WESTERN PHILOSOPHIES

1. SOCRATES (470-399 BC)

 “The beginning of knowledge is by accepting that we are ignorant”.
 “Knowledge is a virtue”.
 “The essence of the soul is self”.

o A pioneer in Western moral philosophy

o He believes that the essence of the self is the soul – the soul survives the physical body since it is an
immortal entity.
o Socratic problem – the goal is to know thy self through a dialogue between the self and the soul.
o Continuous self-examination is one’s duty to achieve a good life.
o It is virtuous when one’s conduct is guided by knowledge.

2. PLATO (424-347 BC)

 “The self is a rational substance consisting - body and soul”
 “Man is essentially a soul imprisoned in a body.”

o A student of Socrates; his theories and ideas had a lot of similarities with Socrates’.
o He founded the Academy of Athens.

o Three elements of the psyche or mind:

 Appetites- involve our pleasurable desires such as those which provide us physical pleasure and
physiological comfort including money and material gains.
 Spirited – denotes the part within us which expresses emotional drives. It is highly spirited and
motivated to surpass and conquer life challenges. It is the area within us that enjoys triumph,
honor, greatness, and affirmation. It includes our passion including basic emotions.
 The mind (reason) – the conscious awareness which thinks, meditates, weighs choices and
assesses situations in our lives. This side is rational and logical as it chooses only the best for us.

o Justice within the person can only be achieved if the three parts of the soul are working harmoniously
with one another.
- The rational soul forged by reason and
- intellect has to govern the affairs of the human person,
- the spirited part which is in charge of emotions should be kept at bay, and the
- appetitive soul in charge of base desires like eating, drinking, sleeping, and having sex are
controlled as well.

o The self is a rational substance consisting - body and soul.

 The soul is derived from the world of ideas,
 The body is from the world of matter.

3. ST. AUGUSTINE OF HIPPO (AD 354-430)

 “I doubt, therefore, I am”

o THEOLOGIAN
o Following the ancient view of Plato and infusing it with newfound doctrine of Christianity, Augustine
agreed that man is of bifurcated nature—made of body and soul.

o An aspect of man dwells in the world and is imperfect and continuously yearns to be with the Divine
and the other is capable of reaching immortality.
  The body is bound to die on earth and
 the soul is to anticipate living eternally in a realm of spiritual bliss in communion with God.

o Unhappiness comes from sins that people commit because sins impair human free will; hence,
- the way to a good and happy life is by turning towards Christianity to find God’s love. He is
convinced that the
o self is known only through knowing God. He emphasized the importance of reflection, as well as
prayers and confessions.
o Humankind is created in the image and likeness of God.
o There should be a unity between the mind and body for the formation of a person; however, the mind is
more superior than the body
o Along with Thomas Aquinas, he believed that man is A TRIPARTITE being composed;

 the body, soul and spirit. The body is the outer part, the soul includes our emotions, and the
spirit is the innermost part which comes in contact with the Divine Being.

4. RENE DESCARTES (1956-1650)

 “There is so much that we should doubt; but the only thing that one cannot doubt is the existence of the
self”.
 “The mind is an “intellectual substance” that possesses a will.”
 “I think therefore, I am”.

o Considered the father of modern western philosophy

o Role of cognition- active acquisition of knowledge involves imagination, intellect, perception as well as
memory.
o “Cogito, ergo sum” – “I think, therefore, I am”. The act of thinking about the self is a proof that there is
a self. The self is seen as a thinking entity that doubts, understands, analyzes, questions, and reasons.

o Two distinct entities of the self:

 Cogito – thing that thinks
 Extenza – physical body

 Thinking self is non-material, immortal, conscious being, and independent of the physical laws of
the universe.
 Physical body is a material, mortal, non-thinking entity, fully governed by the physical laws of
nature
 The soul and body are independent of one another.

o The idea of being human brings about an awareness of the self which may lead to the development of a
unique identity
o Being self-conscious is necessary in the development of a personal identity.
o The self is a “thinking thing” engaged in all forms of mental operations determinant of being a human
with a distinct persona.
5. JOHN LOCKE (1632-1704)
 “A person may only be judged for the acts of his body but the truth according to him is that one is liable
only for acts of which he is conscious”

o He is a prominent thinker during the “age of reason”

o Father of liberalism because of his theory of mind which is a breakthrough in the origin of modern
understanding of the concept of identity and the self
o Regarded as the father of empiricism – the theory which states that knowledge comes from sense-
experience
o TABULA RASA – at birth, the mind is a blank slate without innate ideas, and it is experience that
provides us knowledge provided by sensory experiences and reflections
o Personal identity is found in the consciousness. The brain comprises the consciousness which has one’s
identity. The essence of the self is its conscious awareness of itself.

o Personal identity is distinct from whatever body it finds itself associated with.
For example, if a person’s leg is amputated, a person’s identity remains the same in spite of the
alteration in the physical body.

6. DAVID HUME (1711-1776)

 “Passion rather than reason governs human behavior; reason is only the slave of passion; logic and
intellect are superseded by passion, drive, and motivation.”
 “The self is nothing else but a bundle of impressions. The idea of personal identity is a result of
imagination.”
 “The self and one’s mind are like a machine that can be turned on and off as they are only active when one
is conscious.”

o Psychological basis of human nature – “passion rather than reason governs human behavior; reason is
only the slave of passion; logic and intellect are superseded by passion, drive, and motivation.”
o As an empiricist, he argued against the existence of innate ideas; all human knowledge is found solely in
experience
o If we are going to examine our experiences, we will discover that there is NO SELF.

o Human experience can be categorized into two:

 Impressions – basic objects of our experience or sensation; e.g. when one touches an ice
cube, the cold experience if the impression
 Ideas – copies of impressions; e.g. when one imagines the feeling of being in love, that is still
an idea.
o The self is just a bundle or collection of different temporary perceptions – there is no single or unified
impression

7. IMMANUEL KANT (1724-1804)

o Thinking of the self as a mere combination of impression was problematic for Immanuel Kant
o Impressions are not just randomly infused into the human person without an organizing principle
- (the m-i-n-d) that regulates the relationship of all these impressions
o Apparatuses of the mind -- are ideas that one cannot find in the world, but is built in our minds.
o Along with the different apparatuses of the mind goes the “self”. Without the self, one cannot organize
the different impressions that one gets in relation to his own existence.
o It is the human mind which creates experiences; these experiences are similar among human on the level
of abstraction as we share important characteristics that resemble in specific points of interests.
8. SIGMUND FREUD (1856-1939)

o Introduced psychoanalysis
o Most of our behaviors are unconscious
o Our personality -- result of past experiences
o Two main motivations-
- sexual and
- aggressive drives
o Three levels of the mind:
- conscious,
- subconscious and
- unconscious
o Structures of personality:
 Id – pleasure principle
 Ego – reality principle
o Superego- morality principle
o The id and superego are in constant conflict with each other; hence, the ego serves as the mediator

9. GILBERT RYLE (1900-1976)

 “Every human being has both a physical body and a non-physical mind which ordinarily “harnesses
together”
 “The physical body is subject to mechanical laws while the mind is not as it is not accessible to the public”

o He focused on observable behaviors in defining the self; what truly matters is the behavior that a person
manifests in his day-to-day life
o Mental phenomena are explained by observing public behavior
o Mental states are inseparable from physical states

10. PAUL MONTGOMERY CHURCHLAND. (1942 - )

 “How our brains and bodies function determine how we feel and how certain situations affect us”
 The brain explains everything. We can understand the self by analyzing the brain.

o Neurologist
o He focused on the brain and how it affects the self
o Human consciousness can be explained through the neural networks communicating through its hub in
the brain which is the thalamus

11. MAURICE MERLEAU PONTY

 “The mind and body are so intertwined that they cannot be separated from one another. One cannot find any
experience that is not an embodied experience.”

o The mind-body bifurcation that has been going on for a long time is a futile endeavor and an invalid
problem.
o The body is central to one’s perception because the body is our general medium for knowing the world
and giving meaning to it.
o Action is required in the formation of self-perception as well as self-concept
 EASTERN PHILOSOPHIES
In the East, the idea of the self is one of complete unity with the creator. In the
West, the idea of the self is perceived as distinct from God.
1. BUDDHISM
o SIDDHARTA GAUTAMA BUDDHA.
o The root word of Buddhism is “budh” meaning to awake. To awake implies to open the eyes, which
would lead to understanding more about the self and the world
o Everyone has the seed of enlightenment.
 ANATTA – “no-self”; nothing is permanent and that no one is an independent entity as we are all a part of a
collective whole
o There is no unchanging self. Man has no self or soul. Everything is impermanent, even the self. One’s
ignorance of such impermanence is the cause of life’s misery, births, and rebirths.

 Buddhism as a doctrine argues that there is no self or no soul. However, it is believed that every human has
a mind and body as well as a stream of consciousness

o 4 NOBLE TRUTHS:
 All life, all existence, is characterized by duhkha, meaning suffering;
 Suffering is due to attachment – craving, thirsting for pleasure;
 Suffering ceases when attachment ceases; and
 Freedom from suffering is possible by practicing the Eightfold path

2. HINDUISM
o The self finds its place in the story of creation pertaining to the creation of the universe and of man.
- Atman (the soul)
- Brahman (Supreme being); the true knowledge of the self is identical to Brahman. The goal of a
person is to have knowledge on the true reality which is Brahman.
o Suffering is the result of failure to realize the distinction between the true self ( permanent and
unchanging) and the non-true self (impermanent and changes continually)
o Believes in reincarnation; the soul passes through different physical bodies as it is destined to undergo
what it deserves in accordance with Karma

3. TAOISM
o A doctrine based on the philosophy of Lao Tzu
 “knowing others is wisdom, knowing thyself is enlightenment”
o The world and this life are good as there are the elements guiding us to experience harmony through the
“Dao”
o WU-WIE – noninterference with the natural courses of events

Three great virtues:

- humility,
- frugality, and
- contentment
 The self should not strive for learning, riches, and power; the self should find lasting happiness by being
quiet, thoughtful, and humble.
o The Toist’ bible called the Tao Te Ching explains processes on how to live a good life through the
“Dao” or the “Way” of the world which is the path to happiness and harmony.
o Lao Tzu -- argues that humans refuse to take the simple path and opt to go through that which causes
discord, confusion and suffering.
 o “stillness of the mind” – emptying ourselves of the negative and confusing thought; letting go of all
worries and just experience the world
o Nature was never in a hurry that everything happens in its perfect time and its right schedule such as the
blooming of flowers
o If we are too busy and too preoccupied with anxiety or ambition, we will miss a thousand moments of
the human experience that are our natural inheritance
 We need to be awake to the way light reflects off of ripples on a pond, the way other people look when they
are laughing, the feeling of the wind playing with our hair. These experiences reconnect us with ourselves.
o Taoists’ principle reiterates how our ego distracts us in seeing our true self.

4. CONFUCIANISM
 The core of the Confucian thought us the golden rule, “do not do to others what you do not want others do
unto you”. Thus, the basic virtue or proper conduct is knowing how to act in relation to others. The self has
to consider
The 5 most important relationships:
 between minister and ruler,
 between father and son,
 between husband and wife,
 between brothers, and
 between friends. ----------------------------------------------Hence, the self is a relational self.
o The self also has to accomplish self-cultivation by knowing his role on the society and acting
accordingly.
o the self is a subdued self -- He is set to respond to what is socially required rather than to one’s personal
needs and goals.
o Identifies personality as a product of one’s upbringing and environment. Family and community have a
vital role in the formation of the self.
o The individual is a social being which makes us social animals
o Every person is born with four beginnings which lead to the formation of the self. It includes the
following components which are the;

Perception of virtues that is found innately in the heart of every human:

 Heart of compassion;
 Heart of righteousness;
 Heart of propriety; and
 Heart of wisdom
 The practice of the above values lead to the formation of the self