1. What Is a Solution?

A solution is a type of homogeneous mixture that is made up of two or more substances. A homogeneous
mixture is a type of mixture with a uniform composition. This means that the substances cannot be
distinguished easily from one another.
Some examples of solutions are salt water, rubbing alcohol, and sugar dissolved in water. When you look
closely, upon mixing salt with water, you can't see the salt particles anymore, making this a homogeneous
mixture.
Let's make use of our salt water example to talk about the two main parts of a solution. These are:

 Solute: this is the substance that makes up the minority of the solution, or this is the part that is
dissolved. In our example of salt water, the solute is the salt.
 Solvent: this is the substance that makes up the majority of the solution. This is the part where the
solute is dissolved. In our example of salt water, the solvent is water.

When we think about solutions, the first thing we think about is a substance dissolved in water. This is natural
because after all, water is the universal solvent. However, solutions are not limited to the liquid phase.
Solutions can exist in the gaseous phase - the air we breathe is a solution that is composed of a mixture of
gases. Solutions are also present in the solid phase - brass is a solid solution that is a mixture of copper and
zinc. In the next section, we'll discuss what the different types of solutions are in different phases.

Types of Solutions - Solid, Liquid, and Gas

Solutions exist in solid, liquid, and gas phases with different combinations. The solute and the solvent mix
completely and evenly, so these are still classified as solutions. Here are the different types of phase
combinations with examples for each:
Solid solutions: the solvent is solid

 Solid - solid: A solid solute is mixed with a solid solvent. Examples are brass, which is composed of
zinc and copper, and steel, which is composed of carbon and iron.
 Gas - solid: A gas solute in a solid solvent. An example is hydrogen (solute) dissolved in palladium
(solvent).

Liquid solutions: the solvent is liquid

Solutions in science
As previously learned, solutions are homogeneous, or equal throughout, and contain a solute and solvent. As a
reminder, the solute is present in less amount than the solvent. Solutions are found in our everyday life and can
be prepare din laboratory settings for scientific experiments.

Questions
1. Jack was preparing his morning coffee. He adds hot water to coffee round to extract a liquid from the
grounds containing caffeine and other relevant compounds. Jack adds sugar to his coffee which full dissolves
and makes it sweeter to taste. Is his cup of coffee considered a solution?
2. In the scenario above what is the solute and what is the solvent?
3. Jane is drinking a root beer soda. Is she drinking a solution? If so, what is the solute and solvent?
4. Janet added some olive oil to a cup of water. Is this considered a solution? Why or why not?
Discussion
1. Yes, his coffee is a homogeneous solution since the sugar is dissolved in the coffee.
2. The solvent is water as it is present in the largest amounts picking up trace components as it passes through
the coffee grounds. The solute is sugar as it is dissolved in a small amount within the solvent.
3. Yes she is. In this case, a carbonated beverage is made by adding carbon dioxide to water in order to form
bubbles. The solvent in the soda would be the water while the solvent would be the carbon dioxide since it is
dissolve din small amounts relative to the water.
4. No it is not a solution. Oil and water are not miscible, therefore the mixture would not be homogeneous.

2. The molecular weight of carbon dioxide (CO2) is 44 (1 C + 2 O = 12

+32). So, one mole of CO2 has a mass of 44 grams. Divide 88 g by the
44 g/mol and you get 2 moles.

3. Chemical Bonds
Atoms can form several types of chemical bonds. These bonds are interactions between two
atoms that hold the atoms together. It is important to understand the various types of bonds
because they help determine how different molecules function within an organism. There are
four types of bonds or interactions: covalent, ionic, hydrogen bonds, and van der Waals
interactions.

Covalent Bonds
Another type of strong chemical bond between two or more atoms is a covalent bond. These
bonds form when an electron is shared between two elements. Covalent bonds are the
strongest (*see note below) and most common form of chemical bond in living organisms.

The hydrogen and oxygen atoms that combine to form water molecules are bound together
by strong covalent bonds. The electron from the hydrogen atom shares its time between the
hydrogen atom and the oxygen atom. In order for the oxygen atom to be stable, two electrons
from two hydrogen atoms are needed, hence the subscript “2” in H 2O. H2O means that there
are 2 hydrogen atoms bonded to 1 oxygen atom (the 1 is implied below the O in the chemical
formula). This sharing makes both the hydrogen and oxygen atoms more chemically stable.

Ionic Bonds
Atoms normally have an equal number of protons (positive charge) and electrons (negative
charge). This means that atoms are normally uncharged because the number of positively
charged particles equals the number of negatively charged particles. When an atom does not
contain equal numbers of protons and electrons, it will have a net charge. An atom with a net
charge is called an ion. Positive ions are formed by losing electrons. Negative ions are
formed by gaining electrons. Atoms can lose and donate electrons in order to become more
stable.

Hydrogen Bonds
Ionic and covalent bonds are strong bonds that require considerable energy to break.
However, not all bonds between elements are ionic or covalent bonds. Weaker bonds can
also form. These are attractions that occur between positive and negative charges that do not
require much energy to break. Two weak bonds that occur frequently are hydrogen bonds
and van der Waals interactions. These bonds give rise to the unique properties of water and
the unique structures of DNA and proteins.

van der Waals Interactions

Like hydrogen bonds, van der Waals interactions are weak attractions or interactions
between molecules. They occur between polar, covalently bound, atoms in different
molecules. Some of these weak attractions are caused by temporary partial charges formed
when electrons move around a nucleus. These weak interactions between molecules are
important in biological systems.

4. The total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus is called mass number of the
atom. It is generally represented by the letter A.
Mass Number(A) = Number of Protons + Number of Neutrons 
As given, the atom of an element contains 10 protons and 12 neutrons , therefore,
mass number = 10 + 11 = 22

So, the mass number of the element is 21.

5. a. The reaction releases energy to its surroundings.
6. During ____, the chromosomes attach to the spindle and align at the metaphase plate
of the spindle.
c. metaphase
22. Conversions between atmospheres and torrs.

Conversions definition

What is an atmosphere (atm)?

An atmosphere (or standard atmosphere) is a non-SI unit of Pressure. The symbol for
atmosphere is atm. There are 0.00131579 atmospheres in a torr.

What is a torr (Torr)?

A torr is a non-SI unit of Pressure. The symbol for torr is Torr. There are 760 torrs in an
atmosphere.

Conversion formula
Let's take a closer look at the conversion formula so that you can do these conversions yourself
with a calculator or with an old-fashioned pencil and paper.
The formula to convert from atm to Torr is:

Torr = atm x 760

Conversion example
Next, let's look at an example showing the work and calculations that are involved in converting
from atmospheres to torrs (atm to Torr).

Atmosphere to Torr Conversion Example

Task: Convert 8 atmospheres to torrs (show work)

Formula:
atm x 760 = Torr

Calculations:
8 atm x 760 = 6,080 Torr

Result:
8 atm is equal to 6,080 Torr
After two half-lives, 75% of the original parent atoms have been transformed into daughter
products (thus, only 25% of the original parent atoms remain). After three half-lives, only 12.5%
of the original parent atoms remain. As more half-lives pass, the number of parent atoms
remaining approaches zero.