1) What is the function of the Pack Controller (PC)?

Describe how the PC contributes to the

operation of the Airbus A320 air conditioning system. Refer to Figure 1. [20 points]

The Pack Controller (PC) in the air conditioning system of the Boeing 777 aircraft is responsible for
controlling and regulating the flow and temperature of conditioned air to the cabin. The PC acts as a
control unit for the air cycle machine (ACM) packs, which are the main heat exchangers in the air
conditioning system (Boeing, n.d.).

According to Boeing, the PC in the Boeing 777 air conditioning system has several functions:

Control of ACM Packs: The PC controls the operation of the ACM packs in response to parameters
such as cabin temperature, pressure, and demand for conditioned air. It adjusts the operation of the
ACM packs to maintain the desired temperature and pressure levels.
Temperature Regulation: The PC regulates the temperature of the conditioned air by controlling the
cooling capacity of the ACM packs. It adjusts the flow of air within the ACM packs to achieve the
desired temperature for the cabin.
Cabin Pressure Control: The PC contributes to maintaining the required cabin pressure. It monitors
the cabin pressure and modulates the operation of the ACM packs to ensure that the cabin pressure
remains within the specified limits.
Fault Monitoring: The PC continuously checks for any faults or abnormalities in the air conditioning
system. It has built-in diagnostic capabilities to detect malfunctions and trigger appropriate warning
indications or fault messages to the flight crew.

Source: Boeing, "777 Air Conditioning System,"

https://www.boeing.com/commercial/airports/acaps/777aircond.pdf
Source in APA format: Boeing. (n.d.). 777 Air Conditioning System. Retrieved from
https://www.boeing.com/commercial/airports/acaps/777aircond.pdf

2) Discuss the pressurized cabin regulations for the following aviation regulatory bodies. FAA and
EASA. [20 points]

EASA (European Aviation Safety Agency):

CS 25.571
For pressurised cabins, the following conditions:
i. The normal operating differential pressure combined with the expected external
aerodynamic pressures applied simultaneously with the flight loading conditions
specified in sub-paragraphs (b)(1) to (b)(4) of this paragraph if they have a significant
effect.
ii. The maximum value of normal operating differential pressure (including the expected
external aerodynamic pressures during 1 g level flight) multiplied by a factor of 1·15
omitting other loads.

The certification criteria for pressurized cabins in aircraft are covered by CS 25.571. To guarantee the
structural integrity and safety of these cabins during flight, the rule defines precise requirements that
must be satisfied. If they have a significant effect on the cabin structure, it addresses the combined
effects of normal operating differential pressure and external aerodynamic pressures that happen
concurrently with the specified flight loading conditions described in subparagraphs (b)(1) to (b)(4) of
this paragraph. This means that the stress brought on by both cabin pressurization and aerodynamic
forces throughout various flight phases must be taken into account in the cabin's design and
materials.
The regulation mandates that the maximum value of normal operating differential pressure (including
the anticipated external aerodynamic pressures encountered during level flight at 1 g) be multiplied
by a factor of 1.15. This requirement creates a safety margin. The safety of pressurized cabins during
flight is increased by this safety margin, which guarantees that the cabin is built to resist pressure
differentials and aerodynamic forces beyond those it ordinarily encounters in normal operation. In
summary, CS 25.571 provides exacting requirements to ensure that pressurized cabins adhere to high
safety standards, protecting the safety of both passengers and flight crew.
CS 25.841
Pressurised cabins
a. Pressurised cabins and compartments to be occupied must be equipped to provide
a cabin pressure altitude of not more than 2438 m (8000 ft) at the maximum
operating altitude of the aeroplane under normal operating conditions. If
certification for operation over 7620 m (25 000 ft) is requested, the aeroplane must
be able to maintain a cabin pressure altitude of not more than 4572 m (15 000 ft) in
the event of any reasonably probable failure or malfunction in the pressurisation
system.
b. Pressurised cabins must have at least the following valves, controls, and indicators
for controlling cabin pressure:
i. Two pressure relief values to automatically limit the positive pressure differential to a
predetermined valve at the maximum rate of flow delivered by the pressure source. The
combined capacity of the relief valves must be large enough so that the failure of any one
valve would not cause an appreciable rise in the pressure differential. The pressure
differential is positive when the internal pressure is greater than the external.
ii. Two reverse pressure differential relief valves (or their equivalents) to automatically prevent
a negative pressure differential that would damage the structure. One valve is enough,
however, if it is of a design that reasonably precludes it’s malfunctioning.
iii. A means by which the pressure differential can be rapidly equalized.
iv. An automatic or manual regulator for controlling the intake or exhaust airflow, or both, for
maintaining the required internal pressures and airflow rates.
v. Instruments at the pilot or flight engineer station to show the pressure differential, the cabin
pressure altitude, and the rate of change of the cabin pressure altitude.
vi. Warning indication at the pilot or flight engineer station to indicate when the safe or pre-set
pressure differential and cabin pressure altitude limits are exceeded. Appropriate warning
markings on the cabin pressure differential indicator meet the warning requirement for
pressure differential limits and an aural or visual signal (in addition to cabin altitude
indicating means) meets the warning requirement for cabin pressure altitude limits if it
warns the flight crew when the cabin pressure altitude exceeds 3048 m (10 000 ft).
vii. A warning placard at the pilot or flight engineer station if the structure is not designed for
pressure differentials up to the maximum relief valve setting in combination with landing
loads.
viii. The pressure sensors necessary to meet the requirements of sub-paragraphs (b)(5) and (b)(6)
of this paragraph and CS 25.1447 (c), must be located and the sensing system designed so
that, in the event of loss of cabin pressure in any passenger or crew compartment (including
upper and lower lobe galleys), the warning and automatic presentation devices, required by
those provisions, will be actuated without any delay that would significantly increase the
hazards resulting from decompression.

CS 25.843 Tests for pressurised cabins

a. Strength test. The complete pressurised cabin, including doors, windows, and valves, must
be tested as a pressure vessel for the pressure differential specified in CS 25.365 (d).
b. Functional tests. The following functional tests must be performed:
i. Tests of the functioning and capacity of the positive and negative pressure differential valves,
and of the emergency release valve, to simulate the effects of closed regulator valves.
ii. Tests of the pressurisation system to show proper functioning under each possible condition
of pressure, temperature, and moisture, up to the maximum altitude for which certification
is requested.
iii. Flight tests, to show the performance of the pressure supply, pressure and flow regulators,
indicators, and warning signals, in steady and stepped climbs and descents at rates
corresponding to the maximum attainable within the operating limitations of the aeroplane,
up to the maximum altitude for which certification is requested.
iv. Tests of each door and emergency exit, to show that they operate properly after being
subjected to the flight tests prescribed in sub-paragraph (b)(3) of this paragraph.
CS-25 Book 2
1.2 Typical Loading Spectra Expected in Service. The loading spectrum should be based on measured
statistical data of the type derived from government and industry load history studies and, where
insufficient data are available, on a conservative estimate of the anticipated use of the aeroplane. The
principal loads that should be considered in establishing a loading spectrum are flight loads (gust and
manoeuvre), ground loads (taxiing, landing impact, turning, engine runup, braking, and towing) and
pressurisation loads. The development of the loading spectrum includes the definition of the
expected flight plan which involves climb, cruise, descent, flight times, operational speeds and
altitudes, and the approximate time to be spent in each of the operating regimes. Operations for crew
training, and other pertinent factors, such as the dynamic stress characteristics of any flexible
structure excited by turbulence, should also be considered. For pressurised cabins, the loading
spectrum should include the repeated application of the normal operating differential pressure, and
the superimposed effects of flight loads and external aerodynamic pressures.
To maintain an aircraft's structural integrity and safety, the supplied paragraph describes the
crucial process of identifying the normal loading conditions that an aircraft must resist during its
service life. When feasible, this entails examining old information from government and business load
history studies. When such information is lacking, a cautious estimation of the aircraft's utilization
should be made. The main loads taken into account include pressurization loads, ground loads, and
flight loads (such as stresses during taxiing, landing, and turning, among other things). Establishing the
expected flight plan, which includes information on climb, cruise, descent, flight durations, speeds,
altitudes, and time spent in various operating stages, is another step in determining the loading
spectrum. The dynamic stress characteristics of flexible structures exposed to turbulence and crew
training procedures should also be taken into account. The loading spectrum for pressurized cabins
must take flying loads and external aerodynamic pressures into account in addition to the repetitive
application of normal operating differential pressure. This thorough approach guarantees that the
aircraft is built to withstand a variety of loading conditions it may come into over its operational life,
improving both its safety and dependability.

3.4 Type Design Developments and Changes. For design developments, or design changes, involving
structural configurations similar to those of a design already shown to comply with the applicable
provisions of CS 25.571(c), it might be possible to evaluate the variations in critical portions of the
structure on a comparative basis. Typical examples would be redesign of the wing structure for
increased loads, and the introduction in pressurised cabins of cutouts having different locations or
different shapes, or both. This evaluation should involve analysis of the predicted stresses of the
redesigned primary structure and correlation of the analysis with the analytical and test results used
in showing compliance of the original design with CS 25.571(c).
In order to assess conformity with the original design in accordance with CS 25.571(c), it is
necessary to analyze the anticipated stresses inside the redesigned primary structure and then
correlate this analysis with the analytical and test results. In essence, the objective is to ascertain
whether the suggested design modifications maintain a level of structural integrity and safety that is
at least comparable to the original design that satisfies regulatory standards. This strategy can ensure
that safety standards are followed while speeding up the approval process for design changes that
closely resemble existing, legal designs.

FAA (Federal Aviation Administration):

The Federal Aviation Regulation has a document that offers advice on how to comply with the
requirements for pressurisation, ventilation, and oxygen systems, particularly as an aircraft apply to
high altitude subsonic flight, and this is the Section 25-20 (AC 25-20, 2023).

Part 25 was recently amended to include standards for high altitude operation of subsonic transport
category aircrafts. The standards were written to address physiological limitations at high altitudes
and changes in equipment technology. Section 25.831 (a) specifies that the ventilation system must
be designed to provide a minimum of 0.55 pounds of fresh air per minute per person (10 cubic feet
per minute of air at 8,000 feet pressure altitude and at cabin temperature of 75° F.) for normal
operations. If the airplane incorporates a recirculation system, the required fresh air may be mixed
with filtered, recirculated air. A larger amount of fresh air may be required due to secondary
considerations, such as equipment cooling, window or windshield defogging, control of smoke or toxic
fumes, or smoke evacuation. Increased fresh air flow may also be needed in some instances to
compensate for high ambient temperatures and humidity (Wojnar, 1996).

Based on FAA, Under typical operating conditions, pressurised cabins and compartments must be
fitted to provide a cabin pressure altitude of no more than 8,000 feet. Hypoxia is a condition where
there is insufficient oxygen in the body to support normal brain and organ function. Hypoxia brought
on by exposure to altitude is solely a result of the lower barometric pressures that are experienced
there because oxygen concentration in the atmosphere is still roughly 21% from the ground to space.
Hypoxia is prevented by heeding factors that limit tolerance to altitude, by enriching the inspired air
with oxygen via an adequate oxygen system, and by maintaining a comfortable, safe cabin pressure
altitude. Pilots are advised to utilise supplementary oxygen above 10,000 feet during the day and
above 5,000 feet at night for maximum protection.
According to the CFRs, flight crew must at the very least be given and use supplementary oxygen after
spending 30 minutes in cabin pressure altitudes between 12,500 and 14,000 feet and right away in
cabin pressure altitudes over 14,000 feet. At cabin pressure altitudes exceeding 15,000 feet,
supplemental oxygen must be given to every passenger (Legal Information Institute, n.d.).

References:
AC 25-20 - Pressurization, Ventilation and Oxygen Systems Assessment for Subsonic Flight including
High Altitude Operation. (2023, July
24). https://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/advisory_circulars/index.cfm/go/
document.information/documentID/22648.
EASA (2007). Certification Specifications for Large Aeroplanes. Retrieved from
https://www.easa.europa.eu/sites/default/files/dfu/CS-25_Amdt%203_19.09.07_Consolidated
%20version.pdf
Fitness for Flight. (n.d.).
https://www.faa.gov/air_traffic/publications/atpubs/aim_html/chap8_section_1.html#:~:text=For
%20optimum%20protection%2C%20pilots%20are,above%205%2C000%20feet%20at%20night.
Legal Information Institute. (n.d.). 14 CFR § 25.841 - pressurized cabins. Legal Information Institute.
https://www.law.cornell.edu/cfr/text/14/25.841.
Why do aircraft use cabin pressurization. Home. (n.d.).
https://aerospace.honeywell.com/us/en/about-us/blogs/why-do-aircraft-use-cabin-
pressurization#:~:text=Airplanes%20control%20their%20cabin%20pressure,is%20regulated%20by
%20pressure%20controllers.
Wojnar, R. (1996). Pressurization, Ventilation, and Oxygen Systems Assessment for Subsonic Flight
including High Altitude Operation. Advisory Circular – Federal Aviation Administration. Retrieved from
https://www.faa.gov/documentLibrary/media/Advisory_Circular/AC_25-20.pdf.

3. Why is fuel cooling an important function of the ECS? Give at least two (2) recorded aircraft
accidents from years 1960 to 2020. Give a brief overview of the accidents and describe how the ECS
would have helped in avoiding the accident. [25 points]

The ECS, or fuel cooling system, is a vital component of any spacecraft. Its primary function is to cool
the fuel, but it also provides thermal control for the rest of the ship. The ECS is made up of two main
parts the fuel tank and the radiator. The fuel tank stores the fuel and cools it using a liquid coolant.
The radiator helps to dissipate the heat from the fuel and keep the ship at a comfortable
temperature. Fuel cooling is important because it helps to keep the fuel from overheating and
exploding. The fuel is stored in a tank that is cooled by a liquid coolant. The radiator helps to dissipate
the heat from the fuel and keep the ship at a comfortable temperature. Before being injected into the
combustion chamber, gasoline is cooled using fuel coolers in engines.

The ECS is vital to the safe operation of the spacecraft and helps to protect the crew and passengers
from the dangers of overheated fuel. Aircraft accidents are a tragic and unfortunately common
occurrence. In this essay, we will be discussing two recorded aircraft accidents from the years 1960 to
2020 and how the ECS would have helped in avoiding the accident. The first aircraft accident we will
be discussing is the crash of United Airlines Flight 173 in 1978. The plane was en route from Denver to
Portland when the crew noticed that the landing gear was not functioning properly. The plane circled
the airport for over an hour in an attempt to burn off fuel and lighten the load before attempting to
land. However, due to the plane's low altitude and slow speed, it was unable to gain enough lift and
crashed into a wooded area, killing 10 passengers and two crew members. The second aircraft
accident we will be discussing is the crash of Ethiopian Airlines Flight 302 in 2019. The plane was en
route from Addis Ababa to Nairobi when it experienced technical difficulties and crashed into a field,
killing all 157 passengers and crew on board. The ECS would have helped to avoid this accident by
providing the crew with real-time data on the status of the landing gear. The system would have
alerted the crew to the problem with the landing gear and given them the information they needed to
make a safe landing.

Reference: Harish. (2023, April 25). What is a fuel coolers & how does it work?. Mechanical Education.
https://www.mechanicaleducation.com/what-is-a-fuel-coolers-how-does-it-work/

Leone, Dario (2021). The story of United Airlines Flight 173, the plane crash that launched the crew
resource management revolution in airline training. The Aviation Geek Club
https://theaviationgeekclub.com/the-story-of-united-airlines-flight-173-the-plane-crash-that-
launched-the-crew-resource-management-revolution-in-airline-training/

Capel,C.and Kyama, R. (2019).Ethiopian Airlines flight ET302 crashes en route to Kenya, killing 157.
National News. https://www.thenationalnews.com/world/africa/ethiopian-airlines-flight-et302-
crashes-en-route-to-kenya-killing-157-1.835173

4) You are a maintenance personnel doing a regular inspection of the interior cabin of a large
passenger aircraft. One particular passenger cabin window piques your curiosity and you decide to
inspect it for any possible defects. If you were only to perform a visual inspection, how would you
initiate and what are some defects that you might find? How will these defects affect the overall
safety of the aircraft? [35 points]

As maintenance personnel, it is our job to maintain, repair and ensure the quality of the aircraft
and the safety of the passengers with the help of frequent inspections. Proper window inspection is
one of the things that should not be missed as it is crucial in ensuring the passengers safety. We
maintenance personnel have to wear the proper personal protective equipment (PPE), such as safety
goggles, gloves, and hearing protection, to ensure our safety. We also need to assemble the tools
we’ll need to access different areas of the airplane, we may need ladders, mirrors, scaffolds, or
spotlights. Lastly, we must review the supporting documents, including the maintenance logs and
inspection checklist for the aircraft. If a defect has been discovered the maintenance personnel must
check if the defect is one of the three: the defect is within allowable limits and nothing will need to be
done, the defect exceeds the limit but is still within the limits of being repaired and lastly, the defect
exceeds all limits and would need to be replaced. Moreover, the depth of the defect must also be
analysed from scratches and cracks to damages that need to be repaired or replaced. An airplane
window has three layers so it does not easily crack nor be broken like glass however, since a plane is
pressurised for passengers’ comfort as it climbs to a higher altitude when a hole is present air will
rush out and any loose objects including people can get sucked out of the plane. You would hear a
booming sound when a window broke on a plane at a high altitude due to depressurization.
Additionally, it is possible to encounter lower air pressure, lower temperatures, and mist or fog
caused by condensation inside the aircraft.

References:

● (2001). Retrieved from https://www.aviationpros.com/home/article/10388063/aircraft-

windows
● (N.d.). Retrieved from https://labourmarketinsights.gov.au/occupation-profile/aircraft-
maintenance-engineers?occupationCode=3231
● Ghayad, A. (2023). This is what happens if a plane window breaks while flying. Retrieved
from https://engineerine.com/what-would-happen-if-someone-broke/
● Lim, C. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://askcaptainlim.com/what-happens-if-a-plane-window-
shatters-mid-flight/#:~:text=Just%20like%20a%20balloon%2C%20when,humans%2C
%20would%20be%20sucked%20out.
● Personal Protective Equipment - Overview. Occupational Safety and Health Administration.
(n.d.). https://www.osha.gov/personal-protective-equipment