BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN CRIMINOLOGY

THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION:

A. DEMONOLOGICAL THEORY
- Know as the supernatural explanations of criminality. Humankind was viewed as the mercy of supernatural.
B. CLASSICAL THEORY
- Known as the rational choice, it emphasizes the freewill and rationality on the part of criminal actor .

Cesare Beccaria – is one of the founders of the classical school of criminology.

- Published the book entitled ‘’on crimes and punishment’.

Jeremy Bentham - a british scholar and reformer and a graduate Oxford University.

- He founded the hedonistic concept of utilitarianism, which assumes that all our actions of bringing pleasure
and pain.
C. Neo-Classical School
- This theory modified the doctrine of freewill by stating the freewill of men may be affected by other factors
and crimes are committed due to some compelling reasons.
D. ECOLOGICAL THEORY
- Is referred to as statistical, geographical -maps or cartographic- aerial data. Human ecology which is the
focus of ecologic theory which deals the interrelationship between human , organism and their
environment.
- This theory was called statistic because it was the first attempt to apply official data and statistics to the
issue of explaining criminality.

Quetelet (Lmabert Adolphe Jacques Quetelet) 1796- 1874

- Together with Andre-Michel Gueery established the cartographic school of criminology.

Andre M. Guery- Published what many regard as the first book in criminology entitled an essay on Moral
Stataistics”.

E. ECONOMIC THEORY
- Human behavior is shaped by interpersonal conflict and that those who maintain social power will use it to
further their own needs.

Karl Marx (1818-1883)

- Empahasized the economic basis of societal conflict which gave birth to the economic school of Criminology.
- Exploitations creates poverty and also is the root of other social problems.

Willem Bonger (1876-1940)

- A dutch philosopher, who was early Marxist criminologist. His most noted work is criminality was criminality
and the economic conditions, he said that criminal law is primarily protecting the interest of propertied
class.
F. POSITIVE THEORY OR POSITIVISM
- Suggest that human behavior is the product of social, biological, psychological or economic factors.

Auguste Comte (1844-1915)

 - A French thinker , introduced positivism who is also credited to having coined the term sociology. He
proposed the use of empirical and scientific investigation for the improvement of society.

Three basic premises of positivism, namely:

1. Measurement (quantification)
2. Objectivity (Neutrality)
3. Casuality (Determinism)

Three elements to Positivistic approach

1. Application of Scientific Method

2. The discovery and diagnosis of pathology
3. Treatment (Therapy/ Correction)

Precursor to positivism:

1. Astrology – this is the prediction of the fate of human behavior in term of the alignment of stars.
2. Phrenology- this is an attempt to determine intelligence and personality and the basis of the size and shape of
the skull and posited that certain areas of the brain correspond the various psychological and intellectual
characteristics.
FRANZ GALL - an Asutralian Anatomist measured bumps on the head in order to identify brain development.
3. Physiognomy- it involves the measurement of facial and other body characteristics as indicative of human
personality.
4. Palmistry- It concerns palm reading interpreting lines on the palm which to predict future behavior.

The Evolotionary aspect biological positivism were shown by the following theorists:

Johann Kaspar Lavater (1741-1801)

- A swiss theologian who studies physiognomy and viewed that peoples true characters and inclinations could
be read from their facial features.

Franz Jospeh Gall ( 1758-1828)

- A neuroanatomist and psychologist , developed cranioscopy , a method to study the personality and
development of mental and moral faculties based on the external shaped of the skull.
- Cranioscopy was later renamed as phrenology , the study that deals with the relationship between the skull
and human behavior.

Johann KASPAR Spurzheim (1776-1832)

- A german phrenologist who was the assistant of Gall and was the man most singularly responsible for
popilarizing and spreading phrenology to a wide audience.

Samuel G. Morton

- An American Physiscian and natural scientist developed the idea of polygenism – a theory of human origins
positing that the human races are of different lineages as opposed to monogenism, which posits a single
origin of humanity.

Charles Darwin (1809-1882)

- He published the book ‘’Origin of Species” for his concept that human beings as part of nature , evolve frm
other species over along period of time and the evolution occurs thru variation , adaptation and natural
selection.
Cessare Lombroso (1835-1909)

- Who is considered as the Father of Modern Criminology due to his application of modern scientific methods
to trace criminal behavior.
- He claimed that are distinguishable from non-criminals due to the presence of atavistic stigma – the physical
features of creatures at an earlier stage of development.

According to Lombroso, there three classes of criminals:

1. Born Criminals – individuals with at least five atavistic stigma.

2. Insane Criminals – those who are not criminals by birth; they become criminals as a result of some changes in
their brains which interfere with their ability to distinguish between rights and wrong.
3. Crimanaloids – made up of ambiguous group that includes habitual criminals , criminals by passion and other
diverse types.

Raffale Garofalo (1852-1934)

- A nobleman, magistrate , senator and law professor who was credited to have coined the term criminology
which he called Criminologia.

Enricco Ferre – (1859-1954)

-He was the member of Italian parliament who belived that criminals could not be held morally responsible because they
did not choose to commit crimes but was driven to commit them by conditions of their lives.

Ernest Hooton- (1887-1954)

- A Harvard who ‘’ Crime and Man’’ claimed that on the basis of the very detailed and extensive study of
physical differences between crimanls and non-criminals, he had discovered the causes of criminality –
physical inferiority.

Somatotype School of Criminology

- A means of measuring variations in the body through the certain physiological features have been claimed
to be causative of crime and delinquency.

ERNST KRETSCHMER (1888-1964)

A german psychiatrist who studies philophy and medicine at the University of Tubingen. He distinguished the three
principal types of physiques :

1. Asthenic -lean,slightly built, narrow shoulders, their crimes are petty thievery and fraud.
2. Atheletic- Medium to tall , strong, mascular, coarse bones , they are usually connected with crimes of violence.
3. Pyknic – medium height, rounded figures , massive neck, broad face , they tend to commit deception , fraud and
violence.

Wiiliam Sheldon (1898-1977)

- He analzyed and compared 200 boys in a reformatory in Boostons with 4,000 students , where he concluded
that most delinquents tended towards mesomosphy. According to him, a persons somatotype is made up of
the following three components with corresponding temperaments:
 TYPES OF PHYSIQUE:
ENDOMORPH – have heavy builds and slow moving. The
body shape is soft and round.
MESOMORPH- have well developed muscles and an
athletic appearance. The body shape si hard and round.
ECTOMORPH – have small skeletons and weak muscles.
The body shape is fragile and thin.
TEMPERAMENTS :
VISCEROTONIC- generally relax and comfortable person,
loves luxury and essentially extrovert.
ROMOTONIC – The personality is strong , active ,
aggressive and sometimes violent.
CEREBROTONIC – the personality is introverted ,
hypersensitive intellectual.

Sheldon and Eleanor Glueck (1959) found delinquents to be more mesomosphic than modelinquents suggested that his
bisy type may be more suited to the delinquents role while endomorphs were too slow and ectormorphs were too frail
to occupy it.

NEUROLOGICAL

Criminals and delinquents often suffer brain impairment.

CHARLES GORING (1870-1919)

- In his book the English convict , he rejected the theory of Lombroso that criminals are born by making
comparatives study of 3000 jailed criminals against law abiding citizens , where he established the non-
criminal people tended to have more atavistic traits.

Antonio Moniz – where the early phrenologist were convinced of their ability to map areas of the brain , which
controlled aspects of personality, modern attempts to prove the brain where begun by the Portuguese physician
Ontonio Muniz.

Genetic /Inheritance School

It has been viewed earlt that criminal behavior can be inhirited.

Richard Louise Dugdale (1841-1883)

- He was born on paris on 1841. His parents were English and came from ancestry of much social distinction.

Henry Goddard (1866-1957)

- An American psychologist who supervised the English translation of the complete “ Binet and Simon IQ Test
and was credited to have coined the term moron.

Biochemical

Edwin Wilson- in the 1970’s preposed an ideas in his book “ Sociobiology “ attracted adherents .

Sigmund Freud (1856- 1939)

- He was born in Frieberg, an Austraian Empire .he opened the doctrine of resistance and repression , the
unconscious , the etiological significance of a person sex life and the importance of childhood experiences
are the main building blocks of the theoretical edifice by psychoanalysis.

He divided personality into:

1. ID – This stands for instinctual drives, which represent our unconscious biological needs for food, sex and other
life sustaining necessities including aggression as well as primitive needs that are present at birth.
 2. EGO- this forms part of men physical organization between his sensory stimuli, on one hand and his motor
activity on the other.
3. SUPER EGO- this is the moral aspect of people’s personalities. This develops as a result of incorporating within
the personality, the moral standards and values of parents, community and significant others. This is also known
as the conscience of our personality.

HANS EYSENCK (1964-1977)- German british psychologist who developed the trait theory personality that identified
three basic dimensions of personality as neuroticism, extra version and psychotism.

1. EXTRAVERSION- people characterize as sociable, active, have many friends, lively, sensation – seeking and
prefers talking rather than being alone.
2. NEUROTICISM – (or instability) people characterize as anxious, depressed and react very strongly to aversive
stimuli , have feelings of guilt , low self-esteem, tenseness, irrationality, being shy and moody, and emotional.
3. PSYCHOTICISM- people characterize as agrresive , anti-social, cold , egocentric, have an interpersonal attitude ,
impulsivity and lack of empathy, creativity and tough minded attitudes.

MAJOR SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION

Anomie Theory

Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)

- One of the founding scholars of sociology, he published the book entitled “Division of Social Labor” which
became a landbank work on the organization of societies.

Merton’s Theory of Anomie

- Robert Merton’s theory of anomie appeared in 1938 in an article entitled “ Social structure and Anomie “.
- He viewed anomie as a social condition that occurs when discrepancies exist between societal goals and the
means available for their achievement.

Merton describe five posiible modes of personality dapatation that represents the adjustments of societal means and
goals:

1. Conformist – accepts the goals of conformist in society and also socially approved means of achieving this
status ,sush as through hardwork , education, deferred gratification and others.
2. Innovator – accepts the goals of success but rejects or seeks elligitimate to the means of achieving these aims.
3. Ritualist – is illustrated by the mindless bureaucrat who become so caught up in rules and means to an end that
he / she tends to forget or fails to place proper significance on the goals.
4. Retreatist- represents rejection of both socially accpetbale means ends.
5. Rebel- rejects both means and goals and seeks substitute alternative soscietal goals as well as new method of
achieving them.

SOCIAL STRUCTURE THEORIES

- These theories view that the advantaged economic condition of the people is the primary cause of crime.
1. Social Disorganization Rheory
- Focuses on the conditions within the urban environment that affect crime rates. Under this proposistion,
crime rates are linked to neighborhood ecological characteristics.
- It also called differential social organization.
2. Strain Theory
- The roots of this theory can be traced to Emile Durkheim’s concept of anomie. The ability to obtain goals is
the lower class are unable to achieve those goals which comes easy to those belonging to the upper class.
The result of the lower class frustration, anger, and resentment.
3. Cultural Deviance Theory
 - Is a combination of both strain and social disorganization theory.
- This argues that inorder to cope with social isolation and economic deprivation , members of the lower class
creates an independent subculture with it’s own set of rules and values.

SOCIAL PROCESS THEORIES

1. Social Learning theory- this belives that crime is a product of learning , the norms, values and behaviors
associated with criminal activity.
Gabriel Tarde (1843-1904) – the forrunner of modern day learning theories, conceptulaize the theory of
imitation, which states the people learn from one another through the process of imitation.

2. Differential Association Theory – formulated by Edwin Sutherland believe that criminality is a function of
learning process that could affect any of individual in any culture.

3. Differential Reinforcement Theory- Proposed by Ronal Akers with Robert Burgess in 1966. The learning process
both for conforming and deviant behavior , is through direct conditioning which is also called differential
reinforcement.

4. Neutralization Theory – propsed in writings of David Matza and Gresham Skykes , they viewed the process of
becoming a criminal as a learning experience in which potential delinquents and criminals master techniques
that enable them to counterbalance or neutralize conventional behavior.

SOCIAL CONTROL THEORY

- It argues that people obey the laws because behavior and passion are being controlled by internal and
external forces.

SOCIAL BOND THEORY

- Also called social control theory.

- Travis Hirschi presented in his book “ Causes of delinquency’’ the social bond theory linking the onset of
criminality to the weakening of ties that bind people in the society.

SOCIAL REACTION THEORY

- This theory also called Labelling Theory, holds the people enter into law-violating careers when they are
labeled for their acts and the individuals so labeled to see themselves criminals.

DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY/MULTIPLE FACTORS

- This seeks to identify, describe and understand the developmental factors and explain the onset and
continuation of criminal career.
- It intervened the personal factors such as personality and intelligence, social factors such as income and
neighborhood, socialization factors such as marriage and military service, cognitive factors-information
processing, situational factors such as criminal opportunity.

DISTINCT GROUPS OF DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES

1. Life Course Theory –refers to analytical perspectives which study the cumulative effects of static and dynamic
features of social context in people’s lives.
2. Latent Trait Theory – holds that human development is controlled by a master trait consisting of personality,
intelligence and genetic make-up present at birth.