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CH5 SELECTING MATERIALS STD
CH5 SELECTING MATERIALS STD
trHAPTHR 5
Selecting Materials
LEARNING OBJEÜTIVE§
5.1 INTROBUCTION
Product
Function
Manufacturing Product
Processes Geometr,v LL
A F strain=€=LLIL
SITCSS = 6 =F I
FIGURE 5.1 Interdependence of product function, material properties, manufacturing processes, to determine the amount of stress
and product geometry. FIGUREs.2Atensiontestusesstandard-sizedspecimens
a material'
re[uired to produce a given strain in
(
Chapter 5 Selecting Materials 99
( 98 Engineering Design
ü.1 Í/
Aluminum 10.5
}Ai4 annealed 27 14 1B 45
ZÜ14 T4 62 42 ZA 105
356 T6 33 24 3.5
11.5
as2
Copper
c85200 38 i3 35
Shear strength is the iargest stress a material can sustain under torsion before c86200 95 48 2ü
weak in tension compared to ductile materiais. However, when brittle ma- HastelloY as-cast 134 67 52
terials are subjected to compressive loads, their compressive strength is Inconel 6Ü0 annealed -e3. !1 45
often two or three time larger than their tensile strengih. Steei
i020 a¡rnealed 30 57.3 42.8 36.5 111 0.28 6.1
Stiffness is the resistance to stretchinq, bending, or twisting loads. Stiffness is annealed 30 108 68.5 2Z 211 0.28 (r.3
4344
(
measured by the modulus of elasti*lty 1E,¡, *Ilri.t, is the tángent siope of tire 304A anilealed 27.5 83 .10 60 0.28 B
0.16 4.9
stress-versus- strain curve. Titanium 16"5
(. 2<
JJ ?(
L.) 1A
L+
Buctility is the abiiity of a rnaterial to plasticallv cieform. It is measured by the Ti-354
Ti-65A 65 55 i8
(,' percent elongation and or percent reduction in area. a.24
Tjnc
Toughness is the ability of a m.aterial to plasticall-v deform before fracturing. 82
It AG40A 47 10
( is measured by the modulus of toughness. ZA.T2 die cast 5l 4b 7 111
Pol¡rrners
( [Iardness is the abiiity of a material to resist locaiized sulface indentation or
ABS 6 5-ZA 16
deformation. It is measured by the Brinell Hardness Number (BHN). at
J.¿+ 300 40
( PTFE
Fatigue strength is the abilitv of a material to undergo a number of cyclic ioads 12 60
Nylon 616
10-20 2A
( without fracturing. A measure of fatigue strength is the endurance limit. Polypropvlene
1B.s
5
13
Polycarbonate
which is the stress at which steels fracture when given a million ioad cycles" 19
( Polystyrene i3.5
Creep resistance is the ability of a material to resist stretching whiie under
( loads over iong time periods at elevated temperatures. It is measured by the
(
f
5,3 PHYSICALPROPERTIES
Much of the effort of materials scientists and engineers focuses on finding the
A physical property is a quantity that characterizes a material's response to
specific recipes that produce compounds that exhibit the right kind of molecu-
physical phenomena, other than mechanical forces. Physical properties of
lar structure, resulting in the right profile of properties.
representative materials are shown in Table 5.2. Some of the more frequently
Engineering materials are separated into a four principal categories:
used physical properties include (ASM, 1997):
metals, polymers, ceramics, and composites. Other materials include organics
Density is the amount of matter per unit volume. Density is directly pro- such as wood and stone. If we define these categories as "families," similar to
portional to weight. Trvo measures for density are mass density and weight Ashby (1999), then each fami§ includes a number of subfamilies that also
density. include classes and subclasses. Let's take a iook at the metals family in
Coefficient of thermal expansion is a measure of the amount a material eion- Figure 5.4.
gates in response to a change in its temperature.
Melting point is the temperature at which a solid changes to a liquid. It is a
Materiais
measure of a material's ability to tolerate elevated temperatures.
Specific heat is the amount of heat required to increase the temperature of a
unit mass 1 degree
Corrosion resistance is the abiiity of a material to resist oxidation, direct Metals Polymers Ceramics Composites
chemical attack, or surface degradation by galvanic currents.
Alumina Carbon fiber
?herrnal conductivity is a measure of heat ilow across a surface, per unit area,
Ferrous Thennoplastics Beryllia Ceramic matrix
per unit time, per unit of thickness, per degree of temperature difference. Diamond Glass fiber
Electricatr conductivity is a measure of the ability to conduct electricit.,v. It is Cast iron ABS Magnesia Kevlar fiber
equai to the ratio of electric current to the given voitage difference. Carbon steei Acetal Silicon carbide Metal matrix
Allo,v steel Acrylic Silicon nitride
stainless steei Nylon Zirconia
Pol.vcarbonate
5.4 MATHRIAL CLASSH§
Non-ferrous
Polyethylene
Polypr^opylene
The periodic table lists 103 elements. However" a iarge number of materials Polyst_vrene
Aluminum
are possible when these are combined in various proportions as compounds. Brass
Vinyl
Bronze
Copper
TABLE 5.2 Physical Prcrperties of Representative Materials T'herniosets
Lead
Characteristic Ilei:avior Property IJnits h{agnesium Alkyd
strong, weak ultin:ate strength Iv{Pa (ksi) I.{icke1 Epclxy
Strength
yield strengti: Tin Melamine
Eiastic strength eiastic then plastic MPa (ksi)
Titanium Phenolic
Stiffness flexible. rigid modulus of elasticity It{Pa (h'lpsi)
Tungsten Pol-vester
Ductilitl, dralvs, forms easilv % elongation dimensioniess Zinc
o/o Urethane
area reduction
Hardness resists surface indentation Brineil No. MPa (ksi)
Eiastomers
Cr¡rrosion resistance resists chemicals, oxidatiou galvanic series activit.v number
Fatigue resistance endures manv load cycles endurance iirrrit MPa (hapsi) Butvl
Conductivity ccinducts, insulates thermal (Btu/hr) I (F-ft), Fiuorocarbon
electricai Mhos Neoprene
C.reep resistance time dependent stretching creep strength MPa (ksi) Nitrile
Impact resistance shock, impact ioads Charpy energ)' N-m, (ft-ibs) Polysulfide
Densit,v heavy, Iight mass density kglm3, (slugs/ft3) Rubber
weight densit¡r N/m3, (lbslft3) Silicone
(
,.t't
Chapter 5 Selecting Materials 103
1ü2 EnEineering Design i
Folymers. The potr3mers fan:ily of materiais can be described as strong {Iex- Impact re.sistance good poor good
ible, electrically and thermaliy insulating, not creep-resistant, impact- DensitY high niedium low
resistant, lightweight, temperature-sensitive, scft, and corrosion-resistant. Temperature tolerance good super Poor
We rvish to minimize total cost C which is a function of the weight I4i and cost per unit
weight C,, The weight is a function of cross-section area A, length l, and density p as
consisting of a rubl-ler tire fitteci tc the outer perimeter of a ci¡cular rim. Do a prelimi-
nary materiais screening for the riin usi:rg the materials first approaeh. ]§ow we need to factor in a constraint that the column does not buckle. Euler's
Exainining tairle 5.4 we see that our primary considerations should focus on ap- equation for a column whose area moment of inertia 1, of length /, reconlmends that
pliecl Ioads, anrbient conditions. conductivity, safetyilegal and cost. the load P be less than the critical buckling load P.,, as
The tl,pical larvnmower wheel lim is subjected to iight constant loads, but can ) ^-
undergo frequent impacts when humping into obiects, for exarnpple. Ceramics are P<p _ri-L]_
^'^cr (s 4)
somewhat brittle and have poor impact resistance, therebv ieaving metals, polymers P
and conlposites. 'fhe area moment of inertia for a c)'iinder is
Ambient conditions inciude significant sunlight, moderate air temperatures but
high humidit-v, water egress. and fertilizer chemical attack. Therefore, ferrous and non- I=A.2 l4n (s 5)
ferrous classes would be acceptable, along n'ith ultraviolet resistant poii/mers. and
composites. We can substitute equation (5.6) and (5.5) into (5.3) obtaining
Thermai and elecirical conducti\¡ity is not of significant importance as lveil as
safety or legal issues.
Performáflce = (5.6)
From a cost point of view. carbon steels and aluminum alioys would appear io be
Ieast costly.
We will discuss manufacturing processes screening for this example in chapter 6.
A material index M,far the inexpensive column can be defined as
(
(
( Hxampse
( Minimize cost C given cost per unit weight c,, The weight is a function of area A,
ieugth /, and density p as
(
ü10
\-/ I
a
I
I
;-¿
-) Engineering
(
F, U
.^
V
\a 11 /
( A 'Ü¡ (s e)
:u¿
iC!
jj#
¿ ,,,
,\
.+t
The resulting performance equaiion becomes A
t
(
rV
/
(
¡
Perforrn&ilce =
¿(r) f,0f,{ fu\
I\.t o, I
(s 10)
I
)
(
A material index Mrfar an inexpensive bar can be
defined as
(
Mr= o, /Cn,p (5 11)
(
For example let's compal e material A whose
strength, density and cost are are
( 1'000 MPa' 7,800 kgim3 and
$1lkg respectively. to material ts whose strengrir. densitv o ob:
( and cost are 300 Mp^, 2,900 kgim3 and g3/kg. 110 i00 i000 10 ü00
Example
(
IJse Figure 5.5 to determine which engineering poiyrners are the least stiff and
( Plotting Young's modulus E versus relative have a reiative cost per unit weight that is lower than that of nyions.
costivolurne Cn p on a ma-
( teriai selection chart provides a graphic comparison Examining the figure we find that PP. HDPE, LDPE, and PVC have relative
of different materials, as
shown in Figure 5.5. StrengtH ,ársus relative stiff (smaller modulus, E) of the four
costs lower than the nylons. However, the least
( costivolume is shown in Figure
5'6' A thorough development of this method, are poiyriny[hlglde (PVC) and low-density polyethylene (LDPE).
íncluding many examples, is
( presented in Ashby (1999).
(
(
108 Engineering Design
10 000
We use screening and rating methods to help us narro\{ our material
choices during the configuration design phase. The general process of screen-
ing and rating is shown in Figure 5.7. Using the materials-first approach, or the
manufacturing-processes-first approach, we examine the suitability and
compatibility of alternative materials and manufacturing processes. The
remaining materials and manufacturing prócesses can then be rated, using the
weighted-rating method, discussed in an earlier chapter. As we proceed from
screening through evaluation, we see that the number of materials and
processes decreases (shown by the decreasing width of the arrow). The
resulting i'best" mate¡ials and manufacturing processes are recommended for
detailed analysis and evaluation that occu¡s in the parametric design phase
discussed in Chapter 8.
-§
iJ
¡-
Prospective
materials
and
processes
Functional? Infeasible
hlarutfaclurable? (rejected)
il
T-1
Feasible
0.1 lt
t1
material(s)
0.1
ll
tt
and
I0000 il processes
Reiarive Cr:sr./1.1nit \krlume
Cr,p (Mgrin3)
J\
FIGURE 5'6 Materiar serection
in ihechanir:at Del',i., r¡
:lri*ltr,ensth,ersus.cosl/v.runre. (Reprinted f¡om h{aterials
{::;?:i'i F. Asrrhsl, Copyright 1eee, u,irh permission Relative
from Elsevier
per.{ormunce?
f-__--\ Poor
-"'-t/''
Example Best
material(s)
Use Figure 5.6 ro determine and
which of engineering alio¡,s that
¿he
MPa -r'ield strength' of have at ieast 500 processes
those, whictrr are the more expensive
Examining the figure we per unit weight?
find that the foirowing ailoys
miid steel' cast iron. stJeis, that are ,trong enough:
staintess steels
iss), and ñr;;;r, a¡oys (w) Furrher,
mosr expensive, rhen shinress we
i:: ;i:ij;xTffi;:,*: stáeh, wirh mild sreers
and casr FIGURE 5.7 Screening and evaluation of materiais.