Abstract art

Abstract art uses visual language of

shape, form, color and line to create a
composition which may exist with a
degree of independence from visual
references in the world.[1]
 Robert Delaunay, 1912–13, Le Premier Disque, 134
cm (52.7 in.), private collection

Western art had been, from the

Renaissance up to the middle of the 19th
century, underpinned by the logic of
perspective and an attempt to reproduce
an illusion of visible reality. By the end of
the 19th century many artists felt a need
to create a new kind of art which would
encompass the fundamental changes
taking place in technology, science and
philosophy. The sources from which
individual artists drew their theoretical
arguments were diverse, and reflected the
social and intellectual preoccupations in
all areas of Western culture at that time.[2]

Abstract art, non-figurative art, non-

objective art, and non-representational art
are all closely related terms. They have
similar, but perhaps not identical,
meanings.

Abstraction indicates a departure from

reality in depiction of imagery in art. This
departure from accurate representation
can be slight, partial, or complete.
Abstraction exists along a continuum.
Even art that aims for verisimilitude of the
highest degree can be said to be abstract,
at least theoretically, since perfect
representation is impossible. Artwork
which takes liberties, e.g. altering color or
form in ways that are conspicuous, can be
said to be partially abstract. Total
abstraction bears no trace of any
reference to anything recognizable. In
geometric abstraction, for instance, one is
unlikely to find references to naturalistic
entities. Figurative art and total
abstraction are almost mutually exclusive.
But figurative and representational (or
realistic) art often contain partial
abstraction.

Both geometric abstraction and lyrical

abstraction are often totally abstract.
Among the very numerous art movements
that embody partial abstraction would be
for instance fauvism in which color is
conspicuously and deliberately altered vis-
a-vis reality, and cubism, which alters the
forms of the real-life entities depicted.[3][4]
History

19th century in Europe

James McNeill Whistler, Nocturne in

Black and Gold: The Falling Rocket
(1874),[5][6] Detroit Institute of Arts

Patronage from the church diminished and

private patronage from the public became
more capable of providing a livelihood for
artists.[7][8] Three art movements which
contributed to the development of abstract
art were Romanticism, Impressionism and
Expressionism. Artistic independence for
artists was advanced during the 19th
century. An objective interest in what is
seen can be discerned from the paintings
of John Constable, J. M. W. Turner, Camille
Corot and from them to the Impressionists
who continued the plein air painting of the
Barbizon school. Early intimations of a
new art had been made by James McNeill
Whistler who, in his painting Nocturne in
Black and Gold: The falling Rocket, (1872),
placed greater emphasis on visual
sensation than the depiction of objects.
Even earlier than that, with her 'spirit'
drawings, Georgiana Houghton's choice to
work with abstract shapes correlate with
the unnatural nature of her subject, in a
time when abstraction” isn't yet a concept
(she organized an exhibit in 1871).

Expressionist painters explored the bold

use of paint surface, drawing distortions
and exaggerations, and intense color.
Expressionists produced emotionally
charged paintings that were reactions to
and perceptions of contemporary
experience; and reactions to
Impressionism and other more
conservative directions of late 19th-
century painting. The Expressionists
drastically changed the emphasis on
subject matter in favor of the portrayal of
psychological states of being. Although
artists like Edvard Munch and James
Ensor drew influences principally from the
work of the Post-Impressionists they were
instrumental to the advent of abstraction
in the 20th century. Paul Cézanne had
begun as an Impressionist but his aim – to
make a logical construction of reality
based on a view from a single point,[9] with
modulated color in flat areas – became
the basis of a new visual art, later to be
developed into Cubism.

Additionally in the late 19th century in

Eastern Europe mysticism and early
modernist religious philosophy as
expressed by theosophist Mme. Blavatsky
had a profound impact on pioneer
geometric artists like Hilma af Klint and
Wassily Kandinsky. The mystical teaching
of Georges Gurdjieff and P.D. Ouspensky
also had an important influence on the
early formations of the geometric abstract
styles of Piet Mondrian and his colleagues
in the early 20th century.[10] The
spiritualism also inspired the abstract art
of Kasimir Malevich and František
Kupka.[11]
Early 20th century

Fauvism and Cubism

Francis Picabia, c. 1909, Caoutchouc, Centre

Pompidou, Musée national d'art moderne, Paris

At the beginning of the 20th century Henri

Matisse and several other young artists
including the pre-cubist Georges Braque,
André Derain, Raoul Dufy and Jean
Metzinger revolutionized the Paris art
world with "wild", multi-colored, expressive
landscapes and figure paintings that the
critics called Fauvism. The raw language
of color as developed by the Fauves
directly influenced another pioneer of
abstraction, Wassily Kandinsky.

Cubism, based on Cézanne's idea that all

depiction of nature can be reduced to
cube, sphere and cone became, along with
Fauvism, the art movement that directly
opened the door to abstraction in the early
20th century.
Early Abstract Art

František Kupka, Amorpha, Fugue en

deux couleurs (Fugue in Two Colors),
1912, oil on canvas, 210 x 200 cm,
Narodni Galerie, Prague. Published in
Au Salon d'Automne "Les
Indépendants" 1912, Exhibited at the
1912 Salon d'Automne, Paris.

During the 1912 Salon de la Section d'Or,

where František Kupka exhibited his
abstract painting Amorpha, Fugue en deux
couleurs (Fugue in Two Colors) (1912), the
poet Guillaume Apollinaire named the
work of several artists including Robert
Delaunay, Orphism.[12] He defined it as,
"the art of painting new structures out of
elements that have not been borrowed
from the visual sphere, but had been
created entirely by the artist...it is a pure
art."[13]

Since the turn of the century, cultural

connections between artists of the major
European cities had become extremely
active as they strove to create an art form
equal to the high aspirations of
modernism. Ideas were able to cross-
fertilize by means of artist's books,
exhibitions and manifestos so that many
sources were open to experimentation and
discussion, and formed a basis for a
diversity of modes of abstraction. The
following extract from The World
Backwards gives some impression of the
inter-connectedness of culture at the time:
"David Burliuk's knowledge of modern art
movements must have been extremely up-
to-date, for the second Knave of Diamonds
exhibition, held in January 1912 (in
Moscow) included not only paintings sent
from Munich, but some members of the
German Die Brücke group, while from Paris
came work by Robert Delaunay, Henri
Matisse and Fernand Léger, as well as
Picasso. During the Spring David Burliuk
gave two lectures on cubism and planned
a polemical publication, which the Knave
of Diamonds was to finance. He went
abroad in May and came back determined
to rival the almanac Der Blaue Reiter which
had emerged from the printers while he
was in Germany".[14]

From 1909 to 1913 many experimental

works in the search for this 'pure art' had
been created by a number of artists:
Francis Picabia painted Caoutchouc, c.
1909,[15] The Spring, 1912,[16] Dances at
the Spring[17] and The Procession, Seville,
1912;[18] Wassily Kandinsky painted
Untitled (First Abstract Watercolor),
1913,[19] Improvisation 21A, the
Impression series, and Picture with a
Circle (1911);[20] František Kupka had
painted the Orphist works, Discs of
Newton (Study for Fugue in Two Colors),
1912[21] and Amorpha, Fugue en deux
couleurs (Fugue in Two Colors), 1912;
Robert Delaunay painted a series entitled
Simultaneous Windows and Formes
Circulaires, Soleil n°2 (1912–13);[22]
Léopold Survage created Colored Rhythm
(Study for the film), 1913;[23] Piet
Mondrian, painted Tableau No. 1 and
Composition No. 11, 1913.[24]

With his expressive use of color and his

free and imaginative drawing Henri
Matisse comes very close to pure
abstraction in French Window at Collioure
(1914), View of Notre-Dame (1914), and
The Yellow Curtain from 1915.

And the search continued: The Rayist

(Luchizm) drawings of Natalia Goncharova
and Mikhail Larionov, used lines like rays
of light to make a construction. Kasimir
Malevich completed his first entirely
abstract work, the Suprematist, Black
Square, in 1915. Another of the
Suprematist group' Liubov Popova, created
the Architectonic Constructions and
Spatial Force Constructions between 1916
and 1921. Piet Mondrian was evolving his
abstract language, of horizontal and
vertical lines with rectangles of color,
between 1915 and 1919, Neo-Plasticism
was the aesthetic which Mondrian, Theo
van Doesburg and other in the group De
Stijl intended to reshape the environment
of the future.

Russian avant-garde

Kazimir Malevich, Black Square, 1923,

The Russian Museum

Many of the abstract artists in Russia

became Constructivists believing that art
was no longer something remote, but life
itself. The artist must become a
technician, learning to use the tools and
materials of modern production. Art into
life! was Vladimir Tatlin's slogan, and that
of all the future Constructivists. Varvara
Stepanova and Alexandre Exter and others
abandoned easel painting and diverted
their energies to theatre design and
graphic works. On the other side stood
Kazimir Malevich, Anton Pevsner and
Naum Gabo. They argued that art was
essentially a spiritual activity; to create the
individual's place in the world, not to
organize life in a practical, materialistic
sense. During that time, representatives of
the Russian avant-garde collaborated with
other Eastern European Constructivist
artists, including Władysław Strzemiński,
Katarzyna Kobro, and Henryk Stażewski.

Many of those who were hostile to the

materialist production idea of art left
Russia. Anton Pevsner went to France,
Gabo went first to Berlin, then to England
and finally to America. Kandinsky studied
in Moscow then left for the Bauhaus. By
the mid-1920s the revolutionary period
(1917 to 1921) when artists had been free
to experiment was over; and by the 1930s
only socialist realism was allowed.[25]
Music

As visual art becomes more abstract, it

develops some characteristics of music:
an art form which uses the abstract
elements of sound and divisions of time.
Wassily Kandinsky, himself an amateur
musician,[26][27][28] was inspired by the
possibility of marks and associative color
resounding in the soul. The idea had been
put forward by Charles Baudelaire, that all
our senses respond to various stimuli but
the senses are connected at a deeper
aesthetic level.
Closely related to this, is the idea that art
has The spiritual dimension and can
transcend 'every-day' experience, reaching
a spiritual plane. The Theosophical Society
popularized the ancient wisdom of the
sacred books of India and China in the
early years of the century. It was in this
context that Piet Mondrian, Wassily
Kandinsky, Hilma af Klint and other artists
working towards an 'objectless state'
became interested in the occult as a way
of creating an 'inner' object. The universal
and timeless shapes found in geometry:
the circle, square and triangle become the
spatial elements in abstract art; they are,
like color, fundamental systems underlying
visible reality.

The Bauhaus

The Bauhaus at Weimar, Germany was

founded in 1919 by Walter Gropius.[29] The
philosophy underlying the teaching
program was unity of all the visual and
plastic arts from architecture and painting
to weaving and stained glass. This
philosophy had grown from the ideas of
the Arts and Crafts movement in England
and the Deutscher Werkbund. Among the
teachers were Paul Klee, Wassily
Kandinsky, Johannes Itten, Josef Albers,
Anni Albers, and László Moholy-Nagy. In
1925 the school was moved to Dessau
and, as the Nazi party gained control in
1932, The Bauhaus was closed. In 1937 an
exhibition of degenerate art, 'Entartete
Kunst' contained all types of avant-garde
art disapproved of by the Nazi party. Then
the exodus began: not just from the
Bauhaus but from Europe in general; to
Paris, London and America. Paul Klee went
to Switzerland but many of the artists at
the Bauhaus went to America.
Abstraction in Paris and London

Kurt Schwitters, Das Undbild, 1919,

Staatsgalerie Stuttgart

During the 1930s Paris became the host to

artists from Russia, Germany, the
Netherlands and other European countries
affected by the rise of totalitarianism.
Sophie Tauber and Jean Arp collaborated
on paintings and sculpture using
organic/geometric forms. The Polish
Katarzyna Kobro applied mathematically
based ideas to sculpture. The many types
of abstraction now in close proximity led
to attempts by artists to analyse the
various conceptual and aesthetic
groupings. An exhibition by forty-six
members of the Cercle et Carré group
organized by Joaquín Torres-García[30]
assisted by Michel Seuphor[31] contained
work by the Neo-Plasticists as well as
abstractionists as varied as Kandinsky,
Anton Pevsner and Kurt Schwitters.
Criticized by Theo van Doesburg to be too
indefinite a collection he published the
journal Art Concret setting out a manifesto
defining an abstract art in which the line,
color and surface only are the concrete
reality.[32] Abstraction-Création founded in
1931 as a more open group, provided a
point of reference for abstract artists, as
the political situation worsened in 1935,
and artists again regrouped, many in
London. The first exhibition of British
abstract art was held in England in 1935.
The following year the more international
Abstract and Concrete exhibition was
organized by Nicolete Gray including work
by Piet Mondrian, Joan Miró, Barbara
Hepworth and Ben Nicholson. Hepworth,
Nicholson and Gabo moved to the St. Ives
group in Cornwall to continue their
'constructivist' work.[33]
Late 20th century

A 1939–1942 oil on canvas painting

by Piet Mondrian titled Composition
No. 10. Responding to it, fellow De
Stijl artist Theo van Doesburg
suggested a link between non-
representational works of art and
ideals of peace and spirituality.[34]

During the Nazi rise to power in the 1930s

many artists fled Europe to the United
States. By the early 1940s the main
movements in modern art, expressionism,
cubism, abstraction, surrealism, and dada
were represented in New York: Marcel
Duchamp, Fernand Léger, Piet Mondrian,
Jacques Lipchitz, André Masson, Max
Ernst, and André Breton, were just a few of
the exiled Europeans who arrived in New
York.[35] The rich cultural influences
brought by the European artists were
distilled and built upon by local New York
painters. The climate of freedom in New
York allowed all of these influences to
flourish. The art galleries that primarily
had focused on European art began to
notice the local art community and the
work of younger American artists who had
begun to mature. Certain artists at this
time became distinctly abstract in their
mature work. During this period Piet
Mondrian's painting Composition No. 10,
1939–1942, characterized by primary
colors, white ground and black grid lines
clearly defined his radical but classical
approach to the rectangle and abstract art
in general. Some artists of the period
defied categorization, such as Georgia
O'Keeffe who, while a modernist
abstractionist, was a pure maverick in that
she painted highly abstract forms while
not joining any specific group of the
period.

Eventually American artists who were

working in a great diversity of styles began
to coalesce into cohesive stylistic groups.
The best-known group of American artists
became known as the Abstract
expressionists and the New York School.
In New York City there was an atmosphere
which encouraged discussion and there
was a new opportunity for learning and
growing. Artists and teachers John D.
Graham and Hans Hofmann became
important bridge figures between the
newly arrived European Modernists and
the younger American artists coming of
age. Mark Rothko, born in Russia, began
with strongly surrealist imagery which
later dissolved into his powerful color
compositions of the early 1950s. The
expressionistic gesture and the act of
painting itself, became of primary
importance to Jackson Pollock, Robert
Motherwell, and Franz Kline. While during
the 1940s Arshile Gorky's and Willem de
Kooning's figurative work evolved into
abstraction by the end of the decade. New
York City became the center, and artists
worldwide gravitated towards it; from
other places in America as well.[36]

21st century

Digital art, hard-edge painting, geometric

abstraction, minimalism, lyrical
abstraction, op art, abstract
expressionism, color field painting,
monochrome painting, assemblage, neo-
Dada, shaped canvas painting, are a few
directions relating to abstraction in the
second half of the 20th century.

In the United States, Art as Object as seen

in the Minimalist sculpture of Donald Judd
and the paintings of Frank Stella are seen
today as newer permutations. Other
examples include Lyrical Abstraction and
the sensuous use of color seen in the work
of painters as diverse as Robert
Motherwell, Patrick Heron, Kenneth
Noland, Sam Francis, Cy Twombly, Richard
Diebenkorn, Helen Frankenthaler, Joan
Mitchell, and Veronica Ruiz de Velasco.
Analysis
One socio-historical explanation that has
been offered for the growing prevalence of
the abstract in modern art – an
explanation linked to the name of Theodor
W. Adorno – is that such abstraction is a
response to, and a reflection of, the
growing abstraction of social relations in
industrial society.[37]

Frederic Jameson similarly sees

modernist abstraction as a function of the
abstract power of money, equating all
things equally as exchange-values.[38] The
social content of abstract art is then
precisely the abstract nature of social
existence – legal formalities, bureaucratic
impersonalization, information/power – in
the world of late modernity.[39]

Post-Jungians by contrast would see the

quantum theories with their disintegration
of conventional ideas of form and matter
as underlying the divorce of the concrete
and the abstract in modern art.[40]
Gallery

Albert Gleizes, 1910–1912, Les Arbres (The

Trees), oil on canvas, 41 × 27 cm.
Reproduced in Du "Cubisme", 1912
Arthur Dove, 1911–12, Based on Leaf Forms
and Spaces, pastel on unidentified support.
Now lost
Francis Picabia, 1912, Tarentelle, oil on
canvas, 73.6 × 92.1 cm, Museum of Modern
Art, New York. Reproduced in Du "Cubisme"
Wassily Kandinsky, 1912, Improvisation 27
(Garden of Love II), oil on canvas, 120.3 ×
140.3 cm, The Metropolitan Museum of Art,
New York. Exhibited at the 1913 Armory
Show
Pablo Picasso, 1913–14, Head (Tête), cut
and pasted colored paper, gouache and
charcoal on paperboard, 43.5 × 33 cm,
Scottish National Gallery of Modern Art,
Edinburgh
Henri Matisse, 1914, French Window at
Collioure, Centre Georges Pompidou, Paris
Hilma af Klint, Svanen (The Swan), No. 17,
Group IX, Series SUW, October 1914–March
1915. This abstract work was never
exhibited during af Klint's lifetime.
Theo van Doesburg, Neo-Plasticism: 1917,
Composition VII (The Three Graces)
Fernand Léger 1919, The Railway Crossing,
oil on canvas, 53.8 × 64.8 cm, The Art
Institute of Chicago
Joseph Csaky, Deux figures, 1920, relief,
limestone, polychrome, 80 cm, Kröller-Müller
Museum, Otterlo
Albert Gleizes, 1921, Composition bleu et
jaune (Composition jaune), oil on canvas,
200.5 × 110 cm
Piet Mondrian, Composition with Yellow,
Black, Blue, Red, and Gray, 1921, Art Institute
of Chicago
Paul Klee, Fire in the Evening, 1929

Otto Gustaf Carlsund, Rapid (1930), a

Concrete Art restaurant mural, Stockholm
Barnett Newman, Onement 1, 1948, Museum
of Modern Art, New York

See also
Abstraction

Abstract art and Theosophy

Abstract expressionism

Action painting

American Abstract Artists

Art history

Art periods

Asemic writing

Color field

Concrete art

De Stijl

Form constant

Geometric abstraction

Hard-edge

History of painting

Lyrical abstraction

Op Art

Representation (arts)
 Spatialism

Surrealism

Western painting

In other media

Abstract animation

Abstract comics

Abstract photography

Experimental film

Literary nonsense

Musique concréte

Noise music

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Newton (Study for "Fugue in Two Colors")
1912" (http://www.philamuseum.org/colle
ctions/permanent/51038.html) .
Philamuseum.org. Archived (https://web.a
rchive.org/web/20131002225435/http://w
ww.philamuseum.org/collections/perman
ent/51038.html) from the original on
2013-10-02. Retrieved 2013-09-29.
22. "Musée National d'Art Moderne, Centre
Georges Pompidou, Paris, Robert
Delaunay, Formes Circulaires, Soleil n°2
(1912–13)" (https://web.archive.org/web/
20120907020700/http://www.centrepomp
idou.fr/education/ressources/ens-futuris
me2008/ENS-futurisme2008-10-orphism
e.html) (in French). Centrepompidou.fr.
Archived from the original (http://www.cen
trepompidou.fr/education/ressources/ens
-futurisme2008/ENS-futurisme2008-10-or
phisme.html) on September 7, 2012.
Retrieved 2013-09-29.
23. "Museum of Modern Art, New York,
Léopold Survage, Colored Rhythm (Study
for the film) 1913" (http://www.moma.org/
collection/browse_results.php?criteria=
O%3AAD%3AE%3A5735&page_number=&t
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1914-07-15. Archived (https://web.archive.
org/web/20101222192658/http://www.m
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iteria=O%3AAD%3AE%3A5735&page_num
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the original on 2010-12-22. Retrieved
2013-09-29.
24. "Rijksmuseum Kröller-Müller, Otterlo,
Netherlands, Piet Mondrian, 1913" (http
s://web.archive.org/web/2013100218521
6/http://www.kmm.nl/collection-search.ph
p?reload=1&characteristic_type=Painting&
artist=Piet+Mondriaan+%281872+-+194
4%29&van=0&tot=0&submit.x=51&submit.
y=5) . Kmm.nl. Archived from the original
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p?reload=1&characteristic_type=Painting&
artist=Piet+Mondriaan+%281872+-+194
4%29&van=0&tot=0&submit.x=51&submit.
y=5) on October 2, 2013. Retrieved
2013-09-29.

25. Camilla Gray, The Russian Experiment in

Art, 1863–1922, Thames and Hudson,
1962
26. Shawn, Allen. 2003. Arnold Schoenberg's
Journey (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=qgqp5-EqEw8C&pg=PA62) Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/202301150
61553/https://www.google.com/books/ed
ition/Arnold_Schoenberg_s_Journey/qgqp
5-EqEw8C?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA62&print
sec=frontcover) 2023-01-15 at the
Wayback Machine. Harvard University
Press. p. 62. ISBN 0-674-01101-5

27. François Le Targat, Kandinsky, Twentieth

Century masters series, Random House
Incorporated, 1987, p. 7, ISBN 0-8478-
0810-6
28. Susan B. Hirschfeld, Solomon R.
Guggenheim Museum, Hilla von Rebay
Foundation, Watercolors by Kandinsky at
the Guggenheim Museum: a selection
from the Solomon R. Guggenheim
Museum and the Hilla von Rebay
Foundation, 1991. In 1871 the family
moved to Odessa, where the young
Kandinsky attended the Gymnasium and
learned to play the cello and piano.

29. Walter Gropius et al., Bauhaus 1919–1928

Herbert Bayer ed., Museum of Modern Art,
publ. Charles T Banford, Boston,1959

30. Seuphor, Michel (1972). Geometric

Abstraccion 1926-1949. Dallas Museum
of Fine Arts.

31. Michel Seuphor, Abstract Painting

32. Anna Moszynska, Abstract Art, p. 104,
Thames and Hudson, 1990

33. Anna Moszynska, Abstract Art, Thames

and Hudson, 1990
34. Utopian Reality: Reconstructing Culture in
Revolutionary Russia and Beyond;
Christina Lodder, Maria Kokkori, Maria
Mileeva; BRILL, Oct 24, 2013 "Van
Doesburg stated that the purpose of art
was to imbue man with those positive
spiritual qualities that were needed in
order to overcome the dominance of the
physical and create the conditions for
putting an end to wars. In an enthusiastic
essay on Wassily Kandinsky he had
written about the dialogue between the
artist and the viewer, and the role of art as
'the educator of our inner life, the educator
of our hearts and minds'. Van Doesburg
subsequently adopted the view that the
spiritual in man is nurtured specifically by
 abstract art, which he later described as
'pure thought, which does not signify a
concept derived from natural phenomena
but which is contained in numbers,
measures, relationships, and abstract
lines'. In his response to Piet Mondrian's
Composition 10, Van Doesburg linked
peace and the spiritual to a non-
representational work of art, asserting
that 'it produces a most spiritual
impression...the impression of repose: the
repose of the soul'."

35. Gillian Naylor, The Bauhaus, Studio Vista,

1968

36. Henry Geldzahler, New York Painting and

Sculpture: 1940–1970, Metropolitan
Museum of Modern Art, 1969
37. David Cunningham, 'Asceticism Against
Colour', in New Formations 55 (2005) p.
110

38. M. Hardt/K. Weeks eds., The Jameson

Reader (2000) p. 272

39. Cunningham, p. 114

40. Aniela Jaffé, in C. G. Jung ed., Man and

his Symbols (1978) pp. 288–89, 303

Sources
^ Compton, Susan (1978). The World
Backwards: Russian Futurist Books
1912–16. The British Library. ISBN 978-
0-7141-0396-9.

^ Stangos, Nikos, ed. (1981). Concepts

of Modern Art. Thames and Hudson.
 ISBN 978-0-500-20186-2.

^ Gooding, Mel (2001). Abstract Art.

Movements in Modern Art series. Tate
Publishing. ISBN 978-1-85437-302-1.

^ Rump, Gerhard Charles (1985). How to

look at an abstract painting. Inter
Nationes.

External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related
to Abstract art.

Wikiquote has quotations related to

Abstract art.

The term "Abstraction" spoken about at

Museum of Modern Art by Nelson
Goodman of Grove Art Online (http://ww
 w.moma.org/collection/theme.php?the
me_id=10946)

Tate UK "Abstract art is..." (http://www.ta

te.org.uk/art/art-terms/a/abstract-art)

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"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
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