3.5 Y EMF VS. POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE 8. Give important points of differences between electromotive force and potential difference. Differences between electromotive force and potential difference. 1. It is the work done by a source in taking a unit charge once round the complete circuit. 2. It is equal to the maxi- mum potential diffe- rence between the two terminals of a source when __it is in an open circuit. 3. It exists even when the ___ circuit is not closed. 4. It has non-electrostatic origin. Potential dif It is the amount of work done in taking a unit charge from one point of a circuit to another. Potential difference may exist between any two points of a closed circuit. It exists only when the circuit is closed. It originates from the electrostatic field set up by the charges accumu- lated on the two termi- nals of the source. It is an effect. 5. It is a cause. When emf is applied in a circuit, potential difference is : caused. 6. It is equal to the sum of potential differences across all the compo- nents of a circuit inclu- ding the p.d. required to send current through __ the cell itself. 2 7, Itis larger than the p.d. across any circuit ___ element. : : 8. It is independent of the external resistance in the circuit. Every circuit component has its own potential difference across its ends. It is always less than the emf. It is always less than the emf,“ PROBLEMS Fo as R PRACTICE The free electrons of a copper wire of cross- sectional area 10°° m? acquire a drift velocity of 10-4 m/s when a certain potential difference is applied across the wire. Find the current flowing in the wire if the density of free electrons in copper is 8.5 x 10% electrons/m°>. (Ans. 1.36 A) A current of 5 ampere is passing through a metallic wire of cross-sectional area 4 x 10° m?. If the density of the charge-carriers in the wire is 5x 10% m~>, find the drift speed of the electrons. [Roorkee 91] (Ans. 1.56 x 10° * ms “1 A current of 1.8 A flows through a wire of cross- sectional area 0.5 mm2?. Find the current density in the wire. If the number density of conduction electrons in the wire is 8.8 x 1078 m= oF find the drift speed of electrons. (Ans. 3.6 x 10° Am~?, 2.56 x 10° * ms~ 4) The resistivity of copper at room temperature is 1.7 x 10° * Qm. If the free electron density of copper is 8.410 m~°, find the relaxation time for the free electrons of copper. Given m, = 9.11 x 10" 31k and e=16x10"C. (Ans. 2.49 x 107 s) A copper wire of diameter 1.0 mm carries a current of 0.2 A. Copper has 8.4 x 1078 atoms per cubic metre. Find the drift velocity of electrons, assuming that one charge carrier of 1.6 x 107 19 Cis associated with each atom of the metal. [ISCE 97] (Ans. 1.895 x 10°? ms”) A current of 2 A is flowing through a wire of length 4 m and cross-sectional area 1 mm/. If each cubic metre of the wire contains 10” free electrons, find the average time taken by an electron to cross the length of the wire. (Ans. 3.2 x 10° s).. a 10C of charge flows through a wire in 5 min 7 The radius of the wire is 1mm. It contains 5 tes qlectrons per centimetre®. Calculate the ¢ x1 drift velocity. current (Ans. 3.33 x 10°? A, 1.326 « 19-6 ne} and A copper Wire of diameter 0.16 cm is conned ceries to an aluminium wire of diameter 0.25 cm i current of 10 A is passed through them. Fina (9 current density in the copper wire (ii aie velocity of a ae in the aluminium wie The number o} electrons ‘ ’ amin wite is 102 ane. 6 ene ores (Ans. 4.976 x 10° Am~2, 1.28 x 19-4 ms~!) A current of 30 ampere is flowing through a wire of cross-sectional area 2 mm?. Calculate the drift velo- city of electrons. Assuming the temperature of the wire to be 27°C, also calculate the rms velocity at this temperature. Which velocity is larger ? Given that Boltzman’s constant = 1.38 x10"? ] K-l, den- sity of copper 8.9 g cm™®, atomic mass of copper =63 (Ans. 1.110" * ms”, 1.17 «10° ms~}) 40. What is the drift velocity of electrons in silver 11 wire of length 1 m, having cross-sectional area 3.14 x10" © m? and carrying a current of 10 A ? Given atomic mass of silver = 108, density of silver =10.5~10° kg m~°, charge on electron = 1.6 ~10°!°C and Avogadro's number = 6.023 x 10° per kg-atom. (Ans. 3.399 x 10" * ms”) When a potential difference of 1.5V is applied across a wire of length 0.2m and area of cross- section 0.3 mm?, a current of 2.4 A flows through the wire. If the number density of free electrons in the wire is 8.4 x 108 m~%, calculate the average relaxation time. Given that mass of electron =91x10 kg and charge on__ electron =16x10?C. (Ans. 4.51107! s) % HINTS | [=enAv, =1.6x 107? x85 x10 x10" x10-* 3. =1.36 A. me I si enA 16x10" x5x 10 x4x10°° =1.56 «10°? ms"*. fe EMS A 05x10 °m? =3.6 x10° Am™?. Current density, j = Drift speed, oie 36x10° > 4 on 16x10? x88x10 > en = 2.56 x10" 4 ms-*. 4. Relaxation time, t= CURRENT ELECTRICITY 3.21 as np 9.11% 10-3! (1.6 «10° 8 x84 «10 «1.7% 10°* =249 x10" 5. 5. Diameter of wire, D= 1.0mm =10-* m = 7.854 <10°7 m? eae 02 enA 1.6410" x84 x 10 «7.854 «10° = 1.895 x 10->ms~*. ; ; I 6. Drift velocity, v, = — NY a aA Sede 16x 10"? x10” x 1x 10" * =1.25 x10" * ms?. Required time, ¢ = 4 Se lI 8 vy 1.2510" 6x10? x5 x 107 «10° x3.14x(10°) = 1.326 x10" °ms"*. 8. As the two wires are connected in series, so current through each wire, I = 10 A. (i) Current density in copper wire, I os y 10x4 I= [pa 3.14 x (0.16 10> = 4,976 «10° Am~?. (i) Area of cross-section of aluminium wire, he xD? _ 3.14 (0.25 x10 Oe 4 4 =4.9x10"° m? I 10 = TTA 16x10 x10 x49x10 © =1.28x10 ‘ms’. 9. No. of atoms in 63 gram of copper = 6.023 x 107 No. of atoms in 8.9 gram or 1 cm* of copper 23 x 10 x 8.9 63 No. of atoms per m° of copper 6.023 x10 x 8.9 x 10° v Gy3.22 PHYSICS-XII Electron density, 6.023 x 10" x 8.9 x 10° na a x10" = 8.48 x10 m~3 Also 1=30 A, A= 2mm? =2x10-* m2, €=16x10°%C -. Drift velocity, OMe 4 enA 16x10" x 8.48 x10 x2%10°% =1.1x10°> ms", The rms velocity of electrons at 27°C (= 300 K) is given by 3x 1.38 x 10°? 9x10 7 =1.17 «10° ms}. The rms velocity is about 108 times the drift velocity. 10. Mass of silver wire, m= Alp =3.14 x10" ® x1x10.5 x10? No. of electrons per unit volume of silver, n= £023 x10" | 3.14 x 10.5 x 1073 Urms ae 108 3.14 x10°° x1 = 5.8557 x 1078 peek 4” enA - 10 ~ 16x10" «5.8557 x 10 x3.14x10-° = 3.399 x10-4 ms"? V_15V . E=— = =75Vm"!, ee 1 02m Current density, m. j 9.1x 10" *! x8 x 10° TT neE 84x10 x(1.6x10®)2 x75 =4.51x10°" 5, : LL3.32 PHYSICS-XII Solution. In the given circuit, the resistance of arm ACB (30 +30 = 60 Q)is in parallel with the resistance of arm AB(=30). Hence the effective resistance of the circuit is Rae 90 + . Determine the voltage drop across the resistor Ry in the circuit given below with € £60 V, R, =18.Q, R, =109. ICBSE OD 94 C] Solution. As the resistances R, and R, are in series, their equivalent resistance =5+10=159. 182 n= SN \ee Fig. 3.35 The series combination of R, and R, is in parallel with R,. Their equivalent resistance is 2 The combination R’ is in series with Ry. Total resistance of the circuit, R=6+18=240 e ee =25A R 24 Voltage drop across R, = IR, =2.5x18V =45V. . A letter A consis Current, [= s of a uniform wire of sis ohmper cm. The sides of the letter are each 20 cm long and the cross-piece in the middle is 10 cm long while the apex angle is 60°. Find the resistance of the letter between the two ends of the legs. [Himachal 98} Solution. Clearly, AB= BC =CD = DE= BD=10 cm R,=R, =R,=R, =10Q As R, and R; are in series, their combined resis- tance =10 + 10 =20. This combination is in parallel with R, (=10Q) Hence resistance between points Band D is given by Ala Sia S|- Fig. 3.36 Now resistances R,, Rand R, form a series com- bination. So resistance between the ends A and E is R’=10+ 2 +10 =26.672. E E G2. t of n identical resistors, each of resis- EXAMPLe 52. A se h of resi tance RQ, when connected in series have an effective resis- tance X Q and when the resistors are connected in parallel, their effective resistance is Y . Find the relation between R,X and Y. [CBSE D 96] Solution. The effective resistance of the n resistors connected in series is X=R+R+R+-.....n terms = nR The effective resistance Y of the m resistors connected in parallel is given by n +...m terms =— R or EXAMPLE 53. A parallel combination of three resistors takes a current of 7.5 A from a30 V supply. If the two resistors are 10Q and 12 Q, find the third one. [Punjab 91; Haryana 94] 4Q But or 11 aha or BAG aa. OR,=150. R, 4 Om ae Example 54. When a current of 05 A is passed through two resistances in series, the potential difference between the ends of the series arrangement is 12.5 V. On connecting them in parallel and passing a current of 1.5 A, the potential difference between their ends is 6V. Calculate the two resistances.eS Jution. For series combination, V =12.5V,I=0.5A So 12.5 For parallel combination, V =6.0 V, 1=1.5A R R= or i Ta PS Ry + Rees R, Ry = 4 (Ry + Ry) =4x 25 =100 (R, ~ Rp)” = (Ry + Ry 4B Ry = (25)* —4 x 100 =225 R, -R,=b (2) Solving (1) and (2), R, =20 Q, R, =5Q. orPo ee 3.34 PHYSICS-xi re e: e between A and B EXAMPLE 59. Find, in the given network of resistors, the Finally, resistance » equivalent resistance between the points A and B, between A => and D, and between A and C. ety 343 3 22. Solution. The resistors AD(=3Q)and DC(=7.9) are in series to give a total resistance R’ ‘Thus the effective resistance between A and B is 22. Eexampie 61. Find the effective resistance of the network resistance R’ Shown in Fig. 341 between the points A and B when (i) the the resistor AC(=109) A \ switch S is open (ii) switch S is closed. are in parallel. Their equi- joes 6a 120 valent resistance is Fig. 3.39 _ 10x10 S =59. 10+10 i 2 B RY Now R"(=5Q) and CB(=5Q) are in series, their total resistance R” =10Q. Finally, R”(=10Q) and 1220 62 AB(=10.)are in parallel between A and B. Hence the equivalent resistance between points A and B is Fig. 3.41 oe Solution. (i) When the switch S is open, the resis- 0+10 tances of 6 and 12 © in upper portion are in series, Similarly 39 15 the equivalent resistance is 18 Q. Similarly, resistances Smee Rapa ag St and Ryc =D. slower portion have equivalentreseeeeaataem Now the two resistances of 18 Q are in parallel between points A and B. ’. Effective resistance between points A and B EXAMPLE 60. Find the effective resistance between points A and B for the network shown in Fig. 3.40. Dis S26 yp) 18x18 _ a eo “18+18 : F (ii) When the switch S is closed, the resistances of 6Q and 12 Q on the left are in parallel. Their equivalent 3a 30 resistance is 6x12 —— =40 6+12 = Similarly, the resistances on the right have equivalent resistance of 42. Now the two resistances of 4Q are in series. Solution. At points A and D, a series combination of 3, 32 resistances (along AC and CD) is in parallel _*~ Effective resistance between points A and B with 6Q resistance (along AD), therefore, resistance =4+4=89. between A and D Exampcr 62, Calculate the current shown by the ammeter = 1 7-30 A in the circuit shown in Fig. 3.42. [CBSE OD 2000} + 343 6 oa Similarly, resistance between A and E 1 Sear 2 ‘a if 3+3 6 @) —— Resistance between A and F 1 Face 10V ie eee eos 16 Fig. 3.42Pike a eee CURRENT ELECTRICITY 3.35 solution. The equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 3.43, Total resistance =10 +20 =300 € 3 ~. Current in the circuit is [= = == =0.1A [a a crate = Ris ae P.D, across 20.0 resistor = RI «200.1 =2 *. Vy-Vy =2 +2 04V. P.D. across 109 resistor =10 x0.1=1V 30 5 Vy -Vy=1-5=-4V. Exampe 64. In the circuit shown in Fig. 3.46, find the potential difference across the capacitor. 10V 30 c E —_—_—_—_— Fig. 3-43 4k For the two 10 © resistances connected in parallel, 30 30 2 _10x 10 = equivalent resistance = cURaone Q i : For two such combinations conne ineeries, equivalent resistance =5 + 5=100 Now we have resistances of 59,109 and 5Q connected in parallel, so Fig. 3.46 Solution. In the steady state (when the capacitor is fully charged), no current flows through the branch CEF. The given circuit then reduces to the equivalent circuit shown in Fig, 3.47. 3a or Also Current, pxameLe_63. Find the potential difference between the aes A and B in, the circuit shown in Fig. 344. Internal stances of the dells-are negligible. yl 4 : Fig. 3.47 2V 200 The equivalent resistance of the circuit is =a 4 Ra ONO Es a 6+3 Fig. 3.44 Current drawn from the battery, Solution. Net emf =5-2=3V. This sends a 1-B¥ 3A current in clockwise direction as shown in Fig. 3.45. The point Bis at a higher potential than the point A. Current through branch BCD, I Fee eae >" 6+3 9 102 5y AQ < B Current through the arm DF =1=3 A A 2V 2a P.D. across the capacitor | = P.D. between points C and F pee ay, = P.D. across CD + P.D. across DF Fig, 3.45 =3x1+3x3=RV, a Ss ”3.36 PHYSICS-XII EXAMPLE 65. A battery of emf 10 V is connected to resistances as shown in Fig. 3.48. Find the potential difference between the points A and B. ICBSE OD 94} TOS as 30. Fig. 3.48 Ren 4x4 Solution. Total resistance, R= ~~~ =22 444 Current, 1=¥ =10Y 5 4 Reaz Ose As each of the two parallel branches has same resistance (4), so the current of 5A is divided equally through them. Current through each branch =5/2 =2.5A Now Vo -V, =25x1=25V and Vo ~Vp_=25%3=75V V4 — Vp = (Vo —Vg)—(Vo -V4) =75-25=5.0V. EXAMPLE 66. What is the equivalent resistance between points A and B of the circuit shown in Fig. 3.49 ? (IT 97] 2R 2R R Ae AWA ANA 8 c D Fig. 3.49 Solution. Obviously, the points A and D are equipotential points. Also, the points B and C are equal potential points. So the given network of resistances reduces to the equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 3.50. Fig. 3.50 The three resistances form a parallel combination. Their equivalent resistance R,, is given by 2 R SOR ORR OR: OR or R= R/2 Lp 67. 1n the circuit shown in Fig. 351, R, =1009, ae = 502, Ry =75 QandE =475 V. Work out the en Fe sece of circuit and the current tn each resistor, i .& A Fig. 3-51 : Solution. The resistances R,, R, and R, are in parallel. Their equivalent resistance R’ is given by gee 11,32) eee eR *k, 50 50 75 150 7 or R=F9 The resistance R, is in series with R’. Hence total resistance of the circuit is R=R, +R =10+2-72 9 The current [, is the current sent by the cell € in the whole circuit. oe ConA 1 R 45/4 Potential drop between A and B, V=1,R =004x 2 =075V This is the potential drop across each of the resis- tances R,, R, and R, in parallel. Therefore, currents through these resistances are and EXAMPLE 68, Find the equivalent resistance between the points A and B of the network of resistors shown in Fig. 3.52.ae onoC eee . The resist solution. The resistors Ry and Ry are in geriey, heir equivalent resistance 343-60, The 6 resistance is inp ont resistance 6x3 643 arallel with Ry, so that their equiva e209 Now the 2 © resistance is in series with R So the otal resistance of the upper portion =2 +3 =$9. cimilarly, total resistance of the lower portion. -52 Now we have three 5 resistors connected in jarallel between the points A and B. Hence the equi- sient resistance R of the entire network is given artes 2s eveany i 5 ramen EXAMPLE ©: Find the effective resistance between points A “nd B of the network of resistors shown in Fig, 3.53, Fig. 3-53 Solution. By symmetry, the potential drops across GC and GD are equal, so no current flows in the arm CD. Similarly, no current flows in the arm DE. Hence the resistances in the arms CD and DE are ineffective. The given circuit reduces to the equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 3.54 Fig, 3.54 CURRENT ELECTRICITY 3.37 Resistance of arm GH «r+ r=2r Resistance of arm If = 720 4%" ay rer oper Resistance of arm FK =r+r=2r The above three resistances are in parallel between points A and B and their equivalent resistance R is given by Be ht St pe Rear ray R=05r. ExAMPLe 70. A regular hexagon with diagonals is made of identical wires, each having same resistance r, as shown in Fig. 3.55. Find the equivalent resistance between the points A and B. xin Sore ane eo an Fig. 3.55 Solution. As shown in Fig. 3.56, the given hexagon has a line of symmetry C, C C,, So all points on this line have the same potential ie, potential at C, = potential at C = potential at C,. Hence the points C,, and C, can be made to coincide with each other. rf2\ 12 Fig. 3.56 After this is done, the circuit splits into identical parts, joined in series between the points A and B. One such part between A and C is shown in [Fig. 3.57(a)] which, in turn, is equivalent to the circuit shown in Fig. 3.57(b).3.40 PHYSICS. xi 16 Calculate the equivatent resistance between points Aand Bin each of the following networks of resistors (Ans. (@) 12.0 (b) 40/3.0 (c) 20 (@) 10/3. (e) 16.0 () 501 aa 4a 20 ho—— (@ (@) i beeen c Fig, 3.67 18. Find the equivalent resistance of the networks shown in Fig. 3.68 between the points A and B. [Ans. ‘r (4 (c)r] (i) ( Seen Fig. 3.66 17. Calculate the resistance between points A and B for the following networks : 2 4 R [Ans. (a) = Q (b) — 9 (c) = 2 (d) 6Q] 3 3 3 3 iil Fig. 3.68 19. Find the potential difference between the points A and B for the network shown in Fig, 3.69, (Ans. 8.0 V) Fig. 3.6920. In the circuit diagram shown in fi, 3. meter reads 30 V when connected acres we oe tance. Calculate what the same voltmeter reader it is connected across 3000 resistance she” UIT 99) (Ans. 2: if 2.5 V) 30V 20 30 2A 3002 400.0 c 5 —] 3a OV ces rae Bay ee Fig. 3.70 Fig. 3.71 21. Find the potential difference between points A and Bie, (V4 ~ Vp) in the network shown in Fig, 3,71. [Punjab 93] (Ans, 1 Vv) 22, Determine the voltage drop across the resistance R in the circuit given in Fig. 3.72 with E=90V R, =5kQ, R, =5kQ R, =10k Qand Ry =10kQ. ICBSE F 94} (Ans. 50 V) Fig. 3.72 Fig. 3.73 23. Find the equivalent resistance between points A and B in Fig. 3.73. (Ans. 7.5Q) ¢ 24. Letter A as shown in arn ois Fig. 3.74 has resis- tances on each side of B arm. Calculate the 109 152 total resistance bet- ween two ends of the A E legs. [Himachal 93) scene (Ans. 28.759) Fig. 3.74 25. Find the resistance between the points (i) A and B and (ii) A and C of the network shown in Fig. 3.75. {Ans. (i) 27.5 (ii) 30.9] 02 109 109 Ao B 102 De ic 102 109 100 Fig. 3.75 CURRENT ELECTRICITY 3.41 . A combination of four resistances is shown in Fig. 3.76. Calculate the potential difference between the points P and Q, and the values of currents flowing in the different resistances (Ans. 14.4 V, 0.8 A, 1.6 A) 109 Fig. 3.76 27. In Fig. 3.77, X, Y and Z are ammeters and Y reads 0.5 A. (i) What are the readings in ammeters X and Z ? (ti) What is the total resistance of the circuit ? [Ans. (i) 1.5 A, 1.0 A (i) 49) O5A Fig. 3.77 28. In the circuit shown in Fig. 3.78, the terminal voltage of the battery is 6.0 V. Find the current | through the 18 Q resistor. (Ans. 0.25 A) 62 8a 2a wag SEaeaal| 6.0V Fig. 3.78 29. In the circuit shown in Fig, 3.79, the battery has an emf of 12.0 V and an internal resistance of 5 R/ 11. If the ammeter reads 2.0 A, what is the value of R ? (Ans. 6)3.42 PHYSICS-XxII R=R, + Ry = 40+ 20-600 Fig. 3.80 30. Find the ammeter reading in the circuit shown in (i) Total resistance, Vv 60 os Jorn) The current in the wires, !=—_ = Gq = LOA: lv dl WF Potential differences between the ends of wires a ® HINTS 3. Total resistance =5 + °=70 son=3 n 4. Resistance per unit length of the wire 2 and b are V, =1xR, = 1.0 x 40=40V and V,=1*R,=1.0%20=20V Electric fields in the two wires are 40 _4.0Vm"! and (iii) The current in each wire is the same. Also, the area of cross-section of each wire is same. Hence the current-density in each wire is —=110m ! Va LetR’ e (444) <4 t R’ be the resistance that should be connected in 8 R=——— parallel to resistance, R = 2.20, so that effective (4+ 4)+ resistance, R, = 2.00. Then 9. Let the two resistances be R and 4 R. Then p= R*4R 300 or 4R=200 R+4R 5 R=25Q and 4R=1002 Leneth of thehrinenecdedes nia. 10. Resistance in branch ADC, 1 RR =3+7=102 5. When the wire of 15 Q resistance is stretched to This resistance is in parallel with the 10 Q resistance double its original length, its resistance becomes in branch AC. Their total resistance is | R'=1PR=(2) «15=600 = 10%10 Resistance of each half part = 60/2 = 300 “ 10+10 When the two parts are connected in parallel, their This 5Q resistance is in series with the 9Q resis- equivalent resistance = 22%29 _ 15.0. tance in branch AB. Their equivalent resistance is sitet R,=54+9=140 Current drawn from/S.03V battery, This 140 resistance is in parallel with the 5Q resistance in branch BC. Hence the equivalent resistance between B and C is | 6. «(l) _ 4x5 _ 70 | “i4+5 19 | 11. The circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 381, 1220 120 = (81-72 (2) On solving (1) and (2), R = 62 R, =32 at TD pm PA 1.0 x10°7 Om 7 20x 0 = 5.0x10-8 Om 40 " andp, Fig. 3.81CURRENT ELECTRICITY 3 Effective resistance R’ of four resistance: az s of each connected in parallel is given by eae 1) ieee de eee XR 2 2 2’ RD R'=39 Total resistance of the network, R= R'+ R'4 R'=34343-99 or Current in the circuit 1= 2 214, 99 Current through each resistor ape =-1=-=x1= qPagxts025a A 12. P.D. across 209 =P.D. across 309 eek sas eee Fig. 3. or I, x20= I, x30 Pa 1-20, 20 This resistance is in series with R, and R,. So the net or b= 3p b= 55 X24=1.6 A resistance is and = T= +1, =24+16=40A R= 30+ 6.67 + 30 = 66.672. 13. Equivalent resistance of the 59 and 200 resis- 16. (a) R=8+ aXe 20. tances connected in parallel =2~20 240 This i 5+ 20 10x5 40 (b) R=5+ bees resistance is connected in series with the rheostat a : whose minimum and maximum resistances are 0Q (R= (3+3)3 _ 20 and 302 Sto) PO AS ey ene oe at the minimum (d) All the three resistances are connected in ree aN Soret parallel between points A and B =—~=15A ys Weg ogee) 10 mx = ag ee at Rao 10 HO SIO. se When ine rheostat is sae at the maximum (c) The given network is equivalent to the net- resistance of 30.2, ce ie be minimum. work shown in Fig. 3.83, l= 10x15 R=10+ ~~ =160. (4+ 302 10+ 15 14. (i) When switch S is open, resistances of 59 and 102 are in series. 3V Current, [| =—————~ = 0.2 (5+ 102 (i) When switch $ is closed, no current flows through 109 resistance. Fig. 3.83 3V Current, =06A 15. Refer to Fig. 3.82. Clearly BC= CD= BD=10cm AB= DE=30cm R, = R, = R,=102 R= R,=300 Series combination of Ry and R, is in parallel with R.. Their equivalent resistance (10+ 10) «10 (10+ 10) +1 and (f) Resistance in branch ADC =2+4=62. This resistance is in parallel with 6Q resistance in arm AC Their equivalent resistance oo 50 646 The series combination of this 30 resistance and 7 resistance in arm BCis in parallel with 102 resistance in arm AB 1010 R=——= 10+ 10 52.3.19" INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF A CELL 34. What is internal resistance of a cell ? On what factors does it depend ? Internal resistance. When the terminals of a cell are connected by a wire, an electric current flows in the wire from positive terminal of the cell towards the negative terminal. But inside the electrolyte of the cell, the positive ions flow from the lower to the higher potential (or negative ions from the higher to the lower potential) against the background of other ions and neutral atoms of the electrolyte. So the electrolyte offers some resistance to the flow of current inside the cell The resistance offered by the electrolyte of a cell to the flow of current between its electrodes is called internal resistance of the cell. The internal resistance of a cell depends on following, factors : 1. Nature of the electrolyte. 2. Itis directly proportional to the concentration of the electrolyte. 3. It is directly proportional to the distance between the two electrodes. 4. It varies inversely as the common area of the electrodes immersed in the electrolyte. 5. It increases with the decrease in temperature of the electrolyte. The internal resistance of a freshly prepared cell is usually low but its valuc increases as we draw more and more current from it. 3.20 RELATION BETWEEN INTERNAL RESISTANCE, EMF AND TERMINAL POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE OF A CELL 35. Define terminal potential difference of a cell. Derive a relation between the internal resistance, emf and terminal potential difference of a cell. Terminal potential difference. The potential drop across the terminals of a cell when a current is being drawn from it is called its terminal potential difference (V). Relation between r, € and V. Consider a cell of emf € and internal resistance r connected to an external resistance R, as shown in Fig, 3.90. Suppose a constant current / flows through this circuit, By definition of emf, € = Work done by the cell in carrying a unit charge along the closed circuit :3.56 PHYSICS-XII f f the circuit ion. Effective emf o { If r is the total internal resistance of the four cells Solution. =€,-€, =8-4= 4v \ ed in parallel, then ircuit connected in parallel, th Total resistance of the circuit 6 é-v 2-16) _15 ag 7=R(&*)-75( a } sf 21405+459+ > erat aa If ris the internal resistance of each cell, then -Caent inthe crcul, 1=4=05 Current through 4.5. resistance = 1=05A o r=4r =4x Bo750 PD. across the parallel combination of 3 and 6 @ © =4r 4x 82750. 8 resistances 1S Exampre 91. Two cells E, and Ey of emfs 4V and 8 V having internal resistances 0.5.Q and 1.0.0 respectively are connected in opposition to each other. This combination is connected in series with resistances of 4.52 and 3.02. Another resistance is connected in parallel across the 30 oe eae Current through 60 resistance => = % (a) Draw the circuit diagram. (©) Caleate the total current flowing trough He suse og, In Fig, 3115, €, and €, are respectively cireuit (CBSEF 9% 2 VY and 4.0 V and the resistances %,m and R are Solution. (2) The circuit diagram is shown below. yectvely 1.0, 2.0. and 5.0. Calculate the current n the circuit. Also calculate (i) potential difference between the points b and a, (ii) potential difference between a and c, Fig. 3.113 Fig. 3.115 (b) As the resistances of 6 and3Q are in parallel with each other, their equivalent resistance is 6x3 other and €, >E,, so Gra ere Net emf =E, ~€, =4-2 =2v, This emf sends circuit I in the anticlockwise direction. Solution. As emfs €, and €, are opposing each R 6+3— Total resistance in the circuit =4.5+2+05+10=82 Net emf =8-4=4V Current, ]= : =O05A. Total resistance = R + 1, + 5 =5+14+2=89. Current in the circuit Net emf = _ 2 ozs a, EXAMPLE 92. In the circuit Total resistance 8 diagram given in Fig. 3.114, the cells E, and E, have emfs 4V and 8V and internal 4V,05Q 8V,10 resistances 0.5Q and 1.09 respectively. Calculate the current in each resistance. [CBSE OD 95¢] (i) Current inside the cell €, flows from —ve to +ve terminal, so the terminal p-d. of this cell is V.—-V=8,-h, = 40 -0.25x2.0=3.5 Vv. (i Neen inside the cell €, flows from +ve to -ve terminal. Mence the terminal pd. of this cell is emcee VV. =E + In Fig. 3.114 =2.0+0.25x 1.0=225 Vv.x 94. A network of resistances is com “pattery with internal resistance of 1, ¢, 3.116. (a) Compute equivalent resistance of the network, (b) Obtain the current in each resistor, and (c) Obtain the voltage drops V,_, Vac and Vop- nected to a as shown in CURRENT ELECTRICITY EXamre 95. 20 V battery of internal resistance 101 is connected to three coils of 12 0,601 and 401 in parallel, a resistor of 5 Q2 and a reversed battery (emf =8 V and internal resistance =2 02), as shown in Fig. 3.117. Calculate the Current in each resistor and the terminal potential difference across each battery. {CBSE OD 01C} Fig. 3.116 Solution. (a) As the two 4 Q resistances are in parallel, their equivalent resistance is 4x4 22 444 Also, the 12Q and 6 Q resistances are in parallel, their equivalent resistance is 12 22x64 2 12+6 Now the resistances R,, R, and1Q are in series. Hence the equivalent resistance of the network is or R=R,+R,+1=2+4+1=72. (b) The total current in the circuit is ;_ as = =——=2A R+r 7+1 The potential difference between A and B is Vip =41,=41 The potential difference between C and D is Vep =12 1 =6 1, ie, 1,=21y Vj = 4x 1, =4x1=4, Vic =1x [=1x2=2Y, Yep =12x 1, =12 5 = BY. Fig. 3.117 Solution. Equivalent resistance R’ of 12 2,62,40 resistances connected in parallel is given by Meat Sree eeicr Se toto 1226 ais 2 R R=29 Total resistance =1+5+2+2=10Q Net emf =20 -8 =12 or Current in the circuit, 1-3 =12A So the current through each battery and 5.Q resistor is12A. P.D. across the parallel combination of three resistors is V' = IR'=1.2%2=24V * Current in2 0 coil == =02 A Current in6Q coil= 4-04 A Current in 49 coil = "4-06 a. Terminal p.d. across 20 V battery, V =€-Ir=20-12%1=188V Terminal p.d. across 8 V battery, V =€'+ [7 =8+12x2=104V. EXAMPLE 96. 36 cells each of internal resistance 0,50 and emf 1.5 V each are used to send current through an external circuit of 2 Q resistance. Find the best mode of grouping them and the current through the external circuit. Solution. Here € =1,5 V,r=0.59, R=2Q Total number of cells, mn =36 Bae)ee 3.72 PHYSICS-XII Now. rests Total emf Total resistance 88 3+R 64 or 24+8R=88 or eaten (2) Power supplied by d.c. source = VI=100 Vx 8 A=800 W. (0) Power dissipated as heat *(R + r) =87(8 + 0.50 x 6) W = 64 11 W =704 W. (c) Power supplied by the d.c. energy stored in the battery in 15 min = (800 —704)W x 15 min =96 W x 900 s = 86400 J. EXAMPLE 130. Power from a 64V d.c. supply goes to charge a battery of 8 lead accumulators each of emf 2.0 V and internal resistance 1/8Q. The charging current also runs an electric motor placed in series with the battery. If the resistance of the windings of the motor is 7.0Q and the steady supply current is 3.5 A obtain (a) the mechanical energy yielded by the motor, (b) the chemical energy, stored in the battery during charging in Th. INCERT] Solution. emf of the battery, E,=20x8V=16V d.c. supply voltage, E, =64 V Internal resistance of the battery, r=1x809-10 8 Resistance of motor, R =7.02 Let back emf of motor, =€,, Both the back emf €,, of the motor and the emf e, of the battery act in the opposite direction of the supply emf €. Therefore, net current in the circuit must be Net emf Net resistance a gga ot dete 8 or €,, = 48-28 =20V. (@) Mechanical energy yielded by motor in 1h =€,, . It =20 x 3.5 x 3600 J = 252000 J. () Chemical energy stored in the battery in 1h =, . It =16 x 3.5 x 3600 J = 201600 J. Exampre sgt, A24 V battery of internal resistance 4,00 ig connected to a variable resistor. At what value of the curreny drawn from the battery is the rate of heat produced in the resistor maximum ? INCERT] Solution. Here &=24V, r=4.09 Let the variable resistor be R. The rate of heat produced in the resistor will be maximum when, External resistance = internal resistance or R=42 -. Required current, emf 24 A=3.0A. “Tesistance 4+ 4 Exampie 132. 4 cells of identical emf €, internal resistance r, are connected in series to a variable resistor. The following graph shows the variation of terminal voltage of the combination with the current output. (i) What is the emf of each cell used ? 5.6 (ii) For what current from zg 2 the celis, does maxi 3 4, mum power dissi- = pation occur in the 14 Seu? 05 10 15 20 (iii) Calculate the internal i anmereyes resistance of each Cell. smrememnomassonsomen [CBSE OD 06C] Fig. 3.130 Solution. When | =0, total emf = terminal voltage Internal resistance po li ¥ 14-07 I 1.0 The output power is maximum, when =0.79 external resistance = internal resistance = 4 r ___Totalemf __4€ mx Total resistance 4r + 4r é 14 => =~ "_-1A, YT 25007, EXAMPLE 13.3. Two batteries, each of emf € and internal resistance r, are connected in parallel. If woe take current from this combination in an external resistance R, then for” what value of R maximum power will be obtained ? What will be this power ? 3PNT NN ~ PROBLEMS FOR PRACTICE 1. Calculate the current flowing through a heater rated at 2 kW when connected to a 300 V d.c. supply. [CBSE F 94 C] (Ans. 6.67 A) 2. Calculate the amount of heat produced per second (in calories), when a bulb of 100 W — 220 V glows assuming that only 20% of electric energy is converted into light. J = 4.2 J cal™!, [Haryana 01] (Ans. 19,05 cal) 3. An electric heating element to dissipate 480 watts on 240 V mains is to be made from nichrome ribbon 1 mm wide and thickness 0.05 mm. Calculate the length of the ribbon required if the resistivity of nichrome is 1.1x 107° Qm. (Ans. 5.45 m) 4. 100 W, 220 V bulb is connected to 110 V source. Calculate the power consumed by the bulb. [Roorkee 86] (Ans. 25 W) 5. How many electrons flow per second through an electric bulb rated 220 V, 100 W ? [BIT Ranchi 98] (Ans. 2.84 x 10!%) 6. An ammeter reads a current of 30 A when it is connected across the terminals of a cell of emf 1.5 V.pseu 3.76 PHYSICS-xIV x 35. A series battery of 6 lead accumulators, each of emf 2.0 V and internal resistance 0.25.9 is charged by a 230 V d.c. mains. To limit the charging current, a series resistance of 53Q is used in the charging circuit. What is (i) power supplied by the mains (u) power dissipated as heat ? Account for the difference in the two cases. INCERT] (Ans. 920 W, 872 W) 36. A storage battery of emf 8 V, internal resistance 1, is being charged by a 120 V d.c. source, using a 15Q resistor in series in the circuit. Calculate (i) the current in the circuit, (1i) terminal voltage across the battery during charging, and (iti) chemical energy stored in the battery in 5 minutes. [CBSE 01, 08] [Ans. (i) 7 A, (ii) 15 V, (iii) 16800 J] 37. The following graph shows the variation of terminal potential difference V, across a combination of three cells in series to a resistor, versus the current, i: 60 (i) Calculate the emf of each cell > 30 (ii) For what current i, will the power dissipation of the circuit be maxi- i 10 201 mum? [CBSE OD 0s} (Ans. 2.0 V, 1.0 A) Fig, 3.138 HINTS 2kW — 2000W 1 ae —— DOO Ee era: Vv 300V-300V 2. Power of bulb, P= 100 W Electric energy consumed per second = 100) Amount of heat produced per second = 80% of 100] = 80J = s cal = 19,05 cal. y y ~ _ 240 x 240 _ 1200 P 480 Area of cross-section of the ribbon, A= 0.05 mm? = 0.05 x 10" ° m? Required length, 3. Power, P= R= | (oe Pp 4. Here P=100W, V =220V 220 Resistance of bulb, R= V— = 220*220 _ say P 100 When the bulb is connected to 110 V source, the power consumed by the bulb is pavataeetIOsct10 R484 Pp 25 Ww. If ris the internal resistance of the cell, then. 15 [== or r=7=35 = 0.050 (30)? «0.05 «10 42 7. Heat required by the coil = Thermal capacity x rise in temperature =4.0 «15 =60J Rate of production of heat, 2 Ve oe Ose lnm 100 = 107.14 cal, -—- 60J Oe Required time = 036Js7 036 x60 min = 28 min. 8. Here P=50kW =50x10°W, V =5000V Current supplied by generator, 122 0710 94 Vv 5000 Power wasted as heat during transmission by cables of 20 Q resistance, P= PR=(10)? x20= 2000 W =2kW Power received by the factory =P’ P=50-2=48 kW. 220 x 220 220 x 220 9. R= = 4840, R, = = 9680 Ratio of heats produced when connected in series, 10. Current drawn by radio (b) Current passing through fuse for the line = ei iyo 11. Let Rbe the resistance of each resistor and € the emf of the source, For series combination : R=R+R+R=3R v2 oR =60W. For parallel combination ; R, =R/3 Vesa Ae IV Pe les ean = A RRR x 60 =180 W.0.155 ae et et er cr nnn, 3.31" KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS Introductory concepts. In 1942, a German physicist Kirchhoff extended Ohm’s law to complicated circuits and gave two laws, which enable us to determine current in any part of such a circuit. Before under- standing these laws, we first define a few terms. 1. Electric network. The term electric network is used for a complicated system of electrical conductors. 2. Junction. Any point in an electric circuit where two or more conductors are joined together is a junction. 3. Loop or Mesh. Any closed conducting path in an electric network is called a loop or mesh. 4. Branch. A branch is any part of the network that lies between two junctions. 56. State the two Kirchhoffs laws for electrical circuits and explain them giving suitable illustrations. Also state the sign conventions used. Kirchhoff’s first law or junction rule. In an electric circuit, the algebraic sum of currents at any junction is zero. Or, the sum of currents entering a junction is equal to the sum of currents leaving that junction. Mathematically, this law may be expressed as x I=0| | 3.82 PHYSICS-xII nd EXAMPLE 139. Two cells of emfs 1.5 V and oO internal resistances 1Q and 2 Q respectively are 4 ey in parallel so as to send current in the same ie el through an external resistance of 5Q. [CBSE OD 95, () Draw the circuit diagram. (ii) Using Kirchhoff ’s laws, calculate a (a) current through each branch of the circuit. (b) p.d. across the 5.Q resistance. Solution. (i) The circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 3.149. wale $30 Fig. 3.149 (Ht) (@) Let 1, and 1, be the currents as shown in Fig. 3.149. Using Kirchhoff’s second law for the loop AFCBA, we get or 2h -1, =0: For loop CFEDC, we have 1h, + 5(1, + 1) =€, =15 or 51, +6h =15 (2) Solving equations (1) and (2), we get l= x A b= -. Current through branch BA, h=2a 34 Current through branch CF, 9 1L=—A “ 34 (1) Current through branch DE, h+h= a 34 (&) P.D. across the 5 0 resistance =(1 +)x 5-0x 5V=147Vv. ExAMvLé 140. Find the current flowing through each cell in the circuit shown in Fig. 3.150. Also calculate the potential difference across the terminals of each cel. & wy 12 < é, By e sv 20 /, ly & BV 19 — Fig. 3.150 ii se the currents in the ey Ey ae ape APD Ki first fawrat the junction B, we get I++ =0. Applying Kirchhoff’s second law to the AE, BE, A, we have 1, x1-1,*2=(10-4) 1-21, =6 Similarly, from the closed loop AE, BE, A, we 1,x2-I,x1=4-13 or 2-1 But from equation (1), we have 1,=-(1, +1) 21+(1,+l)=-9 or 1,+31,=-9. Solving equations (2) and (3), we get [,=0 and 1,=-3A 1, is negative. It means that the direction of opposite to the direction indicated in Fig. 3.150, From (1), I,=-(,+1,)=3A Thus, the current in the 10 V cell is zero. The current given by the 13 V cell to the circuitis3 A, and the current taken by the 4 V cell from the circuit is3 A, As there is no current in the 10 V cell, so the Potential difference across its ends is equal to its emf. i.e, 10 V. Since all the three cells are in Parallel, the potential difference across the terminals of each is10V. Exapce 141. Three batteries of emfs 9, 10 and 12 V and internal resistances of 1, 2 and 30 respectively are connected in parallel with each other. The combination sends Current through an external resistance of 69. Find the current through 6 Q resistance and through each battery, Solution. The circuit arrangement is shown in — Fig. 3.151. Let 1, I, and I, be the currents drawn from — the three batteries. Applying Kirchhoff’s first law at junction A, we get 45 h+h+h T3.84 PHYSICS-XiI (® Applying Kirchhoff’s first law at junction D, we get T=1,+1, wai) Applying Kirchhoff’s second law to loop ADBA we 21+1+21,=2-1 31421, =1 Ail) Applying Kirchhoff’s second law to loop DCBD 31, + 1,-2h =3-1 41, -21,=2 On solving equations (i), (if) and (iii), I get =~ A= 5 Aand 1-3 A or sa(tit) or P.D. between the points Band D, 2 V,=i,x2==Vv. Bers a3 (i) P.D. between the terminals of G (giving current), Vv, =€-1, r=3-£x3=1615V 13 P.D. between the terminals of H (taking current), V, = € + hy =1+ 51-146 V. EXamprr 144. In a Wheatstone bridge, P=1Q, Q=2Q, R=2.9,5=3Q and R, =49. Find the current through the galvanometer in the unbalanced position of the bridge, when a battery of2 V and internal resistance 2 Q is used. Solution. The circuit for the given Wheatstone bridge is shown in Fig. 3.155. Let J, 1, and I, be the currents as shown. (4-4) Fig. 3.155 Applying Kirchhoff ‘s second law to loop ABDA, we get, 1 x1+1,x4-(I-1,)x2=0 or 31, -21+41, =0 +(1) Applying Kirchhoff ’s second law to Io t oy 1 yx2-(= 5, + 1,)*x3-1,%4=0 ee 51, -31-91, =0 Applying Kirchhoff ‘s second law to e get i wee =n) +-h+ |) ieee - -51, +71+31,=2 Adding (2) and (3), 41-61, =2 Multiplying (1) by 5 and (2) by 3 and we get -1+471,=0 oF From (4), 4x471,-6l,=2 or 182 1,=2 EXAMPLE 145. The four arms of a Whetstone (Fig. 3.156) have the following resistances : AB=1000, BC =1092, CD=5 and DA=605 A galvanometer of 15 Q resistance is connected BD. Calculate the current through the galvanometer Fig. 3.156 Solution. Applying Kirchhoff’s second law BADB, we get 1001, + 151, ~601, =0 201, +31, -121,=0 Considering the loop BCDB, we get 10(1-1,)-151, ~5 (1, + 1,)=0 101, ~301, - 51, =0 to 21, -61,-1, =03.18 PHYSICS_xII 22. Alloys of metals have greater resistivity than their constituent metals. Why ? High resistivity of nichrome. In an alloy, e.g., nichrome (Ni -— Cr alloy), Ni?* and Cr3* ions have different charge and size. They occupy random locations relative to each other, though their ionic sites form a regular crystalline lattice. An electron, therefore, Passes through a very random medium and is very frequently deflected. So there is a small relaxation time and hence large resistivity. In general, alloys have more resistivity than that of their constituent metals. aon 6mm at? yl to:Very Short Answer Conceptual Problems Problem 1. Is electric current a scalar or a vector Problem 2. Is a wire carrying current charged ? quantity ? Give reason. Solution. No. The current in a wire is due to flow of Solution. Electric current is a scalar quantity. The electrons in a definite direction. reason is that laws of ordinary algebra are used to add At any instant, the wire has as much negative charges electric currents and laws of vector addition do not apply as the positive charges. to the addition of electric currents. i‘Bee 3.116 PHYSICS-XI 7 sa! Problem 3. A steady current is flowing ina cylindrical, conductor. fs there any electric field within the conductor? “olution. s. It is under the influence of the electric fiele only that the free electrons flow inside the conductor and constitute the eléctric current. e Problem 4. How is current kept continuous inside a conductor ? Solution. By maintaining a potential difference between the two ends of the conductor. Problem 5. For the flow of electricity through gases, they should be better exposed to some high energy radiations like X-rays. Why ? Solution. High energy radiations cause ionisation of gases ; the resulting positive ions and electrons increase the conductivity of gases. Problem 6. Does the emf represent a force or poten- tial energy or work done per unit charge or potential difference ? Does emf have electrostatic origin ? Solution. The term emf is a misnomer. Literally, emf means the force that pushes the electrons in a circuit. Since emf does not have simple electrostatic origin, so the concept of potential is not strictly applicable. It has the nature of work done per unit charge and not that of force. Problem 7. What is thi and resistor ? Solution. The property by virtue of which a material opposes the flow of current through it, is called resistance and any material that has some resistance is called a resistor. Problem 8. What is the diffe: and resistivity 2 e difference between resistance rence between resistance Solution. Resistance of a conductor is the ratio of the Potential difference applied across its ends to the current flowing through it. Resistance of a conductor depends on its shape and size and also on the nature of its material. Resistivity of a material is the resistance offered by a unit cube of that material. It depends on the nature of the material and on the physical conditions like temperature and pressure. : = Problem 9. What is the cause of resistance of a conductor ? Solution. While drifting, the free electrons collide with the ions and atoms of the conductor, i.e., motion of the electrons is opposed during the collisions, This is the basic cause of resistance in a conductor, Problem 10. Resistivities of copper, constantan and silver are 1.7100 m, 39.1*10°°0 m and 16 x10 °Qm, respectively. Which has the best conductivity ? ICBSE D 96C} Solution. Conductivity = —— y Resistivity As silver has the lowest resis tivity, so it has the best conductivity. f free el jem 11, A large number o} i arate on on ee of electric field across it i Solution. In the absence ofan electric fet ofthe electons in a metals random, There ing of charge across any section o} I. rrent flows in the metal a Problem 12. Two wires of equal lengths, one, and the other of manganin have the = Which wire will be thicker ? [Haryana 94 ; CBSE = ooae For both wires R and / are same and I Solution. As R=p Propper “Parasgatt Avopper < Amanganin ie, manganin wire is thicker than copper wire, Problem 13. Ifa wire is stretched to double its o length without loss of mass, how will the resis the wire be influenced ? [Haryana 98 ; CBSE Solution. The resistivity of a wire depends its resistivity. Problem 14. Two wires of equal cross-sectional one of copper and other of manganin have the resistance. Which one will be longer ? ICBSE | ‘ Rot 12 RA Solution. As Sioa =a For both wires Rand A are same and Reopens Prnangeret I el manganin ie, copper wire is longer than manganin wire, Problem 15. There are two conductors A and B of the same material, having lengths land 21; and having r and r/2 respectively. What is the ratio of Tesistances ? (CBSE D /-5(3h-a {2 Eu ) a ny a a 1:8 Problem 16. Two wires A and B are of same n have the same area of cross-section and have the lengths in the ratio 2; 1, What will be the ratio igh them respectively when ce is applied across the length I r/2 r Solution. S — Bo same potential differen each of them ? Rane For the two wires p, A and V are same, the 1 Solution. Current, |problem 17. Two wires A and B of the same metal and of the same length have their areas of cross-section in the ratio of 2: 1. If the same potential difference is ir plied across each wire in turn, what will be the ratio of the currents flowing in A and B? [CBSE D 98) y solution. Currenbfimnanaias 7 R pl For the two wires p, land V are same, therefore laA Hence = problem 18. Draw a graph to show the variation of resistance a metal wire as a function of its diameter, keeping, length and tempe- rature constant. Solution. 1 4 t R= =p — PAP a a, ie Ray DO Hence the graph of Ro __ D> versus Dis of the form shown Fig. 3.249. in Fig. 3.249. Problem 19. The current flowing through a con- ductor is 2 mA at 50 V and 3 mA at 60 V. Is it an ohmic or non-ohmic conductor ? [CBSE F 94] Solution. The resistances in the two cases are es 1 ae = 250002 A, 210 R= 22 = ©, = 200009 2 eapalOme ‘As the resistance changes with current, so the given conductor is non-ohmic. Problem 20. Why do we use copper wires as connecting wires ? Solution. This is because copper has a high electrical conductivity. Problem 21. Does the value of resistance of a conductor depend on the potential difference applied across it or the current passed through it ? Solution. The resistance of conductor is constant provided the potential difference applied or current passed is not large. Problem 22. Is the formula V= IR true for non-homic resistance also ? Solution. Yes, the formula defines resistance and not Ohm’s law. Problem 23. Is V = IR Ohm's law ? Give correct form of Ohm's law. Solution. V = [Ris not Ohm's law. It only defines and gives value of resistance R. It is Ohm's relation. V « I, is Ohm's law. Problem 24. How does the drift velocity of electrons in a metallic conductor vary with the increase in temperature ? [CBSE OD 2000C ; D 02) Solution. The drift velocity decreases because of the increase in collision frequency of free electrons at higher temperature. Problem 25. If the temperature of a good conductor increases, how does the relaxation time of electrons in the conductor change ? [CBSE OD 02] Solution. With the increase in temperature, the electrons collide more frequently with positive metal ions. So their relaxation time decreases. Problem 26. If potential difference V applied across a conductor is increased to 2 V, how will the drift velocity of the electrons change ? ICBSE OD 2000C] ebx eVir Pare reagan Clearly, when V is increased to 2 V, drift velocity also gets doubled. Problem 27. A certain potential difference Vis applied across a conductor. If another conductor is connected in parallel with it, what happens to the drift velocity ? Solution. Drift velocity remains unchanged. Problem 28. When we switch on an electric bulb, it lights up almost instantaneously though drift velocity. of electrons in copper wires is very small. Give reason. “Solution. When the electric circuit is closed, electric field is set up throughout the circuit almost instantly with the speed of light. Electrons in every part of the circuit begin to drift in the opposite direction of electric field. A current starts flowing in the circuit almost instantaneously. Problem 29. Of metals and alloys, which have greater value of temperature coefficient of resistance. [Punjab 99C ; Haryana 99 ; CBSE D 95C] Solution. Metals have greater value of temperature coefficient of resistance than alloys. Problem 30. Write two special characteristics of manganin due to which it is used in making standard resistances. [CBSE D 94, 95] Solution. (i) The temperature coefficient of resistance for manganin is low. (ii) Manganin has a high value of resistivity. Solution. Drift velocity, Problem 31. Name any one material having a small value of temperature coefficient of resistance. Write one use of this value. Solution. Alloy like nichrome has a very small value of temperature coefficient of resistance (a =1,7« 10° °C-'). For this reason, it is used to make standard resistances.3.118 PHYSICS-xiI Problem 32. Light from a bathroom bulb gets dimmer for a moment when the geyser is switched on. Why ? [Haryana 95] Solution. The current drawn by the high powered geyser from the supply initially lowers the voltage for a moment until the voltage gets stabilised by the transmission grid, Problem 33. When a motor car is started, the car lights become slightly dim, why ? Solution. When a motor car is started, its starter takes a high current from the battery, so a large potential drop (V = Current x internal resistance) occurs at the terminals of the battery and the bulbs get dim. Problem 34. A carbon resistor is marked in coloured bands of red, black, orange and silver. What is the resistance and the tolerance value of the resistor? [CBSE OD 02] Solution. Red Black Orange _ Silver L 4 t 2 0 3 + 10% R= 20 10° Q Tolerance = + 10% Problem 35. A carbon resistor of 47kQ is to be marked with rings of different colours for its identifi- cation. Write the sequence of colours. [CBSE D 94] Solution. Here R = 47k = 471070 Colours sequence is : Yellow, Violet, Orange. Problem 36. Is internal resistance a defect of acell ? Solution. Yes, because a part of the electrical energy obtained from the cell is used in sending current through the interior of the cell itself due to its internal resistance. Problem 37. Why is the terminal voltage of a cell less than its emf ? Solution. This is because a part of the emf is con- sumed in doing work against the internal resistance of the cell (V =€ - Ir), Problem 38. You are given a primary and a secon- dary cell of the same emf. From which cell will you be able to draw larger current and why? [CBSE OD 94] Solution. The internal resistance of a Primary cell is more than that of a secondary cell, so a secondary cell will provide a larger current. Problem 39. A car battery has an emf of 12 V. Eight ordinary cells connected in series can also supply 12 V. But we do not use such an arrangement of cells in the car. Why ? Solution. Eight cell arrangement cannot provide the high current needed to start the car engine because it has a high internal resistance of about 109 while the internal resistance of a car battery is just 019. does the conductivity of Problem 40. Why 3 conductor increase with rise of temperature ? semi. [CBSE Sample Paper 199) i increases, covalent tion. As temperature increases, cov be; se baal in the semiconductor, setting free more and ee electrons. So the conductivity increases, Problem 41. A uniform wire of resistance 200 is cut . rts are Now connected in, two equal parts. These pa paral What will be the resistance of the combination? ICBSE OD o2¢) Solution. Resistance of each part = 20/2=109 10x10 10+ 10 Resistance of the parallel combination = 5a. Problem 42. Why resistance becomes more in series combination ? Solution. In series combination, the effective length of conductor increases. As R «I, so resistance increases, Problem 43. Why resistance becomes less in parallel combination ? Solution. In parallel combination, the effective area of cross-section of the conductor increases. As Rx 1/ A, so resistance decreases. Problem 44. Why is a potentiometer named so ? Solution. Because it is used to measure potential difference. Problem 45. State the principle of working of a potentiometer. [Haryana 2000 ; CBSE F 09} Solution. A potentiometer works on the principle that when a steady current flows through a wire of uniform cross-section and composition, the potential drop across any length of the wire is directly proportional to that length. Problem 46. Why should the potentiometer wire be of uniform cross-section and composition ? Solution. Only then it will have same resistance per unit length throughout. Then potential difference will be Proportional to length of the wire, as required by the principle of potentiometer. Problem 47. Why should the material of the potentiometer wire be of high specific resistance ? Solution. This makes the resistance of the entire length of the wire sufficiently large and hence for a given current, there is an appreciable potential drop, Problem 48, Why should the material of the potentiometer wire be of low temperature coefficient of resistance ? Solution. A material having low temperature coefficient of resistance ensures that its resistance does not change appreciably due to heating, Problem 49. Of which material is a potentiometer wire normally made and why ? (Punjab 97)Solution. The potentiometer wire is usually made of yn alloy such as nichrome or manganin. Such an alloy has high resistivity and Jow temperature coefficient of resistance, Problem 50. Can we use copper wire as a potentio- meter wire ? . Solution. No. Resistivity of copper is small, so there will not be an appreciable potential drop across the ends of potentiometer wire. Also temperature coefficient of resis tance of copper is large. Problem 51. Why should the current be not passed through potentiometer wire for a long time 7 Solution. This will heat up the potentiometer wire and will change its resistance, Potential drop per unit length of the wire will also change. Problem 52. What type of cell should be used in the main circuit of the potentiometer and why ? Solution. A Leclanche cell should be used in the main circuit of the potentiometer. This is because of the fact that Leclanche cell is useful, when the current is drawn for a short time. Problem 53. The emf of the cell used in the main circuit of the potentiometer should be more than the potential difference to be measured. Why ? Solution. If it is not so, the balance point will not be obtained on the potentiometer wire. Problem 54. Why should the jockey be not rubbed against the potentiometer wire ? Solution. Rubbing of jockey against the potentiometer wire affects the uniformity of the cross-sectional area of the wire and hence changes the potential drop across the wire. Problem 55. What is meant by the sensitivity of a potentiometer ? [CBSE D 03} Solution. A potentiometer is said to be sensitive if (ij) itcan measure very small potential differences, and (ii) for asmall change in potential difference being measured, it shows a large change in balancing length. Problem 56. How can the sensitivity of potentio- meter be increased ? Solution. The sensitivity can be increased by reducing the potential gradient. This can be done by (i) increasing the length of the wire and (ii) by reducing the current in the main circuit. Problem 57. How can you make a potentiometer of given wire length more sensitive using a resistance box ? [Haryana 94] Solution. This can be done by introducing some resistance in the circuit through the resistance box. This decreases the current in the circuit. Consequently, the potential gradient decreases and hence sensitivity of the potentiometer increases. Problem 58. Why do we prefer a potentiometer with a longer bridge wire ? {CBSE OD 98) Solution. A potentiometer with a longer bridge wire has a small potential gradient. Consequently, it is more sensitive and hence preferred, Problem 59. Why is a ten-wire potentiometer more sensitive than a four-wire one 7 Solution. This is because potential gradient for ten- wire potentiometer is smaller than that for a four-wire one. Problem 60. Why is a Wheatstone bridge so called ? Solution, It is so called because this method was first suggested by a British physicist, Sir Charles F. Wheatstone in 1843. It is called a bridge because the galvanometer circuit forms a kind of bridge by connecting two points having the same potential. Problem 61. When is a Wheatstone bridge said to be balanced ? Solution. A Wheatstone bridge is said to be balanced if no current flows through its galvanometer arm. When the Wheatstone bridge is balanced, = Problem 62. What do you mean by sensitiveness ofa Wheatstone bridge ? Solution. A Wheatstone bridge is said to be sensitive if it produces more deflection in the galvanometer for a small change of resistance in resistance arm. Problem 63. When is Wheatstone bridge most sensitive ? Solution. When all the four resistors P, Q, Rand Sare nearly of the same magnitude. Problem 64. Why is a slide wire bridge or metre bridge named so ? Solution. As in it a jockey is made to slide over the bridge wire to get a null point, so it is called a slide-wire bridge. As it uses one metre long wire, so it is called a metre bridge. Problem 65. Why should we get the null point in the middle of the metre bridge wire ? Solution. The metre bridge is most sensitive when the four resistances forming the Wheatstone bridge are equal. This is possible only if the balance point is somewhere near the middle of the wire. Problem 66. What is the end error in a metre bridge? Solution. The end error in a metre bridge is due to the following reasons : (i) The zero mark of the scale provided along the wire may not start from the position where the bridge wire leaves the copper strip and 100 cm mark of the scale may not end at position where the wire touches the copper strip. (ii) The resistance of copper wires and copper strips of metre bridge has not been taken into account.3.120 PHYSICS-XII Problem 67. What are the advantages of a Wheat- stone bridge method of measuring resistance over other methods ? Solution. (i) It is a null method, hence the result is free from the effect of extra resistances (cell resistances) of the Grcuit. (ii) Being null method, it is easier to detect a small change in deflection than to read a deflection directly. Problem 68. Why are the connecting resistors in a metre bridge made of thick copper strips ? Solution. Thick copper strips offer minimum resistance and hence avoid the error due to end resistance which have not been taken into account in the bridge formula. Problem 69. Why is Wheatstone bridge (or metre bridge) method considered unsuitable for the measure- ment of very low resistances ? Solution. For measuring low resistance, all other resistances used should have low value to ensure the Sensitivity of the bridge. This requires a galvanometer of very low resistance which itself would be very sensitive. Also, the end-resistances and resistances of connecting Wires become comparable to the resistance being measured and introduce error in the result. Problem 70. Why is metre bridge method considered unsuitable for the measurement of very high resistance ? Solution. For measuring high resistance, all other resistances forming the bridge should also be high so as to ensure the sensitivity of the bridge. But this reduces the current through the galvanometer which becomes insensitive. Problem 71. Why is Wheatstone bridge method suitable for comparing the resistances of the same order of magnitude ? ICBSE F 99] Solution. Metre bridge is based on the principle of Wheatstone bridge which is most sensitive when all the resistances are nearly of the same magnitude, So metre bridge is suitable for comparing the resistances of the same order of magnitude. Problem 72. What happens if the galvanometer and cell are interchanged at the balance point of the bridge ? Would the galvanometer show any current ? Solution. When galvanometer and cell are inter- changed, condition for balance of the bridge remains satisfied. So gal ‘anometer will show no current. Problem 73. Three resistors have resistances 2, 3 and 40 If they are connected to the same battery in turn, in which case the power dissipated will be maximum ? [CBSE D 92] Solution. P=». For a given V, Px R R Hence power dissipation will be maximum for the 2 resistor. ant voltage is applied eas “tniform metalic wie. HeatQ developed in it another wire, double the rads and twice the length is used, how ude will be developed in it ? ae Solution. Heat produced, When wire of double radius and twice the length ig used, heat produced is Problem 75. Two wires A and B of the same material and having same length, have their cross-sectional areas in the ratio 1: 4. What would be the ratio of heat produced in these wires when same voltage is applied across each ? [CBSE Sample Paper 1997] Solution. The resistances of the two wires can be written as _ol cols Rh iat 4A Rig Ry Problem 76. The element of the heater is very hot while the wires carrying current are cold, why ? Solution. Heat produced, H = [7 Rt. Both heater element and conducting wires carry same current. But the heater element becomes very hot due to its high resistance and the conducting wires remain cold due to their low resistance. Problem 77. Though same current flows through the clectric line wires and the bulb filament, yet only the filament glows, Why ? Solution, The bulb filament has a much higher resistance than the electric line wires, Current passed through the high resistance filament produces a large amount of heat (H = [?Rt) and makes it glow, Problem 78. The temperature of the filament of an electric bulb is 2700°C when it glows. Why is it not burnt up at such a high temperature ? Solution, This is because the lamp’s filament has high melting point and is held in an atmosphere of inert gases which prevent its oxidation. Problem 79. A toaster produces more heat than a light bulb when connected in Parallel to the 220 V mains. Which has a greater resistance ? ICBSE OD 2000C}