Wk5-6

ENME462: Renewable Energy

Chapter 3: Solar angle and radiation
• Sun-earth size, temperature and rotation
• Solar time
• Solar angle
Perihelion and Aphelion
Summer and Winter Solstice
Insolation and seasonal changes
Solar altitude (α) and the solar azimuth (z)
Incidence angle measurement
• Solar radiation
Extraterrestrial solar radiation
Total radiation on tilted surface

Dr. M. A. Fazal
Mechanical and Materials Engineering Dept. UJ
Stefan-Boltzmann law & Sun’s emitted energy
Any object with a temperature On the basis of the temperature of
higher than T= 0 K emits the Sun photosphere (~6000 K), and
radiation as a function of its the Stephan-Boltzmann law, the total
temperature according to the energy emitted by the Sun is
Stefan-Boltzmann law

• Solar radiation reaches on the top of the Earth’s atmosphere at a maximum

flux density is about 1425 W/m2 in a wavelength band between 0.3 and 2.5
μm. 2
Solar radiation on tilt surface, atmosphere and Sun’s emitted energy

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SOLAR RADIATION
• Sun is a huge sphere having very hot gases. It generates ample of
radiation energy by various fusion reactions occurred in it.
• Sun is the main source of energy for earth – Solar energy.

• Sun radiates solar energy in the form of Electromagnetic Radiations.

• Three radiation regions: i) Ultraviolet, ii) Visible and iii) Infrared regions

• Around 44% of the radiation

spectrum is in the visible
shortwave range.

• The rest is mostly in the near-

infrared part (49%), with some in
the ultraviolet part (7%) of the
spectrum. 4
Sun’s total radiation:
• Ultraviolet region (λ<0.40 μm) – 7%
• Visible region (0.40μm<λ<0.70μm) – 44%
• Infrared region (λ>0.70μm) – 49%

• The earth’s atmosphere reflects/absorbs the UV & infrared radiation and allows
mostly visible light having λ between 0.4 μm and 0.7 μm to reach at earth.
Solar Radiation:

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Radiation on earth & earth atmosphere:
• Radiation on the top of earth atmosphere – Extraterrestrial radiation
• Radiation beneath earth atmosphere – Terrestrial radiation

• In earth’s orbit around the Sun, the Earth keeps its north-south rotational
axis unvaried, causing a different angle between the Sun’s radiation
and the surface of the Earth.

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Solar constant (GSC):
• The total energy received from the sun per unit time on unit
surface area kept perpendicular to the radiation in space
just outside the earth’s atmosphere when the earth is at its
mean distance from the sun is called solar constant (GSC).

• A standard value of solar constant (GSC) is1353 𝑊/𝑚2

Extraterestrial radiation:
• Solar radiation incident on the outer atmosphere of earth is known as
extraterrestrial radiation.
• Solar constant (1353 𝑊/𝑚2) is measured from extraterrestrial radiation.

• About 99% of the extraterrestrial radiation has wave lengths in the range
from 0.2 to 4 µm with maximum spectral intensity at 0.48 µm (green
portion of visible range). 8
Extraterestrial radiation:
• When the sun is the closest to earth on January 3, the solar heat on
the outer edge of the earth’s atmosphere is about 1400 W/m2; and
when the sun is the farthest away on July 4, it is about 1330 W/m2.

• Throughout the year, the extraterrestrial radiation measured on the

plane normal to the radiation on the Nth day of the year, Gon

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Extraterestrial radiation:

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Terestrial radiation:
• The solar radiation that reaches the earth surface after passing through
the earth’s atmosphere is known as terrestrial radiation.
• Absorbed by the atmosphere and the earth surface (19% + 51%)
• The scattered /reflected 30% radiation is called Earth’s albedo.

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Components of radiation
• Solar radiation incident on the top of atmosphere from the direction of
the Sun is the solar extraterrestrial beam radiation (Gon).

• The solar radiation reaching on earth’s surface is reduced below Gon

because a large part of it is scattered, reflected back out into space,
and absorbed by the atmosphere. Figure below is a sketch of how this
happens.
• Some of this scattered - diffuse radiation.
• Some come directly through the atmosphere - direct radiation.

• Note that even on a

cloudless, clear day, there is
always at least 10% diffuse
irradiance from the molecules
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in the atmosphere.
Global radiation:
• On the earth’s surface, solar radiation is received:
– directly (Direct Radiation) and
– by diffusion in air, dust, water, etc., contained in the
atmosphere (Diffuse Radiation).

• Global radiation = Direct Radiation + Diffuse Radiation.

Inclination of the collecting surface 13

in the direction of the sun
Daily Insulation
• The daily insolation H is the total energy per unit area received in one
day from the sun:

• Figure below illustrates how the daily insolation varies with latitude
and season. The seasonal variation at high latitudes is most
significant.

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Factors affecting incident energy (H) on earth:
• The amount of incident energy per unit area and day depends on a few
factors, e.g. :
i) Solar Radiation Geometry (Solar Angles, Locational or
Geographical factors and Season)
ii) Local climate.
iii) Inclination of the collecting surface in the direction of the sun.

Hourly solar radiation on an incline south facing surface in Port Harcourt 15

city, Nigeria (lat = 4.43N, long 7.05E).
Air mass and solar radiation traveling:
• The degree of attenuation of solar radiation traveling through the earth’s
atmosphere depends on the length of the path and the characteristics of the
medium traversed.
• In solar radiation calculations, one standard air mass is defined as the length
of the path travelled in reaching the sea level when the sun is at its zenith (the
vertical at the point of observation).
• The air mass is related to the zenith angle, Φ, without considering the earth’s
curvature, by the equation:

Therefore, at sea level when the sun is directly overhead,

i.e., when Φ = 0°, m =1 (air mass one); and when
Φ = 60°, we get m = 2 (air mass two).

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Total Radiation on Tilted Surfaces
• Usually, collectors are not installed horizontally but at an angle to increase the
amount of radiation intercepted and reduce reflection and cosine losses.

• Therefore, system designers need data about solar radiation on such titled
surfaces; measured or estimated radiation data, however, are mostly available
either for normal incidence or for horizontal surfaces. Therefore, there is a need
to convert these data to radiation on tilted surfaces.
• The amount of insolation on a terrestrial surface at a given location for a given
time depends on the orientation and slope of the surface.
• A flat surface absorbs beam (GBt), diffuse (GDt), and ground-reflected (GGt)
solar radiation; that is,

Beam radiation
The beam radiation on a tilted surface is

And on a horizontal surface,

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 Total Radiation on Tilted Surfaces
where
GBt = beam radiation on a tilted surface (W/m2).
GB = beam radiation on a horizontal surface (W/m2).

where RB is called the beam radiation tilt factor. So, the beam radiation
component for any surface is

For a specific case, south-facing fixed surface. Therefore, for a fixed

surface facing south with tilt angle β becomes

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 Total Radiation on Tilted Surfaces
DIFFUSE

GROUND-REFLECTED

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Solar Radiation Measuring Devices:
• Measurement of solar radiation is the most important aspect for the
study of solar energy.

• Generally, 3 types of instruments are used:

I. Pyranometer.
II. Pyrheliometer.
III. Sunshine recorder

Pyranometer Pyrheliometer Sunshine recorder 20

i) PYRANOMETER
• Pyranometer - Greek word “pyr” means “fire” and “ano” means “above sky”.
• It is designed to measure solar radiation flux density (in w/m²) from a view
of 180º
• Measure beam radiation + diffused radiation

MAIN COMPONENTS
1) Black Surface: PYRANOMETER
• Receives the beam and diffuse radiations
which ultimately rises temperature.
2) Glass Dome:
• Prevents loss of heat radiation from
sensor.
3) Thermopile:
• Temperature sensor
• No. of Thermocouples in series to 21
increase its sensitivity.
i) PYRANOMETER
CONSTRUCTION
Thermopile with black & white coating
Black body absorbs solar radiation of spectrum 300-50000 nm wave length
Glass dome control spectral response of 300-2800 nm with 180˚ field view
Glass dome prevent leakage of heat radiation from sensor
P/D in mV is calibrated in Watt per square meter

WORKING PRINCIPLE
Black surface absorb the radiation
.
White surface reflect unnecessary heat
Temp. Diff. of black and white surfaces is detected by thermopile in mV
Calibration: Particular temp diff causes a voltage difference in mV. The
voltage is then calibrated in W/m2.
Applications: Meteorology, Climatology, Solar energy study, Building Physics
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Thermocouple
• The thermocouple is a simple device constructed using two conductors
made of different material as shown in the figure.

Thermocouple 23
PYRANOMETER

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ii) PYREHELIOMETER
• Used to measure the direct beam radiation
• It uses a long narrow tube to collect only beam radiation from the sun at
normal incidence
• A solar tracking system is used to keep the instrument aimed at Sun.
MAJOR COMPONENTS
a) Receiver:
• Shape of Hollow tube with reflecting
surface inside.

b) Absorber plate:
• Consists of Black end plate
• Placed at bottom of tube

c) Thermopile: 25
• Sensing element of temperature
PYREHELIOMETER
Construction:
Black surface absorb the radiation
Thermopile junction at black side of sensor plate
Cone angle at 5 degree
Solar sensor produce P/D in mV

Principle:
• Temperature difference between black and white
• Converted into EMF
• Proportional to energy incident on surface
• Calibration

Applications: Meteorology, material testing research, and assessment of

the efficiency of solar collectors and photovoltaic devices
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PYREHELIOMETER
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PYRANOMETER PYREHELIOMETER

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iii) SUNSHINE RECORDER
o This instrument is used to measure the
hours of Bright Sunshine in a day.

CONSTRUCTION
Transparent glass sphere mounted on heavy base
Bowl is placed below glass sphere
Grove is provided to insert paper

WORKING PRINCIPLE
Glass concentrate solar radiation
Paper receive solar radiation on it which is
chemically treated
Paper give burn mark when the sun shine is present
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A sunshine recorder is a device that
records the amount of sunshine duration at
a given location.

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 A removable card showing a day’s
worth of sunshine in Nunavut,
Canada.

SUNSHINE RECORDER

SUNSHINE DURATION SENSOR

Sunshine duration is defined as the time during which
the direct solar radiation exceeds the level of 120 W/m²
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 Active learning questions

1.Explain a) Sun’s total radiation, b) Extraterrestrial, c) Terrerstrial

radiation, d) Solar constant, e) Global insulation.
2.State the factors that affect the incident energy and heat on the
earth surface.
3.Discuss the working principles of the following radiation
measuring devices: a) Pyranometer, b) Pyrheliometer and c)
Sunshine recorder.
4.State the major components and their functions for the following
radiation measuring devices: a) Pyranometer, b) Pyrheliometer and
c) Sunshine recorder.

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Please visit the following links.

1. Altitude and Azimuth

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sVgyiKDeFGE&t=6s
2. Intro to Solar Orientatio
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OR8EQ0DWpPw&t=3s
3. Mechanism of The Seasons
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WLRA87TKXLM
4. Adjusting Solar Panel Tilt Angle
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=StWtXLuWMys
5.Solar Insolation
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BQKRx5aU6sg
6. Three Types of Solar Radiation
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P7CmSW9xF1A
7. Solar Radiation
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_pH2GOYs8Wc

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