AIRCRAFT POWER PLANTS

Prepared by
Mr Adhil Sharief A
 UNIT II
COMBUSTION AND EXHAUST SECTION OF
TURBINE ENGINE
After the course the students are expected to be able to
• CO1: Explain the principle of operation, basic design and
construction of gas turbine engines.
• CO2: Summarize the operation of a gas turbine engine
combustion and Exhaust section.
• CO3: Analyze the lubrication and ignition system of
turbine engines.
• CO4: Discuss the principle of operation, basic design and
construction of turbo prop and turbo shaft Engines.
• CO5: Illustrate the procedure for powerplant installation,
engine monitoring and inspection of engines.
UNIT II COMBUSTION AND EXHAUST
SECTION OF TURBINE ENGINE
Combustion Section Constructional features and principles
of operation
Turbine Section Operation and characteristics of different
turbine blade types; Blade to disk attachment; Nozzle guide
vanes; Causes and effects of turbine blade stress and creep.
Exhaust Constructional features and principles of
operation;
Convergent, divergent and variable area nozzles; Engine
noise reduction; Thrust reversers. Bearings and Seals
Constructional features and principles of operation and
handling.
Lubricants and Fuels Properties and specifications; Fuel
additives; Safety precautions
 Combustion Chamber Requirements
• Low pressure loss should be minimum
• High Combustion efficiency at different operating conditions
• Outlet temperature distribution must be uniform to maximize the
life of the turbine blades and nozzle guide vanes
• It should be free from pressure fluctuations an other combustion
instabilities
• Complete combustion of fuel must be achieved in small space of
combustor in less time
• Meet pollutant emission regulations- low emissions of smoke,
unburned fuel
• Minimum cost & easy to maintain
• The formation of carbon deposits must be avoided because
particles carried into the turbine in the high velocity gas stream
can erode the turbine blades
• Ability to utilize wide range of fuels
 Combustion process-Steps to be involved

• Introduction of fine spray fuel droplets and mixing it with

compressed air flowing through the combustor

• Vaporization of droplets with air

• Breaking down of heavy HC to Lighter fractions

• Mixing of HC molecule with oxygen molecules and chemical

reaction themselves
Combustion Process
 / Swirler

Nozzle /

Snout

• CASING
• DIFFUSER
• LINER
COMPONENTS • SNOUT
• SWIRLER
• FUEL INJECTOR
• IGNITOR
Airflow Distribution Inside Combustor
Combustion Chamber Components
 Factors Affecting Combustion Chamber
Design
• The temperature of the gases after combustion must be
comparatively low to not affect the highly stressed turbine blade
materials. The turbine blade should be withstand the
temperature upto 1850K.

• The temperature distribution must be uniform at the exit of the

combustion chamber.

• The combustion process inside the combustor must be

maintained in airstream with velocity range from 30 to 60m/s.

• The operation should be stable over a wide range of air to fuel

ratio may vary from 60:1 to 120:1 for gas turbine engines.
 Factors Affecting Combustion Chamber
Design
• The carbon deposits formation must be avoided especially of
hard brittle variety.

• The combustion process should be stable over a wide range of

chamber pressure which may change with respective altitude
and forward speed.

• Smoking coming out of the gas turbine engines must be limited.

• The pollutants such as Nitrogen oxides, Carbon monoxide (CO)

and unburnt hydrocarbons must be controlled to very low levels
because it may affect the environment.
 Classification of Combustion Chambers

• The combustion chambers used in gas turbine engines are

classified into three types.

• They are (i) Can type

(ii) Annular type
(iii) Can-Annular type
Can Type Combustor
Can Type Combustor
Can Type Combustor
Annular Type Combustor
Annular Type Combustor
Annular Type Combustor
Can Annular Type Combustor
Can Annular Type Combustor
Can Annular Type Combustor
 TYPES OF COMBUSTION CHAMBER

• Can type
• Annular type
• Can-Annular(Cannular) type
Can type
Advantage
• Easy to maintain
• Mechanically robust
• Easy to test

Disadvantages
• Weight is quite larger
• High pressure loss
• Require large frontal area
 Annular type

• Advantage

• Disadvantages
 Difficult to test
 Difficult to maintain outlet temperature
 Cannular type
• Advantage

• Disadvantage
PERFORMANCE
PARAMETER
1) Pressure loss

Loss:- Cold loss & Hot loss

Cold:- wall friction, sudden

expansion, turbulence, mixing

Hot:- high rise in temperature

Pressure loss factor, PLF =

2) Combustion efficiency

Requirements for High Efficiency:

Enough space & time for mixing &

combustion

Complete vaporization of fuel

 3) Combustion Stability
• Flame remains stable for wide range of operation

• Instability of combustion:
 Too lean or rich F-A mixture
 Velocity of gas higher than flame speed
4) Combustion Intensity

 The intensity of combustion is kept within certain limits to

achieve good combustion efficiency about 98% to 100%.
 Flame Stabilization

• To attain the continuous combustion

• Flame are hardly stable

 Bluff bodies
 Swirlers
 Pilot flame
 Counter flow stabilizing tech
1)Bluff bodies
2) Swirlers
3) Pilot flame
4)Counter flow stabilizing technique
 COOLING PROCESS
• Reduce the hot temperature of gas entering the turbine
• Protect the liner
 Louver
 Splash
 Film
 Transpiration
Louver cooling
Splash cooling
 Film Cooling

Convection
Impingement
Transpiration Cooling
 Materials
• Withstand high pressure & temperature
•Basic requirement
​
 High strength ​
 Low density​
 Possess low thermal expansion​
 Cheap & easily available​
 Easy to fabricate​
 High thermal conductivity​

• Metal Alloys: Nimonic 75, Hastelloy X

• Ceramic: monolithic silicon nitride
 Turbine
The two primary parts of the turbine are,
(i) The stator nozzles, and
(ii) the turbine rotor blades.
Normally a turbine stage is classified as
(i) an impulsion stage, and
(ii) a reaction stage
 An impulse stage
• An impulse stage is characterized by the
expansion of the gas which occurs only in the
stator nozzles.
• The rotor blades act as directional vanes to
deflect the direction of the flow.
• Further, they convert the kinetic energy of the
gas into work by changing the momentum of
the gas more or less at constant pressure
 A reaction stage
• A reaction stage is one in which expansion of
the gas takes place both in the stator and in
the rotor.
 The function of the stator is the same as that in
the impulse stage, but the function in the rotor is
two fold.
(i) the rotor converts the kinetic energy of the gas
into work, and
(ii) contributes a reaction force on the rotor blades.

The reaction force is due to the increase in the

velocity of the gas relative to the blades. This
results from the expansion of the gas during its
passage through the rotor
• The turbine transforms a portion of the kinetic
(velocity) energy of the exhaust gases into
mechanical energy to drive the gas generator
compressor and accessories
• The turbine assembly consists of two basic
elements: turbine inlet guide vanes and
turbine blades
• The stator element is known by a variety of
names, of which turbine inlet nozzle vanes,
turbine inlet guide vanes, and nozzle
diaphragm are three of the most commonly
used
• Each vane fits into a contoured slot in the
shrouds, which conforms to the airfoil shape of
the vane. These slots are slightly larger than the
vanes to give a loose fit
• Another method of thermal expansion
construction is to fit the vanes into inner and
outer shrouds; however, in this method the vanes
are welded or riveted into position. Some means
must be provided to allow thermal expansion;
therefore, either the inner or the outer shroud
ring is cut into segments.
 Lect-29

Nozzle

– Fixed and variable geometry nozzles

– Functions of nozzles
– Thrust vector control
– Thrust reversal
– Noise control

2
• Nozzle – Uniform varying duct through which
flow is accelerated by reduction of pressure
Area Velocity Relation
 Lect-29

Exhaust nozzles
• Nozzles form the exhaust system of gas
turbine engines.
• It provides the thrust force required for all
flight conditions.
• In turboprops, nozzles may generate part
of the total thrust.
• Main components: tail pipe or tail cone
and the exhaust duct.
• Nozzles could be either of fixed geometry
or variable geometry configuration.
3
 Lect-29

Function Exhaust nozzles

• Nozzle must fulfill the following:
– Be matched with other engine components
– Provide optimum expansion ratio
– Have minimum losses
– Permit afterburner operation
– Provide reversed thrust when necessary
– Suppress jet noise
– Provide necessary vectored thrust
– Have minimal weight, cost and maintenance
while satisfying the above.

8
 Lect-29

Exhaust nozzles
• Types of nozzles:
– Convergent or Converging-diverging
– Fixed geometry or variable geometry
• Simplest is the fixed geometry convergent
nozzle
– Was used in subsonic commercial
aircraft.
• Other nozzle geometries are complex and
require sophisticated control mechanisms.

7
 Lect-29

Exhaust nozzles: Fixed geometry

Subsonic, convergent nozzle

Nozzle

Tailpipe
Nozzle

Supersonic, C-D nozzle

5
 Lect-29

Exhaust nozzles: Variable geometry

Subsonic, convergent nozzle

Supersonic, C-D nozzle

Variable
nozzle

Tailpipe

Afterburner Variable nozzle

6
 Lect-29

Exhaust nozzles
• Convergent nozzles are normally used in
subsonic aircraft.
• These nozzles operate under choked
condition, leading to incomplete expansion.
• This may lead to a pressure thrust.
• A C-D nozzle can expand fully to the
ambient pressure and develop greater
momentum thrust.
• However due to increased weight,
geometric complexity and diameter, it is
not used in subsonic transport aircraft.
9
 Lect-29

Variable geometry nozzles

• Variable area nozzles or adjustable nozzles
are required for matched operation under
all operating conditions.
• Three types of variable area nozzles are:
– Central plug at nozzle outlet
– Ejector type
– Iris nozzle
• The Central plug is very similar to the spike
of an intake.
• Unlike intake, the central plug causes
external expansion fans.
10
 Central plug nozzlesLect-29
Expansion fan
Expansion fan shock

Central plug

Central plug at nozzle outlet

11
 Ejector type nozzles Lect-29

• Ejector nozzle:
creates an effective nozzle
through a secondary airflow
• At subsonic speeds, the airflow
constricts the exhaust to a
convergent shape.
• As the speed increases, the
two nozzles dilate and the two
nozzles form a CD shape.
• Some configurations may
also have a tertiary airflow.
• SR-71, Concorde, F-111 have
used this type of nozzle.
12
 ect-29

Ejector type nozzles

High Mach Tail flap
Low Mach positions

Secondary air High Mach

Dividing
Low Mach streamlines

Engine core flow

Blow in doors for low Mach

High Mach
Tertiary air
Low Mach
Secondary air
Engine core flow

13
 Lect-29

• Iris nozzle
Uses overlapping,
adjustable petals.
• More complicated than
the ejector type nozzle.
• Offers significantly higher
performance.
• Used in advanced military
aircraft.
• Some of the modern aircraft
also have iris nozzles that
can be deflected to
achieve vectored thrust.
14
 Lect-29

Iris type nozzles

Iris petals for variable geometry

15
THRUST REVERSAL
Thrust Reversers
• Employed after touchdown
• Principle - of revers the direction of the
exhaust gases or changing the propeller
pitch in order to create a drag force t
• Enables landing on smaller runways,
reduction in the wheel brake wear and
taxi distance.
• Used in case of rejected take offs
• In propeller aircraft - by changing the
blade angle of the propeller. - Use of a
hydro mechanical system for actuation
• In turbojet and turbofan aircrafts - by
redirecting the air flow of the exhaust
gases
• Engine - discharge angle is kept 45
degree
• Clam shell type
• Bucket Target type
• Cascade type
Clam Shell
• A pneumatically
operated thrust
reversal system .
• The deflector doors
on aft end of the
engine rotate and
closing the normal
passage of gas flow
Bucket-Target Thrust • Is a hydraulically
operated thrust
Reverser reversal
mechanism
• Doors are actuated
by means of a
conventional pushr
od system- forming
a convergent-
divergent nozzle .
• Comparatively
more efficient
 Cascade Type
Thrust Reverser
• A series of vanes which are covered
by blocker door under normal
conditions
• The blocker doors slides towards
the tail.
• Used for both cold and hot air
stream.
• Severe weight and complexity,
maintenance and fuel costs are
high.
 Lect-29
Noise control
• Jet exhaust noise is a major contributor to the
overall noise generated by an aircraft.
• Jet exhaust noise is caused by the turbulent
mixing of the exhaust gases with the lower
velocity ambient air.
• Nozzle geometry can significantly influence the
exhaust noise characteristics.
• Better mixing between the jet exhaust and the
ambient can be achieved by properly contouring
the nozzle exit.
• Corrugations or lobes (multiple tubes) are some
of the methods of achieving lower jet exhaust
noise.
28
 Lect-29

Noise control

Noise control using corrugations/serrations at

the nozzle exit

29
 Bearings and Seals Constructional features and
principles of operation and handling.
• Ball and roller bearings
• Offer little rotational resistance,
• Facilitate precision alignment of rotating
elements,
• Are relatively inexpensive,
• Are easily replaced,
• Withstand high momentary overloads,
• Are simple to cool, lubricate, and maintain,
• The bearing housing usually contains oil seals to prevent the oil leaking
from its normal path of flow. It also delivers the oil to the bearing for its
lubrication, usually through spray nozzles.
• The oil seals may be the labyrinth or thread (helical) type. These seals also
may be pressurized to minimize oil leaking along the compressor shaft.
• The labyrinth seal is usually pressurized, but the helical seal depends
solely on reverse threading to stop oil leakage.
• These two types of seals are very similar, differing only in thread size and
the fact that the labyrinth seal is pressurized.
• The ball or roller bearing is fitted into the bearing housing and may have a
self-aligning feature. If a bearing is self-aligning, it is usually seated in a
spherical ring. This allows the shaft a certain amount of radial movement
without transmitting stress to the bearing inner race.
• The bearing surface is usually provided by a machined journal on the
appropriate shaft. The bearing is usually locked in position by a steel snap
ring or other suitable locking device.
• The rotor shaft also provides the matching surface for the oil seals in the
bearing housing. These machined surfaces are called lands and fit in rather
close to the oil seal.
 Lubricants and Fuels: Properties and
specifications; Fuel additives; Safety precautions
MIL-L-7808 - type I turbine oil.
type II specification and are made with the following
characteristics:
1. Vapor phase deposits—carbon deposits formed from
oil mist and vapor contact with hot engine surfaces.
2. Load-carrying ability—provides for heavy loads on
the bearing systems of turbine engines.
3. Cleanliness—minimum formation of sludge deposits
during severe operation.
4. Bulk stability—resistance to physical or chemical change
resulting from oxidation. Permits long periods of serve
operation without significant increase in viscosity or total
acidity, the main indicators of oxidation.
5. Compatibility—most turbine oil is compatible with other
oils that meet the same military specification. But, most
engine manufacturers do not recommend the
indiscriminate mixing of approved oil brands and this is not
a generally accepted practice.
6. Seal Wear—essential for the life of engines with carbon
seals that lubricant properties prevent wear of the carbon
at the carbon seal face
The Spectrometric Oil Analysis Program allows an oil
sample to be analyzed and searched for the presence
of minute metallic elements. Due to oil circulation
throughout an aircraft engine, every lubricant that is in
service contains microscopic particles of metallic
elements called wear metals.
As the engine operates over time, the oil picks up
very small particles that stay suspended in the oil. Oil
analysis programs identify and measure these particles
in parts per million (PPM) by weight
 Fuels - Fuel additives;
• AVGAS.
• Jet A and Jet A-1 are fractionally distilled in the
kerosene range. They have low volatility and low vapor
pressure. Flash points range between 110 °F and 150
°F. Jet A freezes at –40 °F and Jet A-1 freezes at –52.6
°F. Most engine operations manuals permit the use of
either Jet A or Jet A-1.
• The third basic type of turbine engine fuel available is
Jet B. It is a wide-cut fuel that is basically a blend of
kerosene and gasoline. Its volatility and vapor pressure
reflect this and fall between Jet A and AVGAS.
• Anti-ice additives
 Safety precautions
• Information on established limits on exposure to turbine oil can generally be found
in the material safety data sheets (MSDS).
• Prolonged breathing of hydrocarbon vapor concentrations in excess of the
prescribed limits may result in light headedness, dizziness, and nausea. If turbine
oil is ingested, call a doctor immediately; identify the product and how much was
ingested. Because of the risk of ingestion, petroleum products should never be
siphoned by mouth.
• Prolonged or repeated contact of turbine oil with the skin can cause irritation and
dermatitis. In case of skin contact, wash the skin thoroughly with soap and
warmwater. Promptly remove oil-soaked clothing and wash.
• If turbine oil contacts the eyes, flush the eyes with freshwater until the irritation
subsides. Protective clothing, gloves, and eye protection should be used when
handling turbine oil.
• During operation, it is possible for the oil to be subjected to very high
temperatures that can break down the oil and produce a product of unknown
toxicity. If this happens, all precautions to avoid explosive should be taken. It can
also have a tendency to blister,
• dis colour, or remove paint when spilled. Painted surfaces should be wiped clean
with a petroleum solvent after spillage.