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Dissertation Manuscript
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Version: March 2019

© Northcentral University, 2019
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A Phenomenological Investigation into the Lived Experiences and Challenges Faced by

the Department of Homeland Security Information Personnel in Detecting and

Obstructing the Widely Available Encryption Technologies.

Dissertation Manuscript

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Submitted to Northcentral University

IESchool of Business Administration

in Partial Fulfillment of the

Requirements for the Degree of

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DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

By
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PAUL MONDAY ONYEMEKEIHIA

San Diego, California

June 2019

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Approval Page
A Phenomenological Investigation into the Lived Experiences and Challenges Faced by
the Department of Homeland Security Information Personnel in Detecting and
Obstructing the Widely Available Encryption Technologies.
By
PAUL MONDAY ONYEMEKEIHIA

Approved by the Doctoral Committee:

Ph.D. 07/25/2019 | 20:20:59 MST

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Dissertation Chair: INSERT
Gabriele NAME
Suboch Degree Held Date
IE Ph.D. 07/26/2019 | 05:12:37 MST

Committee Member: James

INSERT NAME
Jones Degree Held Date
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07/26/2019 | 09:02:47 MST

DBA, MBA
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INSERT
Committee Member: Marie NAME Degree Held
Bakari Date
 Abstract

Department of Homeland Security information personnel feared they might not be able to

decrypt encrypted electronic communications devices and conduct a successful criminal

investigation without lawful access to digital communication devices. This phenomenological

study explored the challenges posed by the widely available encryption technologies to the

information security personnel at the DHS. It also explored the lived experiences and challenges

of DHS information personnel in identifying, detecting, and obstructing widely available

encryption technologies. The theory of asymmetric conflict was applied to facilitate the study’s

objective and to gain the knowledge of encryption challenges required. Research questions used

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were organized to focus on the lived experiences and the challenges perceived by the
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participants. The literature review provided some historical context into the evolution of

encryption and the modern day use of the technology. The qualitative method and a
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transcendental phenomenological design were used to obtain rich, thick descriptions of the

participants’ lived experiences. Participant recruitment was performed through LinkedIn to find

potential participants. Purposive sampling was used to identify the 13 participants who
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participated in the research study. Open-ended questions and a semi-structured interview were

used to collect data through in-depth one-on-one Skype and telephone interviews. The verbatim

interview was transcribed and analyzed with Moustakas’(1994) phenomenology approach to data

analysis, which led to six major themes.

The research findings revealed that the widely available encryption is vital for securing

sensitive information, but remains inaccessible to DHS and other third-party investigators. The

challenges found to influence the DHS inaccessible status include privacy laws, policy, lack of

private company’s responsiveness to encryption backdoor, and lack of technological innovation,

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training, and research. Findings also highlighted the importance of more congressional efforts to

find common ground between privacy, security, and public safety. Participants elaborated ways

to improve open discussion between technology companies, DHS, and lawmakers. Participants

also viewed training and educational research as a valuable tool for enhancing DHS investigation

skills and efforts. The data gathered and analyzed contributed to the researcher’s knowledge and

understanding of the growing DHS encryption issues. The applied implication of this research is

to support DHS, the technology community, lawmakers, and future researcher. The finding of

this study contributed to the body of existing encryption technology literature. Finally, further

research is required to assist in striking a balance between privacy, security, and public safety.

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 Dedication

I wish to dedicate this study to God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit, for the

extraordinary insights, understanding, and inspiration given to me during this doctoral journey. I

wish to dedicate this study to our Blessed Virgin Mary, Arch Angel Gabriel, and my Guidant

Angel for their prayers and love. I want to also dedicate this study to my loving wife and best

friend, Clementina, my daughters, Amaka and Chimamanda, for their endless patience,

unwavering encouragement, and tireless supports given to me, that made me to be a caring

father, enlightened scholar, and a better man. I am eternally grateful to you all. Thank you.

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 Acknowledgment

I wish to acknowledge and thank all those who helped me during my doctoral studies:

• First, I want to thank God for His guidance and the strength given me to complete this

doctoral journey.

• My wife, Clementina, for her love, incredible patience, and support, for helping me to

focus on the end goal. I truly could not have been able to accomplish this degree without

her patience and encouragement.

• My daughters, Amaka and Chimamanda, for supporting me in so many ways

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I wish to thank Dr. Gabriele Suboch, my dissertation chair, for her valuable mentoring

and insightful feedback and most importantly, for always taking my multiple phone calls,
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emails, and text messages during this dissertation period. Her kind spirit and passion

were contagious. Thank you so much.

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• My committee members, Dr. James Jones, and Dr. Marie Bakari, thank you for providing

valuable help and guidance during this doctoral journey.

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• I want to thank my dissertation chair, Dr. David Ojo, for providing valuable thoughts and

insight at the beginning of my dissertation journey.

• My father, mother, brothers and sisters, my uncle Mr. Pius Onyemekeihia and friends for

their continued prayers, guidance, and support.

• I want to thank Dr. Anowai, Mr. Donavan Green and Mr. Ugochukwu Nwakoro for their

help and support.

• I want to appreciate my church family and priest of the BSSCH, for their prayers

• Finally, to all my colleagues and friends for their friendship, help, and patience, during

this process, I want to say thank you.

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 Disclaimer

The views presented in this study are those of the researcher or the research participants and do

not represent the views of the Department of Homeland Security information personnel’s or any

law enforcement officers or agency.

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 Table of Contents
Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1
Background ................................................................................................................................2
Problem Statement ................................................................................................................... 3
Purpose of the Study ................................................................................................................. 4
Theoretical/Conceptual Framework.......................................................................................... 7
Nature of the Study ................................................................................................................. 10
Research Questions ................................................................................................................. 10
Significance of the Study ........................................................................................................ 11
Definitions of Key Terms ....................................................................................................... 11
Summary ................................................................................................................................. 14
Chapter 2: Literature Review ........................................................................................................ 15
Documentation ........................................................................................................................ 16
Description of an Encryption .................................................................................................. 17
History of Encryption ............................................................................................................. 18
Types of Encryption ................................................................................................................ 22

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Encryption Algorithm ............................................................................................................. 25
Application of Encryption Technology .................................................................................. 28
Terrorist Organization and use of the Internet ........................................................................ 36
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What Led Terrorist Organizations to the Use of Encryption Technology? ............................ 37
Impact of widely Available Encryption on DHS digital inverstigation. ................................. 42
Battle over Encryption, Privacy, and Security ........................................................................ 43
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Theoretical/Conceptual Framework........................................................................................ 48
Asymmetric Conflict Theory .................................................................................................. 51
Asymmetric Conflict Theory of Cyber Warfare ..................................................................... 59
Application of Asymmetric conflict theory ............................................................................ 64
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Phenomenology, DHS, and Encryption. ................................................................................. 65

Summary ................................................................................................................................. 66
Chapter 3: Research Method ......................................................................................................... 68
Research Methodology and Design ........................................................................................ 69
Population and Sample ........................................................................................................... 72
Materials or Instrumentation ................................................................................................... 73
Study Procedures .................................................................................................................... 75
Data Collection and Analysis.................................................................................................. 76
Credibility and Dependability ................................................................................................. 78
Assumptions ........................................................................................................................... 79
Limitations .............................................................................................................................. 80
Delimitations ........................................................................................................................... 81
Ethical Assurances .................................................................................................................. 81
Summary ................................................................................................................................. 82
Chapter 4: Findings ....................................................................................................................... 84
Trustworthiness of the Data .................................................................................................... 84
Results ..................................................................................................................................... 88
Evaluation of the Findings .................................................................................................... 108
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 Summary ............................................................................................................................... 113
Chapter 5: Implications, Recommendations, and Conclusions .................................................. 114
Implications........................................................................................................................... 116
Recommendations for Practice ............................................................................................. 125
Recommendations for Future Research ................................................................................ 129
Conclusions ........................................................................................................................... 131
References ................................................................................................................................... 134
Appendices .................................................................................................................................. 156
Appendix A: Online Recruitment Message ................................................................................ 157
Appendix B: Interview Guide ..................................................................................................... 158
Appendix C: Informed Consent .................................................................................................. 159

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 List of Tables

Table 1. Participants and Years of Encryption Experience........................................................89

Table 2. Breakdown of Research Questions, Themes, and Interview Questions……………...94

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 List of Figures

Table 1. Symmetric encryption using the similar secret key to encrypt and decrypt ...................22
Table 2. Asymmetric encryption using the private key and public the key to encrypt and
decrypt………………………………………..........................................................................24
Table 3. Data analysis flowchart………………………................................................................90

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Chapter 1: Introduction

The Department of Homeland Security (DHS) is an integral part of the U.S. government

that was formed following September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks. The DHS was integrated along

with 22 agencies to strengthen cooperation and coordination between the local, the state, the

federal government to ensure general public safety and security (Mabee, 2007; Kemp, 2012).

Constantly under scrutiny to prevent any form of terrorist attack, security breach, or safety

loopholes, the mission, responsibilities, and jurisdiction of DHS are far reaching. DHS has been

tested by countless terrorist attempts on the U.S. homeland, border incursions, illegal trafficking,

and natural disasters the likes of Hurricane Katrina, some of these threats adapted rapidly to

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every technique employed by the security organizations. Terrorists also seek to cause destruction
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and casualties by any weapon available to include weapons of mass destruction (Ackerman &

Jacome, 2018; Glick, 2015). While the establishment of the DHS has prevented many subsequent
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terrorist attacks, it has been argued, however, that the widely available encryption technologies

are complicating life for the Department of Homeland Security information personnel (Manpearl,

2017; Mylan Traylor, 2017).

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The inability of DHS information personnel to detect and obstruct the widely available

encryption technologies has created a unique situation in which terrorists could potentially share

information and launch both physical and cyberattacks against the United States. Terrorists and

criminals are using encryption technologies to hide their plans, recruit followers, encourage

espionage, and perform cyber and terrorist attacks, all with the aim of attacking the U.S.

homeland or other Western countries (Penney & Gibbs, 2017).

Many recent security breaches or lapses can also be traced to the impact of encryption

technology access that necessitated the need for DHS to focus on security and safety issues. This
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inability of DHS information security personnel to decrypt encrypted data has become an

ongoing debate among experts, who think something must be done (Zittrain et al., 2016). This

study explored the challenges posed by the widely available encryption technologies to DHS

information security personnel and to understand their lived experiences and the way they

perceive the challenges.

Background

The main reason for network monitoring is to detect and obstruct network attacks. In

1960, International Business Machine (IBM) developed an algorithm that was based on ciphers

(Preneel, 2014). The algorithm was an early warning sensor, with a capability of detecting

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suspicious activity on computer networks. IBM handed the algorithm to the National Bureau of
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Standards (NBS) in 1968 to protect government classified and unclassified electronic data over

the networks (Abidi et al., 2016). In 1976, the National Security Agency (NSA) modified the
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algorithm that was later chosen as the American Data Encryption Standard (DES). The National

Bureau of Standards and NSA combined to strengthen the encryption against differential

cryptanalysis and then weakened it against brute-force network attacks. Indeed, this encryption
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was effective against 20 years of network attacks (Hellman, 2017; Landau, 2015).

In 1991, the notably free worldwide encryption standard known as “Pretty Good Privacy”

(PGP) was designed and released by Phil Zimmermann in response to the FBI threat to demand

access to the clear text communications of the American people. After the 9/11 terrorist attack,

the U.S. Government created the Department of Homeland Security. Since then, the DHS has

been striving to keep up with network attacks. Many terrorists now use these new tactics to

remain undetected by taking advantage of the widely available encryption technologies (Angwin,

2015).
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Scholars have found that terrorist group are using the widely available encryption

technology to hide their plans, recruit followers, encourage espionage, and perform cyber and

terrorist attacks to disband information on various ways to strike the United States (Booth &

Rodgers, 2018; Mylan Traylor, 2017). Many hackers now use the Internet as a medium to direct

attacks against the U.S. government. There is constantly the risk that some of these attacks could

evade control systems, which poses a significant threat to critical U.S. infrastructures and to the

security of the nation and the mission of the DHS. For example, the recent December 2, 2015

terrorist attempted bombing and mass shooting attack that wounded 22 people and killed 14

persons at the Inland of San Bernardino, California and the Paris November 13, 2015, terrorist

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explosives attack that killed 130 people and injured hundreds were a result of the security lapses
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over the last decade that resulted in the murder of countless victims could be traced to the impact

of widely available encryption technology (Erich, 2016; Jacobsen, 2017; Sinai, 2018).
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These increasing changes in the use of the widely available encryption security concerns

have been limiting investigation and transparency and making collective findings of primary and

official sources of communication challenging for the DHS. Therefore, when there were valuable
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data sources to help understand these concerns, access to encrypted communication was denied.

The DHS Annual Fusion Center Assessments is responsible for the sure dataset (Makin &

Morczek, 2015), so increasing investigators’ access to the widely available encryption

technology used by criminals is required.

Problem Statement

The problem addressed by this was to explore the challenges posed by the widely

available encryption technologies to the information security personnel at the DHS. This

problem was identified due to the growing number of terrorist network intrusions, criminal’s
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encrypted communications of data at rest, in transit, and cyberattacks against the United States.

Due to this ever-increasing amount of physical and cyberattacks through the use of the widely

available encryption, DHS information security personnel now race to identify, detect, and

obstruct potential threats to the networks and systems designed to protect both residents and non-

residents of the United States. The encryption technology platform allows terrorist groups to

encode data so that only approved personnel with vital information from the creation can access

the data (Atwood, 2015; Finklea, 2016; Manpearl, 2017; McCarthy, 2016; Mylan Traylor, 2017;

Penney, & Gibbs, 2017; Schulze, 2017). The inability of DHS information security personnel to

unlock or access the data stored in digital devices creates a unique opportunity for terrorists to

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hide and pursue their primary target without being detected or obstructed. We know that there is
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an increasing number of network attacks through widely available encryption technology; what

we do not know is the process with which DHS information security personnel identify these
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challenges when they encounter difficulties in identifying, decoding, and obstruction of

suspicious data in the networks and systems.

Indeed, the exploration of these experiences of DHS information security personnel has
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contributed to the research, while learning, identifying, and describing the significance of the

participants’ participation. The negative outcome of not conducting this study will include the

risk of failing to identify potential weaknesses of DHS as they relate to the terrorist use of

encryption technology identification, detection, and obstruction as well as information sharing

for the protection of U.S. residents, non-residents, and infrastructure.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose addressed by this transcendental phenomenological study was to explore the

lived experiences of the DHS information personnel in identifying, detecting, and obstructing the
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widely available encryption technologies. Also, the study explores the challenges faced by the

DHS information personnel in identifying, obstructing, and detecting widely available encryption

technologies. Unlike other qualitative approaches, which depend on researcher interpretation of

experiences or event, the Moustakas transcendental phenomenology was used to explore

participants and the meaning linked with their experiences. With to the significant exploitation of

encryption by terrorist groups, this phenomenological study helped bridge the gap in knowledge

by exploring and understanding the lived experiences of the DHS information security personnel

and how the terrorists’ use of encryption has shaped their investigation.

In this qualitative research, the focus was to obtain the descriptions of experience from

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the participants’ accounts through interviews. During careful data collection and analysis, the
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researcher attempted to make sense of, or interpret the phenomenon regarding the meanings

participants, bring to the study. The researcher also used Moustakas’ transcendental
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phenomenology, one of the philosophical bases of the human science tradition. Moustakas

(1994) explained that Husserl’s phenomenology is transcendental. This model highlights the

subjectivity and discovery of essences and the meaning of the lived experience. The model also
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provided a systematic and disciplined method for the derivation of knowledge. Moustakas (1994)

described the seven general processes of the phenomenological method, including epoche,

phenomenological reduction, imaginative variation, and synthesis of textures and structures. In

epoche, the researcher begins to change the natural self, putting aside biases and preconceived

ideas to see things as they are.

In phenomenological reduction, the task is to remember and describe feelings, thoughts,

and images of the experiences, just as one sees it. Here, the purpose is to reduce descriptions into

horizons and themes of the experience. It includes bracketing, horizontalization, delimiting,

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clustering of themes, and textural description of the experience. Imaginative variation targets

meanings and depends on intuition as a way of integrating structures into essences. In this stage

critical reflection, themes, and structures of the experience are developed. Lastly, the synthesis of

textures and structures stage is where the researcher immerses in the data until they are

thoroughly created. This research procedure captured the essences of DHS information security

personnel as they pertain to detecting and obstructing the widely available encryptions for this

study.

Following NCU IRB approval, the researcher used the online LinkedIn platform to

recruit potential participants. The platform is a rich professional networking site that hosts

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millions of users. The platform was used to view users, recruit, or search for potential candidates,
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by posting or sharing content among diverse audiences, and for finding intelligent, articulate and

representative participants’ who were in the vast field of this project. The LinkedIn platform
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features are free to all users, with options to pay for marketing-related services. For example,

many researchers have used LinkedIn, Facebook, and Twitter to recruit participants for human

behavioral interventions. The aim of using the online LinkedIn platform was to attract potential
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participants. The researcher targeted population includes the working graduate degreed police

officers, digital forensics officers, electronic crime task force officers, computer crime

investigation officers, technology unit officers or law enforcement officers, encryption

technology experts, IT, and information security analyst freely on LinkedIn social media. After

the online recruiting content was posted, interested potential participants responded, and

purposeful sampling was used to select the research participants. A total of 13 participants signed

and returned the consent form and participated in the study. The consent form included

confidentiality assurances and contact information for my dissertation chair. The interview guild
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was emailed to the potential participant via Northcentral University email before arranging a

time that would be convenient for a one-on-one Skype interview. The interview lasted no more

than 30–45 minutes. The participants were notified that the researcher would like to use a voice

recorder to record responses, and they could participate if they do not wish to be recorded. The

data collection method of this study was online, anonymous, and open-ended Skype interviews.

The recorded data files were transcribed using the MAXQDA application for analysis of the

information. The recorded data were analyzed to identify themes. The recording and the

transcription of the data were made secure by encrypting the data on the researcher’s computers

with a password.

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The information obtained from the participants provided insights and understanding into
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the lived experiences and challenges faced by DHS information personnel. Indeed, the result of

this research study should add to the scientific understanding of the phenomenon and provide
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prospective researchers with the details of the issues that were directly associated with the

terrorist encrypted data communication, identification, detection, and obstruction. The essence

and meanings derived from this study will contribute to the existing research and may lead to
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future research.

Theoretical Framework

The asymmetric conflict theory by Stepanova (2011) holds that the resource of two

belligerents differs in nature, interact, and struggle with an effort to exploit each other's specific

weaknesses. Indeed, asymmetric warfare against adversaries is the ability to act, organize, and

think differently from the other players to increase the personal advantages to exploit the

opponent’s weaknesses or gain elevated independence of action. From this viewpoint, a security

threat is better addressed from a military perspective. Implicitly, the theory assumes that conflict
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usually involves unconventional strategies and tactics where the weaker belligerent tries to apply

strategies to counteract its insufficiencies in quality or quantity.

Multiple asymmetric strategies have been used with the intent to disrupt U.S. military

capabilities and national security, to disable and paralyze communications, computer networks,

transportation, industrial enterprises, power systems, and to cause chaos in the U.S. homeland

(Allen, 2015). For instance, the growing amount of information warfare, the use of low-tech,

high-tech vulnerabilities exploited, advanced weapons of mass destruction, terrorist network

intrusions, and cyberattacks against the United States, are all currently advertising through the

use of widely available encryption technologies (Corn, 2017; Sinai, 2017). As a result of this

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cyber warfare, information security personnel at the DHS and organizational security leaders are
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fighting an escalating and asymmetric war against adversaries intending to penetrate, organize an

attack, or disrupt network services hosted online while advertising on widely available
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encryption name Pretty Good Privacy (PGP) and Mujahideen Secrets encryption that is a

wraparound with PGP.

Quite recently, terrorist asymmetries in remote attacks are now known to move at record
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speed, sometimes moving faster than defenders can react to, with the unleashing of zero-days

attack, distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attacks, and “WannaCry” ransomware attack

(Urquhart & McAuley, 2018). In 2017, over 317 million new pieces of encrypted malware and

6,500 new vulnerabilities far surpassed the capacity growth a skilled information security

personnel can defend against. The DHS is concerned that terrorists might use these encrypted

malicious programs to shut down military computer systems. At present, all U.S. network and

weapon systems could be vulnerable to attacks of encrypted computer viruses (Zulkefli et al.,

2017).
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A model for military strategists is asymmetric conflict theory, which usually involves

unconventional strategies and tactics used by the weaker belligerent to attempt strategies that

counteract its insufficiencies in quality or quantity. The implementation of this cutting-edge

strategy could prevent asymmetric warfare. Due to several successful attempts at attacking

critical infrastructure, reliance on human defenders still struggles with the ability to identify,

detect, respond, and reduce these threats limiting our knowledge of this form of encryption

(Zittrain et al., 2016).

The knowledge of the widely available encryption from DHS information security and

their undetectable ability is a comparable scenario that can be seen with organized crime,

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hackers, and syndicates taking on big organizations. This type of unconventional warfare appears
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to be prevailing as a conflict in the digital world, where the use of technology is moving from

symmetry with big organizations to an asymmetric engagement used by the terrorist groups to
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organize for the purpose of sharing information, hiding plans, recruiting followers, encouraging

espionage, and performing cyber and terrorist attacks (Cozma, 2015; Maurer, 2017).

This study used a purposeful sample of experienced participants to gain insight into the
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lived experiences and how the DHS perceived the challenges posed by the widely available

encryption technology. This theory has also been used to advance the ways by which cybercrime

can be addressed through the perception of those entrusted to guard against it. This theory

provided an insight into the DHS strong alliance information personnel's challenges and the

reasons why the weak alliances are unpredictable and undetected with the use of the widely

available encryption technology. From the experiences of DHS information security personnel in

detecting and obstructing data, the researcher gathered a robust understanding of what makes

widely available encryption to be detected illuminated on network security. It was therefore

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relevant to conduct this study by integrating the asymmetric conflict theory precepts to explore

the challenges and experiences of the DHS information personnel. The asymmetric conflict

theory was applied to the study methodology to (a) analyze technological warfare and terrorism

conflicts, (b) identify the strategy behind the problems, (c) analyze the operational possibilities,

and (d) suggest and advocate changes.

Nature of the Study

This study explored the lived experiences of DHS security information personnel in

detecting and obstructing widely available encryption technologies. The study used a qualitative

research method because qualitative research is used to understand human behavior from an

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informant’s perspective (Thomson & McLeod, 2015). The researcher conducted a qualitative
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research interview to obtain descriptions of the experiences. This researcher engaged 13

participants in interviews. Following Creswell (2013), participants were allowed to select the site
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and the time of the interviews to enable them to relax and be more forthcoming with information.

Each interview session was audio recorded and transcribed. The researcher asked for the

description of an experience in detecting and obstructing widely available encryption

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technologies. The questions were open-ended questions with informal dialogue about the

participants. Each of the interviews lasted approximately 30–45 minutes. All interview data were

recorded, transcribed, and analyzed to identify themes. The themes that emerged were

synthesized into a description of the meaning and essence of the experiences of DHS information

personnel (Griffiths & Walsh, 2018; Richards & Hemphill, 2018).

Research Questions

RQ1: What are the experiences of DHS information personnel in identifying, detecting,

and obstructing the widely available encryption technologies?

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