Springer-Verlag Electronic Production toth 12:27 p.m.

2 · v · 2002

12. Complex Linear Fractional Transformations 133

The composition of two such reflections (with different a’s, b’s,

c’s, and d’s) is clearly a linear fractional transformation (cf. also
Problem 1), so we have proved that Möb+ (Ĉ) is contained in the
group of linear fractional transformations.
For the converse, let g be a linear fractional transformation
az + b Transformation de Moebius/ Fonctions
g(z) ! , ad − bc #! 0.
cz + d homographiques du plan complexe
If c ! 0, then g(z) ! (a/d)z + (b/d), so that if a ! d, then g is a
translation, and if a #! d, then g is the composition of a translation,
a rotation, and a central dilatation. This latter statement follows
September 10, 2023
from rewriting g as
! "
a
g(z) ! (z − p) + p,
1 dDéfinition
where p ! (b/d)/(1 − (a/d)), and then looking at the complex form
of rotations. (a/d ! |a/d| · z(θ), where θ ! arg(a/d) and |a/d| gives
the ratio of magnification.) Thus, we may assume c #! 0. To begin
with this case, we first note that z $→ 1/z is in Möb (Ĉ) since it is
reflection to the unit circle
avecfollowed
a, b, c, dby conjugation
complexe (reflection
et ad-bc6 =0 to
the real axis). We now rewrite Ongpeut
as réécrire
bc − ad a
g(z) ! +
c2 (z + d/c) c
et donc décomposer
and conclude that g is the composition la transformation
of a translation, de Moebius comme:
the Möbius
transformation z $→ 1/z, a rotation, a central dilatation, and finally
another translation. Thus g ∈ Möb (Ĉ), and we are done.

Remark.
More geometric insight can be gained by introducing the isometric
circle Sg of a linear fractional transformation

az + b
g(z) ! , 2ad −
L’inversion
bc #! 0, a, de
b, c, cercle
d ∈ C,
cz + d
as On voit bien qu’au coeur des transformations de Moebius, se trouve l’inversion
complexe (1/z, qui est liée à l’inversion géométrique de cercle)
Sg ! {z ∈ C | |cz + d| ! |ad − bc|1/2 }.

1
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Springer-Verlag Electronic Production toth 12:27 p.m. 2 · v · 2002

126 11. Möbius Geometry

En effet, l’inversion complexe est l’inversion (géométrique) du cercle unité
composée par la conjugaison.
The analytical
La formule formula
générale for RS can
de l’inversion also be
du cercle S deread offp_0
centre fromet Figure
de rayon r
6 11.4. We have
s’écrit:
11. Möbius Geometry
! "2
r
RS (p) ! p0 + (p − p0 ), p ∈ R̂2 ,
The analytical formula for RS can also d(p, pbe
0 ) read off from Figure
11.4. We have
with 0 and d’ailleurs
Onpvérifie ∞! corresponding
que"2si p_0=0to each other.
et r=1, To =
RS (z) see1/z̄that this is true,
weIlfirst
fautnote
aussithat pr0 , p, and
comprendre (p) are collinear,
queRSl’inversion est une
2 so that R
réflexion “de cercle”,
S (p) − p0 !qui se
RS (p) ! p0 + (p − p0 ), p ∈ R̂ ,
comporte
λ(p − p0 comme la réflexion
) for some
d(p, pλ0 )∈ R de
to droite lorsqu’on est
be determined. Weproche
havedu cercle.
with p0 and ∞ corresponding to each other. d(RTo seep0that
S (p), ) this is true,
λ! .
we first note that p0 , p, and RS (p) are collinear, d(p,sop0that
) RS (p) − p0 !
λ(p − p0 ) for some λ ∈ R to be determined. We have
The angles % qpp0 and % p0 qRS (p) are equal (Euclid!), so that the
triangles &qpp0 and d(R&pS (p), ) are similar. Thus,
0 qRpS0(p)
λ! .
d(p, p0 )
d(RS (p), p0 ) r
! ,
The angles % qpp0 and % p0 qRS (p) are requal (Euclid!), d(p, p0 )so that the
triangles &qpp0 and &p0 qRS (p) are similar. Thus,
so that
d(RS (p), p0 ) r "2
! S (p), p0 ) ,
!
d(R r
r λ ! d(p, p0 ) ! ,
d(p, p0 ) d(p, p0 )
so that -L’inversion n’est pas une isométrie car
and the formula for RS follows ! when"p2is outside S. Instead of check-
ing our computations
d(R S (p), p 0 for the case
) r where p is inside S, it suffices to
λ! 2 ! ,
show that RSd(p,is thep0 ) identity.d(p,To p work
0) out RS2 , we first note that
and the formula for RS follows when p is outside !
r S. Instead
"2 of check-
ing our computations for the (p) −where
RScase p0 ! p is inside S,(p it − p0 ), to
suffices
d(p, p 0 )
show that RS2 is the identity. To work out RS2 , we first note that
so that
r! 2
! "
RS (p) − p0 ! r(p − p20 ), r2
"
) ! p0 )
d(RS (p), p0d(p, d(p, p0 ) ! .
d(p, p0 ) 2 d(p, p0 )
so that
We now compute
r !2 " r2
! "
d(RS (p), p0 ) 2! d(p, rp0 ) ! 2 .
RS (p) ! p0 p+0 )
d(p, d(p, 0 ) − p0 )
(RpS (p)
d(RS (p), p0 )
We now compute ! "2 ! "2
! ! p + "2 r r
r0 2
(p − p0 )
2
 -l’inversion préserve les droites qui passent par son centre
-l’inversion transforme les droites qui ne passent par son centre par des cercles
qui passent par q

-et comme c’est un involution, l’inversion transforme un cercle passant par

q par une droite ne passant pas par q
-l’inversion transforme un cercle qui ne passe pas par q, par un autre cercle
ne passant pas par q

3
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11. Möbius Geometry 129

-EnReplacing in the previous

fait cela Tsep0 démontre argument
analytiquement, with central
prenons dilatation
le cas de with
l’inversion de
cercleratio > 0, we may assume that S ! RS◦ , reflection in the unit circle
unitér S_1(0):
S1 (0). Now let ! be any circle. ! can be described by the equation
α|p|2 − 2p · p0 + β ! 0, p ∈ R2 ,
where α, β ∈ R and p0 ∈ R2 . The choice α ! 1 gives the circle
with center at p0 , and α ! 0 defines the line with normal vector p0 .
Dividing by |p|2 and rewriting this in terms of q ! RS◦ (p) ! p/|p|2 ,
we obtain
α − 2q · p0 + β|q|2 ! 0,
and this is the equation of another circle. We are done.1

-l’inversion
Remark.conserve les angles de cercles (i.e. les angles entre les tangentes
des cercles au point d’intersection) et en particulier l’orthogonalité
♥ Möbius transformations generalize to any dimensions. In fact,
L’image d’un cercle orthogonal à K est donc lui-même
the defining formula for the reflection RS works for R if we think
n

of d as the Euclidean distance function on Rn . Here, S ! Sr (p0 ) is

the (n − 1)-dimensional sphere with center p0 and radius r. As an
interesting connection between Möbius geometry and the stereo-
graphic projection hN , we note here that, for n ! 3, hN is nothing
but the restriction of RS to S2 ⊂ R3 , where S ! S√2 (N) is the sphere
√
with center at the North Pole N and radius 2. This can be worked
out explicitly by looking at Figure 11.6. (Do you see the Lune of
Hippocrates here?) In fact, all we need to show is that RS (p), p ∈ S2 ,
is in R2 , or equivalently that R (p) and N are orthogonal. Taking
Et d’ailleurs les images de tout point Speuvent se construire par des intersec-
tionsdot products
de cercles and using |p| ! 1, we compute
orthogonaux;
2
RS (p) · N ! 1 + (p − N) · N
|p − N|2
2
!1+ (p · N − 1) ! 0.
2 − 2p · N

1
The first part of the proof was to reduce the case of general Möbius transformations to the single case
of reflection in the unit circle. Systematic reduction is a very useful tool in mathematics. Here’s a joke:
A mathematician and a physicist are asked to solve two problems. The first problem is to uncork a bottle
of wine and drink the contents. They solve the problem the same way: They both uncork the bottles
C’est très proche
and drink de The
the wine. ce qui se passe
second dansis une
problem réflexion
the same defirst,
as the droite
but this time the bottles are open. The
physicist (without much hesitation) drinks the second bottle of wine. The mathematician puts the cork
back in the bottle and says, “Now apply the solution to the first problem!”

4
 R (p)
l

Figure 11.2

point is the following observation: Consider the equatorial circle

S1 ⊂ R2 ⊂ R3 . Under hN , it corresponds to itself. Now rotate S1
around the first axis in R3 by various angles (Figure 11.2).
Under hN , the rotated great circles correspond to various circles
and, when the great circle passes through N, to a straight line!
The conclusion is inevitable. l t (p0In
) Möbius geometry we have to treat
circles and lines on the same footing. Thus when we talk about
p Figure 11.5
circles we really mean circles or lines. For the farsighted this is
no be
Thus, RS2 is the identity, as it should problem; a line
for a true on the extended plane R̂2 becomes a circle by
reflection.
closing itRupinwith
The story is the same for the reflection ∞! Analytically,
the line lt (p0 ) with however, circles and lines have
l
different
normal vector p . The explicit formula is descriptions:
0

2(p · p0 − t)p0 Sr (p0 ) # {p ∈ R2 | d(p, p0 ) # r},

Rl (p) ! p − 2
,
and|p0 |
and Rl (∞) ! ∞ (Figure 11.5).
lt (p0 ) # {p ∈ R2 | p · p0 # t} ∪ {∞},
To show this (réflexion
we note first that R (p)
de droite passant
l − p must
par p_0 be parallel to the
normal vector p-l’inversion
0 of l (p ); that is,
t 0 de cercle where
préserve (p0angles
Srles 2
) ⊂ Rdeiscerclethe usual Euclidean
mais est circle with center p0 and
anticonforme
alors que l’inversion radius
complexe andconforme
r, est lt (p0 ) is the usual Euclidean line (extended with ∞)
Rl (p) − p ! λp0 .
with normal vector p0 (· is the dot product). Notice that by fixing p0
We determine λ using the fact that andlt (p0 ) is the
varying perpendicular
r and t, we obtainbi-
concentric circles and parallel lines
sector of the segment connecting(Figure p and11.3).
Rl (p). Analytically, the
midpoint
p + Rl (p)
2
of this segment must be on lt (p0 ):
(p + Rl (p)) · p0 ! 2t.
cela se démontrer en prenant des cercles orthogonaux à K
On the other hand, Rl (p) ! p + λp0 , so that
2(t − p · p0 )
Figure
λ! 11.3
|p0 |2
and the formula for Rl follows.
We now define the Möbius group Möb (R̂2 ) as the group of all
finite compositions of reflections in circles and lines. Aside from

Cela se démontre analytiquement

5
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Problems 137

only case we have to check is reflection to the unit circle S1 ⊂ C.

This is given by z "→ 1/z̄, 0 $% z ∈ C. Even conjugation can be left
out, since it is an isometry. Thus, all that is left to check is that
z "→ 1/z preserves angles. ♦ Let 0 $% z0 ∈ C and γ : (−a, a) → C,
a > 0, a smooth curve with γ(0) % z0 . The Möbius transforma-
tion z "→ 1/z sends the tangent vector γ ) (0) to the tangent vector
(d/dt)(1/γ(t))t%0 . The latter computes as
1 γ ) (t) ## γ ) (0)
! " #
d
%− % −
dt γ(t) t%0 γ(t)2 #t%0 z02
since γ(0) % z0 . Thus z "→ 1/z acts on the vector γ ) (0) by multiply-
ing it with the constant factor −1/z02 . This is central dilatation by
ratio 1/|z0 |2 followed by rotation by angle arg(−1/z02 ) % π −2 arg z0 .
Both of these preserve angles, and we are done.
3
If we
A noter queaccept that Möbius
la translation, transformations
la rotation et l’homothétie in sontRconforme,
are angle-
mais
les réflexions
preserving et les inversions8de
(Problem cercle sont
extended toanticonformes.
3
R ), then the construction in
-l’inversion
the remark préserve
at thela end
symétrie (axiale/11
of Section de shows
cercle). that
Cela the
découle de la préser-
stereographic
vation des cercles et des angles (et donc des cercles orthogonaux)
projection is also angle-preserving. This we proved in Section 7
directly.
We are now ready to introduce hyperbolic plane geometry in the
next section.

Problems
1. Show that composition of linear fractional transformations corresponds to
matrix multiplication in SL(2, C).
2. Check that the inverse of the linear fractional transformation z "→ (az +
b)/(cz + d), ad − bc $% 0, is w "→ (dw − b)/(−cw + a).
3 L’inversion de sphère et la projection stéréo-
3. Find a linear fractional transformation that carries 0 to 1, i to −1, and −i to 0.
graphique
4. Let z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 ∈ Ĉ with z2 , z3 , z4 distinct.
Les résultats(a) de
Find a linear fractional
l’inversion de cercletransformation
ont des résultats f that carries z2dans
analogues to 1, zl’inversion
3 to 0, and
to ∞.
de sphère. Mais surtout on peut montrer que la projection stéréographique est
z 4

une inversion(b) Define

de sphère.the cross-ratio (z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 ) as f(z1 ) ∈ Ĉ. Show that the cross-ratio
is invariant under any linear fractional transformation; that is, if g is a linear
fractional transformation, we have (g(z1 ), g(z2 ), g(z3 ), g(z4 )) % (z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 ).
(c) Prove that (z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 ) ∈ R iff z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 lie on a circle or a straight
line.

6
 A noter que le pôle N correspond au point infini du plan complexe.
Toute image d’une droite (qui va à l’infini) sur le plan est un cercle qui passe
par N (l’infini)
On comprend les transformations du plan complexes, commes des transfor-
mations sur la sphère de Riemann
-la conjugaison complexe induit une réflexion de la sphère par rapport au
plan vertical passant ar l’axe des réels
-l’inversion du cerle unitaire complexe induit une réflexion de la sphère par
rapport au plan horizontal

-l’inversion complexe (1/z) induit une rotation d’angle pi autour de l’axe réel
Comment passer des coordonnées cartésiennes/ complexes aux coordonnées
sur la sphère de Riemann?

Mais beaucoup plus simple en coord. sphériques:

7
 et de son inverse

4 Retour sur Moebius:

En utilisant la décomposition de la transformation de Moebius:

On voit bien que la transformation est définie à une constante près: donc on
pose ad-bc=1, c’est la version normalisée

On voit également que les Moebius forment un groupe (car l’inverse d’une
Moebius est une Moebius et la composition de deux Moebius est une Moebius).
Les Moebius ont 1 ou 2 points fixes (s’ils en ont 0 c’est que ce sont des
translations).

On peut montrer que les Moebius sont de 4 formes différentes sur la sphère
de Riemann i.e. par projection stéréographiques, les Moebius sont des déplace-
ments (combinaison de translation, d’homothétie et de rotations).

8
 determine a circle. Let us denote one circle by C1 and one by C2 . We choose points
z1 , z2 and z3 on C1 and w1 , w2 and w3 on C2 . Then if we find a Möbius transformation
h that takes
h(z1 ) = w1 , h(z2 ) = w2 , h(z3 ) = w3 (4)
then h must map C1 to C2 . The trick is first to map C1 onto the real axis, then map
the real axis onto C2 . To map C1 onto the real axis is the same as solving Equation 4
for w1 = 0, w2 = 1 and w3 = ∞.
If the points zi "= ∞, we define a Möbius transformation f by
(z − z1 )(z2 − z3 )
f (z) = (5)
(z − z3 )(z2 − z1 )
which clearly takes f (z1 ) = 0, f (z2 ) = 1, f (z3 ) = ∞. If one of the three points
zi = ∞ (which means that C1 is a line) we have
z2 − z3 z − z1 z − z1
f (z) = (z1 = ∞), f (z) = (z2 = ∞), f (z) = (z1 = ∞) (6)
z − z3 z − z3 z2 − z1
which satisfy f (z1 ) = 0, f (z2 ) = 1, f (z3 ) = ∞. Now let g be another Möbius
transformation which takes g(w1) = 0, g(w2 ) = 1, g(w3) = ∞. Then we see that the
map h = g −1 ◦ f satisfies
h(z1 ) = g −1 ◦ f (z1 ) = g −1 (0) = w1
h(z2 ) = g −1 ◦ f (z2 ) = g −1 (1) = w2
h(z3 ) = g −1 ◦ f (z3 ) = g −1 (∞) = w3 .
Notice that the equation h(z) = w can be written as
g −1(f (z)) = w ⇐⇒ g(w) = f (z) (7)
which means that
(z − z1 )(z2 − z3 ) (w − w1 )(w2 − w3 )
= . (8)
(z − z3 )(z2 − z1 ) (w − w3 )(w2 − w1 )
On peut montrer qu’en mappant 3 points, on détermine une unique Moebius.
These
Car Moebius fractions
préserve are
le cross called cross ratios.
ratio
Definition 6. Let z, z1 , z2 , and z3 be four points in ∞. Then the expression
(z − z1 )(z2 − z3 )
(z, z1 , z2 , z3 ) =
(z − z3 )(z2 − z1 )
is called the cross ratio of the four points z, z1 , z2 , and z3 .

15

Le cross ratio combiné avec l’nalyse des points fixes, et les points particuliers
qui échangent 0 et l’infini (a/c et -d/c )permet d’identifier parfaitement les
Moebius

9
 en effet
[M (z), ε+ , a/c, − ] = [z, ε+ , ∞, − ]
Et comme les Moebius préserve les orientations

A noter le résultat utile:

5 Caractérisation par les points fixes

L’idée est de trouver de trouver une transformation de M qui mappe les points
fixes vers 0 et l’infini.
1er cas, il y a deux points fixes

On voit que la transformation le permet et est aussi

une Moebius.

10
 [w = M (z), ε+ , a/c, − ] = [z, ε+ , ∞, − ]

permet de trouver m

Voici ce qu’il se passe géométriquement

si m peut induire une rotation (Moebius elliptique), une homothétie (Moe-

bius hyperbolique) ou une combinaison des deux.

11
2ème cas, il y a un seul point fixe (parabolique)

12
 Remark
Remark
Remark 8.8.The
8. The The
kernelkernel
kernel of ΥofofisΥΥKer(Υ)
isisKer(Υ)
Ker(Υ)= kI, ==kI,kI,
k ∈kk∈∈andandand
I the the
IIthe identity
identity
identity matrix.
matrix.
matrix. Hence Hence
Hence
Υ inducesinduces
ΥΥinduces aagroup
a group group isomorphism
isomorphism
isomorphism Υ:Υ Υ: :GL
GL 2
GL
( 2 ( (
)/kI
2 )/kI
)/kI → →→
M( M(M(
∞ ).
∞ ).
).
The
∞ The
Thegroupgroup
group
GL GL
2
GL
( 2 ( (
)/kI
2 )/kI
)/kI
isisdenoted
denoted
is denoted P GL PPGLGL2(( ).).
2 ( 2).
IfIf we
If we we let
let let SL
SL SL2((denote
2 ( 2)
denote
)) denote thethethe complex
complex
complex matrices
matrices
matrices with
with
with determinant
determinant
determinant one,
one,one,
oneone one
cancancan
show show
showthat that
that
thethethe
map map
mapΥ:Υ SL SL2((→))→
Υ: :SL
2 ( 2)
→M(
M( M( ∞) ∞
isisonto,
∞))onto,
is onto, and
andand has
hashas
kernel kernel
kernel ±I,
±I,±I, soone
so
so one one gets
getsgets
an an an isomorphism
isomorphism
isomorphism Υ:Υ Υ: :SL
SL SL2(( ±
2 ( 2)/
)/I±±→
)/ II →→ M(
M( M(∞ ).∞ ∞).This This
). This just
justjust says
sayssaysthat, that,
that, instead
instead
instead ofof the
of the the
6 condition
condition
condition −−$=
adbc
ad bcbc0,
Quelques exemples simples
ad − wecould
0,0,we
$=$=we could could just
justjust asaswell
as well well
have have
haveusedused
used
ad − ad −−=
adbc bcbc1.
==1.1.
WeWe We end
endend this
thisthis section
section
section with with
with a fewaafew
few examples.
examples.
examples.
Example
Example
Example 3. 3.Find Find
3. Find thethe the
image image
image ofof interior
of interiorinterior of theofof the
the
circle circle
circle|z − |z|z2|
−−= under
22 under
2|2| 2==under thethe the
map map
map
ff(z)
(z)== z z z . . NoteNote first
first that
that zz == 4 4 is
is onon the
the circle,
circle, soso the
the image
image must
must bebe aa line.
line. We
We
f (z) = 2z−8
. Note
2z−8
2z−8 first that z = 4 is on the circle, so the image must be a line. We
seethat
seesee
that that
f (0)ff(0)
(0)0==and
= 00andand
f (2ff+
(2(22i)
++2i) 2i)−
= ==i −, 2
ii
−so2, ,the
sothe
so the
image image
image is isisthe
the the imaginary
imaginary
imaginary axis. axis.
axis.Since Since
Since
a aa
2
continuous
continuous
continuous map map
map preserves
preserves
preserves connectedness,
connectedness,
connectedness, thethe the interior
interior
interior ofofthe
of the the circle
circle
circle isiseither
is either either mapped
mapped
mapped
to toto the
the the
right right
rightor or or left
left left half
halfhalf plane.plane.
plane. Since Since
Sincef (2) ff(2)
(2)
=− ==1 − 11
,−the , , the
the
set set set {z
{z ∈{z ∈∈| |z| |− |z|z2|
−−< 2|2|2} is2} isis
<< 2}
2 22
mapped
mapped toto the
the set
set
mapped to the set {z ∈ | %(z) < 0}. {z
{z ∈∈ | | %(z)
%(z) << 0}.
0}.
Example
Example
Example 4. 4. Construct
4. Construct
Construct aaconformal
conformal
a conformal map map
map {z {z ∈{z∈∈| |z|| ||z| <|z|1}<<1} →1}→ →{z
{z ∈{z∈∈| %(z) | |%(z)
%(z) >>0}.
> 0}. 0}.
SinceSince
SinceMöbiusMöbius
Möbius transformations
transformations
transformations areare are conformal,
conformal,
conformal, we we weconstruct
construct
construct aaMöbius
a Möbius Möbius transformation
transformation
transformation
that that
thattakestakes
takesoneone one
set set setthe
to totothe
the
other. other.
other. First First
Firstwe we welook
look look aformap
for for aamap mapthat that
thattakes takes
takesthethe the unit
unitunit circle
circle
circle
to toto the
the the imaginary
imaginary
imaginary axis. axis.
axis. TheTheThemap map
map must must
must have have
have aa pole
a pole pole
on on on the
the the unit
unitunit circle,
circle,
circle, since since
since the
thethe
imaginary
imaginary
imaginary axis
axisaxis isisunbounded.
unbounded.
is unbounded. Look Look
Look at fat at f
(z)f1 (z)
(z)
1 = ==
z+1
,
z+1
z+1
, ,
which
z−1
which
which satisfies
satisfies
satisfies f ff
(1)1 1 (1)
(1)
= ∞= = ∞∞
and and
and
1 z−1z−1 1
ff11(−1)
f1 (−1) (−1)
= 0,==so itsomaps
0,0, so itit maps
mapsthethethe
unitunit unit
circlecircle
circleonto onto
onto some some
some straight
straight
straight line
lineline
through through
through thethe the origin.
origin.
origin.
SinceSince
Since ff11(i)
f1 (i) = ==−i
(i)−i ititmaps
it−imaps maps
{z {z∈{z∈∈| |z|| ||z| =|z|1}==1} to1}{z to{z
to ∈{z∈∈| %(z) | |%(z)
%(z)
= 0}.==0}. WeWe
0}. We
seesee seethat
that that the
thethe
interior
interior
interior {z {z∈{z∈∈| |z|| ||z| <|z|1}
<<1} isismapped
is1}mapped mapped to {ztoto{z ∈{z∈∈| %(z) | |%(z)
%(z)< 0}, <<0}, 0},
since since
since ff11(0)
f1 (0) =(0)−1==−1 −1 and
andand
sincesince
sincef maps maps
ff maps connected
connected
connected sets
setssets toconnected
to
to connectedconnected sets. sets.
sets.Hence Hence
Hence thethe the
map map
map f (z) ff(z)
(z)−
= ==z+1−−z+1z+1
maps
z−1
maps
maps
z−1z−1
{z {z{z ∈
∈ ∈ | |z|| |z|| |z|
< 1} <
< 1} →→1} →
{z {z {z ∈
∈ ∈ | %(z) | %(z)
| %(z)> 0}. >
> 0}. 0}.
Example
Example
Example 5. 5. Determine
5. Determine
Determine the
thethe image
image
image of ofof the
the the second
second
second quadrant
quadrant
quadrant {z {z {z
∈ ∈∈ | %(z) | | %(z)
%(z)
< <<
0 and and
00and'(z)'(z)
'(z)
> 0} >>0}underunder
0}under the
thethe mapping
mapping
mapping ff(z)
f (z) (z)z+i
=
z+i
z+i
==.z−i . . Let
Let
z−i
Let
us usfirst
us
first first
see seewhere
see
where where
the the
the
two two
two
axis axis
axis
z−i
aremapped.
areare mapped.
mapped. Since Since
Since ff(2i)
f (2i) (2i)
= 3==and and
33and ff(3i)
f (3i) (3i)
= 2== the the
22the imaginary
imaginary
imaginary axis
axisaxis isismapped
is mapped mapped tothe
to
to the the real
realreal
axis.axis.
axis.
WeWe Wehave
have have
f (0) ff(0)
= ==−1
(0)−1 and and
−1and ff(−1)
f (−1)(−1)
= −i, −i,
==−i,
so thesothe
so theimaginary
imaginary
imaginary axis
axisaxis isismapped
is mapped mapped to
to thetothe
theline
line line
={zx+iy
{z {z ==x+iy | y |=
x+iy |yy−x−1}.
−x−1}.
==−x−1}. WeWe We also
alsoalso
have have
have ff(−1+3i)
(−1+3i)
f (−1+3i) , so, ,we
9−2i
==9−2i
= 9−2i sowe
so wesee
see seethat
that that ffmaps
f maps maps the
thethe
5 55
set{z
set set
{z ∈{z∈∈| %(z)
| |%(z)
%(z)
< 0<< and and
00and '(z)
'(z)
'(z) > 0}>>0} tothe
to
0}the
to the set{z
set set
{z ={zx== y |>|yy−x
x++|iyiy
+xiy >>−x −−x1−−and and
11andy <yy0}.
<<0}.
0}.

6 66The
The
The Cross
Cross
Cross Ratio
Ratio
Ratio
WeWeWe
have have
have already
already
already seen seen
seen
that that
that Möbius
Möbius
Möbius 13
transformations
transformations
transformations mapmap
map circles
circles
circles to
to circles 4 44. . In
tocircles
circles In this
. In this this
section
section
section wewant
we we
want want totofind
to find findaaspecific
specific
a specific Möbius
Möbius
Möbius transformation
transformation
transformation that
that
that takes
takes
takes aaspecific
specific
a specific circle
circle
circle
4 4 In this section we will not destinguish between circles and lines, since a line in isaacircle
circle
4 In this
In this section
section we will
we will not not destinguish
destinguish between
between circles
circles andand lines,
lines, since
since a line
a line in inis aiscircle in inin
∞ closed
∞ closed
∞closed atat∞.
at ∞. ∞.

14
14 14
 Example 6. Find a Möbius transformation that takes 0 to i, 1 to 2 and −1 to 4.
We calculate the approprate cross ratios

(z − 0)(−1 − (−1) 2z
(z, 0, 1, −1) = =
(z − (−1))(1 − 0) z+1
w − i(2 − 4) −2(w − i)
(w, i, 2, 4) = = .
(w − 4)(2 − i) (w − 4)(2 − i)
To map z1 , z2 , and z3 onto w1 , w2 , and w3 we have to solve Equation 7 for w
in find
So to terms
theofMöbius
z, which by Equation 8weis must
transformation the same as the
equate equating the two cross
two expressions andratios
solve and
solving for w in terms of z. Note that the order of the terms in the cross ratio is
for w.
essential.
We now give some examples.−2(w − i) 2z
=
(w − 4)(2 − i) z+1
Example 6. Find a Möbius transformation that takes 0 to i, 1 to 2 and −1 to 4.
which gives
We calculate the approprate cross ratios
(16 − 0)(−1
(z − 6i)z +− 2i(−1) 2z
w 0,
(z, =1,h(z)
−1)== (6 − 2i)z + 2 =
(z − (−1))(1 − 0) z+1
which is the desired Möbius w − i(2 − 4)
transformation. −2(w − i)
(w, i, 2, 4) = = .
(w − 4)(2 − i) (w − 4)(2 − i)
The next example is analogous to an earlier example which we treated by an ad
hoc So to find The
method. the Möbius
concepttransformation
of an orientationwe must
gives equate the two expressions
us an algorithm and solve
to solve similar
for w.
problems.
Remark 9. A circle is not only determined
−2(w − i) by the2zthree points z1 , z2 and z3 but
=
also oriented by the three points.(w A− line
4)(2 also
− i) needs
z +three
1 points to orient it, since
it closes up at ∞. The orientation is given by proceeding through the three points
which givesThis orientation determines a left region, namely the region that is to
in succession.
the left of an observer traversing the circle (16
in the direction
− 6i)z + 2i of the orientation. Using
conformality of the Möbius transformation
w = h(z) = it can be shown that given two circles C1
(6 − 2i)z + 2
and C2 with orientations determined by the points z1 , z2 and z3 and w1 , w2 and w3 ,
the which
Möbiusistransformation mapstransformation.
the desired Möbius the left region of C1 to the left region of C2 .

Example Find
The7.next a Möbius
example transformation
is analogous that takes
to an earlier the which
example region we = {z ∈by an
D1 treated | ad
|z| >hoc to the region
1} method. The D 2 = {z ∈
concept of an| $(z) < 0}. gives us an algorithm to solve similar
orientation
problems.
We choose both D1 and D2 to be left regions. That is accomplished by choosing
Remark 9. A circle is not only determined 16 by the three points z , z2 and z3 but
z1 = 1, z2 = −i, z3 = −1 and w1 = 0, w2 = i, w3 = ∞. Since Möbius 1transformations
also oriented by the three points. A line also needs three points to orient it, since
take left regions to left regions, a solution to the problems is a Möbius transformation
it closes up at ∞. The orientation is given by proceeding through the three points
that takes 1 to 0, −i to i and −1 to ∞. As in the previous example we find such a
in succession. This orientation determines a left region, namely the region that is to
Möbius transformation by equating the two cross ratios, i.e.
the left of an observer traversing the circle in the direction of the orientation. Using
conformality of the Möbius(w, transformation it −i,
0, i, ∞) = (z, 1, can−1)
be shown that given two circles C1
and C2 with orientations determined by the points z1 , z2 and z3 and w1 , w2 and w3 ,
the Möbius
which is the transformation
same as maps the left region of C1 to the left region of C2 .

Example 7. Find a Möbius w −transformation

0 (z − 1)(−ithat
+ 1)takes the region D1 = {z ∈ |
= ,
|z| > 1} to the region D2 =i {z
− 0∈ |(z$(z) < 0}.− 1)
+ 1)(−i

where we have used the first formula in Equation 6 to calculate the cross ratio for
16
w. This gives the desired Möbius transformation
1−z
w = h(z) = .
1+z

7 The Symmetry Principle and Maps of the Unit

6.1 Les Disk
automorphismes duHalfplane
and the Upper disque unité D.
Si les Moebius
We wish toont 6 degrés
determine all de liberté
possible (3 points
Möbius dans le from
transformations planthecomplexe).
unit disk to On voit
itself,
ici que les
andMobius
from thequi sont
upper des automorphismes
halfplane to itself. For this,du
wedisque unité
need the sont donnés
symmetry principle.par
3 anglesFirst
sur we
le need
dique unité
a few (donc 3 degrés de liberté).
definitions.
PourDefinition
construire cet automorphisme, on prend un point a du disque dont
7. Two points z1 and z2 are symmetric with respect to a straight line L
l’image ifest zéro. Comme le cercle doit être invariant,
L is the perpendicular bisector of the line joining z2 . doit être mappé sur
z1 and1/a
l’image de 0 par inversion de cercle C, i.e. infini.La transformation a donc un
zéro en a et A circle is orthogonal
un pôle en 1/a. to a line L if the tangent of the circle is orthogonal to the
line at the point of intersection. This is equivalent to the center of the circle lying
on L.

Definition 8. Two points z1 and z2 are symmetric with respect to a circle C if every
straight line or circle passing through z1 and z2 intersects C orthogonally.

Note that this in particular means14that the center a of C and ∞ are symmetric
with respect to C. Since a circle is bounded there is no circle through both a and
∞ and any line through a (and ∞) is orthogonal to C. We can now state the
symmetry-preserving properties of Möbius transformations.

17
 Donc M doit être du type:

mais comme 1 doit aussi être sur le Cercle

On peut également se poser la question de la nature de

avec a dans le disque unité

On trouve facilement que cette transformation a deux points fixes et que
m=-1

15
 ! ! "
! i − α !! |i − α| | − a + (1 − b)i| (−a)2 + (1 − b)2
|f (i)| = !!eiθ = = = " = 1,
αi − 1 ! |αi − 1| |b − 1 + ai| (b − 1)2 + a2
! !
! 1 − α!
|f (1)| = !!eiθ ! = 1,
α − 1!
! !
! −1 − α !
|f (−1)| = !!eiθ ! = 1.
−α − 1 !

Since f (α) = 0 and |α| < 1 the interior goes to the interior, which proves that f
maps the disk to itself.
We finish this section with a classification of the Möbius transformations that
takes 2 , 2 = {z ∈ | #(z) > 0}, to 2 . We formulate this in the following
6.2 Automorphisme de H (demi-plan)
theorem.

Theorem 5. The Möbius transformations 2

→ 2
are the maps
az + b
f (z) = , a, b, c, d ∈ and ad − bc > 0.
cz + d
For the proof we need the following proposition.

Proposition 7.2. A Möbius transformation f maps the real line to the real line if
and only if the coefficients a, b, c and d are real.

Proof. We first assume that the coefficients a, b, c and d of f are real. Then the
image of the three points 0, 1 and 2 is clearly three points on the real axis. Since the
image of a line is determined by the image of three points on that line, this proves
that the real axis is mapped to the real axis.

Denote the real axis by ∞ 6 . Assume now that f ( ∞ ) = ∞ . This implies that
f maps three points on the real20 axis q1 , q2 and q3 to three points on the real axis
r1 , r2 and r3 (we assume that all points are finite, if this is not the case, modify the
following cross ratios acordingly, see Equation 6). This means that f is determined
by equating the two cross ratios

(w, r1 , r2 , r3 ) = (z, q1 , q2 , q3 )

which is the same as

(z − q1 )(q2 − q3 ) (w − r1 )(r2 − r3 )
= .
(z − q3 )(q2 − q1 ) (w − r3 )(r2 − r1 )

When we solve for w we get a Möbius transformation w = f (z) with real coefficients,
since q1 , q2 , q3 , r1 , r2 and r3 are real. Since the points q1 , q2 , q3 , r1 , r2 and r3 were
arbitrary, this finishes the proof.
This proposition allows us to give a quick proof of the theorem.
Proof. Let f be a Möbius transformation that maps 2 to 2 . Since the real axis
partitions ∞ into two connected components, and a Möbius transformation maps
a connected component to a connected component, f must map the real axis to the
real axis. By Proposition 7.2 we can choose f as
az + b
f (z) = , a, b, c, d ∈
cz + d
We have
az + b
f (z) =
cz + d
az + b
= (cz + d)
|cz + d|2
1
= (ac|z|2 + bd + bcz + adz).
|cz + d|2
Hence we have
! " ! "
az + b 1 2 ad − bc
#(f (z)) = # =# (ac|z| + bd + bcz + adz) = #(z).
cz + d |cz + d|2 |cz + d|2

This means that f maps 2

to itself if and only if ad − bc > 0.
6
The subscript is a reminder that this is a circle in ∞ which is closed up at ∞

16 21