International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science 16 (2019) 100138

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International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijgfs

Sous-vide cooking of meat: A Maillarized approach T

a,b,⁎ a,1 c a,1
Jorge Ruiz-Carrascal , Mar Roldan , Francisco Refolio , Trinidad Perez-Palacios ,
Teresa Antequeraa,1
a
Institute of Meat and Meat Products, University of Extremadura, Spain
b
Department of Food Science, University of Copenhagen, Rolighedsvej 26, 1958 Frederiksberg C, Denmark
c
Albacería Cacereña, C/Moret 7, 10002 Caceres, Spain

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Sous-vide cooking of meats has been a game changer for most restaurants and foodies all around the world,
Sous-vide allowing very tender textures of tough cuts and enabling a perfect control of doneness. However, sous-vide
Volatiles cooked meat lacks strong browning on the surface and roasted flavour notes. Chefs have traditionally use a two
Long-time low-temperature stage procedure to overcome this problem, with a more intense cooking method either before or after sous-vide.
Sensory
However, there is a lack of knowledge about the consequences on cooked meat quality parameters, such as
Browning index
cooking loss, water content, colour formation or flavour development. In this study we showed the consequences
on these parameters of cooking lamb loins by coupling oven roasting and sous-vide cooking in two possible
combinations: sous-vide followed by oven roasting (SV/O) or oven roasting before sous-vide (O/SV). The dif-
ferences were not so marked, with the exception of a more intense surface browning and lower rate of oxidation
to Maillard compounds in SV/O. The potential use of adding reducing sugars to sous-vide cooked meats to
promote Maillard reactions is also discussed.

Introduction temperatures (as compared to traditional methods), which has become

Sous-vide cooking was initially developed for catering, and years
before became a must in kitchens of most trendy restaurants (Roca and
Brugues, 2003). In the XXI century it has spread to millions of kitchens
worldwide through the use of dozens of small tools developed for
controlling cooking temperature. Those have enabled any foodie to
reach the deliciousness of perfectly controlled cooked meals. During the
last few years, a deeper knowledge on the chemical, biochemical and
microbiological changes taking place during sous-vide cooking of meats
have been achieved, giving rise to a number of publications (Mitra
et al., 2017; Roldan et al., 2015a, 2015b, 2014; Sanchez del Pulgar
et al., 2012). However, still chefs are ahead in their empirical knowl-
edge on the use of this technique.
Even though sous-vide cooking has been applied to many different
foodstuffs, its use for meats is what has popularized this method
worldwide (Ruiz et al., 2013). It is perhaps the degree of tenderness
achieved when cooking traditionally tough meat cuts what has made
this method unanimously acclaimed. This effects relies upon the use of
very specific combinations of very long cooking times at quite low
to be known as LTLT (long time, low temperature) (Sanchez del Pulgar
et al., 2012). Some researchers claim that this LTLT conditions also
boosts the activity of proteolytic enzymes in meat, giving rise to the
release of free amino acids (Clausen et al., 2018) and leading to further
improvement of tenderness (Dominguez-Hernandez et al., 2018).
It is worth mentioning that some chefs used and advised using time-
temperatures conditions that may result in food safety issues. Luckily,
during the last few years, a more extensive knowledge on the microbial
lethality at these combinations of temperatures previously thought to
be totally unsafe, combined with long cooking times, has been gained.
This has allowed establishing more clear red lines in terms of safe time-
temperature combinations (Stringer and Metris, 2018).
Cooking meats sous-vide has some drawbacks though, and perhaps
the main one is the lack of extensive Maillard reactions (MR) on the
surface of meats cooked under LTLT conditions (Roldan et al., 2015a,
2015b). The development of the flavour and surface brown colour in
meat during cooking is a consequence of MR, lipid oxidation, reactions
among compounds from both pathways, and other degradative reaction
pathways (Mitra et al., 2018; Roldan et al., 2015a, 2015b; Sanchez del

Peer review under responsibility of AZTI-Tecnalia.

⁎
Correspondence to: IPROCAR, UEX, Campus Universitario s/n, 10003 Caceres, Spain.
E-mail address: jorgeruiz@food.ku.dk (J. Ruiz-Carrascal).
1
Address: IPROCAR, UEX, Campus Universitario s/n, 10003 Caceres, Spain.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijgfs.2019.100138
Received 16 September 2018; Received in revised form 30 December 2018; Accepted 4 February 2019
Available online 06 February 2019
1878-450X/ © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
J. Ruiz-Carrascal et al.
Pulgar et al., 2013). In the case of sous-vide cooked meat, the lack of
extremely high temperatures on the surface (around 60 °C in sous-vide,
more than 200 °C in oven, more than 250 °C on a pan, and up to more
than 350 °C on a barbecue), and the absence of surface dehydration lead
to far lower levels of MR development (Mitra et al., 2018; Roldan et al.,
2015a, 2015b). In order to counteract this drawback, chefs very fre-
quently roast or fry the surface of sous-vide cooked meats, achieving the
formation of this delicious Maillarized crust (Myhrvold et al., 2011).
But whether this should be carried out before or after the sous-vide
treatment is still a matter of debate.
In this small study made in collaboration with the chef Francis
Refolio (“El Corregidor” restaurant, Caceres, Spain), we tried to address
the differences in lamb meat characteristics when MR were promoted
either before or after sous-vide cooking. On top of that, scientific lit-
erature data and cookery knowledge concerning MR in sous-vide
cooked meats are also discussed.
Material and methods
Experimental design
Fifteen lamb loins were used for this study. All loins were from a
homogeneous production batch of lamb averaging 26 kg live weight
and 90 days of age. Ten of them were packaged in vacuum plastic bag
(nylon/polyethylene pouches; heat resistance of −40 °C/+120 °C, O2
permeability of 9 cm3/m2 per 24 h at 4 °C/80% HR and water steam
permeability of 1.2 g/m2 per 24 h) (Joelplas SL, Barcelona, Spain) and
sous-vide cooked at 60 °C for 12 h in a thermostatized water bath. These
temperature-tie cooking conditions were selected in a previous study
(Roldan et al., 2013). Loins were chilled at 4 °C immediately after
cooking. Five of those sous-vide cooked lamb loins were considered as
control (CON). Another 5 were roasted in an oven with dry air over a
rack for 15 mins at 250 °C to achieve browning on the surface (sous-vide
and oven: SV/O). Thereafter they were let to rest out of the oven an-
other 30 min and packaged and chilled again. Finally, another five fresh
loins were roasted in the oven with dry air over a rack for 15 mins at
250 °C to get a brown surface, let to rest for 30 mins and packaged
again. Thereafter the loins were sous-vide cooked at the same condi-
tions explained previously (oven and sous-vide: O/SV). The day after
the cooking process, weight, moisture content and instrumental colour
were measured. In addition, samples were taken and kept at − 80 °C
until analysis.
Moisture and cooking loss
Moisture content was determined by drying the samples (5 g) at
102 °C. Samples were analyzed in duplicate. Total cooking loss was
calculated by difference of weight before and after cooking. Results
were expressed as percentage.
Browning index
Colour was measured across the external surface of the cooked loins
after chilling. L* value (lightness), a* value (redness) and b* value
(yellowness) were obtained using a Minolta Colorimeter CR-300
(Minolta Camera Co., Osaka, Japan) programmed to use the built-in
internal illuminant D65. Means of readings on three locations on each
sample were determined. Before each series of measurements, the in-
strument was calibrated using a white ceramic tile.
Browning index (BI) was calculated using Hunter L, a, and b values
(Maskan, 2001) as
BI = [100 × (x-0.31)]/0.17
where: x = ((a+1.75 × L))/((5.645 × L+a-3.012 × b))
2
International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science 16 (2019) 100138
Volatile compounds analysis
Volatile compounds were analyzed by headspace solid phase mi-
croextraction (HS-SPME) following the method described by Garcia-
Esteban et al. (2004b) with some modifications. The visible fat of each
lamb loin was removed and a piece of the sample was ground after
freezing with liquid nitrogen. 5 g were weighted into a 20 mL glass flask
sealed with an aluminium cap and a septum. Sealed vial was condi-
tioned in a thermostatized water bath at 37 °C for 30 min. SPME was
carried out by using a cross-linked divinylbenzene/carboxen/poly-
dimethylsiloxane fibre, 50/30 µm thick and 2 cm long (Supelco, Belle-
fonte, PA, USA), conditioned prior to use by heating in the injection
port of a gas chromatograph (GC) system under the conditions re-
commended by the manufacturer (at 270 °C for 1 h). The fibre was then
inserted into the sample vial through the septum and exposed to the
headspace for 30 min at 37 °C. The SPME fibre was desorbed and
maintained in the injection port for 30 min. Analyses were performed
using a Hewlett–Packard 6890 series II GC coupled to a mass selective
(MS) detector (Hewlett–Packard HP 5973) (Wilmington, DE, USA).
Volatiles were separated using a 5% phenyl-methyl silicone (HP-5)
bonded-phase fused silica capillary column (Hewlett–Packard, 50 m ×
0.32 mm i.d., film thickness 1.05 µm), operating at 6 psi of column head
pressure, resulting in a flow of 1.3 mL/min at 40 °C. The injection port
was in splitless mode. The temperature program was isothermal for
10 min at 40 °C, rose to 200 °C at a rate of 5 °C/min and then rose to
250 °C at a rate of 20 °C/min and held for 5 min. The transfer line to the
mass spectrometer was maintained at 280 °C. The mass spectra were
obtained using a mass selective detector by electronic impact at 70 eV, a
multiplier voltage of 1756 V, and collecting data at a rate of 1 scan/s
over the m/z range of 30–550 u m.a. n-Alkanes (Sigma R-8769) were
analyzed under the same conditions to calculate the linear retention
indices (LRI) for the volatile compounds. Compounds were identified by
comparison with the mass spectrum and RI of commercial reference
compounds (Sigma-Aldrich; Steinhein, Germany), by comparison of
mass spectrum with mass spectral database (NIST and Wiley libraries)
and by comparison of their RI with those available in the literature
(Garcia-Esteban et al., 2004a; Martin et al., 2009). From the obtained
results, we selected the area units for hexanal (as an indicator of lipid
oxidation) and carbon disulphide (CD) (as an indicator of MR), because
these two compounds were present in all samples analyzed.
Sensory analysis
Cooked lamb loins were assessed by a trained panel of 12 members,
using a descriptive analysis method. The sensory traits, their definitions
and extremes have been explained elsewhere (Roldan et al., 2015a,
2015b). Questions were presented to assessors in the normal perception
order, as follows: visual analysis, texture, taste and flavour.
Panellists were selected from faculty, staff and researchers of the
university using individual taste, flavour and aroma recognition
thresholds. Selected subjects underwent further training in meat and
meat products sensory characteristics over five years, and have subse-
quently participated in several panels for cooked meat sensory analysis.
Three lamb loins from different groups were evaluated in each
session. Sample order was randomized. The sessions were held 3 h after
breakfast. During each session, two slices of lamb loins (1 cm thickness)
from each batch were separately served warm to each panellist. A glass
of water was provided for each assessor. All sessions were done in a six-
booth sensory panel room at 22 °C equipped with white fluorescent
lighting (220–230 V, 35 W). Twelve traits concerning sensory char-
acteristics of cooked lamb, grouped under appearance, texture, taste
and flavour were assessed by the panellists in a 10 cm unstructured line,
ranging from “less” to “more”. FIZZ Network program (version 1.01,
Biosystemes, France) was used for the session performances and the
recording of all data obtained.
J. Ruiz-Carrascal et al.
Fig. 1. Cooking loss (%), moisture content (%), browning index (BI) and ratio
hexanal to carbon disulphide (CD) in lamb loins cooked sous-vide (control),
roasted in the oven followed by sous-vide cooking (O/SV) or sous-vide cooked
followed by oven roasting (SV/O). Bars represent the mean values and the error
bars the standard deviation. The different letters indicate significant differences
(p < 0.05) between the means of the samples in the Tukey's test (p < 0.05).
Statistics
The effect of cooking treatment on the physico-chemical variables
considered in this study was analyzed by a one-way analysis of variance
(3 culinary treatments). For the data reported by the panellists, a mixed
analysis of variance was used, with one fixed effect (cooking proce-
dure), plus a random factor for the tasting session within panellist. All
models were fitted using the GLM procedure (SPSS 15.0). The Tukey´s
test was used at the 5% level to make comparisons between means.
Results and discussion
Fig. 1 shows the mean values for cooking loss, moisture content, BI
on the surface and ratio hexanal/CD in lamb loins under the different
cooking treatments. As expected, the extra heating due to oven roasting
in both O/SV and SV/O samples led to significantly higher cooking loss
and lower moisture content. Roldan et al. (2013) showed a clear effect
of cooking temperature on cooking loss: as temperature rise, specially
above 60 °C, muscle fibres shrink longitudinally leading to increasingly
higher water loss. Therefore, roasting in the oven to boost MR, either
after or before sous-vide, may have the side-effect of an excessive de-
hydration, leading to a modified texture. In our case, this higher water
loss and lower moisture content did not lead to significant differences in
juiciness (Fig. 2), but could perhaps be one of the reasons explaining
that control samples were perceived as less tough and chewy. As
mentioned in the introduction, one of the main positive outcomes of
cooking the meat sous-vide at controlled low temperatures for long
times is achieving a juicy and very tender meat. Using two steps
cooking, with a roasting (or other high heat procedure) to boost MR
could lead to overcooked meat, overcoming the advantages of sous-
vide. Therefore, it seems reasonable to carry out a careful adjustment of
conditions for promoting browning in sous-vide cooked meats, since
otherwise, it might be not worth it to spend such long cooking times.
The appearance of oven roasted samples either before or after sous-
vide was less bright (drier) (Fig. 2), most likely due to the lower
moisture content due to a more intense heat treatment. We also ob-
served a higher light reflectance of meats cooked at lower temperatures
(Roldan et al., 2013; Sanchez del Pulgar et al., 2012), and it was hy-
pothesised that this was due to a higher amount of water remaining on
the surface of the meat, and in fact, we empirically observed that
samples cooked at lower temperatures (which retained a higher amount
of water), released some water to the surface during slicing, while those
cooked at higher temperatures, with a higher cooking loss, showed a
lower amount of exuded water on the surface. Similarly, in the present
3
International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science 16 (2019) 100138
study, the higher temperatures reached in oven roasted samples led to
higher cooking loss (Fig. 1) and a consequently, a drier appearance.
However, it seems that applying such heat either before or after sous-
vide cooking does not lead to marked differences in moisture loss, and
so, on the moist appearance of meat cut surface.
SV/O samples showed significantly higher BI values on the surface
than O/SV, while control samples showed significantly lower values
than the other two (Fig. 1). Brown colour on the surface of meat is the
direct consequence of formation of coloured compounds called mela-
noidins through MR (Yu et al., 2016). This more intense browning was
also perceived by panellists on the cutting surface of the meat, since the
two oven roasted type of samples were scored with higher values than
the control (Fig. 2). These results were not unexpected, since roasting
either before or after sous-vide cooking is aiming for a more intense
browning of the surface. We already detected dramatically different BI
in roasted and sous-vide cooked lamb loins (Roldan et al., 2015a,
2015b). The main two reasons behind this fact are the more intense
dehydration of the loin surface due to the use of dry-air roasting, and
the enhanced formation of brown compounds as a consequence of the
higher temperatures in the oven. Interestingly, the brown colour on the
surface was more intense in SV/O than in O/SV samples. This could be
due to a number of factors: 1) the already slightly dehydrated surface
due to the previous sous-vide cooking in SV/O samples, since lower
water activities lead to more intense and faster MR, 2) the release of
meat juices to the meat surface during the previous sous-vide cooking in
SV/O sample, since this juice contains MR precursors, such as sugars,
amino acids and proteins and 3) the formation of carbonyls during
protein and lipid oxidation during sous-vide cooking prior to oven
roasting in SV/O samples, since these compounds have been shown to
participate also as precursors in MR (Ventanas et al., 2007; Zamora and
Hidalgo, 2005). Panellist also scored SV/O samples with higher colour
intensity on the cutting surface (not external meat surface) than O/SV
samples, but these differences were not significant (p < 0.05). (Fig. 2)
Such higher colour intensity in the core of the meat is probably more
related to the extent of dehydration and myoglobin denaturation, rather
than to browning reactions.
Oven roasting before sous-vide cooking led to much higher values of
the ratio hexanal/CD than the other two types of samples (SV/O and
control) (Fig. 1), indicating a more intense lipid oxidation as compared
to MR development. This was not reflected in higher rancidity scores
(Fig. 2). However, samples roasted either before or after sous-vide
showed a more intense cooked flavour than those just sous-vide cooked.
MR in meat lead to the formation of a plethora of compounds with
distinct flavour notes, many of them showing quite low odour thresh-
olds (Mottram, 1998). On the other hand, due to increasing tempera-
ture during cooking, also other type of chemical reactions take place.
Among those, lipid oxidation leads to the formation of numerous vo-
latile compounds in very high amounts (Mottram, 1998). Many of those
show very high detection thresholds, and are not having a direct in-
fluence on the perceived aroma, but some of them may also affect meat
flavour. Within those compounds, some may show rancid notes, which
are supposed to negatively influence the overall flavour of cooked meat
(Campo et al., 2006). Thus, the ratio between compounds from MR and
those from lipid oxidation can be an indicator of how much the aroma is
influenced by one or the other reaction (Andres et al., 2002). In our
study, O/SV samples stood out for showing far higher ratios, indicating
that somehow, oxidation was very much promoted in these cooking
conditions, since amounts of carbon disulphide remained to similar
levels. This might be the consequence of the two step process. First
cooking stage in the oven roasting no doubt leads to the formation of a
number of compounds from lipid oxidation, including free radicals that
would keep lipid oxidation reactions rates high during further re-
frigeration and subsequent sous-vide cooking (Kanner, 1994). On top of
that, heating promotes the denaturation of myoglobin, eventually
leading to the release of heme (Labuza and Dugan, 1971), which may
act as a potent prooxidant in further refrigeration and second stage
J. Ruiz-Carrascal et al. International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science 16 (2019) 100138

Fig. 2. Spider-web diagram presenting the

average values for sensory attributes of lamb
loins cooked sous-vide (control), roasted in the
oven followed by sous-vide cooking (O/SV)
and sous-vide cooked followed by oven
roasting (SV/O). Mean values of the same at-
tribute with different letters showed significant
differences in the Tukey's test (p < 0.05).

sous-vide cooking. It might also be that SV/O samples showed lower

levels of hexanal/CD ratio due to the shorter second stage cooking (SV
vs oven). At any rate, it is necessary to more carefully address in which
extent this two stage procedure may lead to the formation of com-
pounds with rancid notes, and if so, to optimize the cooking conditions
to minimise such formation.
It seems then clear that the lack of high temperature and surface
dehydration in sous-vide cooked meats leads to a less brown surface
and a lower flavour intensity as compared to other cooking methods,
and that this can be overcome by combining sous-vide with other more
intense thermal treatments, like roasting or frying. As a practical ex-
ample, at “El Corregidor” (Caceres, Spain), beef shank was cooked
following a three steps approach (Fig. 3), starting with marinating the
beef cut in a sweet-wine marinade containing honey and herbs for 25 h
at chilling conditions (pics 1 and 2), followed by a very intense roasting
in the oven at 250 °C for 30 min (pics 4 and 5); thereafter the surface-
roasted piece (pic 6) is vacuum-packaged (pic 7 and 8) and sous-vide
cooked in the steam-oven for 48 h at around 65 °C (pics 9 and 10),
giving rise to a very flavourful and absolutely tender piece of meat (pic
11). In this case, the roasting in the oven but also the marinade, con-
taining sugar from the wine and the honey, promote MR on the surface,
boosting browning and roasted flavours. This sugar addition is also a
worth to consider trick for enhancing MR.
Reducing sugars are among the initial substrates for MR, and it has
been shown that their addition on cooked meat very much enhance the
development of MR (Roldan et al., 2015a, 2015b). These authors
showed how adding a solution containing ribose enhanced BI and fur-
osine content (a marker for MR) in sous-vide cooked lamb loins.
Moreover, the sensory features of those ribose added loins were very
much modified, showing stronger flavours and colour intensity.
Therefore, the addition of reducing sugars to sous-vide cooked meats Fig. 3. Process of cooking beef shank at “El Corregidor” restaurant in a three
steps procedure: marinating, roasting and sous-vide cooking.
(in the form of honey, glucose, lactose, milk powder and so on), either
before sous-vide cooking or before further roasting, appears as a very
useful strategy to boost MR, and in turn, browning and flavour. to lead to more intense MR, leading to a browner surface and a higher
proportion of compounds from MR as compared to oven roasting before
sous-vide cooking. Nevertheless, the conditions for such procedures
Conclusions
should be carefully adjusted, since some of the positive aspects of sous-
vide cooked meats, as the juiciness and tenderness, might be overcome
Roasting in the oven, either before or after sous-vide cooking of
by an excessive drying due to an extra heating time. The addition of
lamb meat, leads to a browner surface and a more intense cooked meat
reducing sugars might be an additional strategy minimizing the needed
flavour. More specifically, oven roasting after sous-vide cooking seems

4
J. Ruiz-Carrascal et al.
roasting time and/or temperature for achieving the desired browning.
Acknowledgements
This study has been supported by the “Ministerio de Educacion y
Ciencia”, Spain (AGL2008-00890/ALI). Mar Roldan is thankful to the
“Gobierno de Extremadura (Consejeria de Economia, Comercio e
Innovacion)” for supporting her by the Ph.D. research grant PRE09057.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest
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