1.

5 RELATIVE ATOMIC, RELATIVE ISOTOPIC, RELATIVE

MOLECULAR AND RELATIVE FORMULA MASSES

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES

By the end of this topic, students should be able to:

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• explain the term relative atomic mass, relative isotopic mass, relative
molecular mass and relative formula mass.
• calculate relative atomic mass of an element from the relative
abundance of its isotopes or the isotopic composition.
1.5 RELATIVE ATOMIC, RELATIVE ISOTOPIC, RELATIVE
MOLECULAR AND RELATIVE FORMULA MASSES
Rules in calculations

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• When multiplying or dividing measured quantities, give as many
significant figures in the answer as there are in the measurement with
the least number of significant figure.
Example

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• When adding or subtracting measured quantities, give the same
number of decimal places in the answer as there are in the
measurement with the least number of decimal places.
Example 14.3 + 220.75 = 235.1

• Combination of × or ÷ and + or - of measurements, final answer

follows the least number of significant figure from the data given.
1.5 RELATIVE ATOMIC, RELATIVE ISOTOPIC, RELATIVE
MOLECULAR AND RELATIVE FORMULA MASSES
1.5.1 Relative Atomic Mass, Ar
•

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The relative atomic mass, Ar of an element is the average mass of
one atom of the element when compared with 1 of the mass of a
carbon-12. 12

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1.5.2 Relative Molecular Mass, Mr
• The relative molecular mass, Mr of a molecule is the average mass
of the molecule when compared with 1 of the mass of one atom
carbon-12. 12
EXAMPLE

Molecule Molecular formula Relative molecular mass

Chlorine Cl2 2 x 35.5 = 71.0
Nitrogen N2 2 x 14.0 = 28.0
Ammonia NH3 14.0 + (3 x 1.0) = 17.0
Ethanol C2H5OH (2 x 12.0) + (5 x 1.0) + 16.0 + 1.0 = 46.0
 1.5 RELATIVE ATOMIC, RELATIVE ISOTOPIC, RELATIVE
MOLECULAR AND RELATIVE FORMULA MASSES
1.5.3 Relative Formula Mass

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• Some substances consists of ions and not molecules.
• For these ionic substances, the relative formula masses are used in
place of relative molecular masses.

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EXAMPLE

Ionic substance Ionic formula Relative formula mass

Sodium chloride NaCl 23.0 + 35.5 = 58.5

Magnesium sulphate MgSO4.7H2O 24.3 + 32.1 + (4 x 16.0) + 7[(2 x 1.0) + 16.0] =

heptahydrate 246.4
Calcium oxide CaO 40.1 + 16.0 = 56.1
1.5 RELATIVE ATOMIC, RELATIVE ISOTOPIC, RELATIVE
MOLECULAR AND RELATIVE FORMULA MASSES

1.5.4 Relative Isotopic Mass

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• The relative isotopic mass is the ratio of the mass of one atom of
an isotope when compared with of the mass of one atom of C-12.

• If more than one isotope of element is present, the atomic mass is

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calculated by taking the average of the relative atomic masses of
different isotopes.

1.5.5 Determining Relative Atomic Mass from Isotopic Abundance

• Elements that do not have isotopes (e.g; Fluorine-19) relative atomic
mass is the same as the relative isotopic mass.
• Elements consists of isotopes, the relative atomic mass is the
average of the masses of its naturally occurring isotopes weighted
according to their abundances.

Note: atomic mass unit (amu) is a unit of mass used to express atomic and
molecular weight, equal to of the mass of an atom of C-12
1.5 RELATIVE ATOMIC, RELATIVE ISOTOPIC, RELATIVE
MOLECULAR AND RELATIVE FORMULA MASSES

• Atomic mass is calculated by multiplying relative isotopic mass of each

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isotope by its fractional abundance (relative abundance) and adding all
these values together.

• The mass spectrometer is an instrument used to show the identity of

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isotopes.

• The fractional abundance (relative abundance) is plotted on the y-axis

and the m/z (mass number) is plotted on the x-axis.

Atomic Mass = ∑ (fractional abundance x isotopic mass)n

EXAMPLE
If copper is 69.17% Cu-63 with a mass of 62.9396 amu and the rest Cu-65 with
a mass of 64.9278 amu, find the atomic mass of copper

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SOLUTION

Cu-63 = 69.17%, 62.9396 amu

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Cu-65 = 100% - 69.17%, 64.9278 amu
atomic mass, amu

Atomic Mass = ∑ (fractional abundance x isotopic mass)n

= (0.6917 x 62.9396 amu) + (0.3083 x 64.9278 amu)
= 63.55 amu
EXAMPLE
There are two isotopes: boron-10 with an abundance of 18.7% and boron-11 with
an abundance of 81.3%. Calculate the atomic mass of boron.

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100

SOLUTION 81.3

Relative abundance,

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B-10 = 18.7%, 10 amu
B-11 = 81.3%, 11 amu
atomic mass, amu 18.7

%
0 5 10
m/z

Relative Atomic Mass = ∑ (fractional abundance x isotopic mass)n

= (0.187 x 10 amu) + (0.813 x 11 amu)
= 11 amu
CHECKPOINT 10

QUESTION 1

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The isotopic masses of Li-6 and Li-7 are given as 6.01512 amu and 7.01601 amu
respectively. If the atomic mass of Li is 6.94 amu, calculate the % abundance of the
two isotopes.

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Ans: Li-6=7.59% and Li-7=92.4%
CHECKPOINT 10

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QUESTION 2

Given that Ag-107 (51.839% abundance) and the mass ratio : Ag-109/Ag-
107=1.0187. Calculate the mass of Ag-107. (Atomic mass of Ag = 107.87 amu)

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Ans: 106.91 amu
CHECKPOINT 10

QUESTION 3

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Calculate the atomic mass of zinc using the following mass spectra information
about its isotopes.
m/z value 64.0 66.0 67.0 68.0 70.0

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% relative abundance 48.9 27.8 4.1 18.6 0.6

Ans: 65.5 amu

1.6 THE MOLE CONCEPT AND AVOGADRO’S CONSTANT

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

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Student should be able to:
• explain the mole in terms of the Avogadro’s constant.

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• calculate the number of moles of element or compound given its mass and
molar mass and vice versa.
1.6 THE MOLE CONCEPT AND AVOGADRO’S CONSTANT

1.6.1 The Mole and Avogadro’s Constant

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• A mole (abbreviated mol) is the amount of any substance with the
same number of entities as there are atoms in exactly 12 g of 12C.
• Avogadro’s constant (6.022×1023 mol-1) gives the number of

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entities in 1 mole.

One mole of different elements

(clockwise from top left: sulfur,
aluminum, mercury and copper).
Each of these element samples
contains 6.022 x 1023 atoms.
1.6 THE MOLE CONCEPT AND AVOGADRO’S CONSTANT

• The molar mass, MM is the mass of 1 mole of a substance.

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⮚ molar mass (g mol-1). m
⮚ m is mass (g). Molar mass, MM =
n
⮚ n is the number of moles (mol)

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EXAMPLE

Calculate the number of copper atoms in a penny weighing 3.10 g.

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SOLUTION
Given: 3.10 g Cu
Find: atoms Cu

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Mol of Cu

Atoms of Cu = 0.0488 mol

= 0.0488 mol x 6.022 x 1023 atoms mol-1

= 2.94 x 1022 atoms Cu

CHECKPOINT 11
QUESTION 1
Dimethylnitrosamine (CH3)2N2O is a carcinogenic substance which is formed in

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foods, beverages or gastric juices.

a) Calculate the molar mass of dimethylnitrosamine

b) Calculate the moles of 2.5 g of dimethylnitrosamine
c) Determine the number of nitrogen atom present in 1.0 x 1016 molecules of

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dimethylnitrosamine
d) Calculate the mass in grams of one molecule of dimethylnitrosamine

Ans: (a) 74.0 gmol-1 (b) 0.034 mol (c) 2.0 x 1016 (d) 1 x 10-22g
1.6 THE MOLE CONCEPT AND AVOGADRO’S CONSTANT

1.6.2 Moles of Gases

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The volume occupied by one mole of any gas is called the molar volume

• At standard temperature and pressure (s.t.p), the molar gas volume is

22.4 L mol-1. The condition for s.t.p are 0 oC and 1 atm pressure.

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• At room temperature and pressure (r.t.p), the molar gas volume is
24.0 L mol-1. The condition for r.t.p are 25 oC and 1 atm pressure.
EXAMPLE
The decomposition of KClO3 produced 48.0 L of oxygen gas. How many moles of
oxygen gas are there and calculate the mass of oxygen gas at s.t.p.

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SOLUTION

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= 2.14 mol

Mass of O2 = 2.14 mol x 32.0 g mol-1

= 68.5 g
CHECKPOINT 12
QUESTION 1

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Carbon dioxide gas is obtained from the fermentation of glucose. If 20.0 L of carbon
dioxide (at s.t.p) are collected, calculate the number of oxygen atoms present in this
gas.

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Ans: 1.08 x 1024 atom O
 1.7 EMPIRICAL AND MOLECULAR FORMULAE

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

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By the end of this topic, students should be able to:
• determine the empirical formula and molecular formula of a compound

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based on its percent composition and from the combustion analysis
data.
 1.7 EMPIRICAL AND MOLECULAR FORMULAE

1.7.1 Composition by Mass (revisit)

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The percentage by mass of an element is given by:

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 1.7 EMPIRICAL AND MOLECULAR FORMULAE

To determine the empirical formula:

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Step 1: Assume 100 g sample. Individual percentages become the actual
masses.

Step 2: Divide the mass of each element by its molar mass to obtain the

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number of moles.

Step 3: Divide all numbers in the ratio by the smallest number of moles.
Give the smallest whole-number ratios of each element.

Step 4:
• if result is within 0.1 of whole number, round to whole number
• if ratio ~0.5 multiply all by 2
• if ratio ~0.33 or ~0.67, multiply all by 3
• if ratio ~0.25 or ~0.75, multiply all by 4
EXAMPLE

Laboratory analysis of aspirin determined the following mass percent

composition as follows:
C = 60.00%, H = 4.48% and O = 35.53%.

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Calculate the empirical formula of aspirin.

SOLUTION

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Element C H O
% composition by mass (g) 60.00 4.48 35.53
Relative atomic mass 12.0 1.00 16.0
Number of moles 5.00 4.48 2.22
Mole ratios 5.00 4.48 2.22
2.22 2.22 2.22
= 2.25 = 2.02 = 1.00

Simplest ratio (x4) 9 8 4

EF = C9H8O4
EXAMPLE
The mass percent composition of an organic acid is given as 41.4% C, 3.47% H,
55.1% O. 0.05 mol of this acid has a mass of 5.80g. Determine the empirical
formula and the molecular formula of this acid.

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SOLUTION
Element C H O

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% composition by 41.4 3.47 55.1
mass (g)
Relative atomic 12.0 1.00 16.00
mass
Number of moles 3.45 3.47 3.44
Mole ratios 3.45 3.47 3.44
3.44 3.44 3.44
=1 =1 =1

Simplest ratio 1 1 1 EF = CHO ; MF = C4H4O4

CHECKPOINT 13
QUESTION 1

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Methyl salicylate has a mass percent composition of 63.2% C, 31.6% O and
5.26% H. The mass of one molecule of the compound is 2.53 x 10-22 g.
Determine the empirical formula and the molecular formula of methyl salicylate.

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QUESTION 2
A 0.648 g sample of isobutene contains 0.556 g of carbon, and the rest is
hydrogen. 0.50 mol of the isobutene has a mass of 28.5 g. Determine the
empirical formula and molecular formula of isobutene.

Ans:(Q1) C8H8O3 EF&MF (Q2) CH2 EF ;C4H8 MF

 1.7 EMPIRICAL AND MOLECULAR FORMULAE
1.7.2 Combustion Data
•

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A common technique for analyzing compounds is to burn a known
mass of compound and weigh the amounts of product made
• By knowing the masses of the product and composition of
constituent element in the product, the original amount of
constituent element can be determined

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• Once the masses of all the constituent elements in the original
compound have been determined, the empirical formula can be
found.
EXAMPLE
Combustion of a 0.8233 g sample of a compound containing only carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen produced 2.445 g CO2 and 0.6003 g H2O. Determine the
empirical formula of the compound.

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SOLUTION
Let the empirical formula to be CxHyOz
• all the original C forms CO2
• the original H forms H2O
• the mass of O is found by subtraction from the original mass of C and H

ONLINE COPY
mole of CO2 = 2.445 g CO2
44.0 gmol-1 CO2
= 0.05557 mol CO2
Since 1 mol C in 1 mol CO2 so; mole of C = 0.05557 mol
Mass of C = 0.05557 mol x 12.0 gmol-1 = 0.66684 g C

mole of H2O = 0.6003 g H2O

18.0 gmol-1 H2O
= 0.03335 mol H2O
Since 2 mol H in 1 mol H2O so; mole of H = 0.03335 x 2 = 0.0667 mol
Mass of H = 0.0667 mol x 1.0 gmol-1 = 0.0667 g H
continue…

Mass of O = Mass of compound – (mass of C + mass of H)

= 0.8233 g – (0.66684 g + 0.0667 g) = 0.08976 g

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mole of O = 0.0872 g O
16 gmol-1 O
= 0.00561 mol

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Element C H O
Mole ratios 0.05557 0.0667 0.00561
0.00561 0.00561 0.00561

9.9~10 11.9~12 1

EF= C10H12O
CHECKPOINT 14
QUESTION 1

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Ferrocene was the first organic iron compound with Fe-C bonds. In combustion
analysis of ferrocene, it only contains Fe, C and H elements. A 0.9437 g sample
produced 2.233 g of CO2 and 0.457 g of H2O. Determine the empirical formula
of ferrocene.

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Ans: C10H10Fe
 1.8 STOICHIOMETRY AND ATOM ECONOMY

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES

By the end of this topic, students should be able to:

• apply the mole concept and molar mass to solve problems involving

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limiting reactant.
• calculate theoretical yield, actual yield and percentage yield of a
product from a given reaction.
• determine the efficiency of a reaction using the percent atom economy
expression.
 1.8 STOICHIOMETRY AND ATOM ECONOMY

• Stoichiometry: the mole-to-mole ratio linking substances involved in a

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chemical equation:
2C8H18 (l) + 25O2 (g) → 16CO2 (g) + 18H2O (g)
⮚ Mole-to-mole relationships can be used to solve stoichiometry

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problems.
⮚ Equations must be balanced.
 1.8 STOICHIOMETRY AND ATOM ECONOMY
1.8.1 Limiting Reactants

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• In any reaction, one reactant may limit the amount of product formed.
• The limiting reactant will be completely used up in the reaction.
• The reactant that is not limiting is the excess reactant

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• Excess reactant - some of this reactant will be left over.

6H2 (g) + 4Cl2 (g) → 8HCl (aq) + 2H2 (g)

Limiting reactant: Cl2 Excess reactant: H2

The calculated amount of product is always based on the limiting reactant.

 1.8 STOICHIOMETRY AND ATOM ECONOMY
1.8.2 Theoretical Yield and Percentage Yield

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• Percentage yield is given by:

actual yield
% yield= x 100%
theoretical yield

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• Theoretical yield : maximum amount of product that can be obtained
by a reaction from given amount of reactant.

• Actual yield : amount of product from experimental determined

• The actual yield cannot be more than the theoretical yield.

• The calculation may be done in either grams or moles.

 1.8 STOICHIOMETRY AND ATOM ECONOMY

Solving the limiting reactant problem will requires the following steps:

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type of problem requires that you carry out the following steps
1. Determine the number of moles of each reactant.

2. Compare the number of mole of product from each reactant to

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determine the limiting reactant.

3. Convert the number of moles of product to mass of product.

EXAMPLE
A 28.6 kg of C are allowed to react with 88.2 kg of TiO2 in the reaction below and
42.8 kg of Ti are obtained. Calculate the limiting reactant, theoretical yield, and
percentage yield.

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CONCEPTUAL PLAN

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kg

}
C smallest
amount is
from
kg limiting
TiO2 reactant

smallest
mol Ti
EXAMPLE
A 28.6 kg of C are allowed to react with 88.2 kg of TiO2 in the reaction below and
42.8 kg of Ti are obtained. Calculate the limiting reactant, theoretical yield, and
percentage yield.

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SOLUTION

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1.1917
12.0

1.1039
79.9

limiting reactant, LR smallest moles of

Ti
continue…

47.9
1.1039

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theoretical yield

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limiting reactant = TiO2, theoretical yield = 52.9 kg, percentage yield = 80.9%
EXAMPLE
Calculate the mass of NH3 that can be produced from the reaction of 28.0 g of N2 and
25.0 g of H2. Calculate the mass of excess reactant left over.

SOLUTION
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) → 2NH3 (g)

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28.0 g N2 x 1 mol x 2 mol NH3 = 2.00 mol NH3 (N2 = Limiting reactant)
28.0 g 1 mol N2

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25.0 g H2 x 1 mol x 2 mol NH3 = 8.33 mol NH3 (H2 = Excess reactant)
2.00 g 3 mol H2

mass NH3 produced = 2 mol x 17.0 g = 34.0 g

1 mol

moles H2 present = 25.0 g H2 x 1 mol = 12.5 mol

2.0 g
moles H2 needed = 28.0 g N2 x 1 mol x 3 mol H2 = 3 mol
28 g 1 mol N2
moles H2 left over = (12.5 – 3 ) mol H2 = 9.5 mol H2
mass H2 left over = 9.5 mol x 2 gmol-1 = 19.0 g
CHECKPOINT 15

QUESTION 1

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A 5.00 g of sodium reacted with 5.00 g of oxygen produced 5.38 g sodium
oxide, Na2O. Calculate

a) the theoretical yield.

b) the mass of excess reactant left over.

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c) the percent yield.

Ans:(a) 6.74 g (b)3.26 g of O2 (c) 79.6%

 1.8 STOICHIOMETRY AND ATOM ECONOMY
1.8.3 Atom Economy

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• Atom economy (atom efficiency) is the conversion efficiency of a
chemical process in terms of all atoms involved and the desired
products produced.

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It is an important concept of green chemistry philosophy, and one of
the most widely used metrics for measuring the "greenness" of a
process or synthesis.

• A reaction can have a high percentage yield but also make a lot of
waste product caused a low atom economy.

• Both the yield and the atom economy must be considered when
designing a green chemical process.
 1.8 STOICHIOMETRY AND ATOM ECONOMY
Step-by-step: How to calculate atom economy

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Step 1 - Write out the balanced equation.

Step 2 - Calculate the relative molecular mass of each of the products.

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Step 3 - Calculate the total mass of all the products (take into
consideration any coefficient in front of the symbols
eg: 2Fe2O3+ 3C → 4Fe + 3CO2

Step 4 - Work out which of the products are wanted and calculate their
mass (do not forget any coefficient in front of the symbols).

Step 5 - Apply the formula: ATOM = mass useful product X 100%

ECONOMY total mass of products
 1.8 STOICHIOMETRY AND ATOM ECONOMY
EXAMPLE
In a chemical synthesis of calcium oxide, calcium carbonate is roasted in

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an oven. Calculate the atom economy. The equation for the reaction is:
CaCO3 (s) → CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
SOLUTION

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Useful product Waste product

CaCO3 (s) → CaO (s) + CO2 (g)

Molar mass (g mol-1): 100.0 56.0 44.0

ATOM = mass useful product

X 100%
ECONOMY total mass of products

Atom Economy = 56.0 x 100% = 56 %

(56.0 + 44.0)
 1.8 STOICHIOMETRY AND ATOM ECONOMY
• Raw materials are scarce and expensive and so must be carefully
conserved.

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• Advantages of processes with high atom economy are:
⮚ reduce waste and pollution
⮚ reduce energy use

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⮚ reduce cost
⮚ conserve raw materials
CHECKPOINT 16

QUESTION 1
The equation for the extraction of copper from copper sulfide is:

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CuS (s) + O2 (g) → Cu (s) + SO2 (g)

Calculate the % atom economy of the reaction.

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QUESTION 2

Ethanol, CH3CH2OH, can be produced by the fermentation of glucose, C6H12O6:

C6H12O6 (aq) → 2CH3CH2OH (aq) + 2CO2 (g)

Calculate the % atom economy for the reaction.

(Ans: (Q1)49.8% (Q2) 51.1%)