d be fitted so that the co n de n se r ma y be tho r oughl y

d r ai n ed when n ot in use .

Testing Thc Ad mi r alty r equ i r e co n de n se r s t o be tested t o 30 lbs per

.
-
.

squa r e i n ch bef o r e bei n g placed in the shi p a n d ma n y stea mshi p co mpa ni e s ,

r equi r e the sa m e test W hil e othe rs a re co n te n t t o test with lowe r p r essur es

, .

To p r ovide for such loads the flat sur faces must be sti ff e n ed in the sa me
,

way as laid dow n f or cyli n der s a n d if fia t sided sti ff e n ed as al r eady pre

, ,
-
,

sc ribed a n d whe n n eces s ar y tied together by stay ba r s etc

, , , , .

Cemen tin g — I t is a good pla n to co v e r the i n side of i r o n co n de n se r s

.
,

wher e the r e is m uch wash of co n de n sed wa t e r with a good coati n g of P o rtla n d ,

ce m e n t a n d u n der the a ir pu m p a n d in the pu m p passages it should be at

,
-

least a quarter of a n i n ch thick .

Eva pora t ors S i n ce the use of stea m of 1 5 0 lbs a n d upwa r ds the e x t ra

.
-
.

s upply fr o m the sea has bee n avoided as mu ch as p oss ible fr esh wate r bei n g ,

carried in ta n ks or double botto m s n ow the e mploym en t of evapo rato r s

is doi n g away with the n ecessity for this a n d p r ovidi n g a lo n g f elt wa n t -

a n d per mi tti n g of the use of wat er tube boile r s a n d m odi fied f o rm s of o rdi n a r y
-

ma r i n e ty pes .
 AI R - P U MPS . 3 73

CHAP T ER XV .

P U MP S .

Air Pu mp
-
The fu n ctio n o
.
— f this pu m p in a ll co n den se r s is to abst ract the
-

w ate r co n den se d a n d the a ir which was co n tai n ed in the wate r whe n it

,

e n te r ed the boile r a n d in the case of j et co n d e n se r s it pu m ps ou t i n additio n -

the wate r of co n d e n satio n a n d the f reed a ir whi ch it co n tai n ed Fu rt her , .

it must wi t hd raw all a ir whi ch leaks i n to the co n den se r .

I t f ollows the n that the si z e of the ai r pu m p m ust be calculated fro m

, ,
-

t he se con di tio n s a n d allowa n ce m ade f or t h e e fficie n cy of t h e pu m p

,
or ,

what 1 s the sam e thi n g the r esult thus f ou n d m ust be m ultiplied by the r atio
,

b etwee n what the pu m p shou l d do theo r etically su pposi n g its actio n pe r fect , ,

a n d what it does actually i n p r actice .

Ordi n a r y s ea wate r con tai n s m echa n ically m ix ed vith it on e twe n tiet h

-
, ,
-

o f its volu m e of a ir whe n u n de r the at m osphe r ic p r essu r e

,
N ow suppose .
,

the p r essur e in a j et co n d en ser t o be 2 po u n ds a n d the atm ospher ic p r essu re ,

1 5 pou n d s n eglecti n g the e fie c t of te m pe r atu r e the a ir on e n te rin g the c on

, ,

d e n se r will be e x pa n ded to g ti m es its o r igi n al volu m e ; so that a cubic f oot

l s
5

o f sea wate r whe n it has e n te r ed the co n de nse r is r ep r ese n ted by a cubic

-

, ,

f oot of wate r a n d of a cubic f oot of a ir

, .

N ow let g be the volu m e of wate r co n de n sed per mi n ute a n d Q the ,

vol u m e of sea wate r r equi r ed t o co n d e n se it ; a n d let T2 b e the te mpe ratu r e

-

of the co n de n se r a n d TlI that of the sea —w ate r :

,

The n ( q Q ) will be the volu me of wate r t o be pu m ped fro m the c on

d e n se r pe r mi n ute a n d ,

°
461
of a ir
*
°
the qua n tity .

T1 461

the te m pe r atur e of the co n de n ser be take n at

If that of sea
and

w ate r a t 6 0 the qua n tity of a ir will the n be 4 1 8 ( q

°
Q ) s o that the total
,

volu m e t o be abst r acted will be

Q)
2

(9 + Q) 4 1 8 (q Q) 1 4 1 8 (q
' ‘

N ow , ifthe ave r age quan tity of i n j ectio n wa te r be take n at 2 6 ti mes

t hat co n de n sed q Q w ill equal 2 7 q
,
.

The r e f or e volu m e t o be pu mped fr o m the co n de n s e r per mi n ute

,

38 q
’

Ex a mple — To fin d the theo r etical capacity of a si n gle —actin g pu mp for

f"Absolu t e Fa hre n h e it
’

-
ze ro poin t
, or poin t of n o h e a t , is 4 6 1
°
be low t h e z e r o of s

t h ermome t e r .
 AIR P U M P S
-
.
3 75

Air Pu mps we r e igi n ally si m ple li ft pu mps havi n g a valve in t he bu ck e t

or
‘

-
,
“
a n d a delive r y or h ead valve at the t op thr ough which was passed the
,

wate r of co n de n sa t io n mi n gled with whi ch was the co n de n sed wate r a n d

,

t h e a ir or n on c on de ns able gaseous m atte r passi n g to the cyli n de r fr o m

-

the bo iler or th at e m an ati n g fr o m the wate r of co n de n satio n be in g p r eviou sly

,

m echa n ically mix ed or i n solutio n with it Th e modu s operan di was si m ple

.

the pu m p bucket descen ded to the bottom of the ( ve rtical ) cha mbe r a n d ,

in so doi n g e x pa n ded such gase ous m atte r as r e m ai n ed locked betwee n it a n d

the head valve u n ti l the p ressu re was less than that in the co n de n se r whe ,

Fig 1 2 2
. .
— Ai r p u m pof Ordi n a ry T ypo
- .

t h re
e fl owe d i n to it the ga s eou s r esiduu m o f the c on d e n s e r a n d the w a te r

u n til t he bucket ceased to m ove a n d the valv e c losed the bucket o n asce n di n g

co m p r e sse d the gases till thei r p r ess u r e was hi ghe r tha n that of the at m o
sp h ere whe n the he a d valve Ope n ed a n d they togethe r wi th the c h a rge of
, ,

wate r wer e delive red i n to a n d sepa rated at the hot well -

.

m and
With t h e H orizon ta l Engin e t h e A ir P u p s
- we r e usually ho r i z o n tal
d ouble acti so th t the bucket n o lo n ge r had a valve ; m o r eove r so m et im es
n
g a ,
-
,

lie a cyli d ic l pu m p cha m be d pist bucket the r e wa s a

in u of n r a r a n on or
3 76 M A N UA L or M AR I N E E N GI N EE R I N G .

lu n ge r passi n g th r oug h a s t u ffin b ox i n the d iaph r a gm sepa r ati n g the back

p g
-

fr o m the f r o n t cha m be r of the pu m p Al thou gh with a well d esign ed ho r i zo n tal

.
-

pu m p in go od wo r ki n g o rd e r quite hi gh vacua we r e so m eti m es m ai n tai n e d as a ,

r ule such pu m ps we r e n ot n ea rly so e ffi cie n t as a ve r tical pu m p They h ad the .

S a m e st r oke as t h e e n gi n e a n d as the valves we r e qui te apa rt fr o m the pu m p

, ,

they could be of a n y r easo n able n u mbe r or si z e A r eturn to s u ch pu m ps .

~

is n o w m ost u n likely f or as a f act eve n h o r i z o n tal e n gi n es had latte r ly

, ,
.
,

ve rtical pu m p s whe n ever possible B u t so m e m ake r s of ve rtical e n gi n es have

.

p re fe rr e d to fit pu m ps wo rked dir ect fr o m the pisto n s o tha t th eir st r oke ,

was large a n d vol u m e clear a n ce s m all but the passages thr ough their ,

buckets is likewise s m all a n d co n se que n tly a sou rce of da n ger with a

,

leaky co n de n se r .

— Ed w a rd s Air pu m p
’
Fig 1 2 3
. .
-
. Bu ck e t a t B ot t om of S t rok e

Th e Sin gle actin g V erti ca l Air pu mp ( fig

-
havi n g valves in the bucket
-
.

as well as f oot a n d deli v ery valves is by f a r the m ost e fficie n t an d when , , ,

possible was ge n e r ally chosen I f the r od of such a pu m p is e n larged or t h e

, .

bucke t has a t r u n k to su rr oun d the r od w hi ch is attached to a j oi n t in its ,

ce n t r e it is t o a certai n e x te n t double acti n g si n ce on the upstr oke it cause s

,
-
,

the cha mbe r in w hi ch it wo rks t o fill on the dow n str oke it d isplaces a n d , ,

co n seque n tly di schar ges a volu m e equal to the volu m e oi the t r u n k a n d on

'

the upst roke discharges the r e m ai n de r I f the sectio n al a r ea of the tr u n k is .

hal f that of t h e buck et ; the discha r ges a r e e qu al a n d the pu m p is vi rtually a ,

double acti n g
-
on e .

Edwards Air pu mp is
i n ge ni ous f o r m of si n gle ac ti n g ve r tical pu m p
’
-
an -

with valves o n ly at the t op to check the discha r ged wate r a n d a ir fr o m

 AI R - P U M PS .
3 77

r etu rni n g t o the pu m p on t h e dow n str oke Fig 1 2 3 shows the ge n e ral
"

. .

d esig n a n d actio n of the bucket or pisto n of this pu m p whe r eby the wate
r ,

a n d a i r a r e ca used t o e n te r the e x h auste d space bet wee n the

h ea d valves -

a n d the bucket These p u m ps a r e ve r y si m ple have the mi ni m u m n u mber

.
,

o f valves w h ich a r e easily e x a m i n e d a n d r eplace d wo r k with the l ea st

,
,

p ossible r esista n ce a n d wea r a n d tea r a n d p r oduce a goo d va cuu m , .

Th e D ou bl e a ctin g Air pu mp ; I t is n ot a lways co n ve ni e n t to have a

- -
.

vertical pu m p in the ho r i z o n ta l e n gi n e a n d co n se quen tly a ho ri z o n tal pu mp,

w a s ge n er ally e m ploye d a n d this was al m ost of n ecess ity d ouble acti n g

, -
.

T h e bucket i n t hi s case wo r ks a ir tight in a s m ooth ba rre l lace d be ea th t he

-

p n

We ir
”

Fig 1 2 4
. .
— Du al Air pu m p ( di rect d riven )
- -
.

co n de n s er a n d has a set of foot a n d d elive ry valves for each e n d S o m e

'

, .

tim es in lieu of a ba rr el a n d bucket a plu n ge r is fitte d pass in g thr ough a

, , ,

s t u ffin g b ox i n the dia phr a gm plate divi d i n g the co n den se r botto m

- -
,
Thi s .

latte r a rr an ge m e n t ge n er ally a d m its of m o r e r oo m for a n d a bett e r d is ,

positi on of the valv e s S om e en gin ee rs a d opted t h is f o r m of t he hori z o n tal

’
'

.
,

pu mp for t win ~s cre w vert ical e n gi n es a n d wor ke d it by m eans of a n ec c en t ric

,

f or m ed on on e of the cr a n k arm s -
.

Weir s D u a l Pu nlps a r e shown in fig 1 2 4 a n d in the diagra m matic f or m

’
.
,

fig l 24 a the fu ll wor ki n g of this i n ge n i ous a n d e ff ective syste m is clea r ly se en

.
.

The r e a r e t w o pu m ps— on e called t h e Wet Pu mp d raws Wa te r a n d s u c h air

 AI R P U M P S
-
.
3 79

to the h ot well or other open r eceptacle but i n to the cha mbe r of the othe r
-
,

pum p betwee n the bucket a n d the hea d valves a n d the n o n ly whe n the te n sio n ,

the r e is low f or a deliver y or n on r eturn valve p r even ts the co n te n ts of t h e -

fir st pu mp whe n at high co m p r essio n flowi n g i n to the seco n d I n this way .

the r e is m ai n tai n ed a two stage de live r y of t h e gaseous p r oducts a n d a s

-

the t w o pu m ps a re wor ked f r o m t he Opposite e n ds of a r ocki n g leve r the ,

dr y pu m p is delive ri n g o n ly whe n the pist on o f the othe r is falli n g a n d e x

pa n din g the co n ten ts of its cha m be r The result is that the co n te n ts of the .

d r y pu m p a re delive r ed at quite a low p ressu r e a n d the whole co m p r essed ,

a n d discha r ged to the h ot well by the wet pu m p The p ressu r e in the wet
-
.

pu mp u n der the s e ci r cu m sta n ces is n ever very low s o th at a n y a ir it gets ,

must b e m echa n ically mix ed with the water whi ch u n der t h e actio n of , ,

gr avity flows i n to the wet pu mp I t is obvious that the wo r k of the t w o

,
. .

p u m ps is quite d i ff e r en t whi le the r e is active c o o e r atio n betwee n the m

p , ;
-

also that thei r e fficie n cy will be high a n d the a ir leakage n ot n ea rly so se riou s ,

as those in pu m ps wher e the di ff e r e n ce in p ressu r e at ever y poi n t is gr eate r .

B u t the seco n d or dry pu mp is so m ewhat m is n amed i n as much as it is supplie d

_ ,

with wate r with which to lub ri cat e the m ovi n g pa rts as well as seal t he m
agai n st a ir leaks a n d i n as much as that water is ver y cold it ser ves the m or e
, ,

i mpo r tan t fu n ctio n of bein g the m ean s wher eby the gases a r e co oled a n d
the pu m p kept cool so that the low v a cu u m d es ire d in it ma y be obtain ed
, .

This wate r is cooled in the pipe coils show n by m ean s of sea wate r a n d is ,
-

r eally a s m all au x ilia r y co n de n se r w hi ch se r ves the sa me pu r pose as t h e ,

fe w d r ow n ed t u bes in the Mor iso n co n d e n se r ( fig .

The f ollowi n g is Mr Wei r s ow n descriptio n of the dual pu m ps a n d thei r

.
’

actio n
Fi g 1 2 4 0 s h ow s in a d ia gra mmat ic f or m t h e a rra n g e me n t of s u rf a c e c on d e n se r,
. .
-

du a l a ir p u m p, a n d in ec ion w a t e r c oole r
-
j t
I n a ll ca se s t h e pu m p A or w e t pu m p
.

t t t
is s i u a e d b elow t h e s t e a m c y lin d e r, a s his p u m p is t h e on ly on e w h i c h w or k s u n d er
an v
y c on s id era ble loa d , t h e d ry pu mp B is d ri en by t h e be a m a n d lin k s in t h e u s u a l m a n n e r .

On e c on n ec t ion C is m a d e t o t h e c on d e n se r, b u t a b r a n c h pipe D is le d t o t h e d ry p u m p,
t h e c on n ec t ion b e in g m a d e in su c h a m a n n e r t h a t h e w a e r w ill a ll pa s s by C1 t o t h e w e t t t
p u mp . t t
B o h pu mps a re ge n e ra lly of t h e h ree a l e m a rin e y pe , bu t in c e r a in c a s e s v v
-
t t
t h e d ry pu mp ma y be of t h e s u c t ion a l e le ss ype v v t .

t t
T h e firs a n d m ost import a n di ff eren c e f rom a n ord in a ry win pu mp c on s is t s in t .

t t
t h e se p a r a e su c ion t o e a ch pu m p, t h en in t h e d ry pu m p dis c h a r gi n g h rou gh t h e re t u r n t .

t v v
p ip e E, h r ou gh a s pri n g loa d e d a l e F, i n o t h e w et pu m p a t a poin be low it s h e a d
-
t t
v va l es . T h e n e x poi n t c on c ern s t h e s u pply of Wa t e r t o t h e d ry pu mp f or wa t e r s e a lin g,
t
cle a ra n c e fillin g, c oolin g, a n d a pou r c on d en s in
g W vh en s t a rt in g t h e p u mp t h e fillin g .

v
va l e G m u s t
be ope n e d f or a m in u t e or s o t o e n a ble t h e ac u u m t o d ra w in a s u pply v
f rom t h e h ot w e ll of t h e w e t p u m p
-
. v v
T h e a l e is t h e n clos ed , a n d t h e w a t e r pa s s e s fr om
t h e h o t we ll of t h e d ry pu m p by t h e pipe H t o t h e a n n u la r c oole r , h r ou gh w h ic h a s u pply
-
t
of c old s e a w a t e r c irc u la e s , a n d a f t e r b e in
-
g t
c o ole d p a s s e s in t o t h e s u c t ion of t h e d ry

t t
p u m p , h en pa s s in g h rou gh t h e p u m p i t b ec om e s h e a t e d a n d a ga in p a s s e s t o t h e c oole r,
a n d s o on in a c on t in u ou s c losed c irc u i , a n
y e t
x c e ss p a ss in g o e r t h e pip e E t o t h e w e t v
pu m p . T h e s prin g loa d ed v v
a l e F is a d u s e d t o m a in t a in a bou
-
j t
2 0 in c h es v ac u u m t
i n t h e d ry pu m p h ot w ell w h e n t h e c on d en se r i s w ork in g a t 2 8 in c h es a c u u m, a n d t h is
-
v
8 in c h e s d i ff ere n c e of press u re is s u ffic ie n t t o c a u s e t h e w a t e r t o o e rc ome t h e c oole r v
t t
f r ic ion a n d pa s s in o t h e s u c t ion , a n d a t t he s a me i m e n e e r a llow a n y d ir e c t a ir c on t v
t
n ec t ion be w een t h e d ry s u c ion a nd d isc h a r e
g t .

Air pu mp In dica tor D iagrams, show n

- e x plai n the actio n of on fig . 1 25 ,
each ki n d of pu m p n ow used on shi pboa r d for e x t racti n g a ir fro m a co n d e n se r .

assu mi n g that the va lve r esista n ce is n il The p ressur e in the co n de n se r 1 9 .

.
 3 80 MA N UAL or M AR I N E EN GI N EE R I N G .

r ep re sen te d by L C that of the ex t e r n al a ir 0 J a n d the head at d eliver y

, ,

a b ove that p r essu r e A H I f n o wate r is passi n g A H will be n il

.
, .

A J i s the e quivale n t clea r a n ce above the bucket a n d D K the full cha m be r , .

Taki n g first a si mple pu m p like the Edwar ds a n d su ppos e the bucket at the ,

t o p of its str oke A a n d the cl ea r an ce spac e cha r ge d with a ir of p r essu r e

,

0 J On d esce n di n g this 1 s e x pa n ded as show n by t h e cu r ve A B D s o tha t ,

the p r essu re in the cha mbe r at the e n d of the str oke woul d be L l) while
,

that in the co n de n ser is L C B u t be f o r e r eachi n g the poin t D the pisto n

.
,

passes the open i n gs in the ba rr el at M whe n the i n flow fr o m the co n d e n ser

"

takes place fr o m M t o C The bucket the n begi n s to rise a n d t h e c om

.
,

p r es sio n of a ir ta kes place on the cu r ve C G u n til the p r essu r e is equal t o ,

that I n the h ot well whe n it co mm e n ces t o d ischarge til l the p ressur e is at H

, .

I f howeve r t h e pum p has valves i n the bucket a n d f oot valves without

, ,
-

c l ea r a n ce u n d e r the bucket the n the f ollo wi n g cycle is f ollowed

, Expa n sio n .

0 1 -
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 3 10 ”

Fig 1 2 5 — I n d ic a t or D ia gra m
. . of Air pu m ps ( T h e ore tic a l)
-
.

'

t kes place above the bu c k e t a s b e f o r e but n ow co m pr essio n be low it also

a ,

t a kes place u n til t h e p r essu r e below is equal to that ab o ve the bucke t — that
is at the poi n t B whe r e the e x pa n sio n cur ve A B i nte r sects the co m p ressio n
, ,

c u r ve F B d u r i n g the r e m ai n de r of the st r oke t h e p r essu r e above a n d below

,

is L C ; the valves close a n d the bucket rises co mp r essi n g the a ir above it

, ,

on the cu rve C G as be f o r e ; but n ow e x pa n sio n takes place below f ollowi n g

‘

t h e cu r ve C E u n til the pressu r e is s o m uch below t h at i n the co n d e n se r

( O F i n thi s i ns ta n ce ) that vapou r a n d a ir flow i n to the cha mb er a n d fin ally ,

fill it at a p r essu r e 0 F a n d so on as be f o r e , , .

I t will be see n that with the sa m e clea r a n ce 0 11 t op of the bucket the

, ,

Ed wa r ds pu m p can n ot p r oduce so good a vacuu m as the co mm o n on e with

f oot valves
-
. As a m atte r of f act howeve r the Ed wa r ds has n atu rally , ,

s m all er clea r a n ce space a n d both ki n ds of pu m p have vi r tually little or n o

,

r eal cl ea r a n ce as the s pace is fille d with wate r The water itsel f howeve r
,
.
, ,
 AI R P U M PS
-
. 38 1

ha s som e a ir in solutio n a n d p robably such as fills the space is fr o t hy

,

the r e will be thus a m o d icu m of gaseous m atte r to e x pa n d a n d the c oole r t h e ,

cha m be r is the less will the e x pa n sio n be He n ce the supply of wate r to seal .

the pu m p a n d fill the spaces s h ould be col d a n d as f r ee fr o m a ir as possible .

Th e Effi cien cy of Air pu mps — The high e fficie n cy of the si n gle acti n g
-
.
-

ve rtical pu m p is d u e t o the ce rtai n ty of its actio n in taki n g the wate r etc “

, .
,

thr ough the bucket valves a n d t o the valves f r o m their positio n so r ea d ily
-
,

closi n g whe n r equi r ed ; the r e is also ti m e for the water to d rai n i n to the
botto m of the pu mp du r i n g its upstr oke a n d collect ther e r eady f or the ,

bucket whe n it desce n ds Mo r eover as the flow is always in on e di r ectio n

.
, ,

the velocity of flow is n ot checked by dive r sio n The wate r always lies on .

the valves so as t o r e n d e r the m a ir tight a n d ther e is ver y little clea r an ce

-
,

space as a r ule betwee n the f oot a n d bucket valves a n d betwee n the bucket
, , ,

a n d head v alves a n d what ther e is co n tai n s wate r a n d the r e f o r e

_ ,
vi rtually , , ,

the r e is n o clear an ce at all for a ir .

The low e fficie n cy of the double acti n g ho ri z o n tal pu m p is caused by

'

the r eve rse of so m e of t h e above co n ditio n s especially by the failu r e of the ,

valves in closin g a n d to the la r ge space betwee n the f oot a n d delive r y valves

, ,

also by le a kage at the gla n d of the r od a n d past the bucket which is o n ly , ,

lub r icated by the water on the botto m a n d in n o s m all degr ee by the ever ,

cha n gi n g di r ectio n of flow The latte r de fect is p r oved by stoppi n g on e e n d

.

of the pu m p whe n it is o f te n f ou n d ( especially i n the case of badly design ed

,

u m ps etc ) that the vacuu m is n ot ve r y m ate r ially alter ed although so m e

p , .
,

ti m es i m p r ov ed The f oot valves a re so m eti m es kept cove r ed with wate r

.

by allowi n g the water to pass back agai n thr ough a pipe fr o m the hot well -

to the pu mp cha m ber -

.

I f an Air pu mp h as n o Foot V a lves or like the Edwa r ds pu m p the

-
, , ,

clear a n ce r eal or vi rtual m ust be such that the r e is a vacuu m in the pu m p

cha m be r supe rio r t o that in the co n de n se r a n app r eciable ti m e be f o r e the e n d ,

of the st r oke s o that so m e of the gaseous co n te n ts of the co n de n se r m a y e n te r

“

it I f ther e f o r e p is the p r essur e to be m ai n tai n e d in the co n de n se r a: the

.
, , , ,

clea ra n ce fractio n of st r oke S the at m osphe ric p r essu r e say 1 5 lbs a n d the
, , ,

weight of the valv e s a n d water head a n d r esista n ce equal t o a n othe r

pou n d then the pu m p m ust co m p r ess on the upst r oke t o a p r essu r e of 1 6 lbs
, .

to deliver its co n te n ts a n d on the closi n g of the valves the p r essur e of gases

,

r e m ai ni n g locked i n the clea r a n ce w ill be 1 5 lbs .

The clea r an ce ( vi rtu al ) must ot b e less tha

n n —
g S t o e ff ect a n y i n flo w
f
at all but as this i n flow m ust co mm e n ce be f o r e the e n d of the str oke a n d
, ,

in the Edwa r ds pu m p the r e m ust be a m uch lowe r pr essu r e tha n i n the

co n de n ser t o ca rr y away co n sider able qua n tities of va pou r a: must be much ,

less tha n
D
$3
u i g the dow
r n
a n d sh ou l d be
56 at m ost
stroke e x pa n sio n of the gases takes p lace u n til the
n-
.
’

p r essu r e is less t ha n th a t below the pist on or buc ket a n d fro m that poi n t to ,

the en d of the st roke the pu m p is bein g charged fr o m the co n de n se r thr ough

the bucket valves : The p r ess u r e of the gases in the pu m p is then
‘

wh i c h
on co m p r essio n m ust be co m p r essed t o1 6 he n ce the r atio of pum p cha mb e r
'

t o its clea r a n ce will be 1 6 whe delive takes place a n d sin ce thi s

p n r
y , ,

115
m ust be be f o r e the en d of the st r oke it f ollow s that 1 m ust be less tha 1 2
,
n
;
 AI R - P U MPS . 383

ca lculatio n c f power a m ea n p r essu r e du r n g the upstr oke Of 6 5 lbs w ill

,
i .

be su fficie n t but it m ust n ot be over looke d that du ri n g about 8 pe r ce n t

, .

t h e r esista n ce is fr o m 1 5 t o 1 6 lbs per squa r e i n ch a n d the r atio of m a x i m u m

.
,

t o m ea n r esista n ce is the r e f o r e as much as 2 4 6 a n d has to be ove r co m e

, , ,

by m oto r or stea m pisto n e mployed t o wo r k the pu mp U n f o rtu n ately t h e .

,

m a x i mu m r esista n ce co m es at the te r mi n atio n of the str oke so that on e ,

c a nn ot fit a cyli n de r with a n ea r ly cut off to the stea m The o n ly r elie f -

.

s o fa r p r ovided 1 3 by wo r ki n g the t w o pu m ps f r o m the opposite e n d s of a

'

r ocki n g leve r or by havi n g t hr ee pu m p s wo r ke d fr o m a th r ee th r ow c r a n k

,
°
s ha f t ha v i n g the c r a n ks a t 1 2 0 apar t The r atio of m a x i m u m to m ea n .

is the n co n si d e rably r e d uced a n d the wo r k of a m oto r co m par atively

,

e asy . T h is latte r i s t h e syste m ge n e r ally f ollow e d i n elect ric ge n e r ati n g /

c e n t r al statio n s ( fig On s h ipboa r d suc h a n i n stallatio n

. be

126 .
—
Mot or -
d ri v e n Air pu m ps ( Ed w a rd s )
-

d r ive n by a low p r essur e tur bi n e taki n g its stea m fr o m the ce n t r i f u gal pu mp

-

cyli n d er e x haust , or f ro m the f eed pu m p whe n Oper ate d by a c y lin d e i as 1 11

-

t h e Wei r type .

Size of Air pu mp — The capacity of th e a ir pu mp should be calculate d

-
.
-

fr o m co n side r atio n of the co n ditio n s u n de r which it i s to wo r k a n d by t h e ,

r ules give n in this a n d the p r ecedi n g chapte r , a n d sui ted to p r acti ce by a n

a llowa n ce m a d e f or the e fficie n cy of the pu m p I f the pu m p is si n gle acti n g .

a n d we ll desig n ed , a n d 1 8 wo r k i n g u n de r f avou r able co n d itio n s i t s e fficie n cy

-
,

ma y be take n at 0 6 ; a n d if the r eve r se of t h is 0 4 ; ge n e r ally its efficie n cy i s

°

about 0 5 so that the si z e in p r actice shoul d be double t h at give n by t h eo

,

r e t ic a l calculatio n The e fficie n c y of the d oub le acti n g pu m p va r i es f r o m

.

0 5 to 0 3 a n d ge n e r ally i s n ot m o r e tha n 0 35 ; i t s s i z e f or good w o r ki n g °

shoul d be ii e a rly thr ee ti m es that give n by t h eo r etical calc u latio n s

,
38 4 MA N UAL OF M AR I N E EN GI N E ER I N G .

He n ce whe n the te mpe rat u r e of t he sea is

,
a n d t h a t o f the ( j et ) c on

de n se r is Q bei n g the volu me of the coo lin g wate r a n d q the c olu me of ,

the co n de n sed wate r in cubic feet a n d n the n u m be r of s tr okes per mi n ute

, .

The volu m e of the si n gle acti n g pu mp -

The volum e of the double actin g pu m p -

4

The Capacity of Air pu mps for a su r face co n de n se r is

-
easy to dete r mi n e -
n ot ,

i n as much as if the co n den se r is tight a n d the s t u ffin g box packin gs of t h e

,
-

m ai n a n d au x ilia r y e n gi n es in goo d wo r ki n g o rde r they have little wo r k t o ,

.

do beyo n d r e m ovi n g the co n d en sed wate r a fte r a vacuu m has bee n established .

Q uite a s mall pu m p the r e for e should su ffice for the r un n in g of a n e n gi n e

, ,

whe n in good wo r ki n g o rde r I t is t ru e that at sta rti n g such a s m all pu m p

.

will take lo n ger t o e x haust the co n d e n se r a n d fo rm a go od vacuu m but the ,

vacuu m whe n f o r m e d will be m ai n tai n ed at less cost tha n with a bigge r pu mp

, , .

B u t i n eve ry day p r actice it would b e f ou n d that with ve r y s m all a ir pu m ps

- -

ther e a re con si d er a ble though o nl y te m po r a ry va riatio n s in the vacuu m

, ,

due to l eakages Of t h e gla n d s of the L P m e m be r s to ad mi ssio n of f resh . .

,

m ake u p f eed wate r or t o leakage fr o m i n atte n tio n to the stee r i n g e n gi n e or

- -

so me ot her au x iliary e x hausti n g to the co n den s e r I f the re f o re the a ir .

, ,

pump is wo rked by the m ai n e n gi n e it m ust be of sufficie n t si z e t o f or m a

“

good vac u um in a sho r t ti m e a n d to r estor e it quickly if te m po r a rily r educe d

, .

I t should be r e m e m be red also that the pu m p which is ba r ely su fficie n t f or

that pu rpose m a y b e a m ple at the r educed spe ed of se r vi ce i n as m uch as ,

the capacity of the pu m p is f allin g off o n ly in di r ect p r opo rtio n to the n u mbe r
of r evolutio n s w hile the stea m co n su m ptio n is bei n g r educed as t h e cub e
,

of the r evolu t io n s so that at } speed while the capacity is o n ly 2 5

pe r ce n t
a
.
,

les s the stea m co nde n sed is 5 8 pe r ce n t less On the other ha n d it is quit e . .

,

likely th at the pu m p is n ot s o e fficie n t at the lowe r speed due to a ir leakages ,

i n it a n d at t h e gla n ds of the m ai n e n gi n es I f the a ir pu mp is d r ive n by .

-

its own i n depen d e n t stea m e n gi n e or m oto r it m a y auto m atically wo r k ,

at the lowest spee d co m pat able with good vacuu m a n d the r e fo r e this , , ,

syste m is the bette ron e f or all i n stallatio n s of la r ge r ecip r ocato rs n ot w it h .

,

sta n din g that powe r de r ived fro m the m is ge n e rated m uch cheape r tha n is
possi bl ewith a n y au x ilia ry With tu rbi n es the sepa r ately d rive n a ir pu mp
.
-

is a n e c essity .

Th e Air pu mp for a Jet Con denser could be calculated fr o m the co n di ti o n s

- -

u n de r w hi ch it was t o wo r k a n d on fir st p ri n ciples I t was howeve r the .

, ,

co mmo n pr actice of the ea rly m a rin e e n gi n ee r s t o m ake the ve r tical si n gle

acti n g air pu m ps of paddle a n d ge a r ed s cr ew e n gi n es w ith a dia mete r h al f
- -

that Of the stea m cylin de r a n d a st r oke hal f that of the e n gi n e so that the
, ,

r ule r eally was

Capacity of a si n gle ac ti n g a ir pu m p -
on e eighth that of the ste a m
- -
.

cyli n de r .

With the adve n t of the ho ri zo n tal e n gi n e a n d its double a ctin g pu mp ,

-
,

e n gi n e b u ilde r s va r ied i n thei r p r actice so m ewhat but on the a ve r age t h e ,

Ca pac ity of ho r i zo n tal double acti n g a ir pu mp t h e ca pacity of t h e

- -

stea m cyli n de r .
 A IR - P U M PS . 3 85

The about 0 3 t h a t
d ia m et e r be in g Of the e n gi n e pisto n and the st roke
'

, t he
s a m e as it was d r i ve n di r ect f r o m it .

Th e Air- pu mp of
S u rfa ce- con den sers was m a d e at fir st al m ost as la rge
as that of a j et co n d en se r pa rtly f or f ea r of leakage but chie fl y because
-

these ea rly su rface co n de n se rs we r e fitted so as to be wo rke d on the j et or

-

di r ect co n tact p r i n ciple Co n fide n ce in the sur face co n d e n se r , begotte n fro m

-
.
-

e x p e rie n ce , has cause d all these u n n ecessa r y appu r te n a n ces a n d p r ovisio n s

to be swept away, a n d with the m we n t the big a ir pum p so t h at n ow with -

, ,

pu m ps ope r ated by the m ai n e n gi n es , thei r capacity whe n si n gle acti n g a n d -

ve r tical is ve r y much less tha n f or m e rlv He n ce .

The capacity Of S A a ir pu m p 0 04 that of the L P cyli n de r .

-
. . .

That is the r atio Of L P to pu m p is 2 5

,
. . .

For e x p r ess stea m e r s m aki n g s h o r t voyages such as c r ossi n g cha n n els , .

or t r ips alo n g r ive r s a n d coasts whe r e hi gh speed m ust be attai n ed quickly ,

a n d m ai n tai n ed f or sho r t per iods it m a y b e 2 1 For ca rgo s t e a m ers * or ,

.

passe n ger stea m e r s ma ki n g lo n g voyages t h er e is n o n eed of so la r ge pu mps ,

a n d the r atio i n the m m a y be as high as 3 0 .

Air pu mps opera ted by I n depen den t Means should be such that whe n
-
,

wo rki n g at f ull spee d they ca n q u ickly fo r m a hi gh vacuu m a n d whe n f o r me d

, ,

m a y slow d ow n to that o n ly n ecessa r y t o m ai n tai n it a n d ca r r y away the

co n de n se d water The gui d e to arr iv e at t h eir pr0 pe r capacity as r eally
.
,
~

a lso f or dete r mi n i n g that of the e n gi n e d r ivi n g the m is base d on the qua n tity
.

of wate r co n su m ed U n de r good co n di tio n s a vac uu m of 2 6 in ches c an be

.

mai n tain ed by a pu mp whose capacity is equal to 0 3 cubic f oot f or each

pou n d Of wate r co n de n sed a n d pass i n g t hr ough it per st r oke for ge n e ral
wo r ki n g ; but to p r ovide f or casual leakages 0 5 to 0 6 cubic f oot is a m ore
sa tis facto r y allowa n ce whi le f or hi ghe r vacuu m say 2 8 i n ches 0 8 cubic
, ,

f oot s hould be p r ovi d ed a n d for high e r vacua a n d eco n o mi c e n gi n es as m uc h

,

as 1 cubic foot will n ot be t oo m uch for r apid f o r matio n a n d stea dy m ai n ten a n ce .

Ex a mple — An e n gi n e has a 5 0 i n ch L P cyli n d e r a n d whe n wo rki n g -

. .
,

at 1 00 r evolutio n s per mi n ute dev e lOps co n den ses 1 5 lbs .

of s t ea m r I H P per hou r ; the st r oke of the pisto n is 3 f eet a n d t h at

'

e
p . . .
,

of the leve r d r ive n a ir pu m p is 1 f oot what d ia m ete r shoul d it be f or a

“
- -
,
.

vacuu m of 2 8 i n ches
x 15
He r e the co n su mptio n per st r oke
6 0 x 1 00
The capacity of the pu m p 3 X 0 8 or 2 4 cubic fee t .

The dia m ete r is the r e fo r e ,

21 I n ches .

0 78 5 4
t h e r e h a d bee n th r ee sel f acti n g pu mps i n depe n d e n tly d rive n
If -
at 1 50
r evolutio n s with a st r oke of 9 i n c h es

2 4 x 1 00
The capacity of each pu mp 0 5 33 cubic f oot .

3 X 1 50
0 5 33
Ar ea of each bucket or 07 1 sq f oot .
, or 1 02 sq i n ches
. .

The d ia m ete r of eac h is t h e re for e 1 1 5 i n c h es , , .

N E Co t I t 13
. . asd S omm ns d 2 0 wh
. .t m j
an . rec en en a , s ea e ec t or i s fit t e d t o t h e con d e n s e r

25
 AI R —P U MPS . 3 87

a gai n st the p ressu r e of t h e at m osphe re by the ac t io n of t wo pu mps of t h e

ce n tri fugal type k n ow n as the h ead pu mp a n d p r essu r e pu m p re s pec
,

t iv e ly Th e
. head pu m p wo r ks u n de r the co n de n se r p r essur e both on
the suctio n a n d on the deliver y sides a n d is design ed so that it will pass the ,

r eq u i r ed qua n tity of wate r with a n e x t r e m ely low h ead on the suctio n side

of the pu m p The wate r is discharged fr o m this pu m p i n to a sta n d pipe or

.

r eceive r which p r ovi d es a n atu ral hea d of wa t e r on the i n let side of the
,

p ressu r e pu m p by which t h e wate r is fin ally ej ected agai n st at m ospheric

,

p r essu r e This ar r an ge m e n t m akes it possible to place t h e pu m ps o n ly a

.

fe w i n ches below the level of the co n de n ser botto m a n d to m ai n tai n a per ,

fec t ly r egula r discha r ge at all loads the a m ou n t corr espo n d i n g t o the qua n tity ,

of stea m co n d e n sed .

Or di n ar y ce n t ri fugal pu m ps have b ee n success fully used for the with

’ ‘

d r a wa l of the wate r of co n de n satio n fr o m co n de n se r s both of the su rf ace

a n d j et types but for satis facto r y Oper atio n these pu mps m ust i n variably
,

Fig 1 2 7 — Con d e n ser w i h K in e ic Ai r p u m ps

. . t t -
.

Ai r s u c t ion or ific e on c on d e n ser . 9 P re s su r e pu mp d is c h a r ge to t a n k

. .

Ex h a u s s e a m j e t t t . 1 0 N on re u rn a l e
.
-
t v v .

Air pipe t o k in e ic e ec or
-
t j t 1 1 F e e d w a t e r d eli v ery pipe
.
-
.

j t
.

K in e ic e ec or t . . t -
t
1 2 Floa c on rolle d f ee d d eli er y va lv e v .

S u c t ion pipe t o kin e ic pu mp t . 1 3 K in e t ic a n k

. t .

t
K i n e ic pu m p t o dis c h a rge pipe . 1 4 P re s s u re e qu a lis in g pip e
. .

Co n d e n s e d w a er pipe t o h ea d pu m p t . t t
1 5 Ex h a u s s e a m t o j e t
. .

t t
S a n d p ipe be we e n h e a d a n d pre s s u re
’

1 6 S u r plu s e x h a u st s e a m
. t .

pu m p s .

be placed at a co n side r a ble dista n ce below the l evel of th e co n de n se r : a

co n ditio n which is d i fficul t so m eti m es i mpossibl e of attai n m e n t on s h 1 p . .

boar d .

For m a r i n e use si n gle ce n t ri f ugal pu m ps a re apt t o w o r k ve r y i rr egula rly ,

due t o cha n ges in the r elative levels of t h e c o n d e n se r a n d pu mp co n seque n t

,

on t he m otio n of t he vessel .
38 8 MANUA L or M AR I N E E N G N E ERI IN G .

It is clai med f or the ki n etic pla n t that the ve r tical sta n d pipe betwee n
the hea d a n d p r essu r e pu m p m ai n tai n s a p r actically co n sta n t hea d
on the latte r i r r espective of the m otio n of the vessel a n d that t h e e n e r gy ,

lost fro m the syste m in a n o rm ally d esig n e d i n stallatio n does n ot e x ceed

-

0 0 00 3 ( or th r ee t e n t h ousa n dths ) of the e n e r gy d evelope d by the total stea m

-

which is co n de n se d This bei n g so the the rm al e fficie n cy of the ki n etic

.
,

s yste m of a ir a n d wate r e x tr acti n g pu m ps is e x celle n t

-
.

I t w ill be n oted that the whole of t h e e n e rgy i n the stea m j et also that ,

r equi r e d to d rive t h e a i r a n d wate r e x t r actio n pu m ps is r etu rn e d to t h e

-
, .

syste m e x cept that r equi r ed f or the e x t ractio n of t h e wate r a n d that for

, ,

the co m p r essio n of the e x tr acte d a ir agai n st at mosphe r ic p r essu r e .

With these e x ceptio n s whi ch have bee n p r ove d by e x pe r i me n t to be

,

p ractically n egligible the w h ole of the e n e r gy e x pe n d ed reappea r s in the

,

f o r m of heat i n the ki n etic ta n k whe n ce it is r etu rn e d to the boile r s subj ect

, , ,

of cou r se to suc h s m all losses as a r ise thr oug h r a d iatio n f r o m e x posed su r faces
,
.

B y r e f e rri n g to fig 1 2 7 it will be see n that ra re fica t ion of the co n de n se r

.
,

is e ff ected by stea m j et ( 2 ) f ollowe d by t h e actio n of ki n etic ej ecto r ( 4 ) supplied

with wate r by t h e ki n etic pu mp t h r ough pipe ( 5 ) a n d d ischa rgin g i n to the
ki n etic ta n k

Fi o 1 2 7a
0
.

Wate r of co n de n satio n flows thr ough pipe ( 7) i n to the head pu mp whe n ce ,

thr ough sta n d pipe ( 8 ) to the pr es s u r e pu m p a n d the n ce through pipe ( 9)

'

a n d n o n r etu rn valve
-

( 1 0 ) i n to the ki n etic ta n k The e x cess of wate r in the .

ta n k c o rr espo n di n g t o the f ee d wate r is delive r e d by the ki n etic pu m p t h r ough

-

pipe ( 1 1 ) a n d float co n t rolle d valve ( 1 2 ) i n to t h e feed ta n k whic h m a y be ,

placed ove r h ead .

S evera l T y pes of R otary Air pu mps have bee n i n t r oduced t o stea m use r s
-

with var yi n g success fro m ti m e to ti m e the m aj o r ity of such pu m ps m aki n g

,

use of the actio n of ce n t ri fugal fo r ce on w ate r pa r ticles m ovi n g in s mall

cha n n els in the r otati n g pa r t of the pu mp or p roj ecte d at a hi gh velocit y ,

in thi n fil ms ac r oss the a ir suctio n cha m be r t h e a ir bei n g r e m oved by beco m i n g

,
 P U MP R OD S .
3 89

i m p riso n e d betwee n these m ovi n g pa r ticles or fil m s The d isa d va n ta ges of .

m a n y e x a m ples of this type of pu m p a re sai d to be that

T h e ten d e n c y t o r a pid c loggin g a n d c h ok in g of t h e s m a ll pa ss a ge s w it h d ir t or oil
,
n ec e s s ita tin g t h e f re qu e n t d i s m a n tlin g of t h e p u m p s f or c le a n in
g .

E x tre m e s e n s it iven e ss of t h e pu m p s t o su dd e n c h a n ge s of pres su re in t h e c on d en ser .

G re a t s en s it ive n e ss t o c h a n ge s of t h e w a ter t e m pe r a t u re .

I n a b ili t y t o d ea l s a tisf a c tor ily w it h a n y s e r iou s in c rea se of a ir l ea k a ge a bo e t h e . v

n or m a l fig u re .

L ow t h e r m a l e ffic ie n c y , a ll f r ic t i on al e x p e n d it u r e of en er gy in t h e m ov in g p a rt s
b e in g ge n e ra lly los t t o t h e s y s t e m .

m Au gmen t or was the m ea n s d evised by S ir 0 P a rso n s

’
Pars on s V acu u .

to obtai n the high vacua so co n d ucive t o the hi gh e fficie n cy of t h e tu r bi n e

'

an d so n ecessa r y whe n a L P tu r bi n e is a d de d t o a r ecip r ocati n g e n gi n e t o

. .

i n c r ease the eco n o m y of pow er ge n e r atio n ’

The vacuu m f or b r ake pur poses on a r ailway t r ai n is p roduced by t h e

sa m e m ea n s as he r e p r ovided f or getti n g r id of the gaseous p r o d ucts of a
Co n de n se r ; a n d Mr R o d ge r thi r ty yea r s a go i n t r o d uce d the
. vacuum
”
blowe r f or the pu r pose of f or mi n g a vacuu m i n the co n d en ser of a c om _

ou n d e n gi n e to e n su r e the easy ha n d li n g of that e n gi n e The adaptatio n of

p . .

t h ese m ean s f or ex hausti n g a co n de n se r was m ade by P ar so n s wi t h success ,

a n d h e is able to obtai n quickly a n d m ai n tai n stea d ily quite a hi gh vacuu m , , ,

a n d h ighe r t h a n p ossible f or the sa m e a ir pu m p to attai n without it -

.

B y r e fe r e n ce to fig 1 2 7a it will be see n t h at the a ir pu m p is pl a ced well

.
-

b elow the co n d e n se r so that the r e is a colu m n of water between the m which

, ,

acts as a n a ir seal The a ir ej ector A d r aws fr o m the co n de n se r botto m

.

fr ee f r o m co n de n sed wate r a n d d ischa r ges i n to a s m all au x iliar y co n de n ser

,
.

C w h os e s u r fa c e is o n ly about 5 pe r ce n t that of the m ai n co n de n se r

, In . .

this co n de n ser the gaseous p r oducts a re co ole d a n d f r eed fr o m water vapou r

which is thr ow n dow n a n d d r ai n s away to the a ir pu m p t o which also the -
,

cooled gases a re p r oj ected The di ff e r e n ce in level of the pu m p botto m a n d

.

co n d e n se r botto m 3 to 4 f ee t causes a d i ff e r e nce of l é t o 2 i n ches of vacuu m

, , .

The e j ecto r bei n g always in oper atio n the co n de n ser is kept co n stan tly fr e e ,

fr o m gaseous m atte r w h ich i n ter fe r e s o se r iously with the e fficien cy of the

,

cooli n g su r face whe n p r esen t wi t h wate r vapour B y s u c h m ean s n ot o n ly .

,

is t h e vacuu m m ai n tai n ed hi gh but the cooli n g water r equi r ed is the mi n i mu m

,

qua n tity whe n the e fficie n cy of the sur face is a m a x i m u m .

Pu mp R 0 ds — The ve r tical si n gle acti n g pu m p i n o c illati n g paddle whe e l

s
- -
.

e n gi n es is ge n e r ally wo r ked by a co n n ecti n g r od fr om a c r a n k or by m ea n s -

of a la r ge ecce n t r i c who s e r od passes th r ough a t r u n k cast with the bucket

, ,

a n d co n n ecte d t o a socket fitte d to the bucket a n d secu r e d by a b r ass cap ,

n u t u n d e r n eath or by m ea n s of a leve r as i n fi
, g 20 ,
. .

Ar e a of sectio n of the r od 00 1 X a r ea , of pu mp bucket .

Or in case of a r ou n d r od

Th e d ia m et er of r od x d ia m eter of pu m p .

Whe n two bolts a re fitte d t o co n n ect the br asses et c at t h e e n d ,

. .
,

The dia m eter of e a ch bolt in the body 0 5 6 Xd ia m eter of pu m p '

Whe n the a ir pu m p is of the si n gle actin g type in sc r ew e n gi n es it is

- -

ge n e r ally wo r ke d by m ea n s of a rod eithe r of on e of the z i n c b r o n zes ,

 P U MP B U CK ET S .
3 91

so as to ad mit of
gasket bei n g coiled a r ou n d it or else it is f o rmed like a ,

s t u ffin g box a n d fitted with a gla n d or j u n k ri n g secu r ed by studs a n d n uts

-
,
-
, ,

whi ch pass t hr ough lugs cast with it s o as t o j a m the packi n g tigh t a fte r ,

it has bee n place d in .

Air pu m p s a re so m eti m es fitted with sp ri n g r i n gs a n d j u n k r i n gs si mila r

- -

t o those of a stea m pisto n but m ade of gu n m etal i n stead of cast i r o n

-
, this -

however has bee n but r a r ely do n e a n d the n on ly in very la rge pu mps as in

, , ,

o rdin a r y cases he m p packi n g ser ves the pu r pose ve ry well a n d is much ,

cheape r V e rtical pu m ps will wo r k su fficie n tly well without packi n g ; but

.
,

whe n r equi red b r o n z e R a msbotto m r i n gs a n swe r the pu rpose quite we ll

, .

The dia m eter of the ho ri z o n tal a ir pu mp rod 1 5 X dia m ete r of the -

p u m p 1
3; i n ch .

The r o d s wo r ki n g in t hi s pu m p a re of har d r olled b r o n z e or Mu n t z m eta l ;

the Ad mi r alty n o w p r ef e r the ha rd r olled b r o n z e a n d have the r e f o re s t r uck , , ,

the latter ou t of thei r speci ficatio n s as bei n g t oo so ft f or co n ti n ue d wea r .

Whe n the r ods a re of lar ge siz e they a r e so m eti mes mad e of w r ought i r o n , ,

c ase d with gu n m etal but u n less the r ods a re la r ge a n d lo n g it does n o t pay

-

, ,

to case the m ex cept for the sake of the ha rde r sur face ( a f oot n ote p
,
.
. .

The r od fitti n g i n to the stea m pisto n is of cou rse of w rought stee l a n d -

, , ,

is co n n ected t o the b r ass r od by a b ox coupli n g a n d cotte r s the socket bei n g -

,

f o rm e d with the steel r od in o r de r that the pisto n bucket ma y be d raw n ,

-

ou t f r o m b ehi n d f or e x a mi n atio n without r e movi n g the r od .

The pu mp rod is usually fitted i n to the bucket in a si mi la r m a n n e r to that

-
_

of a pisto n r od the tape r at the e n d being about 1 i n 1 2

-
, .

Pu mp B u ck et s — The f ollowi n g r ules give the di m e n s i o n s of a n o rdi n a ry

.

pu m p bucket of which fig 1 28 is a n e x a m p le
,
.

a; 0 3 X W —
l 01 5 inch .

D is t h e dia m ete r of the pu m p in i n che s .

The thi ck n ess the d isc when solid of

x x .

pe rf o rate d X x .

fl a n ges at edge x as .

m etal a r ou n d r od e n d xx .

the rim X as .

packi n g 11 x x .

r ibs X x .

The b r eadth of the packi n g 4 0 X cc .

depth of bucket at the m i dd le X as .

n u m be r of r ibs one f or each 4 i n ches of dia m ete r ,

.

The b r o n z e li n e r is usually fr o m s i n ch t o 17; i n ch thick or its thick n ess

11 x 0 2 i n ch .

Thi s li n e r is let i n to the cast i ro n botto m a n d m a d e to fit tight at both -

,

e n ds fa cin gs on both li n er a n d botto m b ein g f o rm ed f or that pu r pose these

,

f aci n gs a re m ade with a ve r y slight tape r so as to allow of a little dr a w on ,

fitti n g in ; the li n e r is the n secu r e d by b r ass scr ews passi n g t h r oug h a n d

thr ough The pu m p ba rr els of ve r tical pu m ps a re usually o b o e
.
-
f r n z
5
to ,

1 i n ch thi ck secu r ed to the f ou n datio n or pu m p botto m by fla n ges cast with

,

the m ; the hea d valve bo x es etc a re a lso bo rn e 0 11 the m a n d secu r ed by

-
,
.
, ,

fl a n ges in a si m ila r m a n n e r
’

fig .
3 92 MA N UA L or M AR I N E EN GI N EE R I N G .

Pu mp V a lv es — Th e a r r a n ge m e n t of the valves of a n a ir pu m p is of the

.
-

h igh est i m po r ta n ce for , as h a s bee n state d t h e e fficie n cy of the pu m p t o a

l
,

i
ver y lar ge d egr ee d e pe i d s on it ; especial y is t hi s the case with m oder n
co mpou n d e n gi n es whe r e but a s mall a m ou n t of wate r is pu mped at each
,

str oke A t riple co m pou n d e n gi n e i n dicatin g 2 , 000 ho r se powe r uses about

.
- -

8 cubic f eet of wate r pe r mi n ute , so that f or a si n gle act i n g pu m p , w ith ,

1 00 r evolutio n s of the e n gi n e the a mo u n t p er str oke is o n ly 1 3 8 cubic i n c h es

,

in p r actice howeve r , the pu m p f a ils fr eque n tly to take thi s a m ou n t , a n d

,

s o u n til it accu m ulates be hi nd the f oot valves , n o wate r e n te r s the pu m p

,
.

Aga i n a d ouble acti n g pu m p is sel d o m s o e fficie n t at the fr o n t e n d as it is

,
-

a t the back a n d co n seque n tly , u n til the r e is a glut of wate r , the f r o n t cea ses

i
,

to pu mp Fr on causes of t h is ki n d t r ouble was o fte n e x per ie n ced wit h t h e

.

d ou ble e c t in g pu m p of su r face co nd e n se r s a n d a r e m edy that has a n swe r ed ,

ve r y well i n d eed I n obviati n g thi s I S to co n n ect the space betwee n the valves
to t h e hot well by a pipe about 1 5 the d ia m ete r of the pu m p , havi n g a suctio n
-
'

or n on r etu rn valve fitted to it so that the pu m p is to so m e e x te n t co n ti n u

-

Ou s ly c h a r ge d w ith wate r .

The r e a r e ce r tai n co n d itio n s t h at should be m ost ca r e fully obse r ve d in

a r r a n gi n g the valves a n d t h ey a re .

( l ) The foot valve s h ould be i n such positio n that the wate r r eadily a
d rai n s by gr avity fr o m t h e co n den se r i n to the pu m p .

( 2 ) Th e valves s h ould be desig n ed so as t o ope n with t h e least possible

p r essur e u n d er the m a n d still r ea d ily close on the r etu rn st r oke of the pum p
, .

( 3 ) The flow fr o m the co n de n ser to the hot well should be as di r ect a s -

possible— that is the r e s h oul d be as little cha n ge as possible i n the di r ectio n

,

-
a n d n o obstacles so that t h e velocity ge n e r ated at leavi n g the co n de n se r

sh oul d n ot be ch eck e d u n til the water is in the h ot well -

.

( 4 ) Th e space betwee n the hea d a n d f oot v a lves of a d ouble acti n g a n d -

the h ea d a n d bucket valves of a ve r tical si n gle acti n g pu m p shou l d be a -

m i n i m u m a n d all r ecesses etc whe r e a ir c a n lo d ge or e dd ies c a n f o rm

, ,
.
, ,

s h oul d be avoi d e d with out f ail .

To d r ai n the co n d e n ser e fficie n tly the f oot valve s h oul d be below its ,

lowest level a n d whe n possible the chan n el f r o m it to the pu m p i n cli n ed so

, , ,

that the water n atu ra lly fl ows in th at d i r ectio n ; all sti ff e ni n g r ibs etc , .
,

shoul d be place d on the outside so as to avoid gutte r s i n w h ic h the water ,

c a n lie .

The f oot valves c a n o nly ope n by the p r essu r e u n d e r the m bei n g gr eate r
tha n that on the m a n d whe n as in the case of sur f ace co n de n se r s the head
, ,
-

of wate r is n ot su fficie n t to d o so it depe n d s e n ti r ely on the pu m p f o r mi n g a ,

better vacuu m betwee n the f oot a n d hea d valves tha n the r e is in t h e c on

de n ser N ow ii the r e be a good vacuu m in t h e co n d e n se r it r equi r es the
.
, ,

full e fficie n cy of the pu m p to p r oduce a bette r on e betwee n the f oot a n d head

valves At m ost the r e c a n be but little di ff er e n ce betwee n the p r essu r e in
.

t h e co n d e n se r a n d that i n the pu m p cha m be r a n d i f t h e valves have m uch -

,

r esista n ce i n the mselves they will cease to act The f ull f o r ce of this is .

bette r app reciate d whe n it is r e me m be r ed that the p r essu re in the pu m p

c h am ber m ust va r y fr o m slightly above at m osphe ric p ressu r e whe n the head ,

valves a re Ope n e d to below that in the co n de n se r in o rde r to ope n the foot

,

valves For this r easo n if t h e space betwee n the h ea d a n d foot valves is

.
,
 P U M P V AL V ES . 393

m or e t h a n fift e e n t h t h e capaci t y o f the pu m p , it is i m poss i ble to obta in

on e -

a goo d vacuu m in the co n d e n se r This clea r a n ce space is vi rtually r e duce d .

by filli n g it wit h wate r ; without such vi rtual r e ductio n ve ry f e w ho r i z o n tal

a ir pu m ps would be capable o f m ai n tai n i n g ov e r 20 to 2 2 i n ches of vacuu m
-

in t h e co n d e n se r .

The m ake r s of the ho ri z o n tal a ir pu m p usually a r r a n ge the f oot valv es -

s o that they a re eit h e r on a ve rtical pla n e seati n g or on on e i n cli n ed so a s

to allo w of the valves ope n i n g easily A b r as s b ox havi n g valves on fiv e

. .
,

O f its si d es , a n d bolte d to the co n de n se r by the si x th s o as to cove r the outlet ,

o r i fice f r o m t h e co n d e n se r to t h e pu m p w a s so m eti m es use d I n t h is way , .

the clear a n ce space is p a r tly fille d a n d fiv e valves c a n wo r k in the space ,

usually o c cupie d by on e thr ee of the valves are i n ve rtical pla n es a n d Ope n

ho ri z o n ta lly, the two othe r s a r e in ho ri z o n t a l pla n es on e Ope ni n g upwa rd ,

a n d on e d ow n wa r d .

The hea d valves shoul d also be car e fully arr a n ged f or altho u gh n ot s o ,

di fficult t o place as a r e the f oot valves , a little wa n t of f o rethought ma y

cause a ba dly wo r ki n g pu m p They should always be s o a rr a n ge d that wate r
.

lodges o n t h e m , s o that in case they leak o n ly wate r a n d n ot a i r escapes -

, ,

back i n to the pu m p the valve seats a n d pa rts adj ace n t shoul d be free fr o m
pockets u n d e rn eath in which a ir c a n collect a n d for t his pu r pose they sho u l d ,

be in the hi ghest p art of the pu m p cha m ber a n d if a n y par t is pa r titio n ed -

,

o ff by a sti ff e n i n g web or fillet a co mm u n icatio n shoul d be m ade f r o m it s

,

top t o the u n de r si d e of the head valves .

S i n ce m i n e r al oil has b ee n use d as the lubr ica n t for cyli n de r s o rdi n ar y ,

i n dia r ubbe r cease d t o be used f or a ir p u m p valves , i n as m uch as that Oil is

- -

a solven t of the r ubbe r Man y atte m pts have bee n m ade t o m an u fa ctu r e a
.

r ubbe r which wil l withsta n d the oil but n o n e of the m have bee n pe r f ectly ,

successful a n d o n ly a fe w have succeeded in p r eve n ti n g the r api d actio n

,
- ~

n oticeable on n ear ly pu r e r ubbe r Man y e n gi n es a r e n ow kept goi n g with .

n o supply of oil i n te r n ally beyo n d what e n te r s with the pisto n r o d s -

.

V u l ca n ite V a l ves — I n dia r ubbe r ca n by a ce r tai n p r ocess be co n ve r ted

.
-

, ,

i n to a har d black substan ce r ese m bli n g ebo n y a n d he n ce so m eti m es called ,

ebom t e this sub s ta n ce is light a n d ve r y str o n g a n d quite i mpe r vious to oil

'

, ,

a n d has bee n use d with g r eat success f or a ir pu m p valves The valves -

.

m ade of vulca n ite ( fig 1 28 a ) a r e ge n er ally ci r cula r a n d flat st r u n g on a

.
,

stu d th r ough the m iddle on which is a fla t b r ass gua r d of the sa m e d ia m eter

,

as the valve a n d again st which the valve li fts bo di ly The wea r of these
, .

valves is ve r y little i n deed V alves of fib r e a r e also fitted in this way

. .

Meta ll ic V a lves — I n the old days t h e a ir —pu m p valves we r e usually of

cast b r ass a n d of lar ge si z e the f oot a n d delive r y valves bei n g hi n ge d or
, ,

flap valves a n d the bucket valve a n n ula r The fl ap valve is still e m ployed
, .

in ca r go ship s whe r e the foot valve is n ot accessible or easily got at a n d ,

a n swe r s t h e pu r pose ve r y well i n dee d it should be of a m ple si z e a n d have ,

ve r y little li ft .

K in gh orn s Pa t en t ( fig 1 29) co n sists of to n gues m ade of ve r y thi n

’
Coe .

r olle d sheet phosp h o r b r o n z e These to n gues or fl aps cove r a gr ati n g in the

.

sa m e way as i n di a r ubbe r a n d a r e fitte d with cu r ve d gua r ds to a d m it of a

-

gr a dual be n d These valves wo r k ve r y well but gr eat car e is n ecessa r y in

.
,

m aki n g a n d setti n g the gua r d so that whe n the valve is Ope n the r e is n o
,

c h a n ge of fle x u r e or an gle on which the flap ca n wo r k a n d gr a d ually b reak .

 P U M P V ALV ES . 3 95

bee n se d for this pu rpose with success Thi n di s cs of b rass a re o ft en u sed

u .

t hey a r e i n e x p e n sive a n d wo r k ve r y well D iscs of fib r e also a n swe r ve r y well

.
.

The valve show n in fig 1 3 1 is si mply a thi n metallic disc without sti ff e ni n g

.
,

of a n y ki n d Whe n ve r y little li ft is give n t o this valve it works ve ry well

. .

a n d r a r ely gets ou t of s h ape sufficie n tly to be se r iously i n e fficie n t I t is .

so meti mes f ortifie d by a s eco n d a n d a thi rd thi n disc each on e s malle r tha n ,

the on e on which it is superposed a n d havi n g hol es t hrough it on a ci rcle ,

of less dia m ete r tha n those in the d isc below it I n this way the lowe r disc .

pe r mits wate r t o flow a r ou n d its e d ge a n d thr ough the holes in it a n d whe n ,

closed the holes in it a re cove red by the n ex t disc a bove it .

B eldam s Pa ten t V a lve ( fig — 1 n this case t h e valves a re m ade of

’

7 .

very t hi n sheet m etal a n d sti ffe n ed by a se ries of ci r cula r co rrugatio n s T his .

valve has a n swe r ed the pu r pose ve ry well f or w hi le m a n t a in in g a n eve n , ,

flat sur face t o cove r the sea i t is elastic a n d c a n give u n de r a n u n fai r p r essu re
,

an d r etu rn to its n o r mal f o rm without pe r m a n e n t disto r tio n .

Area t h rou gh V a l ve Sea ts — The a r ea of ope n i n g past the valves depe n ds

.

on the s i z e a n d v elocity of the pu m p a n d shoul d n ot be less tha n will a d m it ,

the f ull quan tity of water for j et co n de n satio n at a velocity n ot e x cee d i n g

-

400 feet per mi n ute I n actual p r actice the a r ea was ge n e r ally in e x cess of
.

this . I f the f oot valves a re large they will be sluggish in actio n ; if they
a re s mall the velocity of wate r etc will be sufficie n tly high t o r aise the
, .
,

valves a n d keep the m ope n by the e n e r gy of the par ticles strikin g the m ;
this a rgu m en t especially ap plies to the pu mps of su rface co n de n se rs I t .

ma y be n oted that the ve r tical pu m ps of the old j et co n de n si n g e n gi n es -

we r e fr equen tly without f oot valves .

S u ction Pipes from t h e Con den ser t o th e Air pu mp of m a r i n e e n gi n es have -

in the past bee n m ade Ofte n u n n ecessa rily la r ge Ex pe r i me n ts have show n .

t hat ve r y little r eductio n in vacuu m is m ade whe n they have bee n th rottled
.

down t o q u ite s m all a r eas of c r oss sectio n in on e case t o on e te n th of the

-
,
-

origi n al without a n
y r eductio n I f D is the dia m. ete r of the a ir pu m p i n -

i n ches a n d S the st r oke in f eet a n d R t h e n u mbe r of r evolutio n s — that is

,
.

the n u mbe r of li fts pe r m in ute — the n

D ia m ete r of suctio n pipe in i n ches
2
45
1
D ia m ete r of delive ry pi pe in i n ches
5;
3
£
J S XB .

the r e we re n o fea r of a glut of wate r co mi n g ove r at a n y ti m e fro m the

If
a ir pu m p its delive r y pipe m ight be m uch s m alle r but the r e is al ways that
-
,

dan ge r fr o m the tubes splitti n g co rr odi n g or d r awi n g ou t of place or in

, , ,

a se away with a list the re m ight easily be such a glut fro m m a n y co n de n se rs .

The m all suctio n pip e is there fo r e , a m ea n s of sa fety a t a ll ti mes

,
.

2
D
The a r ea thr ough the f oot valves whe n fitted in squa re i n c h es .

I
2
D
Ar ea thr ou gh the bucket valves
1
D 2
x Z
Area thr ough the head valves

Z is the speed of pu m p in f eet pe r m i n ute 2 S X R

“

.
 396 M N A UAL OF M AR I N E EN GI N EER I N G .

An ai r pipe should alwa y s be fitte d

-
the h ot well as hi gh up as possible to -
, ,

a n d its d ia m ete r should be that give n ab ove .

The bucket of a si n gle acti n g pu m p must be su fficie n tly lar ge to ad m it

-

of a valve a r ea th r ough it n ot less tha n give n above To obtai n t hi s they .

,

a r e bette r d esig n ed with a sho r t st r oke although the per i m ete r a n d the ,

sou rce of leakage is the r eby greate r I t is usual n ow a n d certai nl y advisable .

to d elive r t h e wate r fr o m the a ir pu m p i n to a ta n k about 1 2 ti mes t h e capacity

-

of t h e pu m p ; the delive r y pipe is i n d ia m ete r that give n above The .

a ir pipe of t h e ta n k should be about hal f the a r ea i n sectio n

-
The ta n k .

sh oul d have a n ove r flow pipe a n d a glass gauge The suctio n for the feed .

pu mps shoul d be n ea r the botto m a n d fitted with a str ai n e r .

Circu l a tin g Pu mps — Two ki n ds of pu m ps a re e m ploye d to ci r c u l ate t h e

.

cooli n g wate r in the co n de n se r of the m er ca n tile m a ri n e— the o r di n ary si n gle

or d ouble acti n g r ecip r ocati n g pu m p
-
a n d the r ota r y pu m p The si n gle
,
.

acti n g pu mp is usually fitte d t o s m all en gi n es a n d t h e d ouble a cti n g t o ,

-

la rge r o n es The latte r is p r e fe r able t o the f o rm e r but m or e e x pe n sive

.
, .

They a re ge n e r ally wor ked by t h e m ai n e n gi n es but so m eti m es by i n d e ,

pe n d e n t o n es .

Sin gl e a ct in g P u mp — T hi s is used in ve r tical e n gi n es a n d is si m ila r t o

-
.
,

the si n gle acti n g a ir pu m p al r ea d y described I t wo rks ver y well a n d

- -
.
,

whe n p r ovi d ed with a n e fficie n t a ir vessel the fl ow is f ai r ly ste ady I n ve ry

-
, .

s mall e n gi n es a plu n ge r pu m p is use d a n d f o r m e r ly i n ve r te d plu n ge r pu m ps

-
,
-

we r e fitte d to e n gi n es of co n side r able powe r A goo d pet valve which wi ll .

-
,

ad mit a ir to the pu m p but n ot allow the wate r to pass out should be fitted
, ,

a n d likewise a pass valve which ope n s a co mm u ni catio n betwee n the d elive r y

-

a n d suctio n is a r equisite ; the f o r m e r p r eve n ts n oise by p r ovi d in g a n a ir

,

cushio n f or the w ate r a n d the latter checks the supply with out st r ai ni n g
,

t h e pu mp .

D o u bl e a ctin g Pu mps —These give a stea d ie r fl ow of wate r a n d cause

-
.
,

less shock a n d str ai n OII all the wo r ki n g pa rts pipes etc tha n d o t h e si n gle , ,
.
,

acti n g pu m ps ; but eve n t h ese s h oul d be fitte d with pet valves a n d pass -

cocks or valves .

S ize of Circu l at in g Pu mp — The capacity of this pu m p d epe n d s on the

.

quan tity of cooli n g wate r a n d the n u m be r of str okes pe r mi n ute

'

L et Q be the qua n tity of cooli n g wate r i n cubic f eet a n d n the n u m be r ,

o f st r okes e r mi n ute a n d S the le n gth of st r oke i n f eet

p , .

Cap a city of cir culati n g pum p Q

E
cubic feet
7;
.

D ia m ete r i n ches .

Ex a mple To fin d the d ia m e t e r of a d ouble acti n g ci rculati n g pu m p of

— -

a n e n gi n e co n d e n si n g 2 cubic feet of wate r

pe r m i n ute a n d r equi ri n g 4 0 ti m es ,

the a m ou n t of cooli n g wate r ; the st r oke of the pu mp is 1 8 i n c h es a n d the ,

n u mbe r of r evolutio n s 1 2 0
pe r m i n ute .

He re Q 4 0 x 2 or 8 0 cubic feet ; n 1 20 X 2 or 2 40 .

D ia m ete r of pu m p : i n c h es .
 I
C RC ULA T I N G P U M P V AL V E S .
3 97

The s i z e o f the ci rculati ng pu m p is to a la rge e x te n t d epe n d e n t on t h e

s a m e c on d i t I on s that d ete r m i n e the si z e o f the a ir pu m p the e o e
a n d ma f r
-

y r , ,

bea r a co n sta n t r elatio n to the si z e of the a ir pu mp ; a n d si n ce the si ze of -

the a i r pu m p I s o fte n det e r mI n e d by the si ze of the cyli n de r s that of the

-

Ci r culat i n g pu m p m a be f ou n d I n a si mila r ma n n e r Wh e n the ci rculati n g

y .

pu m p is s in gle a ct in g the capacity shoul d be 0 0 3 8 of that of the low p ressu re

-
, .
-

c yl i n de r a n d whe n the c i r culati n g pu m p is dou ble a ct in

.

g 00 2 1
-
,
, .

T AB L E X L V .

D es crip t i on of P u mp . D e scr ip t i on of Eng i n e .

R a t io .

S in g le -
a c t in g , E x pan s i v e 1 5 t o 2 t i me s , .

3 to 5
Comp ou n d , r iple , a n d qu t ad r u p le ,
v
Ex pa n s i e 1 5 t o 2 t i m es ,
3 to 5
Comp ou n d , t r iple , a n d qu adr u p le ,

For high vacuu m in the t r opic s the si z es should be 5 0 pe r ce n t la rge r -

. .

Whe n the a ir pu m p is dou ble a ct in g the capacity of the dou ble a ctin g
- -

,
-

ci r c u lati n g pu m p should be 0 5 2 of that of the a ir pu mp the double acti n g -

,
-

cir culati n g pu m p bei n g m o r e e fficie n t tha n the double acti n g a ir pu m p - -

.

Table x lv giv e s the r atio of capacity of cyli n d e r or c y li n d e rs to that of

.
'

the ci r culati n g pu m p .

Circu l a t in g Pu mp R ods a re m ade of the sa m e m ate rials a n d in the sa m e

-
,

way as f or the a ir pu m p a n d whe n possible t h e r o d s of both pu m ps a re

-

m ade ide n tically alike so that on e spa r e r od se r ves f or both , .

D ia m ete r Of ci r culati n g pu m p r od dia m ete r O f pu m p -

.

Wh e n the pu m p is d ouble acti n g or of co mpar atively lo n g st roke -

, ,

0 2 2 X dia m ete r of pu m p i n ch .

Circu lat in g Pu mp B u Ck et —Whe n S i n gle acti n g it is S i mila r to that of .

-

the a ir pu m p a n d whe n double acti n g it is si m ply a pisto n of b r ass

-

, ,
-
.

Althou gh it is usual to pack these pu m ps with he m p gasket or b r o n ze

r i n gs the r e is n o n ecessity f or this
,
si n ce the water flows freely i n to the ,

pu m p by gr avity a n d the pu m p m oves too quickly to allow of m u ch leakage

,

past the piston Man y e n gi n ee r s n ow dispe n se with packi n g a n d S i m ply

.
,

m ake the pisto n a fai r ly g ood fit in the ba r r el ; while othe r s tu rn eithe r a

spi r al gr oove or a se r ies of pa r allel grooves 0 11 the edge of the pisto n whic h
, , ,

has the e ff ect of keepin g the su rf ace well lub ricated a n d p reve n ti n g leakage
when work in g The fr ictio n of t h e u n packed pu m p is co n si d e r ably less tha n
.

that Of a packed on e a n d in fast r u n n i n g e n gi n es this is n o slight co n si d e r a

,
-

tio n I t m ay b e take n n ow as c er tai n that it is bette r n ot to pack the c irc u

.

lati n g pu m p of a f ast wo rki n g sc r ew e n gi n e a n d packi n g is of doubt ful

-
,

advan tage whe n the e n gi n e is slow wo r ki n g p r ovi ded the pu m p is below -

t h e wate r li n e -
.

Circu la t in g Pu mp V a lves — These a r e al m ost always of t h e best i n dia .

”
r ubbe r a n d of the quality k n ow n as
,
fl oati n g fr o m the fact of the specific ,

r avity f ubbe with o ly s u ch slight a d m i x tu r e o f fo r eig n m a t t e r a s to

g o r r n ,

r e n de r it usable bei n g less tha n that of wate r

,
.
 '

CE N T R I P U G AL P UMP . 399

T he adva n tages of t h e r ota ry pu m p a re

The e r e n o valves etc to i n te rf e r e with the fl ow of wate r or to
( 1 ) r a , .
, ,

get ou t of o r de r .

2 B ei g easily wo ked by n i n depe n de n t e n gi n e of s m all si z e or a

( ) n r a ,

m oto r it is usually s o p r ovided a n d c a n be the n sta r te d be fo r e the m ai n

, ,

e n gi n es a re m oved a n d s o keep the co n de n se r cool du ri n g the p r ocess of

,

w a rm i n g thr ough the cyli n de rs etc a n d also w hi le sta n d i n g , .

, .

( 3 ) H avi n g this i n depen de n t e n gin e the supply of cooli n g wate r is va ried ,

to suit the varyi n g ci rcu mstan ces a n d the powe r re qui red t o wo rk the pu mp
,

v ar ies the n with t h e qua n tity of wate r .

( 4 ) The efficie n cy for low li fts is g r eater than th at of a r ecip r ocati n g

p u m?
( E) The supply of wate r is co n ti n uous a n d e n te r s the co n de n se r without
’

s hock ,
ther eby putti n g n o stress on the casti n gs pipe s etc beyo n d that , , .
,
”
due t o the head .

Fi g 1 33 —
_ . Wh e el of a Cen trif u ga l P u mp .

( 6 ) I t is sily placed in t h e e n gi n e r oo m a n d the abse n ce of a re cipro

ea -
,

c ati n g pu m p wo r ked by the e n gi n e especially in a ho r i zo n tal e n gi n e a d mits

, ,

of a bette r design a n d a r r a n ge m e n t of co n d e n se r a n d a ir pu m p -
.

On the othe r ha n d the ce n t ri fugal pu m p is so m ewhat mo r e e x pe n sive

,

than a n o rdi n ary pu m p a n d requi r es so m e atte n tio n whe n at wo rk ; the

,

latte r obj ectio n is howeve r n ow co n sider ably lessen ed although o n ly by

, , ,

in creasi n g the f or m er .

Centrifu gal Pu mp — This esse n tially co n sists of a wheel ( fig 1 3 3 ) havi n g

. .

thi n van es as arms whi ch act on the water so as to give it a ci r cular m otio n
,

in a cyli n d rical case e n clos i n g the wheel ; this case is p r ovi d ed with a n
e n la r ged c ha m be r a r ou n d it i n to which the water fr o m the wheel is w hi rled
, ,

a n d fr o m w hi ch it escapes th r ough a b r a n ch ta n ge n tial to it ( 0 fi

g . .

The p r i n ciple on which this pu m p wor ks is that a pa rticle movi n g in a , ,

c ir cula r path is u n de r the actio n of t wo fo rc e s on e ta n ge n ti a l a n d the othe r , ,

4 00 MA N UAL or M AR I N E EN GI N EER I N G .

n o rmal t o its path or at r ight a n gles to t h e ta n ge n tial on e whe n t h is latte r

,

f o r ce ce ases to act the pa r ticle m oves away i n a path ta n ge n tial t o the ci rcle
.

at the poi n t whe r e the r etai n i n g f o r ce ceased to act I II the ce n t ri fugal

.

pu m p the pa rticles of wate r fl owi n g i n to the ce n t re of the pu mp a r e g ra d u

,

ally put i n to m otio n a n d whi r le d r ou n d u n til a fte r a S pira l c ou rs e they

,
'

a rr ive i n the oute r c h a n n el a n d t h e r e a re r etai n ed in a ci rcula r cou rse till

.

they r each the outlet whe r e the r etai n i n g or n o rmal f o r ce ceases a n d they
, ,

fl y away ta n ge n tially thr ough the outlet Th e va n es of the wheel a re so me

.

t i m es e n closed betwee n two d iscs oi t h i n m etal to which they a r e attached

,
.

or they fit closely to the sides of the case i n w hich they w o r k .

 CEN T R F G I U AL P U MP . 401

Expe rie n ce has shown that the best f o rm of wheel is on e wh o s e va n es

a r e sic k le s h ape d as s h ow n in figs 1 33 a n d 1 34 a n d the r e is less r esista n ce
-
.
, ,

if the va n es fit the pum p case i n stead of havi n g the e n closi n g d iscs i n as much
-
,

a s t h e se la t t e r have co n side r able fr ictio n on thei r sur faces especially on that

'

n e x t the pum p case

-
.

The outer passage or whi rl cha mber is us ually fo rmed like a s n ail so
, , ,

that its sectio n al area gr adually in c r eases fro m n early n othi n g t o the full
a rea of the d ischa r ge pi pe .

The in let pipe leads from the oute r rim to the ce n tre of the pum p hav in g ,

ge n er ally a passage on eithe r side so that t h e wate r is deliver ed on both ,

sides of the wheel For co n ve n ien ce th ese pu m ps a re so m eti mes d esign e d

.

n ow with the in let at on e side o n l y .

The diam eter of the i n let a n d outlet pipes of a ce n tri fugal pump for
ci rcu l atin g purposes should be such that the velocity of flow d oes n ot e x ceed

w ate r in gallo n s p e r m i n ute ,

D ia m ete r of Pi Pes in in ch e s
'

3 v e lomt y

For tri ple an d quadr uple e n gi n es the f ollowi n g r ule gives a m ple si ze

D ia mete r of p i pe In i n ches

C all shi ps li able to be e mployed in the t ropics a n d r equi ri n g

1 6 f or ,

high vacuu m 2 8 i n ches , .

C 2 5 for s hi ps e m ployed o nl y in te m pe r ate zo n es .

The dia m ete r of the fa n wheel or i m pelle r is usually fr o m 2 & t o 3 ti mes

-

that of the pipes a n d always is su ch that the velocity at its pe riphe ry at full
,

speed is in e x cess of 4 00 f eet per mi n ute a n d ge n e rally fr o m 5 00 to 800 feet , .

The bla d es a re cu r ved as show n that the wate r on e n tr y m a y be gradu ,

ally set i n to ci r cular m otio n a n d cause d to flow i n to the whi r l cha mbe r with
,

as little f o r ce as possible a n d to leav e the i m pelle r also ge n tly

, .

The si z e of the cyli n d er f or d rivi n g the fa n c a n be calculate d fr o m the usual

c o n ditio n s in p r actice its dia m ete r I s ge n e r ally about 2
a n d its st r oke 0 2 5 the d ia m ete r of the im pelle r
*
.

flow is high as it o ften is n owadays f or the purpose of keepi n g high va e u n

,

in su mm e r ti m e the cyli n der m ust be la r ger eve n to the e x te n t of 2 0 per

,

c e n t i n dia m ete r
. .

The i m pelle r should b e always of b r o n z e a n d m a d e as thi n as possible in ,

the blades the spin dle shoul d be of st ro n g b r o n ze or i n co rrodible steel The .

Ad m i r alty re quir e the spi n dl e to be cast solid with the i m peller N o doubt .

the r e is co n side rable da n ge r of it wo r kin g loose if n ot well fitte d a n d secur ed

to the spi n dl e T hi s howeve r ca n be d on e with car e whe n a fo rged or other
.
, ,

stro n g f orm of spi n d le ca n be used whe reas by the Ad miralty m etho d o n ly ,

a castin g with po ssible spo n gy places is allowe d

, ,
.

As these pum ps a re som eti m es r equ i r ed to pum p ou t the bilges a n d

ballast ta n ks it is usual to fit so m e m ea n s of e x h austin g the whe el c as e of
,
-

L a r g e pu m ps s h ou ld h a e c om pou v n d e n g in e s w it h lo w pre ss u re c y lin d er of t h e

a -

l l
s iz e t h u s c a cu a t e d ; t h e h igh pre s s u re -
c y li n d e r s h ou l d be ha lf t h e d ia m e t er w h en t h e
b oile r pr e s s u re i s 1 2 0 lbs a n d u pw a rd s . .
 CE N TR F I UGAL CI R CULAT I N G PU M PS . 40 3

(a ) 1 S et for a B a t t les h ip S H P . . .
( W H Allen )
. . .

1 S e t for R M S . . . Ma u r it a n ia , S H P
. .

Fig l 34 a
. .
— Ce n t rif u ga 1 Ci rc u la t in g Pu mps ( Alle n ) .
4 04 MANUA L or M A RIN E E NGIN EE RING .

in the boile r is to that of sea wate r the n

-
,

The g r oss f eed wate r -

This is t h e a m ou n t of feed wate r w h ich must be pu mpe d i n to the boile r whe n

-

salt wate 1 o n ly is used t o m ai n tai n the salt n ess of n ti m es that of the sea
, .

I f the pu m ps we r e o nl y of su fficie n t si z e to pu m p t h is a m ou n t of wate r ,

a co n sid e r able ti m e would elapse be f0 1 e t h e boile 1 would be fille d to the

wo rki n g level a fte r blowi n g off to m eet this obj ectio n it was usual to
m ake ea ch f eed pu mp capable of pu m pi n g twice this qua n tity t h e r e fo r e
-
,

2 n
Q ua n tity of wate r f or e a ch
‘

pu mp to supply X Q .

, n 1
S i n ce a su r face co n de n se r supp lies pur e wate r for f ee d i n g the boile r a n d ,

t h e waste is n ow m ade up with f r esh wate r eithe r c a r rie d i n t h e ta n ks or ,

distilled fr o m sea water the r e is n ot the sa m e n eed f or blowi n g off the boile r s
-
, ,

the feed pu mps m a y be the r e fo r e ve r y m uch s m alle r t h a n w he n j et c on

-

, ,

de n satio n i s p ractised a i i d a r e ge n er ally of such a si z e whe n wo r ked by the

,

m ai n e n gi n e that ea c h i s capable of d eliv ei in g th r ee ti m es the n et feed wa t er -

,

assu m i n g the m to have a n e fficie n cy o f 1 0 ; the pu m ps whe n both a re .

wor kin g c a n delive r s ix ti mes the n e t f eed which is su fficie n t to satis fy

, ,

a n y e x t r ao r di n a r y de m a n ds

I f Q b e the qua n tity of n e t f eed wate r per m i n ute in cubic fee t I the
.

len gth of st r oke of f ee d pu m p i n f eet a n d n the n u m be r of s t rokes pe r

-

m i n ute ,

D ia m ete r of each
.
f eed -
pu m p plu n ge r in i n ches
If W be the n et feed -
wate r in p oun d s
D ia m ete r of each f eed pu mp plun ge r -
in i n ches
n X l

The followi n g e m pi rical f o rm ula ill give such si z es as w ill be f ou n d in w

p r actice a n d which will closely app r o x i m ate to those give n by the above
,

rul e :
capacity of L P cyli n d e r .

Capacity of each f ee d pu m p
.

G E N E R AL D E S CR I PTI O N . S TE AM CON S P M PT I ON .

S e rv ice . M a in Au x T ot a l . Allow a n ce n

Lb ~ Lb s . L bs . L bs
Ord in a ry c a rgo G e n era l .
Qu a d ru
ple . 1 75
T r i ple s . l4 7°

Pa ss e n g er & c a r
g o, L on a v o a e
y g Q u a d ru ple . l4 o°

Ex pr es s , S h or t T r i ple . 15 5 20 0
Cold z on e , T u r b in e s . 13 O°
1 75
At la n t ic . T u r b in e s . 12 5 18 5

N e t f eed wate r in pou n ds per st r oke a ppi ox im a t ely a rea of pisto n in

in ch es x stroke i n feet x absolute p r essu re at r elease
Ex a mple — To fin d t h e n e t f ee d wate r i n pou n d s for
. an e n gi n e whose
 V A L V ES AN D V A LV E -
B O X ES . 4 05

cyli n de r is 5 0 i n ches d ia m ete r a n d le n gth of stroke 3 feet , , t he pres s u re at

release bei n g 1 2 lbs a n d the r evolutio n s 1 00
.
, per min ute
X 3 X 12
N e t feed w ater per min u t e
-
200 x 2 63 lbs .

All e n gi n es ove r 80 N H P shoul d have .pu m ps each capable of

. . t w o feed -
,

supplyi n g t h e boile r s whe n the e n gi n es a re at f ull spee d ; a n d e a c h pu mp °

should be so a rra n ged that it m a y be wo r ked quite i n depe n d e n tly of the

othe r a n d easily put ou t of actio n w he n n ot r equi r ed This latte r co n d ition
, .

is n ot always co m plied with in p r actice ; but if it we r e so the r e woul d be

the n p r actically a spa r e pu m p a n d o n ly on e in d a n ge r of d e ra n ge m e n t whe n
,

the e n gi n e is at w or k .

The fe ed pu m ps of ve rtical e n gi n es a re usually m oved by the sa m e pa rt s

-

as oper ate the a ir a n d ci r culati n g pu m ps They a re so meti m es fix ed to the .

c r osshead of these latte r pu m ps a n d so m eti m es d r ive n fr o m studs in the ,

si d es of the r ocki n g leve r s Whe n the r e is o n ly on e set of r ocki n g leve r s

.

this l atter pla n shoul d be adopted ; for by placi n g on e pu m p on each si d e

‘

of the leve r ce n t r e they ma y both be used togethe r a n d delive r alte rn ately ,

a n d give a steady fl ow of wate r I n the N avy the use of f eed pu m ps wo r ked

.
-

by the m ai n e n gi n es is e n tir ely disco n ti n ue d a n d in the m e r ca n tile m a ri n e ,

it is f ast beco m i n g the p r actice e specially in la r ge ships t o f eed the boile rs

, ,

by a n i n depe n d e n t pu mp or pu m ps w hi ch a re ge n e rally sel f r egulati n g ,

-
.

I n f act with all f ast r u n n i n g e n gi n es the f eed pu m ps a re bette r detached

,
-

_
-

fr o m the m a n d wo r ked w it h absolutely i n depe n de n t auto m atically c on -

t rolled e n gi n es so that the supply of water is steady a n d n ot in te rm itte n t

, ,

a n d e x actly i n p r opo r tio n t o the de m a n d The usual pla n s for tr eati n g .

the f ee d water a r e the sa m e in p r i n ciple though di ffe r i n g in detail The

-

,
.

wate r is d elive r ed fr o m the h ot well to a r eceivi n g ta n k by the a ir pu mp in- -

the mer ca n tile m a r i n e by a special pu m p in the N avy The f ee d pum ps

,
.
-
,

t w o in n u m be r a n d i n duplicate d r aw f r o m t hi s ta n k at a u n i fo r m r ate u n d e r
,

n or m al ci r cu m sta n ces but if the supply in the tan k f ails the pu m ps a re

,

slowed dow n a n d sto ppe d by a float a rr an ge m e n t co n n ected to thei r stop _

valves I f the f eed is wholly or pa r tially shut off in the boiler roo m the
.
-

e x t r a load that the n co mes on the pu m ps slows the m do wn a n d e v e n tually ,

stops the m if f eed is wholly shut off As a r ule on ly on e of thes e p u mps .

,

wo r ks at a ti m e a n d is capable of supplyi n g t w o to three ti m es the n et feed

,

whe n wo r ki n g f ull speed

R el ief V a l ves should be fitted t o each pu m p whe n wo r ke d by the m ai n
e n gi n e a n d t h ey a r e s o arr a n ged that each m a y wo rk sepa rately ; wh e n
,

they both d eli v er i n to a co mm o n pipe on e rel ie f valve is su fficie n t ; these .

valves should be load e d to 1 1 t ime s t h e boile r p r essu r e

'

V a l ves an d V a lve boxes sh ould always be of b r o n z e

- a n d si n ce the seats

as well as t h e valves wea r ou t r api d ly they should be m ade sepa r ately f r o m ,

the box casti n g of ha rd e r b r o n z e The valves should h ave a seati n g a r ea .

equal at least to 2 0 per ce n t of the valve a n d it is better to m ake the m .

,

flat r athe r t ha n co n ical S o m e en gi n ee r s use b r on z e ball s fitti n g i n to co n ical

.

se ats ; si n ce they a re c o n sta n tly cha n gi n g thei r positio n on the seats these
'

balls wea r ver y sligh tly a n d keep ver y tight Whe n t h e boile r p ressu r e .

did n ot e x cee d 3 0 lbs the valve s of the f eed fpu mps we r e u sually m a d e of
.
,
-

in d ia r ubbe r
-
an d so m e America n en gi n ee rs em ploye d this m ate rial
 FEED - P U MP 4 07

of a n e n gi n e maki n g , 60 r evolutio n s pe r m i n ute . He re 3 2 X 60 X 2 ,

or 2 40 f eet .

6
D ia mete r of pipe —
J240 or 4 i n ches
23
, .

Exa mple .
— To fin d the dia mete r of f eed -
pipe f or an e n gi n e of I HP
. . .

Ja eoo
D ia m ete r of pipe i n ch 35 8 i n ches
18
.

If ther e a re t w o pu mps which delive r alte rn atively the pipes will be t he ,

sa m e si z e thr oughout ; but if the two pu mps ma y d elive r at the sam e t i m e ,

the pipe beyo n d the j u n ctio n of the two fr o m the pu m ps m ust be n ea rly
double the sectio n al a r ea of on e As the r esista n ce of pipes is due g reatly .

t o fr ictio n at the su r fa ce a n d wi ll co n seque n tly va r y as the dia m ete r while

, ,

t h e a r ea o f sectio n va r ies as t he squa r e of the dia m ete r the r esi sta n ce in the ,

s i n gle pipe will be con side rably less tha n the co m bi n ed r esista n ce i n the
two a n d f or this r easo n the sectio n al a r ea m a y be less I n p ractice this a rea
, .

ma y be of the co m bi n ed a r ea of the two H e n ce whe n the r e a r e two .

,

pu m ps deliveri n g togethe r
dia m
,

D ia m ete r of m ai n pip e ete r of each of the b r a n ches .

I f t he r e we r e two pu m ps , as in the fir st e x a mple , delive r i n g togethe r ,

the diam et er of t h e m ai n pipe woul d be 4 x 1 2 6 5 or i n ches , .

Pet V a lves — Although it is p r ej udicial to ad m it a ir t o the f eed wate r

.
-
,

it is so m eti mes n ecessa r y f or the good wo rki n g of all pu m ps to allow a little

a ir t o e n te r betwee n t he valves t o f o r m a cushio n ; t hey a r e howe v e r of n o , ,

use t o a m ode rn feed pu m p -

.

Fee d Tan k — To avoid a n y waste of wate r th r ough the o v E r flo w o r a ir

pipe of the hot well whe n the f eed pu m ps a re te m po r a r ily stopped it is well
- -

t o p r ovide a ta n k i n to which the wate r is discha r ged f r o m the h ot well a n d

,
-
,

fr o m which the feed pu m ps d r aw S uch a n a rr a n ge m e n t is ve r y be n e ficial

-
.

in all e n gi n es a n d especially i n those havi n g s mall h ot wells

,
-
.

Feed pu mp R 0 d — This is of i r o n a n d in the case of hollow plu n ge r

-
.
, ,

pu mp s wor ked fr o m a pin havi ng a ci rcula r m otio n it is j oin ted withi n the ,

pu mp As the plun ge r s of ve r tical pu m ps a re seldo m without wate r in

.

the m a n d di fficult t o e m pty , the j oi n t should be such as will wo r k with

,

water as a lub rica n t This is acco m plished by bushi n g the j oi n t with lig n u m
.

vit ae, a n d e a s in g the pi n s w ith b rass ; or whi te m etal ( Fe n to n s ) bushes -

’

with steel pi n s will do The rod e n d wit hi n the pu m p should be galva n ised
, .
-
,

or othe r wise p r otected f r o m bei n g co rr oded .

Whe n t h e r od is lo n g a n d of i ro n p bei n g the boile r p r essu r e ,

dia m ete r of plu n ge r

D ia m ete r of feed -
pu m p rod
40
x JP
If ofb r ass divide by 3 5 i n ste ad of 4 0
,
.

Whe n the r ods a re sho rt the dia m ete r ma y be of that give n by the ,

above rul es .

The plun ge rs valve bo x es a n d valves a re always of best b r o n z e a n d t h e

,
-
,

pu mp barr el or case m a y be of b ro n z e but in the me rcha n t se r vice t hi s is

-
,

ge n er ally of ca s t i ro n Th e sa me r e m a r k applies t o the a ir vessels escape

.
-
,
4 08 M N A UA L or M AR IN E E N G I N E E R ING .

valves etc The capacity of the a ir vessel shoul d be f r o m 1 5 to 2 x the

,
.
-

c a pacity of the pu mp .

B il ge Pumps — T h ese pu mps which a re f or the pu r pose of fr eei n g the

'

. ,

bil ge of wate r a re so mewhat si mila r in co n st ructio n a n d m ethod of wo rkin g

,

t o t h e fee d pu m ps
-
Although the B oa r d of T r a d e a n d L loyds r equir e that
.

all stea mships s h all have two bilge pu mps wo r ke d by the m ai n e n gi n es -

e x cept in the case of e n gi n es u n d e r 70 they d o n ot speci fy the

ca pacity of these pu mps The r e is n o de fin ite basis of calculatio n f or the
.

si z e of t h ese pu m ps a n d it is ge n e rally at the cap r ice of i n dividual e n gi n ee r s

, ,

m a n y of who m still a d he r e to the old p r actice of m aki n g the m of the sa me

si ze as the fee d pu m p They shoul d n ot be howeve r m ad e less tha n given
-
.
, ,

bv the f ollowi n g r ule

cap a el t y M 1 c y In de r
2
)

capac i ty of b i lge Pu m p
3 0

The Ca pa city of t h e B il ge Pu mps s h ould r eally bea r so m e r easo n able

r elatio n to the d isplace m e n t of the shi p r athe r tha n t o the si z e of the e n gi n es .

T h e f ollowi n g r ule , the r e f o r e , should be f ollowed with this obj ect in view
’

Total bilge pu m p capacity in cubic i n ches 35 x D

D bei n g the displace m en t in to n s .

Ex e mpla — A ship of to n s displace m e n t shoul d have bilge pu mps ’ ‘

whose capacity X 35 or cubic i n ches S uch a shi p if a

,
.
,

ca rgo stea m e r m ight h ave a low p r essu r e cyli n de r 60 i n ches dia m ete r x 4 2
,
-

i n ches st r oke Each pu m p woul d be by r ule 340 a n d the two 6 8 0 ; on the

.
,

othe r ha n d the low p r essu re of a faster shi p might be 72 i n ches a n d the t w o

,
-

be the n cubic i n ches .

The plu n ge r s a re u s u a lly p f b r o n z e but in the m er cha n t se r vice a r e ofte n ,

of cast i r o n a n d as thi s is ha rd e r especially a fte r the ha r d sk in is f o r m e d by

, ,

r ubbi n g they wea r lo n ge r whe n of this m ate r ial

,
Wit h cast i ro n the n eck .

a n d gla n d bushes shoul d be of Fe n to n s m etal to p r eve n t co r r osio n s setti n g

’

it f ast whe n n ot at wo r k .

1 11 the N av y the bilge pu m ps a r e n ow like the f ee d pu m ps quite d etached -

,

f ro m t h e m ai n e n gi n es i n t h e m e r c an t ile m a ri n e whe n the e n gi n es a re r u n

, ,

at a hig h n u m be r of r evolution s the sa m e p r actice is f ollowe d ; but whe n ,

the e n gi n es a re n ot quick r u n ni n g as in ca r go stea m e r s the bilge pu mps , ,

a re,
as f o rm erly wo rke d f r o m t h e m ai n e n gi n es The Ad mi r alty have at
,
.

least on e pu m p set apa rt f or the bilges in each e n gi n e r oo m a n d t his is ge n e ~ -

,

r al ly d o n e i n passe n ge r stea m e r s T h e r e is also in each e n gi n e r oo m a n other

.
-

pu m p whic h m a y be use d f or pu mpi n g out the bilges or f or d ischar gi n g wate r

on deck ; or on e to do t h is se r vice a n d the othe r to pu m p f r o m the sea on

d eck or f r o m t h e sea a n d ta n ks to the boile r s

, .

I n t h e m e r ca n tile m a r i n e t h e val ve bo x es a r e of cast i r o n a n d the valves

,
-

,
”
o fte n hi n ge d clacks which a r e easy r e m oved f or clea n i n g The cove r s
, .

of these bo x es shoul d be so m a d e t h at they m a y be easily a n d quickly r e m oved

a n d r eplace d a n d f or that pu r pose a re so m eti m es hi n ged

, but bet t e r still , ,

hel d d ow n by two h i n ge d bolts fitti n g i n to r ecesses in the cove r .

Th e B oa rd o f T r a d e r e qui r e that on e e n gi n e bilge pu m p shall be a rr a n ge d

to d raw wate r f r o m the sea a n d pu m p it on deck in case of fire Whe n this
, .

d o n e t h e suctio n pipes should be fitted with a th r ee way cock whose

,
-

,
 P O WER TO D RI V E CI R CULA T I N G P U MP S . 4 09

plug has o n ly on e po rt so t h at it ca n n ot be ope n to the sea a n d bil ge at t h e

“

sa m e ti me a n d s o fl oo d the ship Whe n the pipes a re very la rge it i s n ot

,
'
.
,

always co n ve n ie n t to fit such a cock the n a d ouble valve b ox with sel f ,

-

acti n g n on r etu rn valves is substituted ; whe n possible the cock should be

-
,

fitted a s t h e bette r a n d sa fe r pla n .

D irect in g B oxes — I t is requi r ed that the bilge pu m ps shall d raw f r o m

each co m pa r t m e n t of the ship For this pu rpose the suctio n f r o m the .
,

pu m p is co n n ected t o the top of a box co n tai n i n g a se ries of valves by ope n i n g

a n y on e of which a co mm u ni catio n is m ade to a sepa r ate co m pa r t m e n t ;

the cove r of each valve should have on it a label sign i fyi n g t o whi ch c om
pa rt m e n t the valve ope n s a co m m u n icatio n These d i r ecti n g bo x es shoul d .

be placed in such a positio n that they a re eas ily got at a n d above the fioe i ,

platin g whe n possible that the labels m a y be see n a n d the valves ope r ated
, .

Mu d B oxes —B etwee n the di r ecti n g box a n d the pu m p shoul d be fitted

.

a box with a st r ai n e r which shall i n ter cept such solid m atte r as would de ran ge
,

the pu m p valves if allowed to e n te r a m o n g the m They should have cove r s

, .

si m ilar to those of the pu m p valve box es a n d placed in suc h a positio n as

_
-
,

to be easily got at f or clean i n g or e x a min i n g

'

Sa n ita ry P u mp — I n passe n ge r stea m e r s it was usual to have a pu m p

.
,
"

of about a hal f or on e thi r d the capacity of the bilge pu m p which could be

-
,

put i n to gear a n d wo r ked by the e n gin es to discha r ge water on d eck for

, ,

san itar y pur poses ; this duty is n ow ge n er ally pe rf o rm e d by a sepa rate

do n key pu m p .

Ej ect ors — I n the N avy as in the m e r cha n t se r vice stea m ej ecto r s a re

.
, ,

o fte n use d f or clea r in g the e n gi n e a n d boile r r oo m bilges They a re in -

.

p ri n ciple ve r y like the well k n ow n f eed i n j ecto r s without valves or othe r -

i n tern al fitti n gs liable t o d e r a n ge men t fr o m ashes di rt etc They a re

,

.
, ,

star ted a n d s t e ppe d by m e r ely Ope n i n g a n d shutti n g a cock or val v e a n d ,

r equi r e n o atte n tio n whe n wo r ki n g a n d a re co n seque n tly m ost suitable , , ,

f or such a se r v i ce .

Th e Power requ ired t o drive t h e Circu l a ting Pu mps m a y be esti mated by

taki n g the frictio n of the tubes a n d i n let a n d discha r ge pipes allow f or the ,

loss of head due to e n te ri n g a n d leav in g the tubes a n d assu m e the e fficie n cy ,

of the pu m p to be 0 6 a n d the e n gi n e d r ivi n g it 0 6 5 s o that the co mbi n ed

, ,

e fficie n cy is 0 3 9 The hea d to ove r co m e the f rictio n in the tubes ma y

.

2
L X ’
0 L X 11
2
be take n as f eet , whe r e L is the aggregate le n gth of
2g xd 1 07 d
tubes in f eet d the dia m ete r in i n ches a n d g is 3 2 at sea level ; 1) the velocity
, ,

i n f eet pe r seco n d .

For Ex a mple — What head of wate r is n eces s a r y to o v e r co m e the fr ictio n al

r e s ista n ce of 3 0 feet of i n ch tubes the velocity of flow bei n g 8 f eet per
g
'

-
,

seco n d The i n te rn al diamete r

. 0 6 4 i n ch ?

2 8 feet .

The s u m of the oth er r esista n ces m a y be take n as a qua rte r of the above ,

so that the total head r equi re d t o f o r ce wate r thr ough a co n d e n se r with

i n ch tubes so lo n g would be 35 f eet or equivale n t t o a p r essu r e o f 1 5 2 lbs
§~
,
.

per squa r e i n ch .
 P OWER TO D RI V E c c U L AT rN G P u mP s .
411

The wo r k do n e will be weight of wa t e r x 35 foot -

lbs .

W X 35
The n et ho r se powe r
-

Wx 35 W
The g r oss or
x
'

03 9 368

Ex a mple — If the above co n de n se r r equi r es 1 2 000 lbs . Of cooli n g wate r

pe r m i n ute .

T hen I H P. . . or see .

T AB LE XLV I A — FL OW T H R OUG H P I P E S N OT E X CEE D ING 240 V D I AMET ER

.
~

L ON G UN D E R OR D I N AR Y WOR K ING CON D I T I ON S P E R MINU T E

'

Wa t e r 60
°
F
Li ve S t ea m . E x h a u s t S t ea m . Air At mos p h r P re s s .
.

2 00 lb s . P r ess. Ab s . 3 lb s P ress Ab s . . 60
°
F
D i a met er
.

Qu ant it y .
Qu a n t it y .

loc it y .
Qu ant it y .
412 MANUAL O F MARIN E EN GI N E E R 1 N G .

CH AP T ER XV I .

V AL V E S AN D V AL V E G E A R
-
.

STEAM was ad mitted t o a n d r elease d fr o m the cyli n d e r s of the ea r ly la n d

e n gi n es by m ea n s of co n ical valves ope r ated by tappet gea r in such a w a y
.

t h at the stea m valve was sudde n ly open ed a n d as su dd e n ly closed at the

p r ope r ti mes a n d the valve which allowe d the stea m to escape to the c on
,

d e n s ers a n d cl osed be f o r e stea m was ad mitted wo r ke d with the sa m e p r ecisio n

a n d by t h e sa m e m ethods S uch a n a rr a n ge m e n t pe r m its of a high state of
.

e fficie n cy for the stea m but 1 s Ope n to the Obj ectio n that m otio n so su d den
,

is liable to cause shock with m uch wear a n d tea r of the wo rki n g par ts I n .

those ea rly d ays the p ressur e of stea m was o n ly a little above that of the
at m osphe r e a n d the n u m be r of st r okes pe r mi n ute co m par atively fe w so that
,
'
,

leakage pa st t h e valves was i m po rta n t a n d the wea r of the tappet gear ,

n ot so g r eat as m ight be e x pected ; on the whole the ea rly e n gi n ee r s had ,

eve r y r easo n to be satis fied with thei r valve ”gear

T h at such gea r c a n be made t o wo rk well a n d give ge n e ra l satis factio n
is evi d e n t f r o m the f act that it is still e m ployed I n la r ge pu m pi n g e n gi n es ,

which wo r k at 6 0 lbs p r essu r e a n d m ove at m uch hi ghe r speeds tha n

.

f o r me r ly Obtai n ed a n d i n m ode m ti m es in the m a r i n e type la r ge elect r ic

,

ge n e r ati n g e n gi n es at ce n t r al statio n s as well as in all oil e n g 1 n es

, .

Mo d i ficatio n s of this f o rm of valve a n d valve gea ri n g have bee n a dopted -

for m a r i n e pu r poses but n ot with that deg r ee of success at least i n t h is

, ,

cou n t r y as to co mm e n d the m selves to e n gi n ee r s for e x te n d e d a d optio n I n

, .

Am e r ica h oweve r they a re still la r gely e m ployed f or m a r i n e e n gi n es

, , ,

a n d m ost success ful ly so in the va r iou s e n gi n es of r i ve r a n d lake stea m e r s

m ovi n g at co m pa r atively low r ates of r evolutio n

S uch gea r i n g was i m possible in the loco m otive e n gi ne 0 11 m a n y g r ou n d s ,

s o that a n e n ti rely d i ff e r e n t valve was a d opte d to s u it it This valve .

d i ff e r e d f r o m p r evious valves i n m a n y ways but chie fl y in r espect to its ,

m otio n which was a sli d i n g on e

, Fr o m it this f o r m O f valve is called a
.

s li de valve a n d f r eque n tly whe n in its si m le f o r m t he loc omot i ve s li de va lve

p
- -

, , , ,

to d isti n guish it f r o m t h e lo n g a n d sho r t D valves a n d pisto n valves so - -

e n e r ally use d in t h e e n i n es on la n d a n d sea i n the ea r ly pa r t of the n i n e

g g
t e e n t h ce n tu r y which also h a d a sli d i n g m otio n
, .

The loco m otive sli d e valve ( fig -

in its si m ple a n d e x te n ded f o rm s is
.
,

t h e on e m ost ge n e r ally use d in t h e m a r i n e e n gi n e I t co n sists esse n tially .

of a r ecta n gula r block havi n g a ce n t r al cavity the flat ba r s betwee n t h e ,

oute r ed ge at eac h e n d a n d the ce n t r al cavity bei n g s u fli c ie n t ly b r oa d to

cove r the cyli n de r po r ts a n d whe n in its m ea n positio n both po rts a re
,

cove r e d The a m ou n t by which the oute r ed ges ove rlap the po rts whe n in
.

the m ea n positio n is called the la p a n d the a m ou n t by which the valve is

,
 L OCO M OT I V E S LI D E V AL V E -
.
4 13

O pe n w h e n t h e pisto n is at the co mm e n ce m e n t of its st roke is calle d t h e

le a d the space t h r ough w h ic h the valve is m ove d du r i n g hal f a r evolutio n -

of the e n gi n e is calle d the t ra ve l Th e a m ou n t by which the i n si d e e d ges O f .

the va lve ove rlap the po r t is calle d t h e in s i de la p a n d w h e n e a s Ofte n happe n s , ,

i n stead of ove r lappi n g i n si d e the po r t i s sligh tly Ope n to the cavity of the
,

valve the valve is said to h ave n ega t ir e in s i de la p

, .

The ea rly loco m otives m ade by S tephe n so n had like m ode r n stee ri n g ,

e n gi n es little or n o lap a n d little or n o lea d Ti m othy H ackwo rth by

, , .
,

givi n g the valves of his e n gi n es lead a n d lap e ff ecte d a n ear lie r cut Off a n d ,
-
,

co n seque n tly obtai n ed so m e e x pa n sio n Of the stea m ther eby savi n g t h e -

loco m otive f r o m thr eate n ed f ailu r e a n d m aki n g it a co mm e r cial success , .

The e ff ects of lea d a n d la p will howeve r be show n late r on , , .

S ea ward s V a lves — TO get a m o r e pe r fect a rr a n ge m e n t of cut O ff a n d

’
-
.

r e lease tha n i s
pos s ible with on e valve S eawa r d fitte d a separ ate valve a n d ,

po rt s f or stea m a n d e x haust a n d to avoi d the la r ge a m ou n t Of c le a ra n ce

,

which such a n a rr a n ge m e n t would e n tail he used f our valves a stea m a n d , ,

a n e x haust valve f or each e n d of the cyli n de r a n d by placi n g the po r ts close

-
,

to the e n d s of the c y li n d er s r educed the passages t o a m i n i mu m Each , .

valve was si m ply a fl at plate a n d wo r ked by ca m s on the sha ft a n d h ow , ,

Fig 1 3 5 — Comm on L oc om ot iv e S i d e
. l -
v a lv e .

eve r ea r ly stea m valves cut Off the e x haust valves always Ope n e d j ust
t he ,
-

a t the e n d of the st r oke .

Common or L ocomot v S i l id l — Fig 1 3 5 shows t h e m ode r n f o r m of

'

e e va ve -
. .

the va lve a n d it is so well k n own as to r equi r e n o f ur t h e r d esc riptio n S o

,
.

lo n g as the cut off is late r than hal f the st r oke of t h e piston this valve
-
,

a n swe r s ve r y well f or e ng i n es of m ode r ate si z e but whe n a n ea rlie r c u t Off -

is r equi re d su fficie n t Ope ni n g to stea m ca n o n ly be obtai n e d by e x cessive

,

t r avel ea r ly leads , or ve r y b r oad po rts n eithe r of wh ich is desi rable whe n

, ,

it c a n be avoide d L ar ge t ravel of valve m ean s la r ge p owe r to d rive it ;

.

b r oa d po rts p r o d uce t h e sa me r esult by i n c r easi n g the a r ea a n d co n sequ e n tly ,

the loa d on t h e valve ; a n d ea rly lea ds a r e apt to p r oduce seve r e s h ocks on

t h e r o d s f ra m i n g etc a n d t o u n d uly check t h e pisto n
, ,
.
,
.

T rick V a lve — Fig 1 36 shows a n i n ge n ious plan f or Obtai n i n g a double

. .

Ope n i n g to stea m by m ea n s of a passage a r ou n d the valve the e n t r a n ce to ,

w h ich i s at the e n d r e m ote fr o m that at w h ich stea m usually e n te r s a n d

. ,

whose e x it is thr ough the lap or cove r of the val v e I t will be see n that .

the e ff ective sur f ace of the valve e x pos ed to stea m p r essu re is co n si d e rably
r educe d below that of the co mm o n sli d e valve
-
.

D ou bl e port ed V a l ve — This valve ( fig 1 3 7) has a syste m of po rts a n d

-
. .

passages which is a dd e d to the loco m otive sli d e valve to allow of ad miss i o n -

,
 I
P S T ON V ALV E S .
4 15

in d esig n t o t h e d ouble po r ted S uch val v es a re ver y la r ge a n d heavy a n d

-
.

r e qui re a la r ge a m ou n t of powe r to m ove the m ; but they wo r k ve ry satis

fa c t or ily a n d s o fa r have n ot a n y success ful r ivals f or stea m of low p r essu r e
,
-

Whe n use d for the m e d iu m p ressur e cyli n de r of co m pou n d e n gi n es both

.

t reble a n d double po rte d valves r equi r e r elie f plates or fra mes to di mi n ish
-

the lar ge a r ea they e x pose to stea m p r essu r e .

Th e T ravel of Fla t V a lves shoul d be such that thei r m ea n spee d is n ot

mo r e t h a n 200 f eet pe r mi n ute f or the H P cyli n de r n or 2 5 0 f or L P cyli n de r s . .
, . . .

Piston V al ves — N o syste m of r elie f fr a m es or plate s h as yet bee n t r ie d

'
.

which h a s giv e n u n i ve r sal a nd e n ti r e satis fa ctio n ; so m e i n dee d p r oduce

m o r e r esista n ce tha n they h ave bee n desig n ed t o r educe a n d the best ca n n ot ,

be d epe n ded on f or a n y ve r y lo n g pe r io d whe n e x posed t o the te m per atur e

of h igh p r e s su r e stea m
-
The a rea of op en in g of po r t is r est ricted whe n
.

o n ly a co mm o n loco m otive slide valve is used a n d its e x te n sio n s m agn i fy -

the evil which r elie f fra m es a re suppose d t o cur e I t has bee n stated that .

ci r cula r valves of the mu shr oom type do n ot wo r k well in f ast ru n n i n g e n gi n es -

although the y give a good Open i n g to stea m To com bi n e the a d va n tages .

Of the two syste m s the pisto n valve is d esig n ed ( fig The po rt a r ea .

is n early three ti mes that of a flat valve of the sa m e d i m e n sio n t r a n sve r sely,

Fig 1 3 8 — T h e Pi ston S lid e

. .
-
v a lv e .

an d the p r essur e 0 11 the sides due to the stea m is n il Esse n tially the piston .
,

valve co n sists of two pisto n s the f ace Of each bei n g equal in le n gth t o the ba r s
,

of a loco m otive sli d e valve a n d co n n ecte d by a r od

-
These pisto n s a re
,
.

fitted i n to a cyli n d rical cha m be r havi n g por ts co r r espo n d i n g t o those in

the cyli n d e r f ace ; the f aces Of the pisto n cove r these po rts an d have the ,

sa m e a m ou n t Of lap etc as a co mm o n valve S tea m is s o m eti m es ad mi tte d

,
.
,
.

outside the pisto n s a n d it e x hau sts fr o m the cyli n de r i n to the space betwee n
,

th e m a n d fr o m the r e i n to the e x haust passage in the u sual way B u t the

, .

isto n valve pe r mi ts of the stea m bei n g betwee n the pisto n s a n d the e x haust
p
stea m passi n g their outside I n this case the valves a re sai d t o be with .

“
i n side cut off P isto n valves we r e used ve r y ea rly in the n i n etee n t h
-
. .

ce n tu r y especially in m ar i n e e n gi n es a n d f ou n d to be supe r io r t o t h e
, ,
“
L on g D an d S ho r t D valves ; they we r e always of t h e i n side cut
'

off type a n d the n as n ow had the a d va n tage of co n fin i n g the stea m of

, , ,

high p r essu r e t o the ci r cular casi n g su rr ou n di n g the mid dle of the valve ,

s o that n o j oi n t or s t u ffin g b ox was e x posed t o its actio n -

This quality is .

t o day with stea m of r eally h igh p r ess u re a n d high te m pe r atu r e of great

-

, ,

value especially whe n the stea m is r e n d er ed ve r y d r y by supe rheati n g etc

, ,
.
416 M ANU AL O F M ARIN E E NGIN EE RING .

Wh en pisto n s a re su fficie n tly la r ge the y a re co n n ected by a pipe or

t he
hollow casti n g ( as show n in fig t h r ough which stea m ca n pass fr o m on e
.

e n d to the othe r : i f this ca n n ot be acco m plishe d the two e n ds O f the val ve ,

case a re co n n ected by a pipe cast with or co n n ected to it .

S m all e n gi n es whe n fitted with such valves have the m 1 11 thei r si m ple
, ,

f o rm the pisto n s bei n g plai n b r o n z e or cast i r o n discs of the r equi r e d thick

,
-

n ess ge n e r ally cast i n on e piece

,
S uch a f o r m would suit all si zes of e n gi n es
.
,

if always wo r ki n g at high spee d ; but whe n sta n di n g or r u n n i n g slow the ,

leakage past the valve especially whe n it was wo r n would soo n be so c on

, ,

s id e r a ble as to cause se r ious l oss besides m aki n g t h e e n gi n e ve r y u n ha n d y

, .

To avoid this it is usual to pack the pisto n s m uch in the way that o rdi n a r y
pisto n s a re packed e x cept that the j u n k r i n gs a n d fl a n ges a re c h a mfe r e d
,
-

aw a y a n d t h e packi n g r i n gs a r e m ade to p r oj ect fr o m the m so as to allow

,

f ree passa ge to the stea m Th e pa cki n g r i n gs a r e also m ade so m eti m es with

.

a n e x te n sio n so as to e n ti r ely mask the j u n k r i n g a n d fla n ge so t h at the

'

acti n g f ace is at least as lo n g as the bo d y of the pisto n po r tio n of the valve .

The S p r i n g ri n gs a r e m a d e of str o n g cast i r o n a n d si n ce owi n g to the ve ry

-
, ,

slight velocity at whic h the valve m oves the wea r is s m all the r in gs shoul d
-
, ,

have ve r y little s et 0 1 sp ri n g Whe n stea m of hi gh p r essu r e i s i n co n tac t

.

with t h e valves of la r ge si ze the r i n gs should be r estr ai n ed fro m p r essi n g

on the walls a s i n t h e case of pisto n s ( fig
,
The li n e r s in the valve .

box a re usually m ade of cast i r o n fitte d tightly in a n d secu r ed by fl a n ges , .

With supe rheate d stea m a n d also to p r eve n t r usti n g f ast whe n n ot at wor k
,

t h e packi n g r i n gs m a y be of a ve r y ha r d b r o n z e like bell m etal -

.

T h e r e a re d ia gon a l bar s ac r oss the po rts to act as r etai n i n g guides to the

packi n g r i n gs ; these ba s o
r a r e l
usua ly o f r m 3
to i n ches b r oa d a n d take ,

away a b ou t a thi rd Of the g r oss po rtway Th e passage way ar ou n d the li n e r .

m ust be so desig n e d as to allow due a r ea of sect i o n f or the passage of stea m ;

a n d to eco n o m ise S pace a n d r educe the clea r a n ce volu m e they a r e ecce n t ric
, ,

to the li n e r a n d valve To avoid the chie f d e fect in these valves— v ia la r ge

.
,

clea r a n ce space— the valve S houl d be lo n g so that its po r ts a re n ea rlv in ,

li n e with t h ose at the cylin d e r bo r e .

Pisto n valves a r e n ow ve r y ge n e r al a n d p r olo n ge d e x pe r ie n ce Of t h e m , p

has give n the n ecessa ry co n fid e n c e eve n f or thei r m o re e x te n d ed use For , .

stea m of a p r essu r e ove r 1 00 lbs t h ey a re a n ecessity S o m e m a n u fa ctu re r s

. .

use the m f or the low p ress u r e cyli n d e r but f e w e n gi n ee r s wi ll car e to i n cu r

-
,

t h e e x pe n se of t h e m f or a pu r p ose whe r e they a r e ge n e r ally quite u n n ecessa r y .

They a re ho weve r n ecessa r y f or the f ast r u n n i n g e n gi n es such as fitted

, ,
-

i n to r pedo boats d est r o ye r s a n d ve r y high r evolu t io n e x p r ess stea m e r s

‘

, , ,

etc whe r e sa fe co n t i n uous r u n n i n g is of m o r e inrport a n ce tha n e x t r e m e

.

eco n o my T h ey also h ave so m e a d va n ta ges f or v e ry la r ge e n gi n e s whe n

.
o ,

t h e po r t a r ea is so gr eat t h at two valves a r e r equi r e d to a v oid cutti n g away

a n d disco n n ecti n g t h e cyli n d e r e n ds so m uch f rom the bo d y .

R el ie f Fra mes — Th e r es i sta n ce of a flat s lide valve i s al m ost w h olly d u e

.

to t h e f rictio n on its f ace a n d the gr eate r the p r essu r e on the valve t h e

,

g reate r will be the f rictio n T h is is d u e to the f act that the p r essu re on

.

the back Of the valve is o n ly ve r y pa rtially bala n ce d by that on t h e f ro n t .

The co m mo n loco m otive slide valve m a y d u ri n g ce rtai n po rtio n s of its -

st r oke h ave n o p ressu r e at all te n di n g to p ress it off its f ace Just at cut Off
, .
-

it is r elieve d howeve r to the e x te n t of the a rea of on e por t ~bu t this r elie f

, .
'

.
 D OU B LE V A LV ES . 4 17

decreases as soo n as the stea m in t he cy lin de r e x pa n ds : a n d if it e x hausts

be f o r e Ope ni n g at the oute r e n d for stea m its w h ole a r ea is e x pose d agai n ,

t o the f ull a m ou n t p r essi n g it t o its f ace I t will be se e n f ro m thi s that the

.

r esista n ce is eve r va r yi n g a n d this co n ditio n is t rue also of double

, and

t r eble po r ted valves s o that if a defin i te a n d fix ed a rea of the back of the

-
,

valve is s o cove red as n ot to be ex posed t o stea m p r essu r e it does n ot quite ,

meet the case this howeve r is the usu al way in which the valve is r eliev ed
, , .

the a r ea bei n g such that by the bala n ce of p r essu re the valve is always p r essed
t o its f ace . An e x ceptio n to the ru le occu r s in the r elie f a rr a n ge me n t of
the valves design ed by Messr s J I Th orn y c roft . . 00
. These valves have .

a f ace on thei r back si m ila r t o thei r f r o n t wi th r ecesses co rr espo n d i n g t o the

,

orts ; on the back of the v a lVe the r e is a plate whi ch h a s po rts like those
p ,

Fig 1 39 — S elf ba la n c ed V a lve

. .
-
.

on the cyli n de r f ace bea ri n g ge n tly in on e respect the r e f o r e it is as eve n ly

, ,
.

bala n ce d as a pisto n valve .

D ou bl e V a l ves — Fig 1 3 9 shows a n i n ge n ious a rr a n ge me n t by w hi ch on e

. .

valve is m a d e t o bala n ce a n othe r by attac hi n g on e to the othe r a n d as the ,

t w o valves ope r ate f or the sa m e pu r pose each m a y be hal f the si z e of a n ,

or di n a r y valve.

The two valve s a re f ace d up a n d s o set that they a re a slack fit betwee n

,

the t w o f aces whe n col d Th e po r t ways a r e as show n on the diagr a m

.
-
, ,

bolted to the m ai n casti n g on each side a n d fr o m thei r f o r m the pr ess u r e ,

of the stea m i n the valve box c auses t he m t o sp r i n g a n d s o app r o ach on e

-

a n othe r m aki n g the co m bi n ed valve tight on each f ace

, At the same ti m e . ,

the p r essu r e is n ot su fficie n t to cause ve ry gr eat r esista n ce t o the m otio n !

0
 RE LI EF V ALV E S .
4 19

Fig 1 4 2
. .
— Co mmon R elief V alv e .

”
B a d : of Va lv e

Fig . 1 4 3 — S pira
. l -
s prin g P a c k in g t o R e lief Fra me
 M AN U AL O F M ARIN E E N GI N E E R I N G
“

42 0 .

u i g is n ecessa r y it is ha r dly n eed f ul to say is o f co n s ide r able adva n tage

r nn n ,
,

ith the low p essu e cyli de but it is so ecessa y to the m d ru m

W r r-
n r n ot ,
n r e

at all cessa y t the high p essu e cyl i n d e r of a t r i ple e x pa n s i o n

-
r
a n d n ot ne r o r -

lls
e n g1 l

e 8c H o l t s P a t e n t
’
T hi s co n sists of
. a —r ecta gula cast i r o n f ra m e n r -
,

tt g stea tight to h f ace t h back f the valve a n d r ivete d t o

fi in m t
-
e on e o ,

a steel or b r o n ze sheet which is itsel f secu r ed stea m t l gh t to the valve

,
-

The dia h ag m is f s t eel ha d coppe r or p h ospho r b r o n ze a n d on l y

fi
( g .
p r o r ,

Fig 1 4 4. .
—
Ma rt in an d An d re ws V a l ve R elief .

Fig l 4 4 a
. .
— T ra n sve rs e S e ction of Ma rt in an d An d r e w s V a lv e .

18 E . W G thick
. . so allows the fram e t o m ove slightly to suit the
, an d
l
valve T h is is S O m ade that the fra m e is p r essed back about l g i n ch whe n
.
’ ‘

the valve is in place a n d the fr a m e itsel f bei n g e x pose d to stea m p ressu r e

, , ,

is always p r essed agai n st the valve the a r ea e n closed by the fr a m e bei n g

,

the a m ou n t Of r elie f give n t o the valve .

Common R el ief Fra me —The o r di n a r y m ethod of r elievi n g the back of

.

the slide valve fro m stea m p ressu r e is by m ea n s of a fra me of ci rcula r or

-

r ecta n gula r f o r m fitti n g ste a m tight but freely i n to a r ecess in the valve
,
-

, ,
 R E LI E F FR A ME .
421
'

S I D E EL E V AT I O N .
S ECT I ON T H R OU G H MI D D L E OF
V AL V E .

f
Fig 1 4 5
. .
— Ch u r ch s Pa t e n t R e l ie f Fra m e .

A Pla n
. of R e li e f R in g . B . Pla n w it h R in g R e mov e d .
 B ALA N CE I
P S T ON S .

and m e d iu m p r essu re cylin de r of a co m pou n d e n gin e is co n sta n tly var yin g

-

it is bette r especially wh e n the above obj ect is ai med at t o place the bala n ci n g
, ,

cyli n de r outsi d e the b ox a n d supply stea m fr o m the boile r to the u n d e r si d e

,

of the pisto n so that the bala n ci n g f or ce ma y be co n sta n t ; but on t h e

, ,

othe r ha n d si n ce the r esistan ce of the valve va ries with the p r essu re in the
,

valve b ox the r e is n ot the sam e n ecessity for so m uch bala n ci n g f o rce as

-

woul d be the case we r e it othe r wise so that on the whole the pisto n e x posed
, ,

to t h e p r essu r e of the valve b ox is su fficie n t f or the n eeds of m ost e n gi n es

-
.

T he top of the balan ce cy li n de r of the high a n d mediu m p r essu re valves

-
4 24 MANU AL O F MARIN E E N G I N EE R I N e .

should be co nn ected t o the n e x t receive r by a s m all pipe a n d t hat of t h e ,

low p r essu r e valve t o the co n de n se r

- .

Joy s Ass li d — I n the ha n ds of the late D avid Joy the bala n c e

’
is ta n t Cy n er .

is t on with its cyli n de r has bee n t r a n s fo r m ed by a ve r y i n ge n ious a n d si m ple

p
devi ce fr o m m e rely passively suppo rtin g the weight of the valve a n d it s
,

gear to actively aid the lin k motio n in m ovi n g the valve up a n d down
,
.

Fig 1 4 7 shows the m ethod by which thi s was acco m plished at the outset
.

he r e the stea m is ad m itted t o the t op a n d bott om of the pisto n through

”

Pa s s Po r t

as s Por ;

1 4 7a —.Joy s I mprov e d
’
As s is t a n t Cy lin der .

ou s t. B ot t o m

gh AB .

Fig 1 4 7 — o Fig 1 4 7h — I n di c a tor D ia gra m f rom Joy

'
As s is t a n t Cy lin d e r
’
. . s . . .
s

Ass is t a n t Cy li n d er ( fig 1 4 7a )
. .

passa ges in the pisto n itsel f which Ope n t o stea m po rts in the sides of t he
cyli n de r at or n ear the e n d of the str oke The e x haust is also thr ough port s
.

i n the side of the cyli n d e r which a re ope n ed a n d closed by the pisto n itsel f
towa rds the e n d of the str oke Fig l 4 7a shows a n othe r m ethod which
. . ,

Mr Joy called the co m pou n d sys t e m i n as much as the stea m co n tai n ed in

.
,

the body of the pisto n a fte r par tially e x pan di n g on the upstroke is passed
, ,

by m ean s of a recess n ear the top of the cyli n de r i n to the space above the
pisto n so as to e x pa n d the re a n d so i mpel the pis to n dow n ward The ste a m .
 L
V A V E - R OD S on S P N D I LES . 4 255

obtain ed access fr o m the u n de r side to the i n te rio r of the pisto n by m ean s

of a n othe r r ecess n ea r the botto m Th e valve spi n dle r od is r e d uced in .

dia m ete r for so m e little dista n ce below the pisto n a n d passi n g thr ough a
— , ,

sleeve with po r t holes in it d oes duty as a valve for the a d m issio n a n d cut
,

off of ste a m Just be fo r e cut off the pisto n passes the l owe r r ece ss so as
.
-

t o allow its i n te r io r to fill The pisto n f ace in way of the e x haust po rts is
.
,

of cou r se plai n s o as t o co mplete ly cove r the m a n d p r eve n t the stea m i n side

, ,

the p i sto n fr o m passin g t o e x haust .

Fig 1 4 7b shows a set of i n dicato r diagr a ms take n fr o m a n assista n t

.

cyli n de r wo r ki n g u nde r these co n ditio n s a n d they ce r tain ly a re r e m ar kable , ,

con side r i n g the si m ple m ethod by w hi ch the stea m is dist r ibuted a n d r eleased .

These assista n t cyl in de r s have bee n fitte d by seve r al fir m s t o f ast ru n n i n g -

e n gi n es whi ch have of n ecess ity heavy slide valves especially those of the -
,

low p ressu r e cyli n de r The r esu l ts have bee n ve ry satisfacto ry a n d t he

-
.
,

h e a dgoin g ecce n t r ics etc r elieved to a ve r y co n side r able e x te n t f r o m t h e

, , .
,

heavy wo r k en tailed in oper ati n g such valves at a hi gh speed .

V a l ve rods or Spin dles — S i n ce it is possible for a slide valve t o be e x posed

-
.
-

t o the p r essu r e of stea m on its whole a r ea without a n y r eli e f due t o the ,

po rts etc a n d thi s ma y occu r even when the valve is fitted wi t h r elie f fr a m es
, .
, ,

it is bette r to assu m e thi s in maki n g all calculatio n s f or determi ni n g the

'

si zes of the pa rts t o move it .

I f L be the le n gth of a valve a n d B the b r e a dth in i n ches p the m a x i mum , ,

a bsolute p r essu r e t o which it is e x posed i n poun ds per squa r e i n ch the n , ,

Ma xi mu m p ressu re on the valve L X B x )

1 lbs .

The coe fficie n t of frictio n should be take n at or that of m etallic

s u r f aces ru bbi n g togethe r d r y as this is the wo r st co n ditio n likely t o occu r , ,

the n ,

L oad on valve r od 0 2 ( L x B X 19) lbs -

.

S i n ce the spi n dle has t o take st r esses si mila r t o those on a pisto n r od it -

,

m a y be dea lt with in the sa m e way .

A str ess of lbs per squar e i n ch should b e allowed in the case of

.

c o mpa r atively IOn g r ods a n d whe n ve r y sho rt a n d w ell guided He n ce -

.
,

D ia m ete r of slide valve r od -

Wh en the r od is lon g F
short F

Inthe case of the valve of the low p r essu r e cyli n der the p ressure should -
,

be take n at 2 5 lbs absolute as the p r essur e in t h e r eceive r is seldo m as high

.
,

as 1 5 lbs above that of the at m osphe re For co n ve ni e n ce the r o d s f or

. .
,

both hi gh m ediu m a n d low p ressu r e cyli n de r s should be alike a n d c on -

,

se que n tly the si z e should be the la r gest give n by calculatio n fr o m the above
rules .

Whe n the guides of the v alve r od a re above the r od en d fig - -

.

s o that in r eve r si n g the li n k a seve r e be n di n g st r ai n would co m e on the r od ,

it should be som ewhat larger in di am eter in the guide I n cases of this kin d F .
,

s hould be taken at 20 per ce n t less tha n give n by the above rul es for that part . .

g fig pl on rod
L g j ( i n s -

N E Coa t I t E d S r l fo
. . l e pi dl i
s ns . . an i i ch
. u e r va v S n es s n .

2
 V AL V E -
R OD GUI D E S . 4 27

of the li n k m otio n shall n ot o n ly n ot be n d the r od but shall n ot co me on

, ,

t h e gla n d a n d so cause leakage etc thr ough the s t u ffin g b ox T h e ki n d

, .
,
-
.

of guide depe n ds ve r y m uch on the li n k m otio n used as w h a t suits on e f o rm-

is n ot applicable whe n a n othe r ki n d is used The si mplest f o r m co n sists

’

of a cast i r o n b r acket with a n eye bushed with b r o n z e thr ough which the
-
,

r od passes but si n ce the r od soo n wea r s away the bush if subj ect to much ,

s ide pré s s u r e t h is is n ot a satis f acto r y pla n for la r ge e n gi n es

’

,
although a ,

fi g 1 4 9 — P ropor t ion s
. . of a Common V a lve .

Fig 1 4 ga
. .
— P roportion s of a T r ic k V a l v e .

on v e ni en t an d t r ustwo r thy on e f or s m all o n es I f the r od is m ade

f ai r ly .

of la r ge r dia m ete r i n wake of t h e gu i d e a n d pla n e d fl at on the sides which

‘

a r e e x posed to p r essu r e a n d the b r acket fitte d with b r ass li n e r s

,
shape d ,

like a co mm o n key so as t o be secu r ed by sc r ews thr ough the gib e n ds a

, ,

s im ple a n d e fficie n t m ean s is p r ovided f or taki n g all side p r essu r e but the -
,

dr ip fr o m the gla n d is apt to wash out the oil A bette r but m o r e costly .
4 28 M AN UAL or MARIN E E NGIN EE RING .

on e is to fit a b racket to the valve rod above the li n k havi n g a shoe lik e -

,

that of a piston r od a n d ru nn i n g on a g u ide li ke that of a pisto n r od e n d

-
,
-
.

I n la r ge e n gi n es it is fitte d with a slippe r etc f or adj ust me n t ( fig , .

, .

S lot li n ks r equi r e a difie r en t ki n d of guide whe n they wo r k on ove r

h u n g pi ns which was o fte n the case of n ecessity in ho ri z o n tal e n gi n es t o
, , , ,

ob t ai n ec c e n tric r ods of su fficie n t le n gth The n the valve rod is fitte d i n to

-
.
-

the socket of a g u ide piece sha ped s o m ewhat like a bayo n et havi n g a sha n k
-
, ,

of squa r e secti o n a n d wo r ki n g i n a gui d e b r acket fitted to the f r a mi n g .

Proportion s of S lide va lves a r e f ou n d as f ollows -

Let a: be the ou t s i de lap of the valve at the fr o n t en d , a n d 3, that at t he

back en d . The n ,

an dK

Le t z be the i n s ide lap at the fr o n t , a nd 16 th at at the back . The n

2 3
1
an d C
2

To keep the valve as s m all a s possible E n eed be o n ly a li tt le wider tha n ,

the ste a m po rts p r ovided that the hal f t ravel does n ot materially e x ceed
,

the width of b a r .
‘

Th e D ou bl e ported V a lve di m e ns io n s f ollow si mila r r ules t o the above

'
-
.

L e t x y z a n d w be the l a ps as be fo r e
, , ,
The n .

G
‘

“
and K
5

E an d C

g i n ch an d D

ope ni n gs thr ough the valve laps or cove r s m ust be as la rge as possible
Th e ,

but n eed n ot e x cee d the o rdi n ar y Ope n i n g of the valve t o ste a m at the ou t e r
e d ge ; t hen
G+ P = K + N

V a l ve Gear : Lin k Mot ion — The co mm on f o r m of m otio n e mployed t o wo r k .

the valves of a sc r ew e n gi n e co n sists e sse n tially of t w o ecce n t rics keyed on

the c r an k sha ft in such a positio n r elat ively to the c r a n k that whe n on e is
-

ope r ati n g on the valve the e n gi n e will p r opel the ship ahead a n d is said to
, ,

be in hea d gea r a n d whe n t h e oth e r the e n gi n e wi ll p r opel the shi p ste rn

-

, ,

first a n d is said to be in s t e rn gea r thei r r ods bei n g co n n ected by a ba r or

,
-
,

ba rs on w hi ch is a sli d i n g block to which the valve spi n d le is attached T hi s .

ba r co n n ectio n is calle d the li n k a n d is of such a f o r m that by slidi n g it ,

thr ough the block the hea d or s tem ecce n tric m a y at pleasu re be b r ought
,

to ope rate on the valve .

I n desig n i n g a li n k gea r the m ost i m po r ta n t obj ects a r e to give the valve

,

such m otio n s as s hall cause it to ope n to stea m at or s lightly be fo re the pisto n

 LI N x O I ON
M T . 4 29

is at the e n d of its st r oke the a m ou n t by w hich it is ope n a t t h e e n d of t h e

,

s tr ok e or co m m e n ce m e n t of the n e x t st r oke
,
bei n g called t h e lea d of t he ,

valve ; the n to ope n f ully a n d close quickly at the requi r e d pe r iod Of the
, ,

st r oke of the pisto n called cu t oz ? to co n fin e the steam du ri n g he r e mai n i n g-

po rtion of the stroke that it ma y ex pa n d i n the cyli n de r a n d at or j ust be fo re

, ,

the e n d of the st r oke t o allow the stea m t o escape f reely fr o m the cyli n d e r ,

called ex hau s t t o close the po r t agai n so m e ti m e be f o r e the e n d of the st roke ,

so that the pisto n compre s ses the stea m r e mai n i n g in the cyli n de r a n d po rt

t o f o r m a n elastic cushio n for the pisto n etc These ope r atio n s should , .

be e ff ected with the e x pe n ditu r e of as little powe r as possible a n d with ,

this e n d in view the m otio n of the li n k shoul d be as f a r as ca n be li mite d , ,

t o m ovi n g the valve o n ly ; co n seque n tly the li n k itsel f should have whe n ,

in f ull gea r n o slidi n g m otio n lo n gitudi n ally called s lot tin g mot i on in t h e
, , ,

block but o n ly the a n gula r m otio n d u e to the two ecce n t rics A pe rfect
,
.

valve m otio n is such that the valve Ope n s to stea m wide soo n a fte r the c ra n k
has passed the dea d cen tre a n d r e m ai n s wide ope n dur i n g the ad m issio n ,

of stea m s o that ther e I s n o wi r e d r a w i n g

,
the valve shoul d close sudde n ly ,

a n d r e m ai n closed du r i n g e x a n sio n ; a t the en d of the st r oke it should O pe n

p
wide t o e x haust a n d r e m ai n i n that state du ri n g the gr eate r par t of t h e
,

pe r iod of e x haust whe n it should close sudde n ly a n d r e m ai n close d til l

, ,

ope n i n g agai n to steam T hi s is n ot obtai n able with the o rdi n a r y li n k m otio n

.
,

n or to its f ull e x te n t with a n y m otio n whe n on e va lve o n ly is e m ployed f or

both e n ds of the cyli n de r because the pe riod Of cut off at on e e n d does n ot

, ,
-
,

as a r ule co rrespo n d to the pe riod of co m p ressio n at the other en d ; b u t

, .

the r e a re valve gear s which have two pe r iods of ve r y quick m otio n a n d t wo ,

of ve r y slow I n each cycle which ve r y closely ful fils the ab o ve co n ditio n s

a n d w hich will be n ote d late r on .

S l ot Lin k — This which is on e of the oldest fo r m s of li n k is still r e t ai n e d

.
, ,

by m a n y e n gi n ee r s a n d is well adapted t o the ci rcu m sta n ces of seve r al fo rm s

,

of e n gi n e such as the oscillati n g p addle wheel e n gi n e a n d all e n gi n es in

,
-
,

which the r e is n ot di r ect co n n ectio n betwee n the ecce n t r ic r ods a n d the -

valve r od as in so m e of the ho r i zo n tal e n gi n es whe n it is eithe r i mpossible

-

or i n co n ve n ie n t to have d i r ect co n n ectio n I t is also m uch like d by thos e .

r espo n sible f or quick r evolutio n e n gi n es as the r e a re n o n uts t o slack bac k

-

or bolts t o b r eak .

Fig 1 5 0 I s a n illust r atio n of t he o r di n a r slot li n k havi n g m ea n s of adj ust

.

y ,

me n t f or the slidi n g block a n d ecce n t ri c pi n b r asses L oco m otive e n gi n ee rs -

.

r e fe r as a r ule t o have the pin holes fitted with ha r d bushes r athe r tha n
p
-
, ,

a dj ustable b r asses ; but this Opi n io n is n ot sha red by m ari n e e n gin ee r s ,

a n d chiefly on the g r ou n d that i n a f o r eig n po r t it is seldo m possible a n d

n eve r co n ve n ie n t t o e n age the se r vices of wo r k m e n a n d tools to r e n e w

g
these bushes w he n so badly wo rn as to r equi r e adj ustm e n t a n d the re f o r e
_

r e n ewal .

This ki n d of li n k is ge n e ra lly suspe n ded fr o m t he e nd n e x t the head

oi n g ecc e n t ric r od at poi n t in li n e with the a r e t h r ough the block i
’

g a p n ; -
,

a n d if the pin i n the leve r which Ope rates on the li nk to r eve r se it is placed
'

, ,

in the p r o pe r positio n the r e is ve ry little slo tt i n g m otio n i n deed whe n wo r ki n g

,

in hea d ge a r The sa m e r e m ar k applies to the positio n of the pin whe n in

.

s t ern gea r
-
e x cept that the a mou n t of slotti n g m otio n 1 8 so m ewhat greate r
,

of n e cessity but si n ce a m a ri n e e n gi n e as a r ule wo rks ve ry little I n s tem , ,

 DO U B LE -
B AR LI N K S .
4 31

suspe n sio n is in li n e with the cen tr e of block pin whe n in mid gea r When - -
.

thi s is so the pi n s f or suspe n d i n g the li n k a re on si d e plates bolte d to t h e

,

si d es of the li n k .

The d istan ce f ro m ce n t r e t o ce n t r e of ecce n t r ic r od pi n s should n ot be -

less tha n t w o a n d a hal f ti m es the t hrow of t h e ecce n t rics a n d is usually , ,

when space pe r m its two a n d thr ee quar te r s to t h r ee ti m es The t hrow Of

,
-
.

the ecce n t r ics in this case is of cour se equal to the t r avel of the valve whe n
, ,

in fu ll gea r .

S i ze of S l ot Link — L e t D be the dia m ete r of the valve spi n dle R bei n g

.
,

the r evolutio n s per m i n ute a n d F 1 0 R ) f r o m the f ollowi n g

, ,

calculation

D ia mete r of: block

whe n ove r hu n gpin D .

secu r ed at both e n ds 0 75 X D .

ecce n t r ic r od pi n s -
0 7 X D .

su spe n sion r od pi n s -
0 55 x D .

suspe n sio n r od pin whe n over hu n g -

0 75 X D .

B f e a dt h of li n k 0 8 to 0 9 X D .

L e n gth of block to X D ,.

T hi ck n ess of bar s of li n k at middle 07 X D .

I f a si n gle suspe n sio n r od of r ou n d sectio n its dia mete r

-
X D , .

I f two suspe n sio n r ods of r ou n d sectio n thei r dia m ete r

-
0 55 X D , .

The obj ectio n s t o the slot li n k a re that it is a n e x pen sive on e t o make a n d

, ,

that owi n g to the ecce n t ric pi n s a n d the block pi n s bei n g ou t of li n e the r e

,
- -
,

is always a n u n easy m otio n about the block pin a n d m o r e slotti n g m ot I on of -

the block The former Obj ectio n is valid especially whe n the li n k is made
.
‘

of w r ought m ate r ial but whe n the li n k is a steel or b r o n z e casti n g it is n ot s o

,

e x pen sive as so me other f o rm s The u n easy m otio n is of ten due to bad .

design for when well design ed a n d ca r e fully hu n g it will wo rk quite s atis

, ,

f a c t or ily
.

Sin gle bar Lin k

-
This ki n d of li n k co n sists of a si n gle solid ba r of
—
,

recta n gula r sectio n ge n e r ally a n d havi n g the ecce n t r ic r ods co n n ected t o

,
-

each e n d a n d a slidi n g block betwee n t o whi ch the valve S pi n dle is co n n ected

, , .

The f o r m of li n k although t ried by m o r e than on e e mi n e n t fir m of e n gi n ee r s

, ,

was gr ad ually d r oppe d e x cept by the firm that i n t roduced it

,
.

D ou bl e bar Lin k s —The r e a re two ki n ds of double ba r li n ks on e ( fig 1 5 1 )

-
.
-
.

havi n g the eccen t r ic rod e n d s as well as the valve spi n dle e n d betwee n the
-
,
-

bar s so that the tr avel of the valve is less tha n the thr ow of t h e ecce n trics ;
,

the other ( fig 1 5 2 ) has the ecce n t ric r ods f o rm ed w ith f or k e n ds so as t o

.
-

co n n ect t o studs on the ou ts i de of the bars a n d thus ad m its of the block ,

slidi n g t o the en d of the li n k s o that the ce n t r es of the ecce n t r ic r od e n ds

,
-

a n d the block pin a r e in li n e whe n in f ull gea r

-
.

The f o rmer pla n is cheape r t o m ake is s i mple r in co n st ructio n a n d has , ,

f ewe r pa rts t o get out of o rde r a n d adj ust ; a n d whe n adj ust me n t is r equi red ,

it is easie r t o m ake a n d the r e is less c h a n ce of its bei n g do n e i mp r ope rly

,
.

Whe n in hea d gear pa r t of the wo r k of m ovi n g the valve is do n e by the

-
,

s t ern goi n g e cce n t r ic

-
s o that the wea r is n ot li mited to the on e ecce n t r i c
,
4 32 MAN U AL O F M ARIN E E NGIN E ER ING .

st r ap Whe n p r ope rly hu n g the slotti n g m otio n is e x ceedi n gl y s m all a n d

.
, ,

the valve m otio n is as pe r fect a s w it h the othe r f o rm The obj ectio n t o it .

is that the ecce n t r ics a re la rge r in dia mete r tha n those with the othe r li n ks ,

a n d the li n ks the m selves a re lo n ge r a n d m o r e space is r equi r ed for the

,

ecce n tric r ods to m ove in

-
.

S ize of B ar Lin k s — L e t D be the dia mete r of valve sp in dl e fou n d as be f ore

.
, .

Fig 1 5 1
. .
— D ou b le -
ba r L in k wit h R od s in s id e .

Fig 1 5 1 ,
. dista n ce betwee n ce n t res Of ecce n t ric pi n s
-

,
3 to 4 ti mes thr o w
of ecce n t rics .

D epth of
ba rs ,
D x i n ch .

Thick n e ss of ba r s 0 65 X D i n ch .

L e n gth of slidi n g block 2 5 to3 X D .

D ia m ete r of ecce n t r ic r od pi n s-
x D k i n ch .

ce n t r e of slidi n g block X D .

Fig 1 5 2 .
-
D ou ble ba r L in k
-
wit h R od s ou t s id e .

Fig . 1 5 2, dista n ce betwee n ecce n t ri c -

rod pi n s to 23 ti m es th r ow of
e cc en t rics .

D epth of ba r s D x i n ch .

Thi ck n ess of ba r s 0 65 X D 5 i n ch .

L e n gth of slidi n g block 2 5 to 3 x D .

D ia m ete r of ecce n t ric rod -

pi n s 0 75 X D .

L e n gth 0 8 0 x D 4 ; l4 -
i n ch .

D ia m ete r of ecce n t ric bolts ( t op e n d) at botto m of thr ead 0 4 x D whe n

of mild steel .
 VAL V E G EA R S .
4 33

These ba r s should be of a ve r y g ood desc r iptio n of i ro n a n d case h a rd e n e d -

or of ha rd steel : the latte r is of cou r se fr ee f r o m sea mi n ess a n d st r o n ge r

, , .

The ecce n t ric rod pi n s of the ki n d of li n k ( fig 1 5 2 ) a re usually f o rged solid

-
.

with the ba r s but the r e is n o absolute n eed of this a n d it ad d s ve r y m uch

, ,

to the cost both of m a n u f actu r e a n d r e n ewal whe n wo rn S i n ce t h e wea r

, .

on these pi n s is li m ited to a ve r y s m all po rtio n of thei r ci r cu m fe r e n ce it is ,

n ot u n usual t o file away the pa r ts which a re n ot subj ect to wea r so as to ,

ad m it of the b r asses bei n g closed whe n wo rn Whe n loose pi n s a re fitte d .

,

t hey should be steel a n d ha r de n ed so that all wea r m a y co m e on the b r asses

, ,

which a re capable of ad j ustm e n t .

I n a n othe r a r r a n ge m e n t of ba r li n k m otio n the sli d i n g block is divi d e d

-
, ,

a n d on the outside while the ecce n t ric r od e n ds a r e betwe e n the ba r s

,
This -
.
,

while havi n g so m e slight adva n tages is on the wh ole ve r y clu m sy a n d th e

block pi n s wear badly ; besides which the li n k ca n be o n ly suspe n ded fr om
, ,

-
,

the e x tr e m e e n d Mr Ma r ti n of Flushi n g adopts a n i n ge n ious co mbi n a

. .
, ,

tio n of these ba r li n ks for the la rge e n gin es he tu rn s ou t He fit s th ree .

ecce n t r ics t o each valve the r ods of the two oute r o n es a r e co n n ected eac h
t o a pi n on the outside of the li n k as in fig 1 5 2 a n d act in ahead ge a r
, .
,
- .

The r od of the ce n t r e ecce n t r ic is co n n ecte d t o a pin betwee n the bar s as i n

fig 1 5 1 a n d acts in
.
, aste r n gea r .

S in gl e Eccen tri c Gear — The valves of slow wo rki n g e n gin es c a n be wo r ked

.
-

by a si n gle ecce n t r ic which is free t o m ove r ou n d on the shaf t fr o m the

,

positio n for hea d gea r to that for s tern gea r it is d r iven by a key or s t oga fix e d
- -

t o the sha ft p r essi n g agai n st a shoulde r on the side of the ecce n t r ic

, The .

ecce n t ric sheave is bala n ced s o that it will keep in a n y positio n a n d o n ly ,

move whe n d r ive n by the s t op on the sha ft The eccen tric r od is s o fitted .
-

that it m a y be disco n n ected fr o m the valve r od or its gea r This is ge n e r ally

_
-
.

e ff ected by p r ovidi n g a ga b or gap in the ecce n t ric r od en d i n stead of a pin -

hole w hi ch allows the ecce n t r ic r od t o be li fted fr o m its pin by suitable

,
-

geari n g Whe n the eccen tric r od is disco n n ected f r o m the valve gea r the
.
-

valve ceases t o m ove a n d the e n gi n e co m es t o r est To resta r t the e n gin e

, .

the valve m ust be wo r ked by ha n d u n til the gab c a n be b r ought i n li n e with

the pin if the motio n of the e n gi n e is r eve r sed the sha ft will m ove ar ou n d .

t h e ecce n t r ic r e m ai n i n g m otio n less u n til the stop on the sha f t co m es in c on

tact with the othe r si d e of the p r oj ectio n on t h e sheave ; it is the n in the
r ight positio n f or d r ivi n g the valves a n d the ecce n t r ic r od m a y n ow be ,
-

d r opped i n to gea r This m ethod ad mitted of the padd le e n gi n e bei n g

.

ha n dled ve r y d e x te r ously whe n the valves we r e n ot so lar ge a n d the stea m

p r essu r e so hi gh as to p r eve n t thei r bei n g m oved by ha n d a n d was the on e ,

ge n e r ally adopted in e n gin es of m ode rate powe r lo n g afte r li n k m otio n was

in ve n ted a n d in ge n e r al use on loco m otives .

The r e have been m a n y othe r methods of m ovi n g a si n gle ecce n t ric fr o m

ahead t o aster n positio n ; so m e of which by sli d i n g wedges we r e at on e
ti m e r eceived f avou r ably but a r e n ow al m ost f or gotte n , .

An othe r f avou r ite m ethod is that show n in fig 6 9 whe r e by m ea n s .

,

of a spi r al slot in the ecce n t r ic sleeve a n d a st r aight on e in the sha ft a sli d in g

bolt in the latte r is m ade t o twist the ecce n t r ic r oun d .

Ha ck wort h s D yn amic V a lve Gear — The locus of a poi n t on a r od on e

’
. ,

e n d of W hich m oves in a circle a n d the othe r on a str aight li n e passi n g th r ough

,

t h e ce n t r e of that ci r cle is a n ellipse whose m aj o r a x is coi n ci d es with the

.

28
 V AL V E G E A R S .
4 35
’
Joy s V a l ve Gear — Fig l 5 4 shows the i n ge n ious a r ra n
.
e me n t w h er e b
g
.

the late D avid Joy has a V OI cle d altogethe r the use of e cc en t ri s .

He obtai n e d

Fig 1 5 3 — Ma rs h a ll s P a t en t V a lve Ge a r
’
. . .

t h e m otio n fr o m
the co n n ecti n g r od a n d qualified it by
-
slidin g block
like Ha ckwo rth or a suspe n s i o n r od like Ma r shall
,
-
The m ot i o n thus .
4 36 MI N U AL or M A RIN E E NGIN E E RING .

obtai n ed is a ve ry pe r fect on e for a slide valve as the two quick a n d two

-

S low pe riods a re j ust whe n r equ i r ed t h e a m ou n t of ope n i n g is equal at

,

both e n ds of the valve a n d ea rly ,

cut O ff s ca n be e ff ected wi thout e x

-

c es s iv e lea ds a n d co m p r essio n s or

p r e m atu r e e x h a u st in gs This gea r .

h a s bee n ap plied with g r eat success

to loco m otives whe r e the sa vi n g of ,

S pace f or the ecce n t r ics a d m its of

lo n ger c ra n k pi n s a n d j ou r n als ; it -

was also take n up by a fe w m a ri n e

e n gi n ee r s The chie f Obj ectio n s to
.

t h is gea r a r e that it co m es in the

way of t h e p ri n cipal wor ki n g pa rts ,

a n d m akes the m a little d i fficult

to get at whe n wo r kin g a n d also ,

t h at a s m all a m ou n t of wea r on the

j oi n ts of t h e gea r would cause a '

de fect 0 11 the valve m otio n a n d pr o — ,

duce a se riou s a m ou n t of r attle of

the gea r These h oweve r c a n .
, ,

be got ove r by m aki n g the pi n s

substa n tial a n d all the j oi n ts ,

adj ustable .

’
S ell s V a l ve ( lean — He r e t h e
valves a re wo r ked by a n i n de
pe n de n t sha ft which de r ives its ,

m otio n fr o m the m ai n S ha ft by
m ea n s of wheel gea r i n g ; betwee n -

Fig 1 5 4 — J oy s V a l v e Ge ar
’

these two s h a fts a re t w o i n te r

. .
.

m ediate wheels gea ri n g i n to on e

,

a n other— on e Of t h e m gea r s i n to the wheel on t h e m ai n S ha ft a n d the othe r ,

i n to t h at on the valve sh a ft \ These two i n te rm ediate wheels a re ca rried on

.

a fra m e which c a n be li fted up a n d down a n d is guided in suc h a way as to

,

keep t h e wheels al w ays in p r o pe r gea r with thei r co r res po n di n g w h eels I f .

the gea r i n g is set so that the valves a re m oved by thei r c r a n k S h a ft a n d -

d rive the e n gi n e a hea d w h e n t h e fr a m e is at the botto m of its t r ave r se the ,

m ovi n g of the f ra m e to the top of its t r ave r se so alte r s the r elative a n gula r
positio n of t h e sh a fts that the valves will be set to d rive the e n gin e aste rn
,
.

This is easily u n de r stood by supposi n g the e n gi n e at r est a n d t h e fra m e

'

raised ; the wheel gea r e d i n to the on e on the c r a n k S ha ft in m ovi n g r oun d -

t h e sha ft also tu rn s on its ow n a x is a n d in so doi n g tu r n s it s co m pa n io n

,

wheel which turn s t h e wheel OII t h e valve s h a ft a n d co n seque n tly the valve
, ,

sha f t itsel f.

This gea r was fitte d to m a n y e n gi n es in the B ritish a n d f o reig n n avies ,

a n d was especially suitable for the th r ee cyli n de r ho r i z o n tal e n gi n es f or

-

which it was o rigi n ally d esign ed I t had howeve r the obj ectio n able feat
.
, ,

of wheel gea r i n g which w h e n n e w m ade a g reat n oise a n d was liable to

-

, , , ,

accide n t f r o m ra cin g of the e n gi n es but whe n wo rn these a re mag ni fie d

, ,

ve ry co n side rably by the ba ck la s h whic h r esults H a d t h e wheels bee n .

 EX PAN S I ON V L
A V ES . 4 37

mac h i n e cut accu r ately t o shape n ith helical teeth of su fficie n t si ze t h is

, ,

ea r might have bee n I n use to day as it was a ve r y co n ve n ie n t on e f or h o ri

g
-
,

z on t a l e n gi n es as also it is for la r ge ve r tical o n es A S i m ila r a rra n ge m e n t

, .

has bee n use d by c e rtai n e n gi n ee r s f or v e I t ic a l t r iple e n gi n es but the a u x ilia r y ,

or valve sha f t was in this case d r ive n by a n au x ilia r y e n gi n e which h a d a ,

s e n sitive ball gove r n o r t o r egulate it I n r ou gh weathe r the wheels co n n ecti n g .

the two S ha fts we r e thr own ou t of gea r a n d t h e m ai n e n gi n e was said to be ,

satisfacto rily gove rn e d by the s m all on e co n tr olled by its ow n ball go v e rn o r .

Expansion V a l ves — Whe n o rdi n a r y li n k m otio n is e m ployed a n d a m uch

.
,

ea r lie r cut Off tha n h al f st r oke is r equir e d as a n o r mal co n d itio n it is n eces

- -

sar y t o e ff ect it by m ea n s of a n i n depe n de n t valve usually called t h e e x pa n ,

tio n valve These valves a re ge n e ra lly co mm o n pl a tes S lidi n g eithe r on a

.
,

f ace with po rts on t h e si d e of t h e v a lve box or on a f ace on the back of t he ,

O I din a ry slide valve I n the latte r case t he r e a re t w o m ethods co mm o n l y

.
,

k n ow n as t he in s i de cu t ofia n d t he ou t s ide cu t 0 17
~
.
-
.

G dir
ri o n E xpa n sio n V a l ves — Whe n the valve wo r ked on a n i n depe n de n t
.

face on the S ide of the valve box it co n sisted of a plai n plate with stea m
-
,

po rts in it co rr espo n di n g t o the stea m po r ts on the f ace ; the r e was sufficie n t

,

lap a n d the gea r was s o S et that it r e mai n ed closed a fte r it had cut off
,
-
,

u n til a fte r the m ain valve was closed t o the cyli n de r whe n it m ight ope n ,

agai n S O as to fill the valve box a n d be ready to s u pply a n d cut Off stea m ,

f r o m the othe r e n d of the cyli n d e r The v a I ia t ion in cut Off i s e ff ected by .

va r yin g the t r avel a n d the equalisatio n of cut off at each e n d I S e ffected by

,
-

va r yi n g the p r oportio n of lap 0 11 each S ide of the po rts The va riatio n i n .

t r avel I S obtai n ed by m ea n s of a li n k on w hich the block to w hich the e x

a n s ion ecce n t r ic r od i s a t t a c h e d S Iid e s s o as to v a r y the le n gth of leve r ;
I

p
-
,

t h e la r ge r the t r avel of the e x pa n sio n valve the quicke r is the stea m cut ,

O ff,
a n d the S malle r the t r avel the late r i s the cut Off u n til fin ally t h e
,
-
, , ,

t r avel is s o s m all that the e x pa n sio n valve d oe s n ot close at all The va r ia .

tio n in the lap of the e x pa n sio n valve is e ffected by m ea n s Of the cu rvatu re

of t h e li n k .

S om e e n gi n ee r s p r e fe r r ed the m ea n positio n of the e x a n sio n valve t ob e

p
with the port s closed ; in this case the I u ic k e s t cut Off I S e ff ected wit h the I

least tr avel a n d co n seque n tly w i t h least O pen i n g ; but S in ce the pisto n

,

speed I S co m par atively slow whe n r eceivi n g stea m with the ea rly cut off a ,

reductio n of O pe n i n will n ot be f elt ; whe r eas t h e S lo w cuttin g ofi whe n

g
-

c a rr yi n g stea m to mi d str oke e ff ected by the valve whe n the late cut off is
-
, ,
-

with least tr avel p r oduces co n sider able wi r e d r awi n g

,
-
.

I f the e n gi n e is ge n e r ally to wo r k with a cut off at fr o m i s t r oke t o -

str oke then the f orm e r valve arr a n ge m e n t is the bette r if the cut off is t o
,
-

be as a r ule, fr o m g t o 2 the s troke the n the latte r is bette r e x cept tha t

, , ,

it is so m ewhat i n co n ve n ie n t t o have the po rts closed whe n the valve h as

least t r avel a n d also th a t whe n the e x pa n sio n va lve is n ot r equi red it m ust
,

be m ovi n g at its highest S peed .

The chi e f obj ectio n to this ki n d of e x pa n sion valve is the la rge a m ou n t

of clea r a n ce space betwee n it a n d the pisto n f or the stea m e x pa n d s in the ,

valve box as well as in the cylin de r u n til the m ai n valve closes I t was
-

, , .
,

h oweve r ve r y ge n e r ally used in the N avy for the cut off f or c r uisi n g S peeds
,
-
,

a n d h a d the a d va n tage O f n ot i n te r fe r i n g with or in a n y way a ffecti n g the

mai n valves in case of a n ythi n g happe n i n g to it .

 EX PAN S I O N V A L V E S . 4 39

good pl an for ca rr yi n g ou t this is to p r ovide each valve plate with a sepa r ate
r od ; each r od passes thr ough a s t u ffin g box a n d is co n n ected to a cr oss -
,

head by a n u t in it whi ch is fr ee to tur n r ou n d so as to adj ust the positio n

,

o f the spi n dle T hese n uts m a y have wheels keyed to the m gea ri n g i n to
. .

on e a n othe r or they m a y have wo r m wheels Ope r ated on by a wo r m betwee n

,
-

the m ; in eithe r case the n uts will tur n r ou n d in opposite d i rectio n s so

“

that if the thr eads on both the spi n dles a re right ha n d e d the tu rn i n g of the -

n uts will cause the valves to m ove in O pposite dir ection s The spi n dles .

a r e secu r ed t o the valve plates so that they ca n n ot tu rn r ou n d whe n the ,

n uts a r e tu rn ed ; they a re also of n ecessity ou t of ce n t r e with the valve s ,

which m ust co n seque n tly be guided sideways on the ma in v a lv e The o n ly ’

.

obj ectio n able f eatur e in t hi s a r r a n ge m e n t is that the spi n dles a r e n ot secu r ed ,

to the m id dle of the va lves ; but p r actice has show n t hat this is n o de t ri
m e n t a n d the whole syste m wo r ks e x ceedi n gly well
, .

I f the e n gin e t o which this ki n d of e x pa n si o n valve is fitted is r equ i r ed , .

to wo r k with the sa m e e fficie n cy in s t em gea r as in hea d gea r the eccen t ric

_
- -

should be in lin e w it h a n d on the side of the sha ft opposite the c r an k a n d

'

its thr ow should n ot be less tha n that of the m ai n valve ecce n t rics I f .
,

howeve r the e n gi n e will seldo m a n d f or o n ly sho rt pe riods wo r k in s tem

, , ,

e r the ecce n t r ic should be on the sa m e si d e a s the c r a n k but n ea r e r the

g a , ,

s t em goin g ecce n t r ic tha n the hea d goin g on e ;

-
the n the r elative t ravel of -

the valves is g r eate r in hea d tha n s tem gea r a n d the cut off is also ea rlie r -
,
-

in head gea r so that if a sudde n o r de r we r e give n t o a s t ern the e n gi n e is

-
, ,

bette r p r epa r ed for ca rr yi n g ou t that o r de r .

The equalisatio n of cut off at top a n d botto m of cyli n de r for all positio n s
-
,

of cut off is e ff ected by c a usi n g on e plate t o m ove m o r e pe r r evolutio n of

-

the spin dle than the othe r ; a n d in the case of the double spi n dl e arra n ge
m e n t the wheels on the n uts a re so p r o por tion ed as to obtai n the sa m e r esult
I n side Cu t—
.
,

. off V alves — S o c alled b ecause stea m is cut off at t h e i n side

. .

e dg es of the e x pa n sio n valve The eccen t ric i s in t hi s case also n ear ly in

.
, ,

li n e a n d on the sa m e side as the cr an k s o that the r elative t r avel with the ,

sam e thr ow of the ecce n t rics is gr eater than in the case whe n the e x pa n sio n
ecce n t ric is opposite the cra n k a n d co n sequen tly on the sa m e side as t he ,

ecce n t rics of t h e m ai n valve .

The va riation in cut off c a n in thi s case be e ff ected in a m an n er si mila r

-

, ,

t o the last ; but s in ce the r elative t r avel is s o much g reate r a n d si n ce it ,

would be i n co n ven ie n t to sp r ead out the valve s o m uch it is usually e ff ected ,

by va r yi n g the tr avel by m ean s of a li n k as al r eady described or by a li n k , ,

havi n g on e e n d co n n ected to a n ecce n t r ic a n d the other t o a rod j oi n ted t o

a fix e d poi n t on the f ou n d atio n or m o r e usually on the sha f t a n d called the
'

, ,

du mb r od because of its si m il ar ity in positio n t o the ecce n t ric r od withou t

,
-
,

the lon gitu di n al m otion of the latter .

Pist on Expan sion V a l ves —Whe n the m ai n valve is a pisto n valve the .
,

e x pan sio n valve m a y be also a piston valve wo r ki n g withi n the m ai n v alve ,

a n d on t h e sa m e p r i n ciples as d esc r ibed f or slide valves This plan has bee n .

put i n to p r actice by sever al e n gin eer s a n d although so m ewhat co mple x in ,

st r uctur e does n o doubt wo r k satisfacto r ily a n d with little f rictio n The

, , , ,
.

S pi n dles a r e so m eti m es ou t of ce n t r e ; but n ot always as the e x pa n sio n ,

valve r od passes thr ough the top of the va lve box while the m ai n valve r od
- -
,
-

i s thr ough the botto m as usual .

4 40 MA NU AL O F MA RIN E EN G I H EE R I N G .

Expa ns ion V a lves for Compou n d Engin es — I t has bee n sta t e d that t o
e ff ect a cut off ear lie r tha n hal f st roke efficien t ly , a sepa rate cut ofi valve is
- - -

n ece ssa r y but thi s is o n ly st r ictly t r ue whe n the fu ll speed of the e n gin e is
,

m ai n tai n e d with suc h a cut off I f f ull S peed is attai n ed at a cut off so m e
-
.
-

w hat late r tha n hal f st r oke a redu ce d speed c a n be obtai n ed w it h e ffi

-
, cienc y
“
with a n ea rlier cut off by si mply li n ki n g up ; for the po rt a r ea bei n g
-

“ ”
suited t o the highe r speed the r eductio n of ope n i n g on li n ki n g u p is
,

n ot m ate r ially f elt at t h e r e d uced speed , the co n seque n t co m p r essio n also

a dd s to the eco n o mi c wo r ki n g of the e n gi n e at high gr a d es of e x pan sio n , a n d

i f the val v es have b ee n s o set that at f ull spee d the wo r k is eve n ly d i v ide d
betwee n the cyli n d er s so it will be with but sligh t v a ria t ion , on n otchi n g
, ,

up the li n ks of all the cyl in de rs fig Ex pa n sio n valves a r e n eedless

.

ad ditio n s to the m ode r n m ar i n e e n gi n e , a n d should be avoided as all sour ces ,

of p ossible b r eak d own or de r a n ge m e n t ought These valves have n eve r be e n .

fitted t o t riple e x pa n sio n e n gi n es

-
.

Eccen tri cs — The s heaves , or as they a re so m eti mes c a lled pulleys , a re

.
, ,

made usually of cast i r o n a n d whe n possible , each is in On e piece bo r ed ou t

, , ,

so as t o fit the sh a f t on to whi c h it i s keyed I t is esse n tial that it S hall fit .

the shaf t q u ite tightly , or other wi se i t will soo n beco me loose f ro m the c on
t in u a l sudde n a n d i n t e r mitte n t appli catio n of the load Whe n the coupli n gs .

o r fl a n ges on the sha f t do n ot a d mi t of the sheaves bei n g fitted i n thi s way ,

it is usual t o divi d e the m on a li n e thr ough the ce n t r e of the s h a ft at right

a n gles to the li n e passi n g th r ough the c e n t re S of sh a ft a n d eccen tric The
'

two u n e qual parts a re s ecu r ely bolted togethe r , a n d keye d to the sha ft on
the li n e through the ce n t res , s o that the whole of the strai n co m es on t h e
la r ge r a n d str o n ge r hal f , the lesse r hal f a cti n g o n ly the par t of a cla m p t o
hold it t o the sha ft Wh e n it is desi rable to keep t h e di a mete r of t he sheave s
.

as s mall as p ossible t hi s cla m p piec e s h ould be of steel Gr ea t ca re s hould

,
.

be e x e r cised in fitti n g the two parts of the sheave to get h e r a n d also in ,

be dd i n g the m on the sha ft S o m e e n gi n eer s m ake all ecce n tr ic sheaves

.

i n pa rts , owi n g to the di ffi culty of fitti n g the m tightly to the sha ft whe n
in on e casti n g Whe n the d ivisio n is m a de t h rou gh the ce n t r es the r e should
'

be a co n n ecti n g bolt as close to the shaf t as possible as well as on e a t the ,

e x tr e mity, a n d also ther e shoul d be a key to each h a l f of the sheave a n d

the sha ft Whe n the ecce n t rics a re ve r y la rge , a n d have to drive heavy
.

valves it i s also advisable t o m ake the s m all pa rt , whe n d ivided , as above

,

desc ribe d , of wr ought or cast steel .

The dia m ete r of a n ecce n t ric sheave l 2 ( th r ow of ecce n t ric dia mete r
'

of s h a ft ).

B r ea d t h of the sha ft
the sheave at x D 0 65 i n ch
st rap X D
Thick n ess of m etal a rou n d the sh a ft XD 05
at ci rcu mfe r e n ce X D 04
B rea dth of key X D 05
Thick n ess of key 0 25 X D 05
D ia mete r of bolts co n n ecti n g pa r ts of st rap X D 01
The h e a d goin g she a ve s h oul d be 33 pe r ce n t b r oade r . .

D is fou n d as be fo r e ,
an (v p
. .
 ”
S S
. .
“
K OV N O CY L IN D E R S , 2 5 AN D 50 x 45 . 441

Me an P re ss u re .

S t ea m . V a cu u m . R evs .

B ot t om

At m o s p h e
'

r ic Li n e

Bot t om

Fig 1 5 5. .
— Effe c t of N ot c h in g u p L in k s S imu lta n eou s ly
 D I AMET E R OF W EIG H -
S H A FT . 4 43

whole t ravel the n , if T be the t r avel of valves In i n ches for a co mpou n d

e n gi n e
8 m"
is 5 T2 5

and f or an ex pan sive e n gi n e with t wo cylin der s

g
L x
@x m
x P
W= 2 x .

T o p r ovide f or the fr ictio n of li n k m otio n ecce n t rics a n d othe r gea r

-
, , ,

a n d f or ab n o r m al co n ditio n s of the sa m e take the wo r k at on e a n d a hal f

,
-

ti m es the above a m ou n t .

To fin d the str ess at a n y part of the gea r h avi n g m otion whe n r ever si n g ,

divide the wo r k s o foun d by the space m oved th r ough by that par t in f eet ,

the quotien t is the st ress in pou n ds ; a n d the si z e ma y be f oun d fr o m the

o rdi n a r y rules of co n stru ction for a n y of the parts of the gear .

I n m ode rn hi gh r evolution e n gi n es the weigh sha fts leve r s a n d all othe r

- -
, ,

parts of the r eve r si n g gear m ust be m uch m or e substa n tial than f o r m e r ly

‘‘
t o withstan d the e ff ec t of i n e rt ia f o r ces a n d t o avoid e x cessive
’’
give an d
vib r ation whe n the e n gi n e is at full speed .

Th e D iameter of Weigh sh aft of co mpoun d en gin e s ma y be fix ed by

-

the f ollowi n g ru le
N H P r evolutio n s .

D i a m ete r
. .

For t w o cr a n k e n gi n es F thr ee cra n k-

900, fou r 800 ; very large
on es ma y be hollow tubes .

N E Coast I n st E a n d S ru
. . . l e is dia mete r weigh sh aft n ot less t h a n
( dia me te r of pis t on rod o
1 in c h ) .
4 44 MAN U AL o r MAR IN E EN GI N EE R I N G .

C H AP T ER XV II .

V AL V E D I AG R A M S .

Mot ion of t h e Piston . Fig 1 5 6 illust r ates the i n ge ni ous m ethod

-
. i n t roduc ed
by Pr o fesso r Zeu n er f or fin din g the position of the p isto n at a n yp osition of
the c ra n k a n d sho u ld be used always whe n co n st ru cti n g a valve diag ra m in
, ,

o rde r to fin d the poi n ts of cut off r elease co m p r essio n & c

-
, , , .

Fig l 5 6
. .
- D ia gra m of t
t h e Pis on Pa h . t
T h e followi n g is the c o n s tr uctio n of s uch a d iag r a m — D r a w a li n e T F,
“
a n d on i t take a m i d d le poi n t C cut 0 6 a p a r t 0 D , equal to t h e r ad iu s of
t h e c r a n k t o a n co n ve n ie n t sca le , a n d a pa r t D T e ual to t h e le n t h o f t h e
( y ) q g
c o n n ecti n
g r od
-
.

W ith a s ce n t re , a n d D T a s r ad iu s , d r a w a ci r c le cutti n g t h e i n itial li n e

D
at E . W i th 0 a s ce n t r e, a n d O T a s r a d iu s , d r a w a n oth e r ci rcle ; a n d wit h
C a s c e n t r e, a n d C E a s r ad iu s , d r a w a thi r d ci r cl e To find t h e posi t io n of
.
 '

D I AGR AM EO R CO M M O N S LI D E V AL V ES
-
.

t h e pi s t oii , w i t h r espect t o its e x t r e m e posit io n for a positio n of c ra n k C R ,

w h e n i t h a s m ove d t h r o u gh a n a n g le D C R fr o m t h e d ea d poi n t C D
'
p r o d uce C R to cut t h e ci r cles at B P T t h e n t h e pisto n h a s m ove d th r ou gh
’

a space T P i n tu r n i n
g t h e c r an k t h r ou g h t h e a n g le D C R a n d it i s d ista n t
'

f r o m t h e oth e r e n d of its str ok e by a space P B Th e co r r ect n ess of t h is

'
.

c o n st r uctio n is easily see n by supposi n g a n e n g i n e w h ose pisto n i s c on

n e c t e d d i r ectly to t h e c r a n k
,
pi n
( suc h as t-
h e tr u n k e n i n e
g ) to be tu r n ed

a r ou n d about its s h a ft while t h e c r a n k r e m ai n s statio n a r y i n t h e posi

,
'
t io n 0 D T h e ci r cle T T F r ep r ese n ts t h e path of the back e n d of t h e
.

c yli n d e r a n d B B E that of t h e f r o n t e n d si n ce t h e cyli n d e r is tu r n e d ab ou t

’

, ,

t h e poi n t C ; t h e path of t h e pisto n will be on t h e ci r cl e T P E si n ce i t i s -

«
,

h el d at t h e sam e d istan ce fr o m t h e c r a n k pi n D
.
-
.

D i agram for t h e Common S li de val ves — ( l ) G ive n t h e t r avel of t h e valve

-
.
,

a m ou n t of t h e lea d or O pe n i n g of valve at co m m e n ce m e n t of st r ok e a n d t h e ,

poi n t Of cut off to fin d t h e la p of t h e valve a n d the positio n o f t h e e cce n t r ic

-
, ,

61 0 . These a re the con ditio n s ge n e r ally p r e d ete r m i n e d i n eve ry d a y p r a ct ic e -

.

Ft on t __ L Back

-
Z eu n er s D ia gr a m f or t h e Com mon V a lv e M ot ion .

Fig 1 5 7 — D r aw a s t r ai gh t li n e , w h ose le n g t h A B is e qual to t h e t r avel

. .

of t h e val ve , a n d o n it as d ia m ete r d r aw a ci r cle , t h e ce n t r e of w h ic h is at

0 . D r aw a li n e CE, so t h at A CE is t h e a n g le t h r o u gh w h ic h t h e c r a n k h a s
t o m ove to a r r ive at t h e po s itio n of cut off ( t h is is to be obtai n e d by d r a w m g
-

t h e pisto n d ia g r a m outsi d e t h e ci r cl e A E B ) W it h A as ce n tr e , a n d a
‘

r a d iu s A F equal t o t h e lea d , d r a w p a r t of a ci r cl e , a n d t h r ou gh E d r aw a

li n e t ouchi n g t h e ci r c l e a n d c u t t i n g t h e o r igi n a l ci r cle at K .

 ”
L E AD . 447

It will be see n on r ef er e n ce to the d iagr a m that the open i n g to stea m

, ,

will var y with t h e tr avel a n d if the a r ea of open i n g is fix e d fr o m ce r tai n

,

co n sider atio n s bef o r e m e n tio n e d it is a n easy m atte r to calculate how much

,

the valve m ust Open t o give t h at a r ea N ow the open i n g together with the
,
.
,

lap is equal to half the t r avel a n d with t h e sa m e pos i ti on s of lead a n d

, ,

cut off the open in g will be a co n stan t r atio of the tr avel T hi s r atio c a n be
-
, .

deter m i n ed by d r awi n g a p r eli m i n a r y d iagr am with a n assu m e d tr avel of

valve L e t R be t hi s r atio a n d Q the a m ou n t of Ope n i n g d esi r ed then
.
,

T r avel of valv e Q R .

S i n ce it is usual t o design the po r ts of a stea m cyli n d e r so that t h e flow of

stea m whe n ex hausti n g m a y n ot ex ceed a certai n velocity it is evide n t t h at ,

the po r t should Open f ully f or that pur pose ; he n ce the t r avel of the valve ,

when the r e is n o i n side lap should n ot be less tha n twice the le n gth of the
,

por t a n d I s ge n e rally about 2 to 3 ti m es the le n gth of the po r ts

,
1
.

The less t r avel the valve m akes the less wo r k I s abso r bed I n m ov in g it , ,

as the wo r k I s ve r y n ear ly p r opo r tio n al to the t r avel D ouble a n d tr eble .

po rted valves a re r eso rte d t o with the Obj ect of r educin g the t r avel as by ,

the m double a n d tr eble ope n i n gs a re obtai n ed a n d the t ra vel m a y the re f o re , , ,

be on e hal f a n d on e thi r d that of the co mm o n valve with si n gle po rts

- -
.

Lea d — The a m ou n t of lead give n t o the valve i s ge n e r ally decided

.

a r bit r a rily a n d acco r d i n g t o j udg m e n t or p r ej udice I t wi ll be see n by .

“ ”
r e f e rr in g t o fi 1 5 7 that wi t h the sa m e lap a n ea r lie r cut Off is obtai n ed
g
-
.

by m ovin g the ecce n tr ic f ar the r f r o m the c r an k but at the sa m e ti m e i n cr easi n g ,

“
'

the lea d ; if the earlie r cut Off is t o be Obtai n ed without alte ri n g the -

“ ”
lead the lap m ust be i n c r eased a n d the ecce n tric moved ; but if the lap
,

be i n cr eased the O pe n i n g is decreased , a n d the r esista n ce at the po r t the reby

,

in cr eased I f the r e f o r e , a n ea r ly cu t off is r equi r ed without the aid of a n

.
,
-

“
ex pa n sio n valve the lea d m ust be gr e at or the t r avel gr eat to get s u ffi
, ,

c ie n t O pe ni n g t o stea m , or the lead a n d t r avel m us t b e both la r ge r tha n

-

w ould be the case with a late r cut Off -

.

The co n si d er atio n s w hi ch shoul d ope r ate in deci d i n g the a m ou n t of lea d

a r e the speed of the e n gi n e a n d the i n e r tia of m ovi n g pa r ts co m pa r e d wit h

the pisto n ar ea The m o m e n tu m of the pisto n a n d r e d s should i f possible

.
, ,

b e a bso r bed i n co m p r essi n g the stea m r e m ai n i n g in the c yli n d e r whe n the

valve closes t o ex haust ; a n d we r e thi s always t h e c ase the r e woul d be n o ,

n eed f or fr esh ste a m to e n te r the cyli n d e r u n til the pisto n was at t h e e n d of

,

its str oke ; but thi s , u n d e r o r d in ar y ci r cu m stan ces sel d o m occu r s a n d if n o , ,

fr esh stea m wer e a d mi tte d to f or m a cushi o n for the pisto n th e r e would

, ,

co m e a co n si d er able j a r on the bear i n gs etc at the e n d of eve r y s t r oke , , .

,

o wi n g to the st r ai n i n cr easi n g the d ispla ce m e n t of the sha ft in its bea r i n gs ,

a n d the sudde n appli catio n of the load whe n the valve ope n s causi n g its ,

r epl a ce m e n t with co n si d e r able f o r ce T hi s a ctio n i s also obse r vab le whe n

.

“ “
ther e I s co n side r able lead wi thout adequa t e co m pr essio n ; a n d although ’

“ ” “ ”
t he hamm er i n g is usually attribute d t o e x cessi ve lea d it is r eally ,

d u e to wa n t of a d equate co m p r essi on f or on n otc hi n g up the li n k it , ,

'

gen er ally ceases n otwithsta n d in g that the lea d 1 s t h e n the r eby ve r y c on

,

si de r a bly i n cr ease d
.
For r eally quiet a n d sweet r u n n i n g t h e r e s h oul d be
. ,

le n ty o f co m p r essio n a n d n o lea d— eve n n egative lead is of a d va n tage at

p
'

hi gh r ate of r evolutio n p r ovided the valve eve n tually ope n s wide e n ough
, .
4 48 MANUA L OF MAR I N E E NG I N E E R I NG .

L o n g st r oke e n gi n es m a y have co n si d e r ably m o r e lead tha n those of the

-

sa me cyli n de r capacity wit h sho r te r st r oke as the weight of m ovi n g pa r ts ,

is n ot less a n d so m eti m es m o r e the pisto n velocity is m o re ( with the sa m e ,

n u m be r of r evolutio n s ) while t he pi s t on a rea i s les s Fast r u n n i n g e n gi n es -

.
,
“
wit h out co n side r able co mp r essio n m a y also have m o r e lead than slow
r u n n i n g o n es as the ele me n t of ti m e bea rs on the Ope r atio n of the stea m
, .

Agai n if owi n g to the valve m otio n the valve O pe n s slowly , the pe riod of
,
,

a d missio n m a y be ea rlie r than should be the case with a quick ope n i n g on e .

,

as t h e wi re d rawi n g at the co mm e n ce m e n t of ad m issio n will p r oduce a s imila i:

e ffect to co mp r essio n .

The a m ou n t of lead at each e n d will va r y f or two I e a s on s ; first the ,

cu t off at eac h e n d bei n g e ff ected by the sa m e ecce n t r ic an

y va riatio n in ,

positio n of cut Off m ust be Obtai n ed by va ryi n g the lap , an d a n y va riatio n

-

i n the la p will cause a n i n v e r se va r iatio n i n the lea d ; seco n d ly the lea d ,

s h ould be less at that e n d of the valve r e m ote fr o m t h e gear as the ad j ust ,

“
m e n t a fte r wea r oi the latte r te n d s to i n c r ease the
. lea d at that e n d I f .

t h e cut O ff is equal at both e n ds the laps will va r y , that at the e n d of a d i rect

“
-

acti n g e n gi n e r e m ote fro m the sha ft bei n g m o r e than at the othe r Wit h .

t h e po r ts as ge n e r ally f ou n d in eve ry day p r actice a n d with such t ravels ,

as a re p racticable the cut off at the e n d n ea r t h e s h a ft should be ea rlie r

,

tha n at the e n d re m ote f ro m it as the la r ge r O pe n i n g got by the dec rease d

.
,

lap causes a fulle r i n dicato r dia g1 a m at that e n d For these r easo n s m a n y

-
.

e n gin eer s a rr a n ge so that the lead at the back or top e n d i s o n ly hal f that
at the fro n t or botto m e n d .

I nside La p — The e ff ect of positive lap on t h e e x haus t side of the valve

.

is to r eta r d the pe r iod of r elease a n d to i n c r ease the co m p ressio n by accel ,

c r ati n g the closi n g to e x haust The e ffect of n egative lap 1 s of cou r se the
.
, ,

r eve r se of this a n d is also to give a f ull O pe n i n g to e x haust soo n e r than

,

w oul d be the case with positiv e lap A la r ge a m ou n t of lap eithe r n egative .

,

or positive is r equi r ed on the i n side of a valve to m ate r ially cha n ge the

,

perio d s of release a n d closi n g to e x haust because just the n the valve is ,

m ov m g at it s quickest spee d but a s m all a m ou n t of n egative lap m akes

a co n side r abl e di ff e r e n ce to the a m ou n t of Ope n i n g t o e x haust at the e n d
of the st r oke w he n the ste am s h ould e x haust w holly f r o m the cyli n de r
,
.

The r e is n o a d van tage in r etai n i n g stea m in the cyli n de r to the ve r y e n d of

t h e st r oke as the e ff o rt of the pisto n on the c r a n k is the n i n e ff ective to p r o duce
good r esult s a n d a n y fo r wa r d p r essur e o n ly se r ves to i n c r ease the di fficulty
,

of b r i n gi n g the pisto n ge n tly to r est by m e a n s of cushio n i n g etc a n d this , .

,

is especially t rue of quick m ovi n g e n gi n es , whose stea m po r ts a re co mpa r a

-

t iv ely s m all .

I f the valve has n egative lap on the e x haust side it is m a n i fest t h at at a ,

ce rtai n per iod the r e is a m o m en ta ry co mm u n icatio n betwee n bot h e n d s of

the cyli n de r ; w h e n t h e n egative lap is co n side rable a n d the po rts s mall , .
,

the e ff ect of such a co mm u n icatio n is to fill the e x h austed cyli n de r on on e

side of the pisto n wit h t h e stea m re leased fr o m the othe r side j ust be f o r e t he ,

valve closes to e x h aust , a n d is seen ver y disti n ctly on the i n dicato r diag ra m s ,
-

in the f o rm of a su d de n r ise of p r essur e at the co m m e n ce m e n t of the c om

p r essio n I n c a s e s of t h is ki n d , a m ple co mpe n satio n is m ade for the r eta rd i n g
.

of the co m p r essio n by n egative lap i n the i n c r ease of back p r essu r e at the

co mm e n ce m e n t of co mp r e ssio n .
 ”
E FFE CT OF
“
N OT C HIN G UP . 44 9

The high and m ediu m

p r essu r e valve s Of co mpou n d scr ew en gin es should
-

a l w a s h a v e a c on s i d e r a bl e a m ou n t Of n e a t i v e i n s i d e la
y ’ g p t o a llow o f a ,

c o n ti n uou s an d easy fl o w of s t e a m d u r i ng e x h a u s t T h e a m ou n t of n e g a t i v e .

lap on t h e i n si d e s h oul d b e a lwa y s les s th a n t h e out s i d e la p o f t h e v a l v e ,

ot h e r w ise th e re will n ot be e n o u gh ba r to cove r t h e por t s o th a t ste a m

,
,

c a n p a s s f r o m t h e valve box t o t h e e x h a ust j us t a s t h e valve is o pe n i n

g
-

a n d s h utti n g ; for a qu i ck r u n n i n
g c o m pou n d e n g i n e t h e r e s h oul d be s u c h
-

la p t h a t e x h aust c o m m e n ce s fr om t h e h i gh a n d m e diu m p r e s s u r e c y li n d e r -

a t 0 9 of t h e str oke a n d wit h a s low wo r ki n g p a dd l e e n g i n e n ot late r t h a n

-

0 9 5 t h e st r oke .

Effe ct of N ot chin g U p — Wh e n a n e n g i n e i s fitt ed wit h l i n k m otio n

.
-

“ ”
or ot h e r mea n s of r ev e r s i n g i t w ith ou t t h r owi n g ou t of gea r so tha t ,

t h e m ech a n i s m w h ich w ould p r o d u ce s t e r n m o t ion can b e m a d e t o e ff ect ,

t h at p r o duci n g ah ea d m otion a ce rtai n va r i a tion i n t h e cu t off r el e as e

,
-
, ,
“ ”
& c can be e ff ecte d b y w hat i s c all e d
.
, n otc h i n g up T he o r i g i n of th i s .

te r m i s c lea r ly t r acea bl e t o t h e lo co m otive w hos e r eve r si n g leve r is h el d ,

i n place by a s li d i n g bol t fitti n g i n to a n otch i n a qua d r a n t p r ovi d e d for t h e

-

pu r
pos e .

W h e n t h e li n k is n ot ch e d up s o t h a t t h e blo ck wor k s t h e va lv e fr o m a
poi n t betwee n i t s t w o e x t r e me p osition s on the li n k t h e m otio n is on e d u e ,

to t h e c om bi n e d e ff or t of both e ccen t r i cs a n d i n o r d e r to e x a m i n e c l e ar ly ,

t h e Ope ra tio n of the v a lve u n d e r th ese c i r cu ms t a n ces i t i s n ecessa r y to fin d ,

t h e pos i tio n a n d t h r o w o f t h e equ i y a len t eccen t ric To d et e r m i n e t h is .

e x actl y i s s o m e wh a t d i fficul t but a v e r y c lo s e a ppr o x i matio n c a n b e m ad e

,

by t h e m ethod sugg ested by t h e lat e J M acf ar la n e Gr ay as f ollows .

,

S uppose t h e li n k ( fig 1 5 9) t o be n otche d up t o a po i n t M
. or i n othe r ,

wo r d s the li n k m ov e d s o that t h e li n k block i s d ista n t M T f r o m t h e

'

poi n t at which the eccen t r ic r od is att ached to the l in k -

.

D r aw the valv e d iag r am ( fig 1 5 8 ) d u e t o t h e position a n d th r o w of t h e

.

e cc e n tr ic s of fig 1 5 9 a n d th r ou h D D
’
.
g d r aw the a r e of a ci r cle with a
r a d i us f ou n d as f o llo ws
"
R a d iu s le n gth of e cc e n t r i c r od fr o m ce n tr e to ce n t r e x h al f t h e d i s ta n c e
-

b e tw e e n the c e n t r es of t h e t wo e c ce n tr ic s heave s t h e d i s tan ce be t w e e n t h e

ce n t r e s f ec ce n tr i c r od pi n s on t h e li n k
o -
.

D T x D D
'

R efe r r e d t o fig 1 5 9 R a di us .
, ’ ‘
2 l N

D Z TM
On t h 1 s a r c, take a
poi n t 5 , so th at
D D
'
fi
'

Joi n 0 Z a n d on it as dia meter dr a w a cir cl e c u tti n g t h e la p ci rcle a t

, ,

poi n ts L a n d E ; th r o u gh 0 L a n d 0 E d ra w li n es w h ich r e p r e s en t t h e
positio n of ope n i n g an d c lo s i n g r e s p e ct ively a t on e e n d of t he va lv e w h en
t h e li n k i s n otch ed u p t o t h e po in t M .

I t will b e see n t h a t t h e e ff ect of n otc h i n g u p i s t h e s a m e a s w oul d be

'

p r o d u ce d by a n e c ce n t r ic w h os e positio n on t h e s h a f t i s a t t h e a n l e B 0 Z g

with t h e c r a n k a n d i t s e cc e n t r icity 0 Z ; t h at t h e Open i n g t o l e a d is e a r lie r

, ,

a n d t h e m ag n itu de of t h e lead c o n s i d er ably i n c r ease d ; th at t h e r e d uc e d

t r avel ive s a s m alle r ope n i n g t o s tea m a n d th a t t h e c u t off i s e a r lie r ;
g
-
,

l ik ewise by e x am i n i n g f u r t h e r it ca n b e see n t h at r elea s e tak e s pl a ce s oon e r

, ,

a n d c o m p r essio n co mm e n ce s ea r lie r t h a n w h e n i n f ull g ea r .

W h e n t h e e cce n t r i c r od s a r e ar r an ge d a s s h o w n i n fig 1 5 9 they a r e sa id
~ .
,

t o b e open or i t i s a n open r od li n le mot i on ; if on t h e oth e r h a n d D N a n d

, , ,

29
 E XP A N S I ON V AL V E . 45 1

Th e n C Z i s t h e e cce n t r i c i ty of t he s h e a ve s , an d B CZ
’
is t he an g le
b etwee n th e m a n d t h e cr a n k .

Ex pan si on V a lve on an I n depen den t Ea ce, Cen t ral Po sit i on Port s Cl os ed .

T h e valve i n t h is c a se i s wo r k i n g u n d e r p r ec isely t h e sa m e c o n d itio n s as a

c o m m o n sli d e valve , a n d t h e s a m e c o n st r uctio n o f d iag ra m a s fig 1 5 7 h ol d s
-
.

g ood .

Ex pan s i on V alve on an I n depen dent Fa ce, Cent r al Posit ion Port s Open .

— L e t C 0 ( fi 1 6 0 be t h e os i t i on a t O pe n i n g of v a lve w h e n s e t at e a r lie s t
)
'

g .
p
c u t—off, w h ich s h oul d b e s o m ew h at be f o r e t h at of t h e m a i n valve , a n d C E

t h e positio n at t h e ea r liest cut Off w hich i s r equi r e d B i s e c t t h e a n gl e O C E

’
-
.

by the li n e C T, a n d m a k e C T equal to h al f the m a x i m u m t r avel Of t h e

va lv e .

Fi g 1 60
. .
— D i a gr a m f or an I n d e pe n d e n t Ex pa n sion V alve .

On 0 T a s di a m ete r , d r a w a ci r cl e cu t ti n g 0 E at H .

P r o d uce C T to
'
m aki n g 0 T CT .

On 0 T as di a m et e r , d r a w a c i r cle cutt i n g C O a t G
'
.

T h e n 0 H is t h e di s tan ce o f t h e cutti n g Off ed g e of t h e v al v e - t he

e dge of t h e stea m po r t ; t h at is , C H b h a n d t h e la p Of v a l v e 6 d CH
le n g t h O f po r t .

T h e wi d t h of t h e b a r a 6 m u st n ot be l es s t h a n C T b d a n d s h oul d ,

be (C T b d) i i n ch .

For t h e othe r e n d of t h e v a lv e a s i m il a r co n s t ructio n w ill g iv e t h e

-

r e qui r e d r e s ult s .
 MA N U AL OF MAR I N E E N G I N EE R I N G .

be t h e p ositi o n of c u t O ff a t t h e ot h e r e n d O f t h e c yli n d e r ,
'
L et O E -

cutti n g t h e c i r cle 0 T at H ' '

.

W it h 0 as ce n t r e, a n d O H r ad ius, d r aw a ci r cle cutti n g t h e ci r cl e 0 T

' '

at G t h r oug h 0 G d r aw a l i n e , th e n C G is t h e positio n at w h ich t h e valv e

O pe n s agai n .

’
H e n ce a g OH a n d t h e lap a c
'
CH le n gth of po r t .

Agai n t h e wi d t h of b a r a 6 m ust n ot be l ess also t h a n C T

,
a c an d .

sh oul d b e ( O T a c
) i i n ch .

T h e ba r c d a b la p b d lap a c .

To fin d t h e r e du ctio n i n t r avel for a late r cut Off at positio n 0 F cutti n g -

t h e po r t ci r cle at K D r a w K R pe r pe n d icula r to O F cutti n g C T at R

. .

On 0 R as d ia m ete r d r aw a ci r cle cutti n g t h e lap ci r cl e at L

,
C R is t h e .

h al f t r avel of valve C L is n ow t h e positio n at w h ich t h e valve O pe n s

.

ag ai n w h ich s h oul d n ot b e be fo r e t h e m ai n valve is close d to stea m

,
.

I n a r r a n g i n g a n ecce n t r ic a n d g e a r f or t h is valve ca r e m ust b e take n i n ,

s etti n g it t h at t h e e x pan sio n valve will O pe n at t h e ear liest cut O ff be fo r e '

-

t h e m ai n valve O pe n s a n d t h at a t t h e latest cut off i t d oes n ot ope n ag ai n

,
-

till t h e m ai n valve is close d W h e n t h e e x pa n sio n valve s pi n dl e is i n t h e

.

sam e pla n e wi t h t h e pisto n r od a n d t h e gear is d ir ect f r o m t h e ecce n t r ic t o

-
,

t h e valve r od t h e ecce n t r ic s h oul d b e s et at t h e a n g le B O T with t h e c r an k

-
,

on t h e sa m e si d e as t h e h ea d g oi n g ecce n t r ic -
.

Ex p an sio n V alve Worki n g on t h e B ack of t h e M ain V a lve Cu t t in g ofi a t

'
"

t h e in s I d e e dge an d V ari at i on in Cu t Off ma de by V aryin g t h e T rave l — L e t

,
-

A ( fig 1 6 1 ) be t h e d ea d poi n t of t h e c r a n k at t h e back of t h e str oke a n d

“

.
,

O E t h e positio n of e a r liest cut O ff B C D is t h e a n g le betwee n t h e c r a n k

-
.

a n d h ea d
g oi n g ecce n t r ic a n d C D i t s ecce n t r icity
-

, Cu t O ff 0 H e qu a l t o .

t h e lap o f t he e x pan sio n valve or d i sta n ce of t h e i n n e r e dg e of e x pa n s i o n

,

valve fr o m i n n e r e d g e of st ea m po r t i n t h e back Of t h e m ai n valve whe n ,

t h e ex pa n sio n valve is i n its m e a n positio n with r espect to t h e m ai n val v e .

D r aw t h e la p ci r cl e H G as b e f o r e Fr o m H d r aw a li n e H O pe r pe n d icula r .

to C E with D as ce n t r e a n d t h e h al f t r avel ( absolute ) of t h e e x pan sio n

valve as r ad ius d r aw t h e a r c of a ci r cl e cutti n g H O at 0 Joi n D O a n d
, .

O O on C O as d ia m ete r d r aw a ci r cle w h ic h w ill pass t h r oug h H si n ce

, , ,

0 H O i s a r i gh t a n gl e Co m plete t h e pa r allelo g r a m O D by d r awi n g D T

.

pa r allel to O C a n d C T pa r allel to D 0 T h e n 0 O is t h e h al f t r avel of t h e

, .
-

e x pan sio n valve r elative to t h e m ai n valve B C T is t h e a n gl e betwee n t h e

c r a n k a n d t h e e x pa n sio n ecce n t r ic or T C D i s t h e a n g le b et w ee n t h e e x ,

pa n s i on ecce n tr ic a n d t h e h ead g oi n g ecce n t r ic

-
.

B y p r o d uci n g 0 C to O a n d on C O d r awi n g a ci r cle &c t h e cut O ff

' ’
-
, , .
, ,

la p (he m a y be i n vest ig ate d f or t h e ot h e r e n d of t h e v a lve

, , .

To fin d t h e e ff ect of s h o r te n i n g t h e absolute h al f t r a vel to C R S i n ce -

.

t h e positio n of t h e ecce n t r ic r e m ai n s u n c h a n g e d j oi n R D a n d t h r ou g h 0 , ,

d r a w O N pa r allel to R D a n d cutti n g O D i n N ,On 0 N as d ia m ete r .

d r aw a ci r cle cutti n g t h e lap ci r cle at L a n d K .

T h r oug h O L a n d C K d r aw li n es w h ich a re r espectively t h e positio n s

of O pe n i n g a n d cut off o f t h e e x pa n sio n valve f or the b ack e n d a n d C N i s
-
,

t h e r elative h al f t r avel -
.

I t will b e s ee n th at w h e n t h e t r avel of t h e e x pa n sio n val v e is n o t h i n g ,

t h at t h e r elative h al f t r avel is C D a n d t h at if t h e lap is t h e sa m e as t h at

-
,

of t h e m a i n valve t h e cut O ff a n d l ea d wil l be t h e sa m e also For t h i s

,
-
.

r easo n it is custo m a r y w h e n d esi n i n g a valve of t h is ki n d w h ic h m a h av

g y e ,

to g o ou t of g ea r w h e n at full spee d or for so m e pa r tic u la r pu r pose t o , ,

 EX PAN S I ON V AL V E . 453

m ak e t h e la p t h e sa m e as th at of t h e m ai n v a l ve a n d for p r a c tica l r easo n s

,

t o m ak e t h e t r avel t h e s a m e also .

To fin d t h e e ffect o f t h e e x pan sio n val v e w h e n i n s te r n g ear j oi n T t o

,
-

,
'
D o f the ste r n g oi n g ecc e n t r ic a n d c o m plete t h e par allelo r am CD as be fo r e
- '
,
g .

I t will be see n al so t h at wit h t h is ki n d of e x pa n sion valve t h e ope n i n g

,
,
t o s tea m i s n eve r l e ss at t h e e x p a n sio n val v e po r ts tha n a t t h e cyli n d e r o r t s
p .

Fi g l 6 l — D i a gra m f or
. . an E x pa n s ion V a lv e .

Ex p an si on V al v e Workin g on B ack of M ain V alv e, an d Cu t t in g off at

Ou t s i d e E dge — L e t A ( fig 1 6 2 ) be t h e d ea d poi n t o f t h e c r a n k , a s be f o r e ,
.

a t back of st r ok e , a n d C E t h e pos i tio n o f ea r liest c u t Off r e qui r e d , B O D is

-

t h e a n gle betwee n t h e c r a n k a n d t h e h ead g oi n g ecce n t r i c, a n d C D its

-

e cce n t r icit y
. Fr o m 0 E cut off a pa r t, 0 H , equal to t h e Ope n i n g to stea m
o f t h e m ai n valve at t h a t e n d , or suc h as woul d give su ffic i e n t O pe n i n g by
the r ul e s a s lai d dow n a l r ea d y Fr o m H d r aw a li n e , H O, pe r pe n d icula r
.

to O E W i t h D a s ce n tr e , a n d D O a r ad ius equal t o the ecce n t r icity of

.

t h e e x pan s i o n ecce n t r ic, d r aw t h e a r c of a ci r cl e cutti n g H O at 0 Joi n .

C 0 , a n d On it a s d ia m ete r d r aw a ci r cle , w h ic h will pass t h r ou gh H , s i n ce

0 H O is a r ig h t a n gle .

Co m pl et e t h e pa r allelog r a m C D by d ra wi n g D T p ar a llel t o O O, a n d
“

C T pa r allel t o O D .

T h e n 0 0 is t h e h a l f t r avel of the e x pa n sio n v a lv e w ith re spect t o t h e

-

a i n v a lv e ; B O T is t h e a n g l e b e twe e n t h e cr a n k a n d the e x p a n s io n
E X PA N S I O N V A LV E .
5

w m
.

m m
. .
O

Q © M H
mq
n fi s B a 9 3
A i
.

0
Q 5 M E 3
8
8
45 6 M A N UA L or MA R I N E EN GI N EER I N G .

C H is th e n t h e d ist a n ce apa r t o f t h e cutti n g Off e d g es of t h e valve s a t

'
-

t h e ot h e r e n d Also , i f a late r cut O ff C K i s r equi r e d w h e n 0 K is t h e c u t

'
- -
.

off at t h e ot h e r e n d , t h e valve m ust be m ove d towa r d s t h e m i dd le by a spac e

'
H
'
e u a l to C K
q C .

I f C K be t h e po s itio n o f latest cut Off, ca r e m u st be take n t h at t h e

-

a r r a n g e m e n t is s o d esi g n e d t h at the re ope n i n g o f t h e po r t at C L is a fter

t h e m ai n v alve h a s cut off to s tea m .

I n o r d e r to O b t a i n a s la r g e a r elative t r avel as possibl e t o t h e e x pa n sio n

v alv e , it i s custo m a r y to m a ke t h e a n g l e B C D about so th a t t h e m ai n
valve h a s of n ece s sity ve r y lit t le la p a n d s m all lea d, a n d co n seque n tly t h e r e
is a late r el ea se a n d a ve ry s m all a m ou n t of co m p r ession .

I n S peaki n g of C D as the ecce n tr icity , a n d B C D t h e a n g l e of t h e h e a d

g o in g ecce n t r ic , i t m u s t b u n d e r stood t h at a n ecce n t r ic acti n g d i r ectly a n d
e

i n li n e wit h t h e m ai n valve spi n dl e is m e a n t I f t h e valve g ear i n g is suc h

.

t h at t h e e cc e n tr ic is ot h e r w i s e , the n C D is t h e ecc en t r icity a n d B C D is t h e

a n le of t h e e u i v a len t eccen t r i c
g q .

T h i s r e m a rk applies l i k e w is e t o t h e case O f t h e e x pa n s io n va l v e ( fig 1 6 3 ) .

c utti n g O ff at t h e i n si d e e d g e
-
.

Con st ru ctio n of V alv e D iagrams — I n m aki n g t h e d ia gr a m f or a n e n g i n e ,

t h e pisto n d iag r a m ( fig 1 5 6 ) shoul d be d r aw n fir st to suc h a sca l e as to be
.

wel l clea r Of t h e v alve d iag r ams The m ai n val v e d iagr a m s h oul d t h e n be

-

-
.

d r aw n f ull s iz e i n black i n k , a n d t h e e x pan sio n valve d iag r a m on i t i n r e d ,-

o r ot h e r d ist in ctive colou r Th e e ff ect Of each valve ca n t h e n be t r ace d bo t h

.

s epa r ately a n d co n oi n tly

j .

Effect on I n di c ato r D i agrams of Crank S e qu e n c e — Fit, g 1 6 4 shows t he

. .

e ff ect O f h i h p r ess u r e c r a n k l ea d in
g t h e M P c r a n k , a n d a ls o t h e e ff ect o f
g . .

t h e low p r essu r e c r a n k le a di n g t h e m ean p r essu r e

-
I t wil l be s ee n t h at i n
-
.

t h e f o r m e r case t h e loa d s on t h e pisto n s a r e g r eate r at t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e

s t r oke t h a n is th e case w h e n the low p r essu r e lea d s -
T h is is a g oo d th i n g
.
,

specially i n fast r u n n i n g e n gi n es whe r e t h e i n er tia Of the m ovi n g pa r ts is

-

c o n si d e r abl e ; t h e r atio of m a x i m u m to m ea n loa d is

g r e a te r i n t h i s case ,
n d t h e va r i a tio n i n te m pe r atu r e is g r e ate r t h a n w h e n t h e low p r essu r e

T
-

e a ds
.
 P R O PEL LE R S .

G R A FT E R XV II I .

P R OP E LL ER S .

Th e Fu ndamen ta l Prin ciple on wh ich a ll Marine Prope llers is that the a ct

I e a ct ion fr o m a st r ea m of wate r p r o j ected fr o m a floati n g body I s e qual t o

i ts action in magn itude but O pposite t o i t in d i r ection a n d that r eacti n g

,

fo r ce called t hru s t applied t o the bod v t e n ds t o pr oa u c e m otio n Of it i n that

O pposite di r ectio n

The str eam of water m a y be p r oduced by a n y i n st r u m en t eithe r wi t hi n

t h e s hip as by s om e f o r m of pu mp or wit hout as by a pad d le whee l or sc r ew
, ,
-
.

The Obj ect of the e n gin eer is t her efo r e to Obt ai n in a n y case as lar ge a thr ust
, ,

a s possible with the least a m ou n t of wate r distu r ba n ce a n d the e fficie n cy of ,

t h e m ea n s he e mploys t o p r ope l a s hi p 1 8 m easur ed by such a co m pa r iso n ,

wher eas the m aker of pu m ps ai m s at di stur bi n g as much water as possi ble

with the least a m oun t of thr ust i n as much as t o p r oduce the t hr ust he has
,

t o e x pe n d e n e r gy j us t as the m ari n e e n gi n ee r has in distu r bi n g the wate r ;

t h e e n d a n d the m ea n s bei n g tr a n sposed the a i m is the r e f o r e di ff e r e n t
, ,

a n d i n con side r i n g p r opelle r pr o ble m s it is desi r able t o fr ee the m i n d f r o m

.
t oo mu ch a n alogy t o p u m ps othe r wise gr ave m isco n ceptio n s m a y a r is e w hi ch
w ill lea d t o f al lacious co n clusio n s I t ma y a lso be i m p r essed on the mi n d
.
,

w hi le deali n g w it h the questio n of e ffici e n c y Of p r opelle r that m e r e t h r ust ,

i n the gr oss i s n ot the t r ue m easu r e of the success Of a p r opelle r f or a scr ew ,

ma y a n d Ofte n does c r eate a se rious a m ou n t of augm e n t ed r esista n ce so that

, , ,

i t s actual or n e t p r opelli n g e ff ect I s le ss tha n a n othe r sc r ew which does n ot

p r oduce n ea rly s o much gross thr ust I n f or m e r ti m es whe n the te n de n cy

.
,

was t o supply ever y s tea m ship with a p r opeller as large as h e r dr a f t of wate r _

a n d co n st r uctio n pe rmi tted a n d to m ake the su r fa ce a n d b r eadth Of blad e

,

pr opor tio n al to the dia m eter it w a s n o un co mmon thi n g t o fin d the p r opulsive

,

e fficie n cy ver y oo r n otwi thsta n di n g e x ceedi n gly high thr usts The phe no
p .

m e n o n of n egati ve sli p gen er ally showed itsel f a s a n acco m pa n i m e n t t o such

s c r ews ; a n d although the s o ca lled n egative s li p is n ot a bsolutely i n c om
-

patible w ith good r esu lts sa tis factor y o n es seldo m d o a cco m pa n y it

, .

I f a stea m s hi p i s a t r est with r espect t o the wa t er in which it fl oats a n d ,

i s to be set i n m otion by the str ea m Of wate r p r oj ecte d fr o m it the i n e r ti a ,

m ust be ove r come a n d u n til m otio n actually e n sues the velocity of the
,

s t rea m i s the sa me with r es ect t o the still wate r a s that with whi ch it flows
p .

T h e n the e n e r gy is for a ti m e used I n accele r ati n g the m otion of the shi p

.
,

a n d with the I n c r ease i n its m otio n the r e I s a co rr espo n di n g dec r ea s e I n t h e

flow r elativ e t o su rr ou n di n g wate r Mo r eove r as the ship I n c r ea se s i n spee d

.
,

h er resista n ce i n cr ea ses as the squa r e of the speed a n d f ollowi n g that law ,

t h e i n c r e me n t s lesse n g r a d ually u n til the m a x i mu m speed is r eached whe n ,

 P R OP E LL ER S .
45 9

whe n the re is n ot s u fficie n t i mm e rsio n I n both these c a ses the a ir mix es.

at o n ce with the feed strea m p r oduci n g disastr ous r esults with the thrust
,
,

so that it m a y eve n at ti m es disappea r altogethe r for a m o me n t .

Wh en an y S u bmerged S crew is work in g it is d r a wi n g t o itsel f what w a s

p revi ously still wate r a n d discha rgi n g i n r ea r of it a mass of wate r which
,

has t o co m e t o r est agai n soo n er or late r by the r esista n ce of the su rr ou n di n g

wate r I t is ce r tai n n ow that the flow fr o m it is a colu mn n ea r ly cyli n d rical
.
,

a n d that i n the dispe r sio n it r etai n s the sa me f o r m although of a so m ewha t ,

la r ge r di a mete r tha n that of the sc r ew Ther e is n o cir cu mf e r e n tial dis pe r

.
,

sio n a n d s o n o n eed in f act f or a n y m ean s of r ete n tio n such as s o m an y

, , , ,

well mea ni n g i n ve n tor s have pate n ted t o sa ve the loss due to ce n tri fugal
-

”
f o r ce actio n . The other wise ob n ox ious wate r bubbles tell t oo truly t h e
cou r se of flow thr ough a n d fro m the scr ew f or a n y mista ke t o be made on that
sco r e Pr o f Fla mm a n d S ir Char les P a r so n s have shown by e x haustive
. .

e x pe ri m en ts a n d photogr a phy e x actly what takes place a n d havi n g see n ,

the per f o r m an ce of thei r m odel scr ews it is easy t o co n firm thei r co n clusio n s
,

by m aki n g ca re ful obser vatio n s on rea l wor ki n g scr ews in s mooth clear water , .

I n a d di tio n t o the hea d of water itsel f ther e is the fur the r equ i va le n t ,

head due to at mosphe ric p ress u r e ( equal to 3 3 7 feet of wat e r ) imposed

on the sc r ew race t o kee p up a supply to the pr opeller t o permit it to wo rk

wi thout cavitatio n e n sui n g ; but this latte r p r essu r e is also the cause of such
a r eady a n d ple n tif u l sup ply of a ir t o it whe n a n eddy f o rms I t also co n duces .

t o the f o rm atio n of the ca vity or dep r essio n of the wate r su r face j ust ove r
the sc r ew i n to which the wate r in adva n ce is always flo wi n g u n der the
,

i n flue n ce of gr avity as the ship p r oceeds Abaft the scr ew the r e is always .

the te n de n cy t o pile the wate r u p as the easiest way to dispe r se the colu mn ,

the r esista n ce bei n g less n ear the surface than lowe r down ; he n ce the wa ve
or lu mp of wate r so o fte n see n i n t h e wake of a sc r ew .

Th e Eff ects of Wak e Cu rren ts on a S crew particula r ly on the ce n t r al on e , ,

is con sid e r a ble especially i n ships of high speed with r athe r full buttock
I n a sa ili n g ship — that is on e without a sc r ew—the flow of wate r i n t o
,

li n es
.
,

the void m ade by the s hi p is n ot l imi ted t o the str ea m s f ollowi n g its li n es or
f o r m ; a n d whe n the speed is i n c r eased the te n de n cy for such st r ea m s fr o m
eithe r side t o m eet aba ft the r udder is gr eat ; the space le ft by the ship
must b e filled ther e f o r e either fr o m below or by wate r flo wi n g i n fr o m behi n d
, ,

u n de r the actio n of gr avity The latte r is the easie r method a n d the on e

.
,

usually observ ed I f a sc r ew of co n si der able di a meter be set to wo r k at the

.

e n d of the ship it r equi r es to be f e d with abu n da n ce of wate r a n d so it cause s

, ,

a m ost dista n t suck on eithe r side of the stern in f r o n t of the sc r ew ; gr avity

“

agai n f or ces the flow alo n g the ski n t o b e accele rated a n d i n duces a f u rthe r ,

supply t o co m e fr o m ab r east Th e shape of the shi p a t the stern cause s

.

the str ea m t o f ollow a ce rtai n cou r se a fte r whi ch it a n d the sc r ew s actio n

,
’

dive rt it outwar ds agai n s o that the a x ial flow thr ough t h e sc rew is less t h a n
,

t hat of the u n distu r bed wate r of the saili n g s hi p — in f act wit h re s Pec t to still , ,

wate r the f eed has f o r war d m otio n wi th the shi p I n as much the n as eve r y
,
.
, ,

s cr ew is wor ki n g in m o r e or less dis t u rbed wate r s o that n o on e ca n possibly ,

say for c e rt ain what is the r eal value of V the r eal sli p is a m atter of co n j ectur e
, ,

but a f ai rly close app r o x i m atio n c a n n ow be m ade t o it tha n ks to the i n vesti ,

a t i on s a n d e x pe r i m e n ts of D r R E Fr oude Pr o f Taylo r a n d othe r p a ti e nt

g . . .
, .
,

a n d pe r ti n acious men of ge ni us a n d opp o rtu ni ty .

4 60 A UA L
M N or MA R I N E E N G I N EER I N G .

With th e Pa ddle wh eel t h e Probl em of Propu lsion is simpler i n as m uc h

'

-
,

a s the si d e wheel is wo r ki n g in wate r co m pa r atively u n distu rbed it p r o d uces ,

bu t little augm e n ted r esista n ce a n d the acti n g su rf aces a re ge n e r ally n o rm al

,

t o thei r actio n On the othe r ha n d in its cou r se it b r eaks so m e of the wate r

.
,

i n to foa m s o that the su rface str ea m has n ot n ea rly the de n sity of still wate r
, ,

a n d a co n side r able po rtio n is a t ti m es disp r se d i n to the a ir

e W he n h ow .
,

e ve r ,
t h e shi p is f ai r ly u n de r way the pa d dle wheel I s much m o r e e fficie n t
t ha n it a pea r s as the a m ou n t of foa m a n d b r oke n wate r th e n 1 8 m o r e appa r e n t
tha n re ap The re is howeve r t he sa m e ten de n cy t o f o r m atio n of hollow
,

, ,

d u e t o sluggish n ess of feed a n d the r e I s the pili n g up of wate r aba ft whi ch

, ,

is i n evitable as the re is o n ly a s m all a m ou n t of side disper sal— ih fa ct t h e

, ,

s t r ea m is r ecta n gula r f r o m the wheel t o its r ace e n d m o r e or less as that of

“

the screw is cyli n d rical— a n d it is quite as di fficult to e sti mate the r eal slip
o f a paddle wheel as it is of a sc r ew a n d s o the p r actical e n gi n ee r has t o be
-

co n te n t t o take the n o mi n al slip .

Th e N omin a l or Apparen t S lip of a Propell er is what the slip shoul d be

if the r e we r e n o i n te r fe r e n ce a n d the p r opelle r wo rked as by theo r y it should
,

do . The velocity of the strea m is assu m ed t o be that calculated by multi

plyi n g the li n eal e ff ect of the p r opelle r by t h e n u m be r of r evolutio n s I n the
'

c ase of a addle wh e el t h e ci r cu mfe r e n ce at the ce n t r e of e ff o r t of the floats

p
-
,

i s take n a n d with a scr ew the pi tch or a x ial dista n ce apa r t of t w o th rea d s

,

o f on e co n volutio n .

I f D is the dia me t e r of the ci r cle thr ough the float e ff ectiv e ce n t r es which ,

is ge n e rally n ow take n as the cen tres on whi ch the floats oscillate in a f eathe r
i n g wheel ; P is the pitch of a sc r ew a n d R the revolu t i on s per seco n d of ,
-

e ithe r the n in case of

( 1 ) Th e pa dd le wheel -
,

Appa r en t slip per ce n t .

— l 1 00 1 00
V /

( 2 ) The sc rew ,
V P x R fee t .

Appa r e n t slip pe r cen t , 1 00 1 00

Th e Actu a l must b e i n eve r y ship in e x cess of the n o mi n al

or R ea l S lip '

/
or appa r e n t I n so m e ships t h e ex c e s s is g r eat n ot o n ly because the wak e
.
,

cur re n ts a re great bu t because the st rea m of wate r p r oj ected is n ot r eally

,

a solid cyli n d r ical colum n I t I s of cou r se highly d esi r able that the st rea m
.
, ,

shall flow a t a n u ni fo r m r ate th r oughout i t s t r a n sve r se sectio n — tha t is ,

t h e r e shall be n o d i ff e r e n ce I n the r a t e of flow fr o m the tip tha n fr o m that

at the m iddle or r oot of the blade— the r e s houl d be n o e n velopes or cyli n de r s
of wate r passi n g th r ough or sli d i n g ove r on e a n othe r I n p r actice such a .

c o n su mm atio n is sca r cely possible he n ce the re al slip p r obably va r ies ve r y ,

c o n si d e r ably f r o m r oot t o tip a n d the r e will be a lways a co r e f ollowi n g the

,

boss or hub with n o i m par ted velocity whateve r .

Th e S pira l Pa t h of th e B lade T ips as of eve ry othe r po r tio n of the blade , ,

does n o doub t by ski n fr ictio n cause to be i n d uced a m o f e or less spi ral flow '

to the wake ; a n d p r obably as the feed app r oaches the sc rew it begi n s to
a ssu m e a so m ewhat spi r al path He n ce the colu m n flowi n g fro m the sc r e w
.

is m o r e like a co mm o n wi re r ope tha n a soli d ba r s o that i f t h e r e a re di ff e r

 P A D D LE -
WH EELS .

em ees of fl ow a n d slip the r e will be laye rs or cyli n d e r s r evolvi n g as well a s

sli d in g in on e an othe r The sc r ew that avoid s thi s actio n is a d esi d e r atu m
.
-
.

Th e Selection of Propeller D imension s an d Form is fr o m thes e ,

distur bi n g causes r athe r a m atter of e x pe ri me n t a n d dete r min atio n by

,

e m pi ric f o rmula de r ived fr om success ful p ractice tha n dir ect fr o m m e re ,

con sider atio n s of fir st p ri n ciples a n d theo r y i n volvi n g m o r e or less c om ,

plicated m athe m atical calcu latio n s as well as so m e n ecessa r y assu m ptio n s ,

D r R E Fr oude a n d Pr o fesso r Taylo r h ave howeve r do n e so m uch to clear

. . .
, ,

the p r oble m s of co mplicatio n s a n d by ex haustive e x pe ri m e n ts p r o d uce d

_

d ata of i n esti m able be n e fit that a good p r opelle r c a n be d esign e d w hi ch

,

shall suit t h e co n d itio n s u n d e r which it has to wo r k a n d pe r mit of at least ,

good e fficien cy of its m oto r ; f u rthe r by t h ei r help t h e best p r opelle r , ,

n eglecti n g such li m itatio n s c a n be i n dicated B u t a f te r all it is o n ly by .

, ,

act u al t rial on the r eal ship at sea u n de r ave r age wo r ki n g co n d itio n s of weathe r
that on e ca n say f or ce rtai n that the sc r ew is qu ite satis f acto r y I t is of .
,

cou r se the p r i m e duty of the design e r t o p r ovide a sc r ew that wi ll wo r k

,

well a n d with the highest e fli cie n cy on s ervice a n d u n der s er vice con dit ion s ,

r athe r tha n on e which on t r ial i n s m oot h wate r will p r oduce t h e hi ghest .

spee d f or a li mi ted per iod u n d e r m e r e t rial co n ditio n s in spite of the eve r ,

p resen t te mptatio n t o thi s latte r cou r se I t is n ot a n u n co mm o n thi n g .

n o wadays t o hea r that tu r bi n e d r ive n stea m e r s ou se r vice have n ot f ul fille d

'

-
-

the ex p ectatio n s of thei r p r o m ote r s or do n e so well as on the t r ial t r ips , .

S uch t hi n gs have happe n ed fr eque n tly in the past whe n the t r ial t r ip has ,
:

bee n the c r ucial test of the ship s pe rfo rm a n ce in the mi n ds of those w h o ’

d ete r min ed the p r opo r tio n s of the sc r ews Eve n tu r bi n e stea m e r s m a y su ff e r .

n o actual loss on se r vice if the sc r ew is of so m ewhat coa r se r pitch tha n r equisite

f or the speed of the tu r bi n e itsel f to p r oduce m a x i m u m j oi n t e fficie n cy .

T h e C o mm on P a ddl e w h ee l w ith F i-
xed F l oa ts is n ow seldo m see n
*
; it
was the oldest a n d si m plest f o rm of m ari n e p r opeller a n d co n sisted of a
f ra m
,
,

or k of wr ought i r o n ba r s b r aced togethe r a n d staye d to p r eve n t

'

e v
y
-
,

r acki n g attached t o a ca st i r o n hub or boss keyed ( though o r i gi n ally sta ked )

,
-

to the sh a ft e n d The boa rds or float s wer e secu re d to the r adial a r m s j ust
.

i n side the outer rim by m ea n s of bolts havin g a hook e n d whi ch fitte d on ,

the a r m N o doubt it was a develop m e n t of the f u n de r shot mi ll w h e e lé

.
‘

of the old mill wr ights I t was ve ry si m ple in co n st r uctio n st r o n g a n d easily

.
,

r epai r ed if da m age d a n d r eplaced if wo rn out

,
For r ive r c r a ft ca rr y in g o n l y .

passen ger s a n d par cels with li ttle variation of d ra f t of wate r the r a di al ,

“

wheel was f ai rly e fficien t owi n g to the com par ative ease wi th w hi ch the floats .

”
co u l d b e shi fted or r ee fed it had adva n tages on a sea goi n g cr a ft m aki n g
,
-
,

f ai r ly lo n g voyages f or in spite of a so m ewhat r educed e fficie n cy u n de r the

, ,
“ ”
ci rcu m stan ce s as the dip of the float was r educed the r eby the e n gi n e
‘

was pe r mitted to m ake the full n u m ber of r evolutio n s for m ax im u m powe r -

.

These wheels to d ay a re used onl y on s m all light d r a ft r ive r c r aft in t r opica L

‘

, ,

r e io n s whe r e a f eathe r i n g wheel woul d be liable t o de r a n ge m e n t a n d wit h

g , ,

n o m ea n s f or e ff ecti n g r epai r s t o it .

Th e Fea t h erin g Float Paddle wh eel i n t r oduced by Elij ah Galloway i n to -

,

gen e r al use in 1 8 30 has co n ti n ued t o the p r ese n t ti m e as the accepte d a n d

, ,

best f or m of pad d le p r opeller The gen e r al idea of such a co n tr ivan ce i s .

I t i s h owe ve r s till i n gen er a l u s e on Am e r i ca n r i v e r s a d p r e f e r r e d by U S

, , ,
n . .

e n g in e e r s a s p e r m i t t in g of a t i mb e r c on s t r u cti on t o a la r g e e x t e n t a n d c on s e qu e n tly ,

e asy to r e p a i r en r o u t e .
FAD D L E WB EEL S . 463
4 64 MANUA L OF M AR I N E EN GI N EE R I N G .

actual dia mete r of wheel To asce rtai n the p r ope r positio n of a float a t
.

e n t r y a n d the equivale n t d ia m ete r of the wheel take a po i n t P ( fig 1 65 ) , .

at the e d ge of a float j ust touchi n g the wate r level D r aw li n e P A as repre .

se n ti n g the wate r level a n d cut a part P A to r ep r esen t the speed of t h e

,

shi p on a co n ve n ien t scale let P B be the tan ge n t to the ci r cle passi n g

,

th rough P a n d m ake P B as the S peed of the wheel on the sa m e scale Com

, .

ple t e the pa r allelog r a m A P B whose diago n al P R r ep r ese n ts the di r ectio n

,

a n d r ate of velocity of the poi n t P at that pa rticula r m o m e n t of its cour se ,

a n d i f the float f ace lies on the li n e m a d e by co n ti n ui n g P R to A it w ill ,

sta rt to e n ter the wate r e d geways with least r esista n ce a n d Al is the ce n t r e ,

of the equivale n t r a d ial wheel I f the wheel is to wo r k with co n side r abl e

.

slip the speed as m easu r ed by P B will be large co m pa re d with P A this

, , , ,

will m ean a n i n cr ease in value to A R a n d a r e d uction in the a n gle m ade ,

by AI R with the ve r tical a n d the r aisin g of A, I n other wor ds with gr eate r .

,

slip the equivale n t wheel must be gr eate r Fig 1 6 6 shows the locus of t h e . .

floats a n d float cen t r es of a f eatheri n g wheel .

Th e Mean s provided f or con st ra in in g th e Fl oa ts a r e quite si m ple a n d co n sist ,

essen tially of a fi x e d gudgeo n or its equivale n t ecce n t r ic to the wheel ax is

, , ,

i t s ce n t r e bei n g I n f r o n t of the sha f t ce n t r e On it r evolves a r i n g whi ch .

,

r eceives its m otio n by a n a r m fix e d to it a n d j oi n ted to on e of the float leve r s

so that it tu rn s wi th the wheel ; co n n ected to it is a r od f r o meach float leve r

,

s o that as the wheel tu rn s r ou n d the ecce n tr icity of the gudgeo n causes t h e

leve r to vib rate thr ough the a n gle n ecessa r y f or e fficie n cy .

The positio n of the gudgeo n ma y be asce rtai n ed by placi n g a float with

its lever in the p rope r positio n for i mm er sio n a n d e m e r sio n ; with the leve r
p in ce n t r es as ce n t r e a n d t h e radius of the pitch ci r cle as r adius two i n te r
, ,

s ect in g ci r cles c a n be desc r ibe d th e n the poi n t of uppe r i n te r sectio n is the

positio n of the ce n t r e of the f eathe r i n g gud geo n S o m et i m es h oweve r . , ,

f r o m p r actical co n si d e r atio n s the leve r s a re at a less a n gle tha n 90 with the

°
,

fl oat f ace fig 1 6 7)
. the n the le n gth of the describi n g r adii is less tha n
that of the dista n ce of float ce n t res f r o m wheel cen tr e Fo r m e rly with the .

slowe r r u n n i n g e n gi n es a n equi vale n t d iam eter twice that of t h e actual was

-

co mm o n p r actice a n d sufficie n t N owada ys with the s malle r wheels a n d .

,

t h e hi ghe r pe r ce n tage o f slip t o give g r eate r r evolution r ate the equivale n t ,

d ia m ete r is m uch g r eater a n d ma y be e ve n thr ee ti m es as show n in fig 1 6 7

, , . .

Th e D iameter of a Fea t h erin g Paddle wh ee l depe n ds on the S peed of t h e -

ship the r evolutio n of the e ng1 n es a n d the a m oun t of slip I t is of c our se

, , .
, ,

evi d en t that if f or a n y r ea so n the section al a rea of the p r oj ected st r ea m

, ,

of wate r f r o m a p r opelle r m ust be r est r icted or r educed the r e m ust be a n

i n c r ease in the r ate of flow so that the e ffect m a y be the sa m e I t has bee n
, .

al read y show n that whe n ( V o) is the slip

-

Th rust or m o m e n tu m of w ate r 2A V (V 0 ) pou n ds .

The i n c r ease in ( V v ) c a n be m ade o n ly by a n i n c r ease i n V in a m uch as

f
,

t h e spee d of the ship 1) is fix e d

T h is m ea n s that the float velocity must i n c rease as the r eductio n of a r ea
takes place but A will va r y i n ve r sely as V
,
2
With the m ode rn pad dle .

stea m e r of hi gh speed it is of co u rse desi r able a n d eve n absolutely n ecess a ry

, ,

to have the floats a n d co n seque n tly the w h eel as s m all as possible ; on the
, ,

othe r ha n d i n o rde r that the m achi n e r y ma y be of mi n i mu m weight a n d

,
 —
4 65
"

x
CZ
(

Fi g 1 67 — Fe a t h e rin g P a d dle w h e e l
. .
-
.
 P A D D L E WH EE L S
-
.
467

Q ua n tity of wate r p r oj ected p e r seco n d cubic feet .

f X a D R
The accele r atio n may be take n as f V
60
AX n D X R 64 AX n D X R
30

Af
Thr ust ( n D x R )2

t h r ust x thrust 1 82
? X
x 7
°

f ( 7t D x R )2 (D R)

T hi s thr ust is that due to the e ff o rt of on e wheel so that if the th rust is

calculate d fr o m the shi p r esista n ce a n d the r e a re two wheels hal f t h e v a lu e
'

, ,

s o f ou n d m ust be I n se r te d in the above equatio n .

Applyi n g t h is theor etical f o rm ula to establish a r ule to agr ee with t h e

best p r actice of the day the f ollo wi n g hold s good
,

I H P
Ar ea of f eathe r i n g float
. . .

on e
f —
f z

If E is 0 6 the value of C f or a pa i r wheel s hi p in which I H P is the

, . . .

r os s powe r develope d by the e n gi n e 8 3 2

g ,
.

I f the r e is a s i n gle wheel at the ste r n 0 1 09 , .

As so m e pad d le wheel stea m e r s have a n e fficie n cy value as high as 0 6 6

-
,

the value of C is i n that case 8 5 6 this howeve r is n ot co m m o n while on , , , ,

the othe r ha n d the r e a re those whose e fficie n cy is below 0 6

,
.

Ex a mple What should be the a r ea of float of a side wheel stea m e r

— -

h avi n g wheels 2 2 f eet dia m ete r r evol v i n g at 35 p e r m i n ute a n d a gr oss ,

I H P
. . . the slip p er cen tage bei n g 1 5 a n d speed 2 0 k n ots

He r e a r ea of fl oat 415 squa r e f eet .

Er a mple — What float a r ea should a ste rn wheele r have with a wheel

1 0 f eet dia m ete r r u n n i n g at 5 0 r evolutio n s with a speed of 1 2 k n ots the slip ,

2 0 pe r ce n t , a n d I H P 4 00 7
. . . .

25 8 squar e f eet .

Th e N u mber of Floa ts on a Fea th erin g wh eel should

be such that whe n -

r evolvi n g at slow speeds the r e is n ot t oo m uch thud owi n g

to i rr egular a n gular
a dva n ce— that is to say the floats m ust be n ea r e n ough togethe r to m ai n tai n
,

s o m ethi n g like a n u n i f o r m a r ea of fl oat su r f ace acti n g on the wate r .

D + 2
R u le i n P r a ct i ce — N u m be r of floats
2

wheels usually had a float f or each f oot of diam ete r whi ch m ea n s

R adial ,

they we r e at the tips 3 1 4 f eet apart The ten de n cy of m ode rn p r actice .

4 68 MAN UAL A I
or M R N E E N GI N E E R I N G .
 P AD D LE -
WH E E LS .
4 69

w ith the highe r r ate of r evolutio n is to have as fe w floats as co n siste n t with

good wo r ki n g .

roporti on s of
P Th e quite a Pa ddle Floats
r bit r a r y wit h i n r easo n able a re

b ou n ds I n pr actice the r atio of l en gth t o b r eadth on a r adial fix ed float

.

is 4 t o 5 while for a f eathe ri n g wheel it is 2 6 t o 3 — that I s A r B X B

,
-

wher e B I s t h e b r eadth I n f eet a n d r is the r atio ; h e Iic e

, ,
or r B
2
,

B r eadth of float
S i n ce len gt h is r B ,
then
L e n gth of float r

For ex am ple take ,

t he float at 415 s q u a r e f eet ,
an d r as 3

B r ea d t h of float f eet .

L en gth 3x 3 72-
1 1 1 6 f ee t .

If t hesteam er has t o n avigate n arr ow passages , as dock e n t ra n ce s , et c

t he r atio will n ot e x cee d 2 6 i n that case ,

B r eadth of float —
4 0 f eet .

26
L e n gth 4 x 2 6 1 0 4 f eet .

T hick ness of t h e Elm Fl oa ts is usually about T 2 the b r e a d th bu t

Th e 1
,

s teel fl oats as show n in fig 1 68 m ade of plate sti ff e n e d by sli ghtly cur v i n g

, .
,

it Th e edge r esistan c e of steel plates is of cou r se less than that of elm

.
, ,

boar ds but if da m aged by co n tact with w r eckage they a re n ot so easy t o

, , ,

r e m ove in a seaway although whe n r e m oved they c a n be ge n er ally r esto r ed

,

t o p r oper shape a n d used agai n The steel plates a r e also cheap e r as the re .
,

is co n sid er able labou r in v o v e d in p r epari n g shapi n g a n d bol t i n g toget h e r

‘
, ,

t h e e lm whe n of la r ge si z e .

Pa ddl e Wh eel s are u s u a lly made n ow without oute r r i m s as s how n i n

-
,

fig 1 6 8 ; they a r e ther eby less liable t o da m ag e a n d the li m i t of e x t re m e

.
,

d ia m eter is less ; m or eover the fr ictio n in the water is less although t o a , ,

lar ge e x ten t a n y r esistan ce to the passage of t h e wheel should go to wa rds

thrust On t h e other ha n d the floats have n ot the sa m e p r otectio n as they
.
,

e n j oy with the oute r r im a n d the a r m s beyo n d the i n n er rim bei n g ca n ti

,

lever s m ust b e m uch stouter tha n when the a r m has the double suppo r t
, .

of t h e t w o rim s The structu r e of wheel is n ow wholly of steel as bei n g

.
,

cheaper an d on the whole st r o n ger tha n w r ought i r on ; a n d the hub or boss

«
, , ,

w hi ch was f o r m er ly of cast i ro n hooped with wr ought i r o n is n ow o ft en a ,

steel casti n g .

Th e Feath ering Cen tre an d Gear is f or co n ve n ie n ce o fte n secu r ed t o the , ,

s po n so n bea m as show n on fig 1 68 but as this bea m I s liable to be sp r u n g

,
. .
,

c o n si d e r ably whe n co mi n g alo n gside pie r s especially I n r ough weathe r i t , ,

is saf er a n d s n ugger to fit a n eccen t ric on the oute r be a r in g aa s in fig 1 69 , . .

T h is arr an gem en t possesses a n other adva n tage that bei n g accessib le a n d ,

s o m e w hat shielded f r o m wate r wash it ca n be atte n ded t o a n d t r eated with ,

 P A D D LE -
WH EE L S , 4 71

oil as a lub r ica n t ecce n t ric is rigi d in its co n n ectio n a n d has n o sp ri n g

. Th e ,

in itsel f a n d liable
, t o n o da m age as the oute r gea r is .

Th e Immersion of th e Pa dd le Fl oa t m ust b e gr eate r in sea goi n g ship s -

than in those li m ite d to s m ooth water I n a gen er al way ships which a re .

liable t o ply a m o n g waves should have i n s m ooth wate r a n i mm e r sio n of

t h e i n n e r edge of float whe n at lo w est positio n equal to one h al f the b r ea dth -
-

while if f or ser vice in co m pa ratively s m ooth water a n i m m er sio n of a quar ter

is su fficie n t For light d r a f t stea m er s as little as on e eighth s u fli c es but it
.
- -
,

m ust always b e bo rn e in m i n d that the gr eater the i m m e r sio n t h e l a r ger is

the sectio n of wheel r ace : m or eover as the i m m e rsio n is i n c r ease d by the ,

additio n s t o the d eadweight ca rried so m e r ega r d m ust b e gi v en t o the cir ,

cu m s t a n c es of the ship s ladi n g

’
.

Paddl e wh eel B osses a re m ade of the f o r m show n in figs 1 6 7 1 6 8 a n d 1 6 9

-
.
, , ,

a n d f o rm er ly of the toughest cast i r o n they wer e whe n of la rge si z e further , ,

str en gt hen ed agai n st splitti n g by shri n ki n g on wr ought i r o n hoops as show n -

in fig 1 68 both at the cen t r ed body a n d at the edges of the fla n ges

.
,
To day .
-

such casti n gs c a n b e obtai n ed i n steel which r e qui r e n o such sa f eguard s ,

a n d a re m uch lighte r as well as st r o n ge r The ea rliest p ractice was to stake .

the boss on the squa r e sectio n e n d of the paddle sha ft ; tha t howeve r is a -
, ,

bygo n e p r actice whi ch while r ough a n d r eady had the me rit of sa fety
, , , .

S i n ce the n the boss has bee n b o r ed ou t to fit the sha ft a n d keyed t o it w ith ,

two keys 90 apa rt I t was howeve r m ost difli cu lt to withdraw bosse s

°
.
, ,

fitted in this way ; the r e f o r e the bette r pla n i s t o fit the m with a tape r
, ,

a s is do n e with scr ew p r opell e r bosses .

Taki n g the dia m ete r of t h e sha f t whi ch is su fficien t f or the to rque of

’

the e n gi n es as a c r iterio n of si z e f r o m whi ch t o calculate the wheel sca n tlin gs

, ,

or take the dia m ete r of the i n n e r j our n al of the a ctual sha f t calculated by t he
f ollowi n g vi z , .

D ia m ete r of i n n e r j ourn al

For a side wheel stea m e r with a si n gle cyli n de r

-
F
For side wheels with t w o cyli n d e r s c r a n ks at -
, F
a n d a n i n te r m e d iate sha ft ,
F
2 soli d c r an ks ,

thr ee 3 c r a n ks ,

Thick n ess cast i ro n boss r ou n d sha ft

of -
02 8 x
steel 02 0 x d .

D ia m ete r of oute r fla n ges ,

40 X d .

T hi ck n ess cast i r o n 0 15 d .

cast steel 0 11 x d .

B r eadth of two har d steel keys each 0 18 x d i i n ch

T hi ck n ess 00 9 x d 1 i n ch
1

All sha fts ove r 8 i n ches dia m ete r should have t w o keys .

Pa ddl e Arms of s m all r a d ial wheels with two r i m s a re ge n e r ally made .

of

flat r olled bar s I n la r ge feathe ri n g wheels they a re always f o r gi n gs a n d

.

n ow ge n e r a lly of steel .

L e t n be the n u m be r of floats on a wheel with a pai r of a rm s t o e ach ,

float the n if the f ra m ewor k is b r c e d a n d tied togethe r as a co mpact st ructu re

,
a ,
4 72 MA N UA L or M AR I N E EN GI N E E R I N G .

an d thereby dis t ribute the load a n d b is the b readth a n d t t h e t hi ck n ess

,

o f each a rm at t h e boss
z
The r esista n ce to be n di n g of each a rm is f ( t X b ) .

z
Th e total r esista n ce of the st r uctu r e 2 71] ( t X b ) .

The s h a ft j ou rn a l has to wo r k agai n st this r esistan ce which m a v be ,

d esi gn ate d as P .

P X d ia m ete r of wheel

be n di n g m ome n t on the w heel structu r e .

3
1r d
the t O I qu e
16
D d3
He n ce —
X fl 2 n f 1 ( t X b2 )
5
.

16

I ff l be take n as p ractically equal to 0 8f f or o rdi n ary m ild steel the n .

3
d
i x b 2 = 0 982 d 0 o78 5 4

Inp r actice the r atio of b to t is 5 at the boss a n d 3 5 with sa m e thick n ess

at the rim ; w h e n the r e i s o n ly a n i n n e r r i n g the r atio of b to t j ust outsi d e
the r i n g i s fro m 6 t o 7 .

2
Taki n g the r atio at boss as 5, the n t X b

0 0 78 5 4

Th en bre a dt h of a rm
‘

For e x a m p le if n is 8 the n b 0 3 65 d ’

.
, ,

For tug boats a n d ships m aki n g sea passages in wi n te r ti m e , whe r e the

w h eels a re liable t o heavy shocks f r o m the sea , the str uctur e shoul d be a
so m ew h at h ea v I er on e m o reove r in o rd i n a r y wo r k the wheel I s liable to
,

r oug h u sage , a n d the load 1 3 n ot eve n ly d ist r ibuted T o p r ovi de f or such .

co n ti n ge n cies , the d ivisor should be (rt 2 ) r athe r tha n n .

Th e R i ms of Pa ddl e- wh eels a r e of r olle d ba r i r o n or mild ste el , a n d whe n

the r e a re t w o ri m s as in fig 1 6 7
, .

B r eadth oute r r i n g of
04 x d .

i n n er 04 X d .

Thick n ess of oute r 00 8 X d .

i n n er 01 0 X d .

Wh e n t h e re is o n ly a n i n n e r r i n g t h e sectio n should be 0 5 d o l 4 d with ° °

bolts 0 1 5 cl in dia m ete r while the bolts with two r i n gs m a y be s m alle r or

'

, ,

0 1 2 rl
°

. Th e d iago n al tie r ods a r e -

i n ch ) in dia m eter while the ,

c r oss ba r s a re ( 0 1 8 d 2 i n ch ) a n d m ade hollow

’

, .

I t s h oul d be n oted that these r ules a re laid d ow n for guida n ce f or in actual ,

p ra ctice t h e n ea r est sta n dard sectio n should be selecte d for use as a lso the ,

bolts use d s h oul d be of sto r e d i m e n sio n s .

Of t h e Fe a th eri n g Gear t h e float gu d g e o n s sho u l d be i n d ia m ete r equ a l

,

to ( 0 1 the b r ead th of float i i n ch ) a n d the le n gth of bush 1 4 0 the d ia m ete r

, .
 T H E S CR E W P R OP E LL ER .

The r adius rod pi n s should be in d ia m ete r

-
0 5 0 that of the gudgeo n s ,

a n d fitted as shown i n fig 1 6 9 The pi n s gudgeo n s etc a re usually cased

. .
, , .
,

in har d b r o n z e a n d the holes in which they fit bushe d with lign u m t i tee

, ,

i n as much as the o n ly lub rica n t they get is wate r I t is howeve r n ot .

, ,

un co mm o n n ow to use ha r d steel or case har de n ed pi n s etc a n d e m ploy -

, .
,

w hi te m eta l bushes whi ch wea r s well in sa n d y wate r

, .

Th e Positi on of t h e Gu dg e on s on th e Fl oa ts is n ot always the m i d dle but ,

n ea r e r to the ce n tr e of p r essu r e as show n i n fig 1 6 7 About t w o fif t h s the

, . .
-

b r ea d th of the float f r o m the oute r e d ge is a goo d positio n f or the turn i n g

a x is as the n the twisti n g loa d on e n t r y is n ot s o gr eat a n d d ur i n the p og ess
, g r r ,

t h r ough the wate r ther e is a bette r ba la n ce tha n i f hu n g ce n t r ally .

Th e Ou te r B ea rin g of th e Pa ddle sh a f t has to take the weight of the sha ft -

a n d wheel a n d the ho r i z o n ta l thr ust of the p r opelle r ; it o u ght t h e r e fo r e , ,

t o be design ed with the ce n t r e li n e diago n al i n stead o f ver tical as it usuall y ,

is for co n v eni en ce of getti n g the s h af t i n to place The r esu l tan t p r essur e .

o n the bea r in g is diago n al i n di r ectio n an d of co n side r able m ag n itude s o that ,

the b earin g m ust be lar ge a n d st r o n g I t is usually t w o d ia m ete r s of the .

s ha ft j our n al i n le n gth a n d li n e d w ith w hi te m etal

-
, I t is la r gely t r eated .

w ith wate r s o that it can n ot get h ot a n d supplied with a ce n t r al cha m be r

, ,

fill e d with tallow wh ich kee ps ou t the wate r a n d lub ricates the bea ri n g i f
,

it gets war m I t is d esi r able that it shall be also lub ricated with oil
.
,

a s is a n y othe r bea ri n g if goo d r es u l ts a r e to b e e x pecte d The cap of the '

.
,

beari n g is ge n e r ally a plain i r o n casti n g like that on a tun n el bear in g in a

-

s c r e w shi p I t takes n o load a n d o n ly p r eve n ts the sha ft fr o m lif ti n g or

.
,

j u m pi n g in the bearin g as it might do in a seaway ,

.

Th e S crew Prope ll er is a m o r e i m porta n t i n str u m e n t of p r opulsio n as ,

it is in un i ve r sal use for eve r y kin d of s hi p a n d on eve r y se r vice havi n g ,

ousted the pad d le in places whe r e at on e ti m e it see m ed i m possible to be

e m ployed with advan tage The i n ve n tio n s of S ir John Th orn y croft a n d
.

S ir A Ya r r ow wher eby scr ews ca n be e m ployed in the shall owest of

.
,

wate r— s o sh allow i n deed that whe n at r est the wate r level is ver y n ea r
, ,

the scr ew a x is— have r evolutio ni sed the p r actice of m a r in e e n gi n ee r s Mo r e .

ove r t h e cove r in g i n of the p r opelle r r aces i n t h e ways adopte d by these

,

ge n tle m e n has i m m e n sely i mp r oved the e fficien cy of all sc r ew ships wher e

the sc rew was quite but o nl y j ust i mm e r sed .

For Pu rposes of Ca l cu l a ti on it is su fficie n t to assu m e t h at the st r ea m

of wate r fr o m a sc r ew is a hollow colu m n of the sa m e e x te rn al dia m et r as
e

t h e scr ew a n d the i n te rn al is as the d ia m ete r of the boss

,
I n the m e r ca n tile .

m a r i n e the boss is so s m all co m pa r e d with the dia m et er of the scr ew e s pe ci

, ,
s

ally wi th solid o n es that n o gr eat disc r epa n cy a rise s if t h e colu m n is a ssu m ed

,

to be soli d I n the n aval ser vice a n d wi th all s hi ps hav in g lar ge power a n d

.
,

scr ews of s m all dia m ete r t hi s cour se can n ot be a d opted for the boss d isc
,

is fr o m 5 to 1 2 per ce n t of the scr ew disc . .

Th e S u rfa ce its elf is n ow ge n e r ally a po r tio n of a t r ue heli x although the r e ,

a re still n ot wa n ti n g those wh o hol d that the r e is so m e vi rt ue in a sc r ew of

va riable pitch a n d w hi le ce rtai n i n cli n e t o a va r iatio n f r o m the boss t o the

,
'

t ip othe r s p r e f e r the i n c r ease t o be fr o m the lea din g e d ge to the f ollowi n g

, ,

so that the wate r at co n tact with the bla de m a y have o nly a ve r y s ligh t
displace m e n t but a gradual i n c r ease as it passes alo n g the face with the
,

fin al a ccele r ation j ust as it leaves at the f ollowi n g e dg e I f such p r ope lle r s , ”

 I N D I CA T E D T HR US T .
4 75

c on ditio n u n der which m odel sc r ews ge n e rally have bee n t ried in the past .

To day wi t h the m ode rn ta n k a n d its elabo r ate appa ratus the m odel sc r ew
-
,
,

is t rie d behi n d t h e m odel ship which is p r esu me d to have si milar wake cu rr e n ts

,

to that of the r eal ship .

Th e Thr u s t of 3 S crew is the r esulta n t of all the p r essu r es on it acti n g in a

.

gi
re c t i on pa r allel t o the a x is applie d a x ially th r ough the sha f ti g to the th ust
n r
ock .

I n dica ted T hru st is a n app r ox i m atio n t o the actual th r ust a rr ived at by

mea n s of a f o rm ula p r oposed by the late D r W Fr oude , a n d ve r y u se ful . .
o

for gui da n ce i n deal i n g with p r op elle r p r oble m s whe n r ightly un d e r stood

a n d p r ope r ly applied I t c a n be used with adva n tage in t r eati n g co m pa r a
.

t iv e ly the r esults of t r ials , but for absolute r esults it ca n n ot b e r elie d on

.
’
Fr o n de s r u le is as f ollows
I H P
I n dicated t h rust in pou n ds
' ' '

whe r e V
is the velocity of t h e strea m in f eet per seco n d that is
pitc h r evolutio n s .

With the 80 per cen t e fficien cy of the e n gi n es in D r Fr on de s da y the

. .
’

r es u l ts obta in ed by thi s f o rmu l a we r e m or e n ea r ly tr ue tha n n ow wi t h bette r

e n g 1 n es .

R eal thr ust x 6 0 v I H P x E X . . .

ii
i
E, the n Fr o n de
’
s f o rmula holds good— that is whe n the slip , pe r
cen t is the sa m e as the per c en t of loss of e n gi n es a n d scr ew it is t r ue
. . .

The efficie n cy of the scr e w ma y b e e x a m i n ed on the syste m p r oposed

by hi m— v ia by co n st r ucti n g cu r ves of in dica t ed t hru s t on the sa m e p r i n ciple
,

as that desc r ibed in Cha p ii f or cu r ves of I H P . .

, . . .

I n thi s case however the o r di n ates r ep r ese n t the thr ust as calcul ated
, ,

fr o m the or f r o m the pr essu r e on the pisto n s a n d this f or co n ve ni e n ce ,

is gen er ally ex p r essed in to n s .

I t is a ssu m ed that the p r essu r e on the piston s multi plied by twice the i r
st roke is equal t o the thr ust multiplied by the pitch a n d if ther e wer e n o ,

loss by frictio n of machi n er y etc by the p r i n ciple of wo r k this would b e true

, .
,
.

L e t p b e the m ea n e ff ective r e f er r ed p r essu r e on the low p r essu r e pisto n s -

in pou n ds per s qua r e i n ch 77 thei r n u m ber A thei r a r ea in squar e i n ches

, .
, ,

L the len gth of str oke in f eet a n d P the pitch of the sc r ew in f eet the n , ,

p X Aa 2 L
P
If
both n u m er ato r a n d d en o m i n ato r of the fraction be multiplied by R,
the n u mb er of r evolutio n s per mi n ute ,

p X A_X n X 2 L X R
Th l ’
l St —
l i )

p X A x n x 2 L x R
I H P . . .

I H P x
. . .

Ther e for e Thrust

4 76 MAN U AL or M AR I N E EN GI N E ER I N G .

This is called the in d ica t ed t hru s t a n d it was by co n st ru cti n g a cu r ve of ,

i n dica ted t hru s t that the i n e fficie n cy of the o rigi n al sc r ews of H M S I r is . . .

was discover ed .

oude a lso e x plai n ed the m ethod by which he esti m at ed t h e

*
D r Fr .

”
i nit ia l fr i cti on or t he equivale n t of fr ictio n of t h e e n gi n es due t o the
,

wo r k in g load ”
He said
. Whe n deco m pose d i n to its co n stitue n t par ts
i n dicated thrust is r esolved i n to sever al e lem e n ts which must be e n u m er ated ,

m
’
a nd kept i n V iew These ele
. e n ts a r e —
l the useful th r ust or ship s t r ue , ,

r esista n ce ; 2 the aug m e n t of r esista n ce which is due to the di mi n utio n

, ,

which the actio n of the p ropeller c r eates in the p r essur e of the water agai n st
t h e stern e n d of the ship 3 the equivale n t of the fr ictio n of the sc r ew blades
,

i n thei r edgeway m otio n thr ough the wate r ; 4 the equivale n t of the fr iction ,

d u e t o the dead weight of the wo r ki n g pa rts piston packi n gs a n d the like , , ,

which co n stitute the i n itial or slow speed fr ictio n of the e n gi n e ; 5 the -

e quivale n t of fr ictio n of the e n gi n es due to the wo r ki n g load ; 6 the equi ,

vale n t of a ir pu m p a n d f eed pu m p duty

- -
.

I t is p r obable that 2 3 a n d 4 of the above list a re all ve r y n ea r ly pr o

, ,

po rtio n al t o the usef u l th r ust 6 is p r obably n ear ly p r opo rtio n al to the s quar e
o f the n umb er of r evolutio n s a n d thus at least at the lower speeds a ppr o ,
xi , ,

m atel y to the use ful t hr ust 5 p r obably r e m ai n s co n sta n t at all speeds a n d .

f or co n ven ie n ce it m a y be r egar ded as con sta n t though pe r haps i n st r ic t ,

‘ ’
t r ut h it sho u ld b e ter m ed i n itial frictio n I f the n we could sepa r ate the .
, ,

uasi co n sta n t fr ictio n fr o m the i n dicated t hr ust thr oughout the r e m ai n d e r

q
-
,
’
woul d b e app r ox i m ately p r opor tio n al t o the ship s t r ue r esista n ce .

N ow on d r awi n g a cu r ve ( of i n dicated th r ust )

,
it beco m es at
o n ce m a n i f est i n eve r y case that at its low spee d e n d the cur ve r e f uses to
-

desce n d to the thrust z er o but te n ds towards a poi n t r ep r esen ti n g a c on

,

s id era ble a m ou n t of thr ust a n d it is i mp ossibl e t o doubt t h at t hi s appa r e n t

,

thrust at the z e r o of speed whe n ther e c a n be n o r eal thrust is the e qu i v a

, ,

len t of what I have term ed i n itial fr ictio n ; s o t h a t i f w e could d eter m i n e

c orr ectly t h e p oi n t at which the cu r ve if p r olo n ge d t o the speed z e r o would , ,

i n ter sect the a x is 0 Y ( fig if we we r e to d r aw a li n e th r ough the

.

i n ter sectio n parallel t o the base the height whi ch woul d b e thus cut off f r o m .

t h e thr ust o rdi n ates would r ep r ese n t the deductio n to b e m a d e f r o m the m in

r espect of co n sta n t or i n itial f r ictio n a n d the r e m ai n der s o f the o r d i n ates
,

b etwee n this n e w base a n d the cur ve woul d b e app r o x i m ately p r opo rtio n al to
’
t h e s hi p s t r ue r esista n ce .

D r Fr oude the n e x plai n s h i s m ethod which is substa n tially as f ollows

.
,

L e t 0 B , O C, O D r ep r ese n t the thr ee p r og r es sive speeds , obse r ve d i n

t h e usual way , a n d B E C F, D G the i n dicated thr ust , calculate d f r o m the
,

d ata obse r ve d at those spee d s thr ough t h e poi n ts G, F, E d r aw the cu r ve of

i n dicate d thr ust L e t 0 A r epr ese n t a low spee d , which should n ot ex ceed
.

5 k n ots , a n d A H the co rr espo n di n g i n dicate d th r ust co n ti n ue the cu r ve to

H a n d at H d r aw a tan gen t t o the cu r ve cutti n g O Y Take a poi n t M
. .

betwee n 0 A, so that E L— — — D raw M K par allel t o A H a n d cutti n g

Ll 0 87
MA 1 0
‘
,

t he ta n gen t li n e at K . Th ro u gh K d r aw a li n e K T pa r allel to O D, cutti n g

T r a n s ac t i ons o f t he I n s t it u t i on of N a va l Arch it ect s , v ol . xvu .

, 1 8 76
 R AN E I N E s
’
R U LE FOR T HR U S T . 4 77

OY at T Then 0 T is the pa rt cut off 0 Y by t h e cu r ve a n d r ep rese n ts t h e

.
,

i n itial fr ictio n .

D r F r oude deduced fr o m c ar e ful i n vestigatio n that o n ly 3 7 t o 4 0 pe r

. , ,

ce n t of the whole power deliver ed is usefu lly e m ployed a n d that t h e

.
,

co n sta n t f r ictio n is equivalen t t o fr o m on e eighth t o on e six th of the g ros s - -

load on t h e en gi n e whe n wo r ki n g at its m ax i m u m speed a n d powe r .

R a n k in e
’
s is su mm a rised as f ollows
R u le for Th ru st

P r o fe sso r R a n ki n e gives ( R u les an d T a bles p 2 75 ) thi s sa m e , . ru le in

a n other a n d mo r e co n ve n ie n t f or m for pr actical use vi z , .

R UL E V — T o ca lcu la t e t he t hru s t of a pr ope llin g in s tru men t ( j et

.
pa ddle, ,

or s crew ) in pou n ds mu lt i ply t oget her t he t r an svers e s ect i on a l a rea , in s qu a re

f eet ,
of t he s t r ea m dr i ven a s tern by t he pr ope ller t he s peed o f t he s t r ea m r ela t i vely

t o t he s hip i n kn ots t he rea l s li p , or pa r t of t ha t s pee d whic h i s im pressed on

Sp ee d in K n ot s

Fig l 71 — Cu I n d ic a t e d Ib ru s t
’
. . r v e of .

tha t s tr ea m by t he prOpe ller , a ls o in kn ot s an d t he con s t a n t 5 66 for s ea wa ter , -

or 5 5 for fres h wa t er .

That is if S is the speed of the scr ew i n k n ots , s the S peed of the ship
,

in k n ots A the a r ea of the st r ea m i n squa r e f eet ( of s ea wate r ) -

,
,

Thr ust in pou n ds A X S ( S s ) X 5 66 or D X S ( S s ) X 4 4 5 ,

2
.

The e ffective slip or the actual mea n velocity i m par ted t o the water
a ot b e f ou d accu ately m o r e tha n c a n the m ass of wate r set in
c n n n r a n y
m otio n The e ff ective thr ust however m a y b e f ou n d app r o x i m ately thus
. , , ,

Eff ective th r ust ( D X S )

2
F .

D the dia m eter in f e et S the speed of sc r ew in f eet per seco n d a n d F va ri es

, ,

fr o m 3 3 wi th s m all quick p r opelle r s to 5 with la r ge slow o n es

,
°
Ordi n a ry .

m re cha n t stea m e r s 5 t o ,
f ast r u n n in g m e r c h a n t a n d n-
aval shi p s 4 0 '

; .

ver y high spe ed as wi th tur bi n es, ,

 S P E ED AN D P R ES S UR E D IAG R A M . 4 79

R EV OLU TIONARY S PEED m FEET p m S ECON D ‘

‘

P R ES S U R E m LB S P ER S Q lN CH
'
.

a n d the ho r i z o n tal li n e thr ough it to the right h a n d side shows it t o b e a

'

little ove r 1 7 lbs

.

Th e D iamete r of S crew best su ited t o a S hip I S a ma tte r for m uch

“

.
 48 0 MA N UA L or M R A IN E EN GI N EE R I N G .

c o n sider ati o n a n d to a rr ive at it all the ci rcum sta n ces of the pa rticula r cas e
,

m ust b e ta ke n i n to accou n t The thr ee leadi n g f eatu r es of a scr ew— v iz

. .
,

d ia m ete r pitch a n d sur face of blades— a re i n ter depe n de n t on e on e ach of t h e

, ,

othe r t wo or two togethe r on on e The shape of the ship a n d h e r d r aught

, .

o f wate r a r e gove r n i n g f acto r s a n d last but n ot least the r e m ust be so m e

, ,

r elatio n betwee n the powe r developed pe i r evolutio n by the e n i n e or m oto r

g
'

a n d the a r ea of disc of the p r opelle r as also the a r ea of b lades them selves .

Ther e a r e so m e other co n sider atio n s e x t r a n eous t o ship a n d e n gi n e such a s ,

the f ear of cavitatio n with a coar se pitch a n d i n su fficie n t blade sur face t h e
te n den cy to swa m p the sc r ew w ith a ir if the blade tips a r e t oo n ear t h e
su rf ace a n d the r isk of d am age if the blades of m u lt iple sc r e w shi ps p r oj ec t ~

so fa r ou t sideways that the qu a rter s of the s hi p can n ot p r otect t h e m f r o m

co n ta ct w ith dock a n d qua y walls .

I n a ge n e r al way it m a y be take n as a n a x io m that the sc r ew of highest .

e fficien cy is the on e wh ich with the s m allest di a m ete r is su fficien t f or t h e

power tr a n s mitted t o it The obj ectio n to la r ge diam eter sc r ews f or high
.

e fficien cy of p r opulsio n as ag a in st hi gh thru st is well set f o r th by D r W . .

Fr oude who sa ys ,
0

Take the case of a scr ew 20 f eet dia m eter m aki n g 8 0 r evolutio n s pe r ,

m i n ute ; the tips of the blades a r e t ra velli n g at a speed of about 5 0 k n ots

n e w t h e r esista n ce of a su r f ace s o sho r t in the li n e of m otio n a s a sc r e w
,

blade even when i t s su rfa ce i s qu i te s mooth is as m uch as 1 } lbs per f oo t

, , .

a t 1 0 k n ots a n d is n ea r ly a s the squar e of the speed a n d as ea ch squa r e f oo t

, ,

of bla d e a r ea i n volves 2 squa r e f eet of ski n the r esistan ce of each is over ,

6 0 lbs ; thus m aki n g so m e allow a n ce f or thi ck n ess a n d blu n t n ess the r e

.
, ,

is i n volved in d rivi n g it at 5 0 k n ots at least 1 0 I H P a n d collectively t h e . .

out m ost f oot of f ou r such bla d es each 3 f eet wi d e would absor b fully 1 2 0 , ,

I H P in su r face frictio n ; a n d though the pa r t s n ea r e r to the r oot m ove

. . .
-

w ith p r opo rtio n ally less speed a n d ther ef o r e with less r esista n ce yet on t h e , ,

other ha n d sc r ew blades a r e gen er ally r ough fr o m the san d a n d have pr o

, ,
”
bably a still higher coefficien t of fri cti o n al r esistan ce .

If a scr ew is of su fficie n t dia m eter a n d has a m ple blade a rea a n y ad ditio n , ,

beyo n d the tip will act the n qui te as a b r ake a n d seriously r e d uce it s
.

e fficien cy ; a n d that such sc r ews p r o d uce aug me n ted r esista n ce i s also a

co mm o n e x per ien ce .

The loss by su rface friction of blades in these days of high rate s

of r evolutio n is m o r e p r o n ou n ced tha n ever B u t pe r haps the m ost .

attr active r easo n for ad opti n g the s m all sc r ew is that gr eate r i m m er sio n of
upper blade tip is p ossible ; all other thi n gs bei n g equal the s m all sc r ew
-
,

t h o r oughly well i m m er sed mu st b e a m o r e efficien t on e in a sea goi n g shi p ,

especially tha n a la r ger on e w ith s m all I mm e r sio n

,
.

T h a t th e Limit t o S crew D iameter is the d r aught of wate r of the ship

at the ster n n o lo n ge r holds good as it d id whe n d r a ft of water was t h e
gove rn i n g f acto r As alr eady show n a sc r ew in a shallow d r a ft s hi p ma y
.
,
-

b e lar gely in e x cess of it if m ea n s a re taken t o keep the water m assed u p

by t h e sc r ew whe n wo rki n g fr o m the p r essu r e of the at m ospher e a n d fr o m
disper sal Pr o f esso r Fla mm has show n h ow by m ea n s of a str ea m of wate r
.
,

at high velocity di r ected diago n ally alo n g a su r f ace the r elie f of a ir p r essu r e
, ,

is grea te r tha n t h e n o r m al e ff ect of the i mpi n gi n g st r ea m on that su rface .

 LI M I T OF S CR E W D IA M E T ER .
48 1

I t is also a m att er of co mm o n k n owled ge that , if the stern li n es of a ship

a re f u ll so that the fl ow of wate r i n to the sc r ew r ace is r est r icted , a s m all
,

d ia m ete r sc r ew is a ve r y i n efficie n t on e to p r oduce th r ust s o the o rdi n a r y ,

ca rgo stea m e r mu st h ave on e of la r ge dia m ete r co m pa r ed with t he e n gi n e

si z e to wo r k e ffectually On the other ha n d a twi n sc r ew ship havi n g its
'

-
.
,

p ropelle r s in t h e open , a n d lar gely fr ee f r o m the i n fluen ce of o rdi n a r y wake

'

cu rr en ts , ma y have sc r ews of s m aller dia m ete r in p r opo rtio n t o the e n gi n e

“

power .

I t is evide n t then the dia m eter must be such as to suit both the ship
a n d the e n gi n e power a n d that it ca n n ot b e a rrive d at satis fact o r il y by
,

co n sider i n g o n ly the n eeds of the on e a s was the case whe n the r atio of ar ea ,

of sc r ew disc to that of i m mer se d m id sectio n was t h e c r iter io n Th e f ollowi n g —

.

r ules m a be used to give a n app r op r iate di a m ete r of sc r ew u n de r the va r yi n g

y
ci r cu m stan ces ex perien ced in ship design
D is the d ia m eter of the L P . . c yli n de r of t he e n gi n e whose pisto n str oke
is S both in f eet
, .

d ispl a ce m e n t X 35

Z a m ultipli er (2 4 PC) for t wi n sc r ews ,

an d (28 P, ) f or si n gle sc r ew s
"

R the r evolutio n s p er m i n ute of the sc r ew .

R UL E I .
—
D ia m ete r of sc r ew in f eet Z X N /1 ) X S .

R UL E I I . a x P,

For si n gl e scr ews Oc ea n goi n g e x pre ss 7 61

“
'

,
a: -

, .

twin scr ews ,

a;

quadrupl e scr ews ,

x

tur bi n e d riven cen tr e sc r ew

-

,
as

wi n g a: 6 04 .

N B . .
—I n n o case however must
, ,
Pc have a less val u e than 0 5 53 .

Ex a mple —What should b e the diam ete r

the scr ew of a ca r go boat of

h a vi n g e n gi n es with cyli n der s 2 5 3 8 a n d 6 4 i n ches dia m eter a n d 4 5 i n che s , ,

len gth of s t r oke the p r is m atic coefficie n t of hull bei n g 0 85 4

'

.
,

D ia mete r sc r ew ( R ule I .
) (28 08 5 ) x 1 6 3 feet

Exa mple —An

ex p r ess stea mer f or c r oss cha n n el se rv i ce I s I n te n ded
’

t o be twi n sc r ew an d to have e n gi n es of I H P aggr egate The r ate . . . .

of r evolutio n is 1 8 0 a n d the pr is m atic coe fficie n t of hull is 0 6

,
.

D ia m ete r of sc r ew ( Rule II ) . 65 5 X 0 C °
1 0 0 2 f eet .

ocea goi g stea m e — An

d ive by t bi n es is to hav e
Ex a mple n n r r n u r -

h ee sc ews the total S H P is at 2 5 0 r evoluti o n s the h u l l p ris mati c

t r r ,
. . . ,

Wit h t u rb i n es a n d elect r ica lly d riven s cre ws t he ord in a ry ru les h old good
geared
.

31
 Err or ?or T H E S CR E W . 48 3

sc r ew shi ps a n d the cen tr e sc r ew of t riple scr ews x 0 1 8 P +f

For si n gle -

,
'

c ,

wher e f is the appar e n t slip fr actio n Then the value of C is 4 5 0 . .

Ex a mple —W
hat shoul d be the dia m ete r of the sc r ew of a t r a m p
stea m e r whose p r is m atic coe fficien t is 0 85 the I H P the speed is , . . .

1 0 k n ots a n d the appa r e n t slip t o be 1 0 p e r ce n t 2

, .

Her e x 0 3 x 0 85
-
0 10
10 x
P X R
mx oe

02 5 3 — 0 063

Exa mple — D eterm i n e the dia m eter of the t wi n sc r ew of a shi p whose

Pc is 0 6 , the I H P a n d the speed 20
. . . k n ots the appa r en t slip t o b e
,

1 5 per ce n t .

20 X

x x 06 0 15 , or 02 7 .

D i a met er of sc r ews 1 0 1 f ee t .

Exa mple — What shou l d b e the dia m eter of the sc r ews of the t riple
ew
sc r tu r bi n e d r iven scout whose P
-
, 6 0 5 5 ; h er s peed is t o be 2 7 k n ots
H P a n d the ap par e n t sli p
’

with . .
, 2 5 per ce n t 9 .

I n thi s c ase x 0 1 8 x 05 5 02 5 , or f or the cen tr e sc r ew ,

a nd x 0 20 x 0 55 0 25 , or 0 3 6 f or eac h Win g sc r ew .

27 X
P x R or f eet .

60 x

D ia m eter of cen tr e sc r ew

D ia m eter of wi n g scr ew 6 4 f eet .

Ex a mple — A f ou r scr ew shi p-

of has aHP. . P6 of 0 7 h er
s peed is 2 5 k n ots , an d the sli p p er cen t . 1 6, of what dia m eter a re the sc r ews
H er e x 0 2 x 0 7 0 1 6, or 0 30 .

2 5 X 6 0 80
P x R

D ia m ete r of sc r ew 1 5 8 f eet .

If ,
however the slip is to b e o nly
,
1 2 5 per cen t .

x 0 1 25 02 65 .

Then the dia m eter is 1 7 f eet

'

Th e Pit ch of th e S crew depe n ds on the s peed of the S hi p a n d am ou n t of

a cceler atio n r equi r ed to b e give n t o the str ea m of water t o p r oduce the
484 MA N UA L A I
or M R N E E N GI N E E R I N G .

requi r ed thr ust or pe r haps it should be said to p roduce the m a x i m u ma m ou n t

,

of thr ust possibl e with the sha f t h o r se powe r t r a n s mitted to it That is t o -

.

say the pitch of sc r ew is a rr ived at by divi di n g the s u m of the spe ed of the

,

ship a n d t h e slip in f eet per m i n ute by the r evolutio n s .

The a m ou n t of slip r equi r ed will depe n d on the si z e of the colu mn of wate r

p r oj ecte d as in the case of the pad dle wheel ( p 4 6 4 ) — that is as the d isc
,
-
.
,

a r ea is decr eased so that the colu mn is di m i n ished in volu m e the acceler atio n
give n it to p r oduce the sa m e thrust as bef or e must b e i n c r eased Taki n g .

the sa m e n otatio n as be f o r e for speed a n d velocity a n d A as the a r ea of ,

sc r ew disc its dia m eter D a n d its pit ch P

,

2
2
0 78 5 4 13 .

The n m o m e n tu m or thrust 2Ax V (V ) lbs v .

2
15 7D X V (V 71 ) lbs .

Taki n g ( V '
v ) as f V ( a fr actio n of V) . The n
T hrust 1 5 7 D 2 ><f V 2 lbs .

As f or given speed and si z e of ship etc thrust may be assu med co n sta n t
, .
, ,

the n
f D 2
V2 co n stan t .

/f
‘

That is ,
D X V var y i n versely as x .

Thus If the fr actio n of

slip is i n c r eased the value of ( D V ) dec r eases ,
2
,

a n d as V var iatio n in velocity V m a y be m ade by a va riatio n

R X P, a n y
in pitch or r evolutio n or both , .

Pitch of S crew — L e if S be the speed of the s h ip in k n ots R the n u m ber ,

of r evolutio n s
p e r m i n ute a n d s the s lip i n k n ots ; the n
,

(S + 3 ) x
60 X R

the sli p is ex pr essed as s o much

If pe r cent . of t he s peed o f s crew w hi ch ,

is the co m m on way a n d is x per cen t , ,

. Then
S speed of sc r ew 1

1 00
S peed of sc r ew S
m
S >< 8
— X
60 R ( 1 00 — x
) R 1 00 — x

Exa mple — To fin d the pitch of the scr ew for a shi p whose speed is 1 5 k n ot s .

the slip is 1 0 per ce n t , a n d the n u m be r of r evolutio n s 6 0 per mi n ute

.
.

The a ppar en t slip of a well pr opo rtio n ed sc r ew on a n o rdi n a r y ca rgo shi p

-

of f ai r ly good f o r m should be about 8

pe r ce n t whe n at s ea f ull speed a n d .
,

1 0 per ce n t when on t ri a l full speed

. High spee d ships have highe r r a t.
-

v iz . fro m 1 2 5 to 1 6 — with r ecip r ocato r s a n d 1 5 to 25 with tu r bi n es

, The .
 A CT I N G S U R FA CE or S CR E W B LA D E S . 4 85

la rge p r opelle rs of blu ff car go boats al r ead y allud ed to howeve r sel d o m , ,

e x cee d 5 p er ce n t a n d t o the m the r e m a r k does n ot apply

.
, An e x cessive .

a m ou n t of slip does n ot of n ecessity i m ply waste of power as it ma a ise

y r ,

f r o m s mall n ess of dia m eter ; a n d also whe n a sc r ew of la r ge r dia m ete r gives

a better speed tha n that obtai n ed by the o rigi n al s m all on e it is o fte n due ,

t o the i n c r eased e fficie n cy of m ac h i n e r y at a r e d uced n u m ber of r evolutio n s .

An ab n o rm ally lar ge a m ou n t of slip ma y however b e due to wa n t of ar ea , ,

of sc r ew bla d e a n d whe n t hi s is the case the cu r ve of i n dicate d th r ust e x poses

,

i t as it will the n e x hi bit wa n t of pr Oper aug m e n tatio n of th r ust at the highe r

,

s peeds of r evolutio n .

The pitch of a scr ew should n eve r be less tha n the dia meter if it c a n be
a voided as i n pra ct ice it seldo m happe n s that Such sc rews p r oduce satis
‘

f acto r y r esult s although si n ce the tu r bi n e has co m e in to use d esign er s h a v e

’

, , ,

been co mp elled t o supply scr ews whose pitch r atio is less tha n 1 0 t o s uit
t h e r evolutio n s n ecessar y t o hi gh e fficie n cy of the m oto r It r eally m ea n s .

that the a ngle of bla de a t t i p should n ot b e less than that whose tan gen t is
0 3 2, or
Pitch R ati o is the r atio of the pit eh of a scr ew to it s dia m eter a n d a n -

e x p r essio n i n co mm o n use a n d c on ve ni e n t i n algeb r aic e x pr essio n s I t is .

n ow so m eti mes as low as 0 75 but ge n e r ally is ove r 1 0 a n d b est r esults a re , ,

o btai n ed with values of 1 2 t o S c r ews a re seldo m f ou n d n e w with such

high pitch r atios as o n ce wer e co mm o n whe n hi gh r evolutio n was obtai n ed
by gearin g t o the slow run n i n g e n gi n e S uch high pitc h r atios wer e also
-
.
-

n eces sa r y a n d quite app r op r iate t o vessels usi n g la r ge sail powe r with stea m .

I t was n o ea sy matte r wit h such shi ps t o ke ep the e n gi n es fr o m r aci n g ba dly

—that is fr o m t oo r apid revolutio n du r i n g a squall
, ,

S u rfa ce R ati o is also a n equally pop u lar a n d usefu l ex pr essio n for the
r atio of the actual blade a r ea to that of a disc of equal dia m ete r I t is quite .

a s i mpo r ta n t t hat the su r f ace of the blades sha ll b e sufficie n t f or the powe r

t r an s mitted or t h e thr ust t o b e p r oduced as that the dia m eter a n d pitch a r e

r ight I t is clai m ed that by taki n g the total thr u st a n d dividi n g it by th e
,

a r ea o f the blades as p r oj ected on a pla n e t r a n sve r se t o the a x is the quotie n t

'

should not e x ceed a certai n figu r e dep en di n g on the i mm er sio n other wise
‘

The figu r e in questio n i s sai d t o b e fr o m 1 4 lbs

i

c a v itatio n is l a ble t o e n sue . .

p er squa r e i n ch with shallow f ast shi ps , such a s scouts a n d destr oye r s a n d ,

1 6 t o 2 0 in the bette r i mm e r sed sc r ews of the m e r cha n t s hi p I t is obvious .

t hat with the s mall dia m ete r sc r ews of tu r bi n e stea m e r s the sur face r ati o
,

m ust b e ve r y much la r ge r tha n that with si mi la r s hi ps of equal power with

s c r ews of la r ger dia m ete r although t h e a c t u a l su rf ac e of the latte r ma y be
, ,

t h e gr eater S u r face r atio the r e f o r e ca n n ot b e take n as a n y guide e x cept

.
, , ,

a s a co m pa r iso n with si mila r ly d r iven s hi ps .

Th e Actin g S u rface of th e B l ades of 3 S crew ca n b e best dete r m i n ed by .

r ef e rri n g t o success f ul p ractice as the guide a n d e x peri m en ts w ith m odels ,

in ta n ks as a li ght Pr o f Taylo r . as well as D r R E Froude has

.
, . . .
,

do n e yeo m a n ser v ice f or e n gi n eer s i n m aki n g such elabo r ate ca r e ful a n d , ,

e x haustive ex perim en ts a n d publishi n g them togethe r with use ful r ules

, , ,

*
etc f or the ser vice of design er s etc
.
, ,
.

S cr ews of the sa m e di a m ete r m a y va r y i n f o rm of blade in a m o u n t of

Wh ic h m a y b e s tu d ie d w ith a dva n ta ge in P r of B ile s book on t h e D es ign a nd .
’

Con s tr u ct ion o f S h i ps ,
v ol . ii .
, C Gr iffin
. Co
 A CT I N G S U R FA CE A R E A or A S CR E W . 4 87

Th e Thru st of a S crew ma y b e deduce d w ith a f ai r app r o x i m atio n to

a ccu r acy by the f ollowi n g f o r m ul a whe r e A is the actin g su r f ace ; P the , , ,

pitch r atio ; D t h e dia m eter in f eet ; V t h e velocit y of sc r ew in f eet per

P >< R
seco n d ,
or G a coe fficien t depe n d in g on the di spositio n of the
60
s u r face of the blades a n d which va r ies in value fr om 0 4 2 of the m erca n tile
,

ship to 0 5 of the b r oad tipped sm al l d ia m eter scr ews with high powe r
-
-

turbi n e stea m ers .

Thr ust in pou n ds

For o rdi na r y lea f shaped blades -

, G 0 40
-
.

ci rcula r blades , G 0 42
b r oad tipped as wi th tu r bi n es
-
, , G 0 45 to 05 0 .

shaped a s ge n e r ally f ou n d in m erc h a n t shi p ,

G 0 42 .

0
Th e Area of Actin g S u rfa ce of a S crew m a y also b e calculated by mea n s
thi s f or mul a f or th rust .

Fr o m the above the f ollowi n g is deduced

Area of acti n g su r face

Taki n g the slip as a fr actio n of V, so t h at i t is f x V , then

S peed of shi p a is V f V or V ( 1 — f ) -

,
.

The efficien cy of en gi n e an d p r opeller is as be f o r e E the n , ,

I HP X
- - - x E 550 x E
Thrust in Pou n ds
'

6 0 1) v (1 f
S ubstituti n g this value of f
I H P x ( 5 5 0 x E) x P,
Ar ea of acti n g sur face
. . .

D x V 3 (1 f) G
For the o r di n a r y m er cha n t cargo stea mer , 5 50 E _ 33 0 .

ex p r ess a n d n aval r ecip r ocato r s , 5 50 E 36 0 .

tur bi n e direct dr iven shi p, -

5 50 E 3 80 .

Exa mple -
What should be the su rf ace of each sc r ew of a t wi n sc r ew -

recip r ocato r ship of R X P P, 14 ; a n d sli p

2 0 per ce n t the dia m eter is 1 0 f eet ?

3 60 X x
10 x 40 3
(1 0 2)

Example -
What su rface sho u l d the scr ew a t r a m p stea m er hav e
of

whi ch has e n gi n es i n dicati n g H P at 75 . . r evolutio n s ; it has to hav e

fou r blades a n d the p r is m atic c oe ffi cie n t is 0 8 5 ?
,

S u r face of blades 0 85 x 20 x 68 squa r e feet .

Exa mple ( iii .

) — A twi n sc r ew stea m er whose pr is matic coefficie n t is
-
,
48 8 MA N UAL A I
or M R N E E N GI N EER I N G .

i n dicates ho rse powe r at 1 30 r evolution s -

. The sc r ews are to b e thr ee
bladed an d f or s m ooth water ser vice
,
-
.

sur face of blades X 14 3 x

Exa mple — A tur bi n e d r ive n stea m e r-
cros s in g
'

t he Atlan tic develops

S HP .
at 2 50 r evolutio n s ; h er p ris mat ic coefficie n t is
. .
0 66 ,
an d she
ha s th r ee scr ews dividi n g the p owe r even ly .

H er e su r face of blades 0 66 X -
X 53 8 squa r e f eet .

T h ick n ess of B lade — The st r e n gth of a blade at the r oot or par t n ea r

. ,

the boss will var y n early di rectly as the b r eadth a n d as the squar e of the
'

t hi ck n ess a n d f or p r actical pu r poses ma y b e assu m ed to do so The str ai n

,
.

on the p r opelle r will va r y as the cu be of the dia m ete r of the tu n n el sha fts ,

a n d ve r y n ea r ly as the cube of the dia m eter of the p r o pelle r sha f t In .

si milar e n gi n es th e twisti n g power of t h e e n gin es has b ee n shown t o var y

,

as I H P
. . . r evolutio n s .

L et d be the dia m ete r of the scr ew sha f t clos e t o t he p r opelle r b the ,

b r eadth of blade in i n ches a t a distan c e of 1 5 x d fr o m the ce n t r e a n d n the

“

n u m ber of blades R the n u mbe r of r evolutio n s per m i n ute Then .

Thick n ess of blade ( at l % x d fr o m ce n t re )

f ma y be t a k en a co mpoun d e n gi n e s of the or di n ar y t w o cyli n der

s 1 00 f or /
-

typ e ; 90 for thr e e cyli n der co mpou n d f our c r a n k t ripl e a n d quadruple

-

,
-
,

en gi n es ; 8 5 for thr ee cr an k t riple co m pou n d e n gi n es a n d 75 f or t u rbi n es

- -
, .

The value of K is 4 f or cast i r o n 2 f or o r di n ary gu n m etal f er cast steel

,
-

, ,

a n d 1 5 f or f o r g ed steel a n d b r o n z es of supe r io r m ake For ships e n gaged in .

the N o r th Atla n tic or othe r seas wher e r o u gh weather l ar gely p r evails these ,
,

f actor s m a y with adva n tage be i n cr eased by 2 0 to 2 5 p er cen t Thi s is .

e specially n ecessa r y f or ca r go vessels which m a y o ft e n have t o ru n ligh

Th e thi ck n ess of metal at the tip should b e 0 2 of that at the r oot
,

Pr opelle r s m ade of steel a n d b r o n ze a re ve r y supe r io r in st r e n gth to those

of cast i r o n eve n i f m ade i n acco r da nce with these r ules
,
for i f m ade of the
s a me st r e n gth o n ly the blades would n ot be s t lfi e n ough a n d would vib r ate
’

, ,

very co n sider ably especially whe n r aci n g

, .

Fig 1 73 is a typical desig n of solid cast i r o n p r opell er

. I t is also ty pical -
.

of the f o rm of the blade of a loose bladed p r opeller a n d the p r opo r tio n s a r e -

such as would be f ou n d gen er ally with those havi n g thr ee blades The . .

Ad mi r alty as well as m a n y p r ivate en gi n eer s p r e f er t o have the blades

, ,
“

r ou n ded at the top as show n but blades in the past as well a s m a n v of the m
, ,

in the p re se n t a r e shaped as show n in dotted li n es at M

, .

The su r face of p r opeller s desig n ed app r o x i mately t o fig 1 73 ma y be .

fou n d by the f ollowi n g r u le

Agg r egate su r face D X B X n F .

D bei n g the dia m ete r in f eet B t h e m a x i m u m b r ea dth in f ee t a the , ,

n u mbe r o f blades a n d F f or r ou n ded ti ps 3 a n d for squa re e n ded 228 5

‘

.
, , , ,
 4 89

Fig 1 73 .
— S ol id Ca st i ron S cr e w P r opelle r
- .
 S CR E W P R OP E LL E R B LA D E S .

S crew Propel ler B la des — The sc r ews of ca r go S hips of the m e rca n tile
.

m ar i n e a r e ge n e r a lly of cast I r o n a n d up to m o d e r ate si z es a r e al m ost in v a r i

,

ably cast soh d although gen erally ther e is a decided ten de n cy to a de pt those
,

w i t h loose blades . A solid scr ew i s r ather m or e e fficien t than on e whose

blades a re bolted on a n d 1 5 o n ly about hal f the cost of the latter The cause
, .

of I n e ffic i en c y a rises fr o m t h e r esista n ce of the p r oj ecti n g n uts a n d o fte n this ,

1 3 added t o by the c lu m sy fla n ges of the blades w hi ch p r oj ect b e v on d the , v

boss Itsel f A well design ed a n d car e fully made scr ew shoul d h a v e t h e base
.
-

of the b lade co n fo r mi n g t o the ge n e r al outli n e of the boss a n d the n uts or ,

bolt heads r ecessed i n to the blade ba se , a n d cove r ed in wi th a m eta l c a s e or

Fig l 74 — S cre
. . w Propelle r B l a de s a n d B e ss B r on z e .

cem e n t flush with t h e sur fa c e (fig The sc r ews in H M N avy a re

.
. .

ge n er ally made in thi s way a n d a r e the n quite as effi cie n t as a solid scr ew
,
.

I f on e of the blades of a solid sc r ew is b r oke n o ff the whole sc r ew is,

actically r ui n ed *
a n d the e x pe n se o f a n e w on e the r eby e n taile d ; also
r ,
p ,

what i s of m o r e ser ious co n sequen ce the ship must go i n to a dr y dock or on

, ,

a slip or har d t o have it r e moved which o per atio n i s lo n g a n d tedious as

,
,

the boss must b e f o r ced off the tu n n el sha ft taken down a n d the sc re w sha f t
,
-
,
-

ithd aw be o
f r e the w be fi tted O n the othe r ha n d i f the
w r n n e o n e c a n . ,

sc r ew has its blades bolted on a n d on e is da m aged it c a n be r e m oved by a

. ,

‘ A cl eve r f oun d er ca n bu r n on n ew e n d s t o bla de s both w ith iron a n d bron z e

- .
4 92 MA N UAL or M R N E E NA I GI N EE R I N G .

diver a n d a n e w on e fitted in its place at a ve r y s mall ex pe n se a n d in a ve r y

, ,

s ho rt ti m e ; a n d eve n w h e n a n e x pe r ie n ced dive r ca n n ot b e obtai n ed the ,

s hi p ca n be tipped by dischar gi n g car go fr o m a ft etc or s h i fti n g i t f o r w a rd ,

.
, .

The f o rm s of p r opelle r blades a re so n u m er ous a n d va ried as to be beyo n d

descr iptio n he r e The well k n ow n blade (fig 1 80) i n t r oduced by Mr
. .

Gr i ffiths a n d n ow b ear i n g hi s n a m e was the on e m ost ge n e r ally ado pted

, ,

by e n gi n ee r s a n d ge n er ally gav e satis factio n On ly a f e w carry ou t the

,
.

pla n he usually s o st ro n gly r eco mm en ded of be n di n g the blade sli ghtl y ,

f o r wa r d p erhaps p r i n cipally because it the n ca m e t oo n ea r to the stern post

,
-

S o m e have t r ied blades be n t I n the r eve r se way a n d satis fied the m selves ,

that i m p roved p erf o rm a n ce 1 8 obtai n ed The data pu blished by i n ve n to rs of .

sc r ews a r e ge n er ally ve r y m islea di n g as the f ailur es a re n ever m en tio n ed , ,

a n d seldo m is it obse r vable that a n old sc r e w has bee n r eplaced by a pate n t

on e of the sa m e dia m ete r pitch a n d a r ea The r e is little doubt that the

, , .

“
b ette r r esults with the i mp r oved sc r ew a re due r ather t o bette r p r opo r
tio n s tha n t o the par ticula r s ha pe of blade The n u m be r of pate n ts r elati n g .

solely t o the form of blade 1 8 e n dless a n d so m e sp cial o n es i n t roduci n g

e ”
additio n s t o p r even t loss f r o m the cen t ri fugal actio n r ea ppea r periodically
‘
, ,

as n ovelties T hi s latte r i s a g r eat bugbea r with m a n y e n gi n eer s ; for a fte r

.

a ll the loss f r o m this cause is n on e x iste n t while it alwa ys ha ppe n s t h a t -

, ,

m ea n s ad opted to p r eve n t it a r e the mselves causes of a c on side rable loss

fr o m f rictio n al r esista n ce .

As a r ule the g r eatest b r eadth of blade should b e beyo n d on e thi r d of

,
-

the dia me t er of the disc fr o m the cen tr e a n d should be a pp r o x i mately as ,

given by the followi n g r ule

Max i mu m b re adth of blade in i n ches

For a four bladed sc r ew K 1 4 ; f or t h r ee bladed K

-
1 7 ; a n d for
,
.
-

t w o bladed K 22 For mode rn high speed sc rews with tu r bi n es K is

,
.
-

hitgher
b
.

Th e b r eadth of blade at the t ip should b e f r o m 4 t o g the m a x i mu m .

Pr opeller s a re so meti m es made with the blades of fin e r pitch n ea r the bos

.

tha n at the t i p p artly that the a n gle shall n ot be s o coa r se that this part of
,

the blade o n ly chu rn s the w ate r a n d pa r tly that the hold on the boss due to ,

the i n cr eased b readth of the blade ma y b e greate r A dec r ease of pitch o f .

1 0 p er ce n t has gi ven good r esults a n d whe n the p r opeller i s of s mall dia

.
,

m ete r with a ve r y coa r se pitch as much as 1 5 per ce n t dec r ease m a y be

, , .

adopted ; as a r ul e however a t rue helix gives best p ropelli n g r esults e s peci

, , ,

ally if t h e tail pa r t of the sectio n s is r ou n de d off S hi p shape .

Th e N u mber of B la des i s a r bit r a r y the design er ma y have two thr ee , ,

f ou r a n d eve n s ix f or e x peri m e n ts both with m odels a n d r eal sc r ews have

, ,

show n that the e fficie n cy is n ot seriously e ff ected by the n u mbe r I t is - .

,

however ce rtai n that in s m ooth water a n d n eglecti n g vib r atio n as a facto r

, , ,

the two or eve n the on e —bladed sc r ew c a n S how the hi ghest e fficie n cy a n d ,

that thr ee is better for twi n sc r ew ships of all ki n ds ; but for r ough wate r -

with m oderate im mersifin f our blades a re f ou n d to b e ge n e rally m ost e ff ective

i n large si n gle a n d twi n S c r ew ships The e fficien cy of pr e pelle i s with a
-
.

l a r ge r n u m be r of bla d es is n ot so good as with f ou r while the weight a n d ,

c ost is g r eate r I n pr actice the f ou r bl a ded sc r ew is u n ive rsally e mployed

.
- -
 S CR E W P R OPE LL ER B LA D E S . 4 93

i n the deep wate r m e r ca n tile m a r i n e a n d th r ee bladed o n es i n the N avy

-
,
-

a n d f or s m ooth wate r e x p r ess stea m e r s

-
.

I t r e m ai n s f or f utu r e e x pe ri m e n tal t ria ls w ith tu rbi n e d r ive n ships t o-

decide whether the n ecessar y sur face is bette r dist ributed over fiv e or eve n
si x m oder ately w ide blades tha n ove r th r ee or f ou r with ab n o r m ally w ide
tips The ex peri m e n ts m ade by the Ad mi ralty with s ix blade d sc r ews i n
.
-

Fig 1 75 —
. Mod ern Fas t -
ru n n in g B ron ze Scr ew f or Cru is er .

ha
S nn n o S howed a dec r ease in e ff
i cie n cy o f 5 6 pe r ce n t w ith t h e .

s ix as agai n st four blades ; but in that case the sur f ace was pr opo rtio n al t o

the n u m ber of blades a n d there for e e x ce ssive wit t h e S ix A six bladed

, , ,
.
-

screw in H M S . .Em e r ald

.
havi n g a surface o n ly 4 per ce n t greate r tha n
,
.

that of the f our bladed of the sam e di a mete r a n d pitch gav e an i n dicated
-
,

thrust of o n ly 6 per cen t less tha n did the four bladed B u t t h e s peed
.
-
.
 A
S H P E or P R OP E LL E R B LA D E S . 495

coe fficie n t with the s ix bladed sc r ew was 1 75 1 agai n st

-
with the f our
bladed a n d the sli p per cen t 1 1 2 6 agai n st 1 2 2 8 ; the S peed howeve r was
, .
, ,

1 2 0 0 3 w ith the f our bladed sc r ew as agai n st

-
26 w ith the s ix a n d on ,

t his the case appea r s t o have bee n d ecide d in f avou r of the f o r m e r .

Th e S h ape of Propeller B la des app r o x i m ate m or e or less to that i n t r oduced

by Mr Gr i ffith s a n d used in the N avy fr o m 1 8 60 as show n by the dotted
.
, ,

li n e in fig 1 73 To d ay n aval sc r ews as well as a la rge n u mber of those

. .
,

.
—
Fig 1 77 H irsc h s S c re
.
’
w .

in the mer ca n tile ma ri n e a re shaped as show n in the full li n es of that figur e

, ,

but t h ey ge n er ally a r e m ade wi th loose or fitted blades as show n in fig 1 74

_ , . .

With the i n cr e a se in r ate of r evolutio n in the full power ed hi gh speed twi n - -

s c r e w e x p r ess stea m e r a n d c ru i se r the su rf ace r atio h a bee n la r gely i n c r eased

,
g ,

so that the bla d es have assu m ed al m ost a ci rcula r f o r m as show n i n fig 1 75 , . .

Whi le the d e m an d for surf ace for the ver y s m all dia meter scr ews of the '
tu r bin e d ri ven shi p has caused a fu rther i n c r ease in the brea dt li of bla de
-

,
4 96 A UAL
M N or M AR I N E EN GI N EER I N G .

so as to app r o xi mate to a n ellipse with the m i n o r a x is r adial the su r face ,

r atio in thei r case is ve r y high eve n as much as 0 5 6 to 0 6 0 , I n the ordi n a r y .

c argo b oa t with its f ou r bla d e d sc r ew of la r ge dia m ete r the sur face r atio is
' -

o n ly a bout 0 3 7 a n d the blades ge n e r ally r etai n the squa r e n ess of tip a s

,

f ormer ly obtai n ed i n as m uch as the oute r pa rt of the blad e is the most e ffec
,

tive especially whe n r un n i n g in ballast t ri m Fig 1 76 is a good e x a m ple of

,
. .

suc h a sc r ew with the blades i n cli n ed so as to be as fa r r e moved fr o m the body

of s hi p as possibl e a n d t her eby wo r k i n bette r wate r
, .

Fig l 78
. .
— On e of t he n ew P ropellers of RMS. . . Ma u t
re a n ia ,
”
S HP. . .

( Of
“
P a rson s ” S pe c ia l T u r b a d iu m A lloy ) .

Ther e have bee n fr o m ti m e to ti m e n e w fo rm s of sc rew which have estab

lish ed a r eputatio n f or a whi le but n ot fin ally su r vived ,On e of the m ost .

’
n otewo r thy of these Il zr sch s P a ten t 6 0 S cr e w as show n in fi
°
'

, g 1 77 was , .
,

a f avou ri te on e both on the Co n ti n e n t a n d in Gr eat B r itai n a n d deser vedly

, ,

s o i n as much as it was quite success ful in competitio n with eve n good sc r ews
, ,
 D IA M E TE R or B LA D E L
B O TS . 4 97

an d whe n r eplaci n g i n fer io r o n es m a r ke d i m p r ove m e n t in p r opelli n g e ffi

'

c i en c y was alwa y s obtai n ed ; but it was n ot supe rio r to the best design s
with the o r d i n a r y lea f shaped blade as in fig 1 74 of t r ue pitch As a ster n
-

, .
, .

’
goi n g p r opell e r H i r sch s sc r ew was ver y success f ul a n d at the ti m e it was
, ,

t ried vib r at i o n W i th i t was less than with the scr ews then obtai ni n g .

Th e S ection of S crew B lades is usually a n app r o x i m atio n to a seg m en t of

a ci rcle as shown in fig 1 75 but it is the f ashi o n with so m e e n gi n eer s who
, .
, ,

c lai m for thei r sc r ews a highe r e fficie n cy the r eby t o ma k e the m of a t r a n s ,

ver se sectio n show n in fig 1 76a wi th eithe r the hu mp back or the r ou n ded

, .
,
-

on e . I n both cases what m a y be call ed the f or ebody is n ot so fin e as the

,

a ft er or followi n g po r tio n Ex per im e n ts by Pr o f Tayl or have p r o v ed what

. .

h ad bee n f or so m e ti m e a su r m ise— v i z that the blade with a shi p sha pe

“

-
.
,

c r oss sectio n m oves with the least r esista n ce a n d highest e fli cien c y When
-
.

the ster eotyp ed segm e n tal f o r m n ea r the boss is d eparted fr o m a n d the ,

section s ther e beco m e ship shaped ther e is always a n i m p r ove men t especiall y
-

, ,

at hi gh speed of r evolutio n The m er e r ou n di n g of the tail or f ollowi n g

.

po rtio n of the blade sectio n s see ms t o i n flue n ce the e fficie n cy m o r e tha n a

si m ilar m odi ficatio n with the leadi n g hal f does The e ff ect of such chan ges .
,

howev er is vi rtually t o decr ease the pitch especially n ea r the r oot

, ,
.

Th e S tu ds or B ol ts of a S crew B la de should be o f the st r o n gest mate rial

‘

especially in these days of hi gh r ate of r evolutio n whe n the cen tri fugal ,

f o r ces w hi ch they have t o r esist a r e ve r y hi gh U n de r o rdi n a r y wo rki n g .

co n ditio n s the bolts on the sid e of the acti n g f ace a re in ten sion as they ,

ten d t o keep the blade fr o m tippi n g un der the thr ust on the surface ; those
on the back e x e rt n o actio n on the m u nl ess the blades a re s i m ply a t t ached ,

to the boss w ithout bei n g r ecessed whe n they a r e subj ect t o sheer fr o m the ,

sa m e pr essu r e B u t a ll the bolts help t o h old the blade agai n st cen t ri fugal
.

g
2
f or ce which is e x p r essed b y X wher e W i s the Weight in pou nds of

t heblade v the velocity in f

, eet per seco n d of the Cen tr e of gr avity whos e
dista n ce is 7 f eet fr o m the a x is , and g, gravity 32 .

'

That i s T en sio n on the bolts due t o 0 . Fo r ce

If R be the r evolutio n s per mi n ute , an d pitch i s P, the n

Th e D iameter of t h e B lade B ol ts , whe n m ade of hi gh t en sile b ron ze

or steel whose ,
n u mbe r is n , c a n b e f ou n d fr o m the f ollowi n g

d >< Z
D ia meter of be lt s or studs
n

whe r e is the dia m eter of the solid sha ft of su fficien t si z e f or the to r que
(l ,

a n d Z is a f acto r w hi ch f or a t h r ee bladed sc r ew is
,
a n d f or a f ou r bladed
-
,
-

13 .The si z es obtai n ed in thi s way a r e ge n era lly su fficie n t but for hi gh ,

r ate of r evolutio n should be check ed by esti m ati n g the te n sio n on the m

due t o c e n t ri fugal f o r ce a n d allowi n g a st r ess n ot e x ceedi n g 4 to n s per squa r e
,

i n ch of sectio n at botto m of thr e ad

,
.
 A H ER I N G
’
B EV S I A
P T EN T FE T S CR EW 4 99
‘

in a fe w weeks Co rr osio n howeve r is n ot u n k n ow n with someof the b r o n zes

.
, ,
,

especially with scr ews of high r evolutio n t a r ba dlu m h oweve r a n d so m e , ,

ot h e r alloys a re fr ee f r o m this d e fect as well as fr o m e r osio n ( v Chap xx x ) . .

P ai n t pr ovid es little or n o p r o t ect io n ,a nd eve n ni ckel lati n g which has

p ,
bee n r eso rte d to on steel h a s n ot p r oved very e fli c a c iou s Mu n t z metal
, .

sheathi n g h a s bee n t r ied but with n ot ver y satis f acto r y r esults

, .
.

P hospho r bro n z e P a r so n s special b r o n z e B ull s m eta ] S to n e s b r o n z e

’ ’
- ’
, , , ,
D elta m etal e t c have t a ke n t h e l ace of s teel in m ost uar te r s n ot wit h
,
q
.
,
. ,
stan d i n g that t h e cost i s abou t twe v e t i m es that of cast i r o n B la d es ma d e .

of these m ater i als c a n b e cast ve r y thi n — h i n n e r i n m ost cases tha n i f m a d e

t , ,

o f steel— becau se the r e is n o loss of st r e n th by co rr osio n i f ac the ve y

g ; n t r ,

e
h igh spee d of c r tai n ships is att r ibuted la r gely to the high e fficie n cy of the
p r o pelle r f ro m the thi n n ess a n d tr uth of the blades Fig 1 78 is a n otable . .

e x a m ple of t hi s in a huge solid sc rew .

B r o n z e p r opelle r s a r e obj ected t o on t he gr ou n d that i n j u r y is o fte n d o n e

to the i r o n wo rk n ea r the m by galvan ic actio n but the Ad mi r al t y does n ot
hesitate t o co n ti n ue the p r actice of fitt i n g the m n or d o the la r ge steams h ip ,

co mpa n ies Co rrosio n does so m eti m es tak e place in such a way as t o cause
.

t h e sou r ce of the evil t o b e att r ibute d t o b r o n z e sc r ews but the fitti n g of

so m e S labs of zi n c in way of the propeller zpr ev en t s it a n d r e moves a ll fea r of
~

,
-

ill co n sequen ces The z i n c b r o n z es a re less liable t o cause co rrosio n

. .

Weigh t of S crew Propell ers m a y b e cal culated with a close app ro x i ma tio n
t o t r uth by the f ollowi n g r ul e
‘

Weigh t in cwt .

The su rf a ce is taken in squar e f eet t het hick n ess in

,
i n ches at the r oot of
the blade .

K is for solid cast i r o n sc r ews -

b r o nz e ] 3 8
built cast i ron -

c a st ~ st ee l
b ro n z e .

Fea th erin g S crews Yachts a n d S hips w hich a r e r equi r e d t o sail as well

.
—
[

as stea m ca n n ot well d o the f o rm er when the sc r ew is stoppe d u n less so m e ,

m ea n s be a d opted of f eathe ri ng the blades so t h at t h e y a r e n ea rly i n a f or e ,

a n d a f t p la n e or else by withdr awi n g the p r opeller altoget h e r fr o m the wate r

,
.

The late B en n ett Woodc r o f t pate n ted in 1 8 4 4 a pla n f or f eatheri n g the

'

, ,

blad es which in a m odified for m was fitted by Mess r s Maudslay S o n s

,
'

.
,

Field to seve r al S hips The blad es of which ther e a re two have sha n ks
.
, ,
.

fitti n g i n to the boss t o which sho r t leve r s a r e sec u r ed i n si de the bos s these
,

lever s a r e co n n ected by li n ks to a slidi n g colla r outside t he boss whi ch i s ,

carr ied r ou n d with the sha ft but is capable of bei n g m oved f o r e a n d a ft

,
-

on it by m ea n s of a pai r of bell c r a n k lever s actuated by a sc r ew f r o m on -

.

deck Whe n it was desir ed t o sail the bla d es wer e m ove d r ou n d i n to the
.
.
,

f o r e a n d a ft positio n by slidi n g the col la r fr o m the boss .

B evis Pa ten t Feat h ering S crew —Ma n y pate n ts we r e take n ou t for

’
.
.

methods of e ff ecti n g a si mila r movem en t of t h e blades W i thout the obj ec ,

_

t ion a ble f eatur e of e x te rn al bell c r a n ks a n d to the late Mr B e V I S i s due t h e ,

.
 500 MA N UA L A I
or M R N E EN GI N E E R I N G .

er fe ct in g of
this idea I n 1 8 5 8 Gr ego r y a n d Cr a y m e r pate n ted a f ea t he r i n g
’

p .

sc re w of which the sc r ew p r opelle r sha ft is m ade hollow a n d a seco n d shaft ,

goes thr ough it ca rryi n g wo rm thr eads w hi ch act on the p ropeller blades so
-

, , ,
”
'
as t o feather them to the an gle desi r able I n 1 86 6 H B You n g pate n ted a
. . .

so mewhat si mila r idea a s t othe hollow shaft but says leve rs ma y be attached
,
”
to the sha n ks . Fig 1 8 0 shows the B evis pla n which n eeds n o desc r iptio n
.
, ,

a n d a n swe r s its pu r pose a dm i r ab ly .

T h e f e a t h er in g sc r ew c a n be co n ve rt e d i n t o a revers i n g on e by m ovi n g
'

the blades thr ough a g reate r a n gle a n d although thei r e fficie n cy in that
, ,
 LI FT I N G S CR E WS . 5 01

s tate will be ver y low it will b e goo d e n ough f or casual astern goi n g with a
,

n on r ever sibl e oil e n gi n e of m ode r ate powe r

-
I t would be quite a satis facto r y
.

way of r ever si n g small c r aft a n d it will avoid the use of wheel gea rin g
, .

Lifti n g S crews — The sc r ews of wa r s hi ps we r e f o r m e r ly n ea rly always

.

:ma d e a n d fitted so that whe n desi r e d t h ey coul d be r aise d to the level of the
,

‘
deck f or e x a mi natio n a n d r epair wh e n n ecessa r y a n d to p r eve n t obst r uctio n ,

whe n saili n g This pla n is a ver y costly on e a n d n ot s o e fficien t as t h e

.
,

f eather i n g blade i n as m uch as the ship stee r s badly owi n g to the gap in the
,

d eadwood but it ad mits of e x a m i n atio n a n d r epai r which is of t h e ut m ost

, ,

i m po r ta n ce in a wa r ship A hole however is also n ecessa r y through the

.
, ,

stern to ad mit of the sc r ew co mi n g on deck w hi ch ve r y m uch weake n s wha t ,

is al r eady a so m ewhat weak pa rt of the hull .

The li ft i n g sc r ew has a sho rt piece of sha ft cast with the boss or fitted to
i t i n the usual way t h e f orw a r d e n d of this sha f t is p r ovi ded wi th a d r ivi n g
'

piece which i so f orm ed as t o fit i n to a slot ac r oss the cheese coupli n g keyed

,
s

t o the outer en d of the ste r n shaf t The p r opeller is carr ied in a fr a m e called
.
,

the ban j o fra me which is a rr a n ged t o slide up a n d down in groove d m eta]

,

,g u ides secu r ed t o the stern a n d r udder posts a n d suppo rted whe n in wo r kin g , ,

p ositio n , by t w o st r o n g b r ackets or chai r s also secu r ed to these posts a n d ,

h eld down by t wo st r o n g woode n sa mpso n posts whose uppe r e n ds a re fitted ,

w i th j a m sc r ew s t o the m etal guides such a n a r r a n gem en t is m ade wholly of

g u n metal
-
.

N u mber of S crews on a ship depe n ds on va r ious ci r cu m sta n ces Multi .

p licatio n a r ose fi r st with ships of light d r aught a n d good speed i n as mu ch ,

’
a s be f o r e Ya rr ow a n d Th orn y cr oft s discove ries it was the r ule t o have the

s c r ew i m m e r sed whe n at r e st T win scr ews we r e f ou n d to h ave the a d va n tage

.

o f sa f ety a n d powe r to m a n oe uv r e A s crew a t e a ch en d was the i n ve n tio n of

.

Ja m es Howde n f or tugs to pr ovide for on e bei n g imm er sed whe n pitchin g as

, ,

such sho rt boats do whe n towi n g Thr ee scr ews wer e used in f o r eign n aval
.

s hips t o pe r mi t of m o r e elastic sub d ivisio n of power t h a n obtai n s with

twi n s T hree s cre ws also we r e f oun d a n adva n tage with tu rbi n e dir ect d r ive n
.
-

s hips of la r ge powe r a n d with g r eate r power still f ou r s eerws we r e n ecessa r y

,

f or the d r aught of wate r possible a n d in n aval ships f or the sub di vi sion of

,

p owe r desir able whe n c r uisin g a n d m a n oeuv r in g W i t h t h e reci procat ors .

a n d t u r bin e combi n a t i on thr ee scr ews obtai n .

Th i s m et h od of r e v e r s m g i s c om in g in t o u se w it h s ips d r ive n b y oil en gin es of h

m od era t e pow er Th e s cr ew b lad es a re, of c ou r se , f ormed s o a s t o be f a irly e ffici en t wh en
.

”
in as t ern gear .
 K I N G S T ON V AL V E S .
5 03

D ia m e te r of K i n gs t o n valve spi n d le at be d iam ete r valve

Of
of th r ead , 5
3 46
-

h at
t
so a 4 i n ch va lve shoul d h ave a spi n dl e in ch dia m ete r at its s m allest
-

sec 1 ou .

i n ches i n section or be m or e th an Lg i n ch d iam ete r at its s m allest pa r t ; but

,

sin ce f or ve r y lar g e valves a spi n d le of th is si z e woul d n ot be stiff e n ou h

t h e f ollow m g r ule f or all valves above 5 i n ch es d ia m ete g
5 r h ol d s goo d

D iam ete r of spi n d le 13 i n ch

K i n g sto n valve bo x es -
an d
tubes g e n e r ally m a d e
a re of

gu n m etal ; but t h is is n ot a
-

n ecessity , e x cept w h e r e h ot
w ate r or steam is blow n
" '

th r o u gh th e m , w h e n cast i r o n
woul d be d a n g e r ous I f t he .

bo dy is of cast i r o n , of cou r se
t h e valve seat s h oul d be of
b r ass , a n d t h e wo r ki n g pa r ts
’

bus h e d with b r ass .

Fi g 1 8 1 s h ows a goo d
.

a r r an g e m e n t of K i n gs t o n
valve for lar ge s iz es I t h a s .

a li fti n g n u t secu r ed i n a
b r id ge , as well as a han dl e on
the spi n d l e e n d ; t h e fo r m e r
i s use d to sta rt the valve or
a m it i n its seat a n d the latte r
j ,

m e r ely to ope n or s h ut it t h e
lock n u t wit h h an dl e i s to
secu r e it i n a n y r e qui r e d posi
tio n I n th is fig u r e the h ead
.

is s h ow n sc r ewe d on t o t h e
tube a n d is such as w a s n ece s
‘

sar y i n woo d e n or co m posite

s h ips ; but w h e n fitte d to t h e
ski n of a n i r o n s h ip a fl an g e ,

is f o r m e d at t h e botto m of ‘

t h e co n ical pa r t as s h ow n by ,

d otte d li n es a nd i n Fi g 1 8 2 .

( A , B C D ) A
,
m uc,
h s i m pl e r .

a n d less e x pe n sive plan is to

f o r m t h e v alve like a n o r d i n a r y
s top valve with f ou r w i n g s a n d
-
,

t h e spi n d le i n ve r te d— th at is F ig 1 8 1 — K in gs t on V a lve ( in a Wood en S h i p)

‘

, . .
.

on t h e sa m e si d e as t h e w i n gs
t h e botto m pa r t of t h e b ox is t h e n o n l y sli gh tly co n ical a n d m uch s h o r te r ,

— i n f act on ly s u fiic i e n t ly lo n g to allow of t h e valv e li fti n g a d is t a n ce equal

, ,

‘
_
 i

bo4 MA N UAL or MA R I N E EN GI N EER I N G .

to on e quar te r of i t s d ia m ete r a n d i n t h i s position leavi n g space betwee n

,

it a n d t h e g r ati n g f or t h e fr ee fl ow of wate r .

All in let valves s h oul d be fitte d w ith a b r ass g r ati n g w h ose m eshe s ,

s h ould n ot e x cee d h al f a n i n c h i n b r ea d th the total ar ea th r ou g h t h e n:

,

bei n g at leas t 2 0 pe r ce n t la r g e r th an t h e n e t a r ea of t h e tube I n t h e

. .

N avy Ki n g sto n valves a r e fitted to all i n lets a n d blo w ofl pipes a n d a re

'
-
, ,

al ways supple me n te d w ith a cock or valve attac h e d t o t h e m .

B .

Fig 1 82
. . t
— D e a il s of I n let V a lve s ( in S tee l S h ips )
‘
.

V al ve s a r e f a s t taki n g t h e pl a ce o f cocks for all g e n e r al pu r poses s o t h a t ,

w h e n eve r co n ve n ie n t a valve m a y be fit t e d i n li e u of a cock to eve n the

'

s m allest K i n g sto n ,
but to la rg e K i n g sto n s a cock c ould n ot be fitte d a n d ,
'

s o it i s usual to fin d a n o r d i n a r y sluice valve Th e spi n d le s o f thes e

.

supple m e n ta r y valves shoul d alway s be with i n easy r each of the plat fo r m s ,

a n d i n case of t h e ve r y la r g e o n es w h e n possible t h ey s h oul d be war n e d s o

, ,

hig h as t o a d m it o f the valve bei n g wo r k e d w h e n t h e e n g in e r oom is fl oo d e d -

.

I n the m e r c h a n t se r vice w h et h e r valves or cocks a r e fitte d to t h e ski n

,

of the s h ip d i r ect t h e sa m e p r ecautio n s s h ould be take n as e n u m e r ate d

,

a bove an d e x t r a c a r e ta ke n t o p r ote c t the m f o m in j u r y a s t h ey a r e ve r y

,
r
,
 D SCI H A R G E V ALV ES . 5 05

liable t o da m age fr o m the floo r i n g plates washi n g about whe n a co n side r

able qua n tity of water is in the bil ge a n d the ship r olli n g heavily .

For the la r ge r i n lets of a m e r chan t shi p a n o r di n a r y stop valve ope n i n g -

i n war ds is usually fitted the box bei n g of cast i r o n A good plan so as to

, , .
,

avoid a n u mber of ope n i n gs in the ship s ski n is to fit a si n gle box with on e ’

sto p valv e in it a n d that by p r e fer e n ce a n i n verted on e a n d to this box

-
, ,

fix the va rious cocks or valves n ecessa r y f or the di ff e r e n t r equi re me n ts .

For S hips desti n ed f or a cold cli m ate a s m all cock c a n be fitted n ea r the ,

bottom of the box t o ad mit stea m to thaw a n y ice that ma y be blocki n g

th e o rifice it is al so us e f u l t o blow away seaweed fish etc which ma y b e
, , , .
,

c hoki n g the m eshes a n d m a y b e fitted with adva n tage t o eve ry ship

, .

D isch arge V a lves should be fitted t o all outlets thr ough the ship s si d e
’

a n d they co n sist a s a r ule of si m ple n on r etu rn valves havi n g S pi n dles

, ,
-

passin g thr ough the covers s o that the valves m a y be li fted or p r essed dow n
,

a s r equi r ed Her e agai n a n u mber of holes thr ough the S ki n of the ship
.

m a y be avoided by co n n ecti n g the s maller valves to the b ox of a la r ge on e

above the valve itsel f I n m a n y cases this m ethod is a ve ry good on e
.
,

havi n g a dvan tages b eyo n d that al ready n a m ed— v iz that the pipes c a n b e
short er a n d t h e v a lves sta n di n g clear of the fr ames of the ship a re easy of
,

access .

B
The oa d of T ade r equi r e that all i n let a n d discharge valves shall
r r
*

be co n n ected di r ectly t o the ski n of the s hi p a n d have n o pipe or j oi n t i n te r ,

v e n in g ( this r ule however does n ot apply to the case of the s m alle r valves
, ,

when attached t o the box of a lar ge on e ) a n d a lso that all dischar ge valves ,

shall be placed above the load water lin e -

.

The Ad mi r alty on the other han d f or obvious r eason s r equi r e all the
, , ,

di schar ge o r ifices to be below the water li n e ; a n d while i n the m e r cha n t -

ser vi ce the dischar ge valve bo x es a re n early always of cast i ro n in the N avy

-
,

t hey a r e i n variably of b r o n z e .

I t is n ot u n usual t o fit the s m alle r dischar ge valves as si mple n on r etu rn -

valves h avi n g n o e x tern al spi n dle whatever ; but this has the disadva n tage
that on e is n ever certai n if t h e valve is shut a n d if n ot shut without the , , ,

spi n dle it is beyon d co n trol .

I t is so m eti m es f ou n d co n ve n ien t to fit f or la r ge dischar ges a st ra ight , ,

t hrou gh valve i n lieu of the o rdi n ar y m ushr oo m valve This st raight

“

-
.

thr ough valve is a n o rdi n ar y flap valve r esti n g on a ve r tical or n early vertical
seat a n d li fted by m ean s of a hor i z o n tal S pi n dle whi ch passes through a
, ,

s t u fli n g i n the S ide of the valve box havi n g i n side a S lotte d lever co n n ected
-
,

by a pin t o a pai r of lugs on the back of the valve a n d outs id e a ha n d lever , , ,

f or co n t r olli n g the valv e .

T h e B oa rd of Tra de re gu la t ion s r ef errin

g to sea c onn ec tion s a re a s follows
t t tt
1 37 All in l e s or ou t le s in t h e b o om or s id e of a es sel n e a r t o, a t , or belo t h e
. v w
t t t
d ee p loa d w a er lin e ot h e r t h a n t h e ou le s of w a t e r clos e s , s oil, s c u p pe r, la a ory , a n d
- -
t v t
u rin a l pipes , s h ou ld ha e co c k s or v v v tt ’
a l e s fi e d be w een t h e p ipes a n d t h e s h ip s s id e or t
tt v v t
b o om ; s u c h c oc k s or a l e s s h ou ld be a t a ch ed t o t h e sk in of t h e s hip, a n d be so
a rra n ge d t h a t t t
h e y c a n b e e a s ily a n d e x pe di iou sly ope n e d or close d a t a n y i me ; a n d t
v v t
t h e c oc k s , a l e s , a n d t h e w h ole len g h of t h e pipes s h ou ld be a c c es s i ble a t a ll im e s t .

v v t t
Cock s or a l es s a n d in g e x c e p iona l dis t a n c e s f rom t h e s h ip s pla in g, t h a t is h e re
’
t w
’

t
t h e n eck s a re lon ge r h a n is n e c e s sa ry f or m a k in g t h e oin t , s h ou ld n ot b e pa s se d i h ou t j wt
t
t h e s an c ion of t h e B oa rd of T ra d e , a n d on e c on di ion of h eir b e in g pa s s ed is h a t h ey t t t t
s h ou ld b e ma d e of gu n m e t a l a n d w ell b ra c k e ed
-
t .
 EX P A N S I ON J O I N T S . 5 07

water should have the co n n ectio n s made with bron ze bolts a n d n uts I r o n
, .

q u ickly co rr odes u n less well p r otected ; a n d Mu n t z m etal has bee n f ou n d

t o dec ay i n a ve r y peculiar way N ava l b rass howeve r which I s Mu n t z
.
, ,

m eta l i m p r ove d with a little t in is suitable for this pu rpose , Ever y ca r e .

should b e t ake n to p r otect t h e m etallic sur faces fro m the co rr osive actio n
o f bilge water } f or this pu r pose a goo d coat of P o r tla n d ce m e n t wash a n swe r s

eve n better than pai n t or var n is h .

When it is r equi r ed to pass pipes especially Copper o n es t h r ou gb a w a t

tight bulkhea d a good pla n 1 s to fit a sho rt len gt h of cast b 1 ass h avi n g a
, ,

, ,

fl a n ge at each e n d to co n n ect to the pipes on eith er S i d e a n d a collar I n the

m id d le abou t 4 i n ches la r ge r 1 11 dia m ete r tha n the fla rige s to secu r e it to
,

, ,

the bulkhead .

I f p ip es a re likely to e x pa n d co n sider ably or to be in such a positio n ,

that the wor ki n g of the ship in a sea way woul d a ff ect the m it is better to -
,

pass the m th r ough s t u ffin g bo x es in the bulkhead V e ry s mall p1 pe s c a n

-
.

be co n n ect ed by u n io n n uts t o the bulk h ea d j oi n t above d esc r ibe d the r eby ,

dec r easi n g the si z e Of the hole to b e cut a n d the collar f or closin g it .

The B oar d of T r ade r equi r e that on e Of t h e bilge pu m ps shall be s o fitte d

that it c a n pump water on deck In case Of fir e .

The e n g1 n e r oo m pu m ps should have the n ecessa r y pI pI n g valves etc , ,

that water m a y b e d r aw n f r o m each hold or co m p ar t m e n t sepa r ately fr o m ,

each S ide of the e n gi n e a n d boile r r oo m s a n d fr o m a n y oth er pa r t of the ship

,

liable t o leakage or lodgm en t of wate r .

I n additio n to the above m e n tio n ed m ea n s of f r eei n g the S hip f r o m wate r ,

it is usual to have a bilge suctio n so that the ci r culati n g pu m p m a y be utilised

, .

The chie f dan ge r to b e appr ehen ded when the ci rculati n g pu mp d raws fr o m
the bilge I s that I n cases of floodi n g of the boiler co m par tm e n t the s m all
, ,

co al is washed out of the bun ker s an d soo n chokes the con d en ser tubes as,
-

well as the pu m ps the m selves u n less the r ose bo x es have su fficien t ly s m all
,

holes t o p r even t it a n d when the rose box holes a re S O s m all as to p reve n t

.
-

s m all coal passi n g thr ough the m they soo n choke a n d r en der the pu m ps
, ,

useless f or the ti m e With a ce n t ri fugal ci rculati n g pu m p ther e is n o d an ge r

.

of the pu mp choki n g or getti n g ou t of o r de r a n d by havi n g a di r ect discha r g e ,

over board the co n d en se r ca n n ot get choked

, .

Wa ter Service — An arran ge m en t of water ser vice is p r ovided in every ship

.
,

s o that water c a n b e applied t o all bea r i n gs a n d S lides a n d a lso that a h ose ,

m a y b e used in case of fir e or a n y othe r e m er ge n cy Thi s gen e r ally co n sist s .

of a m ai n pip e fr o m a sea cock leadi n g i n to a co n ve ni e n t positio n a n d havi n g

-
,

b r a n ches with a stan d pip e a n d b r ackets at each m ai n beari n g c ra n k pin

-
,
-
,

a n d g r oup of ecce n t r ics The water f or the tun n el beari n gs a n d thr ust
.
-

bea ri n g 1 8 usua lly take n fro m the i n side Of the stern tube ther eby se rvi n g -

the additio n al pu r pose Of ci r culatio n I n the tub e .

Expansion J oint s — Gr eat ca r e S hould be take n that all pipes co n veyi n g

h ot wate r or stea m a n d the r eby liable t o gr eat cha n ge of te m per atu r e
, ,

should have p r ovisio n m ade f or the co n seque n t e x pan sio n Ex pa n sio n .

j oi n ts Of all ki n d s a re however Obj ectio n able on on e or two gr oun d s a n d

, , ,

ther ef o r e shoul d be avoided u n less absolutely n ecessar y I f s m all pipes . .

have b en ds betwee n the rigi d co n n ectio n s t h e e x pa n sio n is a llowe d for by ,

the variation in thei r cu rvatur e I f the rigid co n n ectio n s a re f a r away car e

.
,

sh ould be take n to p reven t the pipe fro m assu mi n g full cu rvatu r e to t h e

5 08 MA N UAL or M AR IN E EN GI N EER I N G .

c ri cle a n d ther eby tea r away fr o m the flan ges ; but in a ll lar ge pipes a n d
, ,

wher eve r the be n ds a re but ve ry slight e x pa n sio n j oi n ts sh ould b e fitted , ,

f or ve r y se rious accide n ts have occ u rr ed in co n seque n ce of thei r abse n ce .

When the len gth Of pipi n g to u n de r go e x pa n sio n is n ot gr eat the o rdi n ary ,

bellows j oi n t is p r e f er able as bei n g fr ee fro m a n y liability t o leak bu t when

,

the ex pan sion is ver y g r eat a n o rdi n ar y s t u f fin g box a n d gla n d or Fawcett -

,
*
j oi n t m ust be r esorted to This l att er should b e avoided for ex h au s t pipes t o
, .
j

a co n den ser as they a re ve r y liable in thi s case t o leakage w hi ch is n ot easy

,

to detect A thick i n dia r ubbe r j oi n ti n g r i n g will gen erally ser ve thi s pu r pose
.
-

with eductio n pipes w hi ch in the case of la rge o n es ma y b e 2 i n ches t h ick

, .

Agai n i n ships Of light co n st ructio n which u n d er go a co n si d er able a m ou n t

, ,

of r acki n g i n a s ea way n o le n gth Of pipes should b e without so m e p r ovisio n

-

f or e x pa n sio n a n d co n t r actio n a n d all e x t r a r igidity should be avoided , ,

that they m eet the chan ges in a ship Gr eat car e shoul d be taken to p ro v i d e .

m ea n s f or r esisti n g t h e thrust of pipes which a r e subj ect t o i n tern al p r essu r e

Or heat other wise the j oi n ts a re sever ely st r ai n ed a n d the co n n ectio n of
, ,

pip e t o fla n ge a n d Of valve box t o boile r in dan ge r Of destruction This is

‘

-
.

t h e m o r e n e c ess a i y whe n be n ds ar e e x p ected t o do duty f or ex pa n sio n j oi n ts -

,
”
etc L oose pipes should b e always ca r ef ully a n cho r ed
. .

S afety Collars —I t has so m eti mes hap pen ed that pipes have blow n out Of
.

a Fawc ett j oi n t owi n g t o th er e bei n g a b en d n ear it on w hi ch the stea m

,

p r essu r e a cted ; i n all cases Of this ki n d a colla r S hould b e b r a z ed t o the

i e n ot less tha n 1 8 i n ches fr o m the b e n d thr ough whi ch bolts pass c on

pp , ,

n e c t in g it to t h e fla n ge of the st u ffin g b ox on the othe r pipe -

.

Flang es — Fe w t hi n gs look wo r se in a n e n gi n e r oo m tha n heavy b r oad

.
-

flan ges to the copper pipes especially whe n they a r e qu it e u n n ec e s s a ry ,

.

The b r eadth Of the fla n ge n ee d n ot e x cee d thr ee ti m es the diam ete r Of the

bolts th r ough it a n d its th ickn ess should b e p r opo rtio n al to the pitch of the
,

bolts The pitch Of the bolts S h o u l d be fr om f our to six ti m es their dia m ete r
. ,

de pen d i n g on the steam p r essur e a n d thickn ess of fla n ge .

Table x lviii has been dr awn up as ge n er ally in di catin g the best thick n ess
.

of pipes f or va r ious p r essur es a n d pu r poses .

I n the m e r cha n t se r vice the m ai n stea m pi pes whe n Of copper a re usually , ,

fr o m N O 1 to 4 .thi ck depe n di n g on their di am eter a n d t h e p r essu r e ,

t o which t h ey a r e e x posed
'

B ot h in t he N avy a n d o fte n in the m e r ca n t ile m ar in e all stea m pipes

‘

'

over 2 i n ch es d ia m eter a r e of steel ; in the f o rm er it is solid cold d raw n -

,

i n the latte r hot dr aw n Or welded with r iveted cove r st r a ps for la r ge si zes

-
,
-
.

B OA R D OF T R AD E R UL E S FOR P IP ES .

1 17 The wo r ki n g p r essu r e Of well m ade copper pipes when the j oin t s -

“

a re b r a zed is f ou n d by the followi n g f orm ula

x (T ff ) wo r ki n g pr essu r e ;
D
T thick n ess in in ches
D i n side dia m eter in i n ches .

f k
a re n ot a lway s sa t is a ct ory , f or if t h e pa c i n g i s t igh t e n ou gh t o p r e v en t le a a g e of
Th ese k h igh
p ress u re s t e a m it g r ips t h e p i pe a n d p rev en t s s lid in g I t i s ou n d n ow t h a t a s p 1 got e n d c a re u lly f f fit t ed
f
.

k
i n t o a s moot h b or ed s oc e t a n d ma d e s o t h in t h a t p ressu re t igh t en s i t i s mu c h more s a t is a ct ory .
( V i da
v
fig 1 s2 a , p
. .
 BO RD A OF T R AD E R UL ES FOR I
P P ES .
5 C9
When the p i pes a re solid d r aw n a n d n ot ove r I0 i n ches dia mete
r substitute
1 n the f ore oI n o ula
.

g g f r m 3 ? f or fix
1

1 1 8 The i n te r n al p r essu r e on steel pipes

.
m ade Of good m ate rial which
a r e lap welded a n d a r e a sou n d j ob
,
ma y be dete mi n e d b t h e follow1 n
-

i i n ch L
f o r m ula p r o vided that the thick n ess is n ot less tha
,
g
n -

T thick n ess in i n ches

D d I a m et e r m ad e 1 11 I n ches

D
wo rki n g p r essu r e .

T AB L E X LV I I I — TH I OK N E S S COP P E R PI P E S
‘

.
OF

:
z
. 2
a 0
'
S t ea m Pi pe s .
8a
c m

0
“ E
B O1 le r P res s u
d 2
re s I n Lbs .
g c“
w 8 '

“
a a

B low -
Off a n d S cu m Pip es .

Fe e d d i s c h a rge p i pe s t o be a s s t e a m pipe s f or 30 pe r c e n t
h igh er pre ss u r e ; bu t in
.

n o c a se t o b e t a k e n low e r t h a n 1 2 5 lbs .

v
R e c e i er pip es t o b e a s s t e a m p ipe s f or h a lf t h e t e s t pre s s u re of t h e c y lin d e r t o w h ic h
t l
h ey ea d st e a m bu t i n n o c a s e t o b e t a k e n low e r t h a n 5 0 lbs .

v
T h e a b o e ga u ge s re fe r t o s t ra igh t pipe s on y l
be n d s t o be s u it a bly s ren gt h e n e d t .
 AU XI L I AR Y MA C H I N ER Y . 511

CH AP T ER XX .

AU X ILIA R Y MAC H I N ER Y .

In t h e Early D ays of Marin e Engine erin g the r e was p ractica lly n o au x il ia r y

machi n er y wh a tever a n d u n til quite m oder n ti m es it has bee n r estricte d
,

m
t o such m ode r ate li itatio ns as t o r equ i r e little or n o co m m e n t a n d the ,

dem a n d fr o m such as ther e was for stea m t o Wo r k it s o s m all as to n eed n o _

additio n t o the boiler capacity Thi r t y fiv e years ago the m e rcha n t ship
.
-

had a do n key pu m p Which ser ved al most every pu rpose a n d it was o n ly ,

in la r ge shi ps that a seco n d ge n e r al pu r poses pu m p was f ou nd besides the ,

ballast pu m p in ships h aving Wate r ballast On deck the r e we r e the stea m

‘
.

w i n ches a stea m stee r i n g gea r a n d g en e r ally a stea m W i n dlass i n all but

q u ite s n ia ll s hi ps
, ,

In passen ge r shi ps ther e was a n elect ric light e n gi n e a n d

.

so m eti m es ven tilati n g f an s TO day the au x ilia r y m achi n e r y is both n u m er ous

.
-

a n d powe rf u l s o that the de m a n d f or stea m to supply the m all r equi r es c on

,

s id era b le additio n s to the boile r i n stallatio n s a n d the co n su m ptio n of f uel I n

,

such ships I s a n i m per f ect in dicatio n of the eco n o mic quality Of the m a m
e n gin es .

Au xil iary Ma chin ery on S h ipboard t o d a y r e qu l r es a k n owledge to deal

-

with it a n d a capacity to take car e of it qu i te special a n d i t s supe r visio n i s ,

as i m po rta n t as a n d r a t he r m o r e e x actin g than that of the m ai n e n gin es

. ,
.

Th e m a ri n e en g1n ee r I n cha r ge Of it must have a tech n ical k n owled ge s u fii

c i en t ly good a n d gen e r al t o e n a ble him to over haul adj ust or r epa i r all such , ,

m ech a n is m s a n d fitti n gs but it is n ot n ecessa r y that he should be able to

,

d esign and co n str uct the m, that is the m é tie r of the S pecialists e n gaged
in thei r m a n u factu r e .

Th ere are T h ree D is t i n ct Cla sses oi Au xilia ry Ma chinery

'

Those thin gs which a r e absolut ely n ecessary to a n d are p ractically

.

p a r t Of the m ai n e n gi n es such as
.

The cen tr i fugal ci r culatin g pu m p a n d its en gin e .

The special a i r pu m ps a n d e n gi n es or m oto rs w hen sepa rate fr o m

the m ain e n gi n e .

The f eed pu m ps a n d au x ilia r y or supple m en ta ry f eed pu m ps

- -
.

The steam r eve r sin g a n d stop v alve gear s .

(2) Those m achin es which a r e 1 n c1 den t a l to the m achi n ery whe r eby the
w o r ki n g i s r en d e re d m o r e e fficien t a n d eco n o m ical such a s
‘

The stea m t u rn i n g gear a n d a n y win ches or hoists in the e n gi n e

-
,

r oo m .

V e n t ilati n g f a n s a n d f o rced d r aught f a n s

-
.

S tea m ash hoists .

Elect r ic li ght a n d powe r e n gin es a n d dy n a m os .

S tea m gea r f or Ope ra ti n g fir e ba r s etc -

,
.
5 12 MA N UAL A I
OF M R N E E N GI N EER I N G .

( 3 ) Th os e e n gi n es a n d m achi n es which a r e i n ciden ta l t o a n d requ isi t e

f or the ship such as ,

The stea m stee r i n g gea r -

.

S tea m wi n ches .

S tea m or hyd r aulic c r a n es .

S tea m W i n d lass a n d capsta n s .

B aggage a n d boat hoists .

R e fr ige r ati n g m ac hi n e r y a n d pla n t .

Hyd r aulic en gi n e a n d pu m ps f or hyd raulic c ra n es an d hoists .

B ilge pu m ps a n d ballast pu m ps .

V e n tilatin g f a n s .

S an ita r y pu m ps .

( a ) On Warsh ips th ere are in additio n to most of the precedin g

Ai r co mp ressi n g m achi n es f or to r pedoes etc , .

Ammun ition hoists Coa li n g m ac hi n e r y

. .

Gu n t r ai n in g m achi n e ry . B oat h oisti n g win che s .

( b) Wh ere Oil Fu el is u ther e must be in additio n sed ,

- 4

P u mps f or deali n g with the sto ri n g Of t he f uel .

Pu m ps f or supplyi n g it t o the boiler s .

In addit ion to a ll th ese t h in gs ther e a re other fitti n gs which ma y co me

u n der the catego ry of au x ilia r y m achi n ery as ,

Feed filte rs .

Feed heate r s L ub r icati n g Oil pumps

. .

Feed distille r s a n d fresh d ri n kin g wate r d istille r s .

Au x ilia ry a n d wi n ch co n den se rs Aux ili ar y boile r s .

The co n sumptio n Of stea m by the a u x ih a ries in a war shi p when u nde r

'

wo rki n g co n ditio n s is e n o rm ous f or in a ship such as the seco n d class ,

”
c ru iser D i an a w ith m d in a ry cyli n d r ical boile r s in 1 899 it was a t
, , ,

the r ate Of 4 5 4 4 lbs per hou r when cruisi n g at S low s peed while at high
,
.
,

speed ( ; ful l powe r) it wa s as m uch as

4 lbs per hou r or 1 2 5 per cen t -

, .

Of all the stea m ge n e r ated a nd at f u ll power it was 1 0 p e r ce n t , The waste .

in thi s shi p n ecessi t ated the distillatio n of lbs of wate r per hou r t o m ak e .

it up For the ship s u se f or d omestic pu rposes 5 6 0 lbs per hour wer e r equi r ed
.
’
.
,

so that the distillatio n of 2 35 2 lbs of water pe r hou r has to go on r egula rly

, .

to keep such a ship goi n g whe n wo rki n g at high speed .

The co n su m ptio n of steam f or au x iliar y m achi n er y on a m ode rn e x p r ess

turb i n e d riven stea m er is e n o rm ous a n d when on ser vice wi th a full co m ple
-
,

m e n t of passe n ger s the a mou n t r equi r ed f or heati n g a n d distilli n g f r esh

wate r f or washi n g a n d do mestic pu rp oses is ver y lar ge Mr B ell has show n . .

”
that on the L usitan ia du ri n g h er t rials a n d ther e f o r e p r actically without , , ,

passen ge r s whe n developi n g h er f ull sea powe r of

. S H P the r e we r e . . .
,

pu m ped to the boile r s n o less tha n lbs of wate r per hou r a n d he .

,

f ou n d as f ollows
T h e m a in tu r bin e e n gin e s u s ed lbs of stea m on 1 3 1 lbs pe r S H P h ou r , . . . . .

Th e a u x ilia ry m a c h in e ry , 1 75
For e va pora t in g in d is t ille rie s, 05 0

T ota l c on s u in pt ion ,
 A U X ILIAR Y MA C H I N ER Y . 5 13

It will b e see n fro m this that of the stea m ge n e r ated by the boilers t h e
au x ili aries used n o less than 1 1 4 2 pe r ce n t a n d the mai n e n gi n es p ropelli n g
,

.
,

the S hip 8 5 3 2 per cen t The f ollowi n g Table x lix S hows the co n su m ptio n of
.
.

stea m f uel etc on the L usita n ia on se r vice co n ditio n s at di ff e r e n t spee d s

.
,
,

a n d is i n te r esti n g as illust r ati n g on e of the eco n o mi c a r gu m e n ts i n f avou r Of

high speed f or the Atlan tic ser vice Mr Mo riso n r ecko n s that the dem a n d s . .

O f the au x i lia r ies in the e n gi n e depa r t m e n t ( i n clu di n g stee r i n g gea r

) Of a n
o r di n a r y m er chan t s hi p a m ou n t to 74; per cen t Of the to t al stea m p r oductio n .
,

a n d the r e f o r e de m a n di n g m o r e atte n tio n tha n has b ee n hithe r to bestowed

, ,

on the m in that class Of shi p .

T AB LE X LI X — S T E A M AN D FU E L CON S U M P T I ON S OF R M S L U S I T A N IA
. . . .

R U N N I N G ON S E A S ER V I CE CO N D I T I ON S AT V AR I O U S S P EE D S
-
.

S h a ft h ors e p ow e r,
Con s u m ption Of ste a m pe r h ou r, tot al ,

lbs .

a u x ilia ri e s , lbs .

Con s u m pt ion Of a u x ilia ri es p e r c e n t Of .

t ot a l, 2 1 -6
S te a m c on s u m ption pe r S H P . . . h ou r ,
tu r b in es ; lb s . 2 1 -2 3 1 7 24
-

S t e a m c on s u m ption pe r S H P . . . h ou r,
a u x ili a rie s , lbs .

S t e a m c on s u mption pe r S H P . . . h ou r,
tota l, lb s . 265 3
Coa l c on su m e d p e r S H P pe r . . . h ou r,
t ot a l, lb s .

T ota l c on su m ption O f f u e l on voy a ge ,

m ile s , ton s .

It will b e see n by the above that taki n g au x ili a ri es in to accou n t as well , ,

as the i n c r ease in co n su m pti o n Of the m ai n e n gi n es at slow speeds a ho rse ,

powe r at 2 5 4 k n ots costs o n ly 5 7 per ce n t of that at k n ots a n d 71 pe r .

ce n t Of that at 1 8 k n ots I f do m estic de m a n ds b e taken accou n t Of the

. .

difl e r en c e is still gr eate r s o t h a t t h e S H P the n is co n sider ably less tha n

,
. . .

5 7 per ce n t in cost . .

I n the or di n a r y passe n ge r stea m e r the de m a n d f or fr esh wate r f or e n gi n e

r equir em en ts a n d do m estic p u r poses is always gr eat a n d i n ships t r adi n g in ,

cold cli m ates Stea m heati n g is r eso rted to which is a n other dr ag on the boilers ,
.

I t wil l b e u n der stood the n that in the m odern passe n ge r stea m e r a n d

, ,

w a r s hi p the boiler s m ust be co n side r ably in e x cess of the r e qui r e m e n ts Of

the m ai n en gin es even t o the ex te n t of 1 0 t o 1 5 per cen t a n d in s mall
,
.
,

ex pr ess sh ips p r obably gr eate r .

Th e Exh au s t Steam f r o m all aux ilia r ies should be r etain ed in the syste m ,

a n d b e delive r ed t o a f eed heate r or else to a special co n de n se r whe r e it is ,

co n verte d i n to f eed water f er the boile r s When the ex haust is deliver ed

-
.

to the m ai n co n de n se r i t is bette r that it shall n ot be do n e di r ect so that

, ,

all au x ilia ri es m a y the n be wo r ked w ith a back p r essu r e above i n stead Of

33
 E L E CTR I C LIG H T EN GI N ES .
515

and pr ovisio n f or ove r loa d whe n occasio n de m a n ds mo r e tha n thei r n o r m al

f ull output pe rmi ts of thei r cyl n d e r s bei n g co m pa r at ively s m all
i The c ir .

c u lat i n g pu m p for e x a m ple mi ght be always d r ive n by such a n e n gi n e

, ,
°

likewise the a ir pu m p , f eed pu m p etc , d r aught a n d ve n tilati n g fa n s a n d

- -

, .
,

s uch like m ac hi n es .

Oth er Au xiliaries work in te rmit ten t ly a n d at f ull speed o n ly for sho r t

p e r io d s ; they m a y r equi r e the n t o give a big output co m pa r ed with that
u n der n o r m al co n ditio n s The stea m steer i n g gear , f or e x a m pl e m a y sta n d
.
-

f or hou r s with har dly a m ove m e n t a n d du r i n g the day on the high seas in ,

fin e weat her do ve r y little wo r k altogethe r an d at n o on e ti m e develop m o r e ,

t ha n 1 0 p e r ce n t of its m a x i m u m powe r
. For such wo r k the s m all cyli n d e r .

with the l ate cut Off a n swer s quite well For the W i n dlass capstan s etc
-
.
, , .
,

i t is n ot wo rth while for the sho r t ti m e they wo r k t o have a n y co m plica

, ,

t io n s f or the sak e O f eco n o m y The wi n ches a n d c r a n es a re abo mi n abl y

.

e x tr avagan t with stea m a n d seei n g the n u m be r of hou r s they wo r k in m an y

,

ca r go stea mer s it is wo rt h while studyi n g m ea n s for a r eductio n Atte m pts

(
, .

have been m ade fr o m ti me t o ti m e by supplyi n g them with co mpou n d cyli n der s ;

-

but the wear a n d tear on the m is so gr eat a n d in t h e past wi n ches a re n ot ,

h eeded very m uch s o lo n g as they will so m ehow d o the wo r k r equi r ed by the

s tevedo r e that s m all e n cou r agem en t has been given t o t h ese ele m en ta r y
,

e ffo r ts S till it is quite wo r th the while of the shi pow n er t o have a muc h
.
,

better sor t of stea m or elect r ic wi n ch , t o wo r k with less than hal f the steam
a n d hal f the wea r a n d tea r but such an i n str um e n t can n ot be tur n ed ou t '

a t the e x ceedi n gly low p r ice of the p r ese n t wi n ches .

Th e Elect ri c Ligh t Engi n es also a r e i m po r ta n t e n ough to have bestowed

On the m mor e co n si d e r ati o n tha n has O btai n ed Oft e n in the past They t oo, .
,

have i n term itte n t wo r k , but they a re r u n n i n g ever y day that the ship is
o n ser vice , a n d dur i n g the ea r ly hour s O f the n ig h t _the de m a n d on t h e m
i n passe n ge r s h ips is ve r y heavy Ther e is ever y r easo n for their havi n g .

co m pou n d cyli n der s , that a f ai r eco n o mi c r ate of e x pan sio n m a y be O btai n ed

fr o m stea m of the p r essu r e of the boile r s ; in f act , in la r ge ships so m e f e w
o f these e n gi n es might b e t r iple co m poun d with adva n tage or else what ,
'

i s m uch t h e sa m e thi n g , t w o stage co m pou n d with a L P tur bi n e co n n ecte d

-
.

t o t h e e x h aust I n m ost S hips elect r ic e n gi n es m ust be r u n all day for on e

.
-

pur pose or a n other i n asm uch as so fa r the stor age batter ies a re n ot a success
t hey a r e heavy , costly , liable to get ou t of o r d e r , a n d the acid fu m es fr o m
t he m a n uisa n ce I t is also i m pe r ative t h at in passe n ger ships ther e m ust
.

b e p r ovisio n for such a co n ti n ge n cy as a b r eak dow n or stoppage n owadays -

the e n closed f or ce d lub r icated e n gin e ( figs 1 8 8 , 1 89) c a n be r elie d on t o .

k eep goi n g f or a n i n de fin ite per io d without stoppi n g , a n d the wea r a n d tear

o n the m is a n egligible a m ou n t but the dy n a m o is still sen sitive to wate r
a n d water vapou r Ther e should b e the r e f or e , a sta n d by u n it in ever y
. ,
-

hip * or the f ul l r equir e m e n ts divided i n to two or m o r e u n its r athe r tha n

s .

, ,

have on e e n gin e a n d dyn am o o n ly I n lar ge passe n ger stea m er s the ful l .

r e quir e m e n ts at n ight ti m e n ecessitate the r u n n in g of all but on e or two u n its ,

w hich a r e held in r ese r ve as the lights a r e put out the other u n its a re on e
a fter the othe r stopped , u n t il the load is easily ca r rie d by those le ft r un n i n g .

I n a co m pa r atively s m all stea m e r the r e should be two e n gi n es an d two

dyn a mos , each p a i r separ ate a n d capable of ge n er at in g 6 0 to 70 per ce n t .

of the m a x i m u m de m a n d so that t h e two a r e ru n togethe r o n ly f or a s h o r t

,

. f p la ced we ll a b ov e wa t er t o b e f l in t h e b oiler- rooms

3
337 p re eren ce a n oi l e n g in e u se u ca se a re
-

a 0 0 de
5 16 MA N UAL or M AR I N E EN GI N E E R I N G .

ti m e a n d in case o f a b reak d ow n with on e t h e othe r ca n p r actically kee p

,
-

the sh ip well lighted For a la r ge r s h ip ther e shoul d be th r ee u n its each

.
,

capable of doi n g 55 to 6 0 p er ce n t of the m ax i mu m so that on ly t w o a r e .

,

r equi r ed at on e ti m e the thi r d bei n g quite i n r ese r ve a n d on e o n ly du r i n g

, ,

the d a y the ea rly a n d late n i ght The la r gest sh ould have f ou r u n its each
,
.
,

capabl e of ge n e r atin g 4 0 per ce n t a n d o n l y th r ee ru n n i n g at f ull de m an d .

,
.

S o m e ve ry l a rge a n d i mpo rta n t s hi ps have a still g r eate r n u m be r of u ni ts ,

a n d keep two i n r ese r ve I t m a y see m e x t r avaga n t to have such a la r g e

.

subdivi sion but the therm al e fficien cy of these s m all e n gi n es at f ull l oad i s
,

much hi ghe r tha n that of la r ge r o n es at l oads l ess tha n t h e m a x i mu m Th e .

m echa ni cal l osses al so a re l ess in the s m alle r e n gi n es at the sa m e r evoluti on s .

I n f act it has t o be bo r n e in mi n d that elect ric light e n gi n es r u n at co n sta n t

,

r ate of r evolutio n whateve r the l oa d ma y be a n d so i n stead of a n e n gi n e

“

whose m a x i m u m powe r is 4 00 at 4 5 0 r evolutio n s per mi n ute doi n g say , ,

1 00 E H P the r e is on e of o n ly 200 H P d oi n g the 1 00 E H P with l es s

. . . . . . .

e x pen ditu r e of f uel a n d oil a n d as it m a y b e r u n n i n g all day the di ff er e n c e

, ,

in e x pe n ditu r e is ve r y app r eciabl e I t would b e bette r still to have say .

, ,

th r ee u n its each of 1 33 H P to do the 1 00 E H P output for a m ar gi n of

, . .
, . . .
,

33 per cen t would be a m ple a n d as the f all might be at ti mes to 5 0

.
,
-

of which 2 0 o n ly wo u l d be E H P or use fu l p owe r the cost would be ve r y . . .

,

g reat co m pa r ed with that of the 1 33 E H P e n i n e the

g of which f or . . .
,

5 0 I H P woul d be p r obably n ot l ess tha n 39

. . .
-

The cu rr en t on shi pb oar d is much lowe r than is n ow co mmon for hou s e .

lightin g on sho r e bei n g gen erally o n ly 1 00 volts at the switchboa rd whe r eas
, ,

in L o n don 2 1 0 is co mm on .

Th e Work in g of a ll Au xil iaries by Electri c Cu rren t is n o doubt the ideal , ,

thin g f or ther eby m uch that is highly obj ectio n able in the p r esen t o rdi n a ry
,

arr an ge m en t is avoided a nd all that is desi rable a n d wo rth havi n g is aeco m

,

li s h ed The powe r is then ge n e r ated by a highly e fficie n t a n d eco n o m ic

p .

en gi n e placed u n der the i mm ediate obser vation a n d con tr ol of the skill e d

a n d r espo n sible e n gi n ee r s on watch ; the e n er gy is tran s mi tted by m ean s
of cables w hi ch m a y be led th r oughout the ship in the easiest way possible
“

, ,

a n d whe n lead cove r ed a n d othe r wise p r otected f r o m ha r m a re both sa f e

-

a n d e ffici en t t r a n s mitter s The m oto r s a re si m ple light a n d easily fix e d

.
, ,

m achi n es w hi ch c a n be placed i n a n y positio n i n qui t e a co n t r acted S pace

, ,

a n d p r otected wate r tight etc , Thei r e fficien cy is m uch hi ghe r tha n that of
-

, .

a n y of the stea m e n gi n es e m ployed f or sim ila r pu r poses on shipboa r d and ,

they r equir e little or n o atten tion f r o m skilled or other atten da n ts Wi n ches . ,

capsta n s wi n dlasses steeri n g gears pu mps etc c a n all be wo r ked by m oto rs

, , , , .
, ,

a n d avoid the t r an s missio n of stea m m or e or less wet t o dista n t pa r ts of

’

the ship th r ough pipes which even when well lagged leak a n app r eciabl e , ,

a m ou n t of heat a n d a r e always a n uisan ce to desi gn ers ship o ffice r s a n d

, , ,

all havi n g t o do wi th the m Thei r e x hausts a r e a wo r se n u isa n ce still for

.
,

if ove r boa r d the shi p s d eck is o fte n s m othe r ed i n stea m i f t o the m a in

’

co n den se r the vacuu m is o ften a ff ected adver sely a n d the o n ly thi n g is ,

t o i n c r ease the back p r essu r e a n d the r eby r educe thei r e fficie n cy or co n d uc t

, ,
»

thei r e x haust stea m to a sepa r ate co n de n se r with much loss of e n e rgy the r eby .

The r e is a n othe r obj ectio n to stea m for deck au x ilia ries i n wi n te r ti me— tha t
is that the s m all a mou n t of leakage past t h e stop valves pe rmits of so me
,

co n d e n satio n in the d eck pipes a n d the wate r so f o r m e d m a y in seve r e cold ,

 FEE D - P U MPS . 5 17

weathe r fr ee z e a n d p r eve n t the wo rki n g of the gea r at a n i n oppo rtu n e

ti m e .

On the othe r ha n d a n elect ric i n stallatio n is a so m ewhat e x pe n sive on e

,
-
,

a n d it is u r ged by so m e that it is d a n ge r ous fr o m cut outs fusi n g a n d f ro m

-

sho rt circuit i n g d u e t o water This is all quite t rue as a liability of t h e

- .

s yste m but if p r ope r ca r e i s take n i n the selectio n of m ate r ials a n d i n getti n g

,
,

i stallatio ca ied by e pe ie n ced m e n h r isk of a n

t h e n n rr ou t x r t e
y se rio u s
,

d a m age a risi n g f r o m it i s n ow o n ly s m all .

Th ere is One Ca u s e of S eriou s Loss of Steam Wlu ch is o fte n overlooke d ,

a n d that i s the use of it in whi stles a n d syr en s to give n otice to othe r stea m e r s ,

et c. I n such a ship as the L usita ni a the whistl e co n su mptio n as a per

e tage f the total stea m ge n e r ate d is o f cou r se ve r y s m all but co n si der i n g
c n o , , ,

Fi g 1 8 3
. .
— D ou ble R a m Fly wh eel Feed Pu m p -
.

a t ra m p st ea mer wi th a ge n e r ati n g powe r less tha n 2 per ce n t of the Lusi .

ta n ia has to m ake t h e sa m e n oise a n d p r obably o fte n er d u ri n g the twen ty

, ,

f ou r hou r s the loss t o h e r m ust be co n si d e r able a n d se rious

, I t would see m .
,

ther efo r e that co mp r essed a ir eithe r i n bottles or sto r ed in a r eceiver fr o m

, _

a pu m p d r ive n by the m ai n e n gi n e s would a n swe r the pu r pose eve n bette r

tha n wet stea m a n d cost m uch less Co mpa r e the ex pe n ditur e of a ir by a

.

bugle in pr odu cm g a n oise whi c h c a n be heard as fa r a n d as clea rly as m an y

-

s hips whistles with the stea m r e qu i r ed f or such of the m as evide n ced

’ “

by the cloud flowi n g away at each blast : I t must be r e m em ber ed also

that all day lon g stea m is bei n g co n de n sed in the whistle pipe a n d if t h e ,

r esulta n t wate r i s n ot blow n ou t t o t h e da m age of the f u n n el pai n t a n d d ec k

,
 FEED - PU M PS .
5 19

so mu ch f a n ci ed n ow as f ormerly ; i t is however a good wo r ki n g on e

, , an d
a lwa ys m akes I t s f ul l s t roke ;
,
.

the pump ra ms a re packed ex tern ally a n d ,

t herefore kept i n a goo d s t ate of tight n ess ; the cut off in the stea m
,
,
cyli n der
-

Fig 1 8 5
. .
— S e c t ion of a. We ir Pu mp .

ma y be com pa ratively ea rly, whe reas with the others it is ver y late a n d ,

t he clea ra n ce ve ry gr eat co m pa red with the flywheel on e On the othe r .

“ ”
h a n d s uch pum ps as shown ca n be wo r ked
, dead slow or at high s peed
D2 O M AN U AL or M AR I N E I
EN G N E E R NI G .

wi th equal ease a n d be quite auto m ati c a n d un de r co n tr ol For quite

. .

s mall ships whe r e the r e is o n ly on e or at most t wo aux ilia r y pu m ps f or

, ,

general pu rposes the duple x flywheel pu m p ( fig 1 8 3 ) is a ver y good a n d

. .

Fig 1 8 6 —
. . We ir s ’
D A Fe e d P u m ps , w it h Floa t Ta n k
. . an d Au t
t om a ic Gea r .

'

el i able on e For la r ge r si z es a n d e specially whe r e t h e f eedi n g is a ll do n e

‘

r .
,

by i n depe n den t pu m ps the type i n ve n ted a n d success fully developed by

,

Mr Ja m es Wei r ( fig 1 8 5 ) is in ge n e r al use Fig 1 8 6 shows a pai r of such

. . . .
 L
E E CTR C I LI G H T AN D P OW ER EN GI N ES . 521

pum ps fitted wi th a float cham ber a n d gea r so that thei r oper atio n is
’

u n der co m plete co n t r ol B y this a rr an gem e n t the pu mps a re slowed dow n

.

o n the S upply of wate r f r o m t h e h ot well f aili n g a n d stoppi n g altogethe r

bef o r e the supply is s o low as to r isk the in d ra u gh t of a ir S o lo n g as t h e .

water is supplied t o them fr o m the hot well or r eser ve ta n ks they will co n ti n ue

to deliver t o the boi ler s a n d should the water t en d eI s in the s tokeholes ,

check the supply the pu m ps will slow dow n u n d e r the i n c r eas e d

,

r esista n ce .

Fig 1 8 4 is the vertical va riety of the well k n ow n a n d popula r d uple x

. _
-

pu m p i n tr o d uced by the Wo r thi n gto n Co m pan y m an y year s ago a n d ,

i m p r oved in t hi s cou n t r y as S how n by the ar r an ge m en t wh er eby the plu n ge r s

,

S u ch pu mp s as these hav e the m er it of cheap n ess

‘
a r e packed e x tern ally .
,

a n d whe n pressur es a r e n ot hi gh the o r di n a r y pisto n ( pu m p ) type wo r k ve r y

well but with tightly packed pisto n s or plun ger s ther e is a te n d en cy to f ail
,
-

m aki n g the full st r oke eve r y ti m e T he Wei r like the Wor thi n gton types of .
,

pu m p s a r e so m ewhat wasteful of stea m but ha ve high m echa n ical e fficie n cy

, ,

as a set off ; m o r eover they r equi r e little or n o oil a n d f ew r epai rs so that

.
,
-
,

altogether the Wei r pu m p eve n when without co m poun d cyli n der s is a , ,

f avou r ite wi th sea goi n g e n gi n eer s who ap pr eciate thei r r eli ability t o co n ti n ue
-

doi n g steady du ty with n o atten tio n when the dem an d on thei r t i me is for ,

other a n d m o r e i m po r tan t thi n gs I n f act all a u x ilia r ie s zof this ki n d shoul d .

_ ,

be auto m atic a n d r eliab le a n d r equ ire n o watchi ng at all but o n ly the casual ,
.

attentio n fr o m the gr easer s on their r ou n ds

.
.

En g n e room Pu mps a re n ow ad ays ver y n u m er o u s as m a y b e see n on

-
_ ,
”
the pla n of R M S Oly m pic . T h er e a r e besides these f eed a n d au x ilia r y
. . .
,

f ee d s other si m ilar pu m ps :t o deliver wate r on eve r y deck in case of fir e

'
’
'

, _
,

a n d f or daily use i n washi n g the m pu mps t o supply closet a n d othe r d o m estic

tan ks baths boiler s etc Pu mps to keep the bilges of the e n gi n e roo m
, , , .
_
-

fr ee fr o m di rt y water oil etc t o d r aw f r o m the bilges of ever y hol d a n d

, , .

co m part m en t ; t o d r aw fr o m r eser ve fr esh water tan ks a n d fr o m ballast -

,

a n d t r i mm i n g ta n ks ; a n d m ost of these m a n y pu m ps m ust n ecessa r ily

b e in duplic ate .

S t eam R evers in g Gears a r e dealt wi th elsewher e a n d those gea r s n ow ,

used f or oper ati n g the m assive stop a n d pass valves of a t u r bi n e i n stal la

tio n a r e in all essen tials like the B r ow n r eversi n g pull a n d push e n gi n e - -

( fig
V en ti lat ng an d Forced dra u g h t Fan s a r e n ow in ve r y ge n e r al use , a n d
‘

a r e o f te n d r ive n by elect r ic m oto r s in p r e f er en ce to a s t ea m e n gi n e as t hey

'
'

a r e o fte n i n ou t of t h e way , i n acc essibl e places , a nd r equi r e stoppi n g a n d

starti n g by u n skilled atten d an ts ( For Table , see p .
-
.

El ectri c Lig h t a _ n d Pow er En g in es a r e n ow fitted t o al m ost all s hi ps ,

i n as much as the light obtai n ed ther eby is better t h a n t h a t of an y oil la m ps , i t
i s cheaper too , an d whe n the i n stallati on is ca r r ie d ou t in a pr ope r way it is
.

much sa f er a n d clea n er ; I n the pa sse n ger steam e r a n d wa r ship electric powe r

t r a n s mi ssio n , a s well as lighti n g , is bf gr eat advan tage I t i s , howeve r , highl y .

d esira ble t ha t such e n gin e S a s a r e e mploy e d f or this pu r pos e shall b e f ai r ly

' '

e co n o mi c i n stea m , but above all thi n gs , capable of r un n i n g co n ti n uously

,

w itho u t var iat io n in spee d or tr ou ble of a ny ki n d d a y a fte r day n ight a fte r

“

-
,

n ight , without a n y a t te n tio n f r om t h e st a ff b eyo n d a c a sual vi sit For '

- v .

this pu r pose the co m pou n d e n closed sel f lub r icati n g e n gi n es pate n ted a n d - -
 I
E LECT R C LI G H T AN D \
P O V ER EN GI N ES . 523

cau se either pr evious to or dur i n g the wo r ki n g ; a n d equal ca r e take n that

.

no wate r c an e n te r the L P.
cyli
.n de r fr o m t h e e x haust pipe I n the past it .

has been on ly too o fte n the custo m to suppose that a n aux ilia ry ca n be placed
Fig 1 8 8 — T a n d e m Com pou n d H igh
. .
-
s pe e d
l t
E e c t r ic L i gh En gin e .

Fig N th— Co m pou n d T wo c ra n k

.
o

t
Ele c t ri c Li g h En gi n e ( B e is s ll
‘

Mor c o m s V T y pe )
’
.
 Fig . 1 89a .
— N va l Ele ctr ic
a G e n era t in g E n gi n e .

f
S e l lu b r i ca t in g T wo
- -
cr a n k Comp d I li ou n nc n e d V a l ve s.
( B e lli s s M or c om ) .

iv o n N Q J TQ I F le n t r in G e n era t in o' S C ID
. kW .
 AI R COMPR ES S OR .
527

placed in or n ear the e n gi n e r oo m I n certain tr ades such mean s a r e m u ch

-
.

bet t e r served by wate r th an by stea m a n d the wo r ki n g is much steadier ,

a n d sa f r I n t h e tr opics a n d sub t r opical region s wher e ther e is n o da n e r

e
-

g
.

,
of fr eez m
g an d als o in tem pe rate zo n es with a mi x tur e of glyce ri n e a n d
,

water hydr aulic cr an es etc a re m ost satis facto r y ; they a re desi rable as
, , .
,

a ga in st t h e n ois waste f ul w in ch w ith its heavy wea r a n d tea r a n d c onr

y ,

p ara t I v e ly sho rt k fc .

I n th e N avy th e Air Compress or is a m ost i m po rta n t m achi n e i n as mu ch ,

a s by its m ea n s the deadly to r pedo is e n dowed with li f e a n d speed Ai r is .

d r aw n fr o m the at m ospher e a n d d eliv e r e dt o the n ecessa r y tubes at a p r essu r e

of lbs per squar e i n ch at a sa f e a n d co m par atively low temperat u r e
.
.

70 Au t oma t ic?
S ep a r a t or Colu mn Afr ln /e t
tes E

Fig 1 91 a — S ec t ion th rou gh P u mps of s N a va l H igh pre ssu Ai r Co m pre ssor for
'

. . .,
- -
re
lbs pe r s qu a re in ch . .

( B elli ss Mor com ) .

Fig 1 91 i s the co m p r esso r supplied by B elli s s

. Morc om f or b attleshi ps
a n d big c r uiser s wo r ked by a stea m e n gi n e I n t hi s case the lowe r po rtio n
'

i s si m ply a n e n closed sel f lub r icatin g stea m e n gi n e S uperi m posed on it

-
.

i s a co m poun d f our stage system of co m p r esso r s whose pisto n s a r e con n ected

-
,

di r ect to the en gi n e pisto n r ods As the a ir is co m p r essed it is cooled by

-
.

coils co n tai ni n g col d sea water which is passed through them Thi s m achi n e
-
.
,

when ru nn i ng at 35 0 r evolution s pe r mi n ute c a n d eli ve r 30 cubic f eet of ,

a ir co m p r esse d to lbs p r essur e fig l 9l a )

. B y r eplaci n g the stea m . .

cyli n der s with the co m p r esso r s a n d co n n ecti n g a n electric m oto r t o the

5 28 MA N UAL A I
or M R N E EN GI N EER I N G .

c r a n k sha ft n e x t the fly wh e e i a n elec t ri c d rive n m achi ne is p r ovi d e d a n d

- -

in thi s f o r m is so m eti m es p r e fe rr ed .

St eam S t e eri n g Gears a re n ow fitted to quite s m all ships a n d although ,

design ed o rigi n ally b v the late J Mac fa rla n e Gr ay f or t h e Gr eat Easte rn

.

Fig 1 92 — V e rtic a l Com bin e d S te a m

. .
and H a n d S t e erin g Ge a r .

( B ow , M L a chlan Co )
‘
.

fit t e d i n H igh speed
’

Fig [ 93 — Com bin ed H a n d an d S t ea m S t ee rin g Ge a r -

. .
as

Cros s Ch a n n e l S t e a mers .

( B o w ,
M ‘
L ach l a n Co ).
 S T E ER N I G G EA R . 5 29

a nd ot h e r ve r y l ar ge vessels which coul d n ot be co n t r olle d or p r ope rl y

,

n avigate d by ha n d gea r a n d i m p r ove d by the late A B B r ow n for all clas s es

, . .

of la r g e s h ips t o save the h a r d wo r k of a la r e n u m be r of m en ( it woul d be

g
the whole watch of a m o d e r n t r a m p stea m e r ) Fig 1 92 is a n e x a m ple of t h e
. .

ki n d of stee r i n g e n gi n e that has bee n evolved in cou r se of ti m e for use in t h e

o rd i n a r y m e r c h a n t stea m er of s m a ll a n d m oder ate si z e ; it will be obse rv e d
that the sa m e wheel with which the stea m gea r is ope rate d whe n un d e r
stea m m a y be e m p loye d to stee r by ha n d in case of m ishap to it by si m ply
slippi n g a clutch i n to gea r with t h e pi n io n gear e d i n to the S pu r w h eel on t h e
chai n or wi r e r op e ba rr el S ha ft I n a ge n er al way in fin e weath er on the
.

O pe n sea m a n y ship captai n s p r e fe r ha n d stee r i n g ; w it h suc h a n a rra n ge

Fig 1 94
.
— "‘
I y pe of V ert ic a l S t e a m S tee rin g Ge a r fitte d i n Wa r V esse ls .

m e n t this c a n be do n e a n d on quite s h or t n otice c h a n ge d to stea m gea r on

'

a n e m e r ge n cy . The co m pe n sati n g gear wher eby the val ve d isplace d by the

,

stee r s m a n is b rough t back to m id or n o rm al positio n is see n on the fr o n t ,

a n d d e r ivi n g its m otio n fr o m t h e wo r m d r ive Fig 1 93 I S a n e w a rr a n ge

. .

m e n t as adopte d i n the m o d e r n high spee d tu r b i n e stea m e r a n d placed at

-
,

the s t e r n in d i r ect co n n ectio n with t h e well k n ow n r ight a n d le ft ha n d ed

-
-

sc r ew a rr a n ge m e n t for wo r ki n g by ha n d The e n gi n e is co n t r olled f ro m

.

m f ) m ech a n lca l
(
’
th e b r i d ge by m ea n s of a B r ow n s tele oto r by p r e e r e n ce or
’

geari n g Fig 1 94 is the ve r tic a l type of stee ri n g e n gi n e as r equi r ed by the

. .

Ad m i r alty f or c r uise r s a nd fi x e d to a co n ven ien t bulkhea d u n d r wate r,

g;
.

t
 BR O WN S P TEN T S T E M T
A A ILL ER
'

E L E V AT I O N

S ECTION AI D
.

P LAN

Fig 1 95 B row n S t e a m S t e e ri n g G e a r
’

. .
-
s .
 M N A UAL OF M AR I N E EN GI N EER I
‘

la rge s t c la ss of v e s s e ls h a s re a c h e d t h e le n gt h of 1 7 f e e t i t w ill be ob iou s t h a t t he . v

s t r a in s a t t h e en d of s u c h a le v e r will be re d u c e d t o t h e s m a lle s t
pos sible a m o u n t a n d .

v
t h a t t h e ge a r n e c e ss a ry t o gi e t h e re qu is i e pow er t o s t e er in g t h e s h ip w ill be o f t h e t
l
S i mp e s t f or m .

t
T h is ille r i s s h ow n in fig 1 95 , A, k e y e d t o t h e r u dd e r h e a d , B , a n d a t t h e ot h e r
.
-

e n d a j a w , C, i s fit t e d w it h
gu n m e t a l b e a r in gs , in t o w hic h a d ri in g pin ion , D , w or k s ,
-
v
t t
g ea ri n g in o t h e t oo h e d s e g men t , E, w h ic h i s bolt e d s ec u r e ly t o t h e d e c k T h e s ee rin g . t
e n gin es a re c a r r ie d on t h e t v
ille r a n d m o e r ou n d w it h it , re ce i in g a n d e x h a u s in g t h e i r v t
l
s t ea m t h r ou gh a d ou b e s t u ffin g b ox a rr a n e m e n t , F, w h ic h a s o c on t a i n s t h e r e v ers in
g
-
g l
v t
a lv e , a n d i s m ou n e d on t h e a x i s of t h e r u dd e r ~h e a d T h e s t e a m c y i n d ers , G , a re of . l
t h e u s u a l we ll k n o w n c on st ru c t ion , fit ed w it h pis on
-
a es t
Mot ion is c om m u n ic a t ed t v lv .

t
t o t h e pin ion , D , w hi c h is of c a s t s t ee l, h rou gh t h e i n er en ion of a n e x pa n d in g f r ic t ion t v t
c lu t
c h , H , w hi c h is lin e d w it h e lm w ood , a n d e n a es t h e w or m w h e e l, I
g g T his w he e l, -
.
’

t
t o r e d u c e f r ic ion , is c a re fu lly m a c h in e d i n t h e t ee t h , a n d m a d e a n e x a c t fit t o t h e w orm ,
J , w h ic h is of Ad m ira lt y g u n m e t a l, a n d w or k s in t h e w orm w h e el w it h ou t a n y b ac k
- - ,

la s h or s h a k e l
T h e w or m is a s o c u r v e d t o t h e r a d iu s of t h e w h e el so t ha t h ree t e e t h
. t
a re e n ga ge d , t
h u s p rolon gin g t h e lif e of t h e ge a rin g b y h ree i m es t h a t of a st ra igh t t t
wor m .

v t
Mot ion is gi e n t o h is w orm b y t h e s e a m e n gin e a s s h ow n t
T h e c lu c h , H , i s . t
l
e x pa n d e d b y a s cr e w b o t a n d w or m w h ee l, K , w h ic h t u rn s in a n d ou t of t h e n u t , L , a t
-

o n e e n d , t h e ot h e r a bu t in t
g a ga in s t a se ri e s of la m in a t e d S prin gs , M , s o t h a t b y t u rn i n g
v
t h e w or m , N , b y a h a n d le ( pr o id e d f or t h e pu r pose ) t o t h e r igh t or le f t , t h e s t ea m ge a r
t
i s e n ga ge d or di s e n ga ge d a t a n y pos i ion t h e ru dd er m a y b e in , a n d a t t h e s a m e t im e
t
it f orm s a n e ffic ien bra k e t o se iz e h old of t h e ru dd er in a s ea w a y I n pra c t ic e it is u s u a l -
.

t t
t o e x pa n d hi s f ric ion bra k e or c lu t c h s u ffic ien t ly igh t t o p u t t h e r u dd e r h a r d o er t v
a t f u ll s pee d -
ri a ls ; t
bu t t h e s prin gs in a n y c a s e h a v e n ot s u ffic ie n t f or c e t o h old t h e
c on n e c t ion t igh t e n ou
gh t o c a u s e f r a c t u re of a n y pa rt OI t h e m a c h i n er y I n t h e e en t . v
v
of a h e a y s ea s t r ik in
g t h e r u dd e r, it i mm e d i a t e ly slips , a llo w in g t h e ru d d er t o m ov e
ou t of p os it ion : bu t b
y t h a t a ct t h e st e a m a l e i s open e d a n d t h e en gin es br in g t h e v v
r u dd er b a c k t o it s n or m a l
pla c e AS t h e s t e a m t ill er is in t en d e d t o w ork ( a n d i n m os t
.

c a s e s h a s b een s o fit t e d on t h e o e n d e c k
) p ,
w i h o u t a n y h ou s e , t h e w h o e of t h e m a c h i n ery t l
t
i s pla c e d i n a w a e r t i gh t c a s in g, w hi c h f or m s t h e f ra m e w or k of t h e s t e erin g en gi n e s ,
-

a cc es s t o w h ic h is
got b y t h e d oor s , 0 O T h e oili n g of t h e a ri ou s p a rt s i s e ff ec t e d
. v
a u t om a t ic a ll v vl
y b y t w o a l e es s oil pu m p s , P P , d ri e n off t h e a l e r od s of t h e e n gin e v v v -
.

T h e s e t h r ow t h e oil f rom a w ell in t h e b ot t om of t h e c a s in g t h r ou gh t h e h oll ow pis t on

v
r od in t o t h e re se r oir , Q , a n d f r om t h e re a c o iou s s u
-

p p ply of oil is s u ppli e d t o e v e ry

w ork in g pa rt , a s w e ll a s t h e p i s t on a n d a l e r od s v v
I n a c t u a l p r a c ice t h e oil i s ren e w e d-
. t
on c e in t h r e e m on t h s , a b o u t 2
ga llon s b e in g r e qu i re d .

t
T h e pin ion en d of t h e ill er is c a rrie d u p b y gu n m e a l s ippers a n d s pira l s pr i n gs -
t l
u n d er t h e lu
gs , R R , w h ic h a re c a pa ble of a d u s m e n As h e re is a lw a y s a t en d e n c y j t t . t
of t h e t ill er or q u a d ra n t t o s h a k e or c h a t t e r w h e n h ere is n o s t ra in on , t h e r u d d e r be in g t ’

f ore a n d a f t , t h e s li ppers in t h a t pos it ion w ork u pon in clin e d pla n e s , S S , w h ic h giv es

s u ffic ien t
b ra k e a c t ion t o pre v e n t o a n y ibr a ion v
At t h e s a m e im e , w h en pu in g t h e t . t tt
l v
h e m o er t o s u c h a n e x t e n t t h a t t h e pin ion b ea rs h a r d on t h e r a c k , t h e s li ppe rs r u n
d ow n on t o t h e fl a t p a rt of t h e oot h e d se gm en t , t
h e n t h e S p ri n gs s la c k off , a n d on ly w
c a r ry u p t h e w e i h
g of t h a t
en d of t h e t iller t .

t t
Th e h a n d ge a r c on s is t s of a s ron g s a n d a rd , T , b olt e d t o t h e d ec k , a n d c a r ry in g a n
t
e x a c ly s im ila r w or m w h ee l, a n d w or m w it h h a n d w h e e ls a n d f ric ion c u
- ch a s t h a t -
t l t
d e s c r ib e d in t h e s t e a m gea r At t h e lo wer e n d of t h e s h a ft h e re is a s im ila r p in ion t o
. t
t t
D , w h ic h e n ga ges t h e t oo h e d s e gm en , U , of c a s t s e el, w hic h is s e c u r ely bolt e d t o t h e t
s t e a m t ille r T h e op e ra t ion in c h a n gin g f r om h a n d t o s t ea m or s t e a m t o h a n d by m e a ns
.

of t t
h ese c lu c h b r a k e s c a n b e , a n d h a s been pe rf orm e d , wi h ou t a n y u n d u e h a s t e , in t
h a lf a m in u e t t
I t m a y h e re b e p oin e d ou t h a t t h e res u lt of a c t u a l e x peri e n c e is t h a t ,
. t
t
w it h h is s y s t e m of h a n d ge a r , t h e f ric t ion is on e hird of h a of t h e d ou b le s c r e w s y s t e m -
t t t
w it h n u t s a n d c on n ec t in g rod s t o a c ros s h e a d on t h e r u dd e r h e a d
-
T h e re fore , on e
- -
.

m a n on t h e w orm w h e el ge a r is a s e ff ec t i e a s t h re e on t h e d ou ble sc re w s
-
v .

v
T h e h a n d w h e els , i t w ill be obs e r e d , a r e se t t o on e s id e of t h e c e n t re lin e , w h ic h
e c on om i s e s s a c e f ore a n d a f t , a n d b rin s t h e
p g pos it ion of t h e m a n s e e r in g i mm e d ia t ely t
oppos it e t h e c om a s s
p .

v v t
T h e s t e e ri n g a l e is ope ra e d b y t h e le v e r, V , wh ic h c a u se s t h e p is t on a lv e t o v
t u r n on it s a x i s in s id e t h e t r u n n ion c a s in , a n d a s t h e ill e r m o e s r ou n d it c a rrie s t h e
g t v
v lv
a e fa ce w it h it a n d so c o se s t h e
p o r t T h e lelv e r , V ,
i s c o n n ec t e d t o . t h e m o or t
 R E FR IG E R A T I N G M A CH I N ES . 5 33

c
y li n d e r of t
t h e e le m ot or ge a r , le a d in g u p t o t h e b r id e b t w o i e s
g y p p 3 in c h in d ia m e t e r .

t g s t a ion , W, t t
I n c a s e of a c c id e n t o t h e s e p ipe c om m u n ic a t ion s t o t h e b rid e , a s e e r in
g
i s s h ow n a f t , w h ic h c a n b e c on n e c t e d t o t h e s t e e r in g a l e v v .

I t is c la i m e d f or t h is d e s i gn of s t e e rin g ge a r t h a t i t h a s t h e fe w e s t n u mbe r of pa rt s
os s i b e— n a m ely , on e pi n i on , on e w o r m w h e e l a n d w or m— w h ic h it c a n e a s il
l
.

p
-
, y b e se e n ,
i s d u e t o t h e fa c tt t t
h a t t h e oo h e d se gm en t re pr e s e n t s in a l o f e e t t ille r a s t ee r in g w h e e l -

t t
2 0 f e e in d ia m e er , a n d t h i s r a c k b e in g s h r ou d e d t o t h e
p oin t s of t h e t e e t h a n d bol e d t
v t
a t s h o r t in t e r a ls t o t h e s e e l d ec k , i s e x re m e l
y s e c u re t .

Fr o m a co m m e r cial poi n t of V iew the r e is a d isti n ct savi n g in t h e a d optio n

”

o f such a desig n as n o space is r equi r ed f or a stee ri n g e n gi n e a m i d s h ips

.
,

a n d n o house is r equi r e d a ft — a f e w sta n chio n s a n d r o d s or n etti n g bei n g

place d at the ex t r e mity of the gea r f or the p r otectio n of passe n ger s .

R efrigera tin g Mach in es whe r eby the a ir in a n y c h a mb er c a n b e coole d

“

d ow n t o a n y degr ee of te m pe r atu r e r equi r ed a n d kept stea d ily at that t e m

‘
'

p er a t u r e a r e n ow i n
, gre a t d e m a n d f or t h e co m f o r t a n d wel l bei n g of passen ge r s -

o n m ail stea m e r s f or the sa f ety if n ot the co m f o r t of those on wa r ships a n d

‘

, ,

s a m ea n s of t r a n spo r ti n g f ood of a ll ki n ds fr om the e n d s of t h e ea r th to

t ho s e cou n t r ies which a re u n able to p r oduce s u fi i me n t for the wa n ts of t h ose
d welli n g i n the m B y thei r m ea n s also the lu x u r ies of li f e a r e b r ough t c h eapl y
.

t othe d oo r s of eve n poo r p eop l e at ve r y m ode r ate cost The o ri gi n al i d ea .

on which such m achi n es we r e p r oj ected was t o abst r act the heat of a ir a fte r
c o m p r ession so that w h en I t was fr eed a gain a n d ex pa n d e d it r obbe d its
,

s u rr ou n d i n gs of the heat n ecessa r y f or that p r ocess I f the r e f o r e a m achi n e .

, ,

c o m p r essed a ir to say 1 00 lb s p r essu r e its late n t heat b eca m e se n sible a n d

, , .
,

gr eat s o that on passi n g it i n to a cha mbe r w 1 t h pipes th r ough w h ic h c old

,

wate r was f or ced it was cooled d ow n t o n ea rly the te m per atu r e of t h e wate r
'

o n a d m itti n g this a ir to a sto r e cha mb e r or powde r m aga zi n e on e x pa n sio n

it woul d fr ee z e t h e water par ti cles i n its n eighbour hoo d p r o d u ci n g s n ow , ,

a n d lowe r i n g the te m pe r atu r e of the a ir i n the m to t hat d esi r ed Or if .

,

i n stea d of a d m itti n g the f ree ex pa n di n g a ir i n to the cha m ber it is use d to

c ool dow n the wate r in a syste m of pipes like that of a heati n g appa r at u s ,

fitted wit hi n t h e cha m be r s the actio n will n ot b e so sudde n or s o spas m o dic

, ,

a n d t h e whole m uch m o r e u n d e r co n t r ol To day ot h e r a n d i m p r ove d .

-

m ethods a r e adopted on e of which is that of Mess r s J . E Hall i n w h ich . . .

,

c a r bo n ic acid gas is use d i n stead of a ir with adva n tage as it c a n b e m a d e ,

a n d b ottle d up at co m pa r atively little cost .

Fig 1 96 shows the m achi n e m a d e f or use on wa r ships in o rd e r that t h e

.

te m pe r atu r e in the m aga zi n es co n tai n i n g the m o d e rn e x plosives shall be

kept su fficie n tly low to p r eve n t thei r deco mpositio n a n d the da n ge r s ar isi n g ,

fr o m the i n stability of these co mpositio n s whe n wa r i n Fig 1 97 is a n illus

' '

. .

t r a t ion of the la r ge r ho r i z o n tal type use d on m e r cha n t ships t o chill the a ir

'

i n the ca r go h olds f or the Sa f e co n veya n ce of m eat fruit vegetabl e p r o ducts

-
, , ,

etc whic h c a n o n ly b e p r eser ved by m ai n tai n i n g them at a low te m per atu r e

.
,

w ithout f r ee z i n g thei r fluid po rtio n s This par ticular m achi n e has a n ice .

m aki n g r ati n g of 30 to n s per twe n ty f ou r hou r s -

.

The m achi n e co n sists of two Co m p lete u n its of which t h e co m p r esso rs ,

a re m ade f r o m solid blocks of high ca r bo n f o r ge d steel coupled to the ,

t a il r ods of a co m pou n d stea m e n gi n e whose c r a n k sha f t is in two pa r ts ,

-
,

w ith a flywheel m ou n ted on each coupli n g a n d s o capable of be i n g d i s ,

c o n n ecte d f or the i n d ep e n de n t r u n n i n g of eithe r S i d e whe n r eq u i r ed I n a n

e m e r ge n cy Th e 0 0 2 co n d e n ser coils a r e of soli d d r aw n coppe r co n ta i n e d

.
 AU X IL IA R Y CON D E N S E R .
5 35

the space available in each pa rticula r case The coil bo x es or hea d e rs .

n s:
on the co n de n se r s a n d evapo r ato r s a r e m ac h i n ed f r o m solid m ild steel f o gi g
r
whi ch also f o rm the stop valve chests a n d ther eby keep the n u m be r of gas
,

j oi n ts at a mi n i mu m Each hal f of the m achin e is co m plete with its own

.

p r essur e lub r icato r oil separ ato r co n de n se r a n d evapo r ato r gauges a n d

, , ,

other accessor i es .

Fig 1 98 is a sectio n in diagr a m m atic f o r m which shows clea r ly the wo r ki n g

,

of the Ha ll syste m I t will b e see n by it a n d by r e f e r e n ce to fi 1 96 that

g
.
, .
,

the appa r atus supplied to the Ad mi r alty is ve r y co m pact a n d occupies ,

little space a n d ever y par t kept s m all e n ou gh to pass thr ough the s m all
,

O pe n i n g available in the lowe r r egio n s of wa r ships I t is wo r ked by a n .

Br i n e r et u rn

m e t er

Pa t e n t

S epa r a t or .

Re la t or
g u

I 75 0 /s h a ft

Evap or at an

1 98 —S e c t ion R e frigera t in g Appa ra t u

’
Fig . . of H a ll s s.

electric moto r t hr ough machi n e cut wheel gea r i n g , an d ca n be ope rated

-

easily by the o r di n a r y atten da n t in the m aga zi n e qua rter s .

Au xil iary Con den ser — I n these days of high p r essu r es of stea m whe n
.

f r esh wate r o n ly m ust be used i n stea m ge n e r ato r s it is esse n tial to save all ,

the stea m possible a n d a s la r ge quan tities a r e used by the au x ilia r y m achi n e r y

,

in m ode rn stea m e r s it is wo r th while havi n g a special co n de n se r f or this

,

u r pose I n the m e r ca n tile m a r i n e it is ge n e r ally called a win ch con den ser

p .
,

a s pr i m ar ily it was fitted to take the e x haust stea m f r o m the wi n ches a n d

r etu r n it t o the au x ilia r y or do n key boile r supplyi n g the m These c on
‘
.

d e n s er s in the N avy a re si mila r i n d esign a n d co n st r uctio n to the m ai n

 5 36 MA N UAL or MAR I N E EN GI N E ER I N G .

co n d en ser but of cou r se m uch s m alle r ; a co m bi n ed a ir a n d ci rculati n g

,

pu m p is a t t a c h ed a n d kept wo r ki n g whe n in use at a co n sta n t speed ; a n

, ,

auto m ati c r e gulati n g valve c a n be fitted in such a way that a the vac u u m
i m p r oves stea m is r educe d a n d whe n 24 i n ches of vacuu m is obta i n e d
,
,
t h e e n gi n e goes dead slow .

Fi g 1 99 g i ves a si m ple a rr a n ge m e n t for the m er ca n tile m a ri n e w h ich

.

Fig 1 99 —
. . Win ch Con d e n s e r, c om ple t e , w it h Ai r and Circ u la tin g Pu m ps

ma y be place d in co n ve n ie n t positio n in e n gi n e or boile r r oo m as it is

any ,

sel f con tai n e d S o m eti m es in the m e r ca n tile m ar i ne a plai n cyli n d rical

'

co n d en se r is fitted so that t h e ballas t pu m p supplies ci rculati n g wate r a n d ,

on e o f the au x ilia r y f eed pu m ps d r aws away the co n d e n se d wate r ; i n th is

-

case little or n o vacuu m is m ai n tai n e d but n o wate r is lost I n eve ry da y

. .
-
 A U X I LIA R Y CON D EN S E R . 5 37

w o rk the wi n ch a n d othe r au x ili a r y e n gi n e gla n d s a n d d r ai n cocks le a k s o

bad ly that o n ly a ve ry poo r vacuu m is possible with eve n a goo d si z e d a ir -

pu m p .

Fig 2 00 is a m o d e rn high class su r face co n de n si n g pla n t such as is

.
-

,
"

u se d On shipboa r d whe n a good vacuu m is r equi r e d f or wo r ki n g such thi n gs

_

as tu r bi n e ge n er ato r s etc I t is also a good r ep r ese n tatio n of a co m bi n ed

,
.

s e t of a ir pu m ps a n d ci r culati n g pu m ps
-
such as m a y be e mployed on a
-
,

Fi g
. 2 00 — Au
. x ilia r y S u rf a c e Con d e n s in g P l a n t ( B e llis s Morc om ) .

'

m ai n co n de n se r I t co n sists of a pai r of Ed w a rd s a ir pu m ps wo rke d by

’
-
.

c r a n ks d r iven by a spu r wh eel havi n g helical m ach i n e c u t teeth into w hic h

- -

the r e is a pi n io n on the c r an k sh a f t e n d of a ta n d e m co m pou n d e n close d

-

fo r ce d lub r icati n g e n gi n e ; t o the othe r e n d of the c r a n k sha f t the spi n dle

-

_
-

of a ce n t r i fu g al p u m p is coupl ed I n la r ge si z es ther e a r e so m eti m es t h r e e

.

pum ps d rive n by c r a n ks at 1 2 0 apa rt but r eally the t w o pu m ps with c ran k

°
,
s
.

opposite on e a n othe r a r e s u ffici e n t

 F UE L .
5 39

passes off thr ough t h e fu n n el as ca r bo n m o n o x i d e pa r t in the f o rm of s m oke ,

,

pa rt is deposited as soot i n the tubes a n d pa r t is bu r n t in the s m oke ,

box . This is so m eti m es due to bad design a n d wa n t of p r ope r m ea n s of

regulati n g the supply of a ir ; but it is m o r e fr eque n tly d u e to bad stoki n g
a n d ca r eless n ess on the pa rt of the fir e m a n i n usi n g the m ea n s p r ovi d ed .

( 3 ) Ex ces s of a ir wher eby so m e of the heat is e m ployed in r aisi n g the

,

te m per atu r e of the supe rfluous a ir a n d the r eby d oi n g n o good This is , .

gen er ally caused by bad stoki n g t h e ba r s bei n g u n cove r e d in pa rts of the ,

gr ate a n d so a d mi tti n g a too la r ge i n flow of a ir

, .

( 4 ) R a dia ti on thr ough the m outh when the doo r s a r e open for firi n g a n d ,

a n y r adiatio n th r ough O pe n i n gs f or othe r pu r poses This ca n n ot be avoi d ed .

,

but should b e com pa r atively s m all .

The fir st th r ee of these sou r ces of l oss can n ot be sai d to b e u n avoidable ,

as with o rdi n a r y ca r e the loss fr o m the m should be ve r y s m all co m pa red

with the c hi e f loss .

Chi m n e y D ra u gh t — TO obtai n a n e fficie n t d r aught in a chi mney or fu n n el ,

the te m pe r atu r e at its base shoul d be about that of m elti n g lead or n ear ly
,
,

Pr o f esso r R a n ki n e said that the best chi mn ey d r aught takes place

when the a bs olu te te m pe r atu r e of the gas in the chi mn ey is t o that of t h e
e x tern al a ir as 2 5 t o 1 2 .

That is if T be t h e te m per atur e Of the a ir the n

, ,

Absolute te m per atu r e a t the base of fu nn el (4 6 1

°
T) ,

or te m pe r atu r e acco rdi n g to the rm o m eter ( Fahr e nh eit )

° °
eg ( 4 6 1 T ) 4 6 1 20 8 T

Taki n g the a ir te m pe r atu r e at the p r ope r heat at the base of the

f un n el is 2 08 6 0 1— 5 00 or N ow the heat in a fu r n ace havi n g a
, ,

n atu r al d r aught is usually about i f the heat at the e x it fr o m

the boile r t o obtai n the n ecessa r y d r aught is it f ollows that 20 per
cen t of t h e total heat of co m bustion is wasted owi n g t o this I f i n stead of
. .
,

a chi m n ey a d r aught we r e p r oduce d a r ti ficially say by m ea n s of a n eco n o mic

, ,

e n gi n e d rivi n g a f a n a ve r y co n side r able po rt ion woul d be saved

, .

Fu el — The solid fuels used on boa rd ship a r e c oa l of va r ious d e s c rip

.

tio n s a n d qualities w ood in those pa rt s of the wo r l d whe r e it is plen ti ful

,

a n d coal sca r ce r a n d pa t en t fu e ls or co m bi n atio n s of ve r y s m all coal with

,

othe r substa n ces Cok e is seldo m used but oi l co m pa r atively cheap a n d

.
, , ,

in so m e i n sta n ces m ost co n ve n i e n t has n ow co m e i n t o ge n e r al u se especiall y , ,

in wa r shi ps Mi n e r al oil is capable of p r oduci n g a la r ge qua n tity of heat

.
‘

is clea n a n d co n ven ien t for stowi n g a n d ther e fo r e suitable for wa r ships , ,

yachts a n d passen ge r stea m er s a r r a n ge m en ts a r e n ow m ade f or the r egula r

,

supply of a high flash poi n t cheap Oil at fo r eign a n d ho m e po rts so that

, ,

ships c a n depen d on getti n g thei r tan ks filled as su r ely as they c a n thei r

bu n ker s Cr eosote waste as well as pet roleu m r e f use c a n b e bu rn t quite
.
, ,

sa f ely a n d r eadily in the fu rn aces of a boiler by m ea n s Of special appa ratus

the on e i n ve n ted by Mr Ja m es Holden a n d used by hi m so success fully.
,

for m a n y yea r s in the loco m otives of the G E R L o n do n is show n in . . .

,

detail in fig 2 0 1 a n d fig 202 gives a ver y si m ple f o r m use d on the Japa n ese

.
, .

ships R esidu e a fte r the light illu m i n ati n g oils have b ee n abst racted fr o m
.
,
 P AT EN T U E LS
F .
54 1

the petr oleu m in S out h R ussi a calle d a s ta t ki has for ve r y ma n y y ea rs

, ,

bee n use d on t h e stea m e r s O f the Caspia n a n d V olga for fuel .

Of coals the r e a re seve r al d isti n ct ki n d s a n d m a n y m o r e qualities The re , .

i
a re fiv e d sti n ct va r ieties k n ow n as ,

( 1 ) An t hra ci t e co n sistin g al m ost e n ti r ely of fr ee ca rbo n ge n er ally j et

, ,

black in appea r a n ce but so m eti m es gr eyis h like black lea d has a speci fic
, ,

gr avity ge n er ally of about 1 5 but so m eti m es as high as 1 0 it b u rn s wit h out

,

e mitti n g fla m e or s m oke but r equi r es a str o n g d r aught t o bu r n at all I t

, .

is capable of ev a po r ati n g ( theo r etically ) n ear ly 1 6 ti m es its weight of w a te r .

but to Obtai n goo d r esults fr o m it car e ful stoki n g is n ecessar y as whe n ,

sudde n ly ex pose d t o heat it is ve_r y friable b r eaks up i n to s m all pieces a n d , ,

f alls th r o u gh the ba r spaces if distu r bed m uch as it d oes n ot cake

-
Th e , .

fir es should be wo r ked light when usi n g it a n d the coal ca r e fully sp r ea d , .

The heat is ver y i n te n se a n d local s o that f urn aces i n te n d e d to bu rn it should

,

b e high in the c r ow n s a n d p r otected at the sides by b r icks fir e cla y etc or , , .

,

els e have n o a ir spaces dow n the sides

-
.

( 2 ) D ry bitu min ou s coa l co n tai n s fr o m 70 to 8 0 per ce n t of ca rbo n a n d .

,

about 1 5 per cen t of volatilisable m atte r ; its speci fic gr avity is f ro m

. to
I t bu rn s easily a n d swells co n side r ably while bei n g co n ve r ted i n to
coke The ha r der ki n ds d o n ot bu rn s o r eadily n or d o the pieces stick
.
,

oge t h e r so easily whe n bu r n i n g a n d a r e ge n e r ally bette r adapted for ma r i n e

E
,

oiler s .

( 3 ) B itu min ou s ca lcin g c oa l co n tai n i n g fr o m 5 0 to 6 0 pe r ce n t of ca rbo n

, .
,

is ge n er ally Of about the sa m e specific gr avity as the d r y bitu mi n ous ; it

co n tai n s how ever as m uch as 30 per ce n t of volatilisable m atte r a n d c on
, , .
,

sequen tly develops h yd r ocar bo n gases ; it bu r n s with a lo n g fl a m e a n d ,

sticks togethe r i n caki n g so as to lose all t r ace O f t h e o rigi n al f o rm s of the

,

pieces I t r equi r es special m ea n s to p r even t s m oke

. .

( 4 ) Can n el coa l or lon g fla min g coa l This is seldo m used for stea m
, .
-

pu r poses as it gives Off la r ge qu an tities of s m oke a n d is ver y sca r ce I t

, , .

is the best coal for the m an u f actu r e of gas .

( 5 ) L ign i t e or br own coa l is of later f o rm atio n tha n the other coals a n d

, , ,

in so m e i n sta n ces app r oaches to a peaty n atu r e I t co n tai n s howeve r .

, ,

whe n good fro m 5 6 t o 76 per ce n t of ca r bo n a n d has a speci fic g r avity

, .
,

fr o m to I t also co n tai n s la r ge qua n tities of o x yge n a n d a s m all ,

qua n tity of hyd r oge n The co mm o n er ki n d s of lign ite a r e poo r a n d co n tai n

.
,

as little as 2 7 per ce n t of carbo n a n d the r e fo r e a re n ot suitable for stea mi n g

.
, , ,

pu rposes .

In so m e in lan d pa r ts of the wo r ld whe r e coal ca n n ot be easily Obtai n ed , ,

woo d is used f or f uel a n d the fu rn ace specially co n structe d t o bu r n it ; it

,

co n t a i n s on the aver age whe n dry about 5 0 per ce n t of ca rbo n 4 1 of o x yge n

, , ,
.
, ,

a n d 6 of hyd r oge n .

Pa ten t Fu els co n sist p r i n cipally of coal dust a n d thei r value depe n ds .

the r e f o r e on the quality of t h e coal f r o m which they a r e m a d e To uti lise

,
.

the s m all coal f ro m the mi n es a n d y ar d s was a so m ewhat d i fficult p r oble m ,

as it coul d n ot be co n ve n ie n tly t r a n spo r ted a n d is di fficult to bu rn in a n ,

o rd i n a r y fu rn ace Fr iable coal is also equally d i fficult to deal w ith B y

. .

m i x i n g a s m al l qua n tity of pitch or t a r with it a n d baki n g the m i x tu r e in ,

m oul d s a ha r d b rick is p r o duced which is easily ha n d le d a n d bu rn s well

, ,
.
 OI L B U R N ER S FOR MAR I N E B OI LER S . 543

c heaply I t is used chiefly at p resen t for raisin g steam a n d there fo re it s

.
, , ,

c o m positio n is of s m all m o m e n t co m pa r ed with its calo rific value but in the

,

n ea r futur e the d e m a n d will be co n sider able for use in the Oil in te rn al c om

'

bu s t ion e n gin e whe n the co m positio n will be a matter Of sup re me impo rta n ce
,
,

i n asmuch as those oils con tain in g asphaltu m m atte r in app reciable quan tity
c a n n ot be used in sp r ay f o rm In a n en gin e cylin de r owin g to the d epositio n ,

of coke sa n d of a ha r d r e fr acto r y n atur e which will n ot co n sum e n or freely ,

depar t fr om within co n sequen tly the pisto n s cyl in der wall s r ods etc get
, , , , .
,

badl y damaged To u s e such Oils in a n in tern al co mbustio n en gin e succ es s

.
-

fully the pitchy matter m ust be deposited outside a n d o n ly the V olatile ,

c o n stitue n ts permi tted to en ter the cyli n de r s .

Cru de Oils pu m ped fr o m the wells a fte r e x pos ur e c a n be use d in boiler s

, , ,

f or r aisin g stea m a n d bei n g cheap a n d easily ha n d le d on shipboa r d h ave

, , ,

gr eat adva n tages over coal especially wher e coal is i m po rted a n d co m pa r a ,

t iv ely dea r S uch Oil howeve r co n tai n s much volatile m atte r a n d is the r e
.
, , ,

f or e n ot s o sa f e a s coal n or so sa f e as the r esidue fr o m it a fte r r e fin in g which

, , ,

is quite as good for bu rn i n g a n d has a high flash poi n t , .

Table lia gives the co m po s itio n a n d heat value of all the pri ncipal oils
.

n ow used as well as that of the r esidues a n d of coal t ar

, .

Admira lt y Conditi ons f or Oil Fu el — The f la sh poi n t is n ot t o be belo w 1 75 F .

°
.
’

The su lphu r con t en t s a re n ot t o e x ceed 3 pe r ce n t Pr actica lly f ree f rom a c id .

,

which must n ot e x ceed 0 0 5 per ce n t The wa t er wi th it m us t n ot e x ceed 0 5 .

Th e vi s cosi t fl ow at a te mpe r atur e of 3 2 F by t h e

°
p er ce nt .
y such that the .

R edwood \vis co m eter does n ot e x ceed seco n d s for 5 0 cubic ce n ti metr es .

Ther e m ust be n o ea rt hy or fi brou s matt er with it .

Th e ot h er H eavy Oils used f or the D iesel a n d othe r e n gin es a re the r esi

dues a fter the light volat ile a n d i n flamm able co n stitue n ts such as petr ol , ,

ben zin e par a ffin etc have bee n e x t racted a n d the flash poi n t is then ove r
, , .
, ,

200 F a n d o fte n as hi gh as
°
The Caspian astatki has a higher flash
'

.
, _

A m
°

p oi nt bei
, n g ge n e r ally as high as 3 90 F e rica n r esidues a re those .

r e m ain i n g a ft e r lub r icatin g as well as lightin g oils have bee n di stilled .

Oil B u rn ers f or Ma rin e B oilers a re d esign ed to pul ve ris e the O il as it flows

through their n o zzles a n d to dir ect the sp r ay a n d the co n seque n t flam e to
,

that par t of t h e fu r n a c e desir ed There are thr ee ways of e ff ecti n g this

‘

( 1 ) B y m ea n s of a stea m j et ( 2 ) by a n a ir st r eam a n d ( 3 ) by pur ely m echa n ical

, ,

m ea n s The stea m in j ecto r is t h e si m plest a n d has been us ed with success

.
,

by Mr Holden a n d other s on loco m otives but on shipboa r d the loss of wate r

.
,

is too se r ious a m atter a n d so so m e m a r i n e e n gin eer s p r e f e r the a ir blast

, ,

which at com pa ratively low pr essur es is m uch m o r e eco n o mi cal than the
steam j et ; at high pr essur es however the a ir system is ver y little if at , , ,

all super ior to the m echan ical m ethods The m echani cal m ethods d o n ot
,
.

in volve so gr eat a steam co n su m ptio n n or such e x pen sive m echani sm as

a ir co m p r esso r s n or d o they r equir e quite so much space The oil is by
'

.
,

the m f or ced i n to the burn er s at pr essur es var yi n g fr o m 5 0 t o 2 5 0 lbs pe r .

°
squar e in ch a n d ther e heated by steam t o tem per atur es var yi n g fr o m 1 5 0 t o
,

3 00 F
°
The fir es thus fo rm ed ma y be u n der n atur al or f o r ced d rau ght
. ,

e ve n to such a f or ci n g as m easur ed by 5 i n ches of wate r but the best r esults ,

a re obtain ed at q uite low r ates of co m bustio n w he n with dece n t oil 1 4 t o ,

1 6 lbs of w ater ( fr o m a n d at 2 1 2 F ) c a n be evapo r ated per poun d of oil °

. .
,

a s again st 8 t o 1 1 lbs whe n usi n g best Welsh stea m coal

“

. .
544 M \
N U AL OF h N G I N ER R I N G
l .

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 V ALU E OF A F E U L .
l
‘
AQ
!

T AB L E L I a .
—L
I Q UI D FU E L S , CoM POS I Ti ON AN D CAL OR I FI c
V ALU E S OF .

N B . .
— Ac t u a l Eva pora t ion in Pr a c t ic e is a bou t 70 p e r cen t . l
w h en h igh y f or ced
an d 77 pe r ce n t . w h en ligh t ly f or c e d .

Ch e mica l Compon en t s .

H ea v y Pe t roleu m W ,
V i rg in ia ,
.

P e nn s y lv a n ia , _
M e x ico ,

T ex a s

T rea t e d
P e t roleu m troin P a rma ,
P e c h e lb ron n ,

E . G
a lic ia ,
W a li c ia ,
. G
( R e s id u e) R ou ma n ia ,
B a la k h an y ,
( L i gh t ) B aku ,
H
( ea v y )
( R es id u e )
J a va ,
S h a le Oi l ,
Fra n ce ,
S c ot lan d ,
Coa l t a r
-
oi l ( ligh t ) , B r it is h .

( h e a v y ) , B ri t is h ,
Fra n ce ,
G er ma n y
Ga s Oi l ( ligh t ) , B r it is h
( h ea vy ) ,

N B —For e v a p ora t i on mu lt ip ly b y ( 1 0
. .
p er ga llon x S pec i fic g ra v it y ) .

Th e V a lu is deter mi n ed by its chem ical co m positio n All

e of a Fu el .

fuels co n tai n m o r e o r less ca r bo n an d m ust hav e hyd r oge n a n d o x yg en ,

in va r ious p r opo rtio n s also so m e s m all qua n tities of n it r oge n sulphur etc
, , , .

T hese substan ces a r e usu ally design at ed by th ei r che m ical symbols that , ,

is by the i ni tial letter of the n a m e They co m bi n e in cert ai n fix ed qu an .

tities call ed thei r chemica l equ ii za len ts Thus

,
.

Ca rbon sy mbol C che m ical equivalen t 1 2 , ,

.

H gdrogen H 1 '

, ,

Ox ygen ,
O ,
16 .

N i tr ogen , N ,
14 .

S u lphu r, S ,
32 .

A pou n d ca r bo n is capable of developin g du r i n g co m bustio n a certai n

of , ,

qua n tity of heat called the t ota l hea t of combu s ti on a n d is m easu r ed by u n i t s

, ,

of hea t .

The B ritish stan dar d un it t eat is defin ed as t ha t qu a n t i t y of hea t whi ch

w i ll r a i s e on e pou nd o f pu re wa t er on e degree Fa hren hei t in t emper a tu r e .

J ou le s f ou nd t he th e rm al u n it t o be e qu a l t o 772 f oo pou n d s t re cen ly , h ow e e r, t v

'

t
wi h bet ter a pplia n c e s a n d pos sibly gre ater c a re in m a n i pu l a t ion , P rof s R ow a ld , Griffit h s ,
.

and S c h u st e r fin d it t o be 778 .
 A R TI FI CIA L DR A UG H T .
547

give n to the a ir t o r each the f u el m uch m o r e is r equi red ; so that t o con su me

,

on e pou n d of f u e l i n pra ct i ce 2 4 pou n ds of a i r a re o t en u sed

,
f .

At the te m per atur e of the volu m e of 1 poun d Of a ir is 1 3 1 4 cubic

f eet ; the r e f or e to co n su m e 1 pou n d of coal or coke 3 1 5 cubic feet of a ir
,

a r e n ecessa r y I f however the d r aught is ver y goo d such as fou n d with

.
, , ,

a r ti ficial m ea n s 2 5 0 f eet a re s u ffic ie n t

*
, .

S ir Ale x Ke n n edy f ou n d that t h e best r es u l ts wer e obtain ed when

.

1 8 1 4 poun ds of a ir we r e used a n d n ot e d the f ollowi n g

‘

Tables li a n d lia give the co mpositio n total heat of co mbustio n a n d

. .
, ,

e vapo r ative power of the va r ious fu els .

R ate of Combu s ti on —The qua n tity of coal b u rn t on a squa r e f oot of

.

gr ate depen ds par tly on its n atur e but m ostly on the dr au ght S o m e hard , .

c oals lik e a n thr acite r equi r e a ve r y st r o n g d raught to bu rn at all a n d so m e

, , ,

qualities of a n thr acite bur n slowly even the n B itu min ous c Oa l bur n s much .

m o r e fr eely tha n a n th r acite a n d so m e of the so fter kin ds co n s u m e ve ry

,

r apidl y All coal bur n s ver y m uch m or e r a pidly with a str o n g d r aught
.
,

as might b e s upposed a n d f or that r easo n whe n o nl y a co m pa ratively s m all

, ,

bo iler c a n be fitted t o s upply stea m f or the s m all g r ate possible with it ,

a rt i ficial dr aught is a n ecessit y I t i s also clai m ed that whe n the d raught

.

i s ve r y str o n g a s ma ller wei ght of a i r su ff ices to co m plete co m bustio n

, .

Artificial D rau gh t — Ther e a re f our ge n er al m ethods O f causi n g a n a r ti

ficia l d r aught : ( 1 ) The stea m blast by which the p r oducts Of co mbustio n ,

a re e j ected fro m the fu n nel in the sa m e way that the e x haust stea m f r o m a

l oc o m otive produces a dr aught ; by a n a ir blast deliver e d u n d er the -

fir es w ith a closed ash pit ; ( 3 ) by m aki n g the boiler r oo m a ir tight a n d -

f o r ci n g a ir in to it by a fa n un til the p r essur e is above that of the at m o

,

S pher e , the o n ly ve n t bei n g thr ough the f ur n aces to t h e f un n el ; a n d ,

by a fa n placed n ear the base of the fu n n el which dr aws fr o m t he s m oke box -

a n d deliver s in to the f u n n el ; this latter is k n ow n as the i n du ced dr a u ght s ys t em .

The fir st of these m ethods is t h e Ol d e r a n d costlier fo rm ; it is n ot ve ry

e ff ective an d by n o m ean s econ o mical as ther e is le s s of both coal a n d
, ,

fr esh w ate r ; it also quickly wea r s out the f u n n el ; but it has the m er it of
bein g cheap in fir st cost a n d does well e n ough if it is o nl y r equ ir e d to be
,

use d occasio n all y to qui cken the fir es in gettin g up steam or dur i n g a h ot ,

day whe n steami n g wi th a f air wi n d or n o win d at all The seco n d pla n , .

h a s the m e r it Of si m plicity a n d m a d e by the late Mr Ja m es Howde n a n d

, .

other s ver y e ff ective by their special system s it i s n ow ver y ge n er ally used ,

w ith m ost satis f acto r y r esults i n the m e r ca n tile m a rin e The r e is n o da n ge r .

wi th it a n d it m a y be applied to a n y ki n d of S hip The thi r d pla n is on e

,
.
“

al most un i ve rsally adopt ed in war ships a n d also in m any la rge a n d s m all ,

e x p r ess m er cha n t S hips I t is a costly pla n a n d n ecessitates a co mplete

.
,

chan ge in the S hip a rr an ge m e n ts in the bo iler co m pa r tm e n ts I t is u n doubt .

e dly a m ost e fficie n t pla n of a r ti ficial dr aught but the cost must e n te r i n to ,

T h e t emp era tu re of ign it i on of S cot ch coa l i s 760

°
F .
, of T y n es id e Du rh a m Y k hi
or s re
W e lsh a n d a n t h rac i t e
5 48 M AN UA L OF M AR I N E EN G I N E ER I N G .

the calculatio n of pra ct i cal e ffi cie n cy as m ust also the risk r u n The fir e me n
, .

a re p r actically i m p r iso n ed in the stokehole as access to a n d eg ess

, r fr o m it
,

a re thr ough a n a ir tight lock a n d whe n a pa n ic a rises the r esult u de

r s u ch
-
, n
 Q UA N TI T Y OF F E U L EU R N r ON T H E G R Ar I t . 5 49

c ri cu msta n ces m ight be se rious ; on the othe r ha n d the fire ma n is always ,

w ork in g in f r esh cool a ir a n d t h e r e f o r e m o r e co m fo rtable a n d e fficie n t

‘

, , , ,

tha n in the o rdi n ary stokehole The f ourth pla n is si m ple a n d less costly .
,
a n d was clai m ed to be less t ryin g to t h e tubes etc but why is n ot obvious , .
, .

The Ellis Eaves pate n t syste m which i n cludes such a n eductio n fa n has
-

, ,

bee n t rie d with success ; but the fa n m ust be m ost car e fully desig n ed a n d
fitte d to e n able it to deal with gases at 6 00 F success fully °
. .

H owden s S yst em of Forced D ra u g h t — The secon d m ethod of a r ti ficial

’
.

d raught above m e n tio n ed was elaborated a n d perfected by the late Mr Ja mes .

Howde n who was on e Of the fir st to take up the questio n of fo r ce d d r aught

,
,

a n d to pe r seve r e both in e x pe r i m e n ti n g a n d in educati n g the public m i n d

,

so that t o day his syste m is ver y e xte n sively adopted in the Mer ca n tile Marin e
-

o f a ll n atio n s wi th m o r e or less be n e ficial r esults Fig 2 03 shows his a rr a n ge . _ .

m e n t whe r eby the a ir is supplied to the fu r n aces by co n dui t s a t t h e sides of

the s moke bo x es a fter having passed thr ough a cha m ber con tai n i n g a syste m
-

o f ve r tical
t ubes thr ough w hi ch the hot a ir a n d gases fr o m the s m oke box -

flow to the fu n n el The Su pply of a ir is kept u p a n d regu lated by m ea n s of

.
__

a fa n a n d is usually d elive r ed at a p r essu r e equal to half a n i n ch to on e i n ch

,

of wate r This syste m is the re fo r e on the r egen e rative pr i n ciple wher eby
.
, , ,

the waste heat in t h e chi mn ey is utilised t o heat the in co mi n g a ir t o the -

f u rn aces a n d although the di rect savin g by usi n g this waste hea t is n ot ve r y

, .

la r ge owin g chiefly to the low specific heat of a ir the i n di rect on e is c on

, _ ,

s id e ra ble fr o m the fa ct that the co m bustio n of f uel i s m uch m o r e co m plete

a n d e fficie n t the n e ar e r the a ir supply a

ppr oaches the te mpe ratu r e Of c om
’

bu st ion Mr Howden clai m ed a savin g of coal by this system a mou n ti ng t o

. .
-

a co n side r able per cen tage a n d n o doubt this was s o when applied t o a boiler ,

whose design a n d pr opo rtio ns we re n ot oi the best but i n eve r y case t here _ ,

m ust be a m ate r ial ga in by supplyi n g the a ir r ais ed by w a s t e heat at a h igh .

_

tem p er atur e at a r ate to suit the con ditio n s pr evailin g at the tim e .

Eavas Syst em di ff e r s fr o m the H owde n system chiefly fr o m t h e

’
Ellis
fact th at the p r oducts of co mbustio n a re dra w n a t the fu n n el base a n d delive r ed
up t o the fu n n el by a f an a fte r pa ssin g th rough the tubes of a heati n g cha mber _

si m ilar t o H ow den s I n this case t h e in flow of a ir is t hrough the hea tin g

’
.
.

chambe r a n d do wn wa r ds to t h e f ur n ac es in d uced by t h e s uctio n of t h e

~ ,
“ ”
f a n a n d he n ce called the
, i n duced d r aught syste m This s yste m also .

d i ff e r s fr o m H ow d en s in so m e details Amo n g Other s it was usually fitte d

’
.
,

with boile r s havin g S erve tubes Of co n sider abl e d iam eter a s a ga in st the t u bes ,

o f s m a ll d ia m e t er fitted with r etarde r s in H owd e n s case This syste m was ’

~
.

fitted by Mess r s John B r ow n Co of S he ffield to seve r al ships as well a s

. .
, , ,

to boiler i n stallatio n s on S hore with be n e fici al r esults in all cases I t n ee d ,

.

h a r dly be said h oweve r that the suctio n f an had t o be ve r y ca r e fully design ed

, ,

a n d fitted to avoid da m age f rom t he heat of the? gases that pass thr ough it ‘

t — With good stoki n g a n d the o r di n a r y

n f
Qu a tit y o Fu el B u rn n t o th e G ra e
fu n n el d r aught as m uch as 2 0 poun d s Of co al c a n be bu rn t per squa r e f oot
,

O f gr ate er hou r a n d u n de r m ost f avou r able ci r cu m sta n ces with s h o r t

p ,

g r ates 2 2 to 2 5 pou n ds I n the m er ca n t ile m a r in e 1 5 pou n ds is the

.
,

aver age a m ou n t bu rn t whe n wo rkin g econ o mically a n d all calculatio n s _

,

f or a m er cha n t ship should be based on this f or although 20 po u n ds

3 00 F is
°
ft
O en a t t a in e d w h en work i n g at f u ll power wit h a pres su r e i n th e a s h p it s f rom } t o 1 } in che s
a

of wa t er .
 I
S Z E OF F U N N EL . 55 1

L e t I de n ote the w h ole le n g t h o f t h e c h i m n ey, a n d O f t h e fl ue lea d i n t o

g
.

i t i n f eet
“
m its h y d r aulic m ea n d epth t h at is , its a r ea d ivi d e d by its pe r i m ete r ;
w h ic h , f or a squar e or r ou n d fl ue a n d ch i m n ey , is on e qua r te r of t h e
d ia m ete r ;
a fli i e n t of f r ictio n , w h os e value f o r cu r r e n ts of ovi ove
f , c o e c
g a s m n
g r
sooty su r faces is esti m ate d by P eclet at 0 0 1 2
G , a f acto r of r esista n ce for a passa g e of a i r t h r o u g h t h e g r ate , a n d t h e
laye r of f uel above it w h ose value, acco r d i n g to t h e e x pe r i m e n ts of P eclet
o n f u r n ace s bu r n in g f r o m 2 0 to 2 4 pou n d s of coal e squa r e f oot f g ate
p r o r ,
is 1 2 .

T h e n acco r d i n g to P e cle t s f o r m ula,

’

T h e he a d r equi r e d t o p r o d uce t h e d r aught i n question i s

2
a
( )
[ li
i — 1 G :
2g m
wh ich w i t h
,
the v a lue s as sig n e d by P ecl et t o the c on sta n t s beco me s
,

00 1 2 x l
29 m
W h e n the hea d is give n t h e v alue of a ma y b e calculated a n d the n
”

, , ,

W eigh t of f uel w h ic h the fu r n ace is capabl e of bu r n i n g comp let ely pe r

hou r
a
,
x A x r
o
V o
x r
1

I t is usual to r eck o n the h ea d by t a k i n g 1 i n c h of w a te r as t he u n it ;

th e n ,

7
0
H ead in i n ch e s of wa te r 0 1 92 x h x 0 0 8 07

M r T h or n y cr of t f ou n d , by ca r e f u l e x pe r i m e n t with ste a m lau n ches

. an d
“
to r p e d o boats h a vi n g loc o boile r s a n d wor ki n g wi th a p len u m ( that is ,

with a close d s tok eh ol e i n to w h ich a i r is f o r ce d ) “ t h at of t h e i n itial ,

p r es su r e the r esist an ce of t h e tubes accoun ts f or about s eve n te n th s of t h e

,
-

w h ole t h e r esista n ce of the fir e s a n d fir e bar s bei n g o n ly about on e te n t h

,
- -

“
a n d t h at t h e p r es s u r e in the f u n n el as m easu r e d w a s se n sibly equal to, ,
”
at m osph e r ic p r es s u r e .

P r o f esso r R a n ki n e also state d t h at i f H be the he ight of t h e f u n n el r 2 ,

-

the absolute te mpe r at u r e of t h e e x te r n al a ir the n ,

H ead p r oduc ed by c hi mn ey d r au gh t

taki n g it a s t he h e a d
H
( 09 6
3
1

2
or , ,

H eig h t of ch i m n ey r equi r e d to pr o d u ce a give n dra ugh t

Th e veloci ty of t he ga s in the ch i mn ey is p r opor tion a l to J]: an d

T h e d e n sity of that g as is p r opo r tio n al to

 5 52 MA N UAL OF M R N E EN A I GI N EER I N G .

The weight discha r ged per seco n d i s p r opo rtio n al to v elocity X de n sity ,

a n d, ther e fo r e to ,

25
whe n 7
,
Ther e fo r e the best c hi mn ey d r au ght takes place when
12
the absolute te m per at u r e of the gas in the chi mn ey i s to that of the e x te rn al
a ir as 25 to 1 2 .

When this co n d itio n i s ful filled h H .

That I S the height of the chi mn ey f or the b est d r augh t i s equal to the
,

hea d e x p r essed i n hot gas a n d the de n sity of the hot gas i s hal f that of the
,
.

a ir .

The n if TI be the te m pe r atur e in degr ees Fah r . of the a ir , the best

,

2 5 TI
t e m pe r atu r e of chi mn ey base IS 5 00 2 0 8 T1 .

The n t h e f ollowi n g holds good whe n H h.

Th e Size an d govern ed in p r actic e r ather by c ir

Heigh t of Fu nn el a r e
c u m s t a n ces tha n by scie n ti fic i n vestigat i o n ; the dia m ete r i s fix ed by a r bit r a r y

r ules base d on success ful p r acti ce a n d the height such as suits the appea r a n ce ,

o r se r vic e of t h e shi Of l ate year s t all fun n els have been t he

p .

(g)
2

R u le Height of fu el H 00 7
'

. nn

C x 0 84

H i s h eight i n f eet ; A the a r ea of sectio n in squar e f eet a n d C t h e

c o n su m
, ,

pti o n i n pou n d s per hou r of fuel on the gr ates co n n ected t o the chi mn ey .

Evapora tion The heat of t he gases fro m the f u rn ace s hould be absor be d
.
-

by the surfaces with w h ich they co me in co n tact on t hei r passage t o t he

c hi m n ey a n d t h e e fficie n cy of this pa r t of the b oiler d epe n ds on the capa
,

bilit y of th ose su r faces r ea dily t o take u p the hea t on the m ate rial to t r a n s mi t .

it by co n ductio n to the in n er s u rface or that Wi th w h i ch the wate r is in

co n tact a n d on tha t i n n er su r face bei n g in suc h a co n di t i o n as t o give up
,

the h eat to the water The intern a l e fficie n cy of t h e b oile r d epe n ds on t he

.

co n vecti o n or ci rculatio n of the wate r in the boiler wher e b y f resh po r tio n s ,

a re successively b r ought in co n tact with the hot su r f aces The i mpo r ta n ce .

of this latte r f acto r w a s seldo m su fficien tly app r eciated i n esti m ati n g the

e fficien cy of a boiler although n ow e n gi n eer s gi ve i t fir st co n si d e r atio n

, .

Whe n the f u rn ace I s i n t ern al— that i s whe n i t f o rm s a par t of the boiler ,

p r oper a n d is surr ou n de d w i t h water— a la rge p r opo r tion of the total heat

o f co m bustion I S abso r bed by it pa r tly by di r ect co n tact with the hot fuel ,

a t the sides a n d pa r tly by r adiation fr o m the glowi n g su r f ace of the m ea n

,

d esce n t fuel whe n coke d The furn ace also absor bs heat fro m the h ot gases
.

passi n g alo n g its su rface .

Th f e l i At l t i
u nne s t nm ow 1 6 0 t o 1 8 0 f
an c ex t h ig h b o th g t l
re s s s i i l o l
i r s a re n ee a ve e ra e e ve s, va
in cros s s e c t ion p and as la rge as f ee t x 17 f ee t .
 E E Ar I N G S U R FA CE . 5 53

The f urn ac e or fir e box of a loco m otive boil er I S usually m ade of coppe r ,

a n d it has bee n p r oved by e x pe r i me n t that a ve r y la r ge p r opo r tio n of t h e

whole heat gen er ated i n it is a bsorb e d by it co n seque n tly i t s evapo r ativ e ,

e fficien cy is ver y high The fu rn ace of the ordi n ar y m a ri n e boile r i s of

.

steel whi ch is n ot so good a co n d uctor of heat as copper a n d the r e for e

,
.
, ,

does n ot t r a n s mi t such a lar ge p r opo rtio n of the total heat of co mbustio n ,

althou gh its evapor ative p ower i s still hi gh ( For co n d u ctivity of m etal s .

see Chap x x x . .

Combu s tion — Th e co m bustion of the f uel i s n ot always c omplet ed I n the

.

f u rn ace of the m a ri n e b oiler as the gases distill e d f r o m it d u r i n g the p r ocess

,

o f cokin g esc ape to the cha mbe r beyo n d the fu r n ace be f o r e su fficie n t a ir

has b een supp li ed to co mplete co m bustio n ; a n d also it so m eti m es happen s

j ust a fter fir i n g that the te mper atu r e a bove t he fu e l i s n ot su fficie n tly high
to cause ign itio n Mo r eover the car b o n o ften u n ites in the fu rn ace with
.

o n ly su fficie n t o x ygen to f o rm ca rbo n m o n o x ide a n d thi s flows un ch a n ge d ,

i n to the co m bustio n cha mber if the n a f urt he r sup ply of a ir i s f ou n d

,

t he r e a n othe r po rt i o n of o x yge n i s take n up a n d ca r bo n dio x ide or ca r bo n ic

, ,

acid gas is f or m ed ; th at i s what usu ally takes place with bitu mi n ous coal ,

a n d u n l ess t hi s seco n d su pply of wa r m a ir is p r ovided the c o m bustion of a ,

la r ge po rtio n of the fuel I s n ot co m pleted i n the boiler I f t h e fir e I S c om .

le t e l co e e
v r d with green — t hat i s fr esh f uel —
the pa rt n e x t the hot s u r f aces
p y ,

ives up its vola t ile ele me n ts which r ise a n d beco m e co oled i n e x p an d i n g so

g , .

t h at when they co m e in co n tact wi th the ox yge n of the a ir the te m per atu r e ,

is n ot hi gh e n ough t o cau se them t o chemically c embin e — that i s to igni te , ,

a n d co n seque n t ly they m e r ely mi x m echan i ca lly a n d fl ow on u n til they

pass ou t a t the m outh of t h e f u n n el an d appea r as smoke

’

I f the s m oke bo x es leak a ir a s they o n l y t oo o ft e n d o i gni tio n will so m e

, ,

t i m es take place i n the m a nd fla m e wi ll asce n d the f un n el a n d appea r at

,

t h e t op wher e the r e i s a f u rthe r Suppl y of a i r su ffi cie n t t o co mplete c om

,

bu s t i on .

When however by car e ful stokin g a n d r egulatin g t he Supply of a i r so

, ,

t hat co m bustio n is co mpleted in t h e co m b u stio n cha m ber, the evapo r ativ e

po w er of t hat part of the boile r i s hi gh a n d wi th the f urn aces is the m o is t ,

valuable pa rt of t h e boiler for t r an s mitt i n g heat t o the water .

H ea tin g Su rface — As has been stated the e fficie n cy of the heati n g s u r face
.
,

o f the boil er depen ds on t h e m ate ri al its thick n ess a n d on t h e sta te of the

, ,

su rf aces in con tact with the h ot gas es a n d water The fu r n ace s a n d c om .

bu st ion cha m be r s a r e of steel whose co n ductivity is i n f e r io r to that of coppe r

“

( 1 6 to but is still good .

Th e superio r evapo r ative powe r of the f urn ace i s due i n g r eat m easu r e
t o t h e clea n n ess of the su r f ac e e x posed t o heat ; the r e is n o d eposit of soot
o r a sh on it a n d the s m allest possible a m ou n t of o x id e ;
, the combustio n
cha m b er a lso is gen er ally in the sam e co n ditio n The r oughn ess of the .

s u r f ace e x po se d p r obably i n c r eases it s powe r of r eceivi n g heat n ot so m uch ,

f r o m a n y abst r act vi rtue in t h at state as fr o m the a ctu a l su rfa ce bei n g g r eate r

,

t ha n i f S m ooth V e r y m uch depe n d s on the co n d itio n ( if the i n si d e sur f ace

.

e x posed t o the wate r ; i f it is quite clea n a n d absolutely s moot h it is n ot so ,

e
ffic i en t a s S lightly d i rt y a n d r ough ; the be s t co n ditio n bei n g rough n ess
f

with fr eedo m fr o m coati n g of ba d co n ducto r s I f a metallic su r f ace is .

s m ooth a n d clea n evapo r a t io n fr o m it is slow a n d i n t erm itten t because on -

, ,
 I I
E FF C EN C Y or A BO IL ER .
‘

555

r educe d Hen ce tubes of s m alle r dia m ete r a re used with adva n tage with
.

f o r ced dr aught f or the sa m e evapo r atio n is e ff ected with s m alle r a m ou n ts

,

of su r f ace .The S er ve tube m ade by J B r ow n havi n g 6 or 8 rib s .

p r oj ectin g i n side has the gr eat adva n tage of lar ge absor be n t su rf ace in pr o
,

por tio n to its cubic capacity The twisted st ri ps of i r o n placed i n si d e t h e

.

tubes by Mr Howde n a n d called r etar d er s have the e ff ect of r educi n g

.
, ,

the cubic capacit y as well as ci r culati n g the hot gases ; t h e r eta rde rs h oweve r , ,

c a n t r a n s mi t ve r y little of the h eat they abso r b i n the wa y the r ibs of ,

the S er ve tubes d o .

Evapo a tiv
r e P o we r — The p robable evapo r ative powe r of a boile r ma y be
.

f ou n d app r o x i mately by the f ollowi n g f o r mula

L et be the t heoretica l evapo rative power of the fu el F the weight of

e1 ,

coal burn ed on the gr ate in pou n ds per hou r a n d K t h e total heati n g su rfac e ,

in squa r e f eet then

P ou n ds of wate r evapo r ated p er pou n d of fuel bu rn t

Ex a mple To fin d the evapo r ative powe r of a b oiler which bu rn s a f uel

.
—

who se theo r etical evapo r ative power is 1 5 the n u mbe r of poun ds bu rn t per ,

hou r on the gr ate is 800 a n d the total heati n g sur face is

,

E 1 5, or 9 8 25 lbs .

T he e ffici en cy of t he boi ler is by t hi s r ule , ,

(
K
2 K + F ) or O 65 5 .

This r ule 1 s o n ly a pp r o x im ate however because the heati n g su rface 13

, ,

n ot always wholly r ea l heati n

g su r f ace so m e bei n g o n ly n o m i n al ; m a ny ,

b oiler s as m ade f o rm erly have gi ven bette r r esults a fte r the r e m oval of tubes ,

which ver y m ateriall y dec r eased the n o mi n al heati n g su rface I f a boile r .

has j ust en ough sur f ace to a bs or b h ea t fro m the gases s o that the te m per atu r e
'

at the f un n el bas e is o n ly such as is su fficien t to p r oduce the r equi r ed d r aught ,

the n the heatin g su rf ace is e ffective ; a n y su rface added t o this is super fluous ,

a n d I n ve r y m a n y cases does positive ha r m .

Th e Effi ciency of a B oil er u n de r va r ious co n ditio n s of wo rki n g c a n be

a sce r t a i n ed as f ollows :

W is the weight of
wate r actually evapo r ated per pou n d of fuel .

C calo ri fic value of the f uel used in B ritish ther m al u n its .

H total heat abso r be d in r aisi n g a poun d of stea m fro m a poun d of

°
water at 3 2 F a n d h that of the f eed water
.
,
-
.

te m per atu re of the stea m p roduced in degr ees Fahr .

super heated stea m is p r oduced at a te mpe ratu r e T so that the a moun t

If 3,

of supe r heat is T , T the additio n al H8 will b e f ou n d by m ultiplyi n g

( T8 T ) by the s peci fic heat of stea m
.
.
5 56 MA N UA L or M R N E EN A I GI N EER I N G .

W (H — h)
E ffi cie n cy of the boile r X 1 00 cen t
per .

W (H + H8 — h)
( 2) Efficie n cy of superheati n g

Th e f acto r of e vapor atio n (H H. k)

96 6

The speci fic heat of stea m at say 200 lbs absolute a n d supe rheate d t o
, , .

°
4 8 0 F is 0 5 9 a n d if to 6 00 F it is 0 5 4 5 This is the m ea n speci fic h eat
°
. .
.
,
°
between 38 1 a n d 4 8 0 a n d 6 00 F a n d is the r atio of it t o the heat r equi red
° °
.
,

to r aise a poun d of water by the sam e a mou n t Taki n g the B r itish t h e rm al .

u n it as 778 f oot lbs i t r e qui r es on the aver age 4 5 9 f oot lbs per degr ee to
-
.
,
-
.

supe rheat a pou n d of stea m of 2 00 lbs p r essu r e to 4 80 F ; or in all .

°
.
, ,

( 4 80 38 1 ) X 58 3 B T U or .

The te m pe rat ur e at uptake d epe n ds on the te mper atu r e of the wat er in

the boile r ; f or i n sta n ce , at 300 lbs p r essu r e it will be 4 2 2 F so it wi ll
°
.
, .

be n o use to t r y to b ri n g the tem pe r atu r e of t h e gases below 4 00 or eve n

°

a n d w it h s u c h a te m pe r atu r e the r e the e fficie n cy of t h e tubes will be

ver y low at 200 lbs i n as m uc h as t h e water t h e n i s 3 8 7 F I t is , the re fo r e
.
,
°
. .

m a n i fest that it is bette r to have a higher te m per atur e at t h e s m oke box a n d -

,

r e d uce at f u nn el base by a ir heate r s , f eed heate r s , or supe r heate r s to d r v the

- - -

stea m .
 BO IL ER S . 557

CH APT ER XX I I .

BO IL ER S — T AN K BO IL ER D ES IG N AN D D E T AIL S .

T H ER E a re inship boar d t o day t w o disti n ct types of boil e r v iz

use on -

( 1 ) Th e Ta n k B oil er co n sisti n g of a n ex te rn al shell in which is con tai n e d

, ,

t he wate r a n d the m ea n s wher eby that wate r m a y be co n ve rt ed i n to stea m ;

it also has w ithi n it a S pace f or the tempo r ar y stor age of the stea m whe n
fo r med ; a n d
( 2 ) Th e Wa ter T u be B oil er co n sisti n g of a st r uctu r e of tubes j oi n ed
-
,

togethe r i n ter co mm un ica t i n g a n d co n n ected to a r eceiver at the t op a n d

, , ,

ge n erally to wate r cha m ber or cha m ber s at the botto m The water is in this .

class always withi n the tubes a n d ci r culates when heat is applied to thei r ,

su rfaces The fire i s gen er ally on a gr ate i mm ediately b elow the n ests of
.

t ubes so that the hot gases ascen d a n d pass th r ough the m

, .

Th e T an k B oil er t o d a y e x ists in va r ious f o rm s but the shell is alwa s

y
-

cyli n d rical or n ear ly s o The f urn aces withi n it a r e always cylin d rical i n
.

ge n e r al f o r m but they a r e o fte n sti ff en ed to r esist collapse by co rr ugatio n s

,

or equivale n t m ea n s The furn aces delive r the h ot gases i n to a cha mbe r

.
,

withi n whic h co m bustio n m a y b e co m pleted a n d the co n ten ts dist ributed ,

ove r a la r ge n u m be r of s m all t ubes thr ough which they a r e co n veyed to t h e ,

s m oke box a n d by which thei r heat is abso r bed on the way ther e so that
, ,

they play the par t of a su r face co n den se r t o them They pass the hea t .

i n to the wate r wher eby it is heated a n d so m e of it con verted i n to stea m

, .

I n the past the r e have be en m a n y f o r m s of ta n k boile r othe r tha n the c y lin

d ric a l on e of which
,

( a ) Th e Oval B oil er as sho wn in fig 2 04 which whe n side r oo m is lim ite d

, .
, , .

pe r mits of a lar ger a n d m o r e power ful boiler than i f cyli n d r ical a n d altho u gh
n ot so light pe r u n it of powe r as a cyli n d r ical it p r ese r ves m ost of the goo d ,

f eatur es of that f o r m to gethe r with a s im ple syste m of stayi n g wher eb y

,

st r en gth is obtai n ed
( b) Th e V ert i ca l or H aysta ck B oil er havi n g a cylin d rical shell with a ,

he mispher ical top as in fig 2 1 3 Or it m a y have a fl atten ed or oblate sphe rical

,
.

top with the fu n n el passi n g th r ough it as in fig 2 1 2 ,

. .

( c) Th e Locomotive B oil er in a m odi fied f o rm was used ver y gen e r ally

_

fOI s m all c r a f t a n d eve n f or dest r oye r s of

,
I H P but they we r e n ot . .

altogethe r success ful especially u n d e r seve r ely f o r ced d rau ght The f o rm
, .

of loco m otive boile r as s h ow n i n fig 2 1 4,

was however qui te satis factor y .
, , ,

i n t or pe d o u n b oa t s of co n si d er able powe r with a fai r ly hi gh a ir p r ess u r e

o
,D
.

Th e B oil er u sed in t h e Mercan t il e Marin e is to day al m ost e x clusively

’

of the ta n k type a n d si m ply cyli n d r ical in f o r m m ade of steel a n d fitte d

, , ,

wit h i r o n or steel lap welded tubes The fu rn aces a r e o fte n in s m all ships
-
.
, ,

p lai n cyli n de r s wel d e d a n d fl a n ge d to m eet t h e co mbustio n cha m be r in such

 C Y LI N D R I CAL BO IL E R S . 5 59

if r equi r e d , as the f urn aces as n ow m ad e m a y be la rge— as mu ch as 5 4 i n ch es

ii n c1ha m s t er f or m oder ate p ressu r e a n d 5 0 i n ches for 2 00 lbs
“

n (
,
p
.er squa re

Cylin drica l B oil ers wi th T h ree Fu rn a ces a r e in ver y gen er al u se a n d ,

ma d e up to dia m eter s of 1 5 8 f eet I t is usual n ow t o fit such boiler s with

.

a sepa r ate a n d distin ct co mbustio n cha m be r to e ach f ur n ace , as s how n in

MA N UA L O F MAR I N E EN GI N EER I N G .

fi/ —s
f
'
 FO UR -
F U R N A CE Y LI N D R I CAL
C BO IL ER . 5 61

fig 2 06 , e n d view but it has bee n m ade o fte n i n t h e past with on e cha ml et

.

co m m o n to the thr ee
.

Cy l in drica l B oil ers wit h Fou r Fu rn a ces m a y be as shown i n fig 207 with .

,

the f u rn aces co n n ected i n pai r s t o each of two co mbustio n cha mbe rs or .

 TH E D O UB LE -
EN D E D BO IL ER .
5 63

with a cham ber t o each f u rn ace ; or ,as i s seldo m do n e n ow all , fou r fu rn ac e s

ma y have on e cha mber co mm o n t o the m all .

Th e D ou bl e -
en ded Boil er has fu rn aces at each ‘

en d each, it s own
cham ber , pp osite f u rn aces havi n g a cha m be r
or O co mm o n to the m as in
,
MA N UAL A I
OF M R N E E N GI N E ER I N G
 TH E W A T ER -
T UB E B O L ERI .

fig 209 ;
. ther e ma y be a n d of ten was to save weight a n d space on e
or , , ,

cha m ber co mm o n to f ou r fur n aces as shown in fig 208 D ouble en ded

-

, . .
-

boiler s a re n ow m ade of en o rm ous si z e as m uch as 1 8 f eet dia m eter a n d ,

as la r ge as 24 f eet lo n g .

The double en ded boiler is lighter a n d Cheaper to m ake per u n i t of powe r

-

tha n a si n gle e n ded a n d occupies less S pace B ei n g of s m alle r d ia m eter

-
,
'
.

than a si n gle en de d on e of e qual p ow er or heati n g sur face the shell c a n b e

-

m ade of t hi n n er plates whi ch f or hi gh p r essu r es use d to b e a m atte r of serious

,

co n si d er ati on ; but t o day when steel m aker s c a n a n d d o r oll plates of a n y

,
-
,

thickn ess up to 2 i n ches of la r ge ar ea at m oder at e costs a n d m ost boiler

'

shops a re equipped wi th tools capa ble of ha n dli n g a n d d eali n g e ff ectively ,

wi th such plates thi s ar r an gem en t has littl e or n o weight B u t the st r ain i n g

, .

e ff ect of hi gh t emper a t u r e di ffer en ces of te m per atur e a n d chan ges of t e m

'

, ,

e r a t u r e a re as seve r e a n d active n ow as they eve r wer e ; a n d although the

p
car e a n d m ethods of the m odern boiler m ak er a r e b eyo n d all p r aise a n d -

p r oduce wo r k fa r su p erio r to that of a f ew year s ago the e ff ects of r acki n g ,

a r e liable t o appea r although they a re n ot s o evi d e n t in the f o r m of leaks

,

as wer e o nl y t oo o ften the case f o rm erly it still r em ain s ther e fo r e that , ,

the si n gle en ded boiler ca n b e t r usted to withstan d r ougher usage than the
-

double a n d is ther ef o r e m o r e gen erally used in the m er ca n tile m ari n e than

, , ,

f o r m er ly . Mo r eover si n ce qu i t e i a r ge u ni ts of the si n gle en d ed type a re

'
,
-

m ade n ow ther e is n ot the sa m e n ecessity f or the double e n ded in f ull

,
-

power ed ex p r ess stea m ers as obtai n ed f orm erly ; n evertheless in these ,

latte r the doubl e en ded boiler is still fr equen tly used t o eco n o mi se space
-

a n d weight I n the N avy the double e n ded boile r was n ever a f avou r ite
.
-

with the en gi n eer s r espo n sible f or the m a n d although la r gely used in c ruiser s ,

on acco u n t of thei r lighter weight f r o m 1 88 7 to 1 897 they have S i n ce been ,

seldo m used a n d latter ly the tan k b oiler has been aban do n ed altogeth er
, .

The r e was however a special f o rm of cyli n d rical boiler i n t r oduced i n t o the

, ,

N avy s o f ar back as 1 85 4 w hi ch has su r vi ved a n d has been o fte n adopted , ,

f or use in e x p r ess stea m er s a n d k n own as ,

Th e Gu n boa t B oil er ( fig with the fur n aces at on e e n d a n d the tubes .

at the other with the co m bustio n cha mber betw e en the m is a ver y
, ,

effici en t boiler a n d the li ghtest cyli n d r ical on e per u n i t of powe r I t is a

, .

ver y co n ve n i e n t design {D r shallow s hi ps havi n g pl en ty of f or e a n d a f t r oo m

to stow the boiler in .

Th e N ava l B oil ers of t o day a r e howeve r a lmost e x clusively si n gle e n ded -

,
-

cyli n drical a n d water tub e boiler s of so r ts ; in s m all s hi ps e x clusively the

-

latter I n la r ge r s hi ps the r ule was to h a ve a po rtio n of water tub e with a

.

po r tio n of cyli n d r ical the latter b ei n g use d_ f or c r uisi n g at slow speeds a n d

, ,

t h e f o r m e r adde d to the m when high powe r or fu ll speed is r equi r ed n ow

water tub e boiler s On ly a r e used

-
.

I n t h e Mercan ti l e Ma rin e th e Wa ter tu be B oil er has p r actically f ou n d -

n o f avour i n t hi s cou n t r y a n d n ot ve r y m uch elsewhe r e it has u n d oubted l y

,

so m e good clai m s f or ser ious a n d f avou r able co n si d er atio n especially f or ,

c ertai n ser vices a n d it is ve r y r e m a rk abl e that on shor e the ve r y large i n stal

,

la t i on s at elect r ic ge n er ati n g statio n s wate r tube boile r s a r e al m ost e x clusively -

used in S pite of the fact that electrical en gi n ee r s a r e ver y kee n obser ve r s

of f uel co n sum ptio n a n d t h at they have had e x pe r ien ce with quite goo d
,

f or ms of the cyli n dr ical boiler at so m e of t h ese statio n s I t is of c our se .

, ,
 THE D O UB LE -
EN D E D B OI L ER . 5 67

Sma ll B oil ers h ave usuall y two fu rn aces a n d with this n u mbe r a r e mo r e ,

e fficien t tha n with t h r ee eve n w h e n of m oder ate si z e .

The n u m be r a n d si z e of the f u rn aces m ust however depe n d on t h e S i z e , ,

o f the boile r a n d the heati n g su r f ace it is to co n tai n I t is f ou n d i n p r actic e .

that la r ge f u rn aces a re m o r e e fficie n t as coal co n su m er s tha n s m all o n es a n d ,

the r easo n is n ot f a r t o seek The gr ate a r ea with t h e sa m e len gth of fire

.

b a r i n cr eases as the d i a m ete r while the sectio n thr ough w hi ch the a ir passes
, ,

bo t h above a n d below the bar s i n c r eases as the s quar e of the d ia m ete r ; it

,

is also possible to give a good i n cli n atio n or r ake to the ba r s with a lar ge
fu rn ace which ve r y m ate r iall y assists co m bustio n
, I n p r actice the g r ates .

a re n ot of cou r se always of the sa m e len gth but they do n ot i n c r ease in ,

len gth as the f urn ace does in dia m eter a n d co n sequen tly the a ir passages ,

i n c r ease m o r e r apidly than does the gr ate a r ea when t h e d ia m eter of f urn ac e

is i n cr eased E i r n a c es sho u ld b e n ot less than 36 i n ches n or m or e tha n
.
,

4 8 i n ches in dia m eter e x cept u n de r special ci r cu m sta n ces

, Taki n g this as .

a r u le f or guidan ce boiler s m a y b e m ade up to 9 f eet dia m eter with on e

,

fur n ace up to 1 3 f eet 6 i n ches dia m ete r with two f u rn aces up t o 1 5 f eet
, ,

with thr ee f urn aces a n d b eyo n d that dia m eter f ou r fu rn aces a re n ecessa r y
,

t o avoid t oo lo n g le n gth of gr ate .

A si n gl e fur n ace boiler has of cou r se on e co m bustio n cham ber a t w o

-

f u r n ace boile r m a y have on e cha m ber co mm o n to the t w o fu rn aces ( fig .

or a sepa r ate on e t o each Wh en ther e is on ly on e boiler i n the ship the

.

latter plan i s pr ef er able as then the bu r sti n g of a tub e ca n n ot wholly dis

,

able the boil er ; when ther e a re two or m ore boiler s on e cha m be r co mmo n
t o the t w o fu rn aces is p r e f er able as by stoki n g the fir es alte rn atel y a n eve n
,

supply of stea m is kept up a n d the s m oke co n su m ed A three f u rn ace boiler .

-

h a s usuall y thr ee separ ate co m bustio n cha m b er s a n d the sa m e r e m ar k applie s ,

t o it as to the t w o f u rn ace boile r

-
The f ou r f u rn ace boi le r has gen e rally o n ly
.
-

t w o co m bustio n cha m ber s on e wi n g a n d on e m iddle fu r n ace havi n g a c om

,

mon cha mber ; but so m e en gi n eer s p r e f er thr ee cha m ber s the t w o mid dl e ,

furn aces havi n g on e in co m m on a n d each wi n g f urn ace a separ ate on e

, .

The chief obj ectio n to two lar ge f urn aces i n stead of th r ee s m aller a n d to ,

t h r ee lar ger o n es i n stea d of f ou r s m aller i s the lo n ge r gr ate r equi r ed t o get

,

the r equi site a r ea a n d t o the la r ge a m ou n t of dead water betwee n the fu rn aces

,

at the b otto m Ther e is also to b e co n sider ed the li mit placed by the B oar d
.

'

of T r ade a n d R egist r y r ul es to avoid r isk of collapsi n g by di r ect c ru s hi n g .

of the m etal whi ch p r ev e n ts the adoptio n of the la r ge r f u rn ac e with ve r y

,

high p r essur es .

I t is u n usual a n d cer tai n ly m ost d i fficult t o use plates above 1 5; i n che s

thi ck in the co n stru ction of a b oile r S hell a n d it is this co n sider atio n w hi ch ,

o ften fix es the li mi t of dia m eter B oiler shop appli an ces a r e n ow m ade t o

.
-

deal with even thi cker plates when n ecessar y B oiler shell plates up to .

2 i n ches t hi ck c a n b e obtai n ed 1 2 f eet w ide a n d of 2 50 squa r e f eet a r ea at quite

m oder ate p rices in mild steel fr o m 2 7 to 3 6 to n s ulti m ate te n sile st r e n gth .

Th e D ou bl e en ded B oil er ( fig 2 09) has fu rn aces at b ot h e n d s with r etu r n

'

-
.

tubes ove r them a n d i s gen er all y tan tam ou n t t o two si n gle en ded boilers
,
-

back to back but with the backs r e m ove d I t is m ade up to 1 8 feet d ia m eter
,
.

a n d as m uch as 2 4 f eet lo n g but such ve r y la rge boile rs a r e u n usual pa rtly .

owin g to the wa n t of f acilities for m ovi n g such gr eat weight a n d pa rt ly ,

b ecause the co n ditio n s u n de r w h ich such lar ge boiler s a r e possibl e a re li mited

5 68 MAN UAL or M R N E E N A I GI N EE R I N G .

t o ver y large stea m e r s the lowe r p ressu r e of stea m for tu r bi n es such

. For
la rge boile r s a r e n ow fr e quen tly supplied .

The double e n d ed b oiler is lighte r (v ide Table III ) a n d cheape r in pr o

-
.

o r tio n to t h e total heati n g sur f ace tha n the si n gle e n d ed boil e r a n d its
p
-

evapo r ative e ffi cien cy in p r actic e is ge n er ally higher On the other ha n d .

,

gr eater car e is n ecessar y in design i n g a n d in wo r ki n g it That it is ligh te r .

is obvious a n d that it is cheaper m a y b e i n f e rr e d fr o m the f act t h at t h e r e

.

i s less m ate rial a n d less labou r co n sequen t on the r ed uced quan tity of
,

mater ial .

The si m plest f o rm of thi s ki n d of boile r is on e in whi ch all the f urn ac es

ope n i n to on e co m m o n co m bustio n c h a m be r ( fig 208 ) t hi s f o r m although .
,

a t on e ti m e co m m o n e n ough i s n ow seldo m adopte d The ob j ectio n s to

,
.

it a r e that the bu r sti n g of on e tub e m a y disable the whole that the clea ni n g
, ,

o f on e fir e caus es the e fficien cy to si n k ve r y low on accou n t of the whole

bei n g e ff ected by the i n rush of col d a ir , a n d that u n less special m ean s b e
p r ovid ed to p r o m ote p r oper ci r culatio n ther e is a st r o n g ten den cy to pri me .

S o m e of these obj ection s a re got ove r by bui ld in g a thi n b r ick wall with
special b r icks acr oss the m iddle Mr How d en r eco m m e n ded this arr a n ge
. .
’

m e n t with his syste m of f o r ced d r aught such bei n g n ecessa r y whe n eve r ,

ther e is a cha m ber co m m o n to opposite f urn aces .

The n ex t si m plest f or m is on e in whi ch opposite f urn aces have a c om

bu s t ion cha m be r i n co mm o n ( fig 2 09) — that is it d i ff e r s fr o m the fir st by
.
,

havi n g the co m bustio n cham be r d ivided lo n gitu d i n ally by wate r spaces .

This avoids the chi ef obj ectio n s r aised agai n st the fir st f o rm while r etai n i n g
its chie f advan tages which a r e si m plicity of co n str uctio n by discar di n g the
, , ,

flat back of the co m bustio n cha m ber s w ith the n ecessar y stays etc a n d the , , .
,

g reatest heati n g su r f ace withi n the s m allest li m its of len gth I t i s o ft en .

u r g ed a gain s t t hi s f o r m of boile r that the tubes a r e ve r y liable to leakage at

thei r ba ck e n ds a r isi n g f r o m the r ush of cold a ir agai n st the tub e plates

,

w he n t h e doo r of the f u r n ace opposite it i s Op e n causi n g it to buckle It

‘

, .

so m eti m es happen s that the tubes i n t hi s ki n d of boiler do S how a ten d e n cy

to leak but it is the n gen er ally due to the wa n t of e x pa n sio n on the par t
'

of the fi r st r ow of stays abov e the co m bustio n cha m be r when they a r e place d

too close t o the tubes I f th ese stays a r e at least 1 2 i n ches above the tubes
.
,

so as n ot to hold t h e fr o n t tube plates too r igidly t h e n whe n stea m is bei n g ,

got up the ex pa n sio n of t h e tubes si m ply causes the pla t es to sp r i n g ve r y

slightly i n stea d of to sta r t thei r e n d s a n d caus e them to leak The leakage .

fr o m sp r i n gi n g of the tube plate fr o m e x posu r e to cold a ir c a n o n ly take

place w h e n the co m bustio n cha m ber is u n d uly sho rt a n d whe n the r e is a n ,

i n su fficie n t n u m be r of stays to the tub e plates .

T hi s pa rticular f o rm of boi ler is ver y ge n er ally used f or lar ge powe r a n d

high S pee d the evapo r ative r esults obtai n ed f r o m it a r e m o st satis facto r y .

Ca r e howeve r is r equi r ed i n r aisi n g stea m a n d the O pe n i n g of fire doo r s

, , ,
-

to c h ec e v a por a t ion is a r ep r ehen sible p r actice at all ti m es for the m as ,

it is i n dee d f or all boile r s A b r ick se m i par titio n i n the m i d dle of the c om

.
-

bu s t ion cha m be r will p r eve n t the col d ai r r ushin g on to t h e opposite tub e

'

plate a n d it acts also as a n equalise r of te m per atu r e in the co m bustio n

,

cha m be r at all ti m es I f howeve r the co mbustio n cha mbe r is too s m all

.
, , ,

this will o n ly m ag n i fy the de f ect by cau si n g i n te n se local heat a n d thus ,

te n d to c r ack t h e plates .
 D R Y COM B U S T I ON C H A M B ER BO IL ER . 5 69

An othe r co mmo n f or m of double e n d ed boile r has the fu rn aces at -

on e e n d
with on e cha m be r co mm o n to t h e m a n d those at the other e n d with a n other ,

cha mber in co mm o n The boile r is the n lo n ge r than eithe r of the othe r

.

fo r m s a n d m o r e e x pe n sive ; the co m bustio n cha m be r s have la r ge fl at backs

, ,

r equi r i n g a ve r y la r ge n u m be r of stays w h ich p r eve n t thei r bei n g p r ope r l ,

y
clea n ed f r o m scale .

The last f o rm which is by f a r the m ost e x pe n sive a n d heaviest but n ow

, ,

o fte n adopted is on e in which each f u rn ace has a n i n depe n de n t co m bustio n

,

c ha mb e r Ther e I s little n eed of descr iptio n as it is to all i n te n ts a n d pu r

.
,

poses t w o si n gle en ded boiler s ex cept that the wate r a n d stea m a r e co m m o n

-

*
to the two par ts .

Ova l B oil ers a re i n cluded u n de r the ge n e r ic te r m of cyli n d rical as they ,

pa r tak e of the p ri n cipal f eatu r es of that class The t r an sver se sectio n is .

,

however n ot a n ellipse but 1 8 r eally f o rm ed by two se mi ci r cles w ith a r ect

, ,

a n gle i n ter ve n i n g The flat sides thus le ft b etwee n the se m i cyli n der s r equi r e
.
-

stayi n g the fir st r ows bei n g at the Co m m en cem e n t of the fl at Ther e a r e

,
.

both si n gle a n d double en ded oval b oiler s w hi ch f or p r essu r es u n der 1 2 0 lbs

-
, .

m a y b e m ade both S i m ply a n d eco n o m ically t o ver y la r ge si z es as the thick ,

n ess of shell plate depe n ds on the dia m ete r of the cyli n d r ical pa r t Tw o .

ver y lar ge f urn aces m a y b e thus fitted in to a cyli n d rical par t of co m par atively
s m a ll dia m eter su fli cien t heati n g su r f ace b ei n g obtai n ed by givi n g the r equisite
height This f o r mi s m ost co n ven ien t when the boiler s have to be stowed
,

f o r e a n d a ft a n d the dia m ete r I S li m ite d by the b r eadth of the ship betwee n

,

t h e st ri n ger s ; also whe n f o r ced d r aught is e m ployed they per m it of the la r ge

a m ou n t of heati n g su rfac e i n p r opo r tio n to the gr ate a r ea which is n ecessa r y
for eco n om ic r esults .

H ol t s B oil er — An i n gen ious f o rm of double en ded boile r used f or m e i ly

’
. ,

by the late Al fr ed Holt co n sists of t w o oval en d pa rts u n ited by a cyli n d r ic a l

,

par t whose a x is passes t h r ough the uppe r f ocus of the oval ; in the botto m of
the e n d pa rts a r e the fu rn aces which a r e each co n n ected by a la r ge tube t o
,

a co m bustio n cha m ber in the m id d le of the cyli n d r ical part fr o m which the ,

tubes ex ten d to the fr o n t above the f urn aces a n d a r e co n sequen tly m uch ,

lo n ger tha n usually f ou n d in a m a r i n e boiler These boiler s a r e m ade of .

gr eat le n gt h a n d p r actice p r oved the m to b e ve r y goo d a n d efficien t stea m

,

gen er ato r s lasti n g ver y m uch lon ge r tha n t h e o r d i n ar y d ouble en d ed boile r

,
-

bei n g m o r e elastic a n d the m iddle portio n r aised f a r above the i n flue n ce o f

bilge water
-
.

D ry Combu s tion Ch amber B oil er — The boile r i n t h is case i s a si m ple .

cyli n d r ical or ov a l s h ell havi n g the furn aces e x ten d i n g f r o m en d to e n d

, ,

a n d the tub es ove r the m likewise f r o m e n d to en d The co m bustio n cha m be r .

is e x tern al a n d d oes n ot f o r m a n i n tegr al pa r t of the boile r ; but is built

,

of b r ickwo r k so as to e n close On e e n d a n d f o r m a co n n ectio n betwee n the ,

f u r n aces a n d tubes I f two such boile r s a re pla c ed back to back a n d so m e

.
_

d ista n ce apa r t a n d the space betwee n the m en closed by b rickwo r k a double

, .

e n ded arr an ge m en t is f o rm ed si milar t o the fir st desc r ibe d e x cept that t h e ,

wate r a n d stea m a r e n ot in co m mo n t o the two pa r ts e x cept by m ea n s of ,

special con n ectio n s S uch a boiler is ve r y cheap t o m a n u factu r e as the

.
,

wet co m bustio n cha m ber with its flat sid es a n d stays i s avoided the a d ,

va n tage of t wo boile rs without thei r cost is obtai n ed a n d the evapo r ativ e ,

T h e n a v a l p r a c t ic e i s t o h a ve a s e pa ra t e c h a m be r t o e a ch f u rn a c e i n a ll boile rs ,
 V ER T C I AL C Y LI N D R I CA L BO IL ER .
~
5 71

e fficie n cy is ve ry high The i n te n se heat fr o m the b rickwo rk howeve r, is

.
,

liable to c r ack the tube plates un less ca r e is take n ; but if a mple space i s .

p r ovi d e d in the co m bustio n cha m ber the r e is n ot so much da n ge r of this or , ,

of d a m agi n g the tub e e n d s .

S uc h boile r s a r e n ow however n ot so much in use ; although a m o n g, , ,

othe r thi n gs they acco m plish a satis factor y con su mptio n of s m oke a n d
, ,

a ver y e v en r a t e of evapor ation Thei r r eputatio n howeve r has bee n on

'

.
, .

so m e occasio n s so m ewhat da m aged by a too i n te m pe r ate a d vocacy a n d by ,

i mp r ope r co n structio n a n d design of the co m bustio n cha mb er whe n atte m ptin g

too m uch w ith them .

For p r essu r es above 1 00 pou n ds i n ships liable t o r ough usage such ,

boiler s m a y b e ado pt ed with adva n tage on accoun t of the abse n ce of t h e

i n te rn al co m bustio n cha m ber .

Gu n boa t B oil ers ( fig — This typ e of boiler first a d opte d by the

.
,

Ad m i r alty f or gun boats a n d a fter war ds chosen f or co r vettes is so m ethi n g

, ,

between the loco m otiv e a n d cyli n drical boiler The shell is c yli n d r ical a n d
“

.
,

co n tai n s the f urn aces at on e en d a n d the tub es at t h e othe r the co m bustio n ,

cha m ber b ei n g i n the mi ddle b etween the m ; the t op of the fu rn aces is

ther ef or e level with t he top of the tube s a n d n o par t of the heati n g sur face
, ,

is f ar r e moved fr o m the water l evel The fla m e a n d hot gases fl ow fr o m .

the f u rn aces i n to the co mbustio n cham ber a re t her e so m eti mes sli ghtly ,

dive rted a n d sp r ead by m ea n s of a hanging b r idge a n d flow o n wa rd with ,

o n ly this slight i n terr uptio n i n to a n d thr ough the t ubes t o the s moke box -
.

I t is n ot su r p r isi n g t h e n t h a t this boile r bu rn s its coal f r eely a n d evapo rates

, ,_ ,

ver y qui ckly a n d e fficien tly Two such .

boiler s havi n g a total gr ate ar ea Of 6 8

,

squar e f eet a n d a total heatin g sur face

,

of o nly squar e f eet supplied ,

stea m to t r iple co m pou n d e n gi n es d e -

v elo in ove I H P The coal

p g r . . .

co n su m ed was about 36 pou n ds per squa r e

f oot Of gr ate per hour ; the weight of wate r
evapo r ated by on e pou n d of coal at a ,

so m ewhat r educe d S peed was about 9g ,

pou n ds .

T he chie f Obj ectio n to this class of boiler ,

which p r even ts it s m o r e ge n er al ado ptio n in

the m er can tile m a r i n e is the gr eat len gth
‘

r equi r ed ; a space is n ecessar y at the back

e n d t o get at the tubes a n d to ad mi t of ,

the s m oke box etc -

a n d the total heati n g
,
.

su rface is also ver y s m all for the space oce n

pied by it I t is however ver y co n veni e n t
.
, ,

f or shall ow s hi ps whe n it is n ecessa r y to ,

have clear decks a n d has co n seque n tly bee n

,

used for modern ex p r ess r iver stea m er s as ,

Fig 2 1 3 — Coc h ra n s B oiler
’

well as gu n boats
. . .

V ertica l Cy l in drica l B oil er This ki n d of .

boiler with m a n y va r iatio n s of i n tern al a rr a n ge m e n t is used f or au x i l i a r y

, ,

pu r poses a n d then ge n er ally called the don key boile r On a la r ge scale it

,
.
5 72 MAN UAL OF M AR I N E EN GI N EER I N G .

was m uch used by S cotch en gi n ee rs f or r iver stea m e r s wher e r apid evapo r a ,

tio n is of m o r e i mpo rtan ce tha n econ o m y of fuel I t 1 3 light a n d I n e x pe n s iv e .

i n p r opo r tio n to the g r ate a n d heati n g sur face a n d occup i es a s m all a m ou n t ,

o f floo r space capacity bei n g obtai n ed by the height

, Fig 2 1 2 I s a m o d e rn . .

e x a m ple of such a b oiler as has been m ade f or la r ge powe r Fig 2 1 3 is a . .

d esign of ve r tical cyli n d r ical boile r as i n ve n ted by Mr Cochr a n n ow Of An n a n .

, ,

N B a n d m ade by h im I n la rge n u m ber s f or the au x ilia r y se r vice of la r ge

. .
,

s h ips a n d the m ai n bo ile r of s m all o n es it is a ver y co n ve n ie n t f o rm f or , .

these pu r poses .

L ocomotive B oil er — This boile r has a fire b ox of r ecta n gula r sectio n

.
-

both ho ri z o n tally a n d ver tically e n close d in a shell of so m ewhat si mi la r ,

s hape e x cept that the top i s O ften se mi cyli n d rica l

,
The tubes a re co n tai n ed -
.

i n a cyli n d rical barr el e x te n di n g ho r i z o n tal ly f r o m the fire b ox shell a n d

,
-
,

a t the e n d of this is the s m oke b ox As the n a m e i m plies it is si mila r t o

-
.
,

the boiler of the o rdi n ar y loco m otive .

This f o r m Of boiler 1 s o n ly e m ployed I n the stea m lau n ches of the m e r

c a n t ile m a r i n e but was used I n the N avy ve r y e x ten sively f or to r pedo boa t s
,

a s well as lau n ches a n d was eve n adopted on a la r ge scale I n to r pedo gu n

,

boats as well as in so m e Of the early d estroyer s I t is a ver y co n ve n ie n t

,
.

f o r m f or the n aval ser vice as i t is with the e x ceptio n of water tube boile r s
, , ,

t h e lightest ki n d of boile r f or the heati n g su r f ace co n tai n ed ; a n d as it is

i n va riably use d n ow with a n a r ti ficial d r aught the s m all n ess of the grate ,

a r ea is n o det r i m e n t to it I t I s also especially well adapted f or hi gh p ressu r es

.
,

as t h e flat sur f ace c a n be stayed w ithout a ff ecti n g the accessibility a n d

.
.

t h e cyli n d r ical ba rr el is of such s m all dia m ete r as to b e m a d e of ve r y light ,

p lates f or eve n v e r y h igh p r essu r es M uch di fficulty is howeve r f ou n d in .

, ,

k eepi n g t h e tub e e n ds tight especially whe n the d r aught is f o r ce d m uch ;

,

a n d whe n p r esse d to thei r ut m ost ca pability with e n g i n es havi n g la 1 ge

cyli n de r s t h e v a r e ve r y liable to p r i m e e x cessively

,
The o n ly pa r t which .

p r esen ts a n y di fficulty of co n str ucti o n is the fu rn ace c r ow n w hic h bei n g , ,

fl at r equ i r es a n e x ten sive a m ou n t Of stays etc a n d as the evapor atio n

, , ,

is ve r y r api d f r om it t h e r e 1 8 gr eat liability of a heavy scale bei n g f o rmed

,

i f a n y sea or hard water is u sed which p r even ts the heat f ro m passi n g

to the water a n d causes it to destr oy the plates
, .

I t has the disadva n tages of the gu n boat boiler a n d on that accou n t is ,

n ot likely to be use d I n the m e r cha n t se r v ice ex cept i n ver y light d r aught ,

r ive r stea m e r s i n t h e colo n ies a n d f o reig n cou n t r ies whe r e i t has f or m a n y ,

yea r s do n e good se r vice .

W e t B ott o m
- L ocom o t ive B o i l ers —
The success of the loco m otive boile r .

for n aval s m all c r a ft caused the autho rities to adopt the m f or a bigge r class
of shi p as well as f or a la r ge n u m be r of tor pe d o gu n boats
, A m o d i ficatio n .

of the d esig n however was m ade which co n ve r ted it i n to a wet botto m

, , ,
-

boile r the a ir bei n g a d mitted ben eath the bar s thr ough a n ape r tu r e i n the
,

fr o n t as i n the f u rn aces of the o rdi n a r y boile r

,
The chan ge however was .
, ,

a m ost u n fo r tu n ate on e as with the e x ceptio n of the d esig n as fitted by

,

L ai r d B r other s i n H M S this f o r m of loco m otive boileI ’

R attles n ake
. . .
,

p r oved t r oubleso m e a n d i n efficie n t The ci r culatio n is bad so that the tube .

,

e n d s at the fir e box a r e so se riously a ff ected as to cause co n side r able leaks

-

a n d ge n e r al t r ouble The tubes a re m uch n ea r er t o the fir e tha n in t h e

.

o r di n a r y loco m otive boile r a n d co n se que n tly beco m e m o r e r ea d i ly choke d ;

, , ,
 DO U B LE -
EN D ED L OCO MOT l V E B O IL E R S .
5 73

f act a fte r so m e h ou r s
'

in ,

stea m i n g owi n g to the soot y

,

deposit in the f o rm of a bi rd
n est at the e n d of each tube ,

the d r aught i s so se riously

i mpede d as to r e n de r t h e
bo ile r p r actically useless .

Th e wet botto m boi le r -

,

howev e r had certai n a d v a n

,

tages ove r the dry bo t to m -

a n d whe n ca r e fully desig n ed

, ,

m a y be f ai r ly satis f acto ry .

Fig 2 1 4 shows the boiler a s

.

R attles n ake ”
“
fitted in the .

when ce it will be seen th a t

the flat tu bes co n n ecti n g t h e
top to the botto m of the fir( ~
box p r ovid e a sple n d id m ea n s
for ci r culatio n a n d f o rm a ,

good suppo r t to the r oo f The .

fir e ba r s m ust be lowe r ed a t
-
,

the back e n ds at least s o as t o ,

be in t h e sa m e r elative po si .

tion a s in the dr y botto m

‘
'
-

b oiler The fire box itsel f ma y

.
-

be divi d ed i n to two in d epen 4

den t parts by a lo n gitudi n a l
water space , i n stead of t he
-

r ow of ve r tical tubes co n n ect

in g the top a n d botto m as i n ,

fig 2 1 4
. B y eithe r m etho d a n
.

i n c r ease of h eati n g sur face is

m ade in the fir e box a n d a -
,

bette r m ea n s of ci r culation
p r ovide d as also a good ,

supply of wate r to t h e t op o f
the fire b ox e n su r ed
-
.

D ou bl e en ded Locomotive
B oil ers — This f o rm of boile r
.

co n sists of a fire box with a -

tub e barr el at each e n d whi ch

-

is t o the o r di n a r y loco m otive

boiler what the double en ded -

c v lin d ri c a l boil er is to the

s 1 n le e n ded
g
-
The firin g holes.
-

a r e on either side a n d i n the ,

case of a big boile r they will

b e two in n u mb er s o that ,
-

thr ough the f ou r the gr ate c an

be well wor ked Mo r eover . .
 I
D FFER EN T T YPE S OF M AR I N E BO I L ER S . 5 75

- 1 c
2 {
- .

L d
. .

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.

m
.

s E £
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6
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.
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.

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.

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fi fi
5 76 MAN UAL or M R N E E N A I GI N E ER I N G .

6 t o 8 pou n ds o n ly c a n b e Ob t ai n e d wi th t h e coal supplied at so m e f o r ei gn

po r ts The qua n tity of coal bu r n t on a squar e f oot Of g r ate per hou r with
.

n atu r al d r aught is a b out 2 0 p ou n ds u n de r f avo u r able ci r cu ms ta n ces ; with

,

goo d stoki n g on sho r t special ba r s a n d ve r y good d r aught as m uch as 2 5 pou n ds

-

m a y b e co n su m ed but u n d e r o r di n a ry ci r cu m stan ces a n d n atur al d r aught ,

o n ly 1 5 pou n d s should b e supplied to Obtai n co mplete co m bustio n a n d

eco n o mical r esults With H ow d en s syste m Of f o r ced d r aught a n d wa rm
.
’

a ir 5 0 pou n ds p e r squa r e f oot c a n b e bu rn t i f the coal is f air ly good a n d ,

clea n ; with closed stokeholes a n d a n a ir p ressu r e Of i n ch of wate r 30

,
1
7; ,

pou n ds Of good Welsh a n d 35 of N o rth cou n t ry coal c a n b e bu rn t .

Fr o m thi s i t will b e see n ( 1 ) that the gr eatest weight Of stea m evapo r ated
,

er squa r e f oot O f g r ate p er hou r u n de r the m ost f avou r able ci r cu m sta n ces
p ,

a n d n atu r al d r aught is 1 0 x 25 or 2 5 0 pou n ds ;

, , ( 2 ) that wit h b a d f uel a n d
eco n o m ical stoki n g it m a y b e o n ly 6 x 1 5 or 90 pou n ds ; ( 3 ) that wi th ,

f ai r ly good f uel a n d f avou r able ci r cu m sta n ces it m a y b e 9 X 1 8 0 pou n ds ,

a n d ( 4 ) that w ith f ai r ly good coal a n d ca r e f ul stoki n g about 1 5 0 pou n ds m a y

b e e x pected I n p r actice ther ef o r e f or sho r t t r ial t r ips with picked We lsh

.
, ,

coal a n d picked stoke r s calculatio n s m a y b e b ased on a n evapo r atio n of

,

2 5 0 pou n ds ; for m ail stea m ships usi n g good En glish c O al calcu l atio n s ,

should b e based on a n evapo r ati o n Of 1 5 0 pou n ds f or n atur al d r aught a n d ,

for f o r ced d r augh t fr o m 2 70 to 4 00 depe n d i n g on the a ir p r essu r e ; a n d if

,

a ship is goi n g to t rade in the E ast or localities wher e i n f e r io r coal o n ly c a n

b e Obtai n ed the boiler s should b e design ed on the assu m ptio n Of a n evapo ra
,

tion O f o n ly 1 0 0 pou n ds of water per squar e f oot of gr ate n atu r al a n d 2 00 t o ,

2 80 f o r ced d r augh t .

I f the weight Of stea m r equi r ed per hou r f or a give n e n gi n e b e calcu l ate d

a n d divide d by on e of these n u m be r s the r es u l t w ill b e the n u m be r of squa r e
,

f eet r equi r ed .

I f t h e d r aught b e i n c r eased by a r ti ficial m ea n s to a still hi ghe r i n te n sity ,

as is the case with to r pedo boat s etc the qua n tity of f uel co n su m ed per
'

.
, ,

squa r e f oot of g r ate m a y b e as hi gh as 1 00 pou n ds pe r hou r with a n a ir

'

p r essu r e of 6 i n ches in the stokehole ; a n d 5 0 pou n d s with o n ly 2 i n ches ,

the co rr espo n di n g evapo r atio n s bei n g 5 70 pou n ds a n d 35 0 p ou n ds per square

f oot of gr ate .

Consu mption of Fu el — The co n su m ption of f uel p er I H P per hou r f or

. . . .

en gin es wo r ki n g at full power was 4 pou n ds with sur f ace co n den si n g e x pan sive
,
-

e n gi n es usi n g stea m of 30 pou n ds p r essu r e above the at m osphe r e ; 3 1 t o

,

3 } pou n ds with si m ila r e n gi n es of b est m ake a n d la r ge s i z e ; 2 2 p ou n d s

wit h co m pou n d e n gi n es whe n f o r ced a n d 2 % to 2 5 poun d s whe n of m oder ate
,
i
si z e a n d wo r ki n g at two th r d powe r ;
-
pou n d s with co mpou n d e n gi n es of
m ode r ate si z e a n d as ge n er ally fitte d i n t h e m e r ca n tile m ar i n e whe n wo r ki n g
at f ull spee d ; 2 pou n d s with the best co m pou n d e n gi n es well design e d
a n d ca r e fully wo r ked at sea f ull speed ; 1 2 pou n ds with la r ge co m pou n d
e n gi n es whe n wo rki n g at sea f ull spee d with best fr esh Welsh coal ;
1 ; pou n d s with good t r iple e x pa n sio n e n gi n es usi n g En glish a n d Welsh coal
-

of r eally good quality a n d 1 g pou n ds whe n o r di n a r y goo d stea m coal is used

,

I} to pou n d s wit h t r iple a n d quad r uple e x pa n sio n e n gi n es usi n g stea m

: l
-

é -

at 2 00 to 1 80 pou n ds p r essu r e ; the co n su mptio n of water with these latte r

e n gi n es bei n g about 1 4 to 1 5 pou n d s ; the co n su mptio n in to rpe d o boat s
with co mpou n d e n gi n es was 3 9 2 to 4 pou n ds whe n wo r ki n g n ea r ly f ull spee d ,
 H E ATI N G S U R FACE . 5 77

and 2 —5pou n d s with t riples in D est roye r s I n H M N avy usi n g Welsh . . .

a n d a n a ir p r essu r e of i n c h of wate r the co n su m ptio n is 1 75 pou n ds i n clu di n g '

au x iliar ies with H ow d en s syste m in the m e r ca n tile m ar in e 1 3 to 1 4 pou n d s

’
-

of good Wels h coal with la r ge e n gi n es a n d 1 3 5 to 1 5 with s m alle r is ge n e r al

- -
.

With super heater s for t he stea m in ad ditio n to the hot a ir of the Howde n
a n d Ellis E aves syste m s the co n su m ptio n is still lowe r a n d ge n e r ally d oes
-
,

n ot e x cee d 1 3 pou n d sp e r I H P p e r hou or m ai e gi es o n ly

r f n .n n . .
*
.

Assum in g the co n su m ptio n of coal to be 1 % pou n d s per I H P per hour . . .

,

a n d the g r at e to bu r n 1 5 pou n d s p er s qua r e f oot the r e s h oul d be 0 1 s qua r e

”

f oot of g r ate per I H P I f the sea full spee d I H P of a m e r cha n t ship be

“

. . . . . .

lt iplie d by 0 1 it wi ll give su fficie n t g r ate a r ea f or t h at powe r .

T h at is the gr ate a r ea r equi r e d for t h at powe r

,
10 .

On t r ial t r ips with good coal n atur al dr augh t a n d t h e e n gi n es wo r ki n g

, ,

at f u ll speed t h e t r iple co m pou n d e n gi n e will develop

,
-

per squa r e
foot of g r ate he n ce on e f ou r te e n th of a squa r e f oot pe r I H P m a y be take n
,
-
. . .

as the p r ope r allowa n ce in design i n g fur n aces f or e n gi n es to d evelop a ce rtai n

power on f avour able occasio n a n d on e thir tiet h wit h How d e n fitti n gs
,
-

As t h e sea full speed powe r is usually on lo n g voyages about thr ee , ,

f ou r ths that developed on a tr ial t rip the p r opor tio n of g X l or 0 095 of

, , ,

a squar e foot per I H P d eveloped at sea corr espo n ds with that give n above
. . .
, .

B u t with the hi h e r f u nn els of the la r ger st eam shi ps even bette r r esult s
a r e o bt a m e d a n i t I s fou n d n ow t h at eve n 0 0 8 squa r e f oot pe r I H P as
, . . .

developed at sea is sufficie n t for the mai n en gi n es On ly ; for the au x ilia ries _

a n d do m estic pu rp oses a special additio n must be m ade i n p r opo rtio n to

their n ee ds .

H eatin g S u rface — S t r ictly s peaki n g all su rf aces e x posed t o heat which

.
~
,

a re capable O f abso r bi n g a n d thei r bo d ies of t r a n s mitti n g that heat to the

, ,
'

wate r or stea m a re heati n g su rf aces ; but techn ically o n ly ce r tai n parts a r e

r ecko n ed as efi ect i ve heati n g su r f ace a n d the agg r egate o f such su r f aces is
,

called the t ot a l hea tin g su rfa ce The surf ace of the upp er hal f Of the f urn ace
.
,

or the pa r t ab ove the level of the fir e ba r s that Of t h e co m bustio n cha m be r -

,

ab ove the level Of the b r idges a n d b ack slab s i n clu di n g the actual sur face ,

of the back tub e plates

-
a re r ecko n ed as the e ff ective heati n g su rf ace Of
,

f u rn aces a n d cha m be r s a n d a r e stated separ ately chiefly on accou n t Of the

, ,

m etal f or mi n g the m bei n g th r ee to f ou r ti m es the thick n ess Of the tubes .

The sur face of the tubes m easur ed ex tern ally— that is the a r ea Obtai n e d by ,

multipl y i n g the e x ter nal ci r cu mf er e n ce by the le n gth bet ween t h e tub e plates ,

is called the t u be su rfa ce .

The Ad mi r alty r ecko n tub e surface by taki n g t h e ar ea obtai n ed by m ulti

plyi n g the ex tern al c ir cu mf er en ce by the len gth over the tub e plates ; a n d
in r ecko n i n g t h e total heat i n g sur f ace the su rf ace of the back tube plates ,

is o mitted The calculatio n is i n this way si m pli fied a n d the t ota l hea tin g
.
,

s u rfa ce is p r actically the sa m e as if calculated st rictly fo r the sur f ace Of the ,

parts of the tubes cove r ed by the plates is ver y n ea r ly the sa m e as that of

the back tub e plates .

The fr on t tube plates shoul d b e a n d usually a re o mitted i n c a lculati n g , ,

the total heati n g sur f ace as they ca n n ot b e co n sider ed as e ff ective

,
.

The a mou n t of total heati n g su r f ace m ust depen d o n the qua n tity a n d
uality f the f uel bu rn t on the r ates i n a fix ed ti m e— that is On the
q o g ,

qua n tity of heat gen er ated in a un it Of tim e a n d also on the quality of the ,

E x p erim en t s on s h ip s of la r ge s i z e fit t e d wit h R ob in son su p e rh ea t ers s h ow ed t h e con s u mp t ion of

4 , a n d wit h B owd en s fit t in gs Q d l 1 5 lb s per h ou r
’

good coa l wi t h t r ip le s t o b e 1 - u a ru p e s 1 -
. .

37
 T OTAL H EA TI N G S U R FA CE . 5 79

If thes e figu res be take n in co n j u n ctio n w ith the a m ou n t s evapo r ated

a s above as a basis f r o m w h ich it m a y be d e d uc e d that t h e o r d i n a r y cyli n d r ical

i —u —i v —— 4 ! 1 u —M N C
N N

N —i
v N —i —i
v v v —i N N N
5 80 MA N UAL OF M AR I N E EN GI N EER I N G .

boile r se rvice should supply 8 lbs on short se r vice with fo rced dr aught
'

on . ,

a n d 7 lbs on lo n g se r vice wit h good d r au gh t as with H ow d e n s appa r atus

’

. ,

or without but with high chi m n eys a n d 6 lbs f or o r d i n a ry ca r go ships ,

Th e . .

e x pr ess stea m er with water tube boile r s a n d f o rced d r aught should have
-

1 0 lbs on sho r t se r vice a n d 9 lbs on lo n g

.
The S cout a n d D est r oye r wi ll hav e
. .

1 2 lbs a n d t h e Cruise r a n d B attleshi p 9 lbs

.
,
The m er cha n t shi p on lo n g .

ser vice usually p roceeds with the e n gi n es at thr ee qua rte r power ; he n c e -

the evapo r atio n the n will be 75 per ce n t Of these allowa n ces a n d the e ffici e n cy .

shoul d be 0 80 The e x p r ess c ross ch an n el stea m e r will usually wo r k w it h

-
.
-

85 per ce n t of the powe r so that the d e m a n d per squa r e f oot will the n be
. ,

8 5 lbs N aval s h ips p r oceed at ver y va r yi n g spee d s

.
.

Th e a mou n t of t ota l h ea ting s u rfa ce wh ich a cy l in drica l boil er ma y h a ve

i s give n app r o x i m ately by the f ollowi n g r ule

( )
1 Total heati g su f ace ( d i m t f shell i f eet )
2
‘

n r a e er o n

x ( len gth of tub es in f eet

Ex a mple — Wh at a m ou n t of heati n g su r f ace should b e f ou n d i n a b oile r
"
1 2 f eet d ia m ete r the tubes bei n g 7 f eet lo n g 4
,

Total heati n g su r face 2

1 2 x (7 or squar e f eet .

Ex a mple — What heati n g su r face S houl d a double e n de d boile r co n tai n -

who s e d ia m eter is 1 0 f eet a n d the le n gth of tub es 5 5 f eet the co m bustio n

, ,

cham be r s bei n g co mm o n to Opposite f u rn aces

Her e total h ea ti n g su rf ace 2
1 0 X 2 X (5 5 or squa r e f eet .

I f the co mbustio n c h a m be r s a re t h e sa m e as i n a si n gle —e n de d boi le r .

the qua n tity will b e the sa m e as i n t wo si n gle en d ed boiler s of the sa me -

dia m eter a n d len gth of tubes .

Effi cien cy of H ea tin g S u rfa ce — The r ate of t r a n s missio n of heat fr o m t h e

.

f uel a n d hot gases i n a boile r to the wate r on t h e othe r si d e of t h e m etal

sepa r ati n g the m depen ds on t h e d ifferen c es Of te mpe r atu r e the thick n ess of
the plate a n d its m ate r ial but chie fl y on the state of the r ecei v i n g a n d
,

t ra n s mitti n g s u r faces S o m e f e w yea r s ago elabo r ate a n d ca r e f ul ex per i

.

m e n ts we r e m a d e by S ir Joh n D u r sto n a n d the late Mr B lec h y n d e n i n d e .

~

pe n den tly which de m o n str at ed that whe n the plate is clean on both si d es
, , ,

ther e is n ot a gr eat di ffer e n ce between the te m pe r atu r e on t h e sides of the plat e

° °
itsel f the d ry side bei n g in p r actice o n ly 6 7 to 8 6 F hotter I f howeve r
, , , . .
, ,

the tr a n s mitti n g si d e i s di rty with scale etc it m a y be ve r y m uch g r eate r , .

,

a n d with g r eas y mu d it was ove r

, ,
That a slight laye r of soot OI
tarry m atte r p r even ted the d ry S ide fr o m gettin g ver y hot was d e m o n st r ated ,

as also that u n t il t he pla te is r aised t o a cer tai n te m pe r atu r e the actual or

, ,

bu rn i n g gas fla m e does n ot co m e i n to real co n tact Fur the r that t h e .

,

t hi ck n es s of plate whe n clea n is n ot of m uch co n seque n ce a n d is less s o ,

whe n di rty ; it is howeve r of so m e i mpo rtan ce as bei n g a r eg u lato r of the

, ,

t ra n s m issio n of heat N eglecti n g thi ck n ess altogethe r it was f ou n d t h at

.
,

the e fficie n cy va r ies as the s qua r e of the di ff e r e n ces of te mpe ratur e a n d t h e ,

f ollowi n g f o r mula m a y be take n as co rr ect

?
( T ii
a

Q bei n g the u n its heat p er hou r per squar e foot of heati n g su rface
of .

T the t em peratu r e of the hot gas .

t wate r .

a is a f acto r w h ich R a n ki n e valued at 1 6 0 to 200 ; B lec h n d e n at 4 0 f or

y
tubes when clea n ed a n d 5 0 for plates 5 i n ch thick when clea n
, .
 A A CI T Y
C P OF B O IL E R S H E LL . 58]

The r e is r easo n to th i n k t h at B lec h y n d e n is n ea re r the t ruth tha n R a n ki n e

f or m ode r n boi le r s wo r ke d on m o d e rn co n di tio n s .

T h e r e is ever y r eason to suppose that the e fficie n cy is se r iously a ff ected

by such i n equalities of su rface as per mit of d istu rbi n g the flow Of hot gases
o ve r it a n d the r eby b r in gi n g r eally m o r e h eat in co n tact .

Effi cien cy of B oil ers —Ge n er ally it m a y b e take n t h at t h e e fficie n cy of a ,

b oile r is b est gauged by taki n g the wate r evapo r ate d by a pou n d of coal
fr o m a n d at 2 1 2 F a n d di vi d e it by the a m ou n t suc h f uel coul d evapo r ate
°
.

if all its heat we r e use d f or the pu r pose I n p r actice it is of cou r se i m possible .

, ,

to utilise the whole or even n early the whole heat of co m bustio n I t is

, , .
,

m o r eove r n ot to b e e x pected O f cer tai n boiler s t h at the e fficien cy so m easu r e d

,

c a n b e v e r y high but it is n ecessa r y to co m pa r e the m with othe r s O f t h ei r ki n d

,
_

as well as with boile r s ge n er ally .

A boiler f or e x p r ess ser vice such as t h at Of a to r p edo boat or a s h o rt ,

d ista n ce passe n ge r shi p m ust b e light a n d the measur e of its e fficie n cy f or

, ,

thi s purpose will be gauged b etter by k n owi n g how m a n y pou n d s of stea m

it c a n p r oduce p e r squa r e f oot of heati n g surf ace per h ou r N ow weight is .
,

a lways a f acto r o f so m e value on s hi pboa r d I f the r ef o r e the a m ou n t b e .

, ,

m ultiplied by the n u m be r Of p ou n d s of wate r it evapo rates ( fr o m a n d at

2 1 2 in each case ) or the n u m be r of pou n ds Of stea m it p r o d uces p e r pou n d
°
,

o f sta n da r d f uel the r esult m ust e x p r ess the ge n e r al value of the boile r f or
,

stea m ship pu r poses The weight of steam suppli ed p er hou r f or each t on

.

weigh t of boile r a n d appur te n a n ces i n cludi n g water is r eally a p r actical , _ ,

c r ite r io n Of the e fficie n cy of a boile r f or m a r i n e pur oses

p .

Area t hr ou gh T u bes — The sectio n al a r ea thr ough the tubes or that a r ea

.
,

t h r ough which the hot gases a n d s m oke pass f r o m t h e co m bustio n cha m be r

t o t h e f u n n el shoul d n ot b e less tha n on e seve n th the a r ea Of gr ate with
,
-

the n atur al d r aught a n d is usually about on e fift h TOO lar ge a n ar ea pr o

,
.
-
.

d uces a low velocity w hi ch p er mi ts a d eposit of soot a n d ash to f or m with

, ,

t h e Co n seque n t r e d uctio n of evapo r ativ e e fficie n cy Too s m all a n a r ea .

c hecks the d r aught especiall y whe n the su rf aces have beco m e di r ty

, With .

f o r ced d r aught the a r ea th r ough tubes ca n b e s m alle r i f n ecessa r y ; a n d

w he n it is m o r e tha n on e seve n th the g r ate ( f or n atu r al d r au gh t ) it is a d
-

v a n t a ge ou s to h ave r eta r d e r s i n the tubes These spi r al st rips n ot o n ly .

p r eve n t a too r apid fl ow of gas but f o r ce t h e hot cu rr e n t over eve r y po r tio n

o f the tube s cir cu mf er e n ce
’
.

Capa cit y of B oiler Sh ell — To co n tai n the r equisite heati n g su r face a n d

. ,

t o l eave su fficie n t stea m Space the boile r shell shoul d co n tai n 3 cubic f eet ,

er I H P f or the m e r ca n tile m a r i n e a n d 2 5 cubic f eet f or the N avy a n d

p . . .
,

oth er se r v ice which has equally qui ck r u n n in g e n gi n es when m a d e f or c om -

ou n d sc r ew e n gin es a n d 2 a n d 1 6 r espectively f or t r iple e n gi n es ; whe n

p ,

f or pad d le e n gi n es it sho u l d b e la r ge r I n the m e r ca n tile m a r in e a slightly .

la r ger allowa n ce is so m eti m es m a d e especially when f or stea m er s m ak in g ,

lo n g voyages S in ce the volu me of stea m p r oduce d at a p r essu r e of 2 1 0 lbs

. .

i s o n ly about a t hi r d that at 70 lbs whe n the sa m e weight is use d the stea m .

,

s pace f or boile r s wo r ki n g at the high p r essu r es n ow Obtai n i n g m a y b e c on

s i d era bl less tha n was usual G oo d r esults c a n b e got n ow wit h a n allowa n ce

y .

o f 1 5 t o 2 cubic f eet of bo iler per I H P f or n atu r al d r aught a n d l i to 1 % f or

} . . .
,

f o r ce d d r aught I n f act the stea m space m ust bear a r elatio n to the high
.
,

p r essur e cyl in d e r capacity in eve r y case ; the in te r m itten t de m a n d of t h e

 A R EA OF F U NN E L S E CT ON . I

the N avy with n atur al d raught the fu n n el is usually made with a

In
section al ar ea equal to on e eighth t he a rea of t he gra te ( n atu r al d r aught si ze )
-

I n the m e r ca n tile m a r i n e a so m ewhat la r ger f u n n el usually obtai n s the a r ea ,

bei n g fr o m on e f ou rth to on e six th that of the gr ate ; in ge n e r al p r actice a

- -

f u n n el whose sectio n al a r ea is on e fift h to on e si x th that of the r ate a n d -

g
-

whose top is at least 4 0 f eet fr o m the level of the grate wi ll give a very good ,

r esult The obj ectio n s to a large f u n n el beyo n d that of space occupied

.
,

a n d cost a re r esista n ce to the wi n d a n d la r ge sur f ace e x pose d to the cooli n g

,

actio n of both Wi n d a n d water wher eby the hot colu m n withi n is pa rtially ,

cooled a n d the d raught the r eby checke d On the other ha n d a s mall fu n n el

, .
,

is liable t o beco m e ex cessively hot a n d whe n the fir es a r e fr es hl y cha rged to ,

beco m e choked with s m oke a n d at all ti m es it ten d s t o check the d raught

, .

T h e f u n n el of a wa r s hi p ma y be s m all because it is so seldo m that the boile r s ,

a r e u r ged to the ut m ost a n d it m ust be as s m a ll as possible f or obvious r easo n s

, .

Whe n t h e d r aught is f o r ced either by a blast or by other a rtificial m ean s the ,

fun n el m a y be sho rt a n d of co mpa r atively s m all di a m ete r The ar ea at .

the base of a loco m ot i ve is seldo m mo r e tha n on e ten th the a r ea of fire grate - -

.

a n d o fte n as s m all as on e twel ft h The si z e f or appear a n ce sake is n ow

-
.
, ,

got by m aki n g the outer casi n g of the r equi r ed fo r m .

Area of Fu n n el Section sh ould be such that ( 1 ) for n atur al d r aught

Me r cha n t ser vice co n ditio n ther e a r e squar e i n ches for each pou n d of
fu el con su m ed pe r hou r or say squa r e i n ches per I H P of t r ial t r ip
, , , . . . .

( 2 ) For N aval ser vice a n d shor t Ex p r ess se r vice co n ditio n s the r e shoul d
be squar e i n ches wi th assisted d r aught a n d 1 2 5 with f o rced d r aught ,

e r I H P of t r ial t r ip or 0 9 squa r e i n ch pou n d of coal bu rn ed e r hou r

p . . .
p e,
r p .

D ia m ete r fu n n el in i n ches
For o r di n a r y Me r cha n t stea m e r F I 2 38 '

n atur al d r aught .

N aval or Ex p r ess F I 2 16 '

assisted
F I
I
fo r ced

TAB LE LI I I a .
—
CA P A CI T Y or FU N N E L S FOR COAL B U R N T IN LB S P ER HO U R .

D i a met er ,
H e ig h t of Fu n n el a b ov e D e a d I la t es i n Fee t
‘
.
5 84 MA N UAL OF M AR I N E E N GI N E E R I N C.

D i a m et e r .

N u m b er of
Com b u s t ion Ch a m b e rs .

c o c o m fl o o o c o c w m O o c o o o e m e
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.

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.
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 L EA D I N G P A R T I CU LAR S OF B O IL E R S .

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.

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 WA T ER -
T UB E BO I LE R S . 5 87

so as to f or m a ce n t r al f u rn ace the fire ba rs of cou rse bei n g the lowe r p a rt

,
-

, ,

of the tub es Gur n ey s boile r was i n te n ded f or a wo r ki n g p r essu r e of 1 30 lbs

’
. .

e r squa r e i n ch ; but eve n i n those d ays it was a n ticipated th a t st ea m of

p
5 88 MA N UAL OF M AR I N E EN GI N E ER I N G .

m uch highe r p r essu r e m ight b e used a n d it was p robably o nl y the wa n t of ,

m ea n s of m a n u f actur e a n d the abse n ce of a s u i table desig n Of e n gi n es for

such p r essur es as well as the n ecessity f or Obtai n i n g che m ically pu r e wate r
, ,

t hat p r eve n ted the ge n e r al use of the tubulous boile r at a ve r y ea r ly date ,

.

Fr o m the b egi n n i n g of the n i n etee n th ce n tu r y e n gi n ee r s have both in ,

this cou n t r y a n d Am erica t r ied the wate r tub e type of boiler f or hi gh p r essu r e
,
- -

s tea m That m ade by Col S teve n s in 1 805 co n sisted of coppe r tubes 1 i n ch

. .

d ia m eter a n d about 4 f eet lo n g Fr o m his ti m e to the p r ese n t the n um be r

.

of i n ve n tio n s of a tubulous f o rm of b oile r is al m ost legio n as eve r y e n gi n ee r ,

a t so m e ti m e of his li f e has e x pe r ie n ced the n ecessity to satis f y on e or othe r

o f the co n ditio n s that go to m ake the tubulous boile r supe r io r to eve r y othe r

f o rm . These co n ditio n s m a y be laid dow n as

( 1 ) S i mplicity of f o r m of ele m e n t .

( 2 ) S i m plicity of c on s t r u c t ion d u e to s m all n ess a n d lightn ess of elem e n t

.
.

3
( ) G r eat st r e n gth of ele m e n t i n p r opo r tio n to the wo r ki n g p r essu re an d

co n sequen t lar ge m a r gin of sa f ety .

( 4 ) S m all qua n tity of water co n tai n ed especial ly i n p r opo rtio n to the

‘

wate r evapo r ated p er hou r .

( 5 ) G en e r al light n ess of str uctur e co mpar ed with the o r di n ar y m a r i n e

boile r .

( 6 ) I mm u n ity f r o m i n j ur y a n d eve n tual dest r uctio n by ( a ) r apidity of

,

r aisi n g stea m ( b) f o r ci n g whe n at wo r k a n d ( c ) sud d e n cooli n g by d r awi n g

, ,

o r putti n g out fir es .

Eve r y wate r tub e boiler wo rthy of n otice m ust fulfil the above r equi r e
-

m e n ts but to b e success f u l f or ever y day use it should also satis f y the

,
-
,

f ollowi n g co n ditio n s

( 1 ) The ele m e n ts of
the boile r m ust be so disposed a n d dist r ibuted as
to b e capable of taki n g up the heat gen er ated by the fir e wit hout allowi n g
to pass to the chi m n ey m o r e tha n is su fficie n t for d r aught pu r pos es .

( 2 ) The c i r culatio n of the water m ust b e positive co n ti n uous a n d u n i f o r m , ,

.

( 3 ) The i n tern al a n d e x te rn al pa r ts m ust b e capable of easy e x a m i n a

tio n a n d clea n i n g .

( 4 ) E ver y par t liable to deter io r atio n or de r a n ge m e n t m ust b e capable

of r e m oval w ith a m i n i m u m d istu r ba n ce of othe r pa r ts or b e put out O f ,

actio n wi thout loss of ge n er al e fficie n cy .

( 5 ) The steam in the r eceiver m ust b e p r oper ly separ ated so as to b e

f ai r ly d r y .

The ge n e r ic fo r m of a lar ge class of water tub e boiler s is p retty much -

that show n on Mr Gu r n ey s design ( fig 2 1 5 ) — n a m ely a n uppe r cha m b er

.
’
.
, ,

i n to whi ch the steam is deliver ed by a ser ies of tub es su rroun di n g the fir e ,

a n d a lowe r cha m be r or cha mb e r s co n n ected to this uppe r cha m b e r by the m

a n d by dow n cas t tubes the l atte r se r vi n g to keep up the ci r culatio n th r ou h

, g
t h e othe r tubes .

An othe r f avou rite type howeve r c on s mt s of ho r i z o n tal or n ea r ly ho ri

, , ,

z on t a l tubes above a n d a r ou n d the fir e co n n ecti n g two cha m be r s

, on the ,

t op of on e of which is the stea m d ru m fr o m which a co n n ectio n is m a d e ,

to the othe r to the botto m by p r e fer e n ce f or p r ope r ci rculatio n

, ,
.

The g reat attr actio n for this latte r type of boile r is the ease wit h which
 WA T E R -
T UB E BO I LE R S . 5 89

t he tubes m a y be e x a m i n e d clea n ed or r e m ove d a n d t h e fr ee d o m fr o m

, , ,

p ri mi n g when t h e pa r t s a r e p r oper ly p r opor tion e d a n d a rr an ged I t h a s .

,

however the ob j ectio n able f eatu r e of flat sur faces which in m ost of t h e
, ,

f o r m s r equi r e stayi n g
. .

A t h i rd type co n sists wholly of s mall pipes the stea m d r u m ( if e x isti n g ,

at all ) bei n g i n a r u d i m e n tar y f o rm I t n eed ha rd ly be said that this class

'

of boiler i s the lightest b u t it is likewise the m ost d a n ger o u s of the wate r

,

tube type a n d its e m ploym en t is depen d e n t on a r e gular supply of pe rfectl y

,

u r e wate r I t is ge n e r ally k n ow n as the fl ash boile r fr o m the f act that t h e

p .
,
.

wate r fl ashes i n to stea m whe n f o r ce d i n to it .

The i m po r tan ce of the tubulous f or m of boi ler has i n c r eased ve ry much

of late yea r s in co n seque n ce of the de m a n d f or e x t r e m ely ligh t m achi n e r y
,

in the ve r y high spee d vessels n ow r equi r ed f or w a r pu r poses a n d t h e possi

-

bility of e m ployi n g the m success fully is the r esult of the i n t r oduct io n Of t h e ,

evapo r ato r by which pu r e water c a n be d istilled fr o m sea wate r For

, .
,

alth ough p r eviously the sur face co n d e n se r a n d a ver y s m all supply of fr esh
w ate r carr ied i n ta n ks p er mi tted of the use of water t ub e boiler s in the m er - »

c a n t ile m a r i n e they wer e i n al m ost eve r y case a f ailu r e owi n g to salt wate r ,

eve n tually b ei n g used to make up t h e i n evitable losses ex per ien ce d in ever y

s h ip but the f ailu r e in these cases was m ostly due t o i mperfect ci r cul atio n .

I t is a litt le si n gula r t h at the evapo r ato r suggested a n d fitted by Hall t o

S hips fir st 8 5 yea r s ago havi n g h i s su r f ace co n de nse r shoul d have bee n allowed

to go out o f use a n d be f or gotten

'

Th e ge n er al a d optio n of the t r iple co m pou n d e n gi n e was un d oubtedly -

delayed f or m an y year s in c on sequ en ce of the f ailu r e of the wa ter tub e boile r -

”
in the s s Pr opo n tis B u t it m ust n ot b e f o r gotte n that in pas t days
“

. . .
, , .

h e r e a n d ther e water tub e boile r s have wo r ked s u cc es s fu ly u n d e r the o rdi n a r y

-

eve r y d a y ci r cu m sta n ces of a m er cha n t ship i n clud in g t h e use of salt wate r

-
,

a n d likewise that the b oile r s n ow fitted t o ships have b ette r m ea n s f or ex a m i

‘

n atio n a n d clea n i n g tha n e x isted in f o r m e r ti m es b esi d es which the supply

oi fr esh water is p r acti cally e n su r ed
.
.

I t is n ot clai m ed f or these boile r s that they a r e a n y m or e e fficie n t as

stea m ge n e r ato rs t h a n t he or di n ar y m ar i n e tan k boile r ; but on the othe r
-
,

han d it is n ot a d m itte d that they a re of n ecessity wo rs e ge n e r ato r s On

,
.

the co n t r ar y it is v er y possible that u n d e r c ent a in con dition s a water tub e

, , ,
-

boile r m a y b e m or e econ o mical in stea m p r oduction tha n the o rdi n a r y

cyli n d r ical b oile r i n as m uch as it i s cap able of obtai ni n g a better ci r c u latio n
,
.

with less ex pen d itu r e of en e r gy a n d is n ot s o liable t o losses by ra dl a t i on

,
.

I t s e fficien cy however depe n d s m or e on clean su r fac es a n d ti ght c a s m gs

, ,
-

than d oes the tan k b oiler a n d gen er ally the latter is easier clea n e d etc tha n
,
, .
,

the f orm er .

I n m a ri n e p r actice the heati n g sur face i n p r opo r tio n t o the gr ate h a s

,

b een ge n er ally s m all a n d the m aker s a n d user s of those bo i ler s have bee n
,

co n ten t wi th the oth er a n d r eal advan tages der ive d f ro m the m r athe r th a n
to e ff ect t h e ut m ost eco n o m y by a rr esti n g the waste of heat whi ch c a n u n ,

doub t edly take place in so m e f or m s That the whole sur face of the tubes
,
.
.

is n ot e fficie n t heati n g sur f ace goes wi thout sayi n g j ust as n o on e cou n ts

-
,

as heati n g sur face the lower par t of a fu rn ace or fin e or the pa r ts of a

-
,

L a n cashi r e boiler n ot e x po se d to heat Pr obably o n ly 0 7 of t h e c1 rc u m

‘

f er e n ce Of t h e hori z o n tal tube of these boiler s a cts as r eal heati n g s u rface -

 ST A YS . 5 91

of solid d r aw n steel of best quality Coppe r has bee n t r ied but t h e d i th

, .
,

culty of d etectio n of a f ault in soli d d r aw n coppe r det racts ve r y m uch f r o m

its usefu ln ess a n d is m o r e tha n a set —off for the supe rio r co n ducti v ity a n d
,

the low co rr osive cha r acter of that m etal i rr espective of the cost Th e .

Ad m i r alty i n sist on steel tubes b e i n g galva n ise d on the outside a n d n ot on

the i n side the deco m positio n of the z i n c w h e n i n side the tubes te n di n g to
,

p r o d uce hyd r ogen gas by which a n ex plosio n m ight be cause d on the i n cautious
,

in t r oductio n of a la mp whe n e m pty N o doubt f or S h ips liable to be layi n g .

,

up ou t of use f or lo n g periods the galvani si n g is a n a d va n tage ; but f or a ,

S hi p that is g en e r ally in use the n ecessity f or it does n ot e x ist , Ther e is .

,

however a f u rthe r adva n tage in galva n is i n g i n as m uch as in the p r ocess

, ,

of pickli n g de f ects c a n b e d iscove r ed in the tubes which m ight other wis e

.

escape detectio n scouri n g with a f ast r evolvi n g b r ush will also a n swe r this -

pur pose The s mall light boiler s e m ployed in to r pedo boats a n d to r pedo
.
,

boat destr oye r s have u p cast tubes ge n er ally at least a n i n ch ex tern al d ia

,
-

m eter a n d fr o m 1 4 t o 1 6 L S G thick They a re ex pan ded i n to the tube

. . . .

plates in the usual way a n d whe n stay tubes a re n ot used the e n ds a r e

, ,

slightly d r i fted s o as t o p r even t d r awi n g ; if the tubes a re galvan i sed it is ,

better t o r em ove the z i n c fr o m t h e part fitti n g i n to the tube p late For .

ge n e r al pu r poses a n i n ch tub e i s t oo sm a l l e x cept in small cra f t ; i n ,

or di n a r y ships as i n the la r ger vessels f or n aval ser vice the tubes sho u l d b e
, ,

I i t o l in ches dia m ete r in cer tai n f o r m s of boile r s such as the Th orn y c r oft , ,

Ya rr ow or N o r ma n d a n d fr o m 1 % t o 3 i n ches in t h ose boile r s in whi ch the

, ,

tubes a re ho r i z o n tal or n ear ly s o Wher e weight is n ot of such par am ou n t

, .

i m po r tan ce the tub es of the ho ri z o n tal boile r m a y b e even so m ewhat lar ger
,

s till especially those in the i mm ediate vici nity of the fire

, .

Circu l a tin g Tu bes — The dow n cast pipes a r e better t o b e of co m pa r a

.
-

t iv ely lar ge si z e a n d f e w i n n u m be r s o situated as n ot t o b e e x pose d to heat ,

su fficie n t to co n ve rt the m i n to upcasts a n d to be in the way of the n atu r al

*
,

ho ri z o n tal flow of the water cu rr e n t in the stea m r eceiver These dow n cast .
-

pipes a re as a r ule 3 t o 6 i n ches dia m eter but whe n a water wall is

, , ,

f o r m e d by tubes placed touchi n g on e a n othe r in the mai n pa r t of thei r le n gth ,

but thei r e n ds wor ked zig z a g f ashio n at the uppe r a n d lower r eceiver s they
-
,

m a y b e of the sa m e si z e as the o r di n ar y tube s t hese of cou r se acti n g as , , ,

d ow n casts -
.

S ta ys — I n design i n g a water tube boile r the sa m e ca r e m ust b e e x e r cised

.
-
.

a s with the o r di n a r y b oile r I n a rr a n gi n g the stays s o as to r esist de f o r m atio n

,

a n d dest r uctio n Ma n y e n gi n eer s f ollowi n g the e x a m ple of thei r loco m otive

.
,

b r ethr e n depe n d on the o r di n ar y tub es to e ffect this pu r pose ; a n d n o doubt

, , ,

so lo n g as they a r e in n o r m al co n ditio n t hey m a y be r elied u po n ; but when

the b oiler is such t h at the tub e e n d s mi ght at a n y ti m e b eco m e ab n o r m ally
h ot a n d b e sudde n ly cooled it would n ot b e sa f e to depe n d on o r din a r y ,

t ub es f or holdi n g the pa r ts togethe r When st r aight tubes a re em ployed .

,

stay tubes ma y of cour se b e fitted as in the o rdi n a r y boiler Gen er al sti ff

, , , .

n ess as well as local sti ffn ess is usually obtai n ed by m aki n g the tub e plat es
, ,

ab n o r m ally thick a n d when the tub e plate f o rm s the par t of a cyli n d rical
, .
,

d r u m thi s thick n ess is n ecessa r y f or str en gth to r esist tan gen tial str ai n s
,
.

Mr Y a rrow s e x pe rimen t s S h ow th a t t he down c a s t pipe s m a y be h ea te d t o a d v a n

’
- o
.

t a ge u n d er c e rta in c on di tion s bu t it is c e rt a in th a t t h e c on t in u ou s flow m u s t n ot be

,

j eopa rd is ed .
 5 92 A UAL
M N or , A I
M R N E EN GI N E ER I N G .

S tea m D r u ms — The si z e the stea m r eceive r is depe n de n t as usual on

. of , .

the volu m e of stea m p r oduced a n d in o rde r t o keep the S i z e as s mall a s

,

possible as well a s to p r eve n t p ri mi n g it is custo ma r y to wo r k these boilers

,
'

at a ve r y h igh p r essu r e the r e b ei n g little di ffe r e n ce in weight between such

,

a boile r a n d on e m ade f or a m uch lowe r p r essu r e I f however the boile r .

, ,

is to b e wo r ked at the sa m e p r essu r e as the e n gi n es a n d that p r essu r e is ,

o n ly 1 8 0 lbs t h e stea m do m e m ust b e of co n sider able S i z e in f act it m ust

.
, ,

f ollow the r ules laid d ow n f or o r di n ar y boile r s ; it is b ette r howeve r to u s e , ,

wate r tube boile r s with high e r p r essu r es 2 00 lbs bei n g about the lowest
-

,
.

advisable .

Th e Two T ypes — The mode rn m a ri n e water tub e boile r s m a y b e r oughly

.
-

divide d i n to two classes the on e havi n g la r ge or co m par atively lar ge tubes

a n d suitable f or la r ge ships a n d lo n g r u n s the other havi n g s m all tubes a n d , .

suitable f or s m all ships or f or s h o r t r u n s at ve ry hi gh S peed a n d couse ,

”
que n tly calle d Ex p r ess B oile r s E ac h of these c a n b e subdivided i n t o
.

t w o divisio n s the on e havi n g d r ow n e d tubes ( that is tubes whose uppe r

, ,

e n d s a r e sub m er ged I n water ) a n d the othe r havi n g the up per en ds ex posed

,

to stea m o n ly whe n the ci rculatio n I S m ai n tai n ed by p ri mi n g or nami n g of

t h e wate r wit h the stea m in the pipes a n d the discha r gi n g of it i n to the ,

b otto m of t h e s tea m r eceive r I t I s clai m ed by the m ake r s of the latte r

.

class t h at the stea m obtai n e d I s quite as d ry as that p roduced by the sub

m er ge d t u b e boile r Of cou r se d ash plates a n d othe r m ea n s a re p r ovided
.

f or sepa r ati n g t h e stea m fr o m the wate r b esides the usual i n te rn al stea m

“

pipe eve n with sub mer ged tub es it is so m eti m es f ou n d a d va n tageous to fit

ba ffle plates so as to en su r e steady ci rculat io n a n d p r even t p ri mi n g Th e .

design of the p ri mi n g boile r is on e that ad mits of a gr eate r le n gth of tub e

a n d a lo n ger e xposu r e to heat tha n is usual with the oth e r f o r m s i n whi c h

the tub es a re st r aight or n ea r ly str aight a n d thei r advocates clai m for the m
“

a n elasticity a n d powe r o f r esisti n g sudde n cha n ges of te m pe r atu r e supe r io r

t o that of t h e st r aight tube boiler On the othe r ha n d they have the ob vio u s
.
,

disa d va n tage of cost of m a n u factu r e as well as i mpossibility of i n te rn al

e x a m i n atio n b esides the diffic u lt v a n d costli n ess of r e m ovi n g a n d r eplaci n g
,

a n i n q e d tube .

H erresh ofl B oil er — I n the ve r y ea r ly days of the last ce n tu r y othe rs

‘

. _

b esides Mr Jacob P e rki n s atte m p t ed to p r oduce high p r essu r e steam w it li

,

t h e lightest possible appa r atus by m aki n g a boile r e n ti r ely of s mall tubes

, ,

a n d a n other i n ve n to r we n t so f a r as t o co n st r uct on e co n sisti n g of a si n gle

tub e coiled roughly i n t o the shape of a bell or b eehive a n d placed this ove r ,

a fire Wate r was pu mped i n to the lowe r e n d of this coil a n d stea m em itted
.
,

f r o m the uppe r e n d As m ight b e a n ticipated the gen er atio n of stea m was

.
,

m ost r apid a n d atte n ded with co n si d e r able r isk to the o n looke r s

, S o lo n g .
_

as the f eed supply was r egula r a n d the wate r perf ectly pu r e this boile r ,

could be used with i m pu n ity but even n ow as in those ea rly days n o f eed , ,

pum p could b e r elied upo n to wo rk with the n ecessar y u n i f o r mity a n d as ,

i n p r actice all wate r co n tai n s m o r e or less solid matter such boile r s we r e

, ,

f ou n d i m p racticable a n d the m o r e so as f ro m the cu r ved f o r m of the tu be

, , ,

it was i mpossible to e x a mi n e or clea n the m m echa n ically The H err es h ofi .

boile r is a m ode rn f o r m of this type which has always b een a f avou rite on e ,

f or ce r tai n pu r poses i n Am e r ica ; its i n ve n to r s ubseque n tly pe r fected a

d esig n of it which wo r ked with a co n side r able deg ree of success a n d i t was ,
 ’
WA R D S I
S E CT ON AL CO IL BO IL ER . 1393

i n t r oduced by hi m i n to this cou n t r y at the ti m e that Mr ( n ow S ir J I )

, .

—
. .

Th orn y c r oft i n t r oduced a si m i la r boile r as r ega r ds coils a n d fit t e d on e i n ,

t he s s
. . P eace Eve n tually howeve r it m e t with the fate of its
, ,

r ototy pe s o that it is n ow seldo m or n eve r use d His boile r co n si s t e d o f

'

p , .

216 — Wa rd S e ct ion a l Coil B oiler— Hea t in g S u rf a ce e fe e t

’
Fig . s ,
s qu a r

Gra t e , 77 s qu a re f e e t .

coils of pI pe ; the outer w h ic h is in t h e f or m of a close d cyli n der is

-

t wo ,
,

m ad e of tub es of u n i f o r m sectio n co n n ected at thei r e n ds by w eldI n g s o as

.

b e co ti uous h i e which i s i the shape f a b ell is likewise d

n
t e
to n n e n n r ,
n o ,
 A B CO CK W i L c ox I L ER
’

B AN D BO .
5 95

pu m p a n d the botto m of the i n n e r to a stea m d ru m or r eceive r fr o m w h ic h

,
,

t h e e n gi n e takes stea m Th e fir e is i n t h e i n si d e o f the bell Which is sup

.

po r ted ou b r ickwo r k a n d is si mila r to that of a ve rtical d o n key boile r The

, .

o ute r coil is case d wit h sheet i r o n a n d t h e i n n e r is pa r tly so cove r e d The

, .

wate r in t r ave r si n g the outer coil is ge n tly heated by t h e waste heat : on

, .

t r ave r si n g the c r ow n of the b ell it is r api d ly heated so that whe n it e n te r s ,

the la r ge r pip e it is in a state of ebullitio n pa r t stea m a n d pa r t wate r whe n ,

it has t r ave r sed the whole len gth of t h e coil it shoul d b e all stea m An other .

c oil boile r well k n ow n in Am e r ica is Wa r d s

’

; it has been use d in the U S

-
.
, . .

N avy a n d of its ki n d i s a good on e ( U fig

, I t as well as T h orn y c r oft s ’
. .
,
’

a n d H e rr es h ofi s has h oweve r the f atal f ault of i n accessibility f or clea i

’

, , , n ng .

but with a n th r acitic coal givi n g off little or n o s m oke o r ta r r y vapou r a n d

usi n g pu r e wate r this f ault is n ot of se ri ous co n seque n ce
, .
‘

B abcock Wil cox B oil er (fig —

The t w o ge n tle m en whose n a m es .

we r e j oi n ed in the pate n t a n d gave the title to the Co m pan y that m a n u factu r es

th ese boiler s devoted m a n y yea r s to the pe r f ecti n g of thei r syste m I n
, .

this case the flat b ox es of the Watt a n d D Alle s t boiler s a re r eplaced with ’

n a r r ow si n uous cha mbe r s ca lled

( heade r s fig placed n ear ly v er tically , .

side by side With this arr an ge m e n t stayi n g is u n n ecessa r y but opposit e

.
,

the tub e en ds a r e the usual ope n i n gs as in the above n a m ed boilers fitte d ,

—
,

Fig 2 1 8 — H e a d e rs f or S m a ll T u b es
. . .

with doo r s or plugs The top of each fr o n t heade r is co n n ecte d by a pipe

.

to a d r u m of co n si d e r able si z e placed i mm ediately ove r the back hea d er s, ,

a n d to which it is co n n ected also by pipes The fr o n t a n d back heade r .

s
_

a r e co n n ected by a la r ge n u m be r of i n cli n e d tubes ; b u t i n the case of t hi s

boile r they a r e of muc h s m alle r di a m eter tha n i n other s of the sa m e type
The c ir cu la t ion o f t h e wate r is obvious a n d good a n d of suc h a n atu r e that ,

t h is b oile r m a y b e classed as a p r i m i n g on e The f u rn ace is of cou r se . _ , ,

be n eath the tubes a n d e x te n d s n ear ly to the f ull w idth of the b oile r S o m e

, .

ti m es on each si d e of the boile r f o r m i n g a water wall is a syste m of s m all , ,

ver tical tubes fitte d i n to a ho r i z o n tal b ox at the b otto m a n d i n to a si m ila r

,

ho ri z o n tal b ox of squa r e sectio n at the top The top bo x es a r e co n n ected .

a lso to the stea m d r u m a n d at the opposite en ds the top a n d botto m bo x es

,

a r e co n n ected by e x te rn al ci r culati n g tubes These bo x es a n d the hea d e r s .

a r e of squa r e sectio n a n d m a d e of w r ought i r o n or steel

,
welded up a n d ,

n eatly fin ishe d The tubes thr oughout a r e si m ply ex pa n de d in the tub e

.

holes a n d although it appea r s to be a m ost d ifficult Ope r atio n to thus secu r e

,

the m a n d a still m o r e d i fficult on e to tighte n the m if they leak in p r actice

, .
,

all such difficulties have b ee n ove r co m e a n d t h ese boiler s f o u n d to wo r k ,

m ost sati s f acto rily This however i s n ow seldo m supplied as b r ickwo r k

.
, , ,

to the height of the l owe r tubes is better a n d a goo d casi n g above in wa ke ,

5 96 MAN UAL OF M AR I N E EN GI N EER I N G .

T AB LE LV I .
— B A SI N AN D S E A G O I N G T R IAL S or H M S
-
. . . S H E LD R AK E
I N 1 89 8 99 ( B A B COCK
-
WIL COX ) .

N at u r e of T ri al .

E va p ora t iv e ,

8 h ou rs a t 2 500
3 h ou r s a t 3000
3 h ou r s c ommi s s ion i n g
[ 000 m ile s a t 1 5 00
1 5 00
1 5 00

Mean ,

of the tubes a n swe r s eve r y pu r pose I t n ee d ha r dly be said that the use .

of clea n so f t wate r is es s e n tial

, I I I the late r m a r i n e t y pe the tubes adj ace n t
.

a n d n ea r to the fir es h ave bee n e n la r ged ve r y co n si d e r ably so that i n stead , ,

of bei n g about 1
% i n ches dia m ete r as we r e the othe r tu bes they a r e n ow
‘

, ,

at least 2 5 i n ches d ia m ete r

-
fig 2 1 8 a ) T h ese boiler s a r e ligh t er in pr o
. .

po r tio n to t h ei r output of stea m tha n the o rd i n a ry cyli n d rical boile r ; but

they a r e n ot so ligh t as so m e of the othe r f o r m s of water tube boile rs ; in
.
-

Fig 2 1 8 a — B a bc oc k T u be
. . an d H e a d e rs .

this case howeve r ther e is n ot the sa m e n ecessity as e x ists in othe r s f or

, ,

wo rki n g at a high p r essu r e to be success ful a n d in this r espect i t is m uc h ,

su
p er i or t o on e or t w o of the othe r f o r m s of wate r tub e boile r whe n r equi r ed -

to be of la r ge si z e I n the Am e r ica n N avy as i n H M se r vice these boile r s

.
, . .

h ave give n g r eat satis factio n a n d p r ove d the m selves to b e the m os t for
,

i n id a ble co m petito r s f or ge n e r al adoptio n

-
both a gai n st the cyli n d rical a n d ,

t h e othe r types of la rge wate r tube boile r The si m plicity of desig n a n d

-
.
 B A B CO CK AN D W I L COX BO IL ER ;

c heap n ess Of ma n u fa c tur e w ill also r ec omm e n d the m f or use ge n e r ally In .

S h eld ra ke t h ese boi le r s w it h best Welsh coal a n d co n s u mptio n

,

Fig .
— B a b c oc k Wilc ox B oile r ( S m a ll T u b e ) , N a va l D e s ign .

lbs squa e f oot f g ate evapo ate d 9 1 5 lbs wate r pe r lb o f coal

of 40 7 .
p er r o r r ,
. .
,

F a n d at a hal f that r ate t h e evapo r atio n was 1 1 lbs the

°
f ro m a n d at 2 1 2 .
,
 B AB OOOK AN D W IL COX BO IL ER . 5 99

evapo r atio n p e r squa r e f oot of heati n g s u r f ace bei n g 8 3 a n d 5 0 lbs res pec .

t i v e ly . At s ea , a n d whe n ru n n i n g ful l speed t h e co n su m tio n

,
p p er I H P . . .

Fi g 2 21 — B a bc oc k
. . Wil c ox Na va l B oil er ( Mi x e d T u bes ) .

was o n ly 1 5 7 lbs a n d at two thi rds powe r 1 4 29 lbs Equa lly good r es ults
.
,
-
.

h ave b een obtai n e d in U S N aval ships with P ocaho n tas coal

. . .
600 MA N UAL or MA R I N E E N GI N E ER I N G .

Th e B abcock Wilco x Co m pan y so m eti mes fit i n to the uptake w h at is

vi r tually a n e x te n sio n of the boile r a n d call it a f ee d heate r ; t h is of cou rse
, , ,

m ate rially adds to the eco n o m y of the syste m as it also adds co n side r ably ,

to the wei gh t .

The S pecial B oile r Co mmittee appoi n ted by P a rlia m e n t r epor ted f avou r
ably on this boile r as on e of those suitable f or use in the N avy ; co n seque n tly
,

a la r ge n u m be r of ships— m ostly battleships a n d la r ge c ruiser s — a r e fitted

with the m The Ad mi r alty r equi r e such boile r s to evapo rate 1 2 lbs of wate r
. .

f r o m a n d at 2 1 2 whe n the coal co n su m ptio n is at the r ate of 1 8 lbs pe r

°
.

squa re f oot of g rate 1 1 5 lbs whe n the r ate is 2 4 lbs a n d 1 1 lbs whe n 30
,
-

. .
,
. .

N OR MAN D B OI LER

Fig 2 2 2 — N or m a n d B oiler
. . .

Fig 2 1 7 shows the n aval boile r s whic h a r e m ade e n ti rely of la r ge tubes

.
, ,

a n d t h e ba ffli n g a rr a n ge m e n ts which have been f ou n d be n e ficial on s h o r e ;

,

this type is also the on e best suited f or the m er ca n tile m a r i n e Fig 2 1 9 . .

is a desig n of boile r m ade e n ti r ely of s m all tubes suitable f or c ruise r s a n d ,

e x p r ess stea m e rs ge n e r ally Fig 2 2 0 shows the boile r s of the c r uise r type
. .
,

which a re of a lighte r desig n tha n fig 2 1 7 havi n g la rge tubes at the botto m.

,

o n ly a n d s m alle r hi ghe r up n o ba ffles a r e dee m ed n ecessa r y

, .

N orman d B oil er — Fig 2 22 shows the f o r m of boile r of the late M N or

. . .

m a n d of Hav r e . I t co n sists esse n tially of on e ho r i z o n tal uppe r d ru m of

co n si d e r able dia m ete r a n d two lowe r d r u m s of m uch s m alle r d ia mete r the
, .
 ’
S EAT ON s B O IL ER .
60 1

lowe r o n es bei n g placed on each si d e of t h e fire a n d co n n ected to the uppe r ,

on e by tub es of s m all dia m ete r be n t t o such f o r m as to obt r u d e the g r eate r

,

pa r t of thei r le n gth i n to the space above the fire a n d s o r eceive he at fr o m ,

it a n d at each en d so as to b e n o r mal t o t h e su rf ace i n to which they fit Th e

, .

uppe r a n d lowe r d ru m s a r e likewise co n n ected at thei r e n ds by la rge r tubes ,

which act as dow n casts s o that t h e wate r ci rculates up th rough t h e s m alle r

,

tubes i n to the upper cha mbe r d elive r s the stea m with which it is cha rge d,
,

a n d fl ows away t o the e n d of i t a n d dow n th r ough the oute r tubes to the ,

wate r d ru m s below This boile r e x poses a ver y la r ge a m ou n t of su r face

.
,

both t o the di r ect actio n of t h e fir e a n d to h ot gases The ci r culatio n is .

pe r fect ; the r e a re n o flat sur f ace s r equi ri n g t o b e staye d the d ru m s the m

selves a re of the cyli n d r ical f o r m with sphe r ical e n d s so as to b e as light ,

as possible co n siste n t with st r en gth a n d by the d ispositio n of the tubes °

at the fr o n t a n d back t he r e is a m i n i m u m a m ou n t of b r ickwo r k r equi r e d f or

a boilie r of this ki n d while the tubes have a su fficie n t a m ou n t of cu r vatu r e to
,

p ermit of co nsider able elasticity in the whole st r uctu r e so as to en able it .

t o withsta n d the r ough u sage of r apidly r aisi n g stea m On the othe r ha n d .

,

the tubes ca nn ot b e clea n ed m echan ically n or e x a mi n e d eithe r i n te rn ally ,

or e x te rn ally a n d i n the eve n t O f a tube splitti n g or beco m i n g othe r wise

, , ,

so da m aged as t o n ecessitate r e m oval u n less it be a n outsi d e on e g r eat ,

e x pe n se is e n tailed by havi n g to r e m ove the othe r tubes that su rr o u n d it to

get at it M N o rm a n d a rr a n ged the i n n er a n d outer r ows of tubes to f o r m
. .

wate r walls 0 11 each side of the g rate a n d on e a ch outside of the boile r b e ,

le ft howeve r so m e Ope n wo r k on each side of the gr ate n ea r the fr o n t , th roug h

, ,

which the h ot gases c a n p ass a m o n g the tubes on each sid e to the back e n d of
the b oile r wher e the r e a re additio n al tub es m asse d behi n d the b rickwo rk of
,

the fu rn ace The h ot gases then pass upwa r d i n to a n uptake leadi n g to

-

the f un n el base B y this m ethod the hot gases a r e m ade to flow u n if o r m ly

.

ove r p r actically t h e whole of the tub e su rf ace The N o r m a n d b oile r s in .

H MS
. . Fe rr et
. had squa r e f eet of sur face a n d 1 5 4 s qua r e f ee t of
gr ate a n d gave stea m f or
,
I H P S i m ila r boile r s in the Fr e n ch ship. . .

Fo rba n p r oved ve r y eco n om ical t h e co n su m ptio n of f uel at f ull S pee d ,

b ei n g o n ly 1 3 6 lbs p er I H P with t r ipl e r ecip r oc a to r s

. . . . .

The N o rm a n d S igu a dy boiler co n sists of two N o r m a n d boile r s place d

back to back a n d co n n ected by the stea m collecto r s a n d wate r d r u m s
,
.

Fl emin g s B oil er ( fig Mess r s Fer guso n Fle m i n g

’
Fergu son — . .

m ake a boile r si m ila r i n p r i n ciple to the o r igi n al N o r m a n d a n d get ove r ,

the di fficulty of d rawi n g the t u b es by li m iti n g thei r le n gth f r o m e n d to e n d

to the d ia m eter of the upper d ru m so that each a n d ever y on e of the m c a n
'

b e d r aw n i n to this d ru m without a ff ecti n g the surr ou n di n g tubes .

I n this boiler the r e a r e two wate r d ru m s at

’
S ea t on s B oil er ( fig —
.

the botto m as in t h e N o r m a n d a n d two stea m d r u m s at the top ther e is

, ,

a n i n te r mediate wate r d r u m betwee n the m of su fficie n t si z e to ad mit of t h e

tubes co n n ecti n g it t o the upper a n d lowe r d ru m s bei n g d r aw n i n to it a n d
r e m oved I n this case the tub es a r e st r aight s o that fr o m the middle d r u m
.
,

every tub e c a n b e ex a m i n ed a n d clea n ed as well as r e m oved the t r a n sve r se ,

sectio n of the boiler is the shap e of the lette r X I n ad ditio n to the a d v a n .

tages of b ei n g a bl e t o ex a m i n e clea n or r e m ove eve r y tub e at the m iddle

,

cha m be r the r e is in this boile r the ad d itio n al on e of the hot gases bei n g
,

fo r ce d to flow twice th r ough the tube be f o r e e m e rgi n g i n to the f u n n el The .

Fig . 2 24 . S e a t on
’
s B oile r .

S e a t on B oi le r
’
Fig . 2 24 a .
~ -
s .
6 04 MA N UAL or MA R I N E E N GI N EE R I N G .

Ya rrow B oil er ( fig of Mr A F Ya r r ow
.
— This boile r the i n ve n tio n
.
, . .
,

has p r oved to be on e of t h e m ost success ful in pr actice both in the p r oductio n ,

o f stea m a n d its capability of bei n g e x a m i n ed r epai r ed

, or clea n ed
, and , ,
,

i t c a n besides wit h sta n d the sa m e r ough usage as the N o rm a n d

, , I t di ff er s .

f r o m t h e N o r m a n d boile r howeve r i n h avi n g st r aight tubes o n ly so that

. .
,

Fig . 2 25 — Y a r r ow B oile r ( L a r ge T u be Ty pe ).

f ro m t h e uppe r d ru m they c a n all be quickly ex a min e d a n d clea n e d I n t h e .

e a rlie r f o r m s of it this d ru m was m ade in halves the top of it bei n g c on

, ,

n e c t e d to the lowe r by a fla n ge with bolts a n d n uts ; i t was the r e fo r e ca pabl e

, ,

o f easy r e moval a n d w hen this was so t h e botto m of the b oile r co n siste d

'

'
,
,

a s in t h e N o r m a n d of two cyli n d rical d r u ms ; but as in the la r ge r boile rs

 Y AR R o w B O I L ER . 60 5

it w a s f ou d almos t I mpossib le a s well a s in c on v en i en t t o ha v e a bolted

n , ,

i oin t in the uppe r d ru m the lowe r d ru m s we r e m ade i n h alves bei n g f o r med

, ,
 H YN D E N
B LE C
’
s ILE R
BO . 60 7
6 08 MA N UAL or A I
M R N E EN GI N EER I N G .
 DU T EMP E L B OI L E R . 60 9

’ “
Th orn ycrof t B oil er Th c boile r k n o w n as t h e
s S peedy type was the
.
-

d i r e c t descen da n t of Goldswo r thy Gu r n e y s i n ve n tio n of 1 82 7 ( s e e fig

’
-
.

a n d co n siste d esse n tially of the t op a n d bot t o m d r u m s as i n the N o r m a n d

a n d Ya r r ow type s but t h e tubes I n t his case we r e n ot o n ly be n t i n so as to

,

ob t r ude the m selves on t h e space o v e r the fir e , but t h e y we r e ca r ried up a n d .

a r ou n d so as t o e n ter the t op of the d ru m i n stea d of the botto m I t is , the r e

f o r e disti n ctively a p r i mi n g boile r i n as m uch as the r e c a n be n o ci rc u latio n
, .

without the flow of wate r t h r ough the tubes i n to the stea m space T h e re .

we r e the usual dow n c ast pipes at each e n d whic h we re of co n side r able si ze , .

I n this boile r the r e is of cou r se , a gr eate r le n gth of t ube e x pose d t o the h ot

.

gases , a n d co n se que n tl y if n ecessary a lar ge a m ou n t of su rf ace pe r foot, .

of gr ate c a n be p r ovided I t had co n sider ably m o r e elasticity tha n the .

N o rm a n d type of boile r a n d like wi se possess ed the de f ects of the latte r, as

,

it was absolutely i m possible t o e x a m i n e the tub es a n d, in case of da mage to ,

on e of the m the di ffic u lty of r e m oval a n d r eplace m e n t co n side r able I wi n

'

, g .

t o the e x t r e m e cu r vatu r e of the tubes , the r e is the gr ea t e r liability of the

tubes t o choke with f o r eig n m atter that ma y be in the boile r, or get i n to it
with the wate r For these r easo n s it w a s obj ected to by e n gi n eer s a n d
.
,

soo n d isca rd ed by the Ad mi r alty although ex per ie n ce p r oved it to b e a ve ry ,

e fficien t evapo r ato r a r apid ge n er ato r of stea m a n d capable of ve r y r ough

, ,

usage Fig 2 29 is a f urther i n ve n tio n of S ir J I Th orn y c r oft a n d k n ow n

. . . .
,

as the D arin g type With the sa m e f acility f or getti n g su fficie n t heati n g

.

su rf ace as with the S peedy thi s boiler per m its of a la r ge r gr ate a n d allows , ,

of a b ette r ci r culatio n of h ot gases as well as b ette r uptake a n d f u n n el ; it

ha s howeve r the sa m e obj ectio n s due t o the gr eat cur vatu r e of its tubes
, ,
.

Mu mford s B oil er ( fig 2 30 ) is a m odi ficatio n of the Fle mi n g

’
. Fer guso n ,

fi
( g . m ade to suit the se r vice co n ditio n s i n c r uise r s a n d s m all c r a f t ; it is

ver y si m ple in design a n d co n st r uctio n a n d although the cu r vatur e is too gr eat ,

to p er m it of a visual ex a m i n atio n of the tub es it e n ables the m to r esist the ,

ten den cy to co n tortio n fr o m the S ever e heati n g so m e of the m get whe n wo r ki n g

u n de r f o r ced d r aught Mor eove r each on e of the m c a n b e wi thd r aw n i n to
.
,

the steam d ru m a n d fr o m it passed out f or ca r eful ex a mi n ati o n in daylight

, ,

a n d likewise r eplaced i n a n equally easy a n d e x peditious way These boile r s .

a r e f ou n d to b e sa f e a n d eco n o mi c i n wo r ki n g of lau n ches pi n n aces a n d , ,

to r pedo boats a n d equally e fficien t when of the lar ge r si z es n ow m ade by

,

Mr Mu mf o rd wher e the total heati n g su r f ace in a si n gle e n ded u n it is

.
,
-

s quar e f eet the tub es in that case b ei n g 1 5} i n ches dia m ete r 1 0 S W G thick
, , . . .
,

a n d va r yi n g fr o m 4 7 t o 6 0 f eet lo n g ; its stea m d r u m has a d ia m ete r of

5 f eet .

D u T empl e B oil er — This co n sists of the usual uppe r d ru m which is of

.
,

co n side r able si z e a n d two lower cha mb e r s of squa r e sectio n placed above

, , ,

the fir e lev el on each side of the gr ate The top d ru m is co n n ected to the m
‘
.

by a n est of tub es b e n t zig z a g s o as to c r oss the flow of gases fiv e ti m es -

,
,

T he po rtio n of tub e e x posed to di r ect actio n fr o m the fir e is gen e r ally m ade of

s m alle r dia m ete r than the r est of its len gth Ther e a re the u sual dow n cast .
-

pipes at the en d This boile r possesses m a n y of the cha r acter istics of the
.

Th orn y cr oft boile r i n cludi n g so m e of the evi ls in a m ag n i fied fo r m

, T he .

co n t r actio n of dia mete r of t h e tubes in the n eighbou rhoo d of the fire has
ce rtai n advan tages bu t on t h e othe r ha n d m odern p ractice has S h own
'

,
.

that the r e should be la rge r t u bes e x p osed t o d i rect r adiatio n f ro m the fir e ,

39
 '

R EED s B OI L ER .

and
r
t hat thos e tubes in the i mmediate vici n ity a lthough n ot e x pos e d t o
,

di r ect r adiati on a re t h e bette r for e n la rge me n t

,
.

R eed s B oiler — Fig 2 3 1 is a vi e w of the boile r desig n ed a n d pate n t ed by

’
. .

Mr J W R eed of J a r r ow . I t will be see n to co n sist o f t h e usual stea m

. . . ,

re ceiv er a t t op a n d t h e t wo wi n g w ate r r eceive r s at the botto m , both o f

ich e tials the sa m e as f ou d i the N o m a d Th c roft
wh l
are in a l e s s n n n r n . orn y ,
M2 MAN UAL OF M AR I NE EN GI N EE R I N G .

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 BE LL E V ILL E B OI L E R . 613

or Ya rrow boile r s bu t in thi s case t h ey a re co n n ecte d di ff er e n tly— v iz by

, .
,

t ubes z ig z agge d so m ewhat like those in t h e D u Te m ple boile r but n ot to t h e

-
,

s a m e e x te n t n or is the r e a n y r eductio n in t h e dia m ete r of these s m all tubes

,

a s i n the D u Te m ple Mr R eed has besi d es m et h ods of hi s ow n f or secur i n g

. .
, ,

the s m all tube e n ds in the tub e holes w h e r eby a tube c a n be easily fitte d a n d ,

withd r awn ; a n d whe n in place it is capable of a ce rtai n a m oun t of sel f

, ,

adj ust m e n t w ithout a n y te n de n cy to leak This is e ff ecte d by sc r e wi n g the .

e n ds of the tub e a n d fitti n g the m with n uts f o r m ed to suit t h e cha m f e ri n g or

sphe r ical r ecessi n g at the m outh of the tub e h oles .

Of the Ex p r ess b oile r s n o n e have do n e bette r tha n Mr R eed s eithe r .

’

i n r esp e ct to t h e qua n tity of stea m ge n e r ate d p e r squa r e f oot of heati n g

"

s u r f ace or to the n um be r of poun ds of Wate r evapo r ated

p er pou n d of f uel
Wh en seve r ely f o r ce d it see m s to su ff e r little or n o ha r m fr o m the p r oces s
,

a n d at c r u i si n g spee d s it is ve r y eco n o m ical I t howeve r has t h e ob j ectio n .

, ,

c o mm o n to the N o r m a n d Th orn y c r oft a n d ce r tai n othe r bo ile r s of havi n g

, , ,

t h e tub es so co n sider ab ly be n t as to p r eve n t e x a mi n atio n i n ter n ally .

B e ll evi ll e B oil er ( fig —
Thi s boi ler h a d bee n f or ve r y m a n y yea rs
.
.

a f avou rite i n Fr a n ce a n d fitted i n to m a n y wa r s hi p s ,

a s also i n to a la r ge .

n u m be r of thei r m e r cha n t s hi ps I t had also bee n used e x te n sively i n .

Am er ica both f or m ar i n e a n d la n d pu r poses whe n it was at last m o r e favou r

, ,
-
1

a bly looked upo n i n thi s cou n t r y the lea d in the m atte r bei n g taken by ,

the Ad mi r alty who r eplace d t h e wet botto m loco m otive boile r s of H M S

,
-
. . .

S ha r pshoote r with boile r s of thi s ki n d the fir s t class cr ui se r s P owe r ful -

”
a nd Te rr ible each of ,
a n d m a n y othe r S hi ps c r ui se r s battle , ,

ships a n d gu n boats wer e a fte r wa r ds fitted with the m For la r ge shi ps t hi s

. .

boiler see m ed suitable a n d c a n co m pete success fu l ly with the other f o r m s

,

o f wate r tub e boile r i n the questio n of weight ;

-
f or s m alle r si z es howeve r , ,

s eve r al of the be f o r e m en tio n ed boiler s have adva n tages ove r the B elleville
-
.

I t was f or so m e t im e the ca u s e of co n side r able t r ouble a n d a nx iety a n d ,

althou gh n ow when t h ey a r e b ette r u n de r stoo d a n d m o r e ca r e f u lly wo r ked t h ey

, ,

d o goo d se r vi ce but they a r e n o lo n ge r fitted to n e w s hi ps I t co n sists of t h e .

usual top d r u m a n d b ot t om f eed collecto r co n n ected by w h at is vi rt ually a

_ ,

s e t of fl atte n ed S pi r als ; i n othe r wo r ds each ele m e n t is of the f o r m t h at a S pi r al ,

sp ri n g would b e if heated a n d flatte n e d Ther e a re of cou r se the usual dow n .

c ast pip es f or ci r culati n g besides S pecial appa r atus f or p r eve n tin g p ri mi n g

, ,

f or f eedi n g a n d f or r educi n g the p r essu r e

,
Thi s b oiler like m ost of its c on .
,

g en e rs m,
u s t to b e success f
, u l b e wo r ked wi th stea m at a high p r essu r e
, ,

or ,to speak m o r e co r r ectly wi th stea m of low volu m e p e r lb co n seque n tly

,
.
,

t h e m a n uf actu r e r s of it usually design it f or a m uch hi ghe r wo r ki n g p r essu r e

than is r equi r e d a n d fit it with a n i n gen ious a n d f ai r ly r eliable r educi n g
, ,

valve E ach ele m e n t is m ade up of a se r ies of tubes of co n si d e r able dia m eter

.
,

e x te n di n g the whole le n gth of t h e boile r c on n e c t e d a t the e n ds by j u n ctio n

'

bo x es of m alleable cast i r o n ( fig 2 32 a ) to which they a r e sc r ewed a n d t h ey .

,

a r e zi g z agged S O as to f o r m the flatte n ed S pi r al

-
These fr o n t j u n ctio n bo x es .

have opposite each tub e e n d a hole of su fficie n t si z e to ad mit of the tho r ough
, ,

e x a mi n atio n a n d clea ni n g of the tubes a n d closed w ith a n oval doo r cla m ped ,

i n the sa m e way as a m a nh ole doo r The top of eac h ele m e n t e n ter s the .

upp er d ru m with a short i n te rn al pipe a n d i n side the d ru m is a se ries of d a s h , _

plates so a rr a n ged as t o tho r oughl y sepa r ate the wate r a n d the stea m T he r e
,
.

i s fu rthe r howeve r e x te r n al to the boile r a sepa r ato r havi n g a n i n te rn al

, , , ,
 LL EV I LL E
BE B OI LER . 615

s pir al dash plat e a n d a t the botto m a n automatic d rai n This boile r is

, , , .

a most costly on e t o m an ufactur e a n d eve n when made with a n accu racy

,

e x cee di n g that usually f ollowed in e n gin e buildi n g it loses so much wate r by

the ve ry la rge n u m be r of s mall leaks as to seriously r educe its e fficie n cy ,

as well as to r equir e a large r ese rve of feed water a n d a con sta n t use of the
distiller s After a most le n gthy a n d car e fu lly m ade se ries of e x pe ri me n ts
.

w ith it a n d the cyl in d r ical bo ile r the Co mmittee appoin ted by P a rlia m e n t
,

co n de mn ed its use in H M N avy on these a n d other gr ou n ds at t h e sam e

. .

tim e it m ust be said that while r eco mm e n di n g that all large ships should
, ,

have a f e w cylin d rical bo ile r s for cruisi n g a n d use in po rt certai n other ,

f o rms of water tube boile r s should be further t r ied a n d wo r ked te n tatively

-

with the obj ect of usi n g the m in such S hips solely whe n high spe ed is n ecessa ry .

N ow wate r tube boiler s a re e x clusively used

-
.

The b oiler s so r ec o mmen ded be sides t h e B abcock 85 Wilco x a n d the

, ,

Ya r r ow with lar ge tubes al r eady desc ribed wer e the D ii rr boiler a n d N icla u s se
,

boile r bot h well k n ow n a n d used on the Co n ti n e n t ; the l atter i n the Fre n ch

,

r ig 2 32 a — T u be
. . an d H e a d ers of a B elle v ille B oile r .

and the f ormer in the G e rm a n N avy a re f avour ites Each of the m has its .

o rigi n i n the paten ts of Jacob P e rki n s of 1 8 3 1 a n d H owar d of 1 8 6 9 P e r ki n s

,
.

a dopted a n i n tern al tube t o cause a ci r culatio n i n the lar ge on e e x posed to

fir e ; this idea was e n la r ge d a n d i mpr ove d by Fi eld by whose n a m e such ,

t ubes a r e k n ow n i n ste a d of by P e rk i n s Howar d placed his lar ge tubes at

.

a s m all a n gle t o the ho r i z o n tal a n d co n n ected thei r fr o n t e n ds to a ve rtical

cha m ber a n d fitted the m with co n cen t ric cir culati n g tubes as f a r as the
,

water level I n 1 8 70 Mi lle r i m p r oved on this by fitti n g a vertical divisio n

.

plate in t h e chamb er i n to which plate he fitted the ci r culati n g tu b es a n d

, ,

p laced on top of the cha m be r a ho ri zo n tal cylin d rical r eceiver with w h ich ,

b oth divisio n s of the ve rtical cha m ber had easy co mmun icatio n so that ,

the wate r flowed dow n i n to the fr o n t or oute r pa r t of it a n d thr ough the c i r

c u la t in g tubes i n to the m ai n tubes a n d f r o m the m i n to the back or i n n e r
,

a t o f the cha m b e r a d the n ce to the r eceive r whe r e it gave up the stea m

p r n , ,

a n d fl owed back a gai n ove r the sa m e cou r se .

6 l6 M A N UAL O F M A R I N E EN GI N E ER I N G .

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N I GL AU $ E B O ILE R . 617
 S TE AM TR IAL S W IT H N I CL AU S S E BO IL E R S .
619

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6 20 M N A UAL or M A R I N E EN GI N E E R I N G .

fleet r a n f ro m Gib r alta r to Q ue bec as a t rial of e n dur a n ce etc the f ollowi n g

, .
,

f acts a re wo r th r eco rdi n g

Tons .

Coal co n sumed by H MS . . . R e df ord with B elleville b oiler s was

Esse x 1 334
Co r n wall B abcock Wilcox
boiler s was
B elleville boile r s was
N iclau ss e

M‘ N N Og g

FI R ! 0 00

B Ow e n n oom 5 1 0 0 .

Fig 2 34 — S tirlin g B oiler ( Ma rin e D e s ign )

. . .

Table lix gives so m e r esults of t rials with these boile rs in va r ious

.

s hi ps of the B ri t i sh N avy which a r e altogethe r quite satis facto r y co n side r i n g

,
 rHE H OH EN e iN BO IL ER . 62 1

th a t the evapor atio n i s equa l t o a bout 1 0 lbs of water pe r lb of coal at ful l

. .

owe r The wate r co n su m pti o n o f cou n ty class of c r uiser er I H P i

p .

p s . . .

very high at f ul l powe r .

Th e S t irlin g B oil er ( fig . which bea r s a str o n g f a mi ly liken ess to

R owa n s boile r withou t its de f ects is n ow co mi n g in to use for m ar i n e wo r k
’
,

a fter havi n g gi ven s a tis f actio n to it s users on sho r e I t has the m e rit of .

si m plicit y a n d p r actically str aight tubes of good si z e placed n ea r ly ve rtically

, .

Th e H oh en s t e in B oi.l er — Thi s boile r

( fig 2 35 ) is a f avou r ite on e in the:
.

Fig 2 35. .
-
H oh en s t e in B oile r .

U n ited S tates , f or gen e r al use i n the N avy of that cou n t r y I t h a s bee n .

ex per i m e n ted upo n ve r y co n sid e rably by U n ited S tates o fficials a n d wit h ,

good r esults I t co n sists esse n ti ally of two stea m r eceiver s at t op pa r allel

.
,

with on e an othe r , a n d t wo wa te r r eceive r s at botto m i mm ediately belo w ,

t h e stea m r e c eive r s an d co n n ected to the m by dow n cast pipes ; or the re .

 T H E T H OR N Y CR OFT - MAR S H ALL BO ILER .

the c r uise rs a n d battles h ips of Jap a n ,

and the f ollowi n g is give n as the
r esults of e x pe ri m e n ts

T AB LE LX —
. T R IAL S or MI Y A B A R A B OIL E R .

N O. 2 . NO 4 . .

T y pe O f boile r, Miy a b a ra Miy a ba r a Miy a b a r a Miy a ba r a

N a t u re of t ria l, Coa l on ly Coa l on ly Coa l on ly Coa l on ly
D u ra t ion of ria l, t 3 3 8 3
Gra t e a r e a 5 3 90 6
3 -
5 3 9 06 5 3 9 06 5 39 0 6
H e a t in g S u rf a c e l 91 1 77 °
1 91 1 -77
H—S_
R at io of 3 5 4 66 3 5 4 66 3 5 4 66 35 4 6 6
.

o
GS ’

B a rom et e r , 3 i n in c h e s 2 9 990 29 818 30 1 2 3 2 9 990

B oi le r pre s s u re , i n lb s . 2 33 8 4 2 33 9 5 2 35 8 8 2 33 0 0
T ot a l f u e l bu rn t p e r s qu a re f oot of
gra t e pe r h ou r , in lb s . 1 7 72 1 2 9 5 35 37 4 1 1 4 4 3 02
T ot a l f u el b u rn t pe r s qu a re f oot of
h e a t in g su rf a c e pe r h ou r , i n lb s . 0 4 997 0 8 32 8 1 05 4 8
0
1 2 4 92
Q u a n t it y O f a sh a n d c lin k e r d u r in g
tr ia l, in lb s . 2 1 0 -72 9 3 73 95 9 76 7 966 2 8 5 -71 4
K in d of f u e l, We lsh c oa l Welsh c oa l Welsh c oa l Welsh c oa l
'

T e m pe ra t u re Of f e e d w a t e r , at F . 75 0 5
Ou t s id e of b oile r room ,
T e m pe r a t u r e
at F 79 6 8 85 3 7 83 1 6 80 9 5
of
.

I n S I d e of boi le r r oom ,
At m os ph e r e
[ at F . 91 4 7 91 1 6 8 9 84 92 3 7
Wa t e r e v a pora t e d f rom a n d a t 2 1 2 °

F p e r lb of f u e l,
. . in lb s . 1 0 4 39 9 2 64 6 9 1 6 03 8 2 2 93
I V a t e r e v a por a t e d f r om a n d a t 2 1 2
°

F per s qu a re f oot of h e a t in g
.

s u rfa c e , in lb s . 5 2 1 62 7 71 5 0 9 6 62 7 1 0 -2 8 00

T h e Th Orn y croft Marsh a ll B oil er ( fig 2 3 7) is also on e with la r ge tubes ,

-
.

t h at see m s a goo d desig n f or m a r i n e or la n d I t s section al f o r m w h ic h

.
,

is a goo d on e f or ship use co n sists of a stea m d ru m wit h hea d e r s

, ,

s ta n di n g ve r tically dow n wa r ds , capable of taki n g t w o ve r tical r ows O f tubes ,

a n d sp ace d so that sim ila r heade r s sta n di n g upwa r ds f r o m t h e f eed collecto r s

or wate r d r u m s m a y fit betwee n t h e m The botto m hole in the lowe r heade r

.

is fitted with a tub e , whose back e n d fit s i n to a j u n ctio n b ox like that of

a B elleville boile r ; a n oth e r tub e is fitted i n to this box a n d the botto m ,

hole of the heade r fr o m t h e stea m d r u m , a n d so m akes the co n n ectio n f r o m

t h e f ee d t o the st e a m r eceive r a n d so on with the othe r ele m e n ts , as show n

in fig 2 3 7, like those i n the Hohe n stei n

. H e r e , t oo the tub es a r e st r aigh t
.
, ,

an d at a good a n gle they c a n be r ea d ily e x a m i n ed a n d r eplace d or clea n e d ,

a n d t h e c ir c u la t i on is ce r tai n a n d good This boile r c a n also b e r ea dilv
~
.

d r ai n e d a n d clea n ed .

The r e a re so m e othe r boiler s wo r thy of n otice in a sp eci al t r eatise , but

n ot , howeve r of the sa m e i n te r est to the m a ri n e e n gi n ee r as the f o r e goi n g
,
.

Th e wa ter in th e wa ter t u be boil er is as a r ule ver y co n side r ably less

-
, ,

t h a n that in the o r di n a r y boile r , a n d t o this f act is in n o s m all m easu r e d u e

the e x ceedi n gly li ght weight of cer tai n boile r s of this t y pe To the design er .
62 4 MA N UA L A I
or M R N E E N
-
GI N E E R I N G .
 T H E T H O R N Y cR orr ~ M AR sII AL L BO IL ER .
62 5

this is cou rse a g reat ad va n tage a n d in case of accide n t e it h er fr o m with i n

of , ,
— fr m
or from without o a shot for e x a mple— the possibl e a mou n t of h a rm ,

is li m ited especially i f t h e r e be n o Obstr uctio n wit h t h e d r aught but t o t h e

,

fir e m en it is othe r wise be i n g a sou r ce of t r ouble as it pe r mits of such great

, .

va riatio n s in stea m p r essu r e f r o m te m po r a r y causes The auto m atic r educi n g .

valve as fitted to the B elleville a n d othe r boile r s te n d s to p re ve n t a n y ill

.
, ,

e ff ect fro m this bein g ex pe rien ced in the en gi n e r oo m , for so lo n g as t h e -

p ressu r e in t h e b oiler does n ot fall below that at w h ich the appa r atus is set
to delive r the r e will be little or n o va riati o n at the high p r essu r e valve box
,
- -
.

The total weight in the boiler r oo m in cludes besid es the boile r p r ope r -
, ,

the water m ou n ti n gs a n d fitti n gs ; the fu rn ace fittin gs b r ickwo r k e t c ;

, , , ,
.

the casi n gs a n d uptakes to the fun n el base ; in fact eve rythi n g is i n cluded
“

t h at is n ecessa r y t o m ake a fai r co m par ison Taki n g n aval boile rs of the .

old double e n ded ty pe the ave r age weight of water is about 2 9 per ce n t
-
, .

of the total weight while with si n gle en ded n aval boiler s it is about 2 6 per
-
-

ce n t The steam p r essu r e f or which these boile r s we r e design ed is howeve r

.
, ,

o n ly 1 5 5 lbs With double —e n d ed boiler s m ade in acco r da n ce with the

, .
'

B oa r d of T r ade R ules f or pr essu r es of 1 6 0 lbs the wate r was about 33 % per

.

cen t of the total weight a n d about 3 2 per ce n t with the si n gle e n ded boile r s
.
, .
-
.

Wit h the gun boat typ e of boile r the wate r is 3 3 p e r cen t whe n design ed , .

in acco rdan ce wi th the Ad mi r alty R ules With the B elleville boile rs the .

w a t e r w a s o n ly about 8 pe r ce n t of the total weight ; with the B abcock

~
.

Wilco x b oiler s it is about 1 4 ; p er cen t w ith the Ya rr ow boile r it is about .

1 5 % pe r ce n t ; with the Th or n yc r oft boile r 1 5 per ce n t ; a n d with the

. .

N o r m a n d boile r about 2 4 pe r ce n t The dry botto m loco m otive boil er .

-
,

which was the r ival of the s m alle r class of wat e r tub e boile r has wate r to -
,

the e x ten t of 30 pe r cen t .

The total weight per I H P at f o r ced d r aught was on the aver age with . . .

the o rdi n ar y old n aval double e n ded boile r s about 8 8 lbs a n d with the -
.
,

si n gle en ded o n es 1 08 lbs The lightest of all was 80 6 lbs The B ellevi lle
-
. .

a n d the B abcock Wilco x a r e both u n de r 8 0 lbs a n d with a n a ir p r essu r e .

,

o f 1 i n ch of water the w eight is as low as 70 lbs with the B elleville Taki n g . .

t h e n aval cyli n d r ical boiler s with n atur al d r aught t h e ave r age weight pe r
I H P was 1 2 1 lbs wit h d ou ble en ded boile r s a n d 1 3 3 lbs with si n gle en ded
. . . .
-
, .
-
.

I t is t r ue th a t the latt er figu r e was f or the la r ger si z es f or battles hi ps a n d

c ruiser s With the B ellevi lle boiler s the weight per I H P is 82 lbs a n d
. . . . .
,

the B abcock Wilco x 88 7 lbs ; a n d with the la r ge allowa n ce p r ovided .

i n the c r uise r s it was 1 1 0 lbs or 1 1 lbs less tha n the old double e n ded boil e r s .
, .
-

for 1 5 5 lbs p r essu r e a n d 23 lbs less tha n the s in gle en ded boile r s for 1 5 5 lbs
.
, .
-
.

p r essu r e as supplied t o t h e N avy I t is m ani fest by these figu r es that the re .

is a disti n c t savi n g in weight wi th the water tub e boile r s in la r ge ships -

.

I t is h oweve r in the s m alle r class of vessels that the gr eat adva n tage in
, ,

usi n g thes e boile rs is e x pe rie n ced Her e types of boilers c a n b e e m ployed that .

w ould ha rd ly be ad m issible in the la r ge r ships * a n d the f ull adva n tage of the

system c a n be u t ili s ed B y again r ef erri n g to the table it will b e see n that
.
,

with the loco m oti ve boile r the weight per I H P is 33 lbs while with the . . . .
,

Ya rr o w boiler t h e weight is o n ly 2 5 lbs co n siderabl y u n d e r the loco m otive -

.
, ,

as a r e a ll the o the r fo rm n ow fitt ed i n to to r pedo boat dest royers The gr e at s .

savi n g in e a ch case is of cou r se d u e in l a r ge m e asu r e to the s mall a n t it y

R ef e rr i n g to Table lx v it will be see n that whe n taq p
.
, ,

o f the water . in g all .

,

Th e Y a rrow boi ler , w it h s omewh a t la rge r t u b es t h a n f or me rly Ob t a i n ed , is n ow fit t ed i n a ll c la s se s

o f wa r s h ip ,
a n d i n la rg e a n d s ma ll ex p ress pa ss e n g er s h i ps .
 WA T ER
__ I
CON S U MP T O N TR IAL S . 62 7
628 M AN UA L or M A R I N E E N G I N EE R I N G .
M OD ER N M A R I N E B OI L ER TR IA L S . 62 9

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6 32 M A N UA L A I
or M R N E E N GI N EE R I N G .

Mr Ya rrow howeve r adopted

.
,
i n ge n ious a rr an gem e n t f o r co n t rolli n g
,
an

the f eed do n keys w h ich is at the sa m e ti m e ve r y si m ple a n d e ff ective The r e .

i s a n i n te r n al stea m pipe i n t h e ste am r eceive r specially fitted f or the f eed

d o n key its O pe n e n d is su r rou n ded by a s m all t r ou gh a n d is at the hi ghest .

wo rki n g level of t h e wate r (Th e t r ough is shaped like a n i n ve r ted co n e

.
,

a n d so keeps t h e wate r f ai r ly s m ooth withi n it ) I f t h e wate r r ises above .

this poi n t wate r e n te r s the stea m pipe gags the pu m p a n d is ca rried thr ough
, , ,

it s e x haust pipe to the co n de n se r or hot well ta n k -

.

I t is a d isputed poi n t whethe r to ad m it the f eed wate r i n to the uppe r or -

l owe r c h a m be r ; but if the p r i n ciple of aidi n g a n d n ot obst r ucti n g ci rcula

tio n is obse r ved the r e n eed be little or n o co n t r over sy on this poi nt Each
,
.

case m ust be d e alt wi t h on its ow n m e r its but as a ge n e r al r ule u n less the

—
, ,

fee d wate r is w ell h eate d it is bette r ad m itted to the botto m cha m be r or at

-

the dow n cast pa r t of the uppe r cha m be r in a dir ectio n of the d o wn wa r d

flowi n g cu rr e n ts ; by p r e fe r e n ce t h e latte r as it i s m o r e l ikely to aid ci r culatio n , .

I n this case t h e f ee d pip e ma y wi th advan tage b e m ade s m all so that the

,
-

Wh e n the wate r is well heated be fo r e

~

w ate r is i n j ected a t a hig h velocity

'

a d m issio n to the boile r p r ope r it is n ot of m uch i m po r ta n ce whe r e it is take n ,

bu t a n i n tern al pipe with s m all outlets to i n s u r e di st ributio n should b e fitt e d .

Mr Ya rr ow caus ed the i n co m i n g f ee d to be heated by passi n g t h r o u gh t h e

.

oute r r ows of t u b e s .

I t is usual a n d advisable also to fit wate r tub e boile r s with a settli n g -

cham be r i n to xvh ic h n n y s o lid m att e r ad mitt ed with the f eed wate r c a n be -

deposited a n d blow n ou t The p r i n ciple On whi ch these act i s t h at soli d

.
.

matte r of highe r S pe ci fic g r avity t h a n the wate r will d e posit in a n e n la r ge ,

me n t of a cha n n el whe r e the r e is a r e d uctio n in the velocity of flow a cha n ge

in d i r ectio n Of f low also helps to deposit A certai n a m oun t O f lim e s olutio n .

is used wi th a d va n tage in these boile r s a n d a m ean s for ad mitti n g it is ; ,

n ecessa r y . As a r ule it m a y be i n t r oduce d with the f eed wate r by placi n g :

,
-

it in the ta n ks .

I n a r r a n gi n g casi n gs a n d uptakes g r eat c a r e should be take n to i n su r e

a good d ist ribu t io n of the hot gases ove r t h e whole of the tubes The t en .

den ey to sho r ten ci r cuit is of cou rse st r o n g a n d t o p r even t it co n side rable

, , ,

j udg m e n t is n ecessar y in the plac in g of ba ffle plates a n d othe r d evices I t .

is a m atte r of e x pe ri m e n t however to so place the m as to get the best r esults

, , .

Th e fire pl aces in wa ter t u be boil ers a r e ge n e r ally of such a n atu r e as to

- -

requi r e a b r ickwo r k e r ectio n : i n f act i n the case of the B elleville boile r the ,

b rickwo r k was ve r y e x te n si ve but in the case of m ost of the othe rs a n d

, ,

especially of the lighte r ki n ds the b r ickwo r k is li m ited t o the i mm ediate

,

n eighbou r hoo d of t h e fir e the r est of the boile r up t o the base of the f u n n el

,

bei n g e n closed with light i ro n wo r k either li n ed with asb estos tiles or in so m e

, , ,

othe r way p r otected f r o m the di r ect actio n of the heat of the gases As fa r .

as possible it is bette r to use wate r walls tha n b r ickwo r k both of whi ch a re ,

o n ly absolutel y n ecessa r y to r esist co n tact of the fl am e or di r ect r adiatio n

fr o m the glowi n g fuel Casi n g plates outside the tubes n ot subj ect to the
.
,

di r ect actio n of the fir e ma y b e of ver y thi n sheet s teel especially i f sti ff e n ed

, ,

with light a n gles or by co rrugatio n s it is ge n e rally m ade po rtable so that ,

it c a n b e easily r e m oved for the clea n i n g of the outside of the tubes or the
r epai ri n g of the boi le r whe n n ecessa r y S heet asbestos 2} i n ch thick fo r m s .

a ve ry goo d p rotectio n to these thi n casi n gs ; it r equi r es to be ca r e fully

 I
F R E- P LA CES IN W A T ER -
T UBE I L ER S
BO . 6 33

s ecu r ed and
p rotecte d fro m d a m age a n d for t h is pu r p ose i t is O fte n c om ,

ple t e ly cove r ed by t h i n s h eet steel but t h is cove r i n g sho u l d be avoid e d if ,

possible Two layer s of asbestos m illboa rd with a space between the m

.

p r actically seale d so as to p r eve n t a ir ci r culatio n m a k es a still bette r shiel d

, , ,

a n d wit h ca r e in fix i n g it will withsta n d a co n s id e r able a m ou n t of wea r a n d

tea r The Ad mi ralty d o n ot n ow r equi r e t h e fitti n g of d a m per s to the u p

.

takes Of water tube boile r s as f ou n d in t h e to r pe d o boat d estr oye r s a n d

-

, ,

in dee d the n ecessity for t h e m d oes n ot e x ist while thei r p r es e n ce m a y be a

, ,

sour ce of d a n ge r The evapo ratio n with these bo ile r s is quickly ch ecked by

.

leavi n g the fire d oo r O pe n or m uch better still by shutti n g off altogethe r , , ,

a ccess of a ir to the fire Without the da m pe r the bur sti n g of a tube or oth e r
.

ser ious leakage is n ot da n ger ous as the stea m escapes i mm e d iately up t he ,

f u n n el The Ad m ir alty also r equi r e to be fitte d a n appa r atus for d r en chi n g

.

the fir es with water whic h c a n be O pe r ated both f ro m the stokehole a n d

,

o n deck Th e tubes do n ot ge t c ove r ed wit h soot a n d d ust so badly as m igh t

.

be e x pected a n d wh e n Welsh coal is us ed in the boiler s the deposit is easily

,

r e m ove d Oil fuel howeve r is n ow al m ost e x clusively u s e d

.
, , .

The li fe of t h ese wa t er tube boile r s is rather too sho r t to be satis facto ry

-
,

a n d the t r ouble e x pe ri e n ce d wit h t h e B elleville due howeve r in n o s m all , , ,

m easu r e to the wa n t of ca r e a n d j u d gm e n t by those in cha rg e of the m cause d ,

the m to be co n de m n ed Other s less in fir st cost a n d n ot havi n g such delicate

.
,

fitti n gs a n d casi n gs etc n ot r equi r i n g so m uch ca r e a n d atte n tio n m ight

, .
, ,

b e m o r e ge n er ally use d for e x p r ess s tea m er s as they a r e in n aval ships I t .

is however i m p er ative f or s uccess in e ither s er vice that the tubes last at

, ,

least as l on g as those of a cy lin drical boil er that t h ey b e straight or n ear l y ,

so a n d i n cli n e d at a g ood a n gle with the ho r i z o n s a y at least 1 0 degr ees

,
“

—
, ,

that the ci r culatio n be cer tai n u n i fo rm a n d r apid that t h e sur f aces e x pose d
, ,

to heat a re to be; ea sily clea n ed a n d kept clea n that the fit t i n gs be as f ew

in n u m be r as possible an d absolutel y tight that the casi n gs be so d esign ed
a s t o r e m a in a ir —tight a n d to keep go od as lo n g as the boile r itsel f a n d that ,

the grates be of such a s iz e a n d so placed as to get go od co m bustio n as well

‘
a s u n i f o rm distr ibutio n Of the heat p r o d uce d eithe r by coal or Oil
‘

.
T E S r s or
'
BO IL ER M A T E R I AL .
6 35

7 7
2 2

w
.
o
m o
b s
-
L

E S
m “
m
.
e
u m
a
n 9
m
a 8 a
o h
> e 3 n
n
m 5
p
m a
6 36 M AN UA L or M AR I N E E NG I N E E R I N G .

di ff e r ent f rom those p r evailing on se r vice f or then instead of being at an , ,

uni fo r m tempe r at u r e thr oughout and that too at or about that at whi ch , , ,

the stru ctur e was r ivetted togethe r the va riation between the parts may ,

b e conside r able and all much hotte r than when const ructed the r eby changing
, ,

the conditions of str ess and str ain conside r ably The f u r naces chamb er s .
, ,

a n d tubes w ill all b e hotter than the shell and its long stays and ther e fo r e ,

sho u ld e x pand mo r e ; on the other hand the consider able length of the stays ,

in the stea m space pe r mits of gr eate r actual ex tension u nder load so that ,

the equilib r i u m is p r obably maintained at the hi gh as at the low temper at u r e .

High temper atu r e a ff ects the st ru ctu r e of the boiler but the local st r esses ,

a n d st r ains only a r e seve r e and it is r eally on getting up steam that f aulty ,

o r impe r f ect wo r kmans hi p is made mani f est ; it is f or that r eason many

e ngineer s r equ i r e that steam shall b e r aised in on e at least of a set of boile r s
be fo r e b eing placed in the shi p a fter bein g tested by w ater A box boile r .
,

as made year s ago f or w o r king p r essu r es of 2 5 to 3 5 lbs w ith flat sides and .

e nds fl attened f u r naces inter nal uptakes the stays complicated and r iveted
, , ,

to the boiler and ther e fo r e w ith no i ni tial tension made of untested and
.
, , , ,

s omewhat unce r tain mater ial by means also uncer tain and designed t h r ough ,

o u t mo r e or less by r ule of thumb r equi r ed some d r astic tests to give it a ,

char acte r and ample p r oo f of its r eliability was absol u tely necessar y Mo r e
, .

over such a boiler w ith its d ea dw eigh t ed sa f ety valves and hu ge gr ates
, ,
-

w a s liable to have an inc r ease of steam p r essu r e on the sudden and u nex pected
s toppage of the engines f a r in e x ces s of the wo r king p r essur e and might ,

a mount to the 25 to 3 5 lbs especially when ships had no au x ilia r y steam .

,

w o r ked f eed pump Altogether then the ru le f or testing boiler s to a p r ess u r e

.
, ,

e qual to t wice the wo r king p r essu r e was qui te a r easonable on e and w a s ,

neve r questioned .

To day ho w eve r ever ything is di ff er ent ther e is n o un certainty in design

-
, ,

o r manu factu r e the const r uction is ca rr ied ou t unde r constant and ca r e f u l

,

inspection and the whole of the mater ial is tested and its cha r acter dete r
,

mined ; mor eove r the r e is no p ossibility of steam accumulating to an ex tent

a s to p r oduce a dange r ous p r essu r e ; the Admi r alty ther e fo r e we r e fu lly , ,

j ustified in changing the r ule for water tests yea r s ago on the use of S iemens
’

s teel becoming unive r sal and the wo r king p r essu r e r aised to something ,

o ver 1 00 lbs per squa r e inch The B ur eau V e ritas and Ger man Gover n
. .

ment have also acquiesced in the r easonableness of these v iews and for ,

a ve r y long time all locomotive enginee r s have b een content with quite a

mode r ate mar gin ove r the wo r king p r essur e as the test of these boile rs The .

B oa r d of T r ade L loyd s R egiste r and the B r itish Co r po r ation howeve r still

’

, , ,

r eq u ir e all n e w boile r s to b e tested by w ate r in the p r esence of thei r S u r veyo r

*
t o a p r essu r e double that at which they license them to wo r k .

Th e Admira l ty R ul e for all tank boiler s is that they b e tested to a p r essu r e

e qual to 90 lbs in e x cess of the wo r king p r essu r e so that if it is 1 8 0 lbs the
.
, .

test will b e 2 70 lbs .

Th e B u rea u Veri ta s requ ire a test of double the wo r king p r essu r e so long ,

as that p r essur e does not e x ceed 1 4 2 lbs e r squa r e inch whe e the wo king
p r r .

p r essu r e is ove r 1 4 2 lbs the margin need not e x ceed 1 4 2 lbs . so that if
, .

the wo r king p r es sur e is intended to b e 1 80 lbs the Fr ench test is 1 8 0 142 .

, ,

or 3 2 2 lbs instead of 360 as r equi r ed by En glish r ules

.
, , .

Th e German Governmen t requ ire the hyd raulic test to be twice the wo r kin g
Th R l ow t b li h d b y t h B i t i h M i
e u e n E gi
es a i g D ig d Co t
s e t io C mmitt e r s ar ne n n e er n es n an n s ru c n o ee
i th t f
s a b il , wh w ki g p
or o de rs ot e ed 1 00 lb
ose t h hyd
or lic t t i 2 x W P ; wh
n re s s u re oe s n x ce s e ra u es s en
o v er 1 0 0 lb s t h e t es t i s
. x W P + 5 0 1m .
 mN D R I CAL B orriE R 6 37
’
' '

cy S H EL L .

p r ess u r e whe n it does not e x ceed 5 atmosphe r es w hen the w or k in g pres s u re

' '

intended is above this ( that is 75 lbs ) t h e ma rgin need not e x ceed 5 atmo , .

sphe r es so that a Ge r man boile r for 1 8 0 lbs W P will be tested to ( 1 8 0

,
. . .

I f a boile r req u ir es test ing a fte r it has been at wo r k in the

'

or 2 5 5 lbs only . .

ship the p r essur e n eed n ot b e mo r e than 5 0 per cent over the wo r king p r essur e .
,

and n ot e x ceed by 85 lbs t h e W P . , . .

I t Will b e seen then that for a mode r n boile r made f or a w o rking

-

, ,

p r essu r e of 1 80 lbs per squa r e inch the A dmi r alty wo u ld test to 2 70 lbs ;
.
, .

the Ge r man Gover nment to 2 5 5 the Fr ench o fficials to 3 2 2 and the

English t o 3 6 0 lbs As a consequence of the latter a boile r can n eve r
.
,

b e made with such light scantlings as the ci r cumstances wo u ld w a rr ant ,

‘

as the st r ess would b e at test so close to the elastic limit of the mate r ial as t o
b e danger ous wher eas unde r Ger man Fr ench and Admi ralty conditions
, , ,

a f acto r of sa f ety of 4 w hich is ample could b e indul ged in gene r ally

, , .

Th e _Ad mir a lt y r ul es a r e not so st r ingent n or so e x tended as those o f the

B oar d of T r ade as the ci r cumstances of naval const r uction r equi r e a little
,

mo r e elasticity .

l
B oi er S e h ll C li n dri ca l —This is the simplest and str ongest f o r m to
y , .

withstand inte r nal p r essu r e ; b ecause since a ci r cle is the figu r e of least .
,

pe rimeter for a given a r ea ther e is no tendency to change of f o r m the metal , ,

*
is st r ained in on e way only viz tangentially and in tension
— .
, .

The total p r essu r e tending to r uptur e a cylinde r is the pa rt of all the

p r es s ur es acting at the va rious points in di r ection no rmal to the su rface
r esolved i n on e d ir e c t ion This is equ ivalent t o the p r essu r e on the plan e
‘

th r ough the a x is of the cylinde r .

R uptu r e is r esisted by the t w o sections of metal at the sides .

L e t D b e the diamete r of the thin cylinde r and L its le ngth in inches ; ,

9 the e ff ectiv e p r essu r e p er squa r e inch and t the thickness of metal in f r actions
1 ,

of an inch .

Then the p r essur e tending to bu r st it p X D x L .

The st r ess per squa r e inch on the metal r esisting this is

_ p X D x L p X D

T be the u ltim ate st r ength of the mate r ial in pounds per squa r e
L et
inch and F be the f acto r of sa f ety deemed advi sable and let T F f , .

Then the sa f e wo r king p r essu r e for a boile r shell or othe r cylind rical ,

2 t Xf
pa r t subj ect to inter nal p r ess u r e
D
This holds good only when the r e i s no j oint or other cause of r eduction
of e ff ective a r ea of plate section .

S ince a b oile r shel l is made of on e or mo r e plates connected by r iveted

j oints the e ff ective a r ea of plate is that pa r t r emaining between the r ivet
,

holes ( neglecting the e ffect of the friction between the plates ) .

I f the plates a re conne cted by means of a single r ow of r ivets the ave r age ,

value of the pa r t r emaini ng between the r ivet holes i s gener ally 5 6 pe r cent
'
.

oi the whole plate s o that in this case

S afe wo rk ing p ressur e

2t x f X
as
_
t x f
7
D i o0 D
For t h is a n d t h e o h er t p a rts oft he b oiler s , v i d e n e w u le s R e s t a b lish ed by t h e B ri t is h Ma rin e
E n gin e er in g D
es ign a n d Con s t ru c t ion Commit t e e a s se t ou t in t h e A pp en d ix .
 RI V ET IN G . 639

R ivet metal * is always so fter than boile r pl ate and its resistance to shea ring ,

is less than that of the latter to tension for this reason the area of the rivets ,

should be gr eate r than that of the plate r emaining between the rivet holes ; bu t ,

on the other h and wher eas the plate is subj ect to r eduction by wear the r ivet
, ,

s ec ti on is not so a ff ected and in consequ ence it might s u ffice to allow the same “
"
,

2 7
area of r ivet . The B oa r d of T rade r eq u ir es the r ivet ar ea of section to be —
’
23
1 1 74 times the area of se ction of plate between the holes for steel w hose
tensile is 27 tons .

Taki n g 5 6 per cent as the p ropo rti on of pl at e between the holes

.
, p the
pitch and d the diamete r of the r ivets
,

P itch of rivets

P itch of r ivets 2 2 73 diamet er .

S ince the a r a of r
e ivet 4, the po rtion of the plat e between holes ,

27 56 27
m
7r
" — d) i t x
Z fi
,
, 2
S ubstituti n g the v a lue of p a s found above ,

D iamete r of r ivet X thickness of plate .

Ex a mple To find the pitch and diamete r of rivets for a single r iveted
— -

lap j oint with pla t es é inch thick st r engt h of j oint being 5 6 per cent
, , .

D iamete r of r ivet o r 0 95 inch .

P itch of r ivets 2 2 73 x 0 95 or inches , .

The lap of t h e plates i s th r ee times the diamete r of the rivet ; if it is

m ade mo r e than t hi s the plate will sp ring I n ca u lking ; i f made less the re
, ,

is danger of bulging or c r acking the edges and also the r e is no ma rgin f or ,

r ec a u lk in g if r equi r ed .

The f ollowing t a ble giv e s the pitch etc as f ound I n gene r al p r actice : , .
,

T AB L E LXIX .
— L AP J OIN T S SING L E ,
-
R I V E T E D TIG H T WOR K
, .

Th i c k n ess Di a m e t er B read t h
P e rc en t age of

of of
Pl at e . Ri vt e .

Pl at e . R ivet

La p d bl i d
oin t— Her e the r e a re t wo r ows of r ivets
a nd
( 2) j_ ou e r vet e -
. .

S ometimes as i n shipbuilding , the ri vets of on e r ow a re e x actly in line with

,

th o se of the other and thu s c alled chain r iveting ; but mo r e f requently

”

tho se of on e r ow a re in line with the mi ddle of the spaces of the other and ,
"
it is then call ed “
zigzag riveting The latter plan r equi res less la p, and
"

p
S t e e l a r t s f or r i e s a n d vt s c rew e d s t a y s ha v e an u lt i ma t e t en si le of 2 6 t o 30 t on s and it s r e s is t a n c e

t o sh ea r i s re t u rn ed a s 2 3 t on s .
6 40 M ANU AL or MARIN E E N G I N EE R I NG .

makes tighte r w o rk than the fo rme r bu t does n ot ie av e t he plate so st rong , ,

e specially w hen the holes a re punched He re again the rivet a rea ma y be .

made the same as the a r ea of the plates be t we en the holes bu t the B oard of .
. .

T rade r e qu ir es the a re a of r ivet section to be

3; or i 1 74
°
tha t of the plate
between the r ivet holes Taking the p ropo r tio n of the plate bet ween t h e
holes a t 70 per cent .

Pitch of r ivets 1 00
’
dia meter 00 70

P itch of rivets 3 3 3 3 diamete r .

7
5
?f%
4 o
p t
2
%
2
08 p X t
'

whence substituting the above value of p

, ,

D iamete r of r ivet X t hi ckness of plate .

Ex a mple — To fin d the pitch and diamete r of the r ivets f or a lap j oint ,

double riveted -
: the plates being g inch t hi ck and the st r ength of j oin t
-

70 pe r cent .
1

D iameter of r
ivet 1 2 75 inches
x g , or .

Pitch of r ivet 3 3 33 x 1 2 75 , or 4 3 5 inches .

Also i ! tre ble r iveted and t h e st r en gth of j oint 72 pe r cent

. ,
.

P itch of r ivets 35 7 X diamet er .

2
7r d 72 27 —
3 0 84 D P X t
4 W O
P t
ég
’

whence substituting the above value

,
of p,
D iamete r of r ivet thi ckness of plate .

Exa mple the pitch and diameter of the rivets for a t r eble
— To fin d
riveted lap j oint the plates being 1 inch thick
, .

D iameter of r ivets 1 x or 1 2 8 inches .

P itch of r ivets 3 5 7 x 1 2 8 or 4 % i n c hes . .

A S pecia l Arran g emen t of Treble R ivetin g is sometimes r eso rted to wher eby
the strength of j oint is 8 0 per cent of the solid plate and has double t h e .
,

n um be r of r ivets in the middle r ow than in eithe r of the two oute r I n thi s .

ca se it is obvious that the pitch in the oute r r ows must be such that in ne r
row r ivets must be fa r enough apa r t to give at least 5 6 pe r cent of plat e .

betwee n them Table l x x ii gives the di amete r pitch etc for s u ch a typ e
. .
, , .
,

of j oint and it w ill be seen that the r atio of cl to t is high— viz

, 15 0 .
, .

Gen era l R ul es f or Ri vet ed Join ts a re based on the allowances made by

the B oa rd of T rade for mild steel— viz that the shell plates may va ry in
‘

.
,

tensile st rength from 2 7 to 3 6 tons and that the u l timate shea r ing r esistan c e
,

of r ivet steel is 2 3 tons pe r squa r e inch The mi ni mum tensile for the plate s .

of 2 7 tons is ass u med in the rules and c alculations and by r e fe rring to Tabl e ,

lx i x the adj u stment can be made when steel of highe r min imum tens ile
.

s trength is intended t o be used .

For lap j oin t s gen er a lly whe r e p is the pitch of oute r r ows a nd d t h e
, ,

diameter of rive t
 RI V ET I N G . 64 1
‘

Are a of r ivet X number of rivet s per pitch X 23 (p d) xt x 27 .

2
cl Xn
(a ) Then thickness of plate X 0 6 69 .

p d
Fora s i n gle r iv et ed j oint p
-
d is usually 5 6 per cent of p
, . .

double p d 66
tr eble p d 72
speci al 1) d 80
S ubstituting these values in equat ion ( a ) the following ru les hold g ood ,

Thi ckn ess of plates when lap j ointe d f X d z -

p .
.

For o r dina r y single riveting -

f 1 1 95 .

double r ivetin g -

f 2 02 7 2 -

t r eble r ivetin g ( 3 rivets per pitc h ) f

-
2 7 88 .

For special t reble r ivet ing ( 4 r ivets per pitch )

-

f 3 6 45 .

Al so it follo ws that :
For o rdina r y sin gle riveting d 0 4 4 p and p 2 2 73 (1 .

double d 0 3 4 p ; and p 2 94 d .

t r eble d 0 2 8 p ; and p 35 7d .

For special tr eble r iveting d -

0 2 0 p and p z 5 0 0 d .

Exa mple — A plate inch thi ck if connect ed to another by a lap j oin t

w ill have
For single r iveting i ris inches dia m
-

,
et er rivets 2 98 inches pitch
“

,
.

do u bl e 1; 3 30 -

t reble 1 35 7
1
spe cial 1 3; 5 625
For B u tt Join ts and D ou b le St raps the B oar d of T r ade pe rmits onl y
l 8 75 ti me s the single shea r inst e ad of the do u ble
- -
He r e a r ea of rivet section .

X numbe r per pitch of out er r o ws X 2 3 X 1 8 75 (p d) X t x 2 7

— .

d2 x n
( b) That is the thickness of plate x 1 2 5 43 .

d
,

20
S ingle iveting 1 s seldom or never adopted w it h butt j oin ts
-
r .

For o rd ina r y do u ble r iveting -

(p d ) 1 s usually
,
0 75 x p
t r eble (p d) 08 0 X 19 .

For special 3 —r ivet double r ivet ing (p d)

-
08 1 X p .

5 r ivet t r eble r iveting

-

(p -
( 1) 08 4 X p .

For o r dina r y 4 r ivet qu ad ru ple r iveting ( p

-
d) -
08 4 X
For special 9 r ivet -

(p d) 0 92 X p .

l l r ivet
-
(p d) 0 94 X p .

S u bstit u ting these val u e s in equ ation then

Th ickness of pla t e s w hen double st rapp ed butt j oin t ed d 2
K
‘ '

- - z X p
For o r dina r y do u ble r iveted j oint -
K ,
3 3 33 .

special K
o r di na r y t r eble r ivet e d j oint K ,
4 7 04 .

special tr eble r iveted joint K ,

74 6 6 .

o rdi nar y qu adru ple riveted j oint -

K ,
5 973
special 9l riv et K 1 2 26
1 1 1rive t-
 RI V E T ING . 6 43
.

B readth of
B u t t S tra ps for double r iveting is 2 5 X pi t ch ; for t r eble r iveti n g ,
3 x pitch ; and f or t r eble r iveting with the alte rnate rivets in ou t er r ows
omitted , X the pitch .

B r eadth of la p j oi n ts single riveted is 3 x diameter

-
of r ivet .

double 3 x diameter
. pitch .

t r eble 3 X diamete r pitch .

T reble riveted Lap Join t s with t h e n u mber of rivet s in th e middle row

-

dou bl e th a t in t h e t wo ou t er is a go od f o r m of j oint and has simila r advantages

_ ,

to those possessed by t h e d ou ble b u tt st r aps t r eated in a simila r way The

_ .

st r ength of that j oint may b e calculated on t h e basis that ther e a re fou r

r ivets in single shea r f or ea ch unit of pitch
-

2
d 1
That is ,
the thickness of plate _
x 0 669 .

17 d

The hi ghest s t rength of j oint wi th rea sonable size of r ivet is 80 pe r cent

“

that is , p it X p, or p 50 x d .

2
ii
thi ckness of plate
;
X 3 3 45
% x 3 3 45 .

diamete r of r ivet x t .

Ex a mple — I f an in ch plate i s j oi nted wi th this t yp e of r iveti n g the

diameter w il l b e 1 % inches and the pitch 75 mthe oute r r ows and 3 3 inches
,

in the middle on e The pe r centage of j oint thr ough that r ow will b e

.

This is r ather t oo close f or good p r actice ; the middle r ow the r e fo r e '

, ,

s hould al ways have a pitch n ot less than 2 8 X diameter .

With D ou bl e B u tt S tra ps a n d D ou bl e R iveting with th e ou ter rows h aving ,

h a l f t h e n u mber of rivets a s in th e f ollowing holds good He r e .

ther e a r e thr ee r ivets in double shea r f or each u ni t of pitch and assuming '

that the pitch of the inner r ow is 2 6 a n d the outer 5 2 times the diamete r , ,

5 2 -
1
s t r ength of j oint , or 0 8 08 .

5 2

3 x 1 8 75 X 2 3 X 0 78 5 d2
The st r en gth of the r1 v et 1 n g
d X t X 27
If it is 8 1 p er cent then .
,

d
x 0 722 0 81,
°

o
rd 1 1 15 x t .

t
“

For e x ample if an inch pl ate is connected t o another with doubl e butt

,

s t r aps and the outer r ows wit h hal f the numbe r of r ivets in the inner t h e ,

r ivets wi ll b e diamete r x 1 or l
I l s ; the pitch of the middle r ow ,

will b e 2 3 and the outer r ows

,
B y t h e o r dina r y methods the r ivets .

would b e l fidiameter and the pitch 4 i inches with 75 per cent of plate
, .

a n d 72 8 of r ivets ( B of T r ules ) as against the 80 8 pe r cent of each memb er

. .
, .

by the above system I t should be noted however that the butt st r aps in
.
, ,
6 44 M A N U AL or M A R I N E E NG I N EE R I NG .

this case mus t be of such a thic k ness that together they give at least 8 1 per
cent of solid plate with only 6 0 per cent of the pitch between t h e rivet holes
. .
. .

81
T he su m o f t he t hi ckn ess o f bu tt s tra ps
60
x t , or X t .

Each st r ap ther e fo r e ought to be

,
X t and if the thickness be take n
at pi t ch 8 f or the inne r str ap then for the above e x ample its thicknes s ,

would be 5 ; 8 or 0 688 i nch . The inne r st r ap f or such j oints should b e

.

X t and the o u te r 0 6 75 X t
,

Th e B oa r d of T r ade R ule for the ma x im u m pitch of rivets is as f ollows

but the limit f or any t hi ckness of plate is 1 0% inches
Ma x imum pitch c X t + inches .

0 forlap j oints with two r ivets in the pi t ch space .

“

0 thr ee
0 f ou r
0 35 0 f or butt two
th r e e
f ou r
five
'

T AB LE L XX — . L AP JO IN T D O U B L E R I V ET I N G Z IG Z AG
,
ST R E NG T H or . J OIN T
66 PER CE N T OF S O L I D P L AT E
. B R E AD T H OF LAP d . .

Ri ve t s R iv t e s
B
. .

re a d t h T h ic k n e s s
of L ap . of P
la t e .

Di am e t e r . Pi t ch .
’

Pit h
c .

T AB L E L XX I L AP J OIN T S , TR E B L E R I V ET ING
.
— S T R E NG T H OF . J OIN T ,

72 P E R CE N T O F S O L I D P L AT E . .

Jd 2 9 7 —5 d
5 )
.

B R E AD T H O F L AP 3 d 6 8 52 d ( : .

Ri v et s . R iv et s .
’

Di am e t e r . P it ch . Di a me t er .
 RI VET ING .
645

TAB L E L X X II L AP J OIN T ; TR E B L E R I V E T ING W I T H D OU B L E T H E N U M B E R

.
-

F R I V ET s I N MI D D L E R ow T H AT O F OU T E R O N E S S R NG
O T E T H OF
‘

J O IN T 80 P ER CE N T OF S O L I D P L AT E B R E AD TH OF L AP 7 4 d
, . .
°

Ri v et s. Ri vet s
B
.

re a d t h T h ic k n e s s
of La p . of P
la t e Of Lap
Di P it
. .

am e t e r . ch .
Di am et e r . P it ch .

N B — T h e pi c h e s a re in a ll c a ses in t hi s j oin in e x c e ss of t h e B oa r d Of T ra d e R u le ;
. . t t
t
f or e x a m ple , b y t h e r u le a n in ch pla e m a y h a e 5 2 pi ch on ly , w h ic h m e a n s t h e m iddle v t
r ow i s onl y 2 1 in c h e s .

The chie f difficulty w ith lap j oints is in the wo r king O f the co r ne r s of

the plates wher e the nex t st r ake of plating co ver s the lap ; these co r ne r s
a r e hamme r ed or machi ned t o a tap e r S O as to nea r ly con f o r m t o a ci r cle , ,

a n d the cove r ing plate is slightly j oggled so as to lie evenly on the de fo r mation ,

c aused by the lapping Most boiler maker s now to ensu r e a good fit go

.
,

t o the e x pense of planing or milling the co r ne r s f ai r and even to e x tend the ,

t ape r p a r t b eyond the butt e n d of the plate itsel f so as to cause as little ,

de f o r mation as possible .

B u t t J oin ts with D ou bl e S traps an d S in gl e riveted —Thi s f o r m of j oint - .

is n ot O ften r eso r ted to as ther e ar e two r o w s Of r ivets and only a shea r ing
, ,

a r ea O f twice that of the on e r o w O f r ivets b esides all the e x pense of do u ble ,

st r aps which entail the caulking of f o u l seams ; the sol e advantage it pos
,
°

s esses over the double r iveted lap j oint is the absence of smithed co r ne r s
-
,

a n d that the plates lie wholly in the ci r cle without def o r mation ; t hi s how ,

ever does not compensate f or the e x t r a ex p ense and the liability of leakage
,

f r om the two e x t r a seams .

0

The st r engt h of t hi s j oint is seldom mo r e than 65 per cent of the solid

. .

plat e as mo r e cannot b e Obtained witho u t placing the r ivets S O f a r apa r t as

,

to p r ev ent the st r ap fr om being caulked tight I f the st r aps a r e made Of .

_

t h e s a me t hic kn es s a s t he p la t e i t s e lf 70 p er cent may b e Obtained Taking ,

. .

70 p e r cent as the st r ength of j oint the diamete r and pitch of the r ivets a r e
.
,

the sa me as given f or the doub le r iveted j oint and the b r eadth of the str ap is ,

s ix times the d i amete r of the r ivets For ex ample i f the plate is inch .
,
-

5
t hi ck the r ivets should b e 1 1 e inches diameter and 4 3
inches pitch the
—
, ,

—5
b r eadth of str ap b eing 6 X il 1 5 or 7% inches .
,
.

J
B u t t oin ts With D o u bl e S t ps
ra an d D ou bl e rivet ed — This is a ve r y gene ral ‘
-
.

and deser vedly f avour ite f o r m of j oin t f or thick plates and when well made ,

g ives w a y satis f action The r e is no necessity. f or smithing or machin ing

t h e plates n or of j oggling the cove r ing plate of the ne x t st r ake altho u gh ,

some boile r maker s t o avoid the caulking of the ends of the st r ap whe r e it
,

butts against the ne x t st r ake thi n down the end and n Ot ch ou t the cover ing ,

p late so as to la p over the st rap T hi s makes a ver y good j oint but is .

s omewhat e x pensive and if the plates a re p r op erly fitted ther e should be

, ,

n o n eed of such an e labo r ation .

 RI V ET IN G . 6 47

I n actual p ractise the rivets a re somewhat la rge r than giv e n by t hi s ru l e

and O ften equal to the thickness .

T AB LE L XXIII — B U T T . J OIN T S D OU B L E S T RAPS D OU B L E R I V ET ING

,_ ,

ZIG ZAG S T R E NG T H
. OF J OIN T 75 P E R CE N T or S O LI D P L AT E
, . .

R i ve t s f Rivet s .

Th i c k n ess

B re a d t h .
Pl
at e '

T AB L E L XX I V — B U T T J OIN T W I T H D O U B L E S T RAP , D OU B L E R I V ET ED
.

Z IG Z AG , W I T H AL T E RN AT E R I V E T S I N OU T E R R o w s O M I T T E D .

S T R E NG T H O F J OIN T 8 1 P E R GE N T OF S O L I D P L AT E
,
B R E AD T H OP . .

S T R AP 10 6 d .

Rivet s . I n n er S t ra p .

Th i c k n e ss

Pl at e . Pl at e .

Pit ch .

N B . .
—B
y B oa rd of T ra de R u le s f Or t h e a bo e p i c h es t h e bu v t _
tt stra ps s h ou ld be
3 3 p er c en t thicker . t
T h a is , wh a i s t
s h ou ld b e f or. t h e B oa rd °
of T ra d e re qu i re

nne n t s .

T AB LE L XXV .
— B UTT J OIN T S ,
D O UBLE S T R AP S , TR E B L E R I V E T ING .

S T R E NG T H OF - J OI N T , 80 P ER CE NT . OF S O L I D P L AT E . B R EAD T H or

i n n er S t ra p .

Th i c k n ess

Pl at e .

B r ea dt h . B re adt h .

{g 4 113 12 I}
h 43 1 3s 1 136 i
it 4th 14 l it it
1 5 14§ 1 155
1 Its se 15g is
1 113 IA »
5 g~ 1 63 t
I , l ei
64 8 MANU AL O F M ARIN E E NGIN EE RING .

TAB LE L XXV I — B U T T J OIN TS D OU B L E S T R AP S TR EB L E R I V ET ING

. ,

W I T H AL TE RN AT E R I V E T S I N OU T E R R O WS O M I T TE D S T R E NG T H .

OF J OIN T 84 P E R,
CE N T OF S O LID P L ATE B R E AD T H
. OF .

S T R AP 6 d + 2 5 Jd ( 2 p + d) 15 2 d -
.

Riv t e s .

Pit ch . Bre adth . B re a d t h .

Trebl e ri veted
-
( zig zag) B u t t J oin t having hal f the r ivets omitted in the
,

outer r ows and the outer butt st r ap only cove r ing all thr ee r ows the inne r
,

s t r ap cove r ing the inne r r ows and p er mitting of heavy caulking The pitch .

of the o u te r r ow is p the diamete r of r ivets d and the t hi ckness of plate t

, , .

I n t hi s case for each pitch of outer r ows ther e a re f ou r rivets e x posed to

,

double shear and on e to single shear hence ,

2 )
2
( 3 2 z
Eff ective r ivet a r ea d 2
4 X 0 7 85 4 6 6 76 d .

Taking 2 3 tons as the r esistance to shear and 2 7 tons to tensile ,

d2 x 2 3 (p d) t x 27 .

The st r ength Of th is j oint should be 8 5 p er cent . of the solid plate so th a t ,

27
Then d — X X t '
t
25
.

6 6 96
The pitch of in ne r r ows e qual 3 3 3 3 d, and the st rength of j oint at the m
or 70 per cent .

With such an a rr angement of

st r aps and r iveting the li mit of pitch of
l o§ inches will apply only to the i n ne r r ows .

Q u a dru ple rivet ed ( zigza g) B u t t J oin t wi th str aps cove ring all the r ow s
-
,

of r ivets p is the pitch of the oute r r ow that of the two inne r r ows is one ,

t hi rd p while in the second r ow eve r y th ird r ivet is omitted compa r ed with

,

i
'

the nne r r ow — that is f or each pitch Of the out er r ow ther e a r e t w o rivets

,

in the nex t and thr ee in each of the others — hence f or each pitch ther e a re
nine r ivets in double shea r The thickness of the plate is t Then. .
,

15
Effective r ivet a rea 9 x x 0 785 4 d 2
(Z.
2

N B . .
— r
T h e B oa d of T ra de R u le s d o n ot a llow of a
gr e a t e i: pitch th a n 1 0 5 in ch e s
f or an y th ic k ne s s of p la e t .
 R I V ETI N G . 649

Taking 2 3 to n s as r es is t a nc e to
. S hea r an d 27 ton s tensile ,

2
13 2 57 d (p d) t x 2 7 X 23 .

I t is gen er al ly convenient to make the r ivets of t he same d iamete r as the

thickn ess of p late then as d t

d x 23
(p
—
d ) 27 . Or , p 1 2 29 d-
.

The st rength of the j oint is then 11 2 9 1 2 2 9, or 91 8 pe r cent .

; that of

the i nne r par t 1s or 75 6 per c ent .

41
,

O O O O O O O O O Q O O
'
l
l
0 0 O O O O O O O O O O
L

I 0 0 o o o o o o o o o z o
l
l 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Fig 2 3_7w — S pe c i a l 9 R i
. .
-
vtQ e u a d ru
ple Join t .

An ot h er Qu adru pl e rivet ed - Join t has hal f the number

ivets in the Of r

second r ow than in the two inner and a quarter the nu mber in the o u te r ,

r ow.
That 1 s f or each pitch of o u ter r ows the r e a r e two r ivets in the second
,

and f ou r 1 n each of the two inner r ows— that 1 s ther e a re 1 1 r ivets in double ,

S hea r pe r pitch .

5 2
The e ffective r ivet a r ea is then 11 X 0 785 4 d or 1 6 2 d
z
, .

1 6 2 d >< 2 3 =2 —d t X 27
(p ) .

AS be f or e assu ming d
,
t, then 1 6 2 ( Z x 23 (p cl
) 27 ; Or , 39 14 8 d

Fig 2 3 7b
. .
—
S p ec ia l l l R i -
vtQ
e u ad ru ple Join t .

14 1
The strength of thi s j oin t is then
3g 93 2 per cent That thr ough
“

,
or .

3 1
2g
3
or 76 4 per cent .
,
and thr ough the second r ow
9
or 8 6 5 per cent .
 AL L OWAN CE FOR WEAR . 65 1

Mat crial .
—Th e shell of a cylin drical boiler is now made Of st ee l plates with
a str ength up to 32 tons while the Admi r alty limit it to 30 tons ; it i s e x pected
,

t o st r etch 2 0 per c ent pe r fr actu r e ( see Tab le

. S teel of a highe r
strength is someti mes used and that with 3 5 tons as t h e limit must have 1 8
,

to 2 0 per c ent e x tension ; sometimes steel as high as 40 tons per squar e i nch
.

has been used f or she lls ; it should have the same e x tension .

S iemens steel has quite taken the place of ir on in boiler ma k ing and -
, ,

as it possesses a much hi gher tensile str ength w it h greater toughness it , ,

is a mo r e suitable mater ial for the pur pose A boiler made wholly of .

steel w a s cheaper than when wholly of ir on whi ch no do u bt w a s one ,

cause of the inc r eased demand for steel b oiler s S teel plates can at a t r iflin g .
,

e x tr a e x pense b e supplied of ver y la rge sizes ex ceeding lar gely those made
, , ,

by the Old Yo r kshi r e i r onmaste r s As a matter of fa c t the overhead .

,

p rice of a heavy S p ecification of steel plates was n ot seriously gr eate r than .

that of a light S pecification whi le ther e was a ver y consider able di ffer ence
,

for ir on if lar ge and heavy plates were Inclu ded The size Of plates to be .

used in the constr uction of the S hell depends n ow on the appl iances of t h e
boiler maker ; the b readth of plate is limited by the depth of gap in t h e
-

r iveting machine and the length of plate by the capabilities of the p laning
,

machi ne and s queezer or r olls ; and the weight of the plate is li mi ted to the
st r en gth of the va riou s sm all cr anes etc S teelmaker s can make plates ,
.

up to 1 2 5 feet b r oad and 5 0 f eet long and 1 g inches t hick ( Chap x x x ) , . .

N owadays r olls or squeezer s for c u r v ing plates planing machin es for ,

t ruing the edges d rill ing machines for deal ing with all the holes and r iveting
, ,

machines f or closing the j oints a re made in such lar ge S izes that a double
ended boiler Of the lar gest kind can be made in t w o dru ms a n d each dr um ,
‘

in two pla t es ; S ingle ended boiler s in on e d r um and each d rum in t wo

-

plates some people p r e f er to make each d ru m in on e plat eWhen the diamete r

pe rmit s of it As a r ule it may b e assu m ed that a single ended boiler has
.
,
a -

on e d r um or st r ake of plating the st r ake c onsisting of two plates , a do u ble

e nded boiler should have th r ee st r akes of plating and the longitu dinal seam s ,

should b e so arr anged that n o two of them come in line n or inter f er e with the
seams at the ends and they should be well abov e th e f u r nac e line
, .

All owan ce f or Wear *—

All boiler s ar e designed s o as t o last as long as
.

possible and since wea r takes place by corr osion some additional thickness
, , ,

mu st be p r ovided at fi r st t o meet thi s condition The B oar d of Tr ade tacitly .

make this allowance by using a high f actor of sa fety ; but since the facto r
of sa f ety causes the additional thi ckness t o b e pr oport i on a l t o t he t ot a l thickn ess ,

while the wear takes place independently of t hi ckness it does n ot p r ope r ly ,

meet the case . A boiler with plates 5 inch thick will waste the same quantit y
of steel per squa r e f oot as on e with plates 1 inch thi ck if wor ked under simila r
conditions S uppose such waste t o be
. inch in a c er tai n time the loss ,

in on e c ase i s 25 per cent but only 1 2 per cent in the other T o meet
.
, . .

the case p r ope rly the f actor of saf ety should be r educed and a constant
, ,

quantity added as i s done by the B u reau V eritas ; for e x ample in the ease ,

mentioned above the plates should b e inch and 1 inch s o that at the end ,

of the time the f o r me r S hould b e 1 2 % pe r cent under 3 inch in thickness

‘

If .
.

any furthe r p r oo f be needed it is only necessar y to calculate the thickness

,

N ow th a t s a lt w a te r i s s e ld om a d mitt ed t o a boi ler a n d gr ea te r ca re is t a k e n .

, ,

t h e w a s t e of ma t e r i a l i e on ly s lig h t .
 o

65 2 M AN U AL or M AR N E E N G N EE I I RI N G .

plat es for bo iler s of small diameter and low p r essur e to fin d it s uch a s

'

of

w o u ld be impossible to r ivet and ca u lk tight .

The f ollo w in g ru l es make due allowance for S u ch cont ingencies — L et D

b e the diameter of the shell in in ches p the wo rking p r essur e in pound s ,

squa r e in ch F a f acto r ; then

p er ,

Thickn ess of shell plates 2 ( in 3 2nds ) .

T AB L E L XX V III .
—
V AL U ES OF F ON CON D I T ION .

T e n s ile of Pl t
a es .

Wh en t h e L on g it u d i n a l Joi n t s a re

3 5 T on s .

1 . L ap, or d in a r y , S in gle r iv e t in
o

g,
d ou ble ri e in g ,
-
vt
t
r e b le r i e in ,
-
vt
g
s p e c i a l, t
r e ble r i e in
-
vt g ( 4 r i e s p er p i c h ) , vt t
Bu tt t
, d ou b le s r a ps , or d in a ry , d ou ble r i e in g , -
vt
s p e c i a l, 2 r ow s , 3 r i e s p er p i c h , vt t
t
ord in a ry , r e b le r i e in g , -
vt
s p e c i a l, 3 r ow s , 5 r i e s p er p i c h , vt t
qu a d ru ple , 4 r ow s , 9 r i e s p e r pi c h , vt t
qu a d ru ple , 4 r ow s , 1 1 r i e s pe r pit c h , vt .

D i s t h e in t e rn a l d ia m e t er in, in c h es .

k
p is t h e w or in g pr e s su re .

B oi er Ends .—
l Ther e s eve r al connecti g the end plates to
a re met hods of n -

t he S hell .

( )1 Fla n in
g g t h e en d p la t es — This is now the u niver sal and the best plan
-
.
,

f or ther e a r e only on e set of r ivets and t wo cau l king edges and the r oom ,

occupied is less than wi th angles Flanging is done by S pecial appliances .

‘

at a t rifling cost I n v a rl ou s designs of hyd r aulic p r ess The flanges ( fig 2 3 8 ) . .

a r e usuall y inside the boile r but w hen the shell is O f so small a size that the
,

rivets cann ot b e held up ins ide or it i s desi r ed to r ivet the j oint by machine
, ,

the fr om end is placed ( fig 2 3 9) wi th the flange outside I n either way ther e

. .

is n o tendency to fo rce the j oint by p r essur e on the ends as ther e is w ith ,

( 2 ) Fle mm in g t he s hell p la t es whi ch some few enginee r s in o r de r that a

, ,

thicker plate may b e p r ovided to withstand the wea r that takes place a t the
bottom co rner s or r ather edges of the cylind rical boiler and to avoid the
, . ,

fitting of the fl anged ends into the s h ell with f ai r accura cy r eso r t to tur ning ,

it inwa rds ( fi g so as to fo r m a conn ection f or t h e ends This has som e

. .

bad f eatu res a mong which may be cited t h e d ifficulty and cost of flanging
,

t hi ck p lates acr oss the gr ain especiall y a ft er being bent ; the necessity f or
,

such shell plates to be of low t enacity to h ave so much duct ility ; and lastly ,

the p r essur e on the end always tending to Open the j oints I t has howeve r .
, ,
 TH I CK N ES S OF T H E E N D e PL ATES
‘

.
"
65 3

some f e w advantage s bu t t h e y a re dear ly bought for t o avoid the chanc e

'
“

, , .
,

of leakage at the co rne r s Of the end plates the r e is fa r g r eate r r isk of leakage -

fr om the ho r izontal shell j oints which a r e of necessity flanged ove r t oo unles s

,
,

welded I t may b e added that such an a rrangement quite p revents the

.
,

fu r naces fr om being near the shell '

.

R ivetin g — The c r oss seams Oi the backs a re usually d ou ble r iv e t e d

. ~
,

although f or p r essur e under 1 00 lbs single riveting does quite well The .
-
.

r ivetin g of the ends to the Sh ell is us u ally of the same design as that of the

other ci rcumf er ential seams but in double ended boile r s they need not be
, ,
-
,

t reble r iveted because the middle s eam s a re

-
.

Th e Q u al ity of Pl a te depen ds lar gely on the amount of danging t o be

done To stand Hangi n g a r ound t h e e dges of the ci rcular plates they may
.
,

Fig 2 38 . .

Fig 2 4 0
. .

Figs 2 3 8 t o 2 4 0
. .
— Meth od s of Con n e ctin g S h ell a n d En d Plat es .

b e of the s ame quality as the S hell ; b u t when the fu rnace holes a re fl anged ,

to meet t h e f u rn a c e s a so f te r quality i s desir able and it is better t o use the

, ,

mild kind as o rde r ed f or i nternal par ts havi n g an ex tension of 25 per c ent , .

a t least to s t an d s u c h
'

Th e Th ick ness Of th e En d plates a n d the pitch Of t h e s tays a re inter

’

dependent t o a cer tain e x tent ; but since the stays in the upper par t of t h e
'
‘

boi l er mu st be wid e enough apa rt t o adm it oi a m an passing b et ween them .

,

the plates at the upper p ar t of the ends must be made thi ck enough to s u it
'

'

thi s pitch O f the stays which a re usually in c onsequence somewhat thicker

, , ,

th an t h e other pa rt of t h e ends some make rs however p r efer to make t h e , ,

ends of one un ifo rm thickn ess and sti ff en the top plates to stand the Wid e
,

itch f t h e s t ays by r iveting on thick and la r ge washe r s in wake of thes e

'

p o .
 M E T H O D S OF S T I FFE NING FURN ACE S . 65 5

s uch r ings , or b et
ween ings and the en ds it ma y be taken as the value
su c h r ,
’

o f L in the f o r egoing f o r mul ae .

Th e Meth ods of S t ifien in g Fu rn a ces were B y ma k in g t he fu rn a ce in

t wo or m ore dru ms a n d conn ect in g t hem by means of a U s ha ped hoop called -
,
“
t he B owling h OOp ( fi g fi r st made by the B owling Company
. .

T hese hoops a r e weldless and possess a consider able amount of elasticity ;

,

s o that in addition to sti ff ening they allow e x pansion longitu dinally on the
, ,

par t of the fur nace T his w a s a v e r y convenient plan as it admitted of the

.
,

fu r nace being pa r tially withd r a w n in case of dam age etc and not w ithstanding , .
,

t hat ther e a r e t w o thicknesses of plates and two lap s at each j oint Of the ,

f u r nace it gave ever y satis f actio n w hen t r ied

, N 0 on e ho w eve r makes .
, ,

t hes e hoops n ow so that this type of j oint has gone ou t of use .

( 2 ) B y ma king t he fu rn a ce i n t wo or more dru ms a n d con n ectin g them by ,

mea n s of fla nges f or med by t u r ning the plate end out w a r ds ( fig

, ,
To .
.

a llow of a caulking edge on both sides of the lap a thin r ing is int r oduced ,

b etween the flang es This was a f avour ite method because no j oint or
.
,

r ivetin is e x posed t o the fir e S uch j oints gene ally give t r ouble f r om the
g r .

Fig 2 4 l
. o
C

Fig 2 4 3
. .

Figs 2 4 1 t o 2 4 3 — Meth ods

. . of é
S t is en ih r u m eee s .

t ain on t h e boiler end tending t o Open the j oint and by the wearing away
s r ,

o f the metal at t h e r oot of t h e flanges due t o mechani cal action Fu r naces

,
.

made on thi s plan also re qui r ed mor e r oom in the boiler and the flange s
"

blocked up t he space b etween th em and the boiler shell .

( 3) B y ma k in g t he fu rn ace in t wo or more dru ms of di fieren t di a met ers ;

t hose of Small diameter a r e flanged ou t s o a s t o fit into and b e connected to , ,

t h e la r ger ones with lap j oints single r iveted ( fig I t possesses on e -

.

o r two ver y usef ul f eatu r es among w hi ch may be r eckoned the capability Of

,

t h e f u r nace be in g s m a ll at the mouth to leave good S pace on the boiler

, ,

f r onts f or manholes etc and while small at the combustion chambe r ends
.
,
-
,

it is of go od diameter in the middle I t has however the Obj ection of .

, ,

p r esenting j oints t o the dir ect action Of the fir e .

d —
( 4 ) B y ma k ing t f
h e u rn a ce w it h a s e ri es of c orru ga t i on s or r i ges ~
Ther e
a re n ow sever al ways Of accomplishing t his the best known being that of ,

the late Mr Fox ( fig . and that of Mr P u r ves (fi g

. made by . .

J ohn B r own Co of S he ffield the mo r e r ecen t patent being that of Mr

.
,
.
 6 56 M ANU AL or M A R I N E E NGI N E ERING .

Mo rison ( fi g this f o rm possesses the good featur e s of the P u rves and

.
,

avoids the f ault of t he Fox Fi g 2 4 7 i s the modified f orm of cor rugated

. .

fu r nace made by C D H ol mes Fig 2 4 8 1 5 the f or m m whic h Mr D eighton

. . . . .
,

of L eeds makes f urnaces which have p r oved quite satis f acto r y

,
.
.

T he co rrugated fu rnace was an e x tension of the B owling h 0 0 p p rinciple ,

Fig 2 4 5
. .
-
Pu r v es
’
Fu rn a c e in S e ction .

Fig 2 4 4 —Fox
'
. . s Fu rn a ce .

Fig 2 4 6 — Moris on in S e c tion Fig 2 4 7 — H olmes Fu

’ ’
. . s Fu rn a c e . . . rn a c e .

and its genesis is bes t illustr ated by r e ference t o fi g 24 7 which shows the .
,

plan f ollowed by Mr Holmes Here the r e a re comparatively f e w co rruga

. .

tions but still su fficie nt to give the necessa ry sti ff ness to the f ur nace For
, .

inc reased p ressu r e such a f u rnace as this must eithe r b e ma d e of thicke r

,

D e igh ton r na c e
’
Fig 2 4 8
. .
-
s Fu .

p late or ha ve the c or1 u ga t ion s clos e r together co n s equently for the sam e .

p r es sur e and dimensions the Fox fu rnace will be t h in n e 1 than that of the
,

Holmes On the othe r hand the Holmes fu r nace 1 8 mo r e rigid lon g1 t 11 d1 n a h y

.
,

than the Fox furnace The co rr u gat ed f u 1 n a c e mad e by the Fa r nley Com pany
.

has the co rrugati ons fo1 med spi rall y a r ound t he fu rn a ce and a re said the reby ,
 M ET H OD S OF s r rr r EN rN G F U R N ACES .
. 65 7

t o give g r eater longitudinal r igi di ty without sacri ficin g t oo much of it s ,

t ransver se stiff ness ; it m u s t howeve r tend to se t up t w ist in g str ains w h en

, ,

end pressure is applied , whi ch wo u ld b r ing sh ear on the r ivets and the t rans
-

ver se stiffn ess c a n be only li ttle more than that of the Holmes furnace .

These special fur nace s soon became a necessity for lar ge diameter s and
hi gh p r essu r es ; but although immensely st r ong so long as the metal is
,

cold corr ugated ones will p r obably collapse lon gitu din a lly when r e d h ot
,

qui cke r than an o r dina r y fur nace fr om the fact of the r e being supe r abundance ,

p
o f plate between the e x t reme points of su po r t to supply the e x t r a length o f

the a re ove r that of the chor d a common f u r nace cann ot come down in this
way w ithout st retching the metal ; in the Fox design the corrugations a re
simply d r awn ou t of shape .

Th e P u r ves fu r nace w a s p r actically an e x tension of t h e Adamson j oint -

p rinciple and is shown in fi g 2 45 Thi s furn ace possesses qui te as much

, . .

t ransver se sti ffness as the Fox whi le being super io r in longitudinal ri gidity ;
,

it is mor eover easier to clean and t o r epai r

, , .

For corrugated fu r naces the followi ng r ules hold good ,

D bein g ta ken as t he s m a ll e s t ou tside dia m e ter in in ch es .

2)
Worki n g pre ssu re (Lloy d
’
s R e gis te r ) .

T is t h e thic kn ess in s ix tee n th s of a n in c h .

D is t h e s m a lle st d ia m ete r ou ts id e .

f or Fox s , Moris on s, D e igh on s , B e a rd more s , or Leeds Forge b u lb t

’ ’ ’ ’
C
f u rn a c e s w h e re ma d e of s ee l, 2 6 t o 30 on s e n s ile s ren g h t t t t t .

C
’
v
f or P u r e s , w h e n t h e ribs a re 9 in ch es a pa r ; on B rown s , ri bs 8 or
’
t
9 in ch e s a pa r t .

94 5 f or H olm e s , a n d C
’ ’
0 91 2 f or Fa rn ley s .

C
Workin g pre ssu re

f or Le ed s Forge bu lb f u rn ac e s
W ( B ritish Corpora tion )
.
.

C
’ ’
v
f or Fox s , P u r e s , D e igh ton s , Morison s,
' ’
a nd B rown
’
s.
950 f or H olme s a n d Fa rnle y s
’ ’
C .

( T 2)
Wor kin g pre ss u
'

re C (B u re au V e rita s ) .

D
C f or c orr u ga te d a n d bu lb f u rn ac e s .

C f or ri bbe d f u rn ac es .

2 4 9 shows a Mori son f urnac e with it s back end s o forme d as t o permi t

of the f u r nace b eing wi thd r awn thr ough the hole in fr ont of the b oiler withou t ,

s ac r ificing any of the good f eatu r es of the method of j oin t in g of the com
'

ba stion chamb e r .

Mess r s J ohn B r o w n 85 Co have a lso a f u r nace wi th a back end f ormed

. .

s o as t o pe r mit of the f u r nace being w ithd r awn in the same way _ I n this .

case howeve r the fur nace is r educed somewhat in diameter and fl anged
, ,

o u t war d all r ou nd (a fig 25 1 a ) Thi s flange is n ot concentri c wi th the body

. . .

of the f u r nace its centr e bein g hi gher s o as to per mit of the connection of t h e
,

tub e plate in the usual way the back tub e plate being flanged and r iveted
,

into the comb u stion chamb er all r ound and f or med with a r ound hole co rr e ,

s pon din g to that of the f ur nace neck .

Fo n ew R u les of t h e B rit i h Ma in e E n g i e i g D ig
r s d Co st ru ct ion Commit t ee v Appen d i
r ne r n es n an n ,
x.

42
 O B U S T ION
C M CH AM BERS .
65 9

t he st rain on i t is ac r oss the r ivets and does n ot in cons equence tend to , , ,

star t the caulking .

Combu s tion Ch ambers The length of a combustion chamb er measu r ed .

,

in line with the f urnace S ho u ld b e s u ch that its capacity above the level of
,

the fir e ba r s i s equal to the total capacity of the furnace when t h e boiler is

-

single ended ; w hen double ended and on e combustion chambe r is common

- -

t o opposite f u rnaces the capacity of the combustion chambe r sho u ld b e

,

equal to thr ee four ths of the combined total capacity of the two f u rnaces
-

To obtain such a capacity of combustion chamber w hen the boiler i s

single ended or d ouble ended and divided t r ansv er sely the length must be
-

,
-

abou t t w o thi rds t h e diameter of the f u r nace and w hen common to two
-

Opposite fur naces it must near ly equal the diameter of fu r naces

, .

Combustion chambe r s a r e gener ally f o r med with flat tops but made ,

sometimes by cu r ving the back plate over the top to meet t h e flange of the
tub e plate The latter plan avoided the necessity of t he gi r der stays
.

t o suppo rt the flat top and r educed the numbe r of j oints of plating , ,

Fig 2 5 0 . .

Fig 2 5 1 . . Fig 2 5 1 a . .

Fig s 2 50 t o 25 1 a
. .
— Meth od s of Con n e ctin g Fu r n a c es t o B oile r En d s an d T u be
P la te s .

but the capacity of the combusti on chambe r is less and the S pace for tubing , ,

etc cont racted I t used to be claimed f or this f or m that sta y ing is avoided
.
,
.
,

but this is n ot a substantial gain as in a single ended boiler the stays which , ,
-

a r e necessa r y f or the back end plates f o r m the stays of the chambe r and -

in a d ouble ended boiler if stays a re omitt ed between the chamb er s the

-

, ,

B oa r d of T r ade su r veyo r s r eq u ir e additional staying in the steam space

t o t i e t he en ds of t he boi ler t ogether Although the plan was a fa v ou ri t e b n e
.
“

with engineer s a fe w year s ago when the p r essu r e was u nder 1 00 lbs i t 1 8 , .
,

n ow s eldom seen .

The thickness of plates and pitch of stays a r e of cou r se inter dependent , , ,

but as a r ule the chambe r s of lar ge boiler s whose wor king p r essur e 1 s 1 5 0 lbs
, , , .

r squa r e inch and u wa r ds a r e m of o § 1 n c h plates and those

p e p ade inch t ,
- ~
,

of small er boile r s or those wo r king at lower p r essu r es a r e made of fi Inch

-
, , .

to % inc h plates
~
.
6 60 MA N U AL or M ARIN E E NGIN E E RING .

B y the B oa rd of T r ade r ules a stay ba r 1 g inch in diamete r s cr ewe d ,

-
,

1 0 th r eads per inch will sustain 73 squa r e inches at a wo r king p r essu r e of

,

1 5 0 lbs and only 5 5 squa r e inches at 200 lbs while a 1 5 inch stay with -
.
,
.
, ,

9 th r eads per inch will sustain 77 squar e inches at a p r essu r e of 2 00 lbs

,
.

A plate inch thi ck r equi r es a stay for 7 74 inches pitch or 60 squar e inches '

at a p r essur e of 1 5 0 lbs whi le a g inch plate r equi r es on e for 9 3 inches pitch

'

-
.
,

or 8 6 squa r e inches for that p r essu r e f or 200 lbs p r ess u r e the g inch plat e .
,
-

r equi r es a stay f or a pitch of 8 inches or 66 squar e inches .

0 X (T 1 )2
B oa rd 0 / Tra de R u le — Pr essu r e

T is the thickness of fl at plate in S ix teenths of an inch ; S ar ea of su rfac e ,

supported in s quar e inches ; C a cons tant which f or sc r ewed stays wit h , ,

nuts and plates ex posed to flame but in contact with wate r is 1 00 , , .

For stays in steam S pace fitted w ith r iveted washe r s t w o thir ds the ,
-

pitch in diameter nuts etc 2 1 0 if washer s a re of the same thickness a s

, , .
,

plate but only 1 6 5 if with p lain w a shers two thi rds the thi ckness of plat e
,
-

and thr ee times the diameter of stay .

The bottom of the chambe r s S hould be {5 t o fiinch thicke r than t h e

sides as fr om various causes ther e i s o ften r apid wea r in that pa r t ; also t o
,

a void e x cessive staying and t o p r ovide f or bu r ning which sometimes take s ,

place ther e the plate s at the t op should b e

,
inch thicker .
“

S ome _steel maker s n ow s upply plates having a va ryi ng thi cknes s so that
on e single plate can b e w r apped a r ound the combustion chamber so as t o f o rm

the t op S ides and b ottom with the latter of the necess ar y e x t r a thickness
, , ,
.

The back tub e plates va r y in thickness from { f in small boiler s for low
p r essur es to 3 inch and even inch in la r ge ones for high p r essur es Gene
, , , .

r ally in mode rn boile rs of o r dinar y S izes and p r essu r es the back tub e plat e
, ,

is 3 to inch thi ck the f o rmer b eing the best size when possible as with it
, ,

the tub es can be made quite tight and ther e is less liabil i ty of c r ackin g t h e ,

plates or burning the tube ends than with the thicker plat es .

The back plate and tube plate of the combustion chamber a r e almos t
inva riably flanged inwar ds to take the side plates and those on the t dp and
b ottom ; some maker s ha ve t r ied t o make the chamber s by fla n gin g the
sides top and bottom to meet the back and tub e plates ( v fi g 2 03 ) but a s . .
,

this is ver y t r oublesome t o e ff ect and pr events the tubes fr om bein g ex tended ,

to the sides and t op it is s eldom followed The flange of the t op plate of t h e

, .

f u rnace should b e inside the chamber and connected t o the tub e plate with ,

c ounter sunk r ivets the landing edge is then turned away fr om the wash
-

of the fl ame and n o r ivet heads a re ex posed t o it

, The landing edges of a ll .

j oints of plating ex posed to water should b e downwards so that deposit ,

cannot lodge on them ; when they a re upwar ds on the water S ide the deposit
on them is ver y conside r able and it is f ound that r apid co r r osion then take s
,

place in the angle b eneath it The back tub e plate is by some enginee rs .

w elded to the f ur nace so that n o j oint is e x posed to the seve r e action of t h e

,

flame issuing fr om the fuel I t is an ex pensive thing t o d o and utte rly .

,

p r events the withd rawal of a damaged furnace when done .

Tu bes — The tubes in the o rdi na r y ma r ine boile r a r e f rom 2 % inches t o

.

4 inches e x te r nal diamete r the usual sizes being fr om 2 % inches to 3 g inche s

,
 TU B ES .
661

in the mercantile ma rine and 2 g in ches to 2 2 inches in H M N avy With

, . . .

the ord i nar y natur al dr aught the tubes sho u l d not be more than 2 4 diamete rs
long ; wi t h the f or ced dr aught they may be as much as 60 diamete rs long
eS
a s I n a locomotive boile r bu t the p r actice in tor pedo boats and steam la u n c h
,

w a s about 3 5 di amete r s long and gene r ally with H ow d e n s fo r ced dr a u ght

,
’

i s 3 0 to 3 6 The l ength however does not matter so m u ch with f o r ced

.
, ,

d raught .

The spacing of the tubes o ften depends on cir cumstances bu t in the ,

m er cantile ma rine wher e space and weight of machi n er y a re not of such

,

moment as in the N avy the pitch of the tubes is usu ally 1 4 x di ameter
,
-
.

T he r e is less liability t o p rime when the tubes ar e widely spaced and they ,

a r e mor e easily cleaned fr om scale For the latte r pur pos e they a r e a rranged
.

in r ows both hor izonta lly and ve rtically and n ot zig za g as o ften seen in
, , ,

locomoti ve boiler s .

Tubes a re manufactur ed of a cert ain min imum thi ckn ess a n d said to be ,
”
acco rdi ng t o list when so made I f the p ress u r e they a re in tended t o .

withstand does not e x ce ed 60 lbs they may be a cco rdi ng to list .

, i f it
d oes n ot e x ceed 1 00 lbs they should be .
, 1 gauge thicker than the list
if the p r essur e does not e x ceed 1 5 0 lbs the tubes sho u l d be 2 t o 3 gau ge s .
,
”
t hi cker than t h e li st B y rule L S C
. 300 d x V5 , . . . .

The following table gives th e thickn es s u n der the various cir cumst an ces
i n t h e n u mb er s of the L egal S t a ndar d Ga uge

T AB L E ’

LXX I X .
— B OI L E R TU B ES .

it is usual to make the tub es of slightly lar ge r ( 11 6 to 5 i nch ) di ameter at »

t hei r f r ont end so as t o d r aw ou t eas ily when once sta r ted fr om the plates
, .

1
T ub e man u f actu e
r r s w ill sw ell the ends to 1 6 inch l ar ger diameter wi thout
e x t r a cha r ge .

B oil er t u b es wer e f orme rly of ir on har d cop pe r or b ra ss ; now t hey a r e

‘

, ,

e x cl u sively of ir on or steel ; when of the f o rme r they a re made from strips .

o f best S t a fior dshir e or other good ir on having a tensil e str ength of 2 0 tons
,

with an elongation of 1 2 pe r cent When of steel they a r e made either of

.
,

s tr ips hav ing a tensile n ot e x ceeding 27 tons or solid dr awn fr om mil d steel ,

bill ets Those for water t u be boil er s a r e al w ays soli d drawn cold finished
.
-
, ,

a n d c a r e fu l ly made to gauge t hi ckness and cha r acter .

I r on tu bes a r e gener all y used in the me r cantile ma r ine ; b r ass t u bes wer e
used in the N avy partly beca u se of their supe rior co ndu cting power b u t
, ,

c hi e fly on accoun t of their endu r ance and r eliabil ity as t h e i r on tube s then ,

 STA S Y . 6 63 .

wo rkin g p r essu re and upwar ds the stay tubes a r e i t o g inch thick each , ,

alternate tube sho u ld be a stay tube— that is in a nest of say 6 4 tubes , , , ,

ther e wil l b e 1 6 s t ay tubes .

S tay tub es gene r ally outlast t w o s ets of the o rdina r y t u bes .

S erve tu bes manu f actu r ed by J ohn B r own

, S he ffield have a se ri e s ,

( 6 to 8 ) of l on gitudinal r ibs r unning the whole length of the tube inside

and p r oj ecting in w ards abo u t 3 inch thu s f o rming an additional absor bin g ,

surface for the heat B esides the additional s u r face this tube cause s a
.
,

b etter ci rculation of the hot gas es withi n it I n small boilers especially is .

t his tube a use fu l on e as with a la r ge gr ate a r ea a su fficient heati n

, ,
g ,

sur face can b e obtained .

R eta rder s —B y int r oducing into the inside of a plain t u be a t w iSt e d st r i

'

p
.

of metal of the same b r eadth as the inside diameter H ow d en f ou n d a con ,

s id e r a ble gain in e fficiency owing t o the h ot gases getting s ti rred and fe i rou
,

lated in t he i r passage thr ough it .

S y
ta s.
—
Flat su rf aces have t o be sti ff ened and tied together by bar s called
sta s
y . When the sur faces a re clOs e together and the pl ates compar atively thin ,

s o tha t the stay s a r e sho rt and nume r ous they a r e sc r ewed into both plates , ,

and the ends either riveted over or fitted with lock nuts ; such stays a r e
”
u sually called scr ewed stays As has b een said the thickness of plates
and pitch of stays a re interdependent The s ize and nu mber of the stays
.
,

.
_

depend on t h e p r essur e they have to wi thstand The stays in t he steam .

'

Space m u st b e S O s aced that a man can pass between them and f or thi s ,
'

p u r pos e they shoul never b e nea r er than 1 4 inches centr e t o c entr e , and ,

a r e usua lly 1 5 t o 7 i n ches cent r es which gives a clea r S pace of 1 2 t o 1 4 inche s

1 ,

between them Thes e s tays a r e seldom more than 3 inches e ff ect ive dia meter,
.

and a s the e x act S pacin g of them depends on the f o r m and size of the boiler .

they a r e gener ally a rr anged t o suit the particular case and t h e dia m et er ,
‘

v a r ied to giv e a secti on adequate t o t h e load each h a s t o b ea r To admi t

'

of easy access these stays a r e a r r a n ged in ho r izontal and ve rtical r ows a s

,

nea r ly as possi ble .

T he Admi r a lt y allow a st r ess of lbs per squa r e inch of e ffective .

a r ea of stay when at the test p r essu r e which is usually 90 lbs above t h e , .

wo rk in g pr essur e I f the stays a r e b el ow 1 % inches diameter only 1 6 000 l

.
, , .

The B oa rd of T rade allow lbs per squa r e inch at w o rking p r essur e *

. .

Lloyd s R egi s try allow on stays not ex ceeding 1 5 inches smalle st diameter
’

at wo rking pressu r e lbs on sc r ewed st ays and

, . lbs on othe rs .

on stays above 1 5 in c hes small est di ameter lbs on scr ewed stays , .

and lbs on othe rs

’

. .

B ri t i s h Cor pora t i on R u le is D

S the su rface in squar e inches suppo rted by the stay .

D the e ff ective diameter of stay .

W the wo r king pr essur e .

0 8 000 f or ste el sc r ewed stays for steel longitudinal stays .

T e st ed w r ou gh t ir on of 2 1 5 t on s t en s ile m a y be u s ed f or s crew e d s ta y s in ste ad of

s t e e l, if pr e f e r red L on gitu d in al st a y s m a y b e of s a me qu ali ty a s sh ell pla t e s a n d
.

s tr e s se d t o on e s ix th t h e u lt im a t e st ren gth a t w or i n g pr e s s u re
-
k .
6 64 MANU AL O F M AR I N E E NGINE ERI N G .

Bu rea u has the same ru le but 0

V erit a s 3 00 x tens ile st r ength of ,

metal in tons which for i r o n is 2 2 tons and for steel accor ding to test
, , , , .

The lar ge stays a re sometimes made with a plu s thr ead ; thi s nec essitates
”
upsetting the en ds s o t h a t the body is of somewhat smalle r diameter
' °

than at the bottom of thr ead of the ends T hi s is a somewhat ex pensive .

p r ocess and is not so r eliable as simply scr ewing a r oll ed ba r with a min u s
,

thr ead at each end The latter plan especially since the making of steel
.
,

boiler s has become gener al is n ow fast tak ing the place of the fo r mer ; it ,

has t oo the advantage of ex cess of s ection in t h e bod y wher e most co rr osion

‘

, ,

takes place Thes e stays a r e s ecur ed t o the plate wi th a nut a n d washe r

.

outsid e and a nut insid e t o lock whose l en gth is t wo thir ds that of the ou t
, ,
-

s ide which is on e diamete r long When weight is of consequence steel

, .
,

ba r s may b e swelled and have a plu s t hr ea d by upsetting the en ds as the ,

B oa r d of Tr ade n ow per mit thi s .

The scr ewed stays are usually fr om I i t o 2 inches diamete r wi th a standar d .

thr e a d 9 pe r in ch The most use ful size s a re I i . and 1 51 inch suitable for ,
- 1
,

{g to 3 in ch plates and p r essur es fr om 60 to 220 lbs pe r squar e inch When

,
. .

s cr ewed t hr ou g h a plate whose thi ck n es s is les s than half the di amete r of t h e

'

stay in len gth the r e sho u l d always be a lock nut with a thi n washer the nut -
,

bein g two thir ds the di amete r of the stay in length The p r actice of
-
.

nobbling or r iveting ov er t h e ends of these stays is very Obj e ctionabl e

'

, ,

w hen they pass thr ough thin plates as e x tr eme p r essur e is ver y apt t o cau se ,

the sta y t o dr aw completely thr ough the plate and thi s is especially so whe n ,

the plate is ductile and soft like mild steel S cr ewed stays had fin e thr eads .
,

w hi c h w ere in accor dance with Whi two r th s rule as t o the numbe r per inch
’
'

v iz. I i di amete r 1 1 thr eads ; I % di amete r 1 0 thr eads ;

, , di amete r 9 thr eads . ,

and 2 inches di amete r 8 thr eads I t is however mor e conveni ent t o have , .
, ,

only on e n u mbe r f or all si zes so n ow the Enginee ring S t andar ds Comm ittee ,

h as decided on 9 pe r in ch for all stays fr om I i t o 2 i n che s ; or di n a ry j s t a y s

a bove 2 in ches 6 per inch with nuts on each side of the plate
, , .

When sever al stays a re fitte d with nuts and washer s at their ends the ,

f ollowing r ule holds good;

P1 t ch of stavs nches 11 X
’

ln i
Wo r kin g pre
Exa mple — What pitch of for a plate 3 inch thi ck for
“

stays is suitable a
wo r king p r e ssu r e of 1 60 lbs .

P itch 11 x or 8 73 inches .

B oa rd f
o Tr ade R u le; * — Workin g p ressur e

T being thi ck ness of plate in S ix teenths of an inch .

S the s u r f ace in squa r e inches .

C bein g 1 00 for scr ew stays w ith nuts 1 65 for longitu di n al with nuts ,

and washe r s two thi rds the thickness of plate -

.

wR
‘

*
For t h e le s O f t h e B r it is h M a r i n e En gin ee ri ng D e s ign an d Con stru tion
'

ne u c
Com m i ee f or tt t
s ays a n d fl a t s u rf a ce s , Appe n d i x .
 CON STR U CT I O N OF MAR IN E B O LE SI R . 6 65

L loy d
’
s Ru le Wo rking p r essu r e
-

P2 being the mean of squar es of pitches in r ows and between rows ,

and C and T as b e fo r e .

C, for scr ewed stays with n u ts 1 1 0 with plates u nder inch thic k ,

over 1 and u nder 196 inch 1 2 0 ; over i s inch 1 35 ; longi , ,

t u dm a l stays w 1 t h double nuts a n d outside r iveted washe rs

,
,

t w o fift h s the pitch in diamete r and hal f the thickness of

-

plate 2 00 , .

B rit is h Corpora tion R u le — Work ing p r ess u re

Her e P is the gr eatest and p the le ast pitch .

C is 2 65 for sc r ewed stays w ith nuts a n d 370 for s tays with double ,

nuts and outside r iveted washer s the latter b eing t w o thir d s

-
,
-

the thickness of plate and on e thi rd the pitch in diameter -

.

B u reau j V erit a s R u le
is similar to that of the B ritish Cor po ration but ,

t h e value of C Changes with the tensile str ength of the plate and f or sc r ewed ,

stays with nuts 4 1 5 3 for 2 7 t on steel and 4 6 1 5 for 30 t on For longitudinal

’

- - - -
, .

s tays with inside and out side nuts and washe r s the outside washers being
'

_
.
,

0 4 of the pitch in dia meter and t w o thirds the thickness of plate C is 4 35 4

,
-
,

and 4838 .

F lat plates may b e sti ff ene d t o allow of wi d e r S pacing of the stays than
g iven by th i s r ule , by fittin g t hi ck washe r s of la r ge diamete r t o e ach stay , or

by co n necting the stay s t o the plates by means of angle i r ons or T ba r s ; - -

the latter plan possesses t h e advantage of d istr ibuting the str ain o ver a
l ar ge ar e a , a n d t h a t without a doubt f ul j oint , as is the case with nuts The .

old pl a n of riv eting a doubling pl a te of co mm on i r on in wake of t h e la rge

stays has almo st disappear ed .

C o n t in en tal Practice di ffers from B ritish in t w o r espects in the desi gn

1
and construction of mar ine boiler s Almost invar iably the tops of the com .

bu s t ion chambe r s a re in a ho r izontal line in whateve r position they a r e placed

in a ship ; it is t r ue that when a yacht or other vessel h a v in gs a il power ,
_

and r equi r ing to use it whenever possible as is the case with c ruise r s in the ,

P acifi c a n d o t h er e x tensive oceans wher e coal is scar ce and dea r has the ,

boiler s placed a xi ally f o r e and a ft it is desi r able that the chamb er tops shall
,

b e sloped t hat when the ship is listed over under canvas the chamber top
,

o n the weather side S hall not b e in danger of emer sion and e x posur e t o
ste am only with the liability of over heating I n other ships with boiler s .

plac ed in t his w a y ther e is of cour se some liability t o list and when r olling
, , ,

the chamber tops may get thei r ends bar e I n the latter Ci r cumstances .

it is of n o con sequence as the ex posu r e is only tem po r ar y and the emer sion
, ,

only f or ver y sho r t periods but with a list mor e or less per manent ther e may
.
,

b e some r isk of damage I t is h owever ver y S light and B r itish engineer s

.
, , ,

design the boiler s u nder the belie f that it is the duty of those in char ge to
'

keep a su fficient a mount of water in the boiler under any ci rcumstances

t o submer ge the pa rts ex posed to heat I f l oiler s a r e made with the com .

bu s t ion chambe r tops sloped away as is common in Ger man p r actice (0 Fi g ,

. .

2 1 0 ) the r e i s conside r able sac rifice of total heati n g su r f ace as well as tub e
 M O D E RN C L I N D RI CAL Y B OI LE R S S CAN T L N I GS . 667

o o o
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. 1

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.

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.

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 6 68 M AN U AL or M AR I N E E N GI N EE RI N G .

d oo rj oints ; this is now very gene r al The doo r s a r e u sually placed inside
.

the boiler s and h eld t o their f aces by studs scr ewed into them whi ch pass
, ,

through st rong cr oss bar s or dogs held by squa r e nuts ; the main doo r
,

i n the shell is howeve r sometimes fitted e x ter nally and conn e cted to a
, , ,

fl ange d r in g with bolts in the same way as a steam chest door on the engines
, .

The doubling r ing is in this latter case f o rmed of a ver y thick angle i r on
, ,
-

whose deep web is fl anged to fit to the boiler and whose fla nge fo r ms the ,

face for the door .

.

The doublin g plate at a S hell man hole is n ow as a ru le fl anged inwa rds

-
,

a nd the edge of the fl a n ge machin ed for the doo r to fit on

. .
.

a ppr ox 1 ma t ely
Da X L X VP
The weight o f boi ler is
For single ended boiler s with a chamber t o each fu rn ace F is 74 0
-
, .

For double ended boile r s with two f ur naces t o ea ch chamber F is 8 1 0

-
, .

For double ended boilers with a chamber to each fur na ce F is 780

-
, .

Thet ot al hea t in g s u
f is app ro x imate ly
r ace I) X L X K squa r e f eet 2
.

For sin gle ended bo iler s K is 0 97 to

-
,
-

For double ended boiler s K is 1 0 t o

-
,

The higher value of K in each case is wi th small tube s well packed ; t he

‘

lower val u e is for the boiler s of o r dinar y mer chant steame rs with at least
: 3 i n ch tubes
-
I n the above both L and D a re in f ee t
.
 S MOK E - B OX . 6 69

CHAP T ER XXV .

B OI L E R M OUN T ING S AN D F TT I I NG S .

Smok e B ox — -
This appendage to the boile r is for the pur pose of recei v in g
.

the p r oducts of combustion as they emer ge fr om the t u bes and conducting ,

them thr ough the uptakes into the f unnel I n the old b ox f o r m of boile r .
,

it was built inside and f o r med an integral part of the boiler ; bu t with
, ,

the modern cylind rical boiler it is a separ ate str uctu r e secu r ed t o the boiler
, ,

fr ont by S t u ds I t is constructed of ir on or steel plates and angles of ship

-
.

quality and made smoke tight only ; it should however be caulked

, , ,

i f necessar y t o p r event a ir p assing t o the inside

, The advent of cheap mild .

steel per mits of fla n gin g instead of angles I n fr ont of the tube s a r e a number .

of doo r s hung on hi nges and s o a rr anged that ever y tub e may be swept or
,

r emov ed in case of necessity The doo r s should b e rigi d and of such a size
.
,

as t o b e easily handled and when the nests of tubes a r e so la rge as to c a u S e

,

the doo r to b e t oo ponder ous if made in on e t w o door s may be fitted t o ,

close on a po r table stanchion The doo r s a r e sometimes a rranged to open .

0 11 a ho r izontal and sometimes on a ver tical a x is ; the l atter is pr e fer able

when possible as then they a re mo r e easily handled
,
.

The bottom of the smoke box should b e at least 1 2 inches b r oad measur ed
-
,

in di r ection of t h e length of the boiler and when possible as much as 1 5 , , ,

inches I f too narr ow it is soon filled with soot and ashes s o a s to cover
.
, ,

the ends of and r ender useless the bottom r ows of tubes ; the baffle plate s
, ,

on the doo r s a r e also soon bu r ned away The bottom plate should be at .

least 2 inches below the bottom r ow of tubes and the side plate the sam e ,

distance fr om the side tubes S O that the tub es may b e d r awn clear of t h e
,

2 inch angle i r on r im a r ound the doo r ways

- -
The fr ont of the smoke box is .
-

S loped outwa r ds s o as to be about twice the b r eadth of the bottom fr om the

,

boiler fr ont above the level of the top r ow of tubes Above this the smoke
,
.
,

box contr acts towa r ds the f unn el base and its confi gur ation mu st depend on ,

the position of t h is a nd on the consider ation that the section tr ansver se t o

,

the flow of gases must have a n a rea at least equal to the ar ea t hr ough the ‘

”
tubes The par t b etween the smoke b ox and funnel is called the uptake
.
-
,

or take u p it should have easy bends and lead as di r ectly as possible t o

-
,

the funnel and b e without r ecesses and obstacles wher e eddies a r e f o r med
,

and the d raught may b e baffl ed .

The bottom and S ides of the smoke box and S ides of the uptake S hould b e -

of i inch plates f or la r ge b oile r s 1 6 for smalle r ones and whe r e weight is Of

-
3
, ,

mo r e conside r ation than endurance g is su fficient The smoke box doo r s .

.
-

should b e of the same thickness and have ba ffl e plates inch t hi ck on the ,

inside and a ir or sc r een plates of the same thickness on the outsi de ; thes e
,

sc r een pl ates p r event radiation of the heat to the stoke holes and for the -
,
 T U N N EL .
‘

passin g down whil e allowing the h ot a ir to c ri me ou t This hood is called

, .

”
b y var ious nam e s as cr avat bonnet etc ( fi g
, I t is now o ft en at , , . .

the t op Of the f unnel so the latter is completely pr otected from the weathe r
,

(fig
Wh e r e ther e a re sever al boiler s di scha rging smoke to on e funnel each ,

smoke b ox should have a separ ate u ptake so that t he smoke fr o mon e does
-

not enter the b ox of another ; and when ther e a r e no good ashpit doo rs , ,

ther e should be a damper in each of these u ptakes So as to r egulate the ,

d raught and get a uni fo r m evapo r ation fr om a ll the boiler s and in case of
‘

, ,

necessity to isolate a particula r boile r

,
.

T AB LE L XXXl .
— P 1 T CH , ET C .I V ET ING
, OF R F OR FUNN E L S , CAS ING S , ETC
.

( AD M IR AL T Y WOR K ) .

D es c ri pt i on .
Oi Dla
fiiihtr
e l Of

I n ch es .

U pt a k es,

Fu n n e ls ,

Fu nn el c a s in
g,

D ec k c a s in
gs ,

Cow ls an d tr u nk s ( e x pos ed to
w e a t h er ) ,
'

S cr e e n s an d v til ti
en a n
g tr u nk s ,

Oth e r w or k ,

Fu l Thi s is usuall y of ci r cular section but sometimes to mini mise

nn e — . , ,

the tr ansve r se si z e of the boiler hatch it is made of oval section Th e funn els -
,
.

of men of w a r a r e o ften made of oval section f or the same r eas on but instead
- -
, ,
“

of the Sectio n being an elli ps e as is S om etim es the e a se in the me r cant i le

,

mar ine it is like t h a t of an oval boiler ( fig

,
The best h eI gh t t o look
j
.

well is 5 t o 7 diameter s above t h e taff r ail the latter when ther e a re hi gh ,

br idges or boats in wak e of the f u nn el For the same r eason the r mg f or .

,

the s hrouds sho u ld b e the diameter fr om the top Funnels a r e made of .

670M MAN U AL OF M ARI N E E NGIN E ERI N G .

ship q u ality plate lap j ointed or butt j ointed with s ingl e st raps inside ; t h e
,
-
,
-

latter costs mor e but when s o made i s mo r e du rabl e An other method

, .

much 1 n f ashion at on e time and which p r esents a good appear ance is t o , ,

make the lon gitudinal j oints with inside butt str aps and the cir cu mf er ential ,

with a band of I r on of a flattened U section (fi g .

The f unnel plates S hould f or st r ength be thi cke r at the base than at t h e
, ,

top but the top plates wear ou t faste r than th ose at the bottom The
, .

followi n g may be taken as the app r o x imate t hi ckness of these plates

Top plates 01 inch 0 025 f or each f oot of diamete r .

Middle 0 1 25 0 026
B ottom 0 15 0 02 7

If the funnel is sti ff ened with angle or T ba r s (fi g it may be mad e .

of somewhat t hi nne r plates The f unnels of naval shi ps a re of cour se .

, ,

made as light as possible and the plates composing them a re seldom mo re

,

than 3 inch thick and of steel

,
—
,

Fu rna ce Fron ts a n d D oors — Although o ften made of cast i r on they a re .

,

b ette r w hen of w r ought I r on to withstand the r ough use to w hi ch they a re

ex posed I t is fr om thi s cau se that all the imp r oved doo r s which have been
.

t ried have been finally r ej ected and bec ause of this r ou gh usage all attempt s
at r efinement in the fittings etc meet with want of success on boa r d shi p , , .

The smaller the doo r the better as when open an ex cess of a ir passes int o
the f urnace and l ower s its efficiency on the other hand it must be la r ge
, , ,

enough to stoke wo r k an d clean the fi r es p r operly A long gr ate r equ i r es

, , .

a lar ger doo r than does a sho r t on e Fu rnaces of lar ge diameter— that is .
,

above 4 2 inches— shou l d have a pai r of d oor s to b e used alternately The .

amount of opening when stoking or cleaning fi r es is ther eby r educed and ,

the sides of the gr ate a re b etter attended t o .

The doo r s should b e s o a rr anged as to r emain op en in a seaway whe n

r equi r ed ; this may b e e ff ected by making a p r oj ection and co r r esponding
r ecess in the hinge A sta r damper sho u ld b e fitted t o the fire doo r by which
.
, ,

when Open a supply of a ir is admitted to the fi r es The ba ffle plate insid e

, .

the doo r should have a numbe r of small per fo r ations I n this case t o finely ,

divide and to dist ribut e the ex tr a supply of a ir .

Fire bars — The length of gr ate should neve r e x ceed twice the diamete r
-
.

of the fu r nace as the fi r es cannot be p r ope r ly wor ked when this I S the case
, .

To get the highest e fficiency of gr ate it S hould n ot b e mo r e than 1 g time s ,

the diameter The S lope of the gr ate sho u l d b e 1 inch t o the f oot which
.
,

may b e inc reased in f urnaces over 4 2 inches diameter to 1 % inch with a d

, ,

vantage I f the gr ate is over 5 f eet long ther e i s gene rally some difficult y
.
,

in p r operly stoking the back end and it is only a good firema n w h o can
'

p r operly wo r k the fir e on a l ong gr ate The incr eased slope mate rially .

helps to over come this di ffi culty and at t h e same time the fire is bette r ,

supplied with a ir at the back an d n ot choked by the p roducts of co mbustion .

from the fr ont .

The b ridge or b rick barrier at the end of the grate should b e built t o
'

such a height that the a r ea of passage ove r it is not less than t n or mo re

than } the grate a rea ; and when possible the d istance from the t op of t he
a

, ,

b ridge t o the top of the f u m a c e sho u ld be su fficient for a man t o pass int o
t h e comb u s t ion chamb e r .
 ’
HE N D ER S ON S P ATE N T D OOR . AN D B AR S .
6 73

When S out h Wales or ot h er si mila r coal i s to be bu rnt on the grate

ther e should be no S pace betwe en the ba r s and the side of the fu rnace whe n
the f ur naces a re co rrugated these side ba rs S hould be made to fit into t he ,

ga t l on s
c orr u .

The fire ba r s -
usually i n t wo lengths ; but the gr ate is mo r e e fficient
a re

when they a r e l n on e as the bea r er is avoided whi ch ba ffles the free flow
,
,

of a ir to the fir e above it and p r events the fi r eman f rom p r icking e ff ec

,

t iv ely . Cast i r on fir e ba r s to b u r n bituminous coal may b e 5 f eet 6 inches

- -

long but if the coal contains much sulphu r they a r e sa fe r in t w o len gths
,
.

The Admi r alt y d o n ot allow the ba r s to b e longer than 2 7 inches even wh en

'

made of w r ought i ron as they gener ally bu r n Welsh coal and may have ,
,

to use on f o r ei gn stations coal containing sulphu r

, , .

Fir e b a r s a re made fr om
~
t o 1 } inch b r oad on the f ace ; the f o r me r 7

is bette r when the ba r s a re not ve r y long and when of w r ought i r on may ,

with advantage be even 3 inch I n the mercantile marine 1 5 inch is the .

usual b r eadth when the bars a r e long .

The dep th of the b a r at the middle depends o n the length and S hould ,

Jlen gt h when , of cast i r on

The t hi ckness at the bottom S hould be on e thi rd the b r eadth at the f ace -

and should taper to two thi rds beneath the flange -

.

For b u r n ing bituminous coal the r e should b e a S pace of inch at least

between the bar s and when it cakes qui ckly the r e may b e as muc h as
’

, , ,
2
7 inch ; but if Welsh coal or Am erida n anthr acite is to be bu rnt the r e
, ,

should never b e mo r e than inch spaces and w ith na rr ow bar s the S pace ,

may w ith advantage be less .

Martin s Pat en t B ars consist of wr ought i r on ba r s of squa r e section placed

’
-

w ith the angles u p wa rd and so a rr anged that the ba r s may be slightly tu r ned
,

so as to clean the fi r es .

H en ders on s Pa ten t D oor and B ars

’
This is on e of the most successfu l of .
-

the imp r oved gr ates The ba r s a re of cast i r on and o r dina r y section hung
.
-

in a fr a me which c a n be easily moved by means of lever s so as to slightly

, ,

move alternate bar s longitudinally ; t hi s movement while carr ying the fuel ,

gr ad u ally to the back of the f u r nace b r eaks u p the clinker and obviates ,
'

the necessity of cleanin g the fir e The doo r of the f ur nace is hinged ho ri .

z on t a ll at the bottom and s o a rr anged as to d r op into a r ecess in the dead

y ,

plate le ft f or it whi ch r ecess is filled by a back piece attached to the doo r

, ,

and tu rns down as the doo r opens ; if the fire needs cleaning the doo r is ,

tu r ned still f ar ther so as t o leave the gap in the dead plate and f o r m a slope
,
.

below it to S ho ot the clinker and cinder s into the ashpit instead of r aking
them on to the stokehole floo r . The f ur nace fr ont too is car efully desi gned , , ,

so as to pass a cu rr ent of a ir completely about it between the fr ont and back ,

thus ser vi ng the double p u r pose of keepi n g the fr ont compar atively cool ,

and of heating the a ir be fo r e entering ove r the fir e This a rr angement of .

gr ate when p r ope rly wo r ked pe r mi ts of a r apid and c omplete combustion

of coal equival ent to a mode r ate f o r ced d r aught as may be seen by r e fe r ri n g ,

to Tables l x x x vii and l x x x viii wher e gr ates a re ma rke d H

. . .
 ST O P VAL V E
-
. 6 75

a r ea of pipe section to suit a boile r may be foun d by the f ollowin g

tu 1eThe

squar e inch p er squar e f oot of gr ate 00 1 squar e

i nch
per squa r e f oot of total heating s u r face )
Ex a mple To find the diameter of steam pipe fr om a boiler whose gr ate
—

a r ea is 5 0 sq u a r e f eet and the total heating s u rface is

, squa r e f eet ;
p ressu r e 80 lbs
, .

Ar ea of section x 5 0) (0 0 1 x X

squar e inches 30 7 .

The r e fo r e the diamete r S houl d be 6 12 inches .

Ex a rn ple — To
find the diameter of the main steam pipe of a locomotive
.

boiler whose gr ate ar ea is 1 6 squar e f eet the total heating sur face ,

s qua r e f eet and the p r essu r e 1 5 0 lbs

, .

Ar ea of section x 1 6) (0 0 1 x x

130 9 sq u ar e inches .

T he r e for e
the diameter should b e 4 % inches .

The diamete r of the stop valve should b e such that the clea r a re a past it
-

is not less than given by the above ru l es .

The valve and seat a re of a b r onze which should be both har d and st r ong
a t the tempe r atu r e of the steam passing it ( Chapter The valve S hould
hav e the boiler p r essur e always on the side opposite the spindle so that it ,

helps t o open it The s pindle should have a squa r e thr ead an d when
.
, ,

possible the scr ewed pa r t should be outside so that in opening or S hutting

,
-

t h e valve the S pindle does not t u m r o u nd

_
AS the fu ll p r essu r e is on the .

valve when shut the b r idge etc should be str ong enough to withstand it
, , .
,
.

The seamwhen fitted with wings f or the gu ide t o the spindle should b e
-

c a r e full y secur ed and the wings c u r ved s o that when e x panding with the , ,

heat the s eat is not distorted These seats when fitted into cast i ron or
,
‘

.
,

steel a r e ver y apt to get loose and leak fr om the permanent set of the metal ,

in duced by the r esistance of the cast i r on to e x pansion of the b r onze They .

s hould ther e f o r e b e secu r ed by bolts or studs to the casting and a j oint

, , ,

made whi ch w ill keep tight in spite of e x pansion etc much in the same way , .
,

a s the pip e j oints a r e done .

The Admi r alty r equ ir e stop valves and all othe r boile r mountings to be
-

made of b r onze or steel ; f or moder n hi gh p r ess u r es and especially when the ,

s team is supe r heated the mater ial must be such as t o r etain st r en gth and
,

e lasticity wi th such high temp e r atu r es The imm a diu m b ronze made by .

P a r sons M B r onze Company is f ound ver y suitable as at 5 5 0 F it has an

.
,
°
.

e lastic limit of 8 to 9 tons .

The Admi r alty likewi se r equi r e all stop valves to be sel f acting— that is - -
,

they S hall close on the p r essu r e in the boiler being dec r eased below that in
the ma in steam pip o This is with the obj ect of localisi n g the dange r and
.
6 76 MANU AL or M ARIN E E NGIN EE RING .

automatically disconn ecting t h e boile r in case of a cc id en t t o it f r om shot '

,

etc S uch valves have thei r s pindles tur ned do w n at the 1 r outer ends s o
.
,

as to pass thr ough a hole in the sc r ewed S hank fitted to the c r oss p 1 ece as -

show
.

_ , ,

n in fi g 2 5 5 and w ith c r oss handles to p e r m i t of the valve b e I n tu ne d

g r
-
.
,

or closed as r equi r ed .

J
S a fe ty Va l ve — As its name l m ph es t hi s valve 1 s for the pur pose of pr o ,

V idi n g a sa f e and sel f acting means of r e lie v ing the boile r f r m e x cess i v e
o
-

p r essu r e A good sa f ety valve should be ( 1 ) la r ge enough 1 11 d1 a m et er and

.
,

have su ffi cient li ft to allow the steam to escape as f ast as it is gene r ated ,

when the p r ess u r e is 5 p er cent above that to w hi ch t h e valve I S lo a ded ;

.

( 2 ) it sho u l d be made so that it closes again as soon as the p ressur e has d ropped
very S lightly below the load ( 3 ) it should be fr ee to Open and shut so that ,

it may always act e fficiently and p r omptly ( 4 ) it shoul d b e e n c los e d so that ~

it cannot b e tam p e r ed with or accidentally Inte rf er ed wi t h by p 1 eces of coal

'

Co V C U

Of ma m v n rvz I o ~o ~n a m e s. V a n n
i .

Fig 2 5 5
. .
— B u lk h ea d S elf Clos in g S-
top V a lv e

etc fal ling into it ; and ( 5 ) f or marine pu r poses it mu st be so const ructed

.
,

as n ot to be a ff ected by the motion of the S hi p

.

I t is unnecessar y t o deal with weight loaded valves as none a r e n ow u sed -

, ,
t h e fi fth condition being satisfied by means of steel S p r ings f or the load
( fig . When weights we r e used the amount of li ft given to the valve , .

by the steam p r essu r e was ve ry small and since the li fting of the valv e , ,

comp r esses the sp r ing and inc r eases the load t h e sp r ing —loaded valve Open s ,

somewhat less Thi s being so ar ea of openi n g can only be obtained by in

,

.
.

c r easing the diamete r of the valve Many i n geni ous m ethods of inc r easing .

t h e li ft have been t ried but all those involving the use

, of special mech anism
'

have given place to those whi ch d o W ithout it ; t h e most success ful a n d bes t
known of the latte r is R ichardson s Patent ( fig ’

generally called Ada ms .

’

a fte r the name of the manu factur e r who pu rchased imp roved and wo r ke d .
, ,

the patent in this cou n t r y and Cockbu rn s V a lve ( fig

, designed and
’
.
 S Ar u r v V ALV E . 6 77

m ad e by Mess r s Cock bu rn of Glasgo w

.
, These consist essentially of an
.

ordi n a ry m u s hroom valve w i t h a seconda r y oute r ri m of U section whi ch

o ve rlaps the r im of t h e seat so that the r e is a second cont r acted o r ifice at
,

the outer edge of this r im As soon as the valve op ens , the ste a m fills t he
.

Fi g 2 57 — Ad a ms
'
. .

V al v e .

S P R IN G S AFET Y V ALV ES .

Fi 25 8 .
— Coc bu k rn s
’

v
al e ( N a v y T y pe ) .

Fi g . 25 6 .

o ute r rim ,
and the valve is then vi r tually o f la r ge r a r ea ; the load on it is
s o s u d d e n ly inc r eased that the valve li fts w ide open immediately and will ,

ontinue to vib ate with the sp r ing u n t il the p r essu r e f alls s o as to be i n s u ffi

c r
cient t o open the valve when the latte r touches the seat in on e Of its vib r ations
 I
T H E S Z E or S AFET Y V AL V E . 6 79

w o rked the a me d ra u ght a n d p r essu r e — this vol u m e of st eam v a rie s

with
_ s
The o riginal rule l aid d own by t h e B oa rd of Trade
"

w i t h t h e gr ate a r ea .

f or t h e a r ea of sa f ety valve is based on this and it was f ound to wor k satis ,

f a ct ori ly ; S i nce then ho weve r n e w ru le s have been laid down

'

, , S t rictly ’

speaking any r ule f or the sa f ety valve sho u ld fix the amount of circu mferen ce
,

r athe r than a r ea and cons i der able allowance should be made for the load
,

p r essu r e as f or the same weight of steam the vol u me va ries i nve rsely as the
,

p r essu r e .

The f ollowing a r e the r ules for the size of valve

B oa rd of T r a de the valves must n ot b e in any case less
( )
1 To satis f y t
he ,

than 2 1 n ch es i n d i amete r and f or each boile r with natu r al d rau ght the
, ,

a rea of valve or valves c ombl n ed must not be less than given by this r ule
.

3 75
I=
>
Ar e a of saf et y valve in sq u a r e inches — x gr ate a r ea ( squ a r e f eet ) ,
P

Fig 260
.
— Comb in e d S top an d S a fe ty V a l v e s, Ad mira lty Ty pe

P b eing the a bs olu t e boile r p r essur e . For f or ced d r aught the a r ea f oun d by
C
the above ru le must be multiplied by wher e C is the estimated coal con
25
’

s umption in lbs squa r e f oot of gr ate per hou r

.
p er .

2 L loy d s r etain the

’
ld B oa r d of T r ade R ule that the valve a r ea must
( ) o
l
be at the r ate of squa r e inch f o r each sq u a r e f oot o f g r ate but allow specia ,

valves of any size so long as they b e satis f acto r y when tested

,
.

The is based the amount f heating su r fac e

3 F ch Govern men t R l o n o
( ) ren u e
f
’

c
ontained in a b oiler and thi s per haps is h t uest gauge ,
t e r
,
o a boile r s
,

pability it b ea s a constant r elation to the amount of coal con s u me d ;

ca as r
,
also made fo the steam p essu e The d i amete r is in inches
a llow a n c e i s
'

r r r . ,

T o su i t a ll con d it ion s of d ra u gh t an d fu el it is b e t t er t o t a k e a hy pot h et ica l gra t e a rea of eq u a l to

t w e n t y e i gh t h of t h e t ot a l h e a t in g su rf a c e .
on e
-
680 MANU AL or M ARI N E E NGIN EE RING .

the heating su rfac e in squa re f ee t , an d the pr essu r e in lbs .

per squa re
in c h .

D iamete r of valve ( I f only on e ) 12 3

N
/ t otal bs atin g— su rf—a c
fi m

prs ii T
r a — Si
f
fi
'

( 4 ) The Germa n Govern men t R u le also ma k es allo w ance f or the steam

p ressur e and is as f ollows
,

To have a c lea r a r ea of valve or valves a fte r ded u ct i ng f or the W i ngs or ,

othe r obstacles at the r ate of s o many s qu a re mi lli met res f or each squa re
,

met r e of total heating sur face in acco r dance with the f ollowing tab le :
,

“or k in g
'

p r e s su re in a t mo
s ph er e s

q
N u mber of s u a re m illimetre s
p e r me tre of su r fa ce

W orkin g p r e s su re in a tmo
S ph e r e s

N u mber of s qu a r e m illimetr es
p er me tr e of s u r fa c e

( ) An imp r o v ed r u le , w h i ch i s s imple and easi ly

5 u sed i s — a r ea of e ach
,
of t w o valves
( 0 0 5 squa r e i nch pe r sq u ar e f oo t of g r ate 0 0 0 5 s qua r e

in ch pe r squar e f oot of t otal heating su rf ace) a

E x a mple —
To by the va o s les the s iz e of a pai r of saf ety v alves
find, ri u ru ,
‘
‘

f or a bo i le r w hose g r ate a r ea i s 4 5 squa re f e et heati ng su r f ace 1 5 00 s u a r e

q ,
f eet and w o r k i n g p r ess u r e 1 80 lbs
, .

( 1 ) B y B oar d of T rade .

sq u ar e i nch es .

T he r ef o r e t h e di a met er i s es i nches of e ach valve .

( ) B y Fr ench G o v e r nment r u le
2 .

D i a met er 12 i nches .

( 3) B y G e r man G ove r nment r ule , f or one valve .

Clea r a rea 60 x 1 5 00 1 07 6 8 3 65 s qu a r e mi llimet res .

8 365
N et ar ea 13 sq u ar e i nches
64 5 ,
.

Ad d to th i s 2 squa r e i nch es f or obstr u ction of w i ngs ,

g r os s a r ea 15 sq u ar e i nches ,

and d iamete r f or on e v alve i s 4 4 i nch e s , f or each of tw o val v es i nch e s .

 IN TE RN AL P I PES . 68 1

B h e i mp r ove d le
( 4 ) y t ru .

Ar ea ( cos x 4 5 0 0 05 x 1 5 00 ) x u
s q a re i nch es .

T he r e fo r e d i a met er i s 3 l i nches °
.

The m itr e on a saf ety v alve sea t sho u ld n ot be mor e than {3 inch b ro ad
-

e x cept f or v e ry la r ge val v es a n d the bea ri ng a r ea i n any case need

,
,
not
e x ceed that necessa r y f or a p r ess u r e of 1 2 00 lbs
pe r sq u ar e i nch on i t when .

the r e i s no steam p r ess u r e on t h e v al v e hence

The B oa r d of T r ade ru le f or the s iz e of steel f or the sp ri ng is

S is the total load on the valve ; D the diameter of coil ; measur ed f rom ,
‘

c ent r e t o cent r e of wi r e in inches d is ,

the diameter of r ound wir e and the S ide ,

o f squa r e section wi r e C is when

the coil is made of r ound section steel ,

a nd when of squa r e section ( vide

Appendi x
In terna l Pipes should be fitted fr om
the stop valves to the highest part of
-

the boile r a n d be made with holes or

.

slits w h ose collective a r ea is equ al to

,

wice the a r ea of section of the pipe

t .

The chie f obj ect of this pipe is to

c ollect the steam gently fr om eve r y

par t of the boiler s o as t o avoid setting

,

u
p a st r ong curr ent in on e pa r ticula r
di r ection and ther eby induce p r iming
, .

These pipes a r e usually made of br ass ,

bu t some enginee rs p r e f e r copper and ,

o the r s made the m of cast i r on to avoid

t h e r isk of galvanic ac t ion and r educe
t h e cost . N ow that salt water is neve r
u s e d f or f eed w ate r these pipes may be of
‘

s teel galvanised B y fitting an inte r nal

.

i g 2 6 1 — I mprov e d Fe e d Ch ec k V a lv e
0

pi pe the st e p valve can b e placed in

’
- F . . .

a position convenient f or e x a m ination

a n d wo r ki n g and it should always be situated s o as t o be easy of access at

,

a ll time s . Ar r angements should also be made f or openi ng and shutting it

w ithout going into a position of dange r or di fficulty and t hi s can always b ,

e ff ected by lengthe ni ng the spindles or fitti n g chain gea r The Admi r alty and .

s ome passenge r S h ip owne r s insist 0 11 havi ng gea r fitted so t hat t h e stop valves
- -

c a n be shut f r om On deck as well as in the stokeholes .

I n the mer cantile ma rine the stop and sa fety —valve bo x es a r e almost
,

i nva r iably made of cast i r o n or steel the valves seats and S pin dl es bei n g , ,

of bronze The Admi ralty r e qu ir e all boile r mountings t o be made of b ro n z e

.
'

o r cast stee l and d o not a llo w c a s t i r on t o be use d

, .
 AU TOM AT I C FEED V AL V ES .

t ha t ,in a ve ry s ho rt time both e x te rnal and i n tern a l pipes a re damage d

,

s eri ously .

To a v oid this the inte r nal pipe should when discha r ging above the
, ,

wate r level be tu rn ed u pwa rd at the end so as t o always r emain filled with

-
, ,

water ; and when t u r ned downwa rd t o discha r ge unde r wate r the end S hould ,

be well below the lowest wo r king level .

An additional means of sa f ety is sometimes a ff o r ded by fitting inside the

boile r a clack valve s o a rr anged as to close ove r the end of the inte r nal pipe
,

or on the spigot of the o r dina r y check valve ; when this is p r ovided the ,

latter can be e x a mined when steam is up A cock also used to be fi t ted .

s ometimes close to the check valve so that the supply can b e r egulated b , y
it in s tea d of by interf e ri n g with t h e li ft of the check valve
, .

n ig
.
‘

. 2 6 2 — Fe ed Ch e c
. k V lv
a e t
wi h S hu t off
-
V al v e Ad d ed .

Au tomatic Feed Va lves

an advantage to all water tube boilers , and
a re -

n ecessa r y f or thei r good wo r k ing when steami ng u nde r f o r ced d r aught inas ,

much as the r atio of the water they contain to that evapo r ated per ho u r is
small ; consequent on this ther e mi ght be conside r able di fficulty in main
taining the water at the r ight level by hand adj u stment as is e ff e cted with ,

tank boiler s I t is also necessa ry f or th ei r good wo r king and the p r od u ction

.

of the full supply of d r y steam that the level be as low as possible consistent .

with saf ety Fig 2 62a shows the method f or accomplishing this desi rable
. .

en d devised by Mr A G Mum fo rd and the appa r atus s u pplied by him

. . .
, ,

and used lar gely in the B ritish and fo r eign N avies The means involved a re .

simpl e effectiv e and free fr om liabili ty t o derangement with ordina ry care

, ,

and a ttention ; moreove r if ou t of o rder there is n o difficu lt v in restorin g

, ,
6 84 M ANU AL or MARI N E E NG I N EE RIN G .

it T he check valve on t he b0 11e r has attached t o it a piston which is a le a ky

. ,

fit in a cy linde r below t h e va lv e box and t h e openi n g or shutti ng of the val v e

,

d epen d s on t h e d i ff e r ence in p r essur e belo w f r om that abov e t h e pisto n

.

S o long as the wate r which leaks past the piston i s fr ee t o ru n a w ay t h e ,

p ress u r e of the f eed wate r is unable to open the check valve I f the flo w
-
.

f r om below the piston is checked the r e is soon eq u ilib r ium a nd the f eed
, ,

wate r fo r ces open the check valve and s u pplies the boile r ; as soon as the
flo w i s r es u med the piston will b e p r essed down , an d so close the check
,
 U
S C M c ocx . 6 85

valve and stop the f eed The wate r thus leaki n g a w a y is caused to p a ss
.

thr o u gh a small valve which is Ope r ated by the risi n g and falling of a float
,

in a chambe r connected with the boile r s o that on the wate r level f alling ,

below no r mal the leak is stopped and the check valve pe rmitted t o Open ,

and r emain s o until the level is at or slightly above no rmal when the leak “

is fr ee and the check valve closed .

Ther e a r e other methods of attaining the same end s u ch as that Of S ir ,

John Th or n y cr oft whe r e the admission valve is ope r ated di r ect by a float
,

Inside the boiler so that the supply is S hut off as soon as the wate r level
,

rises above no r mal ; and the ingenious a rr angement of Mr Ya rr ow whe r eby .

,

t h e f eed p ump steam cylinde r became flooded as soon as the level was t oo
-

high in consequence of its supply valve b eing placed at the p r ope r level for
good wo r king ; the water was e x hausted fr om the feed donkey to the feed
t ank and as soon as the wate r l e vel f ell and steam was again admi tted the
,

donk ey inc rease d to its r egulation S peed and delive r e d its no r mal supply Of ,

f eed wate r
-
.

B l ow on Cock —A cock used to be fitted at or nea r the bottom of t h e

-
.

boile r t o answer the double pu r pose O f admitting sea wate r be fo r e getti n g

,
-

up steam and t o blow of b rine and some of the water when r equi r ed Thi s .

cock S hould b e a ver y st r ong on e as it is liable t o r ough usage and bei n g out
, , ,

of sight and not easily ge t at it is ver y apt t o be neglected , For this r eason .
,

as well as because a la r ge co c k is di fficult t o open and S hut engineer s n ow ,

p r e f e r a valve to a cock I f however a cock is fitted it should be a rr ange d

.
, , ,

s o t hat its handle or spanne r cannot b e r emoved when it is Open S e a wate r .

-

is n ow seldom or neve r used for filling boiler s wo rking at hi gh p r essu r es S O ,

that a connection w ith the sea is not necessar y ; when fi t ted t h e clear a re a ,

thr ough it was usually 1 squar e inch ( 0 2 squar e inch for each ton of wate r 0

in the boiler ) n ow it need n ot e x ceed

,
inches in di ameter .

AS it is a ver y r ep r ehensible p r actice quickly to blow off a mar ine boiler

when at its normal wor king tempe r at u r e it is n ow neve r done ; a cock is ,

fitted however t o the bottom Of the boi le r so that w hen the p r essu r e of
, , , ,

the steam is down the wat er may be pum ped over boar d if r equ i r ed
, .

S cu m Cock — A cock having a clear ar ea thr o u gh it Of one thi r d that of

. ,
-

the blow Off cock S hould be fitted to the boiler near to the level of the
-
, ,

wate r and t o it is connected a pe rfo rated pipe inside the boil e r n ot lowe r
, , ,

than the lowe s t working level The Obj ect of this pipe is t o collect all .

s cu m and fl oating imp u r ities fr om the w ate r and discha r ge them over boa r d .

Conside r able q u anti ties Of g rease and greasy matte r we r e pumped with
the f eed water into the boiler and had to be got rid of occasi onally
-
, ,
.

A pa rticu l ar kind of g rease w a s sometimes fo rmed in the conden sers of

engines whose cylinder s wer e l u b ri cated with a certain class of oils which
a re n ot pu re hyd r ocar bons ; po r tions Of it we r e pum ped with the feed wate r -

into the boiler in the form Of small pellets whi ch being of supe rio r specific ,

g ravity t o p u r e wate r sank t o the bottom and used to r emain ther e unti l
, ,

the density of water incr eased sufficiently to cause it to r ise and come in
contact with the hot surface I t is the r efo re better t o filt e r the feed wate r
.
, , _
-

under all ci r cumstances than t o tru st to a scu m c ook or to a blow Off cock -
,

and to use little or n o inte r nal lub r icant ; i f a lu b ricant is used at all
. ,

ca re S hould be taken that it is specially suited for the purpose and a pu re

hyd roca rbon ( vide Chapte r x x x i
 wma
’
s H Y D R O K I N ETEB .
687

S o me en gin e e r s ha v e
the stand pipes a n d conn e cting pipes s o a r ranged
o

that the r e is a cont i nuo u s flow f r om t op t o bottom on ly vi a t h e gla s s tu be the ,

stand pipe being d ivid e d in the middle or being s o f o rmed that the mi ddle ,

is only a connect i ng ba r for t op a n d b ottom to p r event the glass tu b e being

d ra wn ou t T his is ve r y si mple and sa f er than the o rdina ry method
.
,

S team Ga u ge —The st ea m gauge on B ou rdon s p rinciple is now nea rly

.

’
.

uni versal and so well k n own as to ne e d no desc ription S c hoefier s o ri ginal .

’

gau ge although less lia ble to der angement than B ou rdon s is not s o accu r ate
,
’

, .

and does n ot find s o muc h f avour The boiler gauge should have a d ial so
.

mar ked that it may r egister p r ess u r es t o at least 2 5 per cent hi ghe r t h an the .

wo r k ing p r ess u r e of the boiler These ga u ges sho u ld be ca r efu lly tested when
.

new and at fr equent inter vals a fter being at wo r k as it is o f ten f ound that
,
.

th ey r equi r e some slight adj ustment For thi s pu rpose all long voyage ships.
-

should have a standa r d gauge and test appar atus .

S en tin el Va lve —The Admi r alty used to r equi r e each boil er t o have a
.

Fig 2 63
. .
— We ir s ’
k
H y d ro in eter .

s mall valve loaded with a weight t o a f e w pounds per squa re inch above t he
wo r king p r e ss u r e s o that in case of the sa f ety valv es sticking fast and the
,

gauge being f alse an alar m may b e given w hen the r e is an ex cess of p r essu r e
, .

S uch valves a r e gene r ally about g inch in diamete r bu t s om et imes as small ,

as g ineh An a rr angement of a small sa f ety valve attached to a whi stle

.

has been int r od u ced but ther e sho u ld be n o necessity f or such refinements
, ,

and it is doubt fu l if in time of need t hey would be heeded

, , .

Air Va lve — The old box boiler s ha d a small n on r etu r n valve to admi t
.
-

a ir when the boile r was cooling d ow n t o p r event the boile r collapsing fr om

ex cess ex te rna l p r essur e To day such a valve or cock is desi rable t o a d mit
-

a ir b e f o r e taking off ma n hole doo r s a n d avoid accident to the ope r ator

,
.

Weir s Hydrok in eter — This inst rument ( fig 2 6 3 ) is for the p u rp ose of

’
. .

w a rmi ng the wate r in the bottom of the boile r when getting up st eam It .

co n s i s ts of a ser ies of noz zles on e w ithin the othe r each having a gr ating ,
 MA N UA L or M AR FN E E NGIN E ERING .

body in r ea r thr ough whi ch t h e wa t e r passes on its r oad t o the nozzle when
, ,

a c u rr ent is set up by a j et of steam i ssuing fr om t h e cent r e on e The steam .

is obtained fr om the au x iliary boile r which has been u s ed to s u pplyf t h e

“
“
j

w in ches . Without this instr ument t h e bottom of a la rge boile r r emains

cold even a fter the s t eam is r aised with it t h e t emperatur e of the wate r at
,

the bottom di ff e rs V ery little fr om that at t he t op s t eam c a n in t hi s way be

sa f ely r aised in a sho rte r t ime t h a n usual a nd a t n o ex t ra c Os t and the
, ,

Fig 2 6 4
. .
— Com bin e d S y re n and D ou ble Fig . 2 64 a — . S te e n v
S tr u th e rs
'

Orga n Wh istle . Ad m ira lty S y re n .

endur ance of the boile r is ve ry conside rably inc r eased The r e a re many .

othe r ways of p r omoting the ci r culation when steam is up but none do this ,

s o e fficiently du r ing the time of r aising steam as the h drok zn et er

‘

y .

S team Whis t les a rc of t w o kinds known as the bell whistle and o rgan
,
-

tube whi stle ; t h e latte r has n ow supe rseded the f o r me r on account of its
m
,

si p l y
i ci t of const ruction and supe r io r tone An imp r oved f o rm has a .

d m sron m the tube or t wo sepa rate tubes s o as t o emit t w o distinct notes

, ,
 BO IL E R CL O TH ING . 6 89
I

which may be in ha r mony or dis co rd and when sounded togethe r a re hea rd ,

a long d i stance .

I t is impo rt ant that the w histle shall sound as soon as the steam is tu rned
on ; t o ins u r e this happening g r eat ca r e must be taken to keep the whistle ,

pipe fr ee of w ate r whi ch is no ve r y easy matte r I t may ho w eve r be

, .
, ,

e ff ected in two ways : fi r st by leading the pipe fr om the boile r into the ,

f unnel and keeping it inside as fa r as the level of the whistle ; second by

,
,

taking steam f or the stee ring engine fr om the t 0 p of the whistle pipe the r eby -

ensu ring a constant flow of steam and no accu mu lation of w ater .

S epa ra t or — T hi s although not a boile r fitting is intimately connected

.
, ,

with them ; it is almost u nkno w n in the me r cantile ma rine although it -

might be used sometimes with advantage the r e in o r de r to f r ee the steam

f r om wate r me chanically mi x ed with it All men of —w a r w er e f o r mer ly fitted
“

-
.

w ith sepa r ato r s and fr om the tendency t o p r ime on the pa r t of thei r boile r s
, ,

when wo r king at f ull speed and the dange r to the engines when wo rking at ,

a hi gh velocity of piston fr om wate r getting into the cylinde r s they we r e ,

necessar y N ow only s hi ps with cer tain water tube boiler s have sepa r ato rs
.
,
-
.

The old sepa r ato r consisted of a ve rtical cylind rical chambe r having a ,

division plate e x tending fr om the t op to about hal f way down a n d so placed

- -

that the steam in going thr ough the separ ato r must pass unde r this dia
ph ra gm ; the obj ect is to separ ate ou t the water mechanically mi x ed wi th
the steam by dashing it against the diaphr agm and p r ecipitating it t o the
,
'
,

bottom of _the sepa r ato r whence it is blown t o the h ot well or sea whicheve r ,
-

is convenient Most mode rn sepa r ato r s a r e const r ucted on the cent ri fugal
.

p r inciple so that the wate r by its gr eat density f ollows on e co u r se while t h e

, ,

steam f ollo w s another .

B oil er Cl othin g — The boile r she ll should be well cover ed with a coating
.

of non conducting mate r ial to p r event loss by r adiation fr om its sur f ace
“
-

, ,

w hi ch may a mou n t in some cases t o mo r e than 1 0 per cent The mater ial .

used sho u l d b e a n on cond u cto r of heat as well as incombustible and ino r ganic
-
.

The f ollo w ing mater ials a re those in gene r al use f or boiler clothi n g
S ome e x p er i m e n t s o t h e e ffic i e n c y o f d iff e r e n t h e a t i n s u l a t or s a r e d e c i be d by
n s r

M r S H D a vi es i n a r e c e n t i s s u e of t h e J ou n a l of t h e S oci et y of Ch emi c l I n d u s t ry
. . . r a .

T h e f ollow i n g t a ble s h ow s t h e h e a t tr a n s mi tte d th r ou gh 1 f oot th i ckn es s of t h e d i ffe re n t

m a t e i ls f or e a c h 1 F of te mpe r a t u re b e t w e e n t h e h ot a d old s r f a ces
°
r a . n c u

Ai r -
Di r ed M a t e ri al .
0 1 532?35; 1
2

S la g w ool ( ligh t)
H a i r f e lt ,
Li gh t m a gn es ia ,
G r a n u la t e d cor , k
S la g w ool ( h ea y ) , v
K i e s e lgu h r ,
k
Fla y c h ar c oa l,
P u mi c e ( g i n c h mea n d ia m eter ) ,
l -

S a w d u s t ( s pr u ce ) ,
Asb e s tos fibr e ,
S a w d u s t ( ery moi s t ) , v
M r Davi e s
. n o es t th at p ow de r e d pu mi ce i s mu ch in fe r ior t o p u m i c e in s ma ll lu m ps .

44
 E NGIN E S E A I I N GS .
' ‘

6 91

CH AP T ER XX V I .

I
F TT ING IN O F M ACH IN E R Y , S TA T R ING AN D R E V E R S ING O I? E NGIN E S , ET C .

Fit ting Machinery in t o t h e S h ip As soon as the b u ildi n g of the ship is .

-

s u fficiently advanced to allow the enginee r s to com mence thei r wo r k a line ,

s ho u ld be st r etched in the place intended f or the a x is of the sha fting and ,

f r om it r e fe r ence lines must b e sco r ed on the b u lkheads ste r nposts and , ,

o the r convenient places f or f utu r e guidance and to enable the S hipb u ilde r s ,

t o set t he engine seating and tunnel pedestals with some degr ee of accur acy .

For this pu r pose piano wi r e answe r s best , as it can be d r awn e x ceedingly

tight w itho u t b r eaking , and the amount of sag is ve r y slight and does ,

not va r y When wi r e 20 L S G is used and the tension on it is as much

. . . .
,

a s it w ill bea r with sa f ety ( about 2 00 lbs is su fii c ie n t ) the sag w ill not .
,

At the st er npost and b u lkhead holes c r oss

'

e x ceed 0 1 5 inch
p er 1 00 f eet
’

.
,

pieces of wood sho u ld b e fi x ed and the cent r e t r ans fe rr ed to them ; w ith

hese cent r es ci r cles sho u ld be scribed in and ma r ked with a cen t r e punch
t
'

w hen they se r ve as g u ides in bo r ing ou t f or the ste r n tube I t is s ometimes .

f o u nd advantageo u s to ve r i f y the cent r e line ma r kings by the system called

“ ”
sighting ; this is done by placing battens ho rizont ally at convenient
places whose uppe r edges touch the cent r e line of sha fting and w hen viewed
, , , ,

s ho u ld all coincide i f they a r e e x actly in line A simila r system of battens

,
.

should then be placed ver tically with the same r esult i f the line is st r aight
_ ,
.

This plan howeve r is a somewhat tedio u s on e and by n o means r eliabl e

'

, , ,

in most instances o w ing to the deceptive natu r e of the light in the hold of
a ship I n long ships a su r veyo r s telescope may be used to check the
.
’

cent res .

B orin g t h e S tern post — A bo r ing ba r with tool head etc . is fi x ed

'
,
.
,

a cc u r ately in positio n by means of the r e f e r ence ci r cles be f o r e mentioned

-
,

a n d the ste r npost w hich has been r oughly bo r ed to w ithin abo u t 5 p er cent
,
.

o f the finishe d size be f o r e being fi x ed in place is bo r ed out to the e x act size

~
,

r equi r ed the bulkhead with its line r is also bo r ed ou t and also any other
, , ,

pa r t into w hich the ste r n t u b e is r equi r ed to fit accu r ately Th e finishing .

c u t th r ough the ste r np ost should b e commenced fr om t he i n s ide as the w ea r ing

.
,

a w ay of the cutting edge of the tool causes the hole t o be slightly tape r and ,

'

this allows the tube to be made a ve r y tight fit in it .

En gi n e S ea t in g s — The supe r st r uct u r e r aised on the ship s fr ames to ca rr y

.

t h e engines is called by va r ious names such as en gin e bed en gi n e s ea t in gs , , ,

en gi n e fou n da t i on en gin e bea r ers etc and is on e r equ i ring some s k I ll to

, ,
.
,

design and car e to manu f actur e p r operly As the success and e fii c I en t .

—

w o r king of an engine ve r y mate r ially depend on this st ru ctu r e too much ,

*
c a r e cannot be devoted t o its const ru ction
'
The weight of a ma rine engine .

i s consider able and concent r ated on a c om pa ra t iv e ly s m a ll a r ea in a seaway

‘

R t i v t ig t i
e c en of
th o ce of t ou b l
n es a p i ced i n om v l h ip i Am i with
on s e s u r r e ex er en s e na a s s n er ca

s h a f t in g , et c .
, ha ve c on fir med t h i s V i e w.
6 92 MA NU AL or M A R IN E E NGIN EE RING .

the ine rtia f o r ces cause ve ry seve r e st r esses on the seating and on the bolt s
connecting the engine to it ; and in some cases the st r ain of the engine itsel f , ,

when at wo r k is bo r ne la r gely by the bed on w hich it r ests o wi ng to t h e ,

want of r igidity in its ow n bedplate .

The ship cannot al w ays b e viewed as a r igid st r uctu r e for elasticity is ,

obser vable in all shi ps especially when unloaded and is ve ry ma rked in

, ,

those built of consider able length f or shallow wate r navi gation For this .

r eason the engine seating must be so designed a s to add mate r ially to the
,

sti ff ness of the shi p s st r uctu r e and b e of su fficient st r ength to dist r ibute
’

any st r esses caused by the w ri ght of the engine over the main frame w o r k of
the s hi p To this end the ve rtical p or tions of the engine se ating should be
.
,

wo r ked in or better still be in on e with the floo r plates and keelsons and
, , ,

the lon git u d in a ls should e x tend beyond the immediate vi cinity of the engine
bed so as to dist ribute the load ove r a longe r po r tion of the s hi p and n ot
, ,

localise it on a f e w frames The longitudinal st r ength thus added to t h e

.

ship s bottom should not cease ab r uptly at the bulkhead as is commonl y

’
,

the p ractice but be continued beyond it and dec r ea sed gr adually Th e

,
.

e ff ect of stoppin g the engine seating at the a ft bulkhead of the engine room -
,

is to ca u se a sudden change of fiex u r e in the ship s bottom at that point ’

when the s hi p is steaming in a heavy sea this change of fle x u r e will p r od u ce

abnor mal st r esses on the sha fting especially on the a fter pa r t of the c r ank ,

sha ft ; the a fter bearing of c r ank sha fts shows this by its tendency to heat
'

-
,

and in e x tr eme cases the sha ft is b r oken at that c r ank —a r m or at its j unction
, , ,

w ith the c r ank a rm When the c r ank sha ft was connected to the thr ust
-
.
-
,

shaf t by d river s the wo r king of the ship was mani fested by the squeaking
,

sound emitte d by th em when n ot oiled .

The scantlings of the engine seating s h ou ld n e v e r be less than those of

'

the ship s fl oo r plates to which it is fi x ed and when the seating is hi gh they

’
, ,
’
should b e in e x cess of the ship s scantlings The angle i rons should b e .
-

ca r e fully fitted and the r iveting mo r e than usually good ; the r i vet hole s
,

sho u ld be fa ir and well filled w ith the rivet ; and i f the holes a r e not fai r ,

simply d ri fting them ou t to allow the r ivet to pass thr ough is not sufficient
these r emar ks par ticula rly ap ply to the connection of the t 0 p plate with
the verticals The top plate should b e at least 5 0 p er cent thicke r than t h e
. .

ver tical plates and well bedded in place Fi fty per cent of the r ivet holes
, . .

sho u ld be d rilled thr ough and thr o u gh and the r emainde r r im er ed f ai r a n d ,

t r ue to ens u r e a thor ough t r ustwo r thy f oundation for a mode r n en gine .

I t was the p r actice with some enginee r s at on e time to hold the engine s
dow n to the ship by a f ew la r ge bolts whi ch wer e connected to st r ong c r oss
ba r s under the r eve r se fr ames of the ship ; t hi s is howeve r not a goo d , ,

p r actice as the load is localised to an unnecessar y deg r ee and such bolts

, ,

a r e ve r y apt to co r r ode f r om the action of bilge wate r and being unseen -

, , ,

to b r eak event u ally witho u t b eing discove r ed .

The engine seatings a re pec u lia rly liable to decay f rom the action of
bilge wate r and its gases acting on the wa r m metal ; to p r event this the y
-

should be ca r e fully p r otected by cement wher e p r acticable and well painte d ,

whe r e cement cannot be got t o stick cement wash is howeve r bette r than , ,

paint and if mi x ed hot and b ru s hed on will f o rm a ve ry e fficient cove ring

, , ,
.

T h rust B l ock S ea ting —This also from its impo rtance and the natu re
.
,

and the magnit u de of the st rains on it must be c a r e f u llv const ructed The re , .
 B OI L E R S EAT ING S OR B EAR ER S . 6 93

s hould be t hr ee ve r tical plates e x tending ove r at least fou r f rames in small

, , ,

s hi ps and S i x t o e i ght f r ames in la r ge ones

, the cent r e plate sho u ld be above ,

a n d st r ongly secu r ed to the keelson by angle i r ons its thickness sho u ld be -

5 0 per cent mo r e than that of the floo r plates the side plates should be 2 5 er
p
.

c ent th i cke r than the floo r plates and connected to the r eve r se f rames by
.
,

str ong angle i r ons ; all th r ee verticals should be caused if possible to ab u t

-

, ,

o n the engine seating and tied to it The top plate sho u ld be of the same .

thi ckness as that of the en gine seating and when possible in line with it , .

S top plates should b e r iveted t o the top plate to se r ve for the th ru st block
t o abut on All the r ivet holes in t hi s top plate sho u ld be d r illed q u ite f ai r
.

with the holes in the angle i r ons and connections , and ca r e shou l d be taken
-

t hat all the holes in the th r ust seating sho u ld b e r im er ed f ai r and all r ivets

q u ite fill the holes I n shi ps of ve r y la r ge powe r the base of the thru st
.
,

block seating should ex tend over mo r e fr ames and the ver tical plates sho u ld ,

be w o r ked inter costal with the floo r s so as to f o r m a di r ect tie to the ship s ,
’

bottom plating .

Pedesta ls f or Tu nn el Sh aftin g — The plummer bloc k s for the tunnel sha fts
.

r est on the tunnel bottom w hen the sha fting is not hi gh but when the distance ,

i s t oo g r eat f or t hi s p edestals a r e built of plates whose thickness is ab ou t

, ,

the same a s t hat of the floo r s connected by angle i r on so as to fo r m a sti ff

,
-
,

e olu mn ; the t 0 p plate should b e 5 0

p er cent t hi cker . .

B oiler S eatin g s or B earers — The boiler with its fittings and mounti n gs , ,

t ogethe r with the water it contains r equ i r es a ver y st r ong s u ppo r t and ,

e fficient mea n s of keeping it in place when the ship is r olling or pitching .

When the boile r s a r e placed athwa rts hips ( that is thei r a x es a r e athwart ,

s hip ) the bea r er s act as beams t o distr ibute thei r weight ove r a la r ge numbe r
,
.

o f f r ames and may b e made of H section so that the lo w e r flange is r iveted to

, ,

the r ever se f r ames and the t op flange car ries the chocks which a r e wedge
, ,

shaped and shap ed to fit under t h e boile r s and f o r m saddles f or them to sit

, ,

in . S ingle ended boile r s should have t w o such saddles whose b r eadth of

-
,

f ace whe r e the boile r r ests sho u l d n ot be less than 9 inches f or ve r y la r ge

boiler s and 6 inches f or small ones D ouble ended boiler s of moder ate
,
“

.
-

length and si z e may have th r ee such saddles but long or lar ge do u ble ended ,
-

boiler s should have f o u r sets The chocks a r e sometimes made of angle i r on

.
-

a n d plates b u t they a r e b etter made o f cast i r o n or cast steel ;

,
when of
the latte r mater ials the patterns can be t r ied in place a fte r the boiler s a r e
,

i n position and made in s u ch a way that the chocks when cast w ill fit with
, , ,

s u fficient accu r acy as to r equi r e no packings ; when made of w r o u ght i r on ,

m uch e x pense is incu rr ed in t r ying t o make them fit and in the end packing ,

i s o ften necessitated .

I f the boiler s a r e placed f o r e and a ft — that is w ith thei r a x es longi ,

t u din a lly— the bea r er s a r e gene r ally laid on the t 0 p of individual floo r s thus ,

loc a lism g the weight on a f ew f r ames only To avoid the st r ai ing act i on
n .

p r oving dange r o u s the lon git u di n a ls of the shi p in wake of the boI ler s sho u ld
,

be inc r eased and e x t r a connections made between them and those f r ames
'

ca rr ying the b ea r e r s S ometimes the boile r s when in this position have

.

been ca rr ied by lon gitudinal bear er s inclined s o as to b e I n planes pa s sm g

th r o u gh the a x is of the boiler S uch bea r er s dist ribute the load ove r a .

c onside r able numbe r of f rames but do not so well s u ppo rt the boile r and , ,

m r o eove r p r event access to the boile r bottom f or e x amination and r epai r .

 c or r ER P I P ES . 6 95

in such a way as to keep the columns etc from being damaged or strained . .
,

when r a mm I n g the enemy B oile r s also must have stays and chocks to keep
.

them f rom being j e rked ou t of place from r amming or othe r ine rtia e ff ect , .

As a matte r of f act r amming is no longe r looked on as a possible nautical

,

f o r m of attack but ships do collide accidentally and sometimes take the

,
,

gr ound suddenly .

I f W is the weight in tons of a b oile r its wate r fittings etc and K is , , , .

,

the f ull S peed of the shi p in knots Then . .

Ar ea of
section of steel t o r esist f o r e and a ft movement should not be
W K
less than square inches .

B oil er Seats —
The boiler s r equi r e to be ca r e fu lly fi t ted in thei r seats and
.
,

sec u r ed ther e so that they cannot b e displaced by the rolling or colliding of

t h e ship . The boile r should r equi r e n o loose packings when the chocks a re
of cast i r on ; but when the saddles a r e of w r ought i r on and do n ot fit the ,

boiler e x actly it is b etter t o inter pose i r on packings at inter vals and fill in the
, ,

spaces between with har dwood wedge pieces To p r event move ment longi .

t u din a lly t oe
,
plates should be r iveted t o the fr ames or othe r convenient
’
pa r t of the s hi p s st ructur e and these should be sti ff ened by angle i r ons
,
-
.

The toe plates should stand about 6 t o 9 inches above the bottom of the
boiler and b e clear of the man holes a n d m ou n t in gs The boile r is h eld
,
- '
.

sometimes in its seating by str aps su rr ounding it and secu r ed to the bear ers ,

w hen of small size but the genera l p r actice is to secu r e it by tie bar s from -

its uppe r par t to the side of the ship or by s t ruts fo r med of plates and angles ,

fr om the st r inge r s bea r e r s etc Each pa r ticula r case r equi r es special t r eat
, , .

ment and it is impossible t o lay down any r ule beyond that of p r ovi ding
, ,

f or eve r y contingency t o which a ship is liable Tie ba rs from lugs r iveted .

-

t o the boile r sides to the bea r e r s is a good and p er haps the best way to secu r e
them and is the Admi ralty p ractice
,
.

At one time the Admi r alty p r actice was to lay the boile r in a bed of
mastic cement sp r ead on a c r ad le f o r med to suit the boile r bottom This
, .

was ver y necessar y f or the box f o r m of boiler especially in wooden ships , .

This cement also p ractically insulated the boile r a p r actice which may be,
,

f ollowed n ow w ith advantage to both ship and boile r A st rip of asbestos .

,

to inch thick interposed between the boiler and its saddle is a good
, , _
’
a rr angement for p r eventing t her mo elect ric action on the ship s fr ames -

tank t Op etc as well as for r etaining much heat in the boiler The boiler
,
.
,
.

bottom in steel ships should be well above the bilges and r oom p r ovided f or ,

a man to get in t o paint or r epa ir ; the _

’

boile r bottom and ship s fr amewo r k

c a n then and should be kept well painted The boile r bottom should
, ,
.

also have a good coat of n on conduction material applied t o it in such a -

manne r as to p r event r adiation and at the same time such as to per mit of ,

easy r emoval and r eplacement f or e x amination and r epai rs to the sha ft .

Copper Pipes — The whole of the pipes subj ect to internal p r essur e should
.

be of steel w r ought i ron or st r ong Copper ; the ex ha u st pipes may be and

, , ,

usually a re in the mer cantile ma r ine of cast i r on The Admi r alty r equi r e ,
.

that all pipes of steel or copper up to 6 inches diameter shall be s oli d dra wn .

Wr ought i r on and steel pipes a re now ver y gener ally employed especially
-
,

for la r ge sizes and high p r essu r e I f of steel and welded the B oa r d of T r ad e

.
6 96 M AN U AL or M AR I NE EN GI N EE RI N G .

used to r eq u ir e a str ap r iveted over the w eld S olid d rawn pipes may be .
-

obtained up to 2 4 inches diamete r in steel of any r easonable thickness *

.

The thickness the main steam p i pe sho u ld w hen

of of solid d ra w n steel
-

0 1 25 ( diamete r of bo r e p r essu r e
The thickness of feed pipes
0 1 25 ( diameter of bo r e p r ess u r e for coppe r ;
f or steel .

'

The thickness of blow ofl and scum pipes -

0 1 25 —i diamete r of bo r e p r essu r e
When made tee l or i r on w elded t h e thickness shoul d be 2 0 p e r cent
of s .

mo re than given by the above .

The thickness of coppe r or b r ass main inlet pipes

0 1 ( d iamete r
The thickness of coppe r or b r ass main discha rge p1 p es f rom r ecip r ocating
p u mp 0 1 ( diameter
I f f or a cent r i fugal pump the discha r ge may be of the same thickness as
-

the inlet pipes .

The thickness of copper f eed suction pipes and bilge discha r ge pipes -

0 09 ( diameter
The thi ckness of copp er waste steam pipes
0 05 ( diameter
The flanges for c oppe r or b r ass pipes should always be of tough b r ass ,

and of a thickness equal to 4 times that of the pipe ; the b r eadth of flange
sho u ld be ai times the diamete r of the bolts used For pipes e x posed to a .

p r essu r e of 30 lbs and upwa rds the pitch of the bolts sho u ld not ex ceed
.
,

5 times thei r diamete r or 5 times the thickness of fl ange ; thei r diamete r is

,

u sually about the same as the thickness of flange For pipes not subj ect to .

a p r essur e of mo r e than 30 lbs the bolts may be 6 diamete rs apa r t or even

.
, ,

a little mo r e in some cases All pipe fl anges should be machined t rue

.

especially those of the f eed and steam pipes These should fit f ace to f ace .

without f o r cing and be j ointed w ith as little putty or paint as possible

, .

B r ass flanges on the coppe r pipes may wi th advantage have gr ooves into
which is fitted a r ing of coppe r wi r e so f t enough to easily con fo r m t o the
g rooves when p r essed by t h e bolts This can also be done with i ron flanges
'

.
,

bu t the Admi r alty complain that sever e co rr osion has taken place w ith
them so done Oorru ga t ed r ings of so ft coppe r or b rass h a ve also p r oved
.

good j ointe rs when fitted inside the line of bolt holes The Admi ralty r equi r e ,

the w hole r ange of piping to b e tested by water and then by steam The .

j ointing that does best for water is n ot gener ally so good for r esisting steam
and heat The boltin g should be close rathe r than wider apart with la rger bolts
.
, .

St arting an d R eversing Engin es — I t is most impo rtant that an engine

shall be capable of having its motion instantly r eversed ; in f act no engine
_ ,

is satisfacto ry which cannot be stopped and made to move full speed aste rn .

in less than 30 seconds from the time of the enginee r commencing the e v olu
tion This can scarcely be done by the hand gea r with even compa ratively
.
-

Ch est erfield T u b e Com pan y can su pp ly solid - d ra wn s t eel t u b es 2 4 in ch es d ia met er an d u p to

cc on g
.
 S T E AM G EAR FO R R EV ERS ING . 697

small engines and is beyond possibility with la rge ones I t is essential

, .
,

the r e fo r e t o p rovide mechanical means f or this pu rpose in all engines of

,

ove r 1 00 N H P if such e fficiency is r equi r ed ; and it should be of such

. .

power as t o pe r fo r m the Ope ration without shutting off steam The simplest .

method is t o fit a s tea m cy linder with r ods etc to a lever on the weigh

'

, .
,

sha ft in addition t o t h e o rdina ry hand gear th e piston pushing and pulling -

a s r equi r ed t o help the engineer , Ther e is however the Ob j ection to this .

, , ,

that the cylinder is then somewhat la rge and at times the steam powe r ,
-

master s the hand power and overruns its limit ther eby tending to cause
-

, ,

d amage This latter obj ection howeve r is easily got ove r in many ways
.
, , ,

the best of which is by adding a second small cylinder containing water or

oil w hi ch is f o r ced by its piston fr om on e end to the othe r and the r eby
, ,

a cts as a b r ake to the gea r .

B rown s Pa ten t R eversing Gear —This idea of the b r ake cylinde r has
’
.

been wo rked out and pe r f ected by Mess r s B r own of Edinbu r gh who mak e
, .
, ,

a gear w hi ch by the action Of a small lever easily moved by on e hand

, ,

o pe r ates on the valve motion instantly and only to the e x act e x tent intended ,

by the Oper ato r s o that if the engineer moves the lever thr ough on e qua rter
,
-

of its ang u la r movement the link motion is moved by the gea r thr ough ,
-

ex actly on e quarter Of its t r ave rse This is e ff ected by means of a system

-
.

of compensating leve r s so a r r anged that the gea r by moving r eplaces the

, , ,

valves i h the_ex act position fr om which they we r e displaced b y the hand

lever Messr s B r own have also devised an a rr angement wher eby the hu nti n g
. .

a n d compensating leve r s with thei r r ods a r e on the engine and so the appa r atus
;
is sel f contained Figs 2 65 2 65 a and 2 6 5 b show the met hods adopted by
-
. .
, ,

the firm t o make the gear automatic .

Steam Gear for R eversing — The simplest and most e fficient Of the steam .

gear s and on e whose cost is s o sm all that it may be fitted to the cheapest
,

o f engines consists O f a small engine on whose c r ank sha ft is a wo r m which

, ,
-

w o r ks in a wo r m wheel capable of tu r ning fr eely on a fi x ed gudgeon on the

-

engine fr ame or other convenient place ; on this wo r m wheel is a stud or -

c r ank pin t o whi ch is fitted a r od connecting it t o a leve r on the weigh

-
.

sha ft the eccent ricity of the c rank pin is eq u al to hal f the cho rd of the a re -

thr ough which the lever end wo rks The engine being set in motio n the .
,

wo rm wheel is caused to r evolve and the motion Of the c r ank pin causes
-
,
-

the w eigh t s h a ft t o oscillate and so t o r eve rse the links

~
The steam ,
.

cylinde r is sometimes fitted with r ever sing gear but it is quite u n ,

necessa r y and is r eally bette r without it as the little engine moves s o

, ,

f ast that p r actically n o time is lost in making a complete r evolution of the

wo r m wheel -
.

The advantage of thi s gear ove r other s besides its cheapness is its simpli , ,

city sa f ety a n d ca pability of being used t o t u r n the engines when in po rt

, , ,

or to wo r k a winch f or li fting weights w hen ove rh auling the engines the hand
wheel is also in this case on the little engine shaft and acts as a flywheel ,
.

The Admi r alty engines have a similar starting gear but fitted with t w o -
,

cylinder s whose c r anks a r e at right angles ; the starting hand wheel is only -

c onnected to the c r ank sha ft or gea r when r equi r ed t o be wo r ked by hand ;

-

this pe rmits Of the engine sta r ting fr om any position without help and stopping
a t any point w ithout a b r ake as is O ften necessa r y in the me r cantile ma rine ,

( fig .
 R E V ERS ING or PRO PE LL ERS . D RI V E N B Y T UR B IN ES . 6 99

T AB L E L XXX II .
-
PAR r I c U L AR s
'
OF AL L ROUN D R EV E R S ING GEAR S ,

S T E AM AN D H AN D -
MO E V D .

D ia Worm Wh eel -
. H an d -
Wh ee l
.

met er
of
Worm

H . M S M; . . 8 23

H MS N
. . . .
, 51 23

s s c
. . .
, 4g 4g si 23

H MS B
. . .
, ci 65 6 42 54

H M S A,
. . . .
5} 23 41 42

H MS P
. . . .
, si 23 41 42

H . MS . . B .
, 4 115 1 6} 41 36

H MS s
. . . .
, as 24 24

H MS P
. . . .
, 4g
. 14 g 30 42

O .
, 53 I si 38 42

ss
. . A .
, 32 42

ss
. . E .
, 6; s 5} 23 32 36

ss
. . L .
, 5 18 38 36

ss
. . R .
, 5g 6 5 18 3s 36

s s V 5 14 30 36

s s D 4 12 30 30

Th e R evers ing of Propell ers driven by Tu rbin es is u su a ll e ff ecte d by

means of a separ ate , small additional tur bine in r ea r Of, an on the sam e ,

shaft with, the main or ahead going on e The aste r n going tu rbines a r e -
.
-

gene rally collectively capable Of developi n g S H P equal to 2 5 t o 30 per . . .

cent of that at full speed ahead going ; in Ge r many thei r powe r is now equal
.
- -

to 5 0 per cent of the f ull speed powe r I f the tur bine is complete itsel f,
.
-
.

o r is the low p r essur e member of a compound system , t hi s stern going

‘

- -

inst rument may be and gener ally is in the same casing with it as shown
in figs 5 8 and 5 9 The high p r essur e member of a compoun
, , ,

. . d system -

has the astern going tu rbine I n a separ ate casing in r ear of it and a rranged
-
,

to e x haust to the condenser di r ect I n this case ther e is r equi red a pas s .

valve or t w o valves gea red s o that steam may be admitted t o eithe r on e of

 700 M AN U AL OF M AR I N E E NGI N EERI N G.

them while shut Off fr om the othe r or both may be sh u t Off at the same
,

t ime For this pu r pose On o r dina r y slide valve s u ch as fitted to the

.

c y lin d e i a r ecip rocating engine

of , or , as u s u al
, for alte rnating I n a stee ri ng
e n gin e will answer the purpose ;
, or for la rge S I ze s two mush r oom valves
 R E GU L AT ING AN D ST O P V ALV E S . 70]

a r a n ge d that both may be shut li fted w itho u t disturbing t he

i
or on e
ot er .

With thr ee p r opelle rs the middle one is d riven by the H P membe r . .

,

and each wing pr opelle r by on e of the t w o L P members and as man oeuv rin g . .
,

is usually done by the wing scr ews only they have r eve rsing tu rbines a s , ,

in fi g 5 8 B u t in this c as e the main or ahead going turbine on se r v ice obtain

. .
-

thei r supply of steam fr om the H P member d ri v ing the cent r e sha ft c on . .

seque ntly in man oe u v r ing them an a u x iliar y s u pply fr om the boile r is n ec es

sa r y for both ahead and aster n going tur bines They may there fo r e hav e -
.
, ,

man oeuv r ing valves for dist ribut ion of this steam as al r eady desc ribed , ,

and the middle tu r bine r emains stopped and ou t of action d u ring the back
ing and filling of the other s .

B len k in s op s Arran g emen t f or Man ceu vrin g is due to the obse r vation of
’ '

the late Mr B len k in s op Of the Gr eat Easter n R ail w ay Company that wi th

.
, ,

the centr e sc r ew moving in head gea r the ship w a s m u c h mo r e easily handled

'

inasmuch as the r udder then lent po w e r fu l aid in tur ning under the action
O f the wing sc r e w s I t need har dly be said howeve r that it sometime s
.
, ,

happens that in ex ec u ting a tur ni ng movement no headw ay must be made ,

b u t gener ally speaking this seld om is r igidly necessa r y f or in app r oachi n g

'

, ,

and leaving a ber th a stea me r may w ith advantage advance and s u ch advanc e ,

unde r any ci r c u mstances can b e p r ovided for .

Fig 26 6 shows Mr B le n k in s op s invention

’
. w he r eby eithe r wing .
,

sc r ew is moved ahead or aster n w hi le the Other does the r eve rse— viz .
,

a head — both
on tu rbines taking steam from t h e cent r e or high

usually have H P
and
k
T u
Th e bi n es
“
r on e
M m”
em
. .

” g V and havi n g
a“es f
.

S h ow or l
f

n In Fig u m S CPe l I
0
2 66 ar e 1
I
ll r bi
t he in n es
G i bs on ven t
i on
,

an d
Mr B le
Of
Mr Ha
.

n ot
n k In mi lt oH
.

sO
p,

alt ef n a t m
i

f r x
M

f or such w o r k an d t h e g m ,
-

e u n

_ Q

f or r apid handling I n shi ps Of .

so la r ge and heavy that steam wo rked gea ring is necessary m -

. . . r

w hi le in those Of lar ge po w e r only such inst ru ments as B r own s ph sl i an d

’

p u l l r eve r sing gear s a r e sufficient for the p u r pose Fig 2 6 7 sh ow s t h e . .

a rr angement Of valves and gea r fitted in H M S L ion of . . .

whose powe r is developed in t w o sets Of turbines which d rive f our scr e w s in

the u su al way .

Re gul a t in g an d S t op Va l ve s —
As it is necessa r y that a ma rine engine .

when r e qui r ed may ru n at any nu mber of r evolutions fr om full speed to

dead slo w means mu st b e p r ovided for doing thi s efficiently especially for
, ,

wa rshi ps whose speed when in fleet f o rmation must be r egulated to a

nicety I n the Old days speed was decr eased by means Of a throttle valve
. ,

or by notchi ng up the li n k motion The latter method is still adopted .

with advantage but it is not su fficient when ver y low speeds or m inute -

c hanges in s pe e d a re necessa r y The old B utter fly throttle valve I s no

'

longe r used e x cept for governing pu rposes for against the h igh p ressu r es
, ,

n ow Obtaining it is neve r tight enough f or p r actical pu r poses .

 RE GU LAT ING AN D ST O P V ALV E S .
70 ]

a an
ge d that both may be shut li fted witho u t disturbing
p
p t he
or on e
0 l er .

With thr ee p r opelle rs the middle one is d riven by the H P membe r . .

,

and each Wi ng pr opelle r by on e of the t w o L P membe rs and as man oe u v rin g . .

,

is usually d on e by the wing sc r e w s only they have r eve rsing tu rbines a s

o
, ,

ii
1 11 f g 5 8 . B u t l n this c as e the main or ahead going tu rbine on se rvice obtain
. -

the r supply of steam fr om the H P membe r d rivi n g the cent r e sha ft con . .

s equently l n man oe uv r ing them an a u x ilia r y supply fr om the boile r is n ec e s

s a r y f or both ahead and aste r n going tu rbines They may there fo r e hav e -
.
, ,

manoeu v r ing valves f or distr ibution of this steam as alr eady desc ribed , ,

and the middle t u r bine r emains stopped and ou t of action d u ring the back
ing and filling of the other s .

B len k in sop s Arrangemen t f or Man oeu vrin g is due to the obse rvation of
’ ‘

the late Mr B len k in s op of the Gr eat Easter n R ail w ay Company that with
.
, ,

the cent r e scr ew moving in head gear the ship w a s m u c h mo r e easily handled
'

inasmuch as the ru dder then lent powe r fu l aid in turning u nd er the action
of the wing sc r ews I t need har dly be said however that it sometimes
.
, ,

happens that in e x ecuting a tu rning movement no headway m u st be made ,

bu t gener ally S peaking this seld om is r igidly necessa r y for in app r oachi n g
'

.
,

and leaving a be rth a stea me r may w ith advantage advance and s u ch advance ,

d e r any ci r cumstances can be p r ovided for .

Fig ’ 26 6 S h ow s Mr . B le nk in fl fl n i s _ in V Q fi +l n ‘
11 n a

The M a n mu v r i n g V al v es f o r I w m S c re v.
' s
-
' y
I u rb mes ,

i n Fig 2 66 , t he in v t en io n of Mr H a m i lton
s h ow n a re
.
.

G i bs on an d n ot Mr . B le n k i n s op , t t
a s s a e d on p . 70 1 .

u r b i ne 1 8 Sh u t
“

__ m
- M
-

m e
-

e x u a u s u t
off and boile r steam admitted to the L P tu r bine or the r eve r sing tu r bine
, . .
,

alternately or to neither as r equir ed V e r y la r ge valves a re n ecessa ry

, .

f or such w o r k and the gea r for wo r king them must be e fi

, i c ie n t and po w e r ful
f or r apid handling I n s hi ps of compar atively small powe r these valves a r e
.

so lar ge and heavy that steam wo rked gearing is necessa r y for such handli ng -
,

w hi le in those of lar ge po w e r only such inst ruments as B r own s push and ’

pull r ever sing gea r s a re sufficient f or the pu r pose Fig 2 6 7 s h ow s t h e . .

a r r angement of valves and gea r fitted in H M S L ion of . . .

whose po w er is developed in two sets of turbines w hich d rive f o u r sc re w s in

the u sual way .

R eg u la t in g an d St op Va lves — As it is neces sa r y that a mar ine engine .

when r e qui r ed may ru n at any number of r evolutions fr om full speed to

dead slo w means must b e p r ovided for doing this e fficiently especially for
, ,

wa rships whose speed when in fleet f o r mation m u st be r egulated to a

nicety I n the old days speed was decr eased by means of a throttle valve
. ,

or by notching up the lin k motion The latter method is still adopted .

wit h advantage but it is n ot su ffi cie n t w hen ver y low speeds or m i nute
,

changes in speed a re necessa ry The old B utte r fly throttle valve 1 8 no .

l onge r used ex cept for gove rning pu rposes f or against the high p ressu res
, ,

n ow obtaining it is neve r tight enough f or p r actical pu r poses .

 700 M AN U AL OF M ARI N E E NGIN EERI N G.

them w hile shut off fr om the othe r or both may be shut off at the same
,

t ime . For this p u rpose on o rd ina r y slide valve s u ch as fitted to t h e

,

cy lin de r 0 1 a r ecip rocatin g engine , or , as usual for alte rnating in a stee ri ng

,

e n gine ,will answ er the p u rpose ; or for la rge s i zes t w o mush r oom valves
 R E GU L AT ING AN D ST O P V AL V E S . 70]

a r a n ge d that both may be shut li fted w itho u t distu rbing t he

i
or on e
ot er .

With thr ee p ropeller s the middle one d riven by the H P membe r

"

is . .
,

and each wing pr opeller by on e Of the t w o L P members and as manoe u v rin g . .

,

is usually done by the wing sc r ews only they have r eve rsing t u rbines a s , ,

in fig 5 8 B u t in this c as e the main or ahead going turbine on se rvice Obtain -

thei r supply of steam fr o mthe H P membe r d rivi n g the cent r e sha ft con
. .

. . s

sequently in man oeuv r i n g them an au x iliar y s u pply fr om the boile r is n ec es

s a r y f or both ahead and aste r n going tu rbines They may there fo r e hav e -
.
, ,

manoeuv ring valves f or distr ibution of this steam as al r eady desc ribed , ,

an d the middle t u r bine r emains stopped and ou t of action d u r i n g the back

ing and filling O f the othe r s .

B len k in sop s Arran g emen t for Man ce u vrin g is due to the obser vation of
’ ‘

the late Mr B len k in s op Of the Gr eat Easter n R ail w ay Company that w ith
.
, ,

the cent r e sc r ew mo v ing in head gear the ship w a s m u ch mo r e easily handled

'

inasmuch as the r udder then lent power ful aid in tur ning und er the action
O f the wing sc r ews I t need har dly be said however that it sometimes
.
, ,

happens that in ex ec u ting a turning movement no headw ay must be made ,

b u t gene r ally S peaking this seld om is r igidly necessar y for in app r oachin g
'

, ,

and leaving a ber th a stea me r may with advantage adva n ce and such advanc e ,

unde r any ci r c u mstances can b e p r ovi ded f or .

Fig 26 6 S hows Mr B le n k in s op s invention

’
. whe r eby either wing
.
,

sc r ew is moved ahead or aster n while the other does the r ever se— viz .
,

a ste r n or ahead— both tur bines taking steam fr om the cent r e or high

p r essu r e on e .

Ships with Fou r S crews driven by Tu rbin es usually have on e H P and . .

on e L P machine on each side the L P ones being o u te r m

. . ost and havi n g , . .
,

each a r eversing tur bine on the same casing as al r eady desc r ibed I n this , .

case man oeuv r ing is done enti r ely with the o u te r scr ews and all that ,

is essential i s means w h er eby the e x haust fr om the H P tu r bine is shut . .

off and boile r steam admitted to the L P tu r bine or the r eve r sing tu r bine
,
. .
,

alter nately or to neither as r equi r ed V e r y large valves a r e n ecessary

,
.

f or such wo r k and the gear for w o r king them m u st be e fficient and powe r fu l
,

f or r apid handling I n shi ps of compar atively small powe r these valves a r e

.

so la r ge and heavy that steam wo r ked gea ring is necessary f or such handling -
,
’
w hi le in those Of lar ge powe r only s u ch inst ru ments as B r o w n s push and
pull r ever sing gear s a r e sufficient f or the p u r pose Fig 2 6 7 s h ow s t h e . . .

a r r angement Of valves and gea r fitted in H M S L ion Of . . .

whose po w er is developed in two sets Of tur bines w hich d rive four scr e w s in
the u s u al w a y .

R egu l a t in g an d St op Va l ves — As it is necessa r y that a ma rine engine .

when r equi red may ru n at any numbe r of r evolutions from full speed to
dead slow means m u st be p r ovided for doing this e fficiently especially for
, ,

wa r shi ps whose speed when in fleet f o rmati on mu st b e r e gulated to a

nicety I n the Old days S peed was decr eased by means Of a throttle valve
. ,

or by notchi ng up the link motion The latter method is still adopted .

with advantage b u t it is not su fficie n t when ver y low speeds or m i nute

,
.

chang es in speed a re necessa ry The Old B utte r fly thr ottle valve I s no .

longe r used e x cept f or gove rning p u rposes for against the hi gh p ressu r es
, ,

n ow Obtaining it is neve r tight enough f or p r actical p u r poses .

 70 3

2 6 8 — En gin e S o a n d R e u la in
t t Fig 2 70 ’
Coc k bu r n s D ou b le B e a t
—
.

p g g . .
-

v
V a l e ( f or sm a ll en g in e s ) . T y p e R e gu la t i n g V a l e v .

Pa s s d
an
Ma n aeu vr m V a l 98
g .

Fig 2 6 9
. .
— B a la n c ed S top a n d v
R e gu la tin g V a l e ( f or la rge e n gin e s )
 704 NU AL
MA OF MA RI N E E NGIN E E RING .

Fig 2 70.is a f o r m of equilib r ium stop valve sel f adj usting S O that it
,
-

keeps tight unde r di ff e ring p ress u r es and temper atu r es .

The r egulating valves when p r ope rly balanced can be wo r ked by a

, ,

lever such as was used in the thr ottle valve or with a wheel at the sta rting
, ,

plat fo r m in the o rdina ry way V e ry la rge valves howeve r a r e too cumber

.
, ,

some to be easily and q u ickly w o r ked by hand and may the re fo re hav e , , ,

O K CN OLQ

P LO O R .

YO N M? H

Fig 2 71 — Ash Ej ecto r

. . .

'

an appar atu s something lik e t h e B r ow n s t ea m sta rting gea r attached t o

'

t hem and Ope r ated by a small leve r at t h e sta r ting plat f o r m

, .

S team Tu rn ing Gear — Anothe r labou r saving a pph a n c e now univ ersal
.
-

in the N avy and me r cantile ma rine is steam gea r for tu rning the engines
,

w hen in po rt I n all bu t small ships a sepa r ate engine is p rovided for the
.

p u rpose but in small s h ip s the donkey pump engine or the r eve rsing engine
, , ,
 G O V E R N was .
705

when the r e is on e is employed by u s in g belt or rope gea r The usual plan is to

, .

fit a second wo rm wheel to the w o rm sha ft and to tur n it by a wo rm on the

- -
,

S ha ft O f the special engine or on a S ha ft with a pulley to be wo rked by an ,

au x iliar y en gine .

S team As h H oists — All la r ge s hi ps r equi r e some mecha ni cal means Of

.

disposing of the ashes clinke r etc ; the simplest f o r m Of hoist is onl y a

, , .

s mall wi nch wo r ked by a steam engine w ithout wheel gea r i n g

; the ba rr el is
-

of small diameter and the fly w heel is heavy and kept r unning at a constant
, ,

S peed the bucket of ashes being

, whi pped up in the same way that light
ca rgo is got ou t Of the holds with a steam w inch Thi s gea r has the me rit .

O f cheapness and S implicity it can be wo rked by the most igno rant and , ,

does n ot ea sily get ou t Of o rder .

Ash Hois t fig 2 71 is a n ingeni ous a rrange ment wher eby the.

,

a s hes a re d r iven t o the t op of the tube t ilted ove r and shot t hr ough the , ,

ship s side With t hi s gear the fi r eman is n ot r equi r ed to leave the stoke
’
.
,

hole and n o lab our is r equi red beyond that Of shove ll ing the ashes in to the
,

hopper Fig 2 71 S hows the a r rangement t o consist of a h Opper havi ng a

. .

hi nged water tight cove r ; at its bottom is a S pecial f or m of nozzle whi ch

-

discharges wat er up the deliver y pip e f rom a special duplex pump when ,

the p r essur e has been got up in it t o 200 lbs As soon as the gauge S hows .
.

the p r essur e the cock is qu i ckly Opened and a rush Of water up the pipe
,

takes place carr yin g with it the ashes in the hopper ; the p ressur e drops to
,

1 5 0 lbs but the st r eam still fl ows thr ough the pip e ca rr ying a ir and ashes
.
,

with it as f ast as the latte r a re shovelled into the h Opp er When the whole .

a r e disposed of the cock is closed qu ic k ly t o p r event back wash

, the hopper
is closed as is also the discha rge valve on the shi p s side
, T hi s appa rat u s ’
.

is a gr eat conveni en ce and comfo rt especially in bad weather and saves a

'

, ,

huge amount Of unplea sant labour ; it also p r events the need Of the gri my
a n d unwashed deni zens Of the stokehole showi ng themselves on the decks

of yachts or passenger vessels On the othe r han d u nl ess ca r e is taken in .

,

placing the dischar ge the det ritu s is liable t o get into the condense rs with :
the coolin g water and damage the tubes ; a n d f u r the r if the cinde r s and
'

, ,

c linke r s a re allowed t o get into the sc r ew r ace inj u r y will be done to the ,

p r opelle r blades es p ecially if Of b r onze , .

Govern ors — TO p r event the engines fr om r acing when the sea is r ough
. ,

it was u s u al to fit an i n st r ument whi ch shoul d cont r ol the thr ottle valve -

automatically The governor f or shi pboar d mus t be d eS I gn ed and a rran ged

.

s o that the pitching and r ollin g of the shi p do n ot p r ej u di ce it but it shoul d ,

a ct r athe r in a n ti cipation of the f orme r .

Ther e a r e t wo di st inct classes of marin e govern o r— viz thos e whose .

,

a ction is in fl uenced by t h e va riatio n Of motion of the engi ne itsel f and thos e ,

whose action is caus ed by the change Of p ress ur e at the stern due to va ri ,

o

ation of head Of wate r The f or mer class can o nly act af ter a va r iation Of
.

spe ed has taken place the latte r anticipates and che cks such V a riatio n s
, .

At fir s t sight the latte r p resent the most f avour able qualities inasmuch ,

as they a nt ici pat e change O f velocity but they serve o nl y one pur pose that , ,

of checking racin g Of the engine due to the p ropelle r eme r gin g fr om the wate r .

The othe r governo r s a re nece ssa rily a little late in action but they ma y be ,

made so sensitive as to be almost as quick as the ot h ers they have h ow ,

e ver on e super io r me rit and that is they check r acing fr o m any and eve ry
, , ,

45
 G AUG ES . 707

is simila r to the a rr angeme n t p rovided I n t raction engines t o ad mit Of thei r

g oing a r ound a c u r ve ) .

Th e t r ough is filled with wate r or Oil whi ch is ca rried a round w ith the ,

paddle wheel , and causes it to r esist any sudden changes Of motion The
-

a x le Of the inte r mediate beve wheel is connected to the small valve

l -

O f the
steam cylinde r whose piston Oper ates on the throttle valve I f the engine -
.

r aces so that the bevel whe el on the pulley S ha ft moves f aste r than that
'

-
on
-

the paddle wheel a x le it w ill carr y the inte r mediate pinion along w ith it
-

,
,

until the motion Of the paddle wheel is accele r ated by it and the pinion -

a x le acting on the small S lide valve causes the th r ottle valve to be closed - -
.

The paddle wheel is n ow moving at a hi gher r ate than its no r mal speed so
-

that w hen the engine has slo w ed down to its no r mal S peed the bevel w heel ,
-

a x le is moved in the Opposite di r ection so as to cause the th r ottle valve to ,

-

”
be Opened and the engine is thus_p r evented fr o m fu rther slo wing do w n
, .

This gover nor when car efu lly a dj us ted is most sensitive and will p r event
, , ,

a n y dange r ous r acin

g un de r
the most t r ing ci r cumstances
y .

Cou t t s an d Adams on s Govern or

‘
’ ’
This is an e x tension Of D u nlop s .
-
’

p rinciple and di ff e r s fr om it by the diaphr agm being caused to move the

,

s lide valve O f a small steam cylinde r w hose piston Ope r ates on the th r ottle
-

valve T hi s has the adva ntages and disadvantages Of D u nlop s gove rno r
.
’

e x cept that the wo r k O f mo v ing the th r ottle valve is done by steam -

.

Westingh ou s e Govern or — A sensitive ball gove r no r of ver y small size.

, ,

is made t o Oper ate on a valve w hi ch in Ope ni ng allows the steam on on e , ,

S ide Of the piston Of a steam cylinde r to esc ape to the condense r that on ,
_

the other side f orcing the piston to move qu ickly and S hut the th r ottle
valve ; the valve closes again as soon as the steam has escaped and the ,

s team flowin g i n t o the cylinder allows the piston t o back to its o r iginal
'

go
posi tion .

The piston he re spoken Of is connected t o a smalle r piston in another

cyli nder whose fu nction is t o b r ing it back t o its initial position
, .

Thi s gove rno r is ve ry sensitive and acts ver y well but is liable fr om
-

, ,

want Of attention t o get ou t Of o r der and then f ail t o act at all Fig 2 72
, ,
. .

is Mur doch s a n d ver y simi lar and gener al to the Westingho u se

’

,
.

With the advent Of triple engines and t w in sc r e w s the absolute necessity

for a gove r no r disappea r ed ; and to d ay although some r acing takes place ,

with a ll ocean going ma r ine engines ha r dly a S ingle moder n ship having
-
,

r ec ip r oc a to r s is fu r nished with a gove r no r and when such an inst r ument has ,

bee n pr ovided it generally suppli es ample evid ence Of its n on use i f not of I t s
,
-

uselessness .

Gau ges — l n ev er y e n gi ne r oom the r e S hould be a steam gauge which

.
-
,

s hall S ho w t h e p r ess u re a t t he high pressu re cy lin der va lve box ther e S hould - -

be a ga u ge w h ic h S hall s h ow t h e p ressu r e in each r eceiv er ( when the engi ne

i s compou nd ) th a t on the low p r essure is call ed a compou n d gauge as I t -
,

is ma rked a s a pres su r e gauge when above a t mosphe ric p r essu r e and as a

“

va cu u m gauge whe n below t his gauge might wi th advantage be ma r ked

-
, ,

s o a s t o s ho w a bs olu t e p r essur e ; if t h is w er e S O an a dd i t i onal st u mbl i n g

block would be r emo v ed fr om the path Of some young enginee r s and pe rm i t ,

them t o h av e les s hazy v ie w s on the question of vacuum

-
and a gauge ,

omi n q n ly c a ll ed the v acuum ga uge which shall S how the pre s su rc u n t h e ,

c onde n se r Thi s ga uge is ma r ked in inche s a n d so indicates how hi gh t he

. ,
70 8 MANU AL O F M ARIN E E NGIN E E RING .

column Of mer cu ry would be in a ve rtical tube w hose uppe r end is connected

with the condense r and the lo w e r Open to the atmospher e The Old o rigina l
,
.

vacuum gauge was simply like a ba romete r and when r eplaced by t h e , ,

B our don gauge to avoid con f u sion the new ones we r e mar ked in t hi s way
,
.

TO say that the r e is a vacuum of 1 2 inches means that the di ffer ence between
,

the p ress u r e in the condenser and that Of the atmosphere is equal to t h e

”
weight of 1 2 cubic inches of me rcu ry or due t o a head Of 1 2 inches Of
,

mer cu r y or 6 lbs ver y nearly The actual p r essu r e in the condenser is

, . . ,

ho w eve r n ot a ffected I n the least by the p r essu r e of t h e atmosphe r e and

, ,

gauges can now b e Obtained which gi ve the r eal actual p r essur e .

Fig 2 72
. .
— Combin ation G o v e rn or ( Mu rd oc h
’
s Pa ten t ) .

I t would be fa r
impler and cer tainly mo r e sci e nt ific t o have the con
S , ,
‘
dense r gauge ma r ked fr om 0 to 1 5 lbs a bs olu te the compound gauge
.
, ,

or that attached to the valve b ox Of the low p r ess u r e cylinde r ma r ked fr o m

-
,

0 to 5 0 lbs a bs olu te and that attached t o the valve box of the othe r cylinde rs
.
-

to 25 0 lbs a bs olu te or to such limit as shall be at least 2 5 per cent highe r

.
, .

than the wo r king p r essur e .

The gau ges on the boile rs might b e ma r k ed as at p r esent— viz to indicat e .

,

the p r ess u r e above that Of the atmosphe r e as it might be mo re di ffi cult to

,

t r ain fi r emen to know the meaning Of the new ma rkings but a fte r all it is ,

r ea ll y immate rial to them h ow it i s g r aduated so long as they know to what

,
 CE N T RI FUG AL L U B R I GAT OR S .
709

mar k they _must keep the poi te r w hen u nde r steam and tha t w hen t h e
n , ,

po i nte r begi ns to move on getti ng up steam p r essur e is f o rming

, , .

Ca r e sho u l d b e taken in setting the gauges in the engine r oom th at allo w -

a nce is made f or the e x t r a p r essur e due to the head of w ate r in the gauge
pip e w hi ch will b e about 1 lb f or ever y 27} f eet of ve rtical f all
, .
.

Lu bricators an d I mpermea tors — TO Obtain pe r fect lub r ication the supply .

S hould b e steady uni f o r m , and continuous or near ly S O T hi s is t rue for

, , .

e ve r y b ear ing guide etc , and equ ally t ru e f or the l u b rication of the inte rn al
, .
,

p a rts I t is usual to r ely on capilla r y attraction to convey the oil fr om the

.

O il bo x es t o b ea r ings guides etc by means Of wor sted syp hons ; th is i s a

, , .
,

v er y simple w ell t r ied

, and fai r ly e fficient method bu t it has serious d ra w
, ,

backs ; i t r equi r es constant attention as the wo r sted wick syphons act as ,

filter s and b ecome clogged with gluey matte r contained in some Oils a n d ,

t her e is no definite means Of provin g that the Oil is passing An equally .

S imple and v e ig satis f acto r y plan (

r
fig 2 73 ) is t o fit an Oil b ox a few inches .

a bove each be aring in such a w a , y that i f Oil is d r opping from it it can b e

seen or f elt ther e is a small cup to each Oil hole lea di ng to the bea ring and ,

o ve r each O f these is a small no z zle fr om the bottom Of the oil box fitted with ,

a small plug so as to r egulate t h e

flow Of oil or to stop it altogethe r
,

i f p r ef err ed how ever syphons may

, ,

be fitted instead Of scr ew plugs as ,

in either case the flow of oi l can be

pr ove d A p erf ect l u b r ication h ow
.
,

e ve r,
can only b e got by f o r ci n g the 0 1 3 3 02 .

Oil by means Of a pump thr ough

e ve r y j oint and bear ing collectin g ,

the oil as it d rops cooling it and , ,

again p u mping it to the j oints This .

system of f o r ced lub rication in t r o

d u c ed by Mess r s B elliss . Mor c om,
and applied t o their hi gh speed elec -

t r ic light and power engines has ,

p r oved a gr eat success by p ermi tti n g

O f a mecha ni cal e fficiency Of 93 p e r

c ent . w ith even small engines and ,

p r eventin g w ea r of bea r ings and

j our nals during qui te long pe riods O f
wo r k
2 73 — Ce n trif u ga l L u bric at or
.

Ca dma n s Pa t en t L u brica t ors

’ .
.

Ove r each moving pa rt r equi r ed to

be lub r icated is an Oil box ha v in g pr oj ecting thr ough the bot t om a a small ,

pl u g held ther e by a sp r ing and S O set that the oil b ox on the m ov m g par t
, ,

t ouches the plug end and opens it S O as to let a d r op Of Oil pass Thi s I s .

e specially adapted f or the piston and connecting r od b r asses O f a ve rt cal

i -

e ngine and f or guides etc

, ,
.

g l u t — Whe n engines a r e r unni ng at a h gh speed

Ce trifu
n a L bri ca ors .
i .

o rdina r y e x ternal appliances such as telescopic pipes j ointed p i pes p i pes , , ,

fi x ed to the r od and taking Oil fr om wiper s etc a r e not r eliable or su ffic i ent ,
.
,

f or the pu r poses of th or ou gh lv lub r icating the crank pin b rasses I f a syste m -

.
 FEED - H EAT E S R .
71 1

t he o
i l can n ot i flpw bac k
to the tank and the stea m ca nn ot fo rce its elf or
_ ,

the oi l b a c k in t o the I t is howeve r a ve ry common p rac tice n ow ,

.

to ru n engi nes without inte rnal lub rication or with only such as ente r s the ,

cyl inde rs w ith the p i ston and valve rods I t has been found that afte r an
'

-
.

engi ne h a s w orn i t s inte rna l moving parts f ai rly smooth the r e is no need
of othe r lub r icant than the moistu r e f r om the steam and so all r isk of damage ,

t o boile r s f r om g r ease is avoided by doing away with inte rnal lub ri catin
g
apparatus I f howeve r supe r heated steam is used oil lub rication may
.
, , ,

become necessa r y in some engines ; when it does ca r e should b e taken to ,

use only a pur e hyd rocarbon s u itable to the tempe r atu r e or graphi te past e
f o r ced in by a simila r inst rument .

D ra in Pipes f r om the cylinde r s and valve bo x es should lead to the con -

denser s o that ther e shall be no loss of fr esh water and n o filling of the
, ,

engine r oom with vapou r when the cocks a r e Opened I t is customa ry to

-
.

connect these pipes to the hot well whi ch ser ves this pur pose ve r y well wit h -
,

hi gh p r essur e and medium p r essur e engines ; but since the p r ess u r e in the
- -

low p r essur e cylinde r of a compound engine is only f or a ve r y small po rtion

-

of the st r oke above that of the atmospher e the opening of the c ook s will n ot ,

get r id of the wate r but only allow a ir to f or ce its w a y back and so reduce
, ,

the vacuum I t is sometimes convenient to see if w ater is flowing and so

.
,

p r ove that the c ook s a r e n ot choked this may b e accomplished by fitting a

thr ee w a y cock to the main d r ain pipe whi ch pe rmi ts communi cation t o
-

b e made with the condenser or bilge at the will of the enginee r .

Ja ck et D rain s should always lead to the hot w ell and when t h e engine is -
,

wo r king the c ook s should b e Open sufficiently w ide to j ust keep the j ackets
free of water or the r e should b e automatic d r aine r s fi t ted ; the hot wate r
’

escaping from the j ackets then helps to wa r m the f eed wate r -

.

Feed h ea ters — I t is a most essential thi ng that the f eed water shall enter
-
.
-

t h e boile r as war m as possible both to obtain evapor ative e fficie n cy and avoid
wear of the b oile r Economy can only b e e ff ected di rect ly by making use of
,

heat that w ould other wise be wasted for t h is pu rpose ; but i n direct ly by ,

p r omoting cir culation and r educing the necessity of ci r culation instead of

checking it consider able economy may b e e ff ected s o much s o indeed as
, ,
”
t o wa rr ant the use of heat w hich is not waste Many attempts have been .

made to heat t h e feed water with ex haust steam hot gases in the uptake
_
-
, ,

etc bu t no gr eat measu r e of success has attended the e fi ort s of those w h o

.

have paid most attention to thi s f or the appar atus employed has gener ally ,

b een ine fficient and its dur ability sho rt I n the older ex pansive engines .
,
°
wher e the temper atu r e of the steam at e x haust was o ften over 2 30 Fa h .
,

g r eat economy was e ff ected by heating the f eed wate r in a small kind of -

sur face condense r placed on top of the condense r so as to intercept the hot
-
,

cu rr ent of steam flowi ng t o the latte r ; but now w ith compound engines ,
°
whe r e the temp er atu r e at e x haust is only about 1 80 Fa h at the most n o .
,

s uch means is efficient f or the pu r pose N o doubt s ome economy is possible .

_

e ven unde r these ci r cumstances especially if the f eed water is pe r mitted t o

-
,

ci r cu la t e in the heate r f or an app r eciable time ; and considering that now ,

at a much lowe r temper atu re— viz 1 00 F a little mo r e heat can be

°
-
.
, .

"
impa rted t o it fr om an ex te rnal heating agent t h e tempe r atu r e being 80
‘ ,

a bove it S ome day pe r haps means will b e foun d t o avoid the loss of all
.
, ,

the la ten t heat which takes place an d whi ch is hu g e compa red wi th the ,
71 2 M AN U AL or MAR I N E E NG IN E ERING .

°
whole of the s en s ible heat The e x haust steam bein g at 1 8 0 F the to ta l
'

.
.
,
°
possible saving of sensible heat is n ow 5 0 F while the latent heat lost is ,

nea rly F
Weir s Feed Water H ea ter and Au tomat ic R egu la tin g Gear a re designed
.

’
-

to r aise the temperatur e of the f eed w ate r t o near ly 2 1 2 Fa h by me a ns of a °

.

por tion of the s t e a m from t h e L P valve b ox of the compound engi ne Fig 2 75

. .
-
. .

g ives a sectional V iew sho w i ng its gene r al const r uct i on The heating stea m .

is ta k en fr om the low p r essur e casing of the main engine and the e x haust of
-
,

the au x ilia ry engines such as f eed p u mps elect r ic light fa n engines etc
, , , .
,

is also led into the heate r thr ough the n on r etu r n valve B on the s 1 de of -

the appar atus A ci r cula r r ing and co ni cal sp r ay piece with pe r fo ratio n s
.

a r e fitted to m ix the w ate r and steam u ni f o rm ly Th e f e e d wate r is fo r ced

‘

-
.

by the main engine f e ed pumps thr o u gh the sp r ing loaded valve D on the -

cove r i n a thin sheet and is instantly heated by contact with the steam As
, .

the p r essu r e in the heater is gener ally much less than that of the ente r ing
wate r the e fl e c t of this lo w eri ng of the p r ess u r e and sudden heating of the
, ,

w ate r is t o lib er a t e t h e a ir in the w ate r and this is r emoved to the con

, ,

denser or to the atmosphe r e by a , ,

small cock K 0 11 the a ir vessel

placed on the top of the h eate r .

Th e f eed w ate r is thu s r ende r ed non -

co rr osive and f alls to the bottom ,

of the heater at the boili n g tem

e r a t u r e d u e to the p r ess u r e The

p
-
.

steam admission valve is of special

cons t ru ction I t can be Opened to .

admit the necessar y amo u nt of steam

to the heater but it closes by its ,

own weight in case the r e is no flow

of steam into the heate r ; thi s valve

is also fitted with a dashpot w hic h ,

allows the valve to close g rad u ally ,

and p r events it hammer ing on i t s

seat in case of fluctuations of
p r essu r e The combination Of the .
-

automatic r egulating gea r with the

heater has long been a sp ecial f eatur e
of the Wei r appa r atus The float .
,

E shown in the lowe r pa rt of the

.

heate r is a pan with w ate r tight ,

-

Fig 2 75 — Weir s Fe e d Wa ter H e a te r a n d bottom and sides but open on the

’
-
. .
,

Au tom a tic R e g‘fl a t in g Ge a f top I t is suspe n ded 0 11 two leve r s

.
,

so as t o move u p a n d down with a

parallel motion ; the t op leve r S pindle is ca rried thr ough the doo r at one
en d ,
and is balanced by a lever and weight The float is al w ays f ull of .

w ater and the weight is ad usted t o balance when one hal f is imme r sed in
, j -

wate r To the w ei g h t leve r anothe r leve r i s attached which actuates the

. .

thr ottle valve F a n d cont r ols the supply of steam to the pump d ra w mg
fr om the heate r When the water in the heate r ri ses the fl oat is raised a n d
.

the th rottle valve Opened and when the wate r level is lowere d t h e float
, , ,
 E V AP bR AT OR S OR D i sr rL t E a s . 71 3

f ollows , and the valve is closed ; the level of the water is thus kept constan t
in the heater and the pumps a re completely filled w ith water The regulating
, .

valve i s a cock wi t h a par a llel key : the p r essu r e of the steam kee ps it pe r
fe c t ly steam tight alt hough it may have wo r n slack in the sh ell ; the p r es s u re
-
,

a lso keeps the shoul d e r of the key against the bottom Of the s t u
ffin g bo x -
.

s o that the s t uffing gland is al w ays kept slack A relie f v al v e a n d t he a cces

.

s a r y gauges a r e also fitted to the heate r .

Eva pora t ors or D i sti ll ers — The advantages of supplyi n g ma rine boile r s
.

Fi g 2 75 a
. .
—L i ve S te a m Fee d Wa te r H e a te r
-
Fi g 2 76
. .
— E v a pora t or .

( Ca ir d a n d R a y n e r)
.

wi th p u r e w ater a r e gr eat and a r e so Obvious as not to need sp e c ifying

, .

S am u el Hall the success ful int r od u ce r of the su r face condense r was so ,

t ho r ough in hi s desi r e to u s e only fr esh w ater in the boile r s of shi ps w ith his
c ondenser that i n 1 833 he fi t ted e v apo r ato r s to seve r al of them made on

p r ecisely t h e same p rinciples as gover n t h e design of ou r moder n ones He .

,

h oweve r , w e n t beyond t h e moder n engineer by placing his appa ratus in the

s team ches t of t h e b oile r itsel f so as t o lose n o h eat, The necessity of it .

w a s n ot ho w eve r so se v e r ely f el t u n til v oyages of conside r able length had

, ,

been made w ith s h ips whos e bo ile rs wo r k at pr essur es Oi 1 00 lbs and u p w a rds . .

T h e w eight of wate r evapor ated in boile r s whose wo r kin g p r essur e is 1 50 lbs

, .
,

i s m u ch gr eater in p r opo rtion to the size than was the case with those wo r king
a t 75 lb s and the evils a r ising fr om the d eposit of scale a re magnified with
.
 E v APoE Ar OR s
'
or . D I S T I LLER S .
71 5

the re was always the r isk of d a ma gmg them I n spite of these di fficulties .
'

h owe er it was found t o be the m Os t satis facto ry w

,

a y of obt a in in g an e x t ra
“

y
ply for the main boile rs and consequently imp rovem
, ,
,

s up ent was made in

, , ,

this di rection by designing and supplying a small boile r ( fig 2 7 whose heat .

i s Obtained from eithe r the steam d i r ect fr om the main boile r s or fr om t h e

e x haust from on e or other of the cylinde r s ; the f o rme r pla n w a s found
eventually t o be the best .

Fig 2 77 may be taken as anothe r e x ample o f the type now in gene ral
.
‘

use I t c onsists of a vertical cylind rical shell fitted with mountings a n d

.

gear simila r t o those on a steam lau nch boiler ; instead of a fu rnace com ,

bu t i on chambe r tubes etc it h a s a t u bulous ar r a ngement i n genio u sl y

s
.
, .
, ,

cont riv ed s o that the steam is made t o give up its heat to the water within

Fig 2 78 . .
— Fresh -
Wa te r D istillin g Appa r a tu s f or B ritish B a tt les hi ps and L a rge Cr u ise rs
( Ca ird a n d R a y n e r ) .

the evapo r ato r as fa r as possible and the r esultant water t o d rain away and ,

b e r etu rned t o the main condenser or h ot well S team is in this way raised -
.

in the evapo r ato r and passes from it to the main condense r or as in naval
, ,

s hips t o the au x ilia r y condense r the r esultant wate r bein g finally pump ed
S ea wate r is pu mped into t he
, ,

into the main boile r s i n the usual way .

e vapo r ato r by a small donkey pump and the salt is blown do w n fr o m t h e -

,

evapo rat or in the same way as was usual wi th boile rs supplied w i t h s ea

wat er; The internal tubulous apparatus is s o a rranged that it can be eas 1 ly
withd rawn from the shell as sho w n in the figu r e for a tho rough clean ou t
,
-
71 6 MANU AL o r MARI N E E NGIN E E RING .

w hen necessa ry I n stead o f t h e steam fr om the evap or ato r being sent d ir ect
.

t o the condense r it can be made to d o use ful wo rk by admi tti ng it to the

,

valve box of the low p r essur e cyli nder .

The r e a re ot h eI e qually Ingenious and e fficient evapo rato r s bu t they a r e ,

a ll w o r ked on t h e sa me p r inciple of heating wate r and conve r ting it into

steam w ith steam ma d e I n the main boiler s I n all cases as is onl y to b e .

,

e x pected tubes w e employed 1 n on e f o r m or anothe r to e ff ect thi s pu r pose

, .

Ladders —The main ladde r to an engine room sho u ld not be less than
.
-

1 8 ins wide and whe r e space p er mits should b e 2 4 ins and even mo r e in
.
, .
,

la rge s h ips ; the sides a re Of flat i r on bar s usually 4 in the t r eads , .

o r steps a r e of cast i r on and 1 0 ins apa r t and f r om 4 % to

, 5 ins wide The .
, . .

inclination of the ladder to the ve r tical is u s u ally abo u t 1 in 3 with na rr o w ,

and 1 in 2 % with b r oad steps ; the hand r ail is 1 in diamete r when of i r on .

,

and from I i to ins w hen of b r ass the f or mer looks better f r om an engine e r s
.
’

point of view is mo r e du r able and easier kep t clean L adde r s leading to

, , . .

t
h e va rious pa rts of the e n gin e a re u su al ly made lighte r than the mai n ladde r
‘

Fi g 2 79 — Gra it ation T y pe Fe ed
. . v -
Wa ter Gre as e E x t ra ctor ( Ca ird and R a y n e r) .

and the steps a r e O ften f o r med of th r ee spills or bar s 2 in diamete r or ,

.
, ,

bette r still squar e section ; w hen weight is important they may b e of t rian
,

gula r section .

I t is ve ry essential that means b e p r ovided for the engineer s to get easily

a n d sa f ely to eve r y pa r t of the engine r equi r ing attention these light ,

ladder s a re a sou r ce of g reat convenience and a re amply paid f or in the ,

bette r attention gi v en to the wo rking parts .

Gra tin g s a n d P l a t forms — With the same obj ect in V iew good plat fo r ms ,

to stand on and gr atings to f o rm r oads to the va rious parts should be pro

,

v id e d . The engine r oOm plat fo r m is usually laid with either cast or

-

w rought i ron cheq u e red plates the patte r n on whose face should be on e
-

which wi ll give good foothold and not p r event di rt f rom being swept fr om
,

it S o me engineer s p r efer t o have all bottom plat fo rms made of wood an d

.
,

laid ove r with sheet lead ; the lead per mits of ood f oothold and 1 8 easily
g ,

kept clean ; water r u ns easily ofl it and when I n good repai r it looks ve ry

 S TO E H K O LE V E N TI L AT OR s 71 7 .

well ; but it is not so d u rable as the i r on and is ve ry liable to damage fro m ,

weights f alling on it The gangways leading to the uppe r pa rts of e n gines

.

a re somet i mes made with cheque r ed w r ought i r on plates ; but e x cept when -

they a re immediately over the wo r king pa rts this is not a good p r actice as ,

both light and ventilation a re Obstructed by them and they r equi re constant ,
”
cleaning S pill
. gratings a re ther e fo r e p r e f er able in most cases as they
, , ,

stop light and ventilation to only a ve ry small e x tent and r equi r e no clean ,

ing ; they a r e made with sides of flat bars 2 X s in and c ross bars 3 in
2
7 .
, .

diameter and S paced 2 % ins apa rt those of large size and liable to suppo rt
,
.

1
heavy weights have sides 3 X 1 6 in with spills g in diamete r pitched .
, .
,
’

2 g ins .

Feed Fil ters a re O ften fitted in shi ps Of all size s with the Ob j ect o f pre
venting any Oil or g rease getting into the boiler s with the feed water ; they -

ce rtainly succeed in keeping ou t grease a nd solid matter but f ail to do s o ,

w ith Oils Gene r ally the filtering mater ial is Tur kish t owelling so placed in
.

on e or mo r e laye r s that a ll the f eed wate r must pass th rough it and leave
-

deposited on it all solids and semi solids and to a great ex tent absor bed by -
,

it oils and gr eases in the liquid state The appa ratus is always a rr anged s o .

that the car t r idge of to w elling can be e asily withd rawn and a fresh clean
on e substituted without causing any stoppage of the engines ( 0 fi g . .

S tok eh ol e Ven tila tors s n ou ld have an aggregate t r ansve r se ar e a of 0 4 5

squar e inch for each pound of f uel bu r ned per ho u r ; or say, 0 6 75 square ,

inch per I H P of t rial t rip in the Mercantile Marine Or 0 7 5 squar e inch

. . .
,

p e r I H
. P in
. E x p r ess steamer s on sho rt se r vice and naval ships ; for t u rbi n es
.
,

0 62 pe r S H P is su fficient . . . .

The a r ea Of the mouths should not be less than

squar e inch p er pound of f uel in lo k n Ot ship .

12 4 1 2g
11 3 15
1 03-
1 7;
0 93-
20
0 85 22 ;
0 78-
25
072 30
The diamete r of the mouth 1 s usually twice that of the neck but with ve ry ,

large down casts the mouth is somewhat less

- I f cl is the di amete r of t h e .

n eck and D that at the mo u th then ,

D cl 5 inch es .

The ma x imum flow of a ir in feet per minute through t he ck ( cl inches )

'

.
ne .

s ho u ld be f/d .
 TIIE M ODERN ‘
Ei n s r -
CL AS S C R UI S ER . 71 9

Aga in the s m a ll c ru ise r s wh o s e speed is

, be as high as that of the
, to
big ones hav e not the same ma rgin for thei r machine ry ; it is the re fo re ,
, ,

impe r ative t h at their engines sho u ld be lighte r per H P The saving in . .

weight is gener ally e ff ected in this case by making the engines to ru n at a

ve r y high numbe r of r evol u tions with a high e ff ec t ive steam pr essur e and , ,

designin g the var io u s pa rts with the gr eatest car e possible using only mate rial ,

of the g r eatest str ength f or the p u r pose The factor of sa fety the re fo r e is .
, ,

p r actically as hi gh as that of othe r ships becau se these s hi ps m a y have to ,

r u n in w a r time continuously at or nea r f ull speed for long per iod s

-
.

Th e ma chin ery of th e Torped o B oa t a n d D es t royer is of cour se also , ,

designed with the gr eatest ca r e and made of the ve r y best mate rial bu t , ,

he r e the s o cal led margin of sa fety is r educed ; in other wo rds engin es a re

-
,

made so t h a t a t thei r o r dina ry rates of speed the r e w ill be as good a margin

‘

of sa fety as in any othe r ship S pu rting they will have to do in time of w ar

bu t their f uel s u pply does not perm

_ ,

it of long d u r ation of it and the e x ige ncies ,

of the ser vice in peace time wo u l d not r eq u i r e it to be done O ften in the c our se

o f a t w elve month hence although the f actor of sa fety at hi gh speeds may

-
,

be low it is still well withi n the sa fe wor king limit of the mate rial and no
,
-
,

gr eat r isk of accident is r u n A r e fer ence to Tables l x x x v to l x x x viii will

. . .

S how the p r ogr ess of mode r n enginee r ing in both the N avy and me rcantil e

mar ine during the past thi r ty yea r s and the lines on which mode rn engi n ee rs ,

have advanced to attain thei r p r esen t su ccess in coal consumption and t he

’

weight of ma chiner y .

In 1 8 70 B a tt les hi ps a n d Cru is ers we r e still fitted with S imple ho rizontal

‘

en gin es and b ox boiler s of low p r essu r e They wer e on the e x pansive p rin .

c iple ,
steam being cut off at a little past hal f str oke and e x hausted into a
-
,

s u rf ace condense r The bo iler s wer e d esigned for a p ressur e of 30 lbs

. .
,

a lthough sometim es 1 lh or even 2 lbs mor e was atta ined The max im u m
.
, .
, .

piston S peed was abo u t 6 00 feet per min ute on trial t r ips with lar ge e ngines ,

a n d about 5 0 t o 5 00 f eet with the smalle r ones The mean p r essure wa s .

about 20 lbs per sq u ar e inch in battleships and 2 0 to 2 5 lbs in cruiser s

' ’

The I H P per ton total weight machiner y was about 70 ; 8 5 I H P was

. . .

-
. . . . . .

d eveloped for each sq u ar e f oot of g r ate and 3 3 pe r 1 00 squa r e feet of total ,

heating su rf ace ; the consumption of c oal was about 3 i: lbs at full S peed,
'

a n d abo u t a t hal f powe r .

Th e B a t t l es h ip of 1 905 was fitted with r ecip r ocator s had the f ou r cylinde r ,

-

t ripl e compoun d e ngine balanced on the S chlick Tweedy system and running
-
,

a t hi gh r evol u tions gave a t r ial S peed of 1 9 knots To day a ll B ritish battle -

.

S hips and most for eign a re dr iven by tu r bines Ope r ating on f o u r sc r ews . ,

d eveloping to S H P and attainin g a speed on t rial of 2 5 knots

. .

w ith 3 30 to 38 0 r evolutions pe r minute .

Th e Modern First cla ss Cru iser di ff e r s fr om the battles hi p chie fly in S peed

-
,

a n d con sequently in length The t u r bine dr iven ones of to da y attain a

.
-

'
-

speed on t rial of 33 kn ots and some a re said to do even mor e S team is , _ .

s u pplied by wate r t u b e boile r s and the r evol u tions at

-

full po w e r a r e about
3 00 pe r m
,

i nu te; The ships p r evious to the adoption of the tur bine we r e

'

o f ve r y conside r able ize and po we r and attained sp eeds of 23 to 24 knots

.

s , ,

with twin scr ews r u n nin g from 1 10 to R35 r evolutions per minute Thei r
. .

e n g1 n eS w ere g ene r al ly of the f o u r cran k tjriple com pound like those of the
- -
'

f
,
O

ba t t leSh ip .
72 0 M AN U AL OF M A RI N E E NG I N EE RI N G .

Th e Second- c l ass Cru is er to d ay is la rge r and much faste r than tho s

of

of the fi r s t class of ten yea r s ago

-
Their S peed when driven by tur bines 1
.
, ,

2 6 k nots at about 5 00 r evolutions .

Th e Lig h t Cru iser and scout a r e mode rn c r eations ha v ing a S peed of 2 5 t o ,

2 6 knots when dri ven by r ecip r ocato r s at 2 00 to 2 1 0 r evolutions ; but when

d riven by t u r bines 3 0 knots is gene r al and by many late r ones 3 6 kn ots h a s
,

been attain ed .

Th e D est royers a r e now Of two classes ; the one f or coastal de fence and
attack the othe r ocean goin g as videttes to a fleet The early dest r oye r
,
-
.

o f twenty yea r s ago was 1 8 0 to 1 90 f eet long had twin sc r e w compo u nd ,

-

en gines of about I H P at 3 60 t o 4 00 r evol u tions they w e r e f ollowed

. . .

by simila r but somewhat la r ge r vessels w hi ch attained a speed of 30 k nots ,

w ith t r iple engin es indi cat ing to H P at about 4 00 r evol u tions . . .

A fe w faste r ones we r e bui lt of the same type whose speed was 3 2 to 33 k nots ,
.

To d ay the destr oye r f or shor e w o r k has a S peed of 25 to 2 6 k n ot s wi t h a ,

~

powe r of abo u t 7 000 and the sea goin g c r af t 3 5 k nots dr iven by thr ee sc r ew s
-
, ,

and t u rb ines of ru n n ing at about 75 0 r evol u tions pe r minute .

The high S peeds attai ned by this class of S h ip a re d u e to the ver y li ght
constru ction of both hull and machiner y but the later r ecip r ocato r s wer e ,

designed 3 0 per cent heavie r than the ear ly ones with w hi ch some t rouble
.
,

w a s e x pe r ienced on acco u n t Of lightness The tendency to day is to r ever t .

-

back to tw in scr e w s f or small cr a ft dr iven by compoun d t u rbines each com ,

ple t e in itsel f and capable of q u i te independent t r eatment or by tu r bi n s

, ,
e

connected to the scr ew sha ftin g by helical w heel gearing or electrical

gene r ato r s and moto r s ; the impulse t u rbine be ing p re fe rr ed as mor e con
ve n ie n t .

P i st o n S peeds .
— In
18 70 , p rio r to
the int r oduction of the compo u nd
engine the piston
,
speed of an Atlantic
passenge r steamer w a s 4 00 f eet pe r
min u te of small er passenge r steamer s 3 5 0 f eet while f ast c ru iser s had a
, ,

piston speed of 5 5 0 feet ; battleshi ps the same w hil e small c ru ise r s had
o n ly 4 5 0 f eet .

I n 1 88 0 befor e the advent of t r iple compoun d engines Atlantic and

,
-
,

ocean steame r s gener ally had advanced to 6 00 f eet the smalle r pas senge r ,

steamer to 4 5 0 f eet the crui ser to 6 00 feet the battleshi p to 6 00 f eet and
, , ,

small crui ser s to 5 5 0 feet per mi nu te .

I n 1 8 82 for ced d r aug h t was int r odu ced into the N avy and by this means ,

the inc r eased s u pply of steam permi tted of higher speeds so that in 1 8 85 ,

la rge c r uiser s had a piston S peed as hi gh as 6 60 feet and small ones as high ,

a s 75 0 feet pe r min u te At that t ime the t r iple engine had got a foothold
.

in the me r cantile mar ine and permi tted of a piston speed of 75 0 f eet in
,

ocean mail steame r s and small passenge r steame r s 5 5 0 f eet per min u te .

B y 1 890 highe r p r ess u r es Of steam had been employed and confidence in

, ,

the t riple engine established consequently the piston speed for cruiser s and
battleships was raised to 800 f eet ocean lin er s to the same S peed and small
, ,

passenge r steame r s in some few in stances e x ceeded this .

Five year s late r battleships had a piston speed of 8 75 f eet crui se r s a ,

little mo r e ; w hile the new comer D es troy er atta ined its ver y high speed by
. ,

moving the pistons at a velocity of feet per minute The Atlantic ma il .

and the small passenger steamer had made o n ly ve r y S light advances on 1 8 90 .

I n 1 905 battlesh ips and c r u is e r s we r e fitted w ith fou r c rank ca re fu llv -

 B OI LER AN D M EAN P R ES S U R ES .

balanced engines running at 960 feet and small c ruise rs at feet per ,

minute ; the Atlantic mail s t e ame r at 975 and the small e x p ress steame r ,

a t 95 0 f eet The ca rgo steame r pur e and simple makes h er voyages with
. .

a piston speed of 5 00 to 6 60 depending on the S i z e of the engine * , .

The in crease in piston speed had been Obtained by quickening the rev olu
tions fr om 70 to 1 20 in battleships and fr om 75 to 1 40 in la rge c ruise rs ; ,

the gr eatest di ff e r ence is ho w eve r in small cr uise rs the change being fro m , , ,

90 to 25 0 r evolutions I n the me r cant ile marine the r evolutions of an ocean

.

lin e r a r e 8 0 against 5 5 and in ordina r y small passenge r steamer s 1 5 0 against

,

80 to 90 of thi rty fiv e yea r s ago I t is ther e f or e not sur p rising to fin d that

-
.

the I H P per ton of machine ry in ocean ma il steame r s is only 6 75 as against

. . .
-

5 or 3 5 pe r c ent incr ease while in la rge c r u ise r s it is 1 2 against 7 or an incr ease

.
, ,

of 70 pe r cent I n small c ruiser s the I H P w as 1 9 per t on against 6 of

. . . .

thirty fiv e year s ago or an increase of 2 1 6 per cent I t may be taken as

-
, .

a r ule that a r eduction in weight per I H P is obtained by increased piston . . .

S peed if it is d u e to high r evolutions ; on the other hand if piston speed is ,

got by lengt hening the str oke no saving is e ff ected but on the contr ar y , , , ,

a n inc r ease may be looked f or .

B oil er a n d M ea n Pressu e The gener al tendency of incr ease in boiler

r s —
.

p ressu r e is t o i n cr ease the weight of the engines as well as the boiler s I f .

,

howeve r an incr ease of m ean p r essur e is obtained by the increase of bo iler

,

p ressure and the r ate of increase be gr eater than that of the boile r pr essur e
, ,

the weight of the engines per I H P may be re ally decr eased S uch h ow . . . .
,

ever was n ot generally the case in the histo ry Of mar ine enginee r ing p r ogr ess
, .

I n 1 870 w ith a boile r pr essu r e of 4 5 lbs absol u te the mean pr ess u r e was .
,

a s much as 2 4 lbs in the e x pansive su r face condensing eng ines ;

. or 5 3 per

c ent . Of the in itial p r ess u r e I n the compoun d engine of about that ti me .

the r e ferr ed mean p r essur e was only about 22 lbs with a boile r p ressur e .

75 lbs absolute or only 2 9 per cent L ater with a boile r p r essur e of 1 05 lbs
.
, .
, .

absolute the mean in e x p r ess steamer s w a s only 30 lbs or 2 8 5 pe r cent

, .
, .

L ate r still with the t riple engine and a boiler p r ess u r e of 1 70 lbs absol u te
, .
,

t h e mean in cr ui se r s of high S peed was 38 lbs or 2 2 4 per cent and 3 2 or only . .

1 8 8 per cent in me r chant ships . Finally wi th initial p r essu r e of 2 5 0 lbs .

, .

in the N av y the r e ferr ed mean p r essu r e was about 20 pe r cent while in the .
,

mer cantile mar ine now with 2 1 5 lbs it is 1 7 per cent . .

The e ffect of increase of p ressur es is bes t seen by comparing the second

class c ru iser of 1 8 98 with that of 1 896 These engines developed p ractically .

the same power at the s ame number of r evolutions the design of each was
identical but the cylinde r s we r e made smaller in diameter f or the incr ease
,

in mean p r essu r e the r e f e rred mean p r essur e being 50 9 lbs in on e case and
, .

4 0 3 in the other
-
AS mi ght be supposed the weight of engines is p ractically
.
,

the same in each case I f however the boile r pr essur e had been incr eased .
, ,

without an incr ease of r e fe rred mean p r essur e the I H P wo u l d have been , . . .

the sa m e but the weight of engines gr eater I f the boiler p r essur e had
,
.

r emained unalte r ed but the r e fe rr ed mean p r essur e inc r eased the re wo u l d ,

be an incr ease in I H P without a c orr esponding incr ease in w eight I t

. . . .
.

may t h ere for e be assumed that inc reases in boile r p r essu re only add to the
weight of the en gin es when the r e is n o substantial incr ease in the r e fe rr ed
mea n p r essur e Also that whe n the r e is a substantial inc r ease in the r e fe rred
. ,

B y t h N E Coa t S t
e d d S pe i fi t i o t h p i t on p ed ran g s f rom 4 4 8 wit h 3 f e t s t rok e t o
. . s an ar c ca n e s s e e e
5 6 0 w i t h 4 7 5 f t t ok e o rv i ce of c
ee go b o t
s r n se ar a s .
 E NGI N E PA TSR S U B J ECT TO IN T E R M ITT EN T ST RE S S ES . 72 3

w he n imp roved too r steel a n d appliances admit of bo ring a t a ch e a p rat e .

h ollo w sha f t s will be used as fr eely in e x p r ess steame rs a s in naval on e s a n d ,

w it h t h e same satis f action The gr eat sa v rn g w ill be e ff ected by change in

.

d esi gn of the fi x ed po rtions and in mos t of the small e r d etails being de alt
,

w ith d r astically I t astonished many mari ne desi gner s who tu rned fro m
.

la r ge engines t o consider the q u ick ones in D es troyers to fin d h ow mu ch

m ate ria l was p ractically wasted in the nume r ous u n c on s id c r e d fittings a n d
fi x ings of an engine and en gine r oom -
.

N ot much in any case can be done in r educing t h e we ight of the pa rt s

subj ect t o a ltern a t in g st r esses e x cept by the use of materials better c alcu
,

l ated to withstand them such as S p ecial steel etc Oil tempering etc
, , ,
.

S ome saving howeve r can b e made on those pa rts lia ble only to i n t ermit ten t
, ,

st r esses especially when Of a definite a n d easily calcula ble nat u r e ; and

,

still a n or e may be done in this dir ection on the parts subj ect to simple steady ,

l oads .

Table l x x x iii gives the sa f e limi t of the va ri ous metals u sed by engineers
.

u n d er t h e seve r al conditions obt a 1 m n g in p r acti ce and the followi n g obser va ,

tions may b e taken as guides in dealing with the question of design

Ef fect of variou s Leads a n d S tresses — The va rious pa rts of marine
m achiner y a re subj ect t o loads of di ff er ent natur es an d each on e as a r ule , , ,

has t o b ea r a repetition of its own pa rticula r load c on s t an t lv and continu

.

'
ou sly . The natu r e Of the load should deter mine the magnitude of the gr eatest
str ess w hi ch the part subj ect t o it should sustain I f it be a steady on e .

a ll mater ials will w ithstand much hi ghe r st r esses than a r e possi ble wit h a

load mo r e or less sudd enl y applied and r emoved continuously Ex perience .

has shown that in st ructur es on land metal can b e load ed so that the st r ess
i s conside r ably mor e than hal f its elastic limit i f it is steady— that is if ,

t he r e is no va r iation or in fr equen t appli cation ; on the other hand it has ,

been f ound that i f a load of such magni tude is appli ed and r emoved quickly
a n d continuo u sly the metal soon ives w I f the st ess is lowe r e d eithe r
g a y r .

by r educing the load or inc r easing the section of material to sustain it the ,

num ber of applications of load t o p r oduce fr actur e is larger ; if fu rther

lower ed it takes a larger n u mber still ; finally it is found that if the load
, ,

d oes n ot st r ess the mater ial b eyond a ce rtain fr action of the elastic li mi t ,

the num b er of appli cations may b e S O lar ge wi thout p r oducing fractu r e that
t h e load may b e cons id er ed qui te a sa f e on e and the co rr esponding st r ess ,

used f or calc u lations when employi ng that material under S imila r con di t ions
S uch loads as these may for conveni ence be called i n t er mi t ten t and the
, , ,

str esses p r odu ced in termitten t s tres s es .

Th e parts of t h e en gin e su bj ect t o in termitte n t stresses a r e the piston r od -

ends in and b eyond the pistons and c r oss heads the piston r od and connecting -
,
-

r od caps and bolts the cy linder cove r studs main b ea r ing caps and bolts the
, , ,

b olts and studs of the valve gea r the gu ides etc the c r ank sha ft the high
, , .
,
-
,

r essur e cylinde r and its cove r s the medium p r essu r e cylinde r and its cove r s
p
-
,

gener ally and a ll the column and frami ng bolts The t u nnel or inte rmediate
, .

S ha fting theo r etically has a s t ea dy loa d but r eally it is mode r ately inte r mit t ent
,

—that is to say the va r iation is n ot fr om ze r o to the ma x im u m bu t fr om a

, ,

m i nimum consider ably above ze r o t o the ma x imum .

I f the load va r ies fr om a positive t o a negative value— that is fr om tension ,

t o c om fi ression and f rom comp r ession to tension — the load is said t o b e a n

 M AN U A L or M ARI N E E N GI N EERI N G .

and the stre ss es on the mate rial a lte rn a t in g st ress es Wohler

a lte rna t in g on e .
,

of B e rlin had shown

, and Pr o fessor U nwi n in this co u ntry suppo rts t he
, , ,

theory that the e ff ect of a positive and negative load actin g alte rna t ely
,

continuously is nea rly the same in its destructive e ff ect as a positive load of
the same magnitude as the two j o intly That is if a piston r od is s u bj ect to
.
,
-

as A a Q a A a ~
o a A a A u A on Ox a a on A as Os
 E L AS T C L M T on Y I I I I E L D P e rm
'

. 72 5
l

thrust of 20 tons and a pull of 1 5 t e n s or mce versd the e ff ect on the mate rial
’

a
,

i s nea rly the same as if it we r e s u bj ect to an in te r mittent load of 3 5 tons

.

I t i s howeve r not quite the same and f ur the r e x per iment with moder n
, , ,

metals may show that at moder ate loads the di ff er ence bet w een alte rnating
a n d i nte r m i ttent is not so g r eat I n any case mater ial subj ect to alte rnating.
,

lo ads m u st not be str essed so highly for any one di r ection as if those loads
w e r e inte r mittent ; in f act fr om Wohler s e x pe r iments the st r ess sho u ld not
’

b e much mor e than hal f The r apidi ty of inte r mission and alter nation is
.

also an i mpor tant f actor in deter min ing sa f e st r esses f or mat er ials .

Furthe r the shape of the pa r t s u b j ect to load is of impor tance

, i f the n
a r e incisions si mi la r t o that of a sc r ew thr ea d w hich suddenly change and ,

c oncent r ate st r ess and invite fr actur es the st r esses should b e much lowe r tha n

those of a plain uni fo r m section such as that of a ba r could sa f ely h ea r , .

Th e part s of a n en gin e su bj ect t o a l t ern a t in g st resse s a r e the piston r ods -

,

connecting r ods cr oss heads columns pistons low p r essu r e cylinder its
-

,
-
, , ,
-

c ove r and b ottom the me di um p r essu r e cylinder etc

, when at low powe r s -

, .
, ,

paddle sha fts and sc r ew shafts at thei r oute r ends due to the weight of pr o
pe llers and the r eaction of floats or bla d es especially in the case of a sc r e w , ,

s hip when r acing or r unnin g light The valve motions the a ir p u m p lever s .
,
-
,

r ods etc
, a r e subj ect t o pa r tially alter nating st r esses .

Table l x x x iii gives the sa f e limi ts t o which an engineer may go und er t h e

.

v a r ious conditions if weight is of p r ime impo r tance in desi ning engines f or

, g
c ontinuous wo r k I f weight is n ot an obj ect of fi r st impo rtance a r educti on
.

of 1 0 p er cent may with advantage b e made

. I f the a rticle is nicked sud .
,

d en ly changed in s ecti on or has a sc r ew th r ead a r eduction of 2 5 per cent

, , .

should always be allowed I n the case of alte rnating str esses t h e equivalent
.

fo r ce on e way only is taken for calculation— viz tension , .

Sh ea rin g a n d Torsion — Ce r tain metals have a ve r y hi gh powe r of r esis t

.

ance to tension and comp r ession without the like ability to r esist shearin g ;
for e x ample naval b r ass has a coe fficient of shea r of only 5 5 8 per cent — that
,
'

is its st r engt h against shearing is little mo r e than hal f what it possesses

,

against tension on the other hand cast i r on has a coe fficient of 1 6 2 per cent , .
,

a n d phosphor b r onze castings 1 1 3 p e r cent The c oefii eien t of wr o u ght steel .

and i r on is 80 whi le that of most of the st r ong zinc b r onzes is as a r ule only
, , ,

littl e mo r e than naval b r ass They a r e consequently not ve r y fit f or such .

pur poses as shafting wher e shear ing f o rces a r e always of impo rtance especially
, ,

s o in the case of t u nnel shafting .

l
Th e E a st c i Lim i t o r Yie l d Po in t — I t is p r obable that eve r y mate rial .

w hich has neve r been subj ect t o di r ect tension wi ll have some degr ee of
per man ent set a ft er application of any load it w ill of cou rse be ve ry small , , ,

and gene r ally micr oscopic I f however the material is st r essed nearly t o
.
, ,

what we call the elastic limit r eleased and again subj ected to st ress ther e , , ,

s ho u ld b e n o f u r the r per manent set ti ll that point ( the elastic limit ) is e x ceeded .

Wh en t hi s li mi t is f oun d the r e I S r eason to suppose that so long as n o

-

or t i on of the mate r ial is subj ect to a st r ess in e x cess of it the mate r ial sho u ld
p ,

e nd u r e f or eve r U n fo rtunately mate rials do give way from what is called

.

“
f atigue without appar ently havi ng been subj ect at any time to a str ess
n ea r ly app r oach ing the supposed elastic limit I t follows then that the .
, ,

s a f e limit of cont inuou s str ess is conside r ably below the elastic limit or that ,

the loads on s ome port ion of such structu res a s have collapse d a re much ,
 H IG H S
-
PEED C AFT R . 72 7

inch cast i ron stre t ches mo re than s t eel or w rought i r on and that the mate rial ,

has p r actically no elastic limit for it has no pe r manent set up to fractur e , .

Again the r e a re othe r conditions which must not be ove rlooked as for
, , ,

instanc e in the case of castings as distinguished fr om fo rgings or othe r

,

w r ought f o r ms of mater ial The latter a re p ractically free fr o m inte rnal

.

de fects w hen machined and made par t of an engine the castings howeve r , ,

ma y be solid but a re o ften not so and must not be assumed to be To allow

, , .

for such contingencies a r eduction of 1 0 to 2 0 per cent should be made fr om .

t h e str ess given by sound ba r s in the testing machine as the elastic limi t of
castin gs The figu r es in Table l x x x iii f or casti ngs a re based on this allo w
. .

ance Again r ough f o rgings o ften have incipient fl aws a rising from the
.
,

indent in g of the hammer in f or ging and in the case of ste el from sma ll ga s , , ,

bubbles and scor ia near the surface of the ingot and sometimes from slag ,

getting f or ged on the metal Fr om t h e b right wor king parts such imper .

f e ct ion s a r e machi n ed away or a r e cut ou t bef or e finish f o rgin g is done .

An other ser ious consider ation in d etermini n g the n o m inal str ess for
calculation is the pu r pose the engine has t o se rve Ex p r ess steame r s such .
,

as pass enger and mail boats , have t o e x e rt 8 0 to 90 per cent of the t rial or .

maxi mum po w er for 5 0 t o 70 per cent of the yea r ; c ross channel steame rs .
-

( sho r t r uns ) steam about 25 to 35 pe r cent of the yea r while ex cu r sion and .

rive r steame r s d o f r om 3 0 t o 5 0 per cent T h ey all have occasionally and .

,

a re always liable to have to ru n at f u ll powe r Eve r y pa r t of the machi n ery

, .

of such shi ps shoul d the r e f o r e be much lowe r st r essed at f ull powe r than the
, ,

co rr esponding parts of machine r y which is seldom or neve r wo rked t o t h e

full p ower f or w hi ch it was designed whose full sp eed on se r vice is done with ,

only 75 per cent of such powe r a n d that for only 1 0 per cent of each yea r
.
, . .

The speed of the engine also a ff ects the p r oblem A slow wo r king paddle .
-

engine with fe w r eversals of motion and time f or cushioning and othe r

,

means of avoiding shock does n ot j a r its component pa rts as does a high ,

speed on e the momentum of whose moving pa r ts materially in fluences the

,

str esses on them and thei r connections which str esses a re most suddenly ,

applied and removed or r eversed many mo r e times in a minute a n d whic h .

may be inc r eased by water in the cylinder t o an unknown ex t ent and fro m
want of time a n d other causes may n ot get the cushioning at the r ight per iods
t o do good and ease the concussions S uch engines howeve r a re gene r ally .
, .

r equi r ed to ru n at f ull speed f or ve r y sho rt spells and those f a r apa r t and ,

ma y the r e f o r e have lighte r scantlings than would be necessa r y f or a simila r

, ,

engine on sho r e such as an elect ric light or powe r engine which has to ru n
, ,
“
.

eve r y day for fi ve t o ni ne hou rs or even mo r e ,

.

Paddle En g in es w hen r equi r ed t o be ve r y light may be designed by

, ,

r e f e rr ing to the st r esses given unde r 6 0 r evolutions and modi fying on the

lines laid down above When weight is not of so much impo rtance as endu r
.

ance the str esses may be r educed by 1 0 per cent all r ou nd

,
. .

N a va l En g in es Express S teamer Engin es and Pa ssen ger Cargo S t eamer

, ,

Engine s may b e designed by taking the figu r es unde r 2 00 r evolutions and

a llowin g 1 0 per cent r eduction all r ound and modi fy in g on the l ines laid down
.
,
.

For Hi gh speed Craft s u ch as D es troy ers S cou t s T h ird class Cru is ers
-
, , ,
-
,

et c .the column un der 300 r evolutions with the modificatio n s but without
, , ,

t h e a ll r ound 1 0 per cent r eduction may be f ollowed

-
.
, .

Th i s i s n ot t ru e of v
la rge s h a f t s , f or t h e s t e e l n e a r t h e a x i s i s n e er a s good a s t h a t n ea r t h e su rf a ce
a nd somet imes i s ery v p oor i n d eed , h en ce t h e b or in g ou t is rea lly n o ract ica l loss of s t ren gt h p .
72 8 M AN U AL or M ARI N E E N GI N EE RI N G .

For Tra mp St ea mers whose powe r is small so that the engines a re vi r tually . ,

always wor kin g at full powe r, and made of mater ial u ntested and gene rally of
commo n quality a r eduction of 2 0 per cent fr om column 1 00 or 2 00 revolutions
,
.

is advisable w h en calculating the various pa rts of the engines and machi ner y .

B oil ers , etc , f o r m the most impo rtant part of the machine r y f rom the
.

w eight poin t of view and the possible sav ing is greate r than fr om any othe r
,

par t as has been seen when water t u be boile r s have been substit u ted f or
, ,
-

cylindrical , and ear lier when steel shell plates took the place of i r on ones .

The Admiralty have r educed the thickness of these pla t es t ill little r emains
possible in that di r ection with o rdi nar y steel and it is under stood that the ,

B oa r d of T r ade L loyd s , and othe r author ities will sho r tly follo w s u it
,
*
It
’
.

is also equally possible now that a mater ial as supe rior t o the o rdina r y mild
s teel as it was to i r on w i ll soon b e placed on the ma r ket f or the use of boile r
maker s I t is possible howeve r to make a much lighter boile r with the
.
, ,

o r dina ry steel without r unn ing any risk beyond what al r eady ex ists For .

e x ample the steel ba r s f or stays a re when the boiler s a re in use subj ect t o
, , ,

a steady continu ous load gently applied and r eleased ; they a r e tested ,

mechanically under similar conditions to a st r ess of 30 tons pe r squa r e inch

but w h en a t wo r k a re Str essed only t o 4 tons wher eas 6 tons wo u ld not b e ,

e x cessive especially in these days of non co rr osion in the inside of boile r s

,
-
.

With a r eduction in the size of stays a saving wo u ld b e made on the nuts

-
,

et c . The inner plating is also heavie r than it need b e under the above con
’

d it ion s The heads and snaps of rivets a r e made r egar dless of weight and
.
,

of the f act that most of the r ivets a r e subj ect t o shea r only
. For cleaning .

purposes boiler s wer e and a re still designed with r oom in va rious pa rts s u ffi
cient to admit a man and p e r mit hi m to d o the wo r k This means a la rge r .

boiler and mu ch mo r e wate r than is necessar y N ow with salt wate r ou t

-
.
,

ofi and p r actically pu r e wate r u sed the r e cannot be the r isk of scaling , ,

e specially in sho rt voyages to wa r r ant such ex t r avagance in space R ailway , .

locomotives u s e hard wate r and water containi ng much solid matte r but n o ,

such p r ovision is made as in o rdina r y ma r ine boilers f or ex cavating scale _ .

Of cou r se w he r e the re is a st r ong p r obability of salt wat e r b ein g used some

’

s uch p r ovision must be made but thi s would be only in s hi ps wher e weight
‘

of machine r y is unimpo r tant and long voyages the r ule .

Cost — Although less mate rial is used when the weight of an engine is
.

cut down the value of that saved is fa r e x ceeded as a r ule by the cost of
, , ,

labou r e mployed in e ff ecting the r eduction The substitution of one material .

f or anothe r wi th the obj ect of saving weight inva riably means a mo r e costly
on e .The r emoval of surplus materi als fr om all f or gings and some of that ,

even fr om castings is a costly p rocess although the mode r n mac hin e tool
, , ,

wi th the high class sel f ha rdening steels now in use per mits of it being don e
- -

at a much cheape r r ate than f o r merly obtained Also it is gener ally f ound .
,

that the r educing t o a minimum of the sizes of flanges facings etc entails , , .
,

much mo r e ca r e in moulding markin g off and machi ni ng with the c on s e , , ,

qu ent g r eater cost of labour ; besides whi ch more fc os t ly methods of doin g ,

wo rk a re necessitated by the want of r oom in c arrying it ou t Then too .

, ,

the much higher number of r evolutions r eso rted t o with the obj ect of r educing
weight per I H P r equi r es much greate r ca r e in the manu factu r e and a d
. . .

j ustment of all the wo r king pa rts and the use of fittings and appliances ,

which we r e done without befo r e .

Th w t t b b oi l i
e l i ly d ow i n n v l s h ip s a d i g d u lly b i g
a er- u e er ppli d to
s e x c u s ve u se n a a , n s ra a e n su e
ex p ress s t ea mers of a ll k in d s wh ere we igh t is of ser i ou s con s e qu en ce .
 P
"

AU X I L I ARI ES AN D A PU R TEN AN CES . 72 9

I n 1 8 80 a compo u nd naval engin e cost about £1 2 per or £ 75

pe r ton Five year s later tr iple engin es of large size we r e £6 4 and small
.

£8 per and still ab out £75 per t on I n 1 890 the cost of cr uise rs .
,
’

machiner y was abou t £7 per I H P and £90 per to n L ate r on la rge c r uise r . . . .

machiner y with B elle ville boiler s cost about £1 2 per I H P and £1 30 per . . .
-

ton . The mor e modern w ith less e x pensive w ater tube boiler s cost somewhat -

less.

The ve r y light naval engines of the past few yea rs illus tr ate what can
be done in the way of sav ing w eight w hen cost is of secondar y conside ra
tion At the same t ime it w ill be seen that the cost per I H P of t r ial at
. . . .

fu ll powe r is r eall y low and even if the lower po w e r or that developed w ithout
,

f or cing be taken i t is seen that these en gines by compa r ison a r e by no means

costly For e x a in ple the thir d class c r u ise r engin es of 1 8 91 with cylin dr ical
,

-
.
, ,

boile r s cost £6 75 pe r I H P full power at natur al draught it was o nl y £1 0

. . . .
, ,

or £ 93 per ton The thi r d class c r ui ser of 1 8 97 had water t u be boiler s and
.

engines costing £6 5 per I H P of f u ll power or £9 of that at natur al dr aught ;

. . .
,

t h is w a s ho w ever £1 1 8 per t on The destroye r engines of 1 8 95 cost o nl y

, , .

£6 pe r but £200 per ton, and later ones cost as much as £2 3 6 pe r

ton .

The machi n er y as now fitted into naval ships is much mo r e elabo r ate
than f o rmerly obtained and t ur b ines a r e employed to dr ive the scr ews
“

, .

B attleship machi n er y in clu din g a u x ilia r ie s in 1 91 3 cost abo u t £9 5 pe r

, ,

whi le that of fir st class c ru ise r s cost £8 5 to £7 depending lar gely -

,

on the r ate of r evol u tion Th e machine ry of second class cru ise r s and lar ge
.
-

sco u ts c ost about £6 8 to £7 per whil e that of destr oyer s w a s somewhat

'

less d u e to the highe r r ate of r evolution

, The cost pe r ton was about £1 2 0 .

for battleshi ps and £1 4 5 f or c rui se r s D est r oye r s and simi lar cr a ft had then .

machinery c osting about £220 t o £2 4 0 per ton .

Taki ng si mil a r per iods for the me rcantil e mari ne the ave r age cost of a ,

c ompoun d en gine i h 1 880 w a s £ 75 per or £ 35 per t on Five yea r s .

_

later the triple engine was costin g £6 5 per or £ 3 6 per ton I n 1 8 90 .

,

whe n p rices w ere hi gh i n consequ ence of t he N aval D e fence Act havi ng filled
mos t of the shipyar ds and en gin e wo r ks with o r de r s engines co u l d be got ,

for unde r £6 per I H P but st ill £3 6 per ton . . Ten yea r s later the engin es .

of cr oss channel steame r s

-
whose weight w ould be only about 2 20 lbs pe r ,
.

co u l d be pur chased at £5 5 pe r or £ 5 3 pe r ton and heavy ,

engin es at about £6 5 per I H P and £3 5 per ton . . .

,
.

Comparin g the c r oss channel boats machi n e r y with that of the 1 891
’

thi rd class c ruiser it will be seen that per I H P they cost the same money
,
. . .
,

but the cru i se r en gines weigh only 1 5 6 lbs against the 220 of the mer chant .

shi p The latte r cost the re fo re o nl y £5 3 pe r ton against the £93 of the
.
, ,

N aval shi p .

Au xi lia ries an d Appu rt ena nces — Fort y yea r s ago the ma r ine engine .

was p r actically self contained it had as a par asite an aux ili ar y f eed donkey ,

pump and i n large shi ps t w o such pumps The ex tensive use of water ballast
, .

later on necessitated another and a la r ger donkey pump and feed heater s ,

w e r e f ound to be ood thin gs ; cent r i fugal ci r c u l ating pum ps also came to

g
be gene r ally used I n large shi ps somew hat earlier I n the N avy in c on se .
,

qu en c e of the high r evolutions it was found bette r t o have independent ,

,

feed pumps and la t e r to take fr om the main engine all p u m ps e x cept the
, , ,
 W E IG H T or MAR i N E M Ac m N ER r . 73 1

Th e Weigh t of Modern Marin e Ma chin ery In st all a ti ons of

kind s va ries a ll

with the r ate of r evolution of t h e moto r whe t he r it be a recip r ocato r or a .

t u r bine when all othe r t h ings a r e pa ri pa s su

, it may he a rr ived at with a
ver y f ai r app r oach t o accu r acy by the following empi rical fo rmul ae whe r e
I H P and S H P a re the mean powe rs developed on t rials at full speed for
. . . . . .

a pe riod ex ceeding on e ho u r continuous steami ng at revolutions R pe r minute .

Weight found in this way will fo r m a su fficient gui de for the p relimina r y
design of a ship but must n ot be taken as being qui te so accur ate as to pr e
,

c lu d e the necessity f or a p r ope r estimation I n naval shi ps and e x p r ess .

passenge r steame r s having light or small tub e water tube boile r s of the -

Ya rr ow or other simila r type and with the a rrangement and supply of ,

au x iliaries u su al in such ships .

S H P
ég
' x
’

85
The total weight of machine r y with tur bines
R; l
tons .

g?
1 < 2
The total weight of machine ry with r ecip r ocato r s
l0 0
s hi ps with r ecip r ocating engines and la rge or hea v ie r type
N aval of
wate r tube boiler s such as the B abcock B elleville N iclau ss e etc
-

, , , , .

R + 50
Mer cantile s hi ps havi ng cylind rical boiler s and the installation of a u x ili

ar ies usually f ound in them and la r ge naval s hi ps with simila r boile rs .

I .H P Q . .

Total we i ght of machi n e r y

R 50

(1) Mail steame r s w ith r ecip r ocato r s of heavy desig n Q 20 5

r ec i p r ocato r s of light single ende d
,

( 2 ) Mail and naval ships with

boile r s , Q 20 0
(3) Ma il and naval ships w ith r ecip r ocato r s of light double ended -

boile r s ,

(4) Mer cantile ships having tu rbines and cylind rical boile r s ,

(5 ) Mer cantile ships such as t r amp steamer s with heavy

,

machiner y , Q 27 0 '

Ex a mple find the weight of machine r y of a battleship having

(1 -
To
tu r bines and wate r tube boile r s the S H P is 2 5 000 at 300 revolutions per ,
. . .
,

mi n u te .

X 16 8 5
We i ght tons .

300 1 00

Ex a mple —The weight of

’
a scout s machine r y developing S H . P .

at 75 0 r evolutions pe r mi nute .

x 16 8 5
Vi e 1 gh t 4 15 tons .

75 0 1 00

Ex a mple — Ah Atlantic steame r has tu rbine machine ry and cylind rica l

boile rs the ,
S H P. . . is at 1 80 r evolutions .

Weight 739 tons .

73 2 MAN U AL or MAR I N E E NGIN E E RIN G .

Exa mple —
A1 1 p ress ste a me r having dou ble ended boile rs a n d en gine s
ex -

of HP . . at 1 8 0 r evo lutions per minute .

X 1 95
[ he we1 gli t Is 5 8( l ton s .

1 80 + 5 0
Ex a mple ( 5 ) — A t ram p steamer of 1 75 0 IH . . P . at 70 r evolutions pe r
m inute .

x 27
l he of mac hi ne ry
‘
we i ght 3 94 tons .

70 50

R el a t ion of Weig h t t o T onnage —Taking the same per iod as be fo r e it is .

,

inte resting to note that in Atlantic mail steamer s the machiner y was 1 3 per
c en t of the displacement and the I H P at the r ate of 1 1 p e r ton of gr oss
.
, . . .

r e gister I n small passenger steamer s it was abou t 1 3 p e r cent the I H P

. . . . .

1 3 5 per g r oss r egiste r ton .

Ten yea r s later the S peed of ocean steamer s had incr eased by 2 0 per
.
cent The weight of the machiner y was still about 1 3 per cent of the dis
. .

p lacement bu t the I H P w a s 1 8 p er gr oss r e giste r ton

, . . . .

The inc r ease of speed with the smalle r steamer s was 2 5 per cent the
w eight of machine r y 1 5 t o 1 9 per cent of the displacement and the I H P .
, . . .

1 5 t o 1 7 per gr oss r egiste r t on .

I n 1 8 95 the Atlantic ex p r ess steamer had a speed of 2 1 knot s obtained

w ith mac hi ne r y w hose weight was 2 0 pe r cent of the displa cement and .
,

w hose I H P wa s at the r ate of 1 9 pe r g r oss r egiste r ton

. . . Twi n sc r e w car go .

a n d passe n ger boats with a S peed of 1 5 knots of this period had a weight
‘

o f machine r y of only 73 per cent of displacement and less than 1 I H P . . . .

p er gr oss r egiste r t on whi le in simila r boats of 1 3 knots speed the p r opo rtions
"

we r e 5 per cent and 0 5 I H P . . . .

Fast Channel scr ew steame r s of 1 7g knots we r e at the same time on

s e r vic e wit h machi ne r y weighing 2 7 p er cent of the displacement an d -
.
,

i ndi c a tin g 3 t o 5 H P per gr os s r egister t on . . .

Th e N ort h At lan t ic S ervice is ca rried on t o day by e x p r ess steame r s d r iven -

by tu r bin es a t a speed of 25 knots per hour on the N e w Yo r k r oute and by ,

o ther s d riven by the recip r ocati ng engine at 2 2 5 to 2 3 5 knots and lastly , , ,

by e ven large r stea mers li ke the Olympic d riven by a combination of , ,

r eciproca t 0 1 s a n d tu r bines at 22 5 knots The B oston and Canadian se r vice .

'
e mploys s hips some w hat smaller having a speed of 1 9 to 20 knots and d r iven ,

éby tu rbines while t h e older steame r s p r eceding these mor e mode r n ones we r e
,

d r iven by r ecip rocato rs a t a bout the same S peeds .

Th e mac hinery o f the largest and f astest Atlantic e x p r esses of the tu rbine
t y pe r equi r e s a bout 30 per ce n t of the displacement to ca rr y it and will
i
.
,

d evelop a g ross powe r e qual t o 2 1 5 S H P per g r oss r egiste r ton or 1 90 . . .

,
”
S H P e r t on of g ross dis placement
. . . That of the Olympic develop s .
,

1 1 S H pe r d i splacement . ton and the w eight i s 1 7 pe r cent or t h e , .

d isplacement .

The la rgest Atlantic e x p r esses having r ecip r ocating engines r equ i re 23 per
c ent of the displacemen t to ca r r y the weight of the machine r y and develop abo u t
.

2 20 I H P pe r g ross r egiste r ton or abo u t 1 5 0 I H P pe r ton of g ross displace

. . .
,
. . .

ment The tur bine d riven Canadian and other ex p r esses r u nning at some w hat
.
-

less speeds r equir e only abo u t 1 6 per cent of the displacement and develop .
,

o nly 1 2 0 S H P g r oss r egiste r ton or 0 75 pe r ton of g r oss displacement

-

p er . . .
, .

Th e L u sita n ia and Mau ritania of the Cu nar d L ine we re a g reat

 TH E C U SE R I RS or LA RG E S I ZE . 733

advance on any steamship then e x isting being 76 0 feet long 8 75 feet bea m , , ,

a n d havin g a displacement of tons on 3 2 5 feet mean dr aught of wate r

”
Olympic and h e r siste r s hi p B r itannic whose dimensions a re length , ,

8 5 3 feet beam 92 75 and 94 feet and the latte r s disp lacement is

’
,
-
tons , .

The machiner y of these S hips is the combination of t w o r ecip rocating t riple x

engines hav ing cylinde r s 5 4 inches 8 4 inches and two low p ress u res of
, , ,

97 inches diamete r with a piston st r oke of 75 inches r u nning at abo u t 8 0 , _

r evolutions with a h u ge low p r essur e t u rbine dri vi ng the middle sc r ew as sho wn

,
-

in figs 4 3 and 4 4 making abo u t 1 70 r evolutions pe r minu te

.
, .

Ex p r ess steame r s of still la r ger size a re the Aquitania of tons ,

displacement 8 70 f eet long and 97 f eet beam and the V ate rland
,
”
, , ,

tons 908 feet long 1 00 f eet beam and a speed abo u t 2 5 k nots
, , , .

Th e Ma i l a n d Passen g er S t ea mers on se rv ice to I ndia The Cape and , ,

Australia a r e also m u ch lar ge r than those engaged in these r outes onl y a fe w

yea r s ago and although their speed is not so high as in the N e w Yo r k se rvic e
,

ther e is a mar ked incr ease They a r e gene rally abo u t to ton s .

gross r egister and steam about 1 8 knots being dr iven by twi n scre w s a n d
, ,
-

qua dr u ple compou nd engines Their length is usually 5 00 to 5 5 0 feet with

-
.
,

a beam abo u t 6 0 to 6 4 f eet and d ra u ght of water 2 7 to 2 8 feet for the S ue z ,

Canal a nd r athe r mo r e on the Cape r oute

,
R ecently some ships have bee ri .

placed on the I ndian r oute d riven by t u rbines and the U nion Company o f , ,

N e w Zealand adopt the mix ed method of p r opulsion in thei r new steame r s

, .

I n 1 880 a N a s a l Fi rst cla ss Cru i s er attained a speed of 1 8 5 knots with -

machi n er y whose weight was 27 per cent of the displacement Ten yea rs . .

later the same speed w a s r ecor ded with tr iple compound engines only 1 5 5 pe r -

cent in weight I n 1 910 f or a S peed of 2 4 knots 1 77 per cent su fficed

. .
, , .
,

while in second class c ruiser s it was 1 5 per cent and in thi rd class cru isers
-
.
,
-

of 2 4 knots w ith r ecip r ocato r s and water t u be b oile r s 1 6 8 pe r cent N ow -

.
,

with tur bines and water tube boiler s wholly the machine r y of a B at t le shi p -
,

i s 1 5 per cent of h er di splacement develops 2 1 1 S H P per displacem en t

.
,
-
. . .

ton and dr ives h er at 25 knots The B a ttle Cru i ser of 30 kn ot s requir es

, .

20 pe r cent of the di splacement and develops 3 S H P T he 30 k n ot L i ght

“

-
. . . .
,

Cru i s er with t u r bines etc has machin e r y whose weight is 4 4 per cent o f h e r , .
,
.

displacement and S H P is 1 1 pe r displacement ton wh ile the some w ha t . . .

,

la rger 2 6 kn ot Cru iser has machi ner y 2 2 per cent giving 5 5 S H P pe r ton
-
.
, . . . .

T he 3 0 lcn 0 t D e s t r oyer with r ecip r ocating engines r equi r ed 4 6 pe r cent of the

-
.

di splacement for machine r y which developed 1 7 I H P per displacement t on . . . .

The modem 3 2 to 3 4 knot destr oye r s have t u rbine machine ry whose weight -
,

is o nl y 30 per cen t of the displ acement and gives 1 8 S H P per ton displace.
, . . .

ment and a bout 60 S H P pe r ton weight of machine ry

Th e Modern B a tt leship is much b eyond what was consider ed unwield y
. . . .

a few yea r s ago being n ow 6 5 0 feet long 92 f eet beam , tons displace , ,

ment ab ou t, givin g a speed of 2 5 knots .

Th e B at t l e Cru is er is lar ge r still being 660 f eet long 90 f eet beam and , , ,

tons displacement ; h er speed is 30 knots by S H P Even w

. . .

la rger L ight Cru i sers have been r ecently b u ilt ove r 900 f eet long with a speed ,

of 3 5 knots Turbines and Water tube boiler s a re in all these mode rn wa rships
.
-
.

Th e Ligh t Cru is er is now quite a big ship bein g 4 20 f eet long 4 0 feet beam ; , ,

to ns dis placement havin g engines develop ing mo r e than ,

a n d d rivin g them at ove r 30 knots .

Th e Cru isers of l arg e si ze of 1 90 7 we r e 5 2 0 feet long 74 5 f eet beam ,

 MARIN E M ACH I NE R Y . 73 5

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 M AN U AL OF MARIN E E NGIN E E RING .

T AB LE L XXXV .
— PAR T I GU LAR S or N A AL S HI P S ’ V MACH I N E R Y

Cy lin d e rs . Fu ll S pee d

D e s ig n a t i on . K in d of Engin es .

Di m t
a e er .

H oriz on t al Tru n kS Con d e n s i n g ,

u rf a c e
Do R e t u rn Con n e ct in g R od S u rf a ce
1
.
,
Con d en s i n g ,
Do . do . do .

Do do do
V D p
. . .

e rt i c al ir e ct Ac t i n g Com ou nd ,
Do . do . do .

Do do do ,
p
. . .

Do do . T r i le ,
Do do . do
Do do . do
Do do . do
Do do . do
Do do . do

H or iz on t a l Tru n kS Con d e n s i n g ,
u rf a ce
p
-

Do . Rt e u r n Con n ec t i n g R od Com ou n d ,
-

Do do do do ,
D p
. . . .

Do t
ir e c Ac t i n g Tr i le ,
-

V
.

e rt i c a l do . do , .

Do . do . do .
,

Do . do . do , .

Do . do . do , .

Do . do . do , .

Do . do . do .

Do . do . do
D
_o . ( 10 . do
Do . do

T AB LE LXXXV a N AVAL S H I P S MACH IN E R Y

’
.
— PART I CU L AR S OF

k
H or iz on t a l T r u n S u rf a c e Con d en s i ng ,
Do D t
ire c Ac t i n g S u rf a ce Con d e n s i n g
p ,
.

Do R
e t u rn Con n ect i n g R od Com ou n d
Do . D t
ir e c Act i n g Com ou n d ,
-
p
Do do do
p
. . .

Do do T r i le,
V
. .

e rt i c a l do do ,
. .

Do . do do ,
. .

Do . do do ,
. .

Do . do do ,
. .

Do . d o, do , .

H ori zon t a l Rt e u rn Con n e c t i n g R od S u r f ace l -

Con d e n s i n g ,
Do . R e t u r n Con n e c t i n g R od Com ou n d ,
-
p
Do . do . do do , .

Do do do do ,
D p
. . . .

Do . ire c t Ac t i n g Com ou n d ,
-

Do do do ,
p
. . .

Do do T r i le ,
V
. .

e r t i ca l do . do , .

Do . do . do , .

Do . do . do , .

Do . do . do , . .

Do . do . do , .

Do . do . do , .

DO . 00 . do .
 N AVAL SH I PS '
M ACH IN E R Y .

( B ATTL E S H I P S AN D I ST CL AS S CR UI S E R S ) — R E CI PR OCAT1 N G ENGIN E S .

P
Fu ll ow e r 4 15 or N a t u ra l We i ht I H P
B oi le rs .

T r ia l . D ra u gh t . of Ma c e ry .
.

p
Fu ll S e e d per
. .

N u m be r an d Ki nd . I H P
. . . S p e ed I. HP . . S p ee d .

4 31 1

665 8

3 R D CL AS S CR U I S E R s ) — R E CI P R 0 0 AT I N G ENGIN E S
‘

AN D .

1 5 12
-

145
166
180
19 0 18
1 90 18
20 5 19
203 19
20 0 18
205 19

0 . 0 . I .
 MACH INE R Y OF S MAL L N AV AL SH I PS .

S MAL L N AVAL S H I P S ( R E CI P R O CAT ING EN G I N E s ) .

P
Fu ll ow e r N atu ral We ig h t I H P
Tr i a l .
or
D ra u g ht . of Ma c h i n e p . .

Fu ll S ee d p er

N u mbe r an d Ki nd . Tot a l .

2 G u n b oa t ,

1 08 3 1 91 0

4 Loc omot i v e, 1 21 26 96 1 20 0

1 90 384 0

1 71 3 66 5 21 1 0

l Loc omot ive , 2 35 1 51

2 78 1 75

6 30 4 00

41 1 01 3

38 1 05 7

2 W at e r t u -
be Yarrow ,
50 1 600

75 2 300

2 L ocomot i v e, 1 00 3 4 97

Wa t e r t u -
be Yarrow , 1 54 388 4

Do . Th orn y cr of t , 1 89 4 368

Do . Norm an d , 1 50 4 48 4

DO . Re d e ,
2 09 3885

Do . B lec h yn d en , 1 76 4 36 7

Do . Th orn y croft ,

Do . No m r an d ,

Do . R d
ee ,

Do . Th orn y croft ,

Do . Yarrow ,

4 Yarrow
 M AN U AL OF M ARI N E E N GI N EERIN G .

T AB LE L X XX V I .
— EX AM PL E S or OCEAN EX P R ES S

Ton n a ge . Cy lin ders .

N a me of S h ip .

Di a me t e rs .

I n ch es Fe e t Lbs

1 0 5 71 1 05 - -
810 33 6

4 0 6 6 1 00 -
774 36 6-

4 06 -
6 35 -
1 02 75 6 3 3 -9

u t o n ic , 4 3 68 1 1 0
- -
78 0 3 78
‘

3 0 6 6 97
- -

74 6 3 3 -5

85 0 35 1

32 5 4 8 2
- -
792 39 -9

3 4 5 1 -5 8 5
- -
76 8 3 1 -2

-
92 8 00 36 0

mpa n i a , 1 8 93 1 -
79 93 0 33 0

Wilh elm , D C . 1 8 97 1 52 887 38 5

1 8 99 1 -
79 93 9 3 - -
94 8 35 8

1 900 l 1 02 7 36 5-

u t s c h la n d 1 90 0 1 973 3 7- 4

1 90 2 1 94 7 350

ron ia , 1 905 1 82 5 4 6 -3

p re ss of B ri t a i n , 1 906 1 36 5 2 75 1 08
- - -
828 4 0 -5

P r in ce s s Ce c i lie , 1 908 1 970 4 08

u ren t ic , 1 908 1 76 5 42 4

rmp ic , 1 91 0 4 9 78 4 2 -5

1 91 3 1

1 91 3 1 8 08 3 93

V . E u ge n ie

1 91 5 1 78 8 4 0 -3

li s u n ie , 1 91 5 4 96 2 4 0 -6

1 91 7 3

Ap p rox ima t e fig u re s
 E X AM P L ES OF OCEA N EX P R ES S R
S T EAM E S .

EAM ER S ( R E CI P RO CAT ING OR MI X E D ENGIN E S ) .

S q Ft
. . S q Ft
. .

lin d r ica l,

1 6 80 38 8 1 7

Cy lin d r ica l

1 1 54 4 0 9 72

1 4 50 4 7 000

D E
. . 2 SE. .

2 6 30 8 2 2 00

D E . 4 S E .

D E . 7

1 2 98 5 ° 1 40

D E
. . 3 S E . .

D E . . 5 S E . . 5 4 00 1 5 1 00 0

1 2 05 4 6 95 0

5 90 2 3 000 1 4 40 37 0

2 2 60 52 4

D E
. . 4 S E . 1 5 50 37 7

D E . . 5 S E . . 10 15 36 3

1 7 60 40 8
 EXAMP L ES OF PAS S EN GER -
R R
CA GO ST EAM E S .

S T E AME R S ( R E GI PR OCATI N G ENGIN ES ) .

Tr ia l R es u lt s . Tr ia l I H P
. . .

dz 2 S E
. . c y lin d r l
.
,

2 S E . .

2 S E . .

3 S E . .

dz 3 S E
. .

4 S E . .

dz 2
 MAN U AL OF MAR I N E ENGI N E ERING .

T AB L E L XXXV III .
—
EX AM PLE S or S MAL L PAS S E NG E R

Ton n ag e . Cy li n d e rs .

N a me of S hip .

Di a m e t ers .

I n c h es

L in coln ,

Ret f o d r 23 44 -

30 5 7

2 8 4 3 -70-

G a zelle , 1 6 -5 2 6 - 4 1 -

Bl a rn e y 2 4 38 62 - -

24 37 56 - -

Dk u e of Cla ren ce , 2 2 34 5 1 - -

B ru n o 2 3 -5 3 5 5 7 - -

26 -
61

I b ex ,
2 2 -3 4 5 1 -

Vi en n a 26 -
61

2 3 36 5 6 - -

P r in ce Ed ward , 1 9 30 4 8 - -

Mu n st er , 29 4 5 48 48
- - -

D k f C w ll
u e o orn a -
3 4 38 -5 3 8 5
- -

D k f D v hi
u e o e on s re , 2 1 32 5 0 - -

D d res en , 2 6 -3 9-5 6 3 -

Pi G g
r n ce eor e , 26 4 0 4 5 4 5
- - -

Pi M y
r n cess ar ,

An glia 2 6 - 4 0-4 3 4 3 -

An t r im , 2 3 36 4 2 4 2
- - -

Pi r n ce ss Ju lian a , 2 8 4 3 -5 4 9 4 9
- - -

Pt a r iot ic 2 1 -5 3 5 4 1 - 4 1
- -

2 74 4 5 5 2 5 2 -

26 4 2 69 - -

pp
A rox ima t e figu re s .
 E X AM P L ES OF S M AL L P AS S EN G ER ~CAR G O S TEAM E RS .

'
o S T E AM E R S ( R E CI P RO CAT ING E NGIN ES ) .

Tr i a l R e su lt s . Tria l I H P pe r
. . .

S te a m TOM ]
P re s
G ra t e
Are a H e a t in g
To t a l
I H P
S p e ed . Tot a l .

S u r fac e
. . . .

s u re . .

L bs . S q Ft
. . S q Ft . K n ot s Ton s

c y lin d r i ca L ,
85 1 00 12 7

83 . 1 3 -0

85 220 1 5 -03 38 6

1 54 1 40 2 93

PD . 1 50 118 17 60 250

1 60 1 26 1 3 -00 289

ED . 1 60 32 0 5 30

1 60 2 58 1 8 -5 0 4 20

1 50 114 1 5 30 1 4 -2 5 1 92

1 60 35 7 1 8 00

E D 1 60 2 50 1 9-00 4 20

1 60 35 7 1 8 -00 587

PD . 1 75 2 50 2 0 00 6 03

1 90 1 70 6 2 00 1 8 -8 0 3 04

FD . . 1 60 5 20 2 38

1 80 31 7 1 98

1 60 257 1 95

165 35 7 5 641 1 8 -5

FD . . 1 80 280 20 3

1 55 31 8 1 79

FD . . 1 60 4 30 2 1 -0

1 80 21 8 2 3 77 1 6 -1

1 50 4 02 21 9

F l) . .
1 90 5 34 22 5

1 S E
. . 1 95 38 6 6 4 0 0‘ 18 0

1 90 1 80
 TU R B I N E D RI V EN
-
S C EW S T EAM E
R RS . 74 4 0

l Q CO N —
i N
v

vi m — u d o- t

0 0 0 0 m 0 m v 9 b e e q © w q
N
m —
o
0 u §
. . . .
z
w b m 0 0 Q
5 fl
0 0 ‘ Q N N c§
5
‘
—
. . c F
mw m
.

N N a N 0 0 0 A i
v r- ( Q
XXXXXXXX
.

x X x x X X x x X x x X X X
m

mm
a
.
0 0 ¢
$
m
o . . . . . .

o 0 mw 0 0 b 0 0 mw b N 0 0 0 o N 0 0 0 0 m
h 0 0 w fle ¢
0 0 0 N N 0 w ¢¢ ¢
0 P 0 0 0 0 0
X x X X X X X X X X X X X X X x X X X X X
m
u
m
vgm 5
n
0 0
0
0
o 0
m
v
0
0
0
w m
w m
0
S
N
0
n
w
0
0
h
0
0
0
0
N
mm
0
¢
0
0
0
0 mv 0 w
fim m ~ m w 0 u a
0

h m m m w m m a m
0

u a a a c 0 a Q
s . . . . 0 . .
 I X ED P AR T S
F . 74 5

CHAP T ER XX V III .

E FFE CT OF W E IG HT— IN E RT I A AN D M O M E N T U M— B ALAN CI NG T H E S AM E .

HI T HE R T O in thi s book little or no conside r ation has been given to the e fie ct

on the engi ne of the weight of any of its pa rt s ; and although that of each on e
has some e ffect on itsel f and on its imme diate su rr oundings it may gene r all y ,

b e ve r y t ri fling The e ff ect of the weight of some of the pa rt s ho w eve r

.
, ,

is pe rceptible t h r oughout the whole engine and sometimes even makes its ,

p r esence kno w n fr om stem to stem of the s hi p I n the case of the p ropellers .

,

both sc r ew and paddle thei r weight has been taken into account in esti
,

m ating the st r esses on thei r sha fts and the p r essu r e on the bear ings suppo rting
them ; al so the weight of the sha fts themselves has not been overlooked i n
consider ing the dimens ions of thei r j o u rnals beari ngs etc B u t l n calcu l ating , , .

the s 1 ze s of sha fts and p r opeller s n o r ef er ence has been made to the f act
that thei r weight does to some ex tent mo di fy the st r esses bo rne by their parts .

As a ru le howeve r the e fiec t of mer e weight is s o ver y small compa r ed

, ,

with that due to the steam p r essu r e on the pistons cylinder cove r s etc , , .
,

that in o rdina ry engines it is and may b e gene rally neglected B u t the .

gr eat inc r ease in r ate of r evolutions in mode r n en gin e s and the demand for ,

greater perfection i n wo r king as well as the absolute necessity for it in many

,

cases h ave d r awn mo r e par tic u lar attention to the subj ect some most
, ,

inte r esting inves tigations have been made by scientists and fr om time to ,

time methods devised wher eby the ill e ffects due to the inertia of the movin g
”

pa rts of an engi ne may be modified or r emoved altogether so that it may b e ,

ru n at any spe ed wi thout dist r ess of any ki nd to itself or surr o u ndings a n d

with pe rfect fr eedom from v ib r ation I n modern desi gn it is now unusual
,

. .

to neglect the e ffects of inertia .

Fi xed Part s— that is those pa rts the cent r e of gr a v ity of w hi ch have

,

no motion bu t that due t o the motion of the ship— may fi rst b e taken int o
co n sideration The e fiect of thei r weight is simply that due t o gr avi ty
.
,

and acts always ve rt ically For ex ample the cylinder and its app u rtenances
.
,

of a ve r tical engi ne r es t on t h e columns and by t heir weight inc r ease the load
,

on the column s on t h e othe r hand the st r ess on the bolts conn ecting the m
,

t o the columns is d ec re ased by it When however the ship is in motion

.
, ,

they have momentu m s o t ha t in case of a s udden stoppage by grounding or

,

collisio n t h e t endenc y would be [or t hem t o move fo r ward and shea r the bolts ,

et c
.
,
and t o bend t he col u mn s a s we ll a s t rain the column ba s e s a n d c on s

n e ct ions t o t h e shi p The t e ndency is also of the sa me natur e wh e n t h e

.

shi p rolls hea v ily bu t i n t his c a se motio n is t ra nsve rse to the fmwa rd mo v e
,

ment I t 1s us u al an d advisabl e i n all ve rtic al engines especi a lly i n t a ll o n e s

. , ,

t o p rovi de for t hese contingencie s by fitt in g tie s of a mo re or l ess flex ibl e

n at u re from the cy lin de r s t o a sui t able pa rt of t h e s hi p I n a mino r d e gr e e .
 MO V ING PARTS . 74 7

a re a of the piston in squ ar e inches the constant downwa rd p r essu r e du e

,

to the weight is equal to 7 6 lbs pe r squa r e inch The fi gu r e in plain lines

'

. .

is t h a t t aken fr om the t op that in the dotted lines fr om the bottom of the

, ,

Fi g . 2 80 . H i gh .

pre s su re Cy lin d e r
D ia gra m .

Fig 2 8 1 — D ia gra m of
. .

Eff e cti e v
P re ss u res
N e glectin g I n ertia .

Fi g 2 82 — D ia gra m
. . of
Effe c i etv P r e s su re s
in clu d in g t
h ose d u e
to I n ert ia .

fl -I
d
cylinder A B is taken as a b a s e lin e di v ided i n to a n y nu mbe r of pa rt s at
.

' '
point s b b et c thr ough which o rdinate s b e b e etc a re dra wn and of
,
.
, ,
’
,
.
, ,
' ’
whi ch a e a e etc r ep r esent the e ff ective pr ess u re on the t op of the p i sto n
, , .
,
74 8 MA NU AL or M AR I NE E NGIN E E RING .

"
when in those position s on the down st r okes and c d c d e t c the e ffective , ,
'
, .
,

p r essu r es on the unde rside of the upst roke .

N ow take C D as a base li ne ( fig 2 8 1 ) of the same length as A B divid e .

in the same way and d raw a diagr am by taking o r dinate s thr ough the p oints ,
' '
c utting off a e a e
’ ’
, etc the same length as a e a e etc in fig 2 8 0 etc
, .
, , ,
.
, .
, .

On the lowe r side const ruct in a simila r way the fi gu re P d”d G from t h e
’

dotte d di ag ram fig 28 1 , . .

N ow take a p oint E belo w C so that C E r ep resents on the same scale ,

as the di agr a ms the p r es su r e pe r squa r e inch on the pi s ton equ i valent to the
weight of the piston etc and d ra w E F pa r allel to C D Then any o rdinates
‘

.
, , .

on E F inte r cepted by G e e P etc

’
, r ep r esent the t r ue e ff ective p r ess u r e on
, .
,

the downst r oke and simi lar ly any o rdinates fr om E F downwa r d inte r cept ed
, ,
’
by P d G r ep r esent the t rue e ff ective p ressur e on the upstr oke at those points .

The ma x imum o rdinate on the lower side indicates the tension on the con
n ec t in g r od and piston r od bolts for pu r poses of calculation and the ma x imum
- -

o rdinate on the top side of E F indicates the comp r essive load on the con
n e ct in g r od etc
-
, f or the same pu rpose ; the actual load being obtained of
.
, ,

co u rse by mu ltipl yi ng the numbe r of pounds which these o rdinates r ep r esent

,

by the nu mber of squar e inches of piston ar ea The cu rve of twi sting moments .

of a ve rtical engine should also be obtained by using these o r dinates .

A fu rthe r modification may be made in the case of engines having the a ir

and ci rculating pumps w o r ked by means of leve rs as then the weight of the ,

mo v ing pa rts of t h e pumps and thei r loads tend to balance the weight of the
p iston B alance weights on the c r anks o pposite the a rms have also been
.

fitted with the obj ect of b alancing the weight s of and have also
ve r y pr e perly b ee n fitted wi th the sole obj ect of b alancing the c rank weight only .

The weight of the slide valves and valve motions also modi fy in a simila r
way the st r esses on thei r parts but in a minor degr ee .

I n ho r izon tal engines the pistons r ods etc do n ot by gr avity a ff ect the , , .
,

load on the pistons bu t the weight of the c r ank a r ms and pa rt of the weight
,
-

of the connecting r od do a fiec t the tu r ning moment but in a di ff e r ent w a y

-
,

fr om that of a ve rtical engine I n thei r case the fo r wa rd e ff o rt of the piston

.

was r esisted by the weight of c r ank etc till a little pa st t h e hal f st rok e ,
.
,
-

and assisted from the piston to the e nd of the str oke ; on the back st roke -

the assistance continued till nea rly hal f str oke when it ceased and resistance -
, ,

set up and inc r eased to t h e en d Her e balance weights could be and w er e .

, ,

used to advantage so that most of the ho rizontal engines had them while a
, ,

ve rtical engine was r a r ely seen w 1 t h these appenda ges .

Momen tu m — Af te r all is said the e ff ect of mer e weight or gravity on

. ,

the pa rts of an engine is ver y limited and neve r s eri ou s— in fact may generally ,

b e neglecte d as has been shown B u t the f o r ces set up by heavy moving pa rts .

w hen I n mo t ion— especially in r apid motion— a re quite di ff e r ent both in

magni tu d e a n d e ff ect To ove rcome the inertia of a heavy body and sta rt it
.

int o motion a c on sl d era ble f o r ce is r equ i red ; to acceler ate the motion still
m e i e fo rce is r equir ed A heavy body when in r apid motion has much
.

ene r gy sto red in it all of w hi ch must be abstracted in o rde r to bring it to

,

r es t ; if t he p r oces s of b ringing t o r est is accomplished quickly the f o rce

d e eloped wil be l a rge a n d pr oduce disast rous r esults unless special pro
w '
,

v ision is made for othe rwise a bs or bing it This fo rce va ries with the mass .

of t he body and its a cce le ra t i on h e nce in a quick runni n g engine the ine rti a -
 M O M EN T U M .
74 9

f o r ces up in the moving pa rts a re much mo r e serious matte rs than in a

s et

slow movi ng engine n ot only on account of the str esses set up in the pa rts
-
,

thems elves and in those adj acent to them but because of the vib r ato r y e ff ects ,

on the st r uct u r e of the engine gene r ally as also on the st r uctu r e by w hich ,

it is carried I nertia fo r ces can be modified by r edu cing the weight of a

.

mov nn g par t but the velocity 1 3 p r actically fi x ed being that r equi r ed for
, ,

the f ull wo r king of the engi ne V ery little scope i s per mitted the r e fo r e .
, ,

to the designer t o modi f y the motion of any on e part .

D ealing fi r st with those pa rts whi ch have simple linea r motion such a s ,

the piston piston rod and c r osshead the valves a n d valve r ods etc the
,
-
, ,
-
, .
,

gener al e ff ect can b e app r eciated by t r acing each phase of movement For .

e x ample at the commencement of the st r oke w hen steam is admitted to

,

the cylinder it e x erts a p ressu r e on the piston and cover alike hence the
, ,

th r ust on the piston ( and fr om it to the bear ings ) and the r esistance of the
engin e fr aming a re equal but Opposite in di r ection and consequently e x actly , , ,

balance one another since ther e is no motion Ther e is there f o r e no load .

, ,

on the pa rts e x te r nal t o the en gine To p r oduce motion the ine rtia of the .
,

piston etc has t o b e ove r come if this is done by the p r essur e of the steam
,
.
, ,

the whole f or ce of the steam on the piston is n ot t ransmitted thr ough the r ods
to the cr ank for a consider able po rtion of it is used u p in moving the piston
, ,

and is thus sto r ed in the piston and its part s as ener gy ; the load on
the cover being ther e fo r e greater than the pa rt t ransmi tted it tends to make
, , ,

the engine move in the r ever se di r ection to that of the pistons Further the .
,

movement of the pistons is accele r ated in its cou r se b y accessions of f o rce till
about the hal f st roke ; hence dur ing all this time the engine is tendi ng t o
-

move in f act if it is a vertical engine and the piston is on the do w nst r oke
, ,

it will j ump f r om its bed unless its w eight is gr eater than the accele rating
f o r ce and if the r e a r e no holding bolts r est r aining it
,
D uring the latte r part .

of the st r oke the momentum of the piston etc tends t o keep it in motion ,
.
, ,

and consequently a downw a r d thr ust on the r od s is c r eated in ex cess of the

load on it and the cove r so that the engine n ow would move the other way , ,

unless r est r icted by the bed on whi ch it r ests The same phenomena occur .

in ho rizontal engines and a r e of the utmost consequ ence in the locomotive

,

engine ; it was in f act with this class of engine that the e fl e c t s of ine rtia
, ,

fo r ces wer e fi r st imp r essed on engineer s by the di sast r ous r esults w ith some
outside cylinder ho r izontal engines when attempts we r e made to d rive them
at highe r speeds Fo rtunately the p r actical minds of those d ays soon f ound
.

a r emedy— one that from its simplicity an d efficiency is still used in loco
, ,

motive engines in spite of what science has done to r eveal its faults
’

.
,

The gener al e ffect of the va r iation of momentum of the piston etc is t o , .

,

r educe the load on the c r ank pin at the ea r ly pa rt of the st r oke and to incr eas e

it at the latter with the r eactive tendency to move the whole en gine up and
,

down alter nately in other wo rds to r educe the r atio of max imum to mean ,

t
I n f a s r u nn i n g en gi n e s , s u c h a s a re u s ed f or gen era t i n g elec rici y ( In w h ic h t h e
-
t t
v t
re olu ion s a re c on s a n t t
w h ile t h e loa d v
a ri e s ) , t h e in e rt ia of t h e pis on s a n d r od s is s o t
grea tt t t t
h a on li gh loa d s t h e m e re s e a m pr e s s u re on h e m wou ld n ot o e rc om e it ; in t v
t t t t
f a c , t h e pis on of on e en gi n e i s s a r e d a n d a c c e ler a e d by t h e pow e r ra n s m i e d f rom t t tt
t v
t h e o h e rs or f rom t h e fl y w h e el, e e n w h en t h e loa d is c on s id e ra ble , h en c e it i s m os t
im por a nt t t t h a s u c h e n gi n e s s h ou l d h a e good s e rn goin g
”
v
pis on rod gu i d est If -
t -
.

v t
a n e n gin e is m o e d by e x e rn a l m e a n s , s u c h a s a be l f rom a n o h er e n i n e , t h e e ff e c
g t of t t
t v t t
i n e r ia of t h e m o i n g p a r s is e x a c ly t h e s a m e as if it w er e w or in g u n d e r s e a m k t .
’
 B ALAN CIN G . 75 1

when in motion sets up vib r ating f o r ces which a r e only ex tin gu ished by
doing wo r k of some kind mostly howeve r of a mischievous cha r acte r Even
, . .

the slow r unning paddle engi ne d eveloped the vice which when the engine
-

, ,

is nea r ly ho r izontal and has a single cylinde r as in cer tain Clyde steame r s i s , ,

ver y per ceptible f o r e and a ft ways When the engine was di r ectly cou pled .

t o the sc r ew sha ft ing and its r evolutions consequ ently thr ee or f ou r t i mes
,

that of the older engi nes vi b r ation and its e ffect s wer e soon noticed Al tho u gh
3 , .

some gener al Idea of the causes w a s gr asped and attempts wer e made to ,

gr ap ple with the evil by fitting balance weights opposite the c r anks or in the
tur ni ng wheel at the end of the c r ank shaft no t ru e insight seems to have ,

been g aine d ; consequently f or mo r e than hal f a centur y engineer s gener ally

,

w e r e content to put down the vib r ation of scr ew steamer s as du e to the

p r opeller and to admit that the paddle wheel was in that r espect the super ior
,

for passenger steame r s .

N ow any f or ce whi ch has to be e x tin gu i she d by doing useless wo r k is a

.

for ce wasted a n d if the wo r k done is inj ur ious t o en gine or hull the loss is
, ,

w o r se sti ll For t hi s r eason the engineer s of the past a re t o blame for not
.

havi ng f ound means to p r event such w aste and still mor e s o those who n ow , ,

neglect the e fficient methods which have been dev ised f or p r eventing such
for ces comi ng into e x i stence and for r ende r ing them ha r mless when developed
, .

Mr Ar thur R igg called attention t o the subj ect in his abl e wor k s o f a r
.

back as 1 8 78 but it is due t o Sir A Yarr ow s genius for in vestigation that

, .
’

the qu estion was put in p ractical f orm a n d to Mr Otto S chli ck s analytical ,

¢
’

a bil ity that methods wer e devised whe r eby bala ncin g was no longer a n

in ter estin g wo rkshop e x per iment but an ex act science and a fin e a rt ; it ,

has been r ender ed even mor e so by the later contr ibutions of P ro f D alby .
,

Mr I ngli s and other s to t h e T ra n s acti on s of t he I n s t of N a va l Architects et c

.
, , .

T o under stan d clear ly wha t is involved in the balancin of an engine

g ,

i t will be best t o take fi r st t h e common case of a double acting single c r ank

, ,
-

engine S uppose it t o have a fly wheel with a weight near its rim of such
.

a s i ze and pos i tion that at half str oke it statically balances the c r a n k r ods -
, ,

and piston When thi s engine is in motion the momentum of the p r incipal
.

part s is r oughl y b alanced f or turni ng by that of the balance weight : but a

coupl e 1 8 f o rmed by j ow i ng the centr e of the gr avity of the weight by a l in e
going diagonally acr oss the engine t o its cent r e line The sha ft and its b earings .

will ther ef or e b e r acked by t hi s c r oss section couple and the engine tend t o
, ,
-
,

tilt and twist on its bed Mor eover since the momentum of the balanc e .
,

weight is constant tangentially w hil e that of the pistons r ods etc ceases , , , .
,

at the ends of the st r oke ther e must be an ex cess momentum of the bal anc e
,

weight at those p eriods whi ch in the ver tical en gine t ends to make it move , ,

horizontally and in t h e ho rizontal engin e vertically T hi s evil is made

, .

”
appar ent in a locomotive engine by what is called r ail hammer ing fr om ,

the blows the r ail gets from t h e wheels wi th the balance weights when the
engine p asses the dead centr es .

I f the balance weight is placed on on e cr ank a rm Jnl y as was som e -

,

times done for cheapness si mi lar acti ons wer e set up but less in degr ee , ,
.

Two balance weights on e on each a rm make the p r oper balance but still
, , ,

f ail t o avoid the ho r izontal over balance when t h e c r ank passes the dead
points and the consequent ho rizontal vi b r ation I f only balance weights .

o pposite t h e c r anks can be ovided a c omp r omise must be a rriv ed a t so

pr . ,
 75 2 MA NU AL OF MARIN E E NGIN E E RIN G.

that thei r w eight is s u ch that the ho rizontal vib r ation d u e to ove rbalan c e
is r ed u ced to that of the ve rtical vibr ation caused by u nde r balance I f
' ‘

.
,

ho w eve r the engine has an a ir p u mp etc wo r ked by means of leve rs so that

, , .
,

they move in the Opposite di r ection t o that of the piston thei r weight may ,

be so adj u sted that thei r momentum balances that of the pis t on a n d r ods
“
,

w hile the balance weights on the c r ank balance the c r ank pin b r asses a n d -

connecting rod end The r e wi ll howeve r still r emain a co u ple tendi n g t o

-
.
, ,

r ock the engine athwa rt ship .

Mr J l l Ma cAlpin e designed a quad ruple engine ( fig 2 8 3 ) with the cylinde rs

.
—
. . .

in p ai rs one behind the othe r a n d each p air Oper ating on the same c r ank by
, ,

means of r ocking leve r s like those of the a ir pump This gives no do u bt a .

, ,

ve r y w ell balanced a rrangement fai rly fr ee fr om vib r ation bu t the ratio of

-
,

ma x imu m to mean to r que is gr eate r than that of a thr ee c r ank engine -

.

Fu rthe r the motion of the valve and gea r in t hi s s ingle engine will c reat e
,

ine rtia fo r ces whi ch all tend to set up ve r tical vib r ation and sho u ld be taken ,

account of especially i f it is a f ast run mi n g one T hi s can be done by fi nding t h e-

.

r es u ltant fo r ces fr om all the pa r ts and placing the balance weights acco r dingly ,
.

Take now the case of a t w o c r ank engine I f the c ranks a re Opposite on e -

.

anothe r they will balance for r otatio n and so r equ i r e no weights and if t h e ,

moving pa rts a r e of equal weight thei r r elative momenta will also only tend t o
make the engine r ock in a fo r e and a ft di r ection on its foundation and n ot
j u mp on it it is t ru e howeve r that this tendency to r ock will be p r evente d
, ,

by the holding down bolts but with the vi b r ation of the ship as a consequence
,

S u ch vib r ation howeve r , will not be s o t r oublesome as is the case wi th an

,

u nbalanced single engine tending to

j u mp I n this instance the balancing .

mi ght be e ff ected by a weight in the flywheel at a slight e x pense or else by ,

“
some f o r m of bob weight su g gested by S ir A Ya rrow placed beyon d
, , . ,

on e of the c r anks so as by its mass and veloci ty to balance the momentum on

the othe r cr ank pin This of cou rse leads natur ally to a thr ee c r a n k en gin e
-
.
, ,
-

wi th the two outer ones oppos it e the middle c r ank a n d the weight of t h e
mo v ing pa rts of the mi ddle engine equal to those of the t w o ou t er e n gin es '

together these being of e qu a l weight

,
’

T hi s f o r m Of engine w ould seem t o be perfectly balanced and it woul d ,

actually be s o if it had slot c rossheads instead of connecting rods ; as it is -

,

the acceler ation Of the piston of the mi ddle engine at the commencement of
“

its downst roke is gr eate r than that of the wing en gine pistons a t commence
ment Of thei r upst r okes with a consequent loss Of balance and vib r ation .

I f a two c r ank engine ha s its cr an k s at r ight angles it will be fr om t h e

-
,

o rdinar y point of v iew a better balanced engine than on e with the c r ank s
,

Opposite although the r e may be mo r e v ib r ation set up by it The f act is

,
.
,

that the to r qu e is much mo r e even in this case— that is the r atio Of max imum ,

to mean twisting moment is much less and the engine runs mo r e uni fo rmly
without a flywheel This little f act en fo rces the necessity of clearly dis
.

t in gu ish in g between the balancing f or even ci r cula r motion and the balancing
necessa r y to p revent v ib r ation eithe r v e rtical or ho rizontal although gene r ally ,

the balancing to p revent vib r ation tends t o imp r ove the even running of t he
en gine B alancing of these engines may be done by means Of a pai r of weights
. ,

on e at each c r ank in s u ch a way t hat the ve rtical is n ot e x tinguished at the

,

e x pense of ex cessive ho rizontal vib r ation .

The same p r ocess must be go n e thr ough with a th ree c rank e n gine whose -
B ALA CI
N NG 75 3
 R I
P E L MI N AR Y I IT ION S
D EF N . 75 5

pe rf e ct balan ce ; i n p r acti ce h o w e v e r t h e engin e behaves as if it w e re

, ,

per f ectly balance d Thi s engi ne h a s the f u r t he r me r i t of occu pying v e r y

.

l i ttl e f or e and a ft s pace and i s r eadi ly star ted f r om any pos i ti on .

. 1 Prel imin ary D efin itio n s Th e d i r e ct obj ec t of w hat i s t e r med

.

balancin g i on of it s

bi g 2 8 5
. . T r ans v e rs e S e ct i on .

movi n g pa rt s bei n g fe lt by s u r r o u nd i ng obj ec t s a n d n ot to elimi n a t e any

,

par ticu lar s tr esses in par ts of t h e ( ng i ne i tsel f N ei the r has the ob j e ct any
.

connection w ith fl u ctu a ti on O f speed the theo r y a n d actio n of fl y w heel s n ot

,

be ing re lat ed to t h e s u bj e c t .
 MA NU AL () F
‘

MA RIN E E NGIN EE RING .

I t is a na t u ral con s equ en ce of ba lanci ng an eng i ne tha t ce r tai n st r esses

a r e cons id e r ably r e d u ced ; that othe r s r e m a i n as t h ey w e r e a n d tha t so m e ,

poss i bl y e v en m a y be i nc r eased .

A not h e r po i nt w h i ch may not at fi r st s igh t a ppea r evide n t is t h a t an ,

en gine m a y be v ery m u ch ou t of balance i n i t sel f that is if placed on a , ,

r i id f o u n d a t i on i t ca u ses v e r v se v e r e s t r esse s o n t h e hol d i n g do w n bo l t s

g
-

Fi g 2 8 6
. . Wig z e ll s
’
E n g in e . L on g itu d in a l Ele v
a t i on .

yet i f pl a ce d i n ce r ta in pos i t i ons on a fle x i ble f o u ndat i on may appea r to

be in a pe rf ectly balanced cond i ti on ; t h a t is to say i t w ill r u n w itho u t
‘

p r od u c i n
g any v ib r at i ons of the f o u n d at i on and i n f ac t c an r u n saf ely
, .

w it h o u t h ol d i ng do w n bolts
-
.

T h e p r oblem of ba l a nc i ng an eng i ne need not n ec essa r ily be dependent

 R EMA R K S ON B AL AN CI N G .
75 7

on t h i s ph enomenon a n d v e r y fo r t u nately so beca u se altho u g h a sh i p i s

, , ,

c e r ta i nly a fle x i ble f o u nda t i o n f or an en gi ne to r est on s o l i ttle o f the ,

t r u e nat u r e of i t s fle x i bi l ity i s s u bj e c t to calc u la t i on that for n e w s h i p s ,

pa r t ic u la r ly any calc u lat i ons i nvol v i n g t hi s p r ope r ty a r e r eally me r e g ess

, u

w o r k a n d t h e r e f o r e bette r l e f t alone .

I f h o w e v e r t h e en g i ne b e pe r f ectly b alanced i n i tsel f i t can ca u s e no

, ,

v ib r ati on to the fo u ndati on w h ate v e r may be t h e nat u r e of i t s flex ib i l i ty

, .

I n p r act ice i t i s i mposs i bl e to pe r fectly balance an o r di nar y eng i ne n d a

i t w i l l be s h o w n h e r e w ith i n w h at l i m i ts a n d to w h at e x tent an en gi ne
can be balanced All p r oblems w i ll r elate par t i c u la r ly t o t h e v e r t ical
.

e n i ne b u t t h e p r i nci ples i n v ol v e d apply eq u a ll y w ell to h o r i z ontal a n d

g ,

i ncl i ned eng i nes B e fo r e p r ocee di n g w i t h t h i s h o w eve r attent i on m u st

.
, ,

be d r aw n to t h e fact that t h e p r ob l em of balanc i n g an en g i n e i s n ot i n

t h e lea s t conce r ne d e i t h e r w i t h s t ea m load s and
t w i sti ng moments d u e to t h e same or w i t h t h e
spee d of t h e eng ine t h e d ynam i cal eq u i l i b r i u m of
,

t h e m o v i ng pa r t s be i ng q u i t e i ndependent of h ow
fast o r h o w slo w or h o w v a r y i ng the speed of t h e
en g ine ma v be Co m p a r a t i ve v al u es of t h e spee d s
.

o f t h e v a r i o u s pa r t s a r e ce r tai nly r equ i r ed for t h e ,

mag n i t u d e of any r es u ltant f o r ce s and co u ples a r e

d ete r m i ned by the spee d b u t u nless those absol u te ,

v al u es a r e r equ ir e d on ly co m pa r ati v e v al u es of t h e
,

spee d s of t h e pa r ts a r e essent ial .

As many e ng i nee r s some even of h i gh stand i ng , ,

a r e apt at t imes to con f u se the matte r a n d i mag i ne

’

t h at t h e r e i s some myste r i ous connect i on bet w een

steam p r ess u r es and b lance w e i g h ts an enla rg ement
a ,
”
o f w h at has been said u n d e r
“
M oment u m S ec t i on ,

2 s h o w i ng that t h e r e i s no connect i on b et w een t h e

,

t w o i s g i v en i n t h e f ol lo w i ng s i m p le de m onst r at ion
,
.

L e t fig 2 87 r ep r esent a d i ag r ammat i c en g i ne
. .

L e t t h e steam load on the p i ston be P T h en .

t h e load on t h e t o p co v e r i s _
P and con fin i ng-

Fi g 2 8 7
, , . .

attent i on to the v e rti cal f o r ces the v er t i cal p r es s u r e ,

at the m a i n bea r i ngs i s P That is t h e steam load cau ses no p r es ~u r e

.
,

o f t h e eng i ne on t h e f o u ndati on A , .

The m ov i ng par ts of the eng i ne h o w e v e r a r e n ot w e i gh tl ess also the y

, , ,

neve r ha v e a u ni fo r m v eloci ty i n any g i v en d i r ecti on ( in th i s case t h e ,

ve r ti cal) — t h at i s they al w ays h a v e a ce r tai n acce le r ation pos it i v e or

, ,

negat i v e . N o w s i nce ,

mass x accel e r at i on
a n othe r ve r t i ca l f o r ce i s conseq u ently i n t r od u ced and is ,

w e i g h t of m ov i ng pa r ts v e r ti cal accele r at io n x
‘

Su ppose that w hen the pa r ts a r e i n the pos i t i on sho w n this fo r c e ,

eq u als I lbs act i ng d o w n w a r d s

. S in ce the w h ol e of the mo v i ng p a r ts
.

a r e conce r n ed t h i s i s eq u ival e nt to a load

,
I p r essing t h e pisto n d o w n
as s h o w n N ow i t is sel f evi dent th at t h e r e cannot be any f o r ce
.
- I a cti n g
o n t h e cy l i nde r cove r the r e fo r e this f o r ce
,
I r e ma ins a lone a n d i t s e ff ec t
 I
H AR M ON C M OT ON S I . 75 9

A c u r ve ofthe d i spl a cement o f N fr om O or of t h e acc ele r ation of N may

be dr a w n if the a bsciss ae b e made p r opo r ti onal to 0 and the o r d inates pr o

6 +
y 6% 5 2 0

Fig 2 89
. .

po r t i o n al to the d isplacement or acce l e r ati on S u ch a cu r ve i s sho w n i n

.

fig 2 8 9) by a: cos 9:
,

3 T o Comb in e T wo or mo re Harmo nic M otio n s of t h e s ame P erio d

.

L e t P a n d Q ( fig 2 90 b e the gene r at i ng po i nts of two ha r monic motion s

) .

along t h e a x i s 0 Y .

Fi g 2 90
. .

Then s i nce th e ang u lar v elocities of O P and 0 Q a r e the same and a r e

,

of the same s i gn the angl e P Q Q i s constant

,
.

Compl e t e the pa r a llelog r am P 0 Q R T h e l inea r veloci ties of P and Q

.

a r e p r opo r t i onal t o O P 0 Q r espect i vely and a r e pe r pend i cu la r to t h em

, , .

T h e r e f o r e O R is p r opo r tional t o thei r r es u ltant whi ch i s pe r pend icular

to it .
760 M AN U AL or M AR lN E E NGIN E ERING .

B eca u se O P , O Q a n d angle F O Q a r e constant , O R i s constant a n d

has t h e sa m e a fig u la r v eloci ty as P and Q T h e r e fo r e R is the g ene r at i ng .

po i nt of t h e r es u ltant har mon i c moti on .

T h e comb inat i on of a n y n u m be r of h a r mon i c mot i ons of the same pe r iod

a n d s i gn i s analogo u s to t h e comb i nat ion o f any n u mbe r of coplana r f o r ces

by the pol y gon of fo r ces .

4 Th e I ne rtia of t h e V ari ou s Pa rt s of an E n gi n e w i ll n ow b e dealt

.

w i th s epar ately .

I n er t i a of P i s t on , R od , a n d Cr os sh e a d — These fitt i ngs all being connected

togethe r r ig id ly , and h av i n g only one l i n e of moti on , t h e veloc ity a n d
a ccele r a t i on o f t h e w h ole i s the sa m e at all po i nts .

( 1 ) I f t h e i r m ovement i s contr olle d by a c on n e c t i n g r od of i n fin i te leng th -

t h ey have a s i m ple har m on i c mot i on , and t h e accele r a t i on at any a ng u la r

os i t i on 0 of t h e cr an k f r om the top cent r e i s t h e r e f o r e
p

cos 0 ( pa r . 2)
r

t e r mo v ement i s cont r ol led by a connect i ng r o d of defin i te len t h

( )
2 I f h i g
-

t h e s imp le h a r mon i c m ot i on i s at once d est r oye d a n d t h e e x p r ess i on f or t h e

a cce le r at i on i s a ve r y compl i cate d one , so m u ch so t h at i t i s i mposs i bl e i n

p r act i c e to u s e i t i n i t s complete fo r m for e i t h e r algeb r ai cal or g r ap h i cal

c alc u lat i o ns .

Th e e x p r e s s i on c or r e c tly sta te d i n d e fin i te f or m i s
2 4
r l c os 2 s in 0

O r , w r itte n in t h e f or m of a s er ie s ,

A 15
{
v 1 1
_ __ _
c os O+ c os 2 , + 3 + 5 +
4s 128
'

r s 8

1 1 3 l
+ c os 4 0 +
Z § Ifi s5
' '

+ &c .

Wh e r e l le n gth of c on n e c ti n g r od -

and s le n gth of c onn e c ti n g r od -

r a d iu s of cr a n k .

As ne i the r t h ese e x p r ess i ons a r e con v e n i ent to u s e it i s necessar y to

of ,

a d opt t h e nea r est app r o x i mati on t h at w i ll adm i t of a tang i ble i nte r p r etati on .

2
v
T h e fir st app r o x imat ion is f cos 9, w h i ch i s t h e same as and is
7
t h e r e fo r e t h e value of f to u se w h en the co n necti ng r od -
i s of i n fin i te lengt h ,
“
or i ,
n ot eh r w o r ds h en i t s obl i q u ity i s neglected
w ,
.

Th e second app r o x imat i on i s

008 6 +

and t h is i s s u ffici ently accu r ate for all o r d i na r y calc u lat i on s and makes a n
al m ost complete allo w ance for t h e obl iq u i ty of t h e connect i ng r od for t h e -
,

othe r te r ms of t h e se r ies d im in i s h v e r y r ap id ly i n v al u e Th i s e x p r ess i on .

( 4 ) w ill the r e fo r e be u sed i n t h e p r oblems of finding the actu a l v al u es of

t h e d ist u r b i ng f o r ces i n an en gi ne .
 I N E R T A or I P I S TON ,
R OD , AN D CR OS S H EAD . 76 h

Th e e rr or v v
i n ol e d by u s in g h i s t e x pr e s s ion in s tea d of t he c omp le e t s e r ie s or
t
e q u a i on ( 2 ) i s , i f s 4, pe r ce n t .
, and if s 5, 08 pe r ce n t
T h i s e rr or is.

th e r e f or e v e ry s ma ll i n d e e d , a n d in any g ra ph i ca l ca lc u t
la ion s w ou ld h a r d ly be
a p p r e c i a ble .

M ea n s of B a la n ci n g t h e P i s t on an d R och — E x p r ess i on ( 4 ) m a y be w r it t e n
2 2
in the fo r m f 2: 7
cos 2 A . Cos 0 and c os 2 0 a re both s impl e
ha rmonic f u nction s but w i th th i s d i ff e r ence cos 0 has on e pe r i od pe r ,

r evol u tion of the en g ine and cos 2 9 has t w o pe r i od s e r r evol u t i on T h is

p .

w i l l be seen at a glanc e i n fig 2 8 9 w he r e bot h these c u r ves and the i r .

,

r e s u ltant a r e d r a w n .

L et M 1 w e i ght O f p i ston r od a n d c r osshea d N ow i n o r de r t o , , .

,

M M
Z 32
v
l
2 0, t w o w e i g hts
4 —
balance the iner ti a f o r ce ,
F 00 3
c
]
m u st be fitted so that on e of t h e i ii has an a c c e le r gt i on in t h e sam e l i ne of

;
7
mot i on as the piston eq u al to ,
cos 0, and the oth e r has an accele r at ion
2
also in the sam e li ne of motion eq u al to + ,
cos 2 0, bot h w e i g h ts be ing
eq u al to M 1 .

Or , t h e w e i ght s W 1 a n d W 2 may have d i ff e r ent val u es an d r a dii of

i nfl u ence and n) so long as ,

W
°
cos ( 1 8 0 i . e. , r
e

M1 v
2 '

cos 2 0 c os 2 ( 1 80
°
i . e .
,
W2 r 2 = e .

g s r

Cons i de r i ng the fi r st fo r ce , i t w i l l be Obv i o u s that i f a w e ight W 1 b e

fitte d to r evolve w i th t h e c r ank s h a f t a n d oppos i te to the c r a n k , i t w i ll -

ha v e t h e r eq u i r ed v e r ti cal accele r ati on a n d , the r e fo r e , the r eq u i r ed c o u nte r

acting ine r ti a f o r ce .

T h i s i s the method th at i s i n the maj o r ity of cases adopted .

I t h a s on e d r a w back , ho w eve r ; anothe r i ne r tia fo r ce is int r o du ce d in

a h o r iz ontal di r ecti on d u e to i t s ha rmon i c mot i on i n t h at d ir ecti on .

W 2
Th i s f o r ce is e q u al to
1
The main r es u lt of this met h o d i s r eally to ove r balance t h e engi ne i n
a ho r i z ontal d i r ection as w i ll be seen i n a s u bseq u ent p a r ag r aph
,
.

P r acti cally t w o w e ights w ou l d ha v e to be fitted each eq u al to h al f

,

W 1 a n d on each c rank w e b
,
.

A mo r e co r r ec t metho d i s that s u ggested by M r Y a r r o w to fit t w o .

”
r iven by eccent r ics k e ed on
“
r p r act i cal conven i ence bob e ts d
( fo ) w i g h y , ,

y shou ld eq u al the w e ig h t of the bob eccentr ic, and r o d s

t h e shaft .

; , ,

and the eccent r i cs of t h r o w r 1 m u st be place d op pos i te to the c r an k The .

only e r r o r i n v ol v ed in t h i s metho d is the s l i ght h o r iz ontal ine r t ia fo r ce

d u e to the w e i g h t O f the eccent r i cs a n d obliq u i ty of the eccent r ic r ods -
.

M1 71
2

Cons i d e r in g t he second fo r ce cos 2 0, a mechan i cal d iffic u lty is

gsr
 I N E R TI A or C ON N ECT I N G -
R OD . 76 3

An y po int the
connect i ng r od bet w een the centr e s will h a ve an
on -

e lli pt i c path the m in o r a x i s o f w h i c h va r i es f r om 2 r t o O a n d the ve r t i cal

, ,
2 2
accel e r ati on vari es f r om
r
cos 6 to
2( ‘
cos 0+ If the mass of

the w hole r od be s u pposed concent r ated at the cent r e of g r a v ity the accele ra
t i o n of t h e w hole r od ve r ti cal ly w i ll be

( fig . 2 92) (5 )
I f i t i s des i r ed t o fi nd the t r u e val u e of the i ne r t i a of the r od i n o r d e r t o
“ ”
c omb i ne i t w i th t h e steam t w i st i n g m oments , or f or r easons of ot h e r
i nte r est, t h e st r i ct i nvest i gat i on i s o u tl i ned i n the f ootnote , b u t as f a r a s
balanci ng i s conce r ned , i t i s ou t of the q u esti on f or p r acti cal r easons to u s e
s u ch elabo r at i on .

Cons id e r i ng e x p r ess i on ( 5 ) for the accel e r at i on , i t is obv i o u s fr om the

r ema r k s on t h e ine r t i a of the p i ston r od 4 ) t h at a balance w e ig h t can -

be fitte d to the eng ine th at s h all h a v e an accele r ati on p r opor t i onal to cos 9,
bu t that i t i s i mposs i bl e p r act i cally to fit on e hav i n g an accele r at i on
2
I
2 0
i
00 8
p r opo r tional to cos 2 9 . The par t 1 has then p e r fo r ce to
; 8
be neglected .
*

*
L e t 0 b e a n g u la r pos i ion t of the cr a n k f r om t h e t op cen re a n d t a t he a n gle t he
t
c onn e c in g r od m a e s w i h t h e
-
k t cen tr e lin e . T h en a t an y in s a n t h e t t a n gu la r v e loc i ty
2
of t h e c on n e c tin g r od -
is an d t he a n gu la r a c c e le r a tion of the c on n e c tin g r od is
-

is .

T h ere a re th r e e f or c e s on t he r od w hi ch d e te rmin e i t s r es u lt a n t a ccelera ti on ( fig 2 92 a ) .

M m 2
tin g a lon g t h e
? r od .
_ _ ac

Mm
g if; ac tin g a t r i gh t a n gle s to t he r od thr ou gh E .

$ 4f

W h ere M
ac tin g thr ou gh G pa r a lle l t o t h e

t
w e i gh of t h e r od .
ce n r e t li n e .

f t
a c c e le r a i on of r od e r i c a lly v t .

g t
a c ce le r a ion of p is t on r od -
.

I t may eas ily b e s h own th a t

da v c os o
2
dt V F s in 0

v2 l2 ?
( '
r ) s in e
r ( l2
7
‘ 2
s in
2
er ?
z 3 s in ‘
r i c os 2 0 + r
f =

By subs ti tu ti on , ea c h of t h e th re e f or c e s ca n b e f ou n d I n a d di ti on t o t h e f orc es .

t h e r e i s t h e d e a d w e i gh t of t h e r od M a c tin g e rt i ca lly th r ou gh G T o fin d t h e e ffe ct v .

on t h e tw i s t in g m om e n t , t h e m om e n t s of t h e f ou r f or c e s mu s t be ta en a bou t 0 f or k
d i ff er e n t a lu e s of 0 a n d ad d e d a lge br a i c a lly t o t h e r e ma in d er of t h e twi s tin g m ome n t
v
d i a gra m .
v
T h e p r oof of t h e a bo e f or mu lae ma y be f ou n d i n a d an c ed trea tis e s on v
m e ch an i cs a n d s tea m .
76 4 MAN UAL OF M A RI N E E NGI N EERI NG .

l l/ ea n s f
o B a la n c i n g t he Con n e ct i n g -
r od —
. N e g lect i ng, the r e fo r e , th e
2
par t i nvolv i ng c os 2 9, t h e ve r ti cal accele r a t i o n of t h e r od is —
i cos 9 . To

b a lance by a r otat i n g w e i g h t a w e ig ht m u st be pl a ced i n t h e sam e ,

pos i ti on as t h at for balanci ng the p i sto n & c I f M 3 eq u a l the wei ght of , .

co n nectin g r od th en t h e w eig h t W3 i s g iven by W 3 ? M 3 r T hi s w e ight

-

,
“
.

w i ll pa r tly ba la nce t h e r od i n a h o r iz ontal d ir ect i on I t w ill how e v e r .

, ,

r eally o v e r balance ho r iz ontally becau se alth o u gh the w hole r od h a s a , ,

2 2
v
v e r ti cal accele r at i on
0

cos 9, o n ly par t of i t has an accel e r at i on

0

°
r 7
2
v
(wh i h h a s c the same ma x i m u m v al u e or ampl i t u de as °
cos 9, its p h as e
7

be in g 90 beh i n d ) The r e fo r e i f it i s d es ir e d to balance any par ti c u lar

°
.
,

en gi ne ho r i zonta lly in p r e fe r ence to ve r ti cally t h e fu ll w e i gh t W 3 m u st ,

n ot be u t on b u t only a po r t i on of i t w h i c h f or a f a i r ly acc u r a te a pp r ox i
p , ,

mat i on my be s
a u ch t h at i : M 3 r
"
t
W3 r '
.
( g
fi .

T h i s i s one of t h e ass u mpti ons all u ded to a t t h e be gi nn i n g of t h e

pa rag r aph and r eally amo u nts to d i v i din g t h e connecti ng r od i nto t w o par ts
,
-
,

n m
and ass u ming t he par t M3 to be concent r a t ed at the c r oss h ea d and M3
7 T
to be concent r ated at t h e c r an k pin -
.

P r of esso r D alby g i v es a d i v i s i on of t h e r od t h at i s sai d m o r e acc u r ately

to r ep r esent t h e case the di v i s io n be i ng as follo w s ,
At t h e c r a n k pin -

m h
M3
( l: the r emai nde r at t he c r oss h ead , h, be i ng the d i stance fr o m

c r osshead cent r e to cent r e of osci llati on .

T h i s necess i t a tes an e x pe r i ment w it h one o f the act u a l r ods to fin d

t h e cent r e of osc i llat i on .

Th e find i ng of the cent r e of g r av i ty does n ot r eq u i r e any spec i al e x

p e r im e n t fo r in,
o r d i na r y s h op t r ans i t t h e sl i n g s a r e u s u ally place d i n

t h i s pos it i on I n case that e i th e r Obse r v a t ions a r e n ot r ea dily a v a ilable ,

.

t h e follo w i ng table of typi cal connec t i ng r o d s i s g i v en

Con n e c t i n g R -
od to

( v Fig
. .

Fig 5 2
. . Fig . 58 . Fig . 297.

P os i t ion of cen t r e of v
g r a i t y f r om t op cen tr e ,

osc i lla tion

I f itis des ir ed to balance the eng i ne a s fa r as poss i ble bot h v e r t ically

a r t o f t h e connect i ng r od m
,

a n d ho r iz on tally t h en t h e r e c i r oca t i n u st
p g p
'

-
,

be balanced by means of r ec ip r ocat i ng bob w e ig h ts as e x pla i ned and t h e

r otat i n pa t m st be balanced b a otat i ng w e ight
g r u y r .

6 I n e rti a of Cr an k — The balanc ing of t h e c r ank i s the s i mples t pa r t

. .

of t h e w h ol e p r oble m The unbalanc e d par t of cou r s e cons ists of t h e

.
, ,
 I N ERT I A OF AI R P UM P .
76 5

c r an k w ebs beyond t he shaft and the c r an k pin -

. The accel e r at i o n of the
2 2
7

;
v
c ent r e of g r av i ty v e r ti cally is j cos 9, and h o r i z ontally f
v2
or , i f r
C

e fe r r e d to a h o r i z ontal the ho r i z ontal accele r at i on

0 O O

f aXI S,
r
is

cos 9 T h u s to balance bot h v e r ti cally a n d h o r i z ontally a w e i g h t m u st be

.

place d oppos i te t h e c r an k pi n acting at r ad i u s r , s u ch th at i t s w e i g h t i s

-

g i v en by VV pr 1 M 4 R w he r e R is the di stance of the cent r e O f g r av i ty

,

of the c r a n k w ebs & c f r om the s h af t cent r e

.
, .

7 I nert i a of V al v e Great — T h e s i mpl e v al v e gea r i s of co u r se a sl i de r

. .
, ,

c r an k c h ai n l ik e t h e p i ston conn ect ing r od and c r an k and i t s tr eatment i s

,
-
, ,

t h e r e fo r e p r eci sely the s a me .

P r acti cally i t i s not con ven i ent t o fit special balance w e i g h ts for t h e

val v e gea r a n d they a r e gene r ally e m bod i e d i n t h ose for t h e ma i n pa r ts of
,

eng i ne As t h i s m ethod i nt r od u ce s a di st u r bing co u ple on t h e en g i ne w h ic h

.

m u st be el i m i nate d the p r oblem of comb i nati on w i ll be tr eate d at length i n

,

p ar . 9 .

Agai n , most m ar i ne e n gi n es fitted w ith S tephenson s l i n k mot i on are

’
.

I t i s i mposs i ble to u s e the f o r m u la for the accele r ati on of t h e valve i n any

meth od of balanci ng i n fa ct the sol u t ion of t h e di splacement veloc ity a n d , , ,

accele r ati on of the sl ide valve i s an e x t r ao r di nar ily compl icated Ope r a t i on ,

espec i ally if slot link s a r e fitted .

I t is u s u al the r e fo r e t o adopt t h e follow ing ass u mption s in deal ing w i th

, ,

t h i s pa r t of t h e eng i ne

R ecip r oca t i n g M a s s es .

Ahead , V alve .

S p i ndle .

Hal f the li nk .

L i n k bloc k .

0 5 eccent r i c r od if n otch u p gea r ; or

-

0 4 eccent r i c r od i f di r ect gea r

-
.

Hal f t h e b r i d l e r ods 1 b r i dle r od i f c on

- -

“
n e c t e d to ah ead e n d .

Aste r n , Hal f the l in k .

0 5 eccent r i c r od if notch u p gea r ; or

-

0 4 eccent r i c r od if d i r ect g ea r
-
.

1 b r id le r od if connected t o aste r n end

-
.

2 . R ota t i n g M a ss es .

Ahea d , R ema i nde r of eccentric -

r od .

Eccent r i c sheave .

E ccent ri c st r ap .

Aste r n , R emai nde r of eccentr i c -

rod .

Eccent r i c shea v e .

E ccentr i c st r ap .

8 I n ert i a of Ai r Pu mp — T h e a i r p u mp w hen ou t of cent r e w i th t h e

. .

eng i nes , and hav i ng an O ppos ite moti on to t h at of the par tic u la r en g i ne that
d r i v es i t , p r esents a r athe r pec u l i ar p r oblem w h en i t s e ff ect on t h e en gi n e
s u ppo r t or f o u ndati on is cons id e r ed conj o i ntly w i th t h e m eans O f balanci ng .

L e t W 5 W e b e t h e equ i valent w e i ghts of pa r ts w hen hav i ng a n acce le r a

tio n f equal t o that of the pisto n r od ( fig Th e n A B B 0 -
.
 BAL AN CING . 76 7

P ig 2 94
. . Fig 2 940 .
. Fi g .

V ER T lCAL m e FO R CE V ER T ICAL M OMEN T

68 0 W R E FE R E N CE P LAN E

Fig 2 94 e
. .

Cas e l .
— Su ppose
des i r ed t o balance t h e eng i ne as c o m plete ly a s
i t is
poss i ble in a v er t i ca l d i r ection in p r e f er e n ce to t h e ho r i zontal d ir ecti on .

B y the t h eo r y of co u ples a n y n u mb e r of co pl an ar f o r ces can be r ed u ced

t o a s i ngl e fo r ce act i ng at any poin t a c com pa n i e d by a co u ple
'

I n t h e eng i ne unde r cons ide r at i on the r e is a t any t im e a fr ee v e r t i cal

2
3 ( Ms
} ; (M M 2) c os 9
573
M4 ) c os (9 a
) an d a c oupl e
f

r e fe rr ed to the r ef e r ence pl a ne
2 2
v v
M
<1 M 2) a co s 9— _
M
( 3 M 4 ) b c os ( 9 a
)
g r
g r
76 8 M AN U AL OF MARIN E E NGI N EE RI N G .

As the fo r ce and co u pl e cannot b e balanced by a s ingl e fo r ce be ca u s e .

th ey a r e not i n t h e same p h a se t w o w e i g h ts at least m u st be employed t o ,

balance t h e eng i ne A co u ple as w ell as a f o r ce can be r ep r esented by a

.

st r a igh t l i ne of le n gt h p r op or t ional to i t s moment I t i s u s u al i n t h eo r etical .

mec h a n i cs for t h i s l i ne w h i c h i s called t h e a x i s of t h e co u ple t o be d r a w n

, ,

any w h e r e at r i ght angles to t h e plane of t h e co u pl e bu t i n o r de r not t o ,

con fu se t h e s u bj ect i t w i ll be f ound m u ch mo r e conven i ent to d r a w t h is

l i ne i n the plane of the cou pl e .

P r oj ect the lines of c r an k s on to the r e f e r ence pl a ne ( s h o w n in f r ont

el e v at i on on figs 2 94 a and a n d meas u r e off pa r ts 0 A and O B eq u al
.

t o ( M I1 + M 2 ) a n d ( M 3 M 4 ) r especti v ely M eas u r e O ff 0 A 1 a n d O B I eq u al .

,

to ( M 1 M 2 ) a and ( M 3 M 4 ) 6 r especti vely E ach O f these q u anti t i e s .

”2
m u lt i pl i ed by of co u r se g i v es the max i m u m i ne r ti a f o r ces a n d ,

co u ples to th em and an g le also ph ase t h ose f or ce s

'

du e ,
t he a is t he Of
2
an d c ou ples of t he

common to all balance w e i g h ts i ncl u d e d nee d not t h r f r

c r an k be h i nd t h ose
r i nt o
Of t he v alve gear .

g
e e o e ente
r
be i ng
, ,

any calcu lati ons T h en A B A a n d B 1 a r e t h e gene r ati ng po i nts of

.
, , ,

s impl e h a r mon i c moti ons along 0 X 0 Y Compo u nd these by t h e p r oblem , .

i n pa r 3 T h e ir r es u ltants a r e C and 0 1 r especti vely

. . .

S u ppos e i t i s conven i ent to place t h e r otat i ng balance w e i g h ts at po i nts

G and F on t h e s h a f t T h en stated de fin i tely the p r oblem i s t o fin d the
.
, ,

val u es of the w e i ghts W 1 W 2 and the angl es a t w h i c h th ey a r e to be fix ed ,

r elat i vely to t h e cr an k s u ch that the r es u ltant of the ve r t i cal f r ee f o r c e

p r o d u ce d by th ei r r otat ion i s eq u al a n d Oppos i t e to O C and t h at t h e ,

p
r es u ltant of the i r moments abo u t the r e f e r ence plane i s eq u al a n d O pos i t e

to O C .

For con v en i ence l et M 1 + M 2 P and M 3 M 4 Q , . L et the angle s

W1 W 2 ma k e w it h the c r an k be a 1 a 2 r especti vely .

T h en these val u es m a y be fo u nd by sol v i ng t h e eq u ations

cos a (W1 c os a
1
W 2 cos a 2 ) ( )
1

W 2cl c os
'

(c c Os a
1
a
2 ) ( 2)
w ,2 ( c as P2 ( a : d 2
) Q (b 2 d)2 2 P Q ( a d ) (b — d) cos a ( 3)
W2 (c2
cl ) 2 P 2
(c a
)
2
Q (6 2
c
)
2 2P Q (c a
) (b c cos a
) (4)
Ca r e m u st be ta k en t h at t h e di stances a r e pos i ti v e or negati ve acco r di ng
to the i r sense T h ese a r e ve r y eas i ly solve d i f the k no w n v al u es of t h e
.

constants be s u bsti tu te d i mme di atel y .

T h e gr ap h i ca l s olu t i on ho w eve r i s mo r e q u i c k ly a r r ived a t , , .

D r a w a base l i n e H K and a pa i r of a x es O X O Y ( figs 2 94 0 2 94 d , , .

, .

and 2 94 e) On H K mar k 0 3 the eng i ne ce n tr es &c t o scale a n d e r e c t

.
, .
, ,

pe r pen di c u la r s as s h o w n .

O n e i t h e r of t h e bala n ce w eigh t c ent r es ( say t h at of W 1 ) ma r k Off

GR P and G U
:
, Q :
-

D r a w h o r iz ontals t h r o u gh R and U J oin R F c u tti ng D L i n S J o in .

, .

“
U F c u tt i n g E T i n N
,
T h en by t h e p r i nc iple of the leve r t h e pa r t of
.
, ,

D L or P t h at m u s t be appo r t i one d to W i s D S and the part t o W 2 i s S L , .

S im i la r ly t h e pa r t of E T to be appo r t i oned to W 1 i s E N and t h e par t

,
 B AL A C N I NG . 76 9

t W 2 is T N
o E N i s necess r ily g r eate r than E T because the valve
. a
,

c ent r e i s o u ts i de both the cent r e of W

1
an d W2 .

To fin d W ma r k off ( fig 2 l l d ) o s = D \ a n d s n EN . J oi n n o .

and p r od u ce T h en 0 n
. W 1 a n d 0 71 1 i t s dir ect i o n r elati vely to the c r an k
.
,

line 0 y .

To fin d W 2 ma r k ofi c l S L ( fig
'

and l t TN T N being .
-
.

n egat i v e t h e d i r ection m u st be i n t h e oppos i t e di r ect i on to s n .

a

T h en W 2 a t and a t i s i t s pos i t i on r el at i vely to t h e c r ank l i ne 0 Y .

I f the w o r k h a s been done co rr ectly t h e r es u ltant of t h e t w o w ei g hts ,

W 1 W 2 w ill be f o u n d t o b e eq u al and oppos i te to O C a n d t h e r es u ltant of ,

t he i r moments abo u t the ar b i t r ar y r e f e r ence plane w i ll be f ound to b e eq u al

a n d oppos i te 0 C ( fi g s 2 94 a and 2 94 b
)
1
l
. .

Th e cent r e O f g r av i ty of W I a n d W 2 m u st b e at r ad i u s r b u t if , ,

n ecessar y f or it t o be at r ad i u s r 1 then W 1 r w 1 r 1 and W 2r w 2r 2,

'
,
f ' f
.

Th u s t h e eng i ne i s balanced pe r fectly i n a v e r t i cal di r ecti on for bot h t h e

d ist r i b u t i ng co u ple and t h e fr ee u p and do w n f o r ce .

Ca s e 2 — S u ppose it i s des ir e d to balance the engine as completely as

.

oss i ble i n a h or i zon ta l d ir ection i n p r e f e r e n ce t o the v e r ti cal di r ection

p .

He r e t h e r otat i ng par ts of t h e eng i n e

h a v e s i mply to b e dealt w i th beca u se the ,

r e c i p r ocating pa r ts hav e no r esolved par t

h o r iz ontally .

Apply the s ame p r oce s s as for Cas e 1 ,

b u t i nstead of u s i ng M 1 M2 a n d M3 M4
use M 2 and M 4 r especti v ely .

I t w i ll n ow be seen as i ntimated in the ,

latte r par t of pa r 5 th at t h e engine is .

,

ove r balance d ho r izontally w hen compl etely

-

bal anced ve r t i cally by r ot a ti ng balan

w ei g hts .

Ca s e 3 — S u ppos e it is des i r ed to balance

.

t h e engi ne a s completely as poss i bl e i n both

ggig
i p t i on s the balance w e i ghts be i n g r ota r y
, Fi 2 95 g . .

The only th i n g t h at can b e done he r e i s t o e ff ect a comp r omise .

Fi nd as in Cas es 1 and 2 t h e w e i ghts necessa r y f or balancing i n

, ,

both d i r ec t i ons separ ately L e t these w e i ghts be W 1 and W 2 f or t h e

”
.

ve r tical balance and W 1 and W 2 for the h o r izontal balance D r aw t h e i r .

c ent r e li nes as i n fig 2 95 Th ey w il l most p r obably not be on the sam e

.

c ent r e l i n e D iv ide the angle betw een th em so that 1

W
.

B
'

Also mak e
‘
. l h eu Y op is the b e st a n gl e f or the w ei g h t to be fitted .

T r eat W z2 and W 2 in a s i mi lar manne r .

T h e e n g i n e is th u s i ncompl etely and at the same t i me as comp letely , ,

bal a nced as poss i bl e u n d e r the con di ti on of h av i ng only r otati ng bal ance

w e i ghts .

1 0 S in gl e cran k E n gi n e an d V al ve Gear B a la n ce d by B ob Wei ght s an d

.
-

R ot atin g Weigh t s c ombin e d Th e engi ne may be bal anced pe r f ec t ly both

“
-
.

v e r ti c ally and ho r iz ontally b the a bo v e comb i nat i on

y .
 B AL AN C N I G . 771

an d balance weights on e on each c rank web of the outside en gines

f our ,
.

I t will also be decided to balance h a lf the rotating masses by the H P and

. .

L P fo r ward weights and hal f by the H P and L P a fte r weights

. .
, . . . . .
772 M AN U AL OE M AR I N E EN GI N EE R I N G .

OV E N ! 5 l “
 I
B AL AN C N G. 773
 I NG
B ALAN C . 775
776 MAN U AL OF MARI N E EN GI N E ERING .
 I G
B ALAN C N .

777
 B AL AN C IN G . 779

The weights of the moving parts a re tabulated as follows and the diagr ams ,

a re d r awn in figs 2 98 to 302 . .

T AB L E X CI .
— B AL A N CING ENGIN E S : WE IG H T S or MO VI NG PART S .

Eq u i v a l e n t H a lf
Ac t u al W e igh t of Ac t u al W e ig h t of W e i gh t a t Rt o a t in g
R ip ec r oca t in g Ro t a t in g R a d i u s of W e igh t
P P
.
\

ar t s . a rt s . Cr a n k ,
l 3§ 1 n c h e s .

At
R adiu
Lb s .
~
I ns . L bs .

. 35
6 98 3
2 02 3
1 34,
85 5 3
2 02 3
1 82
8g 240
-

.
2 07 3g
5
5

B a la n ce W e ights .

Fig . 298 , 298 a , 2 98 6 a r e f or finding the b ob weights

Fig . 299, 2 99a , 2 99b f or the H P and L P f o r wa r d balanc e weights . . . . . .

Fig . 300 , 3 00 a , 3 0 06 f or the H P and L P a fter balance weights . . . . .

Fig . 30 1 finds the r esultant of the ve rtical fr ee f o r ce by using the sum of

the r ecip r ocating and r otating parts .

Fig 30 2 finds the r esultant of the ve r tical fr ee f or ce of all the bob and
.

balance W e ig h ts .

I f t h e w o r k i s done co r r e c t ly thes e t w o r es u ltant s w i ll be f o u nd to b e

eq u al and oppos i te to eac h othe r .

T h e fig u r es and cons t r u cti on w i ll be f o u n d sel f e x planato r y a f te r r ead i n g -

par s 9 a n d 1 0
. .

1 2 S o fa r i t h a s bee n seen t h at i n o r d e r to balance a n e ng in e i t i s o nly

.
, , ,

n ecessar y to k no w t h e r elat i v e v a lu e s of t h e i ne r t i a f o r ces and n o t t h e act u al

val u e B u t i n o r d e r to comp a r e on e d es ig n o f a n en gi ne w i t h anoth e r i t is
.
, ,

n ecessa r y to k no w t h e ac t u a l v al u es ( or at leas t r elat i v e val u es r e f e r r ed to a

c ommon bas i s ) o f the r es u ltant d i st u r bin g fo r ces a n d co u ples .

For i nstance i n compar i ng s u bm i tted des i gns of eng i nes for a n y pa r t i c u lar
,

sh i p i t i s ob v i o u s th at i n a g ene r a l sense t h e less t h e r es u ltant f o r ces a n d

, , ,

c o u ples a r e the l ess the v i b r a t i on a n d t h e r e fo r e the bette r t h e e n g i n e

~
.
, , , ,

R e f e r r i ng t o pa r 4 e t s eq deal in g sepa r ately w i t h the i ne r t ia o f t h e

.
,
.
,

va r i o u s pa r ts and h a v i n g balanced t h e engi n e as pe r f ectly as p r a cti ca lly

,

poss i bl e i t w i ll be seen th at t h e d i stu r b i n g f o r ce s le ft u n ba lanced a r e

,

M 1 0 2 cos 2 0
For the p i ston r od and c r osshead a ve r t i cal f o r ce
, ,
r
g
M3 0
2
n ~
c os 2 6
For t h e c onn e c ti ng r od -
a ve r tic al f o r c e '

gr I
78 0 M AN U AL or M ARIN E E NGI N EER IN G .

For the valve gea r the r e i s a ve r y m i n u te q u ant i ty w h i ch is a f u ncti on of ,

2 9 and the h i ghe r m u lti ples of 9 and w h i ch m a y ve r y r easonably be

,

neglected .

T h e r e s i d u a l r e s u ltants i n the cases of the s in gl e cylinde r engi ne w i ll n ow

'

be cons i d e r e d and t h e methods a n d p r i nc iples of const r u cti ng the var i o u s

,

r es u ltants w i ll apply eq u ally w ell to a m u lt i cyl i nde r eng i ne -

.

1 3 Ca s e 1 ( co r r espond i ng to Case 1 p
.
— The r es i d u al v e r ti cal
,
.

( )
n v
i ne rt i a f o r ce i s meos 2 9 w he r e a: = ‘ M connect i ng r od and i s
O O O 0
9 -

, 1
7 7 9 ;

constant The r e i s no r es i d u al co u
. i g r p le see n that the v e y small
,
f o r ce le f t
f r om the v al v e g ea r i s neglected .

Pu t 9 0 t h en cos 2 9
,
1 a n d x i s the ampl i t u de pa r 2 of the f o r ce ,
.
, ,

a n d i s t h e q u ant ity t h at can be u sed f or comp a r at i ve p u r poses .

To d r a w t h e c u r ve m e os 2 9 the o r d i nates f or v a r i o u s v al u es of 9 a r e
,

eas i ly dete rmi ned g rap h i cally D r a w a q u ad r ant of a ci r cl e of r ad i u s a: to

.

any s u i table s cale ( fig D i v i de t h e a r c i nto a con v e ni ent n u mbe r of

‘

. .

pa r ts and d r op pe r pend i cu lar s on to the a x i s 0 X as sho w n D r aw a base .

l i ne A B and di v i de i t i nto t w ice the n u mbe r of par ts i nto w hi ch the complete

Fi g 303 . .

ci r cle i s d i vi ded beca u se t h e c u r v e has t w o pe r i ods per r e v ol u ti on M ar k

,
.

the d ivi s i ons and deg r ees and e r ect pe r pen di c u la r s to A B th r o u gh t h e

d i v i s i on po i nts as sho w n M a r k off A l . 0 1 b2 b2 C3 c 3 and so
, , ,

on T h en the cu r v e thr o u gh E 3 F i s the r eq u i r ed c u r v e t h e o r di nat es of

.
, , ,

w h i ch g ive the r es i d u al r es u ltant d i st u r bing or u nbalanced i n e r t i a f or ce a t

any pos it ion 9 of the c ra n k f r om the top cent r e The c u r ve of r es u l t ant .

moment abo u t any r e f e r ence plane m a y be d r a w n in a s im i l ar manne r— f or ‘

i nstance that plane t h r o u gh a node of t h e sh i p

,
As i n th i s case the eng i ne .

is ove r balanced ho r i z ontally the r e i s a r es id u al ho r i z ontal d i st u r b i n g f o r ce .

L e t the r es u ltant o f the balance w e i g h ts W 1 and W 2 be W , ( fig .

Also le t the r es u ltant of the r otati ng pa r ts of the eng ine be R both these
, ,

r es u ltants be i n g d r a w n i n the i r p r ope r r elation to the c r an k Fi nd the .

r es u ltant R h of W amd B I t mak es an angl e to w ith the cr an k — that is to

v .

say i t s phase i s
,
bef o r e that of the c r ank ( par s 2 and .

2
v
Then the r es u ltan t ho r izontal f o r ce is R h
— sin ( 9 e) .

gr
I n t h e f ollow in g p a ge s t h e i n c lu si v e min u s s ign s a re ig n or e d .
 I
I N ER T A FOR CE AN D COU P LES . 78 1
°
S incethe r es u ltant is go i n f r ont of the cr ank and a l s o since the ax i s of ,

i n f r ont of t h e v e r t i c a l a x i s t h e o r d i n a te of ma x im u m
°
r e f e r ence i s 90 ,

ampl itu de i s i n fr ont of the o r di n ate B and is the r e fo r e d r a w n , , ,

th r o u gh t h e po i nt C D iv i de the base l i ne off agai n a s be fo r e b u t t h e

.
,

n u mbe r of d i v i s i on s i s t h e sam e as t h at of the complete ci r cle a s the r e i s ,

h e r e only one pe r i od pe r r evol u ti on D r a w the c i r cle 4 5 6 and set off

.
, , ,

the o r d i nates as bef o r e Then the cu r ve D 4 C ( fig 3 03 ) i s t h e r eq u i r ed

. .

c u r ve the o r d i nates of w hic h give the r esi d u a l r es u ltant ho riz on t a l u n

,

balanced fo r ce a t any pos i ti on 9 of the c r an k fr om t h e t op cent r e .

Ca se 2 — E ng i ne balanced pe r fe ctly ho r i z onta lly

. He r e the r e i s n o .

r es i d u al ho r i z ontal f o r ce and t h e c u r ve the r e fo r e coi n cides w i th t h e bas e

,

l i ne t h e ampl i t u de al w ays be i ng z e r o
,
.

I n a ve r ti cal di r ection the r e i s s till t h e r esi du a l for ce a: c os 2 9 a s i n ca s e

1 b u t n ow the r e i s a n ad diti on a l f o r c e d u e t o the di ff e r e n ce b e t w een t h e
,
-

r es u ltant o f the w e i ght s r eq u i red for v e r t i ca l b a l a nc ing and tho s e that ha v e

be e n fitted f or hor izontal bal a ncing .

L e t W 1 W 2 be t h e w e i ghts a s fitted a n d W , t h ei r r e s u ltant ( fig ,

.

Fi g 304. . Fi g 305 . .

0 0 i s the r es u lt a n t of the r e cip r o ca t in g pa rt s of the en gi n e a s d ra w n in

fig 2 94 a ( f u n cti o n of
. Fin d t h e r e s u ltan t of O C a n d W R ,
2
Then t he r e s ulta n t in e r tia f o r ce v e r tica ll y is ce s
( 9 7) 2: cos 2 9 .

Althou gh in Ca s e 1 it a bs
ol u tely n e cess ar y t o d r a w t h e cu r ve of
w as n ot

f o r ce f or c omp a r ativ e pu r pose s i t i s n eces sa r y h e r e b e ca u s e the m ax im u m

, ,

ampl i t u de of t h e re s u lta n t i s n ot t h e s u m of t h e t w o a m plit u de s i n t h e

above e x pr es s i on .

0
2
°
D ra w the cu r ve R cos (9 n oti n g th a t it s p ha s e i s 7 i n f r on t

of the c u r ve a: c os 2 9
.

D a w t h e c u rv e a: c os 2 9
r .

The r e s u lta n t i s t h e s u m of t h e or dinat e s .

T h e s e cu rv e s a r e d r aw n in fig 3 06
°
. .
 F REE FO R CE AN D CO U P L ES . 78 3

T h en t he es u ltan t vi r t u a lly leads t he H P gene r ati ng l i n e by w he n

°
r . . a or
,

efe r r ed b ack eal d e g r ee scale ( fig 3 08 ) by a

to t he
?
r r .

Th e o r d i nate Of ma x i m u m am pl i t u de O f the r es u ltant t h e r e fo r e pas se s

th r o u gh the po i n t C and not t h r o u g h the po i nt D w h e r e i t w o u ld if t h e
, ,

gene r at i ng l i nes w e r e i n t h e same

s eq u ence as the c r an k s
’

D r a w a q u ad r ant o f a ci r cl e O f
r ad iu s O R a n d s e t off t h e r es u ltant

c u r v e as p r ev i o u sly e x plai ned .

The eng i ne b e in g balance d pe r

fe c t ly h or iz ontally the amplit u de o f
t h e r es u ltant f o r ce is z e r o and t h e ,

c u r ve co i nc id es w i th t h e base l i ne .

I f t h e en gi ne w e r e not com
p l e t e ly balance d ho r iz ontally t h e ,

r esid u al r es u ltant ho r i z ontal f o r ce

w o u ld of c o u r se be a f u nction Of
, ,

9 a n d the ge ne r a t i n g lines w o u ld
,

h av e t h e s a m e seq u enc e as t h e
c r an k s .

2 Con p les J
.
— As the r e a r e t h r ee

c ent r e l i nes and a r es i d ual ve r t i cal

,

f o r ce along each t h e r e w i ll be a,
Fig 3 07 . .

r es i d u al r es u lt a nt co u ple on t h e
e ng i ne The mo m ent of the cou ple w ill of co u r se var y acco r d i ng to
.
, ,

t h e posit ion of the r e f e r ence plane and in o r de r to compa r e on e des i gn ,

of an e n g i ne w i th anothe r some common met h od O f locat i ng the r e f e r enc e

plane i s necessar y .

Th e Adm i r alty i n thei r r e cent speci fications r eq u i r e it to be th r o u gh a

, ,

po i nt On the shaft m id w ay betw e en the e x tr e me c r ank s and cons ide r ed , ,

Fig . 308 .

gene r ally t h is i s a ve r y r e a so n able po i nt t o s e lec t beca u se i t m akes t h e

, ,

len g th of t h e en g i ne h ave a mi n i m u m in fl u e n ce on t h e value Of the co u ple ,

a n d also ca u ses t h e pla n e to b e a t abo u t t h e same pos i t i on i n t h e sh i p w h at ,

e v e r the des ig n o f t h e e n g i ne may be T h i s po int i s th u s s u ite d for mar i n e

.

e ng in es b u t f or l a nd eng i nes i t i s adv i sable to select a po i nt t h at w i ll en a bl e

,

a st r ic te r c ompa r i son t o be m a d e T h is p o int sho u l d be a t w ha t i s te r me d

.
78 4 M AN U AL or MARI N E E NGI N EE RING .

“
i n theo r et i cal mechan cs the cent r al a x is of the co u p le T O e x plai n this ,
i .

let F 0 0 be t h e r es u ltant f o r ce ( figs 2 94 a a n d and C O

1
t h
. e
r e s u ltant co u ple r e fe r r ed t o any a r b i t r a r y plane O Y R esolve the co u ple
‘

i n a n d at r i g h t angles to the d i r ecti o n of th e f o r ce F .

R eplace the co u ple O e— that i s , in t h e same phase plane as t h e fo r ce — b y

an othe r eq u al co u p l e b u t ha v ing each O f its f o r ces e qu al to F Th u s F ii O e .

( fig s 2 94 a and
. T h en F and F ou the r e fe r ence plane cancel each '

ot h e r, leavi ng a f o r ce F on the n e w r e f e r ence plane d i stant h f r om t h e

o r ig inal one a n d a co u ple e 0 1 ha v i ng its phase a t ri ght angles to t h e fo r ce
a n d to the o r i g i nal co u ple .

Ta k i n g the c a s e of the eng i ne in pa r 9, let the we i ghts P = 8 , Q = 2 . .

Also , l et a = 4 , and a as d r a w n .

Then t h e r es u ltant fo r ce F : 72 cos ( 9 + 3)

93

and t h e r es u ltant co u pl e 0 C1 2 78 2: cos

( 9 w)
‘

2
Whe r e a:
3
°

— and neglecti ng the ob 1i qu i t y3 f the conn ec t ing r od -

.

7
‘

The r esolute s 0 e and e C are

1
2 72 so cos ( 9 6)
and 58 a: s in ( 9 0) r especti v ely .

Cc
F 7 2 meos ( 9 + 0)
°

Th u s the cent r al a x is i s 3 78 fr om the r e f e r ence plane and the r e sultants Of ,

the sys t em a r e a f o r ce 72 ac cos acti ng i n the plane Of the cent r al

a x i s or n e w r ef e r ence plane and a co u pl e 5 8 a: sin ( 9
,

T h e co u pl e i s al w ays a m i n i m u m and t h e cent r al a x i s i s of co u r se

, , ,

al w ays t h r o u gh the same po i nt on t h e S ha f t and the r e fo r e a r e fe r ence plan e ,

w h i c h conta i ns the cent r al a x is of t h e system i s s u i tabl e f or standa r d

c ompa r i sons .

W i th t h i s s l ight d i g r ess i on t h e conside r ation o f the r es id u al co u ples on

the t h r ee cr an k eng i ne w il l n ow h e p r oce e ded w i t h
-
The coupl e abo u t an .

a r bi t r a r y plane m u st be taken fi r st .

The moments of the r es id u a l v e r tical f o r ces a r e

cos 2 9 no
,
s ay ,

6 cos 2 y,

0 2
97
3 1
.

W he r e a b c a r e t h e d i stances of the cent r es of engines from t h e r e fe r ence

, ,

pla n e r especti v ely Thei r signs m u st be acco r di ng t o the d i r ecti on i n w hi c h

.

they a r e r ea d .

S i nce th e cu r ves a r e all fu nctions of 2 9 the same r emar ks apply to t h e

seq u ence of the g ene r atin g l i nes i n the polygon as for the fr ee f o r ces Th e .

r es u l t ant m a
y be fo u nd and the cu r ve d r a w n i n a sim i lar manne r .

I f i t be d es ir ed to fin d the co u ple abo u t the cent r al a x i s plane the p r ocess

e x plai ned abo ve may th e n h e p r oceeded w ith Th e phase of t h e r es u lta n t .

c ou ple w i ll then be 90 i n advance Of th e o r i g i nal on e a n d w i ll of cou r s e

°

, , ,
h a v e a di ff e r ent amplit u de .
 r oU R C A K
-
R N E NGIN E . 785

As the r e i s no ho r izontal f o r ce the r e is conse qu ently no h o ri z ontal couple , , .

I f the engine be not completely balanced for fu nctio ns Of 9 in the ve rtical

dir ection then in addition t o t h e residual r esultants above the r esu l tant o f
, , ,
”
the single per iod ( 9) f o r ces and co u ples must be found sepa r ately and
thei r o rd inates added to those of the do u ble pe riod ( 2 9) gr aphi cally a s ,

e x plained in Case 2 pa r 1 3 ,
‘

. .

1 5 Th e Fou r cra n k En gin e— Pr eli min a ry — l t w ill be evident fr om what

.
-
.

has p r eceded that the thr ee cr ank engine ( neglecting valve gea r difieren ces ) -

wh e re the t h ree r e ciproc a t in g li nes a r e Of equ al weight is in itsel f p r ef ectly ,

b alanced wi thout the addition Of balance weights so fa r as the fr ee f o rce is ,

c oncer ned both f or the p r ima r y and sec n d a r

, y pe riods Fu r the r that with .
,

thr ee u nequal lines Oi r ecip r ocating weights it is possible to balance the p rima ry
'

vertical fr ee f o r ce completely by a modification of the cr ank an gles so that ,

the p r oj ected vector s on a r ef er ence pl ane f o r m a closed t r iangle The second .

a r y per iod howeve r mi ght be e n sid e r a bl

, y out of balance because it wi ll be
, ,

f ound impossible to close t h e secondar y pe r iod t riangle if the p ri m ar y closes .

a n d vice ver s a Fig 309a S ho w s a gene r al case

. . .

When the thr ee lines a r e u n equal the valve gear can Obviously be included ,

without alter ing the natur e of the r esu l ts .

Fig 3 09a — P rim a ry Forc es

. . . Fi g 3096 —S e con d a ry Forc e s
. . .

Without balance weights the unbalanced couple will necessarily be la r ge ,

because the f or ce tr iangles and c ouple t riangles eithe r p r imar y or seconda ry , ,

c annot possibly close f or the same c r a n k angles ( Eu c : 1 .

The f ou r ( or mo r e ) cr ank engine o ff er s much gr eate r possi bilities of “

balancing the r ecip r ocating p arts wi thout balance weights by vi rtue of the ,

e x t r a S ide to the polygons .

16 . Fou r- crank En gine Ya rr owS chlic k i Twe edy a n d Allie d S ys t ems

-
.

G iven a r bitr a r y positions of the c r anks— f or ex ample

a c r anks f o r ming ,

r ectan gula r sta r— a f our or mo r e c r ank engine may be balanced by means

of balance weights and bob weights as in the f or egoing e x ample O f the thr ee ,

c r ank engine .

I t is however possible by arrangin g t h e cr anks iii a certain sequence

, ,

a n d at angles di ff ering a little: fr om the r ectangu l a r sta r to obtain an inter

balance between the r ecip rocating pa rts themselves without the assistance ,

of balance or bob weights .

_

The liter atur e on balancing the fou r c r an k engine is i nte r esting bu t -

,

e x ceedin gly volumi nous most of it is of an ac a demi c natu r e a n d capable of ,

m uch ab rid gment .

T h e point s o much ove r looked is that ( neglecting the com plication Of the
 FO UR CRAN K-
EN GIN E . 78 7

If the f our line weights be denoted by MA MB MC MD acting at A B C D , , , , .

, ,

r espectively and i f they be allocated as sho wn in the figu r e the couple w i ll

, ,

b e balanced as well as the f o rce .

The c r ank angles will be as shown at point 0 and car e must be t aken ,

that the r ight and not the wr ong weights a re applied to the va rious
c r anks.

The diagr am ad mi ts of simple p roo f .

S ince the couple should be ze r o about any point take moment s about ,

A ; then adopting the notation

, of the figure we have f or any valu e pf
,
9
measur ed f r om an arbitrar y ax is
Mn a c os 9+ M0 (a + b) c os ( +
9 a
)+ c os ( + 7) \O
9 = .

P ut 9 then
Mo (a + 6) sin a M a —
+ D ( l 6 + c) sin -
7 O .

a +b
8 1 11 m

whi ch establi sh the identity .

78 8 MANUAL or MARIN E E NGIN E E RING .

any point and consequently ther e is an infini te var iety of angles a n d

O is ,

co rresponding weights that w ill give a balance for p r imar y f o r ce and co u ple .

The selection Of an app r op r iate point is a matte r of j u dgment to suit the

conditions and in gener al it should be selected S O as to give cr ank s as nearly
, , ,

at r ight angles as is possible consistent with the given mi nim u m li n e weight .

The selection Of the point 0 so that the secondar y f o rces a r e balanced

that is not neglecting the r incipal obliquity e ff ect ) is a p r oblem that cannot
( , p
b e solved by di r ect mathematical analysis u nless the cylinde r spacing and
r ecip r ocating masses b e symmet r ical abo u t t h e middle point .

Th e Yarrow S ch lick Tweedy S y stem is the name by w hi ch the symmet rical

- -

arrangement is known and was introduced by D r Otto S chl ick of Hambu rg

, .
, ,

in 1 900 .

The f ollowi ng geometr ical device will Obtai n point 0 to give a balance
p rima ry f or ces and couple and seconda ry f o r ces

Fig 3 1 1
. .

pe r pendiculars at A and B ( fig
Er ect
’
.

Make A C AB
’
D r aw A E at r ight angles to A
’
.
’ '
0 . J oin EA and
o ff
EF EB
’
cu t .

Cu t O ff A G A F With the compasses

’
. take B C as r adi us and with ,

cent r e G desc ribe a n a re cutting A A at H

,
’
. J oin G H B C From B ’
.
“

d ra w B K par allel to H G Make M 1 B K . .

Then M I bisected gives the point 0 the r equir ed ape x of the cha racteristic
t ri an gles as in fi g 3 10
. . .
 TH E YAR RO W -
I
S CHL CK TW EE D -
Y S Y S TE M . 789

When the spacing is symmet rical and the t wo outside line weights
n ot ,

a re gi ven the seconda ry f o r ces cannot necessa rily be balanced although the
, ,

cr ank angles for the min imum resultant can be f o u nd by applyi ng the
o rdina ry method t o t wo or thr ee assumed conditions and inte rpolating t he ,

best position .

The followin g ex ample will illust rate this

Given cyli nde r spacing 4 2 6 6 3 7 ( 0 fig 3 1 2 e ) ; outside weights
, . .

MA 70 , MD 80 .

Fig 3 1 2 a
. . Fig 3 1 2 6
. .

Fig 3 12 4
. .

Then as in the p r evious ex amples fi g 31 2 6 gives the magni tu de a n d

, , .

di r ection of MB and MC r egar de d as bob weights t o MA MD f or an assumed

, ,
‘

, ,

c rank angle A 0 D 1 or “r
Ilh e v i rt u a l c ra n k a ngles fo r t he seconda ry p er iods a re as in fig 31 2 d
r '
'

.
,
.
.

’
each r eal cr an k angle being Oi cou rs e doubled O a 1 c 1 d l ( fig 3 1 2 e) ’ ’ ’
. .
, , ,

is the polygon for the seconda ry fo r ces the f o rces bein g p rop ort io nal to the
,

line weights act ing at the v ir t u al c ra nk a n gles :

'
'

,
 M O D I FI E D P RIN CI P LE or B ALAN CING .
791

ch ap t e r , is on e easily to be emembe red and is the re fo re availa ble

r , , , on any
oc c a S I OIi .

When however these invest igation s a re a t hand the solution of any

, ,

oblem n be at once e fie c t e d b
p r c a
y mean s of diagr am ( fi g 3 1 3 ) p r epa r ed .

by Mr C E I n g . li s and given in his inte r esting pape r at the I nst N aval

. .
, .

Ar chitects ,

The meshed par t of the diagram is a p r actical zone in which it is only

possible t o balance p rimar y and seconda r y forc e s togethe r with the p rima ry
couple .

Th e base line A D r ep r esents t h e cylin de r spacing and the inte rsection

of co rr espond ingly numbe r ed lines in the meshwo r k t h e ape x of the t riangles .

O f fig 3 1 0 — that is point 0
‘

. .
,

For e x ample let the cylinder spacing be D 5 5 14 1 4 2 0 ; then the

,
-

,
-
,
-

inter section O f curves 5 and 1 4 give po int 0 “

The di r ections of MA MB MC MD a re t hen as indicated by the dotted . , ,

lines .

Fig 3 1 3. .

Fu r the r , the r elative values of MA , deter mined by completin g t h e m p

polygon as in fi g 3 1 0 a re the only possible ones whi ch will give a balance f or

.
,

the given cylinder spacing and the thr ee above static r equir ements .

S eve r al simplifications wi ll natu r ally occu r in any p r oblem if the cyli nde r
s pacing and line weight s a r e symmet r ical as in t h e Y S T system . . . .

A ver y elegant solution was contr ibuted by the late M Fa rla n e Gray t o
‘

t h e I nstitution Of N aval Ar chitect s ( vi de T ra n sa ct i on s

For m
,

o r e than f our c r anks the fo r egoing gener al method s will be f ound

equ ally app licable and in t hi s respect it has the advantage of diagrams whi ch
,

a r e S pecial t o the f ou r c r ank engine -

.

— For an engine on any elastic fou n d a t I OI i

Modi fied Prin cip e o l f B a l an cin g .

ver y la r ge compar ed with the engin e and capable of v ib r ating in a manne r ,

P a per on G en era l Propos ition s a n d D ia gr a m s re la tin g to t h e B a la n cin g of t h e

”
Fou r -c y lin de r Ma rin e E n gi ne , I n st N. . A , 1 91 1
. .
792 MANU AL or MA RIN E E NGI NEE RING .

analogous to a st r etched st ring or beam sp ring it is clea r fr om physical la w s ,

that if the engine be placed at a node any unbalanced f o r ces or couples should
not be capable of e x citing vib r ation in the f o u n dations Pr acticall y thi s .

holds quite t ru e and is o nl y modified by the f act that the en gine is of a ppr eci
,
“
a ble magn i tude compa r ed with that of the loop or distance bet w een
node s
I f ho w ever the va r ious line weights b e selected so that the co u ples about
, ,

the node a r e balanced it is immaterial whether ther e is any fr ee f o r ce left

,

unbalanced f or it w ill ca u se no vibration

,
.

Thi s p rinciple may b e f ollowed sometimes wi th advantage if the positions

of the nodes of the shi p a r e f air ly accu r ately known in w hi ch c a se it is onl y ,

necessar y to take moments about the near est node and close the polygon ,

t o dete rmi ne the c r a n k angles .

Modifie a t ie n s from a p r eli mi nar y solution wi ll p r obably be r equ i r ed t o

I “ Or d er
/
"
Vi b r a t i on s of

V/ b r a t i on s of Or d e r .

Vi b r a t i on s of 3 "d Or d e r .

Vi b r a t i ons of 4
“ Or d e r .

Fig 3 1 4
. .

balance the secondar y f or ces or couples T hi s method was f oll owed som e . .

year s ago by the author in balancing some new engines fitted in the twi n
”
s s
. . Camb r idge whi ch shi p cer tai nl y appear ed to have less vib r ation than
,

a n y simi la r t w in sc r ew s hi ps on the station fitted with thr ee c r ank t riples

- -
.

I n t hi s case the node was obtained by observations befor e the old engines
w e r e r emoved .

I t is well known t h at sympathetic vib r ations can b e set up in an elasti c

b ody by any sui table agent particu lar ly if conn ected mecha ni cally t o it
, ,

vib r ating with the natur al per iodicity of the body itself .

I t ther efor e f ollows that the en gine r ate of r evolu tion shou ld neve r be
a llo w ed to co r r espond with the nat u r al per iod of vib r ation of the shi p her self .

The matter is however comp licated by the f act that the significant
, ,

vi br ations of a shi p may be of sever al o rders all the per iodicities of which ,

s ho u ld be avoided Thus in the vertical plane a shi p is capable of vibr atin g

.
,
 E FFE CT or IN E RT I A AN D W E IG HT . 793

in a n ascending series as indicated i n fi g 3 1 4 those of the fi rst t wo being .

,

usually the most impor tant on account of thei r gener ally gr eater amplitudes
, ,

although sometimes the hi gher o r de r s have given some consider able t r ouble .

For the fi r st o r der D r S chlick finds that the position of the a fter node fr om
.

the a fter per pendicula r I S 2 3 1 t o 2 5 3 times the length of the shi p for ship s
with ver y shar p lines such as c r uiser s and despatch boats
, .

The distance of the f o r e node f rom the f o r war d per pendicular varies fro m
abo u t 3 1 to 3 65 the length
'
.

For the second o r de r the r e is ve r y little data and if the ship is n ot ,

available at the time t o supply it the near est estimate is that to be obtained
,

by analogy with the known position of the var ious nodes m a p r ismatic r od .

These positions a r e indicated l n fig 3 1 4 The number of v ib r ations of t h e

. .

s econ d o r der I n the c a s e of the r od 1 s t hr ee times that of the fi r st o r de r but ,

in a ship it is found t o b e mor e near ly 2 t o 1 The number of vib r ations .

of the fi r st o r der acco r ding t o D r S chlick 1 a r e given ver y app r o x imately

‘
.
, ,

by the f ollo wing f o r mul a

number of vib r ations per minute .

moment of inertia in f oot tons of midshi p section a bout the -

ho rizontal neutr al plane .

displacement of shi p in tons .

length between perpen dicu la rs i n f eet .

a coefficient having values

for v essels wi th ve r y fine line s such as to r pedo boat ,
-

destr oyers .

f or lar ge t r ansatlantic passenger shi ps with fine lines .

car go boats with f ull lines .

Clea rly t hi s metho d of balancing in S pit e of its simplicity in the p r esence

,

of r eliable d a t a brin gs many undesir able comp lications ; and an engine that
'

is balanced within itsel f may seem a mor e satisf actor y solution of the
‘

p r oblem in gener al At the same time it must n ot be f or gotten that

.
,

lar ge and long mar in e engines a re fa r fr om being the rigid bodies they a r e
assumed t o b e ; and a n assumption that the engine is an integr al part of
the shi p shar ing its gener al elastic p r operties is p robably in most cases
, ,
‘

near er the t r uth .

I n any case and what ever h e t h e system of balancing a n ex amination

, ,

into the possible coincidence of the p r o posed speed of r evolution with at least
th e fi r st a n d second order s of the natur al vi b r ation of the s hi p sho u l d be
made .

1 7 Th e Eff ect of I nertia and Weigh t— Gen era l Ca se, S u pplemen t t o t he

.

R ema rk s t n t he I n trodu c ti on t o t hi s Cha pter — I t has been sh own that t h e .

M 2
20
)
11 c os
e ti c a l inertia f o rce
v r at any in s tant is _

gr s

S chli c k on V ibra tion s of H igh e r Ord e r, e t c , I ns t N A , 1 8 95 . . . . .

l S chlic
' '
k P , a per on
”
V ibra tion s of S tea m e rs , I n s t N A , 1 8 94 . . . .
 EFF ECT OF I N E RT I A” AN D WE IG H T ,

Fi g 3 1 6a
. .

Fi g 3 l 6 b
.

Fi g 3 1 6 e
. .
Fig 3 1 6 C
.
.
796 MANU AL or M ARIN E E NGINE E RING .

distributed ove r the piston a r ea ( e x cept for a conn ectin g r od of infi ni t e -

length ) and the e fiect of the weight of the r otating parts mus t ther efor e be , ,

consider ed apa rt fr om the indicato r di agr am .

Then ( fig 3 1 6 6) the wei ght of the r ecip rocating part s being a cons tant
.

Dr
q uantity set off H C. downwa
é
r ds f or the down s tr oke and upwa r ds

for the upst r oke , an d d r a w a cur ve H N thr ough H , par allel to the inerti a
, ,

li ne C K
. .

S e t off the in di cato r diagr am fr om the st r aight back p r essur e lin e A B

‘

Then the e ff ective p r essur e on the piston at the beginnin g of the str oke
is n ot A F but H F and at any other position of the piston the e ff ective
,

p r essur e P is given by the inter cept between the curves F G E and H N

, , .

An d s imilar ly f or the upstr oke due note bein g taken of the algeb r aic Sens e
,

of the va r io u s p r essur es .

The total efiect iv e t w isting moment at any ins tant is n ow

TM = P r

cos a
L et the cr ank be at OH (fi g . then

P x OC .

Also when p is 0 then

, ,

Mz r s in fi M2 X D O .

1 8 An e x ample of Case 1 will

. be co n sider ed n ow .

Al though it is ver y necessar y to include the valve gear when balancin g ,

it is r ather an unnecessar y elabo r ation to co ns ider its in fluence on the t wis t ing
mom ent diagr am as it is so ve r y small unl ess of cour se the gea r be a bn or
, , , ,

mally heavy
L et M1 4 00 lbs ( r ec ip r ocating ) . .

M2 2 o0 l ( rotating ) . .

R evolutions 2 00 per mi nute : .

1 2 inch cyli nder 1 2 inch st r oke

-
,
-
.

Conn ecti n g r od 2 f eet cent r es -

.

P osition of fitti ngs on sha ft as in fig 294 . .

f eet per second .

1 096 .

24 inches
8
6 Inche s
 ST R ES S ES D U E T O I N E R I IA
'‘
.
797

T he values of the ine rtia p ressur e etc for ever y 30 de g rees of t he c ra nk

a r e tab u l ated belo w ( fig 3 1 6 a b c d e ) : .
, .
, .
,

n
x A =d h . nu a + oi x r = Qa
00 8 9 +

I n c h es I n c h - l bs .

T o find p let 0 C1 ( figs 294a and 3 1 6 0 ) b e the r esul tant of the balance
,
.

weights and CI R equal w eight of r otating part s ( 2 00 lbs ) then 0 R is thei r .

r esul tant .

D r a w the cur v e 0 R sin 0 ( fig 3 1 6 d) . .

S e t ofi S D p t h en D a O R s in ( 0 + p) or Mz s in ( 0 + c)
, , .

Fig 3 1 6 6 is the e ffective twisting momen t diagr am

. .

1 9 The a r ea of the final twi sting moment dia gr am is p r opo rtional to the
.
—

wo r k done and although its f o r m has been m odi fied by the inclus ion of the
,

inert ia and w eight the a r ea r e m ains the same as i f the steam p r essu r e alone
,

we r e cons ider ed .

Thi s also f oll o w s fr om the p rinciple of cons e r vation of ene r gy .

I f t h e engine b e balanc ed completely ho ri z ontally and not v e rtically as ,

in Case 1 the ine rtia and weight p r essur es fr om the r ecip r ocati n g pa rt s
a r e the same as above b u t the moment of the w eight of the r otating pa r ts

is zer o at all positi ons of the c r ank .

I f the en gine be balanced by bob weights ( two ) then the inertia of th e se

must b e cons ider ed ex actly as if ther e w er e two e x t r a cyli nde rs in the en gine ,

the o nl y di ff e r ence being that the r e is no steam dia gr am to combine with

their i ner tia diagr a m .

The f o r egoing pr ocess app lies eq u a lly w ell to a m u lti c r ank en gine .

The recip r ocat i ng w eights and i ne rtia p r essur es mus t b e f o u nd separ ~

a t el f or each cylinde r and the r es u ltant ho ri z ontal weight t w isting moment

y
-

f or the w hole engine combined wi th the r es ultant t w isting moment due to

the e ff ective piston p r essur es .

20 S tresses du e to
. In ertia —
As the st r ess in a given piece of mac hi ne r y
.

is due t o t h e e ffective load app lied to it it the r e fo r e foll ows that ine rtia ,

and dead weight loads should be added algeb r aically to the steam loads
-

when fin di n the st r es ses in those pa rts that a r e subj ect to them

or .

I n ve r y slow run ni n g engines the e ff ect of ine rt ia is inapp r ecia ble and
may ther e fo r e b e negl ected bu t I n qu ick r evolution and hi gh pi ston s peed
, , ,

engines it s e ffect mus t not be lost sight of

 T HE D ES IGN OF B ALAN CE W E IG HTS .

21 . Th e D esign of B a lan ce Weigh ts — A s a r ule and mo r e pa rticula rly .

w ith t w o and f ou r c r ank engines the gr eat d i fficulty t o contend with is being
-
,

a ble toget the r equi r ed mass in the space available .

With a uni fo r m t hickness and e x te rnal r adius ther e is a limi ting length
0 1 weight ( ci r c u la : a r e ) beyon d w hi ch any inc r ease of mass makes the total
r
,

mass less e ff ective The limit va ries acco rding to the shape of the weigh t
.

and the an gl e whi ch it makes with the c r ank .

When the weight is homogeneous and f ai rly Opposit e the c rank its length
should n ot subtend a gr eater angle than and in n o case mo r e than
a t the centr e of the sha ft When inclined a t a conside r able angle to the
.

c r ank ,
as shown in figs 3 1 7 and 3 1 8 it s length shou ld not subtend mo r e
.
,

than on account of the long a r m f or attaching t o the c r ank w e b for -

any ex tension of length beyond these limits causes the centr e of gr avity
t o app r oach the cent r e of the sha ft at a gr eate r r ate than the mass is inc r eased .

For composite weights as in figs 3 1 7 and 3 1 8 the ang les subtended , .

,
°
with the cent r e of sha ft may be inc r eased about 5 above those given above .

The mater ial of which balance weights a r e made depends t o a gr eat .

e x tent on the manne r in which they a re attached to the c r ank webs

,
-
.

I n small engines and when the weights of the moving par ts a re obtain
,

a ble at the time the c r ank sha f t is designed and when the c r a nk s h a ft is a ,
-

bui lt on e the weights a re ver y o ft en f o r ged as part of the w

,

Ci r cumstances however gener ally necessitat e loose balance weights

, ,

being fitted .

A neat and compact method of attachment is shown in figs 3 1 7 and .

3 1 8 and consists of f o rging s mall li ps on the c rank webs ove r which the
,
-
.

w eights a r e keyed .

The material the weights a re made of whe n this method of attachment ,

i s adopted must necessa r ily not b e of a s ho rt n a tu r e a n d should either be

, ,

f o r ged or cast steel of a low tensile str ength .

The Admi r alty and a few other owner s will only accept f o r ged mate rial ,

but ther e is n o r eason w h y a suitable cast steel should n ot be used for t hem .

I t has been used succes sfu lly by the author f or many years The advantage .

o f a cast weight lies in being a ble t o make it in the f o r m of a shell which m a

y
b e filled with lead the materials thu s being most advantageously disposed
,

a n d the weight being of the smalles t possi ble dimen sions I t is also gene rally .
, ,

less ex pensive Thi s is show n in fig 3 17 A fo rged ba lance weight is shown

. . .
-

i n fig ; 3 1 8 The most convenient method of manu factu r e is t o shape the m

.

w ith a b a nd saw ou t of r olled slabs

-
Pa rt s of the for ging may be d rilled .

o u t an d filled with lead as shown bu t at best t his is an e x pensive additio n

. ,

a n d ha r dly wo rth the e x t r a labou r a s t h e quantity of lead that can be int r o ,

d u c e d is necessa rily only a small fr action of tha t in fig 3 1 7 Cast i r on weight s . .

-

a r e used to a gr eat e x tent on hi gh s peed land e n gines a n d t o a less e x tent -

f or ma ri ne wo r k A cast i r on w eight cannot be r elied on if held on by lips

.
-

as in figs 3 1 7 and 3 1 8 and the usual method of attachment is by st r apping

.
,

it on as sho w n in fig 31 9 The casting may be co r ed out a n d fille d wi th lead

. .

i f the sma ll space avail able f or it makes it advisable .

Cast i r on weights with its st r aps and fittings a r e on the w hole much
-
,

c heape r than either c ast or f o r ged steel and t h er e does n ot seem t o be much
‘

_ .

r eason why beyond being somewha t c lu ms y in appea r a nce they should n ot

,
.

be used t o a gr eate r e x tent than they a re .

800 M ANU AL o r M ARIN E E NGIN E E RING .
 T HE D E S IGN OF B AL AN CE WE IG H T S {SU I

in all c a s es t h e lips or st r ap s m u s r be made st rong enough t o take the

c ent r i fugal f o r ce of the ba la n c e w e igh t together wi th the deadweight itsel f
,
.

I f st ro n g enough f or this they will in gene r al be f ound str ong enough to

, ,

r es ist the impulsive f o rce on them due t o the engin e being sudd enl y sta r ted
,

o r stopped .

I t is not e x p ed i e n t in a manua l of this kind to devote mo re space than

the fo r ego in g t o t h e p roble m of balancing Liter atur e on thi s sub j ec t is
.

e x ceedingl y volu min ous and f ai r ly accessible The aim of this chapt er h a s
.

been to place the elementar y and pr actical p ri n ciples h e lor e t h e stu d ent i n
such a manner that s hou ld he desir e it he w ould h a v e n o difficu lt y in pur suing
, ,

the s u bj ect mo r e pr o f o u ndly fr om the many highly ma t h emat ical paper s

ex t ant .

The m ethods sho r t cuts etc of attac k ing t h e problems of ac tu a l p ra c t ice

, ,

wi ll suggest themselves as he p r oceeds t o t he d e si gner who h a s got a t ho r ough

, ,

g r asp of the p r inciples involved .

 s n n or s n mn mon s .
803

a re v ery s o ft unless they a re so thin that the metal has cha nged its cha racte r
in the mou l d by chilling The ca rbon her e e x ists ch iefly in the f o rm of .

r aphi te scales mechanically mi x ed as it we r e with the i r on c r ystals

g , .

N o 2 pig is n ot s o s oft n or so fluid when melted as N o 1 but is still n ot

.
f

.
,

su fficiently close g r ained f or gene r al use .

N o 3 pi g is that us u ally employed by the ma rine enginee r for gene r al

.

p u rposes as by adding some of N o 1 a mi x tu re suitable for a complicated

, .
,

casting is obtained and by adding t o it some of N o 4 a ha rder and close r

, .
,

gr ained casting can be made .

4 pig is n ot much used for f ound r y pu r poses e x cept a s a means of ,

closing the gr ain and hardeni ng the metal I t also difiers from the othe r .

nu mbe r s in the appear ance of the fr actu r e they all p r esent a highly c rystal
li ne fr actu r e of a distinct g rey colou r and on that account called grey i ron ,

it shows as a gr ey i r on at the fr actur e but the grain is much finer and the re , ,

is an absence of the coarse gr ap hi tic s cales s o st rongly marked in the othe r

th r ee numbers .

N as 5 a n d 6 a re h ot used at all for f ound r y pu rposes but made for manu

.
,

f actu r e into w r ought i ron ; on this account they a r e called forge i ron s and ,

as the f ractu r e is still somewhat gr ey in places it is called gr ey f o rge

”
to distinguish it f rom N o 7 which is called W hite f o rge as the fr acture .
, ,

displays a distinctly c r ys t al line structu r e ve r y ha rd and silve r y white in , ,

appear ance The car bon in t hi s case is wholly combined w ith the i ro n
.

chemi cally N os 5 and 6 o ften p r esent a mottled appear ance a s if a grey

. .
,

i r on and a whi te i ron had been m elted and i mperfectly mi x ed ; it is on this

”
account that it is o ft en known as mottled pig .

I t is oft en customar y t o gener alise and recogni se only thr ee varieties of

'

pig i r on ; viz N o 1 as grey i ron N o 2 as mot t led i r on and N o 3 as white

— . .
,
.
, .

‘
i r on ; N os 2 and 3 bein g of cou r se looked on as f fo rge i ron and N o 1
.
, , , .

“
as f ound r y i r on .

I n Great B ritain ther e a r e many kinds of pig i r on used by moulders each ,

called by the district whe r e the ore is r aised and smelted .

S cot ch Iron is on e of the best for f ou nd r y pu rposes ; it is ve ry u ni f o rm

'

in quality of good str ength and w ill mi x well Ther e a re various b r ands
, , .
,

those of Ga rt sh errie Glengar nock Eglinton Carron etc et c being best , , , , .

,

known The N o 3 pig is most gene r all y used by marine engineers as it will
. .
,

r u n su fficiently fl uid t o make any casting and j udiciously mi x ed with sc r ap , ,

it c a n be depended on for both closeness of gr ain and st r ength .

Clevela n d Iron is used ver y much in the Cleveland dist rict for gene r al _

wo r k it is har der than S cotch i r on but does n ot possess s o much st rength , ,

n or is it nea r ly so tough A mi x tur e of N os 1 and 3 is used for lar ge wo r k

. .

r equi r ing str en gth and this when melted possesses fl uidity enough for the
, , ,

o r dinar y ma rine c a st in gs Cleveland i r on alone is not fit for la rge marine .

cylinder s columns etc but with the addition of haematite and sc r ap to a

, , ,

mi x tu r e of N os 1 and a good casting is obtained for general pu r poses

. .

Lin coln shire Iron is about equ al in quality and gene r al desc ription to t h e
Cleveland .

S ta ff ordsh ire York shire D erbyshire and Wels h I rons a re v e ry good a n d

, , , ,

used in thei r own district s gener ally .

S hropshire I ron s a r e ve r y good and fr o m this c ou n t y Mon mou th a n d . .

S t a fiord the famous cold blast i r ons we r e obtained .

804 -
MANU AL O F MARIN E E NGIN EE RING .

u
C m r be la n d I ro n i s made f r om h aema t i t e ore and the i
pg gene r a lly goes ,
”
by the name of West Coast h aematite I t is gener ally used for steel maki n g
.
-
,

but is also employed to imp r ove other i r ons f or f ound ry use It possesses .

gr eat st r ength and toughness but cannot be u sed by i tsel f for found ry pu r
,

poses as it d oes not r u n w ell w hen melted ; 20 per cent blended w i t h good
‘
.

S cotch and E nglish i r ons makes a st r ong m i x tu r e .

— I r on man u f act u red w ith a ir at the or dl n a r

0

ol
C d B la st I r o n . y tempe r a
t u r e is called by thi s name to distingu i sh it fr om the gener ality of i r ons
w hi ch a r e made by heating the blast to abo u t 700 F The best kno w n °
.

”
a nd most gene r ally u sed cold blast i r ons wer e B l aenavon and L i lleshall ,

whi ch ow e par t of thei r e x cellency no do u bt to t h e good or e fr om w hi ch they

, ,

a r e made .
T hi s i ron possesses gr eat st r ength with closeness of gra i n and w a s ,

u sed to close the gr ain and st r engthen othe r i r ons bu t is not now p u r chasable ,
.

Iron Mi xtu res —Al l cast i r on is imp r ove d by r e—melting and the imp r ove
. ,

ment continu es until it ha s been re melted as many as t w elve times : a fte r -

this it f alls ofi in st rengt h N 0 i mpo rtant c a st in g sho u ld ther e fo r e b e made

.
, ,

fr om new i r on only and such as cylinde r s pistons cylinde r cove r s etc

, , , ,
.
,

sho u ld b e ma d e fr om i ron wholly re melted if the u tmos t st r engt h is to be -

obtained .
Thi s ru l e however is only carrie d out w hen the thickness of
,

m etal is cut down to t h e lowest limi t to save w eight .

Cylinde rs etc whi ch a re sub j ect t o shock as well as to changes of tem

,

era t u r e and seve r e st r ains s h o u l d be made of st r ong to u gh metal and

p , , ,

since a goo d su rface is r eq u i r ed to withstan d the wear of pistons and valves .

the metal m u st have a close gr ain S uch cylin d e rs etc used t o be made of a
.
,
.
,

mi x tu r e of one thi rd picked scrap one thi rd best S cotch N o 3 pig and on e
-

,
-
.
,

thi rd B l aenavon or L illeshall I f the casting is not la r ge and complicated

.
,

the gr ain may be clo sed by a dding picked sc r ap of a ha r d nat u r e and inc r easing
the amo u nt of B l aenavon S ome mo u lder s add h ce ma t i t e to this mi x t u r e
.

to inc r ease the st r ength bu t thi s i s not o ften done as it dec r eases the flui dity
, , .

I f the cylinde r is to have line r s and f alse f aces f or the valves to w or k on ,

it needs only to b e s t ron g all ha r d mate rials the r e fo r e may be omitted , , .

Cylinde r liner s and f alse f aces r equ i r e to have a f ai r amount o f st r en gth ,

a n d be as ha r d as consistent with capability of being mac hi ned S cr ap i r on

'

of close g r ain and ha r d natu r e is selecte d to add to best S cotch N o 3 pig and .

B l aenavon ; if ha rd sc r ap cannot be obtained some N o 4 pig may take its ,

.

place ; if necessar y even a small po rt ion of whi te i r on may be added to

,

give additional har dness Har dness and st r ength with closeness of g r ain
.
'

may b e obtained by mi x ing sc r ap steel ( shea rings and pu n chi n gs fr om boiler

plates ) to t h e e x tent of even 1 0 per cent As t h e metal becomes m u ch s t ifl er .

on the addition of the st eel only thick plain castings can b e made w ith it
, .

P ropeller blades and bosses may w ith advantage be made with a mix tu r e
containing steel in lieu of h aematite the qu antity of steel w hich may be added
f or this p u r pose depends on the f o u nder s being able t o melt it .

Foundations and othe r la r ge masses w hich a r e necessa r ily heavi e r than

absolutely needed for str ength may be made of a po or e r mi x tur e than suffices
for cylinde r s ; but as they a re liable to s hock the i r on must be of such a ,

desc ription as to r esist this .

S p eci fic Gravity of Cast Iron va ries fr om 6 8 86 to 72 8 9 t h e aver age may

be taken at 7 2 0 '

.The w eight of a cubic f oot is the r ef o r e 4 5 0 lbs and a . .

cubic inch 0 2 6 lb A sq u a r e f oot of it 1 inch thick weigh s 3 7 5 0 1h s

.
'

.
 IR ON
’

a rv n r .
8 05

S tren gt h of Ca st Iron
The f ollowing is the r esu lt .
— of som e ca re fu l ex
peri
m ents m a de at Woolwich Ar senal some yea r s ago

M i n imu m . M ax i mu m . v
A e r ag e .

Tensile str ength per s qu ar e inch , 4 8 5 tons . 1 4 0 5 tons . 73 6 tons .

T r ansve r se 1 37 '

4 47'

Tor sional l 74 ‘

34 4
Crushing 22 5 4 58 4 2
S hea ring

G ood cast i r on made by mi x ing qualities suitable f or mar ine wo r k should

have an ultimate tensile st r ength of lbs and r esistance to c rushi n g .

of lbs a ba r 1 inch squar e and 3 6 inches long should deflect inch

.

Without b r eaking with a load of 8 00 lbs at the middle . .

Wrou g h t Iron —T hi s mate rial which is very near ly pu r e i ron is made

.
,

e x clusively in this count ry by the indi r ect p r ocess —that is manu factur ed
.
,

fr om cast i r on by the p r ocess called pud d ling The old methods of obtaining .

”
malleable i r on di r ect f r om the ore hence called the di r ect p rocess a r e , ,

p r actised only by untuto r ed t r ibes or in r egions inaccessible to gener al t rade

, .

The S iemens method of manu facturing steel is to some e x tent a r eversion

“ ”
t o the di r ect p r ocess and the p roduct was sometimes p r operly called
,

i n got i r on t o distinguish it fr om i r on made fr om the bloorn which is obtained

'

by p u ddling .

R oll ed B ar [w n — “
The blooms from the puddling fur nace a fter being
.
,
“
s queezed or hammer ed a r e r olled into ba r s w hi ch a r e known as
, pu ddled ,

ba rs this ba r i r on is n ot used by en gineer s as its tensile st r engt h is some ,

times as low as 9 tons per squar e inch ; it is c u t into piec es which a re piled ,
“ ”
c r ossways into a f aggot or pile r eheated and r olled again into bars , , ,

a n d now called mercha n t ba r i r on .

Merch a n t B ars a re n ot used by engineer s f or an y very impor tant wo r k as ,

the i r on is still of low tenacity and n ot ve r y uni f o r m in str uctur e or quality .

I t was use d f or making gr atings ladder s etc for fir e bar s bear er s etc
, ,
.
,
-
, , .

B est B ar i s made by r eheating f aggots of mer chant b a r i r on or goo d ,

”
w r ought i ron sc r ap
-
c r oss piled and r olling it again into bar s I ts st r ength
, .

is now much imp r oved and its quality mo r e uni fo r m and it may b e used for
, ,

gener al smi thing pu rposes I ts tensile st r en gth if made of good material is

.
, ,
”
ua r e inch on the average ; the B est bars of som e
'

a bout 24 tons p e r s q

m ake r s w ill withstand as much as 2 6 tons per squa r e inch

—
.

B est B est B ar is made by again r ollin g ba r s fr om f aggots of selected B es t

ba rs I t has now a ver y uni fo r m silky fib r e will b end double cold and h a s
.
, ,

a tensile st r ength of 2 6 to 2 7 tons ; good specimens should elongate 2 5 pe r

c ent at f r actu r e with a r eduction of a r ea of about 5 0 p er cent

. S om e kinds .

o f i r on have even a highe r tensile st r ength than this especially when r olled ,

into r ound bar s B a r i r on by cold r olling is incr eased in st r ength but the
.
,

elongation is r educed S uch i r on is h owever seldom or neve r used now

.
, ,

by engineer s ex cept for the scr ewed stays of boiler s

, .

R ivet Iron when used should b e so ft a n d of ve r y good quality t o with

, ,

s tand the wor k put on it in the p r ocess of r iveting ; its tensile st r ength is ,

t her e f o r e somewhat low about 24 tons p er squa r e inch and its r esistance
, , ,

t o shear ing is even lowe r than this being fr om 20 t o 2 2 tons per squa r e inch ,
.
 B E S S E ME R S TE E L .
80 7

boile r plates may be taken at lbs with and lbs ac ross the .
, .
,

gr ain f or plates unde r g inch thick and at lbs with and lbs .
, .

ac r oss the gr ain for plates over that thi ckness

, .

The specifi c gr avity is 76 8 the weight of a cubic foot being 4 80 lbs a n d , .

,

that of a cubic inch 0 2 77 lb .

S ta ffordshire B ar Iron is ve r y la rgely us ed for chain s and simila r gea r a s ,

well as for smithing purposes and is very highly esteemed for them , .

I ron Forgings —I r on f o r gings when used a re made fr om sc rap i r on

.
, , ,

and thei r str en gth depends ver y much on that of the i ron fr om whi ch t h e
sc r ap was cut S ometimes f o r gings wer e made from new i r on but sinc e
.
, ,

the general use of steel thi s is seldom or neve r done n ow The method of , .

manu factur e is si mila r t o that desc ribed f or making r olled bar s from s er a p ;
the sc rap is so rte d piled b rought t o a weldin g heat and hammer ed into
, , ,

slabs t h e slab s a r e piled on e on the other and r eheated to f o r m the f o rging ,

r equi r ed .The best desc ription of f or ging is made by r olling the slabs int o
ba r s so as to give the metal gra in the ba r s a re then cut into sho rt lengths
, ,

piled and hammer ed again into slabs which a re piled etc a s bef o r e to f o r m
, , , .
, ,

the f o r ging This r olling into ba r s in addition to giving the i r on fib r e tended

.
, ,

to give a mo r e uni fo r m st ructur e to the f o r ging and a homogeneity which ,

cannot b e obtained by the simple piling p r ocess .

The specific gr avity of lar ge f o r gings w a s a bou t 76 3 s o that t h e weight of ‘

a cubic f oot was 4 77 lbs and that of a cubic inch is 0 2 76 lb .

, .

S teel — S teel is use d in the fo rm of ba r s plates and f o r gings and is

.
, , ,

also very gen er ally employed f er c as tings whe r e g r eat stren gth is
r equire d .

All steel was o ri ginally made fr om the best q ualities of wr ought i r on by

the p r ocess of cementation thi s consists of e x posing pieces of nearly pure
ir on to a high temper atur e in the p r esence of ca rbon only m a close d vessel
for a consider able time du r ing w hi ch some of the ca r bon is abso rb ed by ,

the i ron and is thus conve rted into a r ough ki nd of steel called bli ster s teel
, , .

These pieces a re b roken a n d sor te d acco r ding t o the appea r ance of the f ract u r e
,
.

a fte r whi ch port ions a re placed in a closed c rucible melted and c a st int o , ,

ingots ; it is now called ca s t s teel I f the blister steel is piled r eheated .

, ,

and hamme r ed or r olled into ba r s it is called s hea r s teel The cast steel
, ,
.
-

”
ingots a r e work ed into ba r s which still r etai n the name cast steel but , ,

this is bette r known as t ool steel as it is n ow used almost e x clusively for ,

cutting tools Tool steel conta in i ng about 1 per cent of ca rbon is of cou rse
. .
, ,

ver y ha rd and has a ve r y high tensile st r ength r anging fr om 5 0 t o 6 5 tons

, . ,

e r squa r e in ch wi th an ave r age elongation of a little ove r 5 pe r cent only ;

p
.
,

some of the milder kinds such a s a re used f or d rifts etc have a tensile , , .
,

st r ength va r ying f rom 4 4 to 60 tons per squa r e inch wi th an a yera ge elonga ,

tion of 1 3 per cent S prin g s teel is still mi lder having a t en s1le str ength of
. ,
.

about 4 5 tons per s qua r e inch with an elongation of 1 8 per cent Temperi n g ,
.

i n oil incr eases the st r ength conside r ably Mr K i r kcaldy f ound that a ce rtam .

steel ba r whose str ength when so ft was 5 4 3

, ; tons when heated and cooled ,

in oil had a st r ength of 96 tons .

B essemer S teel The mode rn methods of making steel known as the

.
-
.

di rect proc s s e es obviate the necessity of using the compa r at i vely e x pe n s1 v e

wr ought i r on and a re t h e,
r e fo r e capable of p r oduc
, ing a ve r y much cheap er
, .

mate ri al I n t h e B essemer p rocess there a re essenti ally t wo Operati ons the

.
,
 80 8 MANU AL or M AR IN E E NGIN E E RING .

conve r sion of molten ca s t i ron into p r actically pu re i r on and by the additio n , ,

o f a small and definite q u antity of manganese and ca r bon the conve r ting of ,

u r e i r on into steel Cast i r on p r actically fr ee from phospho ru s and sulph u r

p
.

i s melted and po u r ed into the conve r te r a st r ong blast of a ir i s f o r ced th ro u gh ,

the molten metal so that the ca rbon it contain s bur ns and I S consumed and
, ,

the tempe ratu r e of the mass ther eby r aised ; when the whole of the ca r bo n
is consumed a small qu antity of ferro rna n gan es e ( spiegeleisen or natu ra l
,
-

f e rr o manganese w a s u sed o r iginally ) an i r on alloy contai ni ng a known

-
,
~

p r opo r tion of ca rbon and manganese is added the metal n ow has th at , ,

small amo u nt of ca rbon w hi ch cau ses it to di ff er from w r o u ght i ron and ,

that amount of manganese which seems to be so essential i n ma k ing good

s teel .The metal is now ru n into in got mo u lds and allowed to cool for ,
“
fu r the r u se or is kept m a
,
soak ing pi t r eheated and hammered or r olled , ,

i nto the f o r ms r e u i r ed
q B y the Thomas G ilch
. r ist p r ocess qu i t e good steel -

an be made in a B esseme r converte r fr om i r on containing phosph o ru s ;

the phospho ru s is abso rbed by the conver te r lining of a ga n n i s ter w h ic h ,

is p r epa r ed f r o m magnesian limestone ; the p r oduct is known then as

ba s ic steel while that made by the o riginal B essemer p r ocess is called
,

a c id steel .

S ie men s Marti n St eel —The steel in this p r ocess is made in the hearth of
-
.

a r ever be rato ry f ur nace by ex posing f or a consider able time molten h aematite

o r pig i r on or mi x tu r es of cast i r on and hi gh class p u r e ( o x ide ) o r es of i r on
,
-

to the intense vi olet heat obtained by p r oduce r gas u ntil p r actically the whole
of the ca rbon disappea r s I f pig containing phospho r us is u sed the f u r nace
.
,

must b e lined with gan n is t er made f r om magnesian limestone on the Thomas

Gilchr ist plan so that the phospho r us may b e abso r bed almost who ly by
,

the lining du r ing the r oasting p r ocess ; ferro rn a n gan es e is added as i n the
l -

B esseme r p r ocess and t h e liqu i d mi x t u r e ru n i nto ingot moulds

, S teel .

made in the o rdinar y w a y f rom good pig f r ee f rom phospho ru s is said to b e

by the a cid pr oces s w hi le that made f r om pig i r on containing consider able
,

quantities of phospho r us in a fu rnace or conve rter lined wi th magnesian

limestone gannister is called ba s ic s teel and said to b e mad e by the Thomas ,

Gilch r ist or ba s i c pr ocess B asie steel is gene r ally so fte r than o r dina r y steel
.
,

but e x cellent metal 1 s made by this p r ocess having an u ltimate tensile str ength ,

of not mo r e than 2 5 tons with a st r etch of ove r 3 0 p er cent ,

it c a n b e b ent .

col d two dou ble and is so ft to wo r k and easily welded L a r ge q u antities

, .

of this mate r ial a r e n ow mad e at Middlesb r ough N o rth L incolnshi r e etc , , .

,

whe r e the r e is an unlimi ted supply of s u itable i r on and used by S hipb u ilde r s , ,

tank and b ridge bui lder s etc B asic steel of much hi gher tensile str engt h
,
.

can b e now ob tained and used w ith s a tis faction .

At the p r esent time steel plates ba r s and f o r gings a r e made almost , ,

ex clusively f r om ingots r u n f rom either B esseme r conve rter s or S iemens

fu r naces and the basic 1 s the kind most in use by enginee r s
,
.

Th e S teel f or B oil er Con st ru ction *

however is made by the S iemens , ,

Mar tin p r ocess e x cl u sively The ingots a re r eheated and hamm e r ed into
.

slabs w hi ch a re again r eheated and r o lled into bar s or plates I t is necessa r y

,
.

that the mater ial of w hich a boiler is constru cted shall have ve ry consider able
elasticity as w ell as str ength and since best Yo rkshir e ir on st retched to as
,

m u ch as 1 8 per cent be for e fr actur e no steel is used w hich is not equal to th i s

. .

*
B oiler pl at es ma y b e ba s i c or a c i d , bu t i n e v
e ry c a s e the st eel mu st c om e f rom p
an o en h ea r t h
fu rn a c e .
 B O AR D OF T R AD E TES TS OF M AT E RI AL . 80 9

I t is found that the lo w e r the u ltimate str ength good steel is the of ,

hi ghe r is its elasticity so that while plates of this mate rial having an ultimat e
, ,

elongation of 20 pe r cent possess a tensile st r ength of 35 to n s per .

,

sq u a r e inch those having an u ltimate str ength of onl y 2 6 to n s will

,

st etch
r 3 0 p e r cent *
The f o rme r is ver y s u itable for the shell
.

plating of bo ile r s as its st r ength is near ly 5 0 per cent highe r and its
, .
,

elasticity near ly do u ble that of the i r on f o r me r ly used by boile rmake r s

the latter does eminently f or the inte r nal pa rts of a boile r which r e qui r e t o
be of a somewhat so fte r mate r ial that it may b e flanged etc w ith ease , , .
, ,

and stand the r ough usage of the boilers m it h s with sa f ety For this p u rpose .

plates a r e used which have a tensile str ength of 2 6 to 28 tons per squ a r e
inch with an ultimate elongation of abo u t 25 per cent For co rr ugate d
, .

fu r naces a milde r steel still is used f or its limit of st r e n gth is 2 5 tons and , , .

it st r etches to 3 0 per cent in 8 inches S hell plates a r e n ow made w ith a

. .
-

tensile st r ength of 3 5 to 40 tons and a st r et ch of 20 to 25 pe r cent w ith t h e , .

g ra in and 2 0 p er cent acr oss the g r ain

, . .

S ubj oined a r e the tests r eq u i r ed by the va r ious a u tho r ities f or boile r ‘

steel . I t will be seen that no two of them agr ee which is much to b e ,

r eg r etted ; it is in the inte r est of both science and economy that they shoul d

all ag r ee

Admi ralty Tests of Mat erial .

— Al l s ee l t o t b e m a d e by t h e a c id op e n h e a rt h pr oc es s .

pla te ; tes ted a n d m u s t c om ply w ith t h e qu tt

Ei
v e ry et c .
, u s ed i s t o be , re ire m en t s s a ed
e ow

TAB LE XCI I — AD M IR AL T Y T E N S IL E T E S T S
. .

M i n i mu m M a x im u m M i n i mu m
U lt i ma t e T e n s il e U lt i m a t e T e n s il e Elon g a t ion
p
D es cri t ion of M at eri al . S t re n g t h , S t re n gt h , in
T on s T on s 8 i n c h es
p er s qu a re i n ch .
pe r s qu a r e i n ch .
p er ce n t .

N ot e x pose d t o fl a m e a n d n ot fl a n ge d ,
Ex pos e d t o fl a m e a n d fl a n ge d ,
v
R i e t ba r s ,
S te a m p ip e pla tes ,
-

Cor ru ga t e d or r i bbe d f u rn a ce ,
T u be f or g in g s ( a n n e a le d ) ,
Pi e ce s cu t f r om tu be s ( a n n e a le d ) ,

t t
For b en d in g e s s t h e sp ec im en s a re h ea e d t o a low c h e rry re d , a n d h en c ooled i n t t
t
w a er a t 8 2 F
°
t t
S ri ps of pla e 1 5 in c h es wid e m u s b en d d ou ble in pr es s , in n er r a d iu s
. t .

t t
be in g l a} i m e s hi c n e s s of pla e k t
For pie c es of ri e b a r in n er r a d iu s t o e qu a l ra diu s of
. vt ‘

ba r t
a n d f or s ri ps f r om u be s , 1} in c h t .

a a t at a
B o rd of Tr de Tes s of M eri l — S rips 2 in c h e s w id e s h ou l d b e c u t f rom a t le a s t
. t
v t
on e of e e ry f ou r or di n a ry pla e s , f r om e a c h e n d of e a c h pla e o er 1 5 f e e in len gt h , a n d t v t
t v
f rom e a ch corn er of e a c h pla e o e r 2 0 f ee x 6 f e e , or o e r 2 % on s in w eigh ; w h e re t t v t t
t t t t k
m ore h a n on e e s pi ec e is a e n f rom a pla e t h e mea n r es u l is t o b e a d op e d : t t t

Th e u ltim a te t en a c ity in t on s plu s t h e p e r c e n ta ge of s tretc h in 8 in c h es s h ou ld

q
.

n ot b e le s s th a n 5 2 f or b oile r s t e el For f orgin g s , Lloy d s R egister re u ires th is t o b e 5 7

’
. .
 B AS I S
“

P RI CE FOB B OI L ER PL ATES . 8] l

bot h c old and te m per

b en d t es t s mu s t Wi t h s t a n d , w it h ou t f rac u re , be in g b e n d ou ble . t t
v
t o a c u r e , t h e inn e r ra d iu s of w h ic h d oes n ot e x c ee d i f im e s t h e hi c n e ss of t h e piec e t t k .

t v
All pla e s w h ic h h a e bee n w eld ed , loc a lly h ea ed , or in w h ic h ri e h oles h a e bee n t vt v
t t
pu n c h ed , a n d s ee l s a y ba rs w h ic h h a e b een w or e d in t h e fire m u s be s u bs e u e n ly v k t q t
an n e ale d , and in n o c as e a re t
s ee l s t a y s to be w eld ed . N u mbe r of tests sa me as f or
Lloy d
’
s , see a b o v e.

J ohn S pencer S ons N ewbu r n and D avid Colville S ons Mothe rwell ,
, , ,

manu factu r e plates and f o rgings fr om patent silicon steels w hich have an
ultimate tensile st r ength of 40 tons , with an elongation of 30 per cent in .

2 inches and a limi t of elasticity of 2 5 tons S u ch plates howeve r cost .

, ,

a little mo r e to manu factu r e than the o rdina r y S iemens steel bu t they r epay ,

the b oil er maker f or it .

Ordi na r y mild b a r steel such as used for the stays of boiler s f or bolts , , ,

studs etc has a tensile st r ength of 26 t o 3 2 ton s, w ith an elongation of 25 to

, .
,

2 0 per cent , and a ha rder steel for pins etc , has 3 5 to 4 0 tons with 1 5 pe r
.
, .
,

cent .

The specific gr avity of mil d steel plates and ba rs is a bout 78 6 ; the

weight of a cubic f oot is 4 91 lbs that of a cubic inch is 0 2 84 lh and that .
. .
,

of a squa r e f oot 1 inch thick 4 0 94 lbs, , .

Stee l B oiler Pla t es can be obtained n ow of la r ge size as f ollows : ,

Pla t e s 5 in ch t hi c k , 1 0 fe e t Wid e , or 4 0 f ee t lon g , bu t a r e a n ot to e x c ee d 2 40 sq . ft .

, ,
v
10 50 2 50
g 11 50 3 00
g 50 32 5
g 50 3 50
1 2 -5 50 4 30
12 5 -
50 4 50
1 2 -5 50 4 30

P lates I i mayb e up to 4 1 5 squa r e feet those 1 % to 3 80 those 1 } to , , 1 3 40 , and

t h os e 1 3 t o 300 ( J S pen c er S on s) . .

Pla te s 1 % th ic km ay b e 1 2 f e et w id e or 3 0 fe e t lon g, an d t he a re a t o 2 88 sq . ft .

2 12
_ 25 25 0
2} 12 25 2 00

Steel Fla t Ba rs a re r oll ed from thick to 8 inches X 4 thick .

S qu are Bars from in ch to 6 inches , and with r ound cor ne r s to 8 inche s .

R ou nd B ars fr om inch t o 8 inches , and fro m 1 0 in ches to 1 6 5 inche s

’
by S pence r s up t o 30 f eet long .

1
Thin Plat es as low as 3 inch can be obtained 6 feet wide or 30 f eet long ,
-

but the ar ea must n ot e x ceed 1 20 squa r e feet .

R ou n d Plat es i thick may be obtained 6 5 feet diamete r ; g in ch plates -

1 1 f eet diamete r § ~inch plates 1 2 f eet § ~inch and upwa rds 1 3 f eet diamete r .

s ri f
Th e ba is p ce o b o er pla t es
r i l is about £7 pe r ton *
tested t o pass B oa rd ,

o f T r ade , L loyd s , or othe r R egist r y but that p rice does n ot in clu de v e ry

’

, ,

large or ve ry thick ones , and is f or the o r di nary commer cial bo ile r steel of
28 to 3 2 tons tensile st r ength I f a minimum of 2 9 to ns is r equir ed the e x t ra .

p rice is 1 03 pe r ton if 30 to ns it is 2 os S hould a hi gh tensile steel be necessa ry ,

.
, .

such as 3 5 tons per squar e inch as a minimum , such plates w ill cost £6 e x tra
to the basis .

I f mo r e than 1 5 per cent of the plates a re . n ot tr uly r ectangular the r e

is an e x t ra charge for all beyond this quantity of 25 s .
per ton .

In n or mal t imes , in 1 91 8 it i s mu ch h i gh e r .
8 12 MANU AL o r M ARI N E E NGIN EE RING .

P lates will be supplied u p to 1 % inch thick at basis p rice p r o vided they ,

a re not over 8 f eet wide ove r that width the e is an e x t r a cha rge of 2
r s 6 , . d .

er 3 inches additional w idth so that the 1 2 5 f eet wide plates w ill cost 45 3
p , .

per ton beyond basis .

Pla te s w h ic h a re o v er l l i n c h es t o 1 3 i n c h e s thi ck w ill c os t 1 0 5 pe r t on . e x ra t .

1; I ? 2 os .

1% 2 3 05 .

So that a plate 2 inches thi ck will cost 60 3 e x t r a pe r ton I f ve ry mild steel . .

is r equ i r ed so that the max i mum limit of tensile st r ength is 2 7 tons a cha rge
, ,

of 1 0 5 e x t r a is made and if as low as 2 5 tons ma x imum it is as mu ch a s

.
, .

4 03 . I t will be seen then that i f ve r y la rge thick plates a r e used in b oile r

, ,

const ruction thei r cost will b e somewhat high ; but on the other hand
, , ,

the saving in labou r and mater ials wi ll mo r e than compensate for it besides ,

pe rmi tting of a superio r boiler f r om the use rs point of Vie w ’

.

S t e e l F or gi n g s — S ha f ts piston and connecting r ods valve rods gudgeons

.
,
-

,
-
, ,

etc a r e now made of steel f o r ged f rom ingots manu f act u r ed by the S iemens
.
,

p rocess The steel is of cou rse gene r ally of a mi ld k ind and w hile possessing
.
, , ,

p r operties ve r y simi lar to those of the r olled ba r s and plates is not always ,

uite so u ni f o r m in st r u ctur e and st r ength

q .

Ther e is little doubt that the ultimate st r ength of ma rine s ha fts when “
,

made of steel does not e x ceed 35 tons on the ave rage and those ove r 1 2
, ,

inches diamete r cannot be depended on f or a higher aver age than 30 tons ,

ho w ever well f o r ged T h e mate rial nea r the cent r e of a steel f o r ging of
.

la r ge size r emains but partially a ff ected by hamme ring so that the la r ge r t h e ,

di amete r of the sha ft the less w ill be the aver a ge st r ength of the mate r ial ,

c om pos m it F o r g ings as made with a hyd r a u l i c p r ess ar e f r e er f r om s u s

g .

pic ion but even they a r e not good nea r the a x is w hen of la r ge size
, .

S mall steel fo r gings may have as high a tensile st r ength as ba r s r o lled

fr om simila r ingots bu t as a r u l e they have not so gr eat elasticity and it is
, ,

sa fe r the r e for e to s u ppose them to be 1 0 per cent w eaker for p u r poses of

, .
,

calcul ations altho u gh as a matte r of f act thei r tensile is sometimes hi ghe r

, , ,
.

L loyd s r equ i r e the te n sile and pe r centage of elongation to be togethe r 5 7

’

S t eel Cast in g s — Many pa r ts of a mar ine engine which we r e f o rme rly

.

of f o r ged i r on a r e n ow made with advantage of cast steel othe r pa rts '

which for convenience of m a n u fa ct u re w e re made of b rass a re o ft e n of

‘

, , ,

this mate rial I t has s u pe r seded cast ir on in many parts which m u st of

. ,

necessity be cast and as the cost of p r oduction of cast steel is redu ced and
, ,

the soundness of it imp r oved so will the demand for it increase ,

.

The chie f obstacle to furthe r employment is usually this un ce rtainty .

as to the so u ndness of the castings Continu ed use howeve r is dissipatin g .

, ,

the p r ej udi ces which once e x isted against its application and the demand for
these castings has ca u sed s ome manu factur er s of them to give the closest
,

attention to thei r p r oduction the day sho u ld not be far distant when a steel ,

casting w ill command the same confidence as to its soun d ness that now
ob tains for i r on casti n gs I ndeed an i r on casting may be r eally mo r e t r e a ch e r.
,
v

0 11 3 than one of steel beca u se blo w holes and spongy places a r e al w ays nea r
,

the s u rface of the latte r and can o ften be detected w hile those in the i ron , ,

castings a re qu ite h idden I f a steel casting is mac h ined so that the fa u lty .
,

places a re cut away the pa rt remaining may be depended on as qui t e sou n d

,
.
 NI CK E L STEE L .
8 13

Propelle r bosses ,
foundations ,
col u mn s leve rs c r ossheads for pist on , ,

r ods pistons of al l sizes and shap es link motion blocks eccent ric str aps
, ,
-

, ,

wo r ms wheels etc a re now very gene rally made of cast steel ; also la rge
, , .
,

c rank sha fts have been made of cast steel a n d did thei r wo r k ve r y satis
-

f act or ily even when so la r ge as 1 5 inches di amete r ; connecting r od s a lso

,
-

, ,

have been made of this mate r ial and t h e economy of p roduction of such ,

pa r ts w hen thus made in quant ity is beyond all doubt .

The p r obable a vera ge s t r e n gt h i of best steel castin gs is about 28 t on s per '

s qua r e inch with an elasticity of about 2 5

per cent in 2 inches ; g r eate r
—
, .

st r ength i s e a s ily obt a in ed with steel castings bu t the elasticity wi ll then

‘

be much lo w e r in f act it is only by using ve r y ca r efu lly selected mat erials

.
, ,

and by annealing after casting that s o low a st r ength can b e obtained The , .

o rdina r y st e el castings have an aver age u ltimate st r ength of about 32 tons ,

with an elongation of about 1 8 pe r cent when sound To allow f or u n . .

soundness the ultimate st r ength may be assumed t ob e only 2 8 tons f or the

ha r der va rieties and 2 5 tons for the so fte r ones ; for p ropelle r blades it
,

sho u ld not b e assumed t o be hi gher than 2 4 tons although the so u nd parts oi , _

s uch castings a r e o f ten f o u n d to have a st r engt h of ove r 30 tons p e r squ a r e inch .

N ick el S t eel —This mate r ial w hi ch is an alloy of steel and nickel or to

.
, , ,

b e mo r e p r ecise of i r on car bon manganese and nickel is o ften used whe r e

, , , , ,

lightness is of fi r st impo rtance in engineer ing st r uctu r es or when the str ongest ,

possible mater ial i s r equ i r ed Gr eat ca r e ho w ever has t o b e taken whe n .

.
, ,

f o r ging and othe rwi se t r eating this mate rial in the hot state to avoid se r iou sly
inj u ri n g its physical p r ope rties I t is ther ef o r e bette r t o have the f o r ging .
, , ,
’
et c
.
,
deliver ed f r om the maker s wo r ks r eady f or machining a n d in all cases ,

it shou ld b e most car efully ann ealed I t is also advi sable to have it oil .

t emper ed a s well as anneal ed to get the full advantages f rom thi s splendid
S ir Wm B ea r dmo r e r ead a ve r y inte r esting paper to the I nstitution
;

a]loy .
_
.

of N ava l Ar chitects in 1 8 97 on the nickel steel alloys his fir m w a s : maki ng

- -
-

, ,

f or boile r plate s w ith an u ltimate st r e n gth of lbs and an ex tension

“

.
,

of 2 3 p er cent the elastic limit w a s

.
,
lbs ; and a str onge r qu ali ty .

whose u ltimate st r ength was lbs with 25 pe r cent e x ten sion t h e .

, .
,

e l astic limi t was lbs Fo rgin gs on a la r ge scale have been made in .

this count r y by Messr s V icke r s S ons Max im B ea r dmo r e and othe r s for
.
, , ,

marine wo r k as w ell as a r mou r plates w hile in Amer ica at t h e B ethl ehem ,

I r on Wo r ks this mater ial is ve r y lar gely used for mar ine wor k S teel having
,
.

02 5 to of ca r bon seems best f or t hi s alloy and f or marine pu r poses ,

3 t o 5 per cent of nickel is used wi th it . L ess than 3 per cent ni ckel is of

. .

n o ad vantage .

N ick el st e el as made in S he ffield and in Ge r many is gen e r ally a s

Ca rb on .

Fo r gings havi ng 0 2 9 pe r cent of ca r b on . nickel have an ulti

an d 32 5 of

mat e str ength of lbs , with 3 0 per . cent elonga tion and an elastic
.
,

Ch rome n ic k e l s t ee l is n ow la rge ly u s ed f or l i gh t f o g i g wh e g
r t t en gth i s n c ssa ry
n s er re a s r e e .

52 .
 O PPE R
C .
T
81 5

Mr K ent S mith
.
, of
which the followin g is an interesting e x tract , as s howing
h ow i t Is a ff ected by heat treatm ent

Con di t ion .

t
T h e s e e l a s d e li e r e d v
f r om t h e r olls ,
Af t er a n n e a lin g f or h a lf
°
h ou r a t 93 2 F , .

t
Af e r b e in g w a t e r q u en
°
-

c h e d f r om 932 F , .

t
f e r b e i n g oil q u e n c h e d
-

f r om 93 2 F ,
°
.

t
f e r b e in g w a e r q u en t -

c h e d f r om 1 4 72 F ,
°
.

t
Af e r be i n g oi l qu e n c h e d-

f r om 1 4 72 F ,
°
.

t
Af er a n n e a lin g f or h a lf
°
h ou r a t 1 4 72 F , .

t
f er be i n oil u en c h e d
g
-
q
at 1 5 98 F , a n d r e .

t
h ea e d t o 6 62 F ,
°
.

t
Af e r b e in g w a e r u e n
°
t -
q
c h e d a t 1 65 2 F, .

t
Af e r b e i n g oi l qu e n ch e d
°
-

a t 1 65 2
t
Af er be in g oil u e n c h e d -
q
1 65 2 F , a n d r e
°
at .

t
h ea ed t o 1 1 1 2 F ,
°
.

S oft S t eel f or S ol id- drawn T u bes is u s u al ly of S wedish make or made

e lse w her e of S wedis h o r es which a r e r ema rkably pu r e and f r ee fr om phos
,

p h o r u s and sulphu r S uch steel u sually contains ab o u t 0 1 2 7

.
p e r cent of .

c a rbon , 0 0 1 6 of silicon and 0 3 3 2 of manganese I t is always d u ctil e .

.

and soft , so that it can b e d raw n d own cold t o almost any degr ee of
-

thinness r equi r ed w hi le being f r ee fr om any blemish or even ma r k that

, , ,

wo u ld r aise a r easonable doubt as t o its so u ndness .

Man g an ese S teel —The inventi on of S ir R obe r t H a dfield is of inter est

.
,

a ltho u gh it is not so gene r ally u se f ul to the engineer as is t o b e desi r ed That .

best known is an alloy containi ng 1 1 to 1 4 p er cent of manganese a n d is .

,

lar gely used for the wearing par ts of d r edger s c r ushing machiner y and ash , ,

e j ecto r s I t is ve r y tough and ver y har d so that while it can b e f orged

. ,

e asily and bent r eadily when cold it cannot be mac hi ned I n the for ged , .

c ondition it has a tenacity o f 60 tons p e r squa r e inch w ith an elongation ,

of 35 to 4 0 p e r cent in 8 inches At p r esent a r ticles a r e f o r ged t o shape or

. .

g r o u nd bu t it is hoped that soon some method of machi ni ng t hi s valuable

,

m ate rial will b e f ound .

Copper — T hi s meta l is used to f o r m alloys mo r e f r equently than

.

e mployed by itsel f ; it is t oo so f t f or gener al pu r poses ; but as it is s o

much imp r oved by the addition of even small quantities of other m etals ,

it is perhaps ne x t t o i ron the most impo rtant of the metals us ed by t h e

, ,

ma ri ne engineer .
816 M AN U AL or MARI N E EN GI N EERI N G .

I n commer ce th e r e three di s t inct qu alitie s of in got coppe r d e alt with

a re ,

v iz. G M B ( good me r chantable b r and ) a gene ral te r m used as a basis

. . . ,

f or p rice ; ( 2 ) Tou gh I n got w hi ch is gene r ally used by f ounde rs for gene r a l ,

’
pur poses a n d b randed with some well known smelte r s name or ma r k ; ( 3 )
,
-

B est S e lect ed is pur e r and of mo r e uni for m quality and used for hi gh clas s
, ,

wor k Elect rolit i c is the purest f o r m howeve r for hi ghly impo rtant wo r k
.
, , .

I n its simple state it is employed chie fl y for pipes on account of its ductility
a n d st r ength and in some measur e because it can be j oined by b razing so a s
, _ ,

to be as strong ther e as the o riginal sheet and for plates or sheets wi th which ,

to make the fire bo x es of the locomotive boile r I t does not gene r ally co rrod e
-
.

unde r the action of sea wate r or a ir but does sometimes waste by the -
,

mechanical action of wate r and steam moving at hi gh velocities ove r it s

surface I n some few localities the w ate r seems to have a dest ructive e ffect
.

on this metal owin g no do u bt to the p resence of free gases mecha n ically

,

mi x ed with it ; of these gases s u lphur etted hyd rogen is the wo r st in the ,

water of r iver s and po rts and chlor ine in sea wate r the p resence of b romine ,
-

t oo is o ften detected by the smell so o ft en noticeable in the h ot wells of

,
-

some engines .

Coppe r pipes of la r ge size ( 6 inches and upwa r ds ) a re al w ays made fr o m

sheets cu r ved into the r equ ir ed f or m by r olling or hammer ing and b razed
, ,

at the seams Copper pipes can be made sea ml ess p r actically of any size by
. , ,

electrodeposits etc on Cowpe r Coles method of t reatment but steel is n ow

-
, .
,
-

super seding this metal .

S malle r pipes a r e sometimes made in the same way but gene r ally by ,
”
d r aw in g The f eed blow off and scu m pipe s in the N avy a re always
.
,
-
, O
~

of solid d r awn coppe r b ecause the r e sho u ld be no seam in s u ch impo r tan t

-
,

pipes ; and the main steam pipes we r e also solid d rawn when made of
c opper and not e x ceeding 6 inches diamete r but now they a re of soli d
“

, ,

d r awn steel .

S olid d rawn pipes a r e ve r y seldom used in the me r cantile m a rm e pa rtly

-
,

because they a r e somewhat mo r e ex pensive but chiefly b ecause they w er e ,

not so u ni f or m in t hi ckness as the b razed ones and thought to be ,

mo r e liable t o S plit unl ess c a r e fully manu f actur ed from ver y soft tough _

cop er
Th e strength of copper depends somewhat on its purity but p rincipally
.

on t h e amount of wo r k it has under gone especially in the cold state Coppe r , .

castings h a v e a n ultimate st r ength of only about 1 0 t on s per squar e inch ;

'

when f o rged its st r ength is i n c r eased to about 1 5 t ons and w hen r olled int o ,

bar s is 1 6 tons ; if a small p rop or tion of phospho rus is added ( about 2 per
c ent ) the st r en gth is inc r eased to 2 0 tons ;
. pur e coppe r w hen d rawn out
into wi r e has a st rength of about 28 tons befo r e and 1 8 tons a fte r annealing , .

S heet Coppe r has an ave r age st r ength of about 1 3 g tons and f or pu rp oses of ,

calculation may be assumed t o be 30 000 l per squa r e inch S mall quanti , . .

ties of a rseni c and some other metals imp r ove coppe r ve ry much With .

only g p er cent of a r senic plates have an ultimate st r ength of

. lbs .
,

with a st r etch of 3 7 per cent ( R ober ts Austen ) Wi r e m ade of c opper .

-
.
‘

1 p er cent of alu mi nium stood . lbs per squa r e inch and Fr ench w i re .
,

made of coppe r with a small addition of silicon lbs Wi r e with .

0 5 29 pe r cent of antimony stood lbs as against

. lbs with . .

pu r e copper wi re .
 IN C
Z OR P
S E LT E R . 8 17

The specific gr avity of sheet copper is 8 8 05 ; the weight of a cubic foot

is 5 5 0 lbs that of a cubic inch 0 3 1 8 of a pound and t h a t of a squa r e foot
.
, ,

.
1 inch thick 4 5 8 3 lbs .

Tim— T hi s metal although seldom used alone is ve r y impo rtant as

, , ,

f or ming on e of the chi e f constituents of b r onze or gu n metal but n ow mo r e so -

,

a s being the chi e f ing r edient of some w hite metals The best qualities a r e .

obtained f rom Co r n w all and the chief s u pply of t hi s metal was f r om that
,

c ou nt r y of late yea r s ho w eve r consider able quantities h a v e lb e e n impo rted

, ,

fr om the D u tch East I n di es Malacca and Au st r alia a n d a lt h ou gh not so

, , ,

p u r e as the Co rnish tin the p r ice of the latter has been ver y consider ably
,

a ff ected by the supply

Tin is u sed as a p rotective cov ering t o other metals on account of its

immunity f r om the co rr osi ve action of salts and acids The Ad mi r alty .

f o r me r ly r eq u i r ed all condense r t u bes to be coated wi t h t in w hen fitted in

i r on conde nse r s ; and t hi s p r actice was also follo w ed by some Mer cantile
S hipp ing Companies S ince sea w ate r ceased t o b e used as f eed supply the
.
-

t inning of condense r tubes has gone ou t of p r actice S heet tin whi ch is .

thin sh eet ir on or steel coated with tin is u sed for lin e r s

‘

betwee n ,
”
b r asse s as well as for makin g oil f eeders lamps cups etc
Tin mix ed w ith s mall quantities of coppe r antim ony etc is u sed under
, , , , .

.
, , ,

the name of white metal to line and f ace bearin gs .

The tensile strength of tin is too low to ad mi t of it s being used alone in

‘

c onst r uction ; its ultimate str ength when cast is only 2 1 1 to n s per squ ar e
inch I ts specific gr avity is about 73 consequently the weight of a c u bi c
.
,

foot is 4 5 6 lbs and tha t of a cubic inch 0 2 6 4 lb

.
, .

Z in c or Spel t er This metal also is seldom used alone but is ve ry largely

.
,

e mployed to alloy with coppe r to f o r m b r ass and with it and some other ,

metals in small quantities the well kno w n s tr ong zinc b r onzes The best -
.

kinds come f ro m Aust r alia and the Contin ent ; the S ilesian spelter is the
pur est and g ene r ally u s ed in mak ing b r ass for r ollin g into sheets b r d ra w ing
,

into tubes and r ods Ordinar y zinc contain s lead in app r eciable quantities
. .

Eleot roli t i c is qu ite pur e a n d is best f or high class alloys

,
-
.

I n its simpl e state zinc is used b y mar ine e n g1 n e ers to p r event c or ros1 0 n
'

’
in boiler s condense r s and hot wells and to p r otect the ship s plating nea r
, ,
-

the b r onze p r opelle r s Cast blocks or bette r still pieces of r olled ba r or

.
, , ,

sheet of this metal a r e placed in metallic contact w ith the i r on of the b oiler
in s u ch places as have been f ou nd by ex peri ence to r equ i r e p r otection The .

pu r er the zinc is the mo r e pe rf ect is the p r otection a ffo rded ; bu t unless

,

the r e a r e e x cep tion al ci r cumstances a ff ecting the f eed water common zinc -
,
”
o r even har d spelte r ( r esiduu m f r om the galvanising bath ) will f o r m '

a su fficiently st r ong galvani c couple to p r event det er io r ation of the i r on

su r f aces .

Zinc is also employed as a cov ering f or i r on or ste el to p rotect it f r om the ,

a ction of sea wate r etc -

and being much cheape r than tin and easily applied
,
.
, ,

to the su rf ace of the i r on is u sed on a f a r mo r e ex tended scale than tin Zinc

,
.

is also used as the p r incipal constituent of ce rtain kinds of w hite metal

made f or bushes wo r king in water .

Th e tensile st r ength of zi n c is even lower than that of tin b eing only _ ,

1 3 3 6 tons p er squ a r e in ch wh en cast I ts specific gr avit y is 70 couse .

,

uently the weight of a c u bic f oot is 4 3 7 lbs and that of a cu b 1 c l n c h 0 2 5 3 111

q
. .
,
 B R AS S T U B E M ETAL . 819

I ts tensile str ength may b e" as high as tons per squa re inch with an 40 ,

e x tension however somewhat small ; but at 2 8 to 30 tons it is qu ite satis

, ,

factor y bein g as much as 1 5 pe r cent in 2 inches and with a tensil e strength

, .
,

of 2 5 tons 2 0 pe r cent elongation is obtained I t is not used in the cast state

. .
,

bu t was supplied in sheets fr om 2 4 to 2 8 inches w ide and u p to 1 0 S W G , . . .

thick at 2 s 4 d per lb which corr esponds to 9d for an equal qu antity ( volume )

. . .
, .

of coppe r or b r ass or to l 0 d f or steel I t was also r olled ex ceedingly thin

, . .

in narr ower widths for 2 3 per pound Hot r olled bar s from 1 —116 to 3 inches . .
-

di ameter cost on ly 2 3 1 d and was supplied down to inch diame t e r a t

. .
,

2 3 4 d pe r po u nd D u r in g the w a r the p r ice is mo re than doubled

. . .
.

Cold d r awn ba r s we r e only l éd p er pound dea r er

-
This metal c n be . . a

wo r ked hot or cold and ther ef or e made into tubes sectional ba rs etc , , , , , .
,

stampings and f o rgings I t is non magnetic is little a ffected by sea or fr esh

, .
-

wate r or damp a ir and takes a good poli sh , .

An timon y is used in ver y small quantities t o ha rden other metals and ,

alloys especially the whi te metals f or bearings

, .

Alloys — S t rictly speaki ng alloys of copper and mm only can b e called

.
,

bra s s but o r dinar y b r onze as made f or bea r ings line r s and bushes is o ften
, , , , ,

called b r ass and fr om these ci r cumstances the liner s of j ou r nals and pin
,
”
bear ings a re called b r asses Alloys of copp er and tin or those of copper .
,

and tin tog ether with zinc or other metal a r e called bron ze Alloys of copper , .

and zinc with manganese or othe r modifie r are n ow gene rally called zinc
bron ze s .

B rass The yellow bra s s used for o rnamental castings is usually composed
-

of two pa r ts of Coppe r and one pa r t of zinc when ca r efully made castings

of yellow b r ass have a tensile st r ength of 1 2 to 1 3 tons but the o r dina r y ,

yellow b r ass , as supplied to f ounde r s has a str engt h of only 1 0 to 1 1 tons ;

'
,

it is f ai r ly tough but too so ft f or gener al pu r p oses

, .

Mu n t z s Meta l , composed of thr ee p a r ts of copp er and two of zinc can be

’

r olled out into ba r s and sheets so as t o have an ave r age tensile st r ength of ,

2 2 tons p er sq u a r e inch and in some cases ba r s of this metal have a st r ength ,

as hi gh as 2 7 tons I t is ver y d u ctile , and can b e f o r ged when hot ; it will

.

st r etch ver y conside r ably bef o r e fr actu r e , and may b e used f or sp r ings when
hammer ed or cold r olled and not annealed , .

I ts sp ecific g r avity is 8 2 consequently a cubic f oot weighs 5 1 2 lbs ,

.
,

that of a cubic inch 0 2 96 lb and that of a squa r e f oot 1 inch t hi ck is

4 2 7 lbs .

N ava l B rass — B y the addition of 1 pe r cent of tin to Mu n t z s met al I t

‘
’
.

has a b etter power of r esisting the action of sea wate r while r etai ni ng all its -
,

other pr op erties An alloy of 62 copp er 3 7 zinc and 1 tin is known as n a va l

.
, ,

b r ass becau se of its use ori gin ally in the const ruction of naval composite
,

s hi ps and f or the bolts of the engine fit t in gs which a r e ex posed to sea w ate r

,
- -

in war shi ps Thi s metal can b e f o r ged hot and be nt cold t w o do u ble ; its
.
.

st r en gth is super ior to the o rdinar y Mu n t z s metal and some specimens ’

r olled cold and unannealed have been p r oved t o have an ultimate st r ength of

nea r ly 4 0 tons per squa r e inch As u sually supplied it has an ultimate . .

st r ength of 2 7 tons wi th an elongation of 1 9 to 2 0 pe r cent in inches : the

,
.

elastic li mi t is about 1 9 tons .

B rass T u be Meta l — The o rdina r y b r ass condense r tubes ar e made of a

.
-

composition containi ng 70 per cent of cOpper and 30 per cent of zinc bu t . .

,
 8 20 MANU AL or MARIN E E NGIN E E RING
'

the Ad mi r alty r equ i r e them to b e compose d of 70 per cent of best selected .

COppe r 2 9 p e r cent of S ilesian zinc and l per cent of t in * a nd all tub es “

.
, , .
.

"
supplied to the N avy have to under go the test desc r ibed on p 36 3 The . .

st r ength of the metal of tubes made with 70 per cent of best selected copper .

and 30 per cent S ilesian zinc is as hi gh as 3 6 tons per squar e inch

.
.

Gu n meta l or B ron ze — Ther e is n o pa rt icula r mi x tur e to w hi ch thi s name

-
.

belongs as it is appli ed p ro mi scuous ly to any composition of copper and

, ,

tin or copper tin and zinc

, , , .

The best known composition and one w hi ch has high st r ength is f air ly , ,

ha r d and ver y tough is that containi ng 90 p er cent of coppe r and 1 0 pe r

, , .

c ent of tin
. I ts tensil e st r ength when car efully made is 1 7 tons per squa r e
.
, ,

inch ; it s specific gr avi ty is 8 6 6 consequently a c u bic f oot weighs 5 6 1 lbs , .

,

a c u bic inch 0 325 lb and a squ a re f oot 1 inch t hi ck 4 6 8 lbs To ins u r e soun d
'

.
,
'

castings however it is necessar y to add a small q u antity of zin c

, , .

A much ha r der met al is made by mi xing 8 4 p er cent of COpp er w ith .

1 6 per cent of tin its tensile st r ength is 1 6 tons sp ecific gr avity and
“

.
,

the weight of a c u bic f oot is 5 34 lbs .

For heavy b ea r ings wher e ha r dness is of mo r e impo r tance than st r ength

, ,

altho u gh the metal must n ot by any means lack str ength a good metal is ,

made by mix i ng 79 p er cent of copper with 2 1 per cent of tin ; its tensile . .

st r ength is nea r ly 1 4 tons when car efu ll y made and the aver age is 1 3 g tons ,

the S pecific gr avi ty is 8 7 3 and the weight of a cubic f oot is 5 4 4 lbs , .

Admiralty B ronze of 88 copper 1 0 t in and 2 zinc best q u ality has an , ,

ultimate tensil e str en gth of 2 0 tons with an elongation in 2 inches of 2 5 pe r ,

cent ; when of good comm er cial metals test bar s shoul d give 1 8 5 tons w ith
.

20 p er cent and castings stand at least 1 6 tons with 1 5 per cent

.
, A little .

phosphor us in the tin or copper imp r oves the str ength gener ally With 0 5 of .

°
lead added the tensile str ength at temper atu r es up to 5 5 0 Fa h is maintained
, . .

Ph osph or B ron ze — This metal is composed of cop per and t in wi th a small

-
.
,

pr opo r tion of phospho rus I t is harde r than the o rdi nar y b r onz e ve ry close .
,

g ra ined and of super io r strength The aver age u ltimate str ength is about
, .

1 7 tons pe r sq u a r e inch w h ile that of some specimens is as hi gh as 2 2 t ons , .

The sin gu l a r thi ng about this metal is its hi gh elastic li mi t being ve r y nea rly ,

that of the u l tim ate str ength I ts r esistance to shea ring in the cast state is .

also e x ceptionally high Gr eat ca r e is r equir ed in meltin g and r epeated

.
,

meltings V er y much r edu ce its vir t u e I t may be r olled ou t into e x tremely thin .

sheets or dr awn into wir e when the aver age tensile str ength is 5 6 tons per squa r e
, ,

inch P hospho r b r onze sheet is u sed f or the valves of a ir pum ps ( t ide p

.
-
.

This metal is also used f or bearings b r asses p ropeller blades and bosses , ,
-

p u m p r ods etc -

, .

Th e Orig in a l Manganes e B ron ze is now seldom or neve r used I t contained .

c onside r able quantities of manganese had a dull b r o w n f ractur e but a hi gh , ,

tensile str ength The p r esent alloy is good zinc b r onze imp roved by the
.

addi tion of f err o manganese The manganese is said t o deo xi dise any copper
-
.

o x i des whi ch may be mechani cally mi x ed with the copper so r ende r ing the ,
”
metal mo r e dense and homogeneous The N o 1 qu ality which was used . .
,

for f o rgings and r olli ng into r ods plates sh eets angles etc when cast in , , , , .
,

metal mo u l ds had an ultimate st r ength of 24 tons and an elastic limi t of ,

1 4 to n s pe r squa r e in ch .

S o me ma k e rs u s e 2 p er c en t of le a d i n s t e a d of t h e t in , a n d cla im a s good or b et t er res u lt s B ern a ]

p
. .

met a l. wh ich i s a S ec ia lly ma d e mi x t u re , res is t s corros ion b et t er s t ill .

 '

r U R B AD I U M . 8 21
' -

R olled ods plates etc as n ow made by the Company have when mild
r , , .
, , , ,

a n ultimate st r ength o f 28 tons and an elongation of 4 0 e r cent but when

p , .

s o r equi r ed it can be made with an ultimate st r ength of 3 0 to 3 2 to ns a n

,

elastic limit of 1 5 t o 1 7 tons and an ultimate elongation of 1 5 to 20 .

per cent .

B y cold r olli ng the st r e n gt h c a n be r aised to even 4 0 tons but the elonga ,

tion is then r educed t o 1 0 per cent .

The Manganese B r onze Company manu f actu r e va ri ous othe r qualities

o f b r onze f or S pecial p u r poses s u ch as f ollo w s
“

Crota rite is design ed for such things as boiler stays and other fittings as
a re e x posed to heat and r eq u i r ed t o s u stain heavy st r esses This alloy has .

a melting point almost as hi gh as copper and a coefficient of ex pansion no

gr eater I t contains no zinc is highly malleable and can b e r iveted cold
. , , .

I ts ultimate tensile st r ength is 2 5 t o 2 6 tons p e r squar e inch with an elonga ,

tion in 2 inches of 30 t o 4 0 per cent I ts e lastic limit is high being n o less .

,

than 1 6 tons .

I mma dlu m is anothe r special alloy suitable for sha fts spindles and , ,

r ods of pumps of all fi in d s inasmuch as it is p r actically inco rr odible in sea

,

w ater and is even u naff ected by w ate r containing small quantities of acids
, ,

while its tensile st r ength is ex ceedingly high The str ongest kind has a n .

ultimate st r ength of 4 0 tons p er squ are inch with an elongation of 2 0 t o ,

25 per cent in 2 inches and an elastic limit of 2 0 tons pe r squ ar e inch

.
, Th e .

mild va r iety has an elastic limit of 1 8 tons and an u ltimate tensile st rength ,

of 3 6 tons pe r squar e inch with an elongation of 2 5 to 30 p e r cent , .

T his alloy is valuable for p u r poses such as boile r mou ntings and fittings ,

cylinder fittings and connections inas much as it maintains a high tensile

, ,
°
st r ength when heated to quite high temper at u r es for at 5 00 the elastic limit ,

is 9 to 1 0 tons pe r squar e inch whi le the u ltimate tensile st r ength is 2 3 5 tons ,

'

,
°
with an elongation of 2 2 5 per cent while at 4 2 0 F the temp eratur e of steam
'

.
, .
_

of 3 1 5 lbs p r e ssu r e absolute the elastic limit is as high as 8 5 tons and the
.
,

ultimate tensil e st r ength 2 4 5 tons per squar e inch w ith an elongation of ,

2 5 per c e nt in 2 inches Castings of this mater ial a r e u sually so u nd and

. .

easily machined s o that they may be s u bstitu ted f or steel ones w ith
,

advantage seeing that they a r e ev en s t r on ger than steel and no mor e costly
, ,

if r isk of w aster s and cost of machi nery a r e taken into acco u nt .

Tu rba diu m is a good alloy patented by the P a r Son s Manganese B r on z e

Company and suppl i ed for the casting of prOpeller blades
,
I t is a z inc .

b r onze consisting of abou t 55 per cent of Copper 4 3 of zinc 1 4 4 of i r on .

, , ,

and small qu antities of manganese a nd tin The impo r tant point however .
, ,

is that the st r uctur e of this alloy as made is essentiall y H or polyhedr ic in

_
,

char acter so as t o withstand er osion fr om which the s u r f ace of all b r on z e

,

p r opeller s su ff er when ru n at ver y high r ates of r evolution as in tu r bine

steamer s Pr opelle r s of this mater ial have been supplied by the Company
.

” ”
to the steamships L usitania Mau r itania etc w ith most satis f acto r y , , .
,

r esults Fig 1 78 is a photo of one of those fitted to the

. . Mau r itania ,

taken a fter many months of ser vice in the Atlantic ; it shows no signs of
er osion as did those of other b r onze almost immediately a fte r going on
,

S er v 1 c e .
~

The elastic limit of this mater ial is 1 8 tons and t he ultimate t ensile ,

str en gth 4 0 tons wi th an elongation of 1 8 5 8 per cent in 8 inches I t can . .

COM P O S I T I ON OF M ETALS Y
AN D AL L O S .

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 f M AN U AL OF M AR IN E E NGIN EE RI N G .

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 COM P O S I T IO N OF WH ITE METALS . 825

TAB L E XCV — Oomr os rr i ox

~
. or W H I T E ( B EARING) M Er AL s .

N a m e of Me tal .

L ocomoti v
’
D e wra n c e s e;

For gl an d k
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U s e d in t h e G e r m a n na vy ,

Fre n c h

B r iti s h

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P a r s on s w h ite b ra s s ,
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 P R OPERT I ES OF M E T AL S .

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 828 M AN U AL OF M AR I N E EN G I N EERING .

TA B L E X CV I I .
—PR CE S I OF MAT E RI AL S .
*

Ma t e r ia ls at Ma k e r W ork s
'
s . P r i ces , 1 91 2 . P r ice s 1 906 .

P ig iron , B la e n a v on , cold b la s t , N o 3 N on e . £9
)
N
S h rop s h ire , £6 0 0 5 M
H
p

ae ma t it e W e s t Coa s t
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s h ip p la t e s . 8 10 0 7 m
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sh e et s , m
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p la t es , s h ip u a lit y , q 7 15 0 7
bo i le r p la t e s , B oa rd of T ra d e , et c .
8 15 0 8
f or g in g s , p la in sh a ft s, wit h c ou p lin gs , £1 5 t o 2 0 0 0 £1 4 t o 1 8
Co p p er i n got s 70 0 0 79
t ou g h , 74 1 0 84
b es t s e le c t e d 74 1 0 0 84 »

locomot iv e p la t e s , 84 10 0 ( b a ms ) 9 4 H
sh e et s , 82 0 O
p ipes , s olid d ra w n . 1 } in t o 3 in. .
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t u b e s 6 6 p er, c en t copp er O 0 82 0
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T i n , E n g lis h in got s , 2 05 0 £3 00) 1 66
Z in c s la b s , S iles ia n 25 1 5 0 25
b es t , 26 1 5 25
Al u min iu m, i n got s N os 1 , 2 , ,
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sh e e t s , f rom N 1 t o 3 0 , wire gau ge 1 05 1 4 0 £1 5 0 1 80
—
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s u it a b le f or b e a r i n gs , 1 16 0 0
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S in c e u g A u st , 1 9 1 4 , t h e p rices of a ll met a ls a n d a lloy s h a v e b een a b n orma l, a n d ge n e ra lly more

9 ! le ss a rt i fic ia l .
 STA N D A R D T ES T S O F S T E EL . 829

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