1

Linear Differential Equation:
A linear differential equation is that in which the dependent variable and its
derivatives occur only in the first degree and are not multiplied together.
Thus, the general linear differential equation of the nth order is of the form
X y p .........
dx
y d
p
dx
y d
p
dx
y d
n
2 n
2 n
2
1 n
1 n
1
n
n
= + + + +
,
where
1
p ,
2
p ,.................,
n
p and X are the functions of x only.

Linear Differential Equation with constant coefficients:
A linear differential equation with constant coefficients is of the form
X y k .........
dx
y d
k
dx
y d
k
dx
y d
n
2 n
2 n
2
1 n
1 n
1
n
n
= + + + +
,
where
1
k ,
n 2
k , .......... ,......... k are constants and X is either a constant or a function of x
only.

1 11 1
st st st st
Topic Topic Topic Topic
Linear Differential Equations Linear Differential Equations Linear Differential Equations Linear Differential Equations
Definition of Linear Differential Equation,
Definition of Linear Differential Equation with constant coefficients,
Importance, The operator D, Auxiliary equation (A.E.),
Complementary function (C.F.), Particular Integral (P.I.),
Rules for finding the complementary function (C.F.)

Prepared by:
Dr. Sunil
NIT Hamirpur (HP)
(Last updated on 04-10-2007)
Linear Differential Equations: Definitions, Rules for finding the complementary function
Prepared by: Dr. Sunil, NIT Hamirpur (HP)
2
IMPORTANCE:
Linear differential equations are most important in the study of electro-
mechanical vibrations and other engineering problems. These equations play a
dominant role in unifying apparently different theories of mechanical and electrical
systems just by renaming the variables. This similarity has an important practical
application. Since electrical circuits are easier to assemble, less expensive and
accurate measurements can be made of electrical quantities, we construct equivalent
electrical models of complicated mechanical systems to study their displacements.
There are some more applications such as deflection of beams, whirling of shafts,
electrical transmission lines etc.
We will discuss these applications soon after the completion of this chapter.

The Operator D:
The part
dx
d
of the symbol
dx
dy
may be regarded as an operator such that when it
operates on y, the result is the derivative of y.
Similarly, ,
dx
d
,
dx
d
3
3
2
2
..,
n
n
dx
d
may be regarded as operators.
Denoting
n
n
n
3
3
3
2
2
2
D
dx
d
, ,......... D
dx
d
, D
dx
d
, D
dx
d

so that y D
dx
y d
, y D
dx
y d
, Dy
dx
dy
3
3
3
2
2
2
= = = etc.
Thus, the symbol D is a differential operator or simply an operator.
Written in symbolic form, equation
X y k .........
dx
y d
k
dx
y d
k
dx
y d
n
2 n
2 n
2
1 n
1 n
1
n
n
= + + + +
becomes
( ) X y k . .......... D k D
n
1 n
1
n
= + + +

i.e. ( ) , X y D f =
where ( ) = D f
n
1 n
1
n
k . .......... D k D + + +

is a polynomial in D.
The operator D can be treated much the same as an algebraic quantity.
3
i. e. The polynomial ( ) D f can be factorized by ordinary rules of algebra and factors may
be taken in any order. For instance
( ) ( )( ) ( )( )y 3 D 1 D y 1 D 3 D y 3 D 2 D y 3
dx
dy
2
dx
y d
2
2
2
+ + = + = + .

Theorem:
If
2 , 1
y y are only two solutions of the equation
0 y k .........
dx
y d
k
dx
y d
k
dx
y d
n
2 n
2 n
2
1 n
1 n
1
n
n
= + + + +
, (1)
then ( ) u y c y c
2 2 1 1
= + is also its solution.
Proof: Since
1
y y = and
2
y y = are solutions of (1).
0 y k .........
dx
y d
k
dx
y d
k
dx
y d
1 n
2 n
1
2 n
2
1 n
1
1 n
1
n
1
n
= + + + +
(2)
and 0 y k .........
dx
y d
k
dx
y d
k
dx
y d
2 n
2 n
2
2 n
2
1 n
2
1 n
1
n
2
n
= + + + +
(3)
If
2 1
c , c be two arbitrary constants, then
u k .........
dx
u d
k
dx
u d
k
dx
u d
n
2 n
2 n
2
1 n
1 n
1
n
n
+ + + +

( ) ( )
( )
2 2 1 1 n
1 n
2 2 1 1
1 n
1
n
2 2 1 1
n
y c y c k ..........
dx
y c y c d
k
dx
y c y c d
+ + +
+
+
+
=

|
|
\
|
+ + + +
|
|
\
|
+ + + =
2 n
1 n
2
1 n
1
n
2
n
2 1 n
1 n
1
1 n
1
n
1
n
1
y k .........
dx
y d
k
dx
y d
c y k .........
dx
y d
k
dx
y d
c
( ) ( ) 0 0 c 0 c
2 1
= + = . [by (2) and (3)]
0 u k ... ..........
dx
u d
k
dx
u d
n
1 n
1 n
1
n
n
= + + +

, (4)
which shows that ( ) u y c y c
2 2 1 1
= + is also the solution of equation (1).
This proves the theorem.

4
Remarks:
1. Since the general solution of a differential equation of the nth order contains n arbitrary
constants, then it follows from above that, if
n 3 2 1
y ........., ,......... y , y , y , are n
independent solution of (1), then ( ) u y c . .......... y c y c
n n 2 2 1 1
= + + + is its complete
solution.

Theorem:
If y = u is the complete solution of the equation 0 y ) D ( f = and y = v is a
particular solution (containing no arbitrary constants) of the equation X y ) D ( f = , then
the complete solution of the equation X y ) D ( f = is v u y + = .
Proof: If y = v be any particular solution of
X y k .........
dx
y d
k
dx
y d
n
1 n
1 n
1
n
n
= + + +
, (5)
then X v k .........
dx
v d
k
dx
v d
n
1 n
1 n
1
n
n
= + + +
. (6)
Adding (4) and (6), we get
( ) ( )
( ) X v u k ..... ..........
dx
v u d
k
dx
v u d
n
1 n
1 n
1
n
n
= + + +
+
+
+

Thus, v u y + = satisfies the equation X y ) D ( f = .
Hence it is the complete solution (C.S.) because it contains n arbitrary constants.
The part u is called the complementary function (C.F.) and
the part v is called the particular integral (P.I.) of X y ) D ( f = .
The complete solution (C. S.) of X y ) D ( f = is y = C.F. + P.I.
Thus, in order to find the solution of X y ) D ( f = , we have to first find the C.F. of
0 y ) D ( f = and then find out P. I. of X y ) D ( f = .
Auxiliary Equation (A.E.):
Consider the differential equation
0 y k .........
dx
y d
k
dx
y d
k
dx
y d
n
2 n
2 n
2
1 n
1 n
1
n
n
= + + + +
, where ks are constants. (i)

The equation (i) in symbolic form is
5
( ) 0 y k .. .......... D k D k D
n
2 n
2
1 n
1
n
= + + + +

. (ii)
Let
mx
e y = be a solution of (i), then
mx
me Dy = ,
mx 2 2
e m y D = ,
mx 2 n 2 n
e m y D

= ,
mx n n mx 1 n 1 n
e m y D , e m y D = =

.
Substituting the values of y D ........., , y D Dy, , y
n 2
in (i), we get
( ) 0 e k ......... m k m k m
mx
n
2 n
2
1 n
1
n
= + + + +

0 k ......... m k m k m
n
2 n
2
1 n
1
n
= + + + +

, since 0 e
mx
. (iii)
Thus,
mx
e y = will be a solution of equation (i), if m satisfies equation (iii).
Equation (iii) is called the auxiliary equation for the differential equation (i).
Thus, the equation obtained by putting
mx
e y = in the symbolic form of the differential
equation and equating to zero is called the auxiliary equation or briefly written as A.E.

Rules for finding the complementary functions (C.F.):
Consider the equation
0 y k .........
dx
y d
k
dx
y d
k
dx
y d
n
2 n
2 n
2
1 n
1 n
1
n
n
= + + + +
, where ks are constants. (i)

The equation (i) in symbolic form can be written as
( ) 0 y k .. .......... D k D k D
n
2 n
2
1 n
1
n
= + + + +

. (ii)
Its auxiliary equation is 0 k ...... .......... m k m k m
n
2 n
2
1 n
1
n
= + + + +

.
Let
n 2 1
m ....., ,......... m , m be the roots of A.E. The solution of equation (i) depends upon
the nature of roots of the auxiliary equation. The following cases arise:
Case 1: If all the roots be real and distinct:
In this case, (ii) is equivalent to
( )( ) ( ) 0 y m D ......... .......... m D m D
n 2 1
= . (iii)
Now (iii) will be satisfied by the solutions of the equation
( ) 0 y m D
n
= 0 y m
dx
dy
n
= .
This is a Leibnitzs linear equation and I.F. =
( )
x m dx m Pdx
n
n
e e e

=
==
= .
6
Its solution is
n
x m
c ye
n
=

x m
n
n
e c y = .
Similarly, since the factors in (iii) can be taken in any order, it will be satisfy by the
solutions of ( ) ( ) 0 y m D , 0 y m D
2 1
= = etc. i.e. by
x m
2
x m
1
2 1
e c y , e c y = = etc.
Thus the complete solution of (i) is
x m
n
x m
2
x m
1
n 2 1
e c . .......... e c e c y + + + = . (iv)

Case 2: If two roots are equal (i.e.
2 1
m m = ):
In this case, (iv) becomes
( )
x m
n
x m
3
x m
2 1
n 3 1
e c . .......... e c e c c y + + =
x m
n
x m
3
x m
n 3 1
e c . .......... e c ce y + = . [ ] c constant arbitrary one c c
2 1
= + Q
It has only 1 n arbitrary constants and is, therefore, not the complete solution of (i).
In this case, we proceed as follows:
The part of the complete solution corresponding to the repeated root is the
complete solution of
( )( ) 0 y m D m D
1 1
= .
Putting ( ) z y m D
1
= , it becomes ( ) 0 z m D
1
= 0 z m
dx
dz
1
= .
This is a Leibnitzs linear equation in z and I.F.
( )
x m dx m Pdx
1
1
e e e

=
= .
Its solution is
1
x m
c ze
1
=

x m
1
1
e c z = .
Thus, ( )
x m
1 1
x m
1 1
1 1
e c y m
dx
dy
e c z y m D = = = . (v)
Its I.F. being
x m
1
e
, the solution of (v) is

( ) ( ) ( )
x m
2 1 2 1 2
x m x m
1
x m
1 1 1 1
e c x c y c x c c dx e e c e y + = + = + =

.
Thus, the complete solution of (i) is ( )
x m
n
x m
3
x m
2 1
n 3 1
e c . .......... e c e c x c y + + + + = .
If, however, the auxiliary equation has three equal roots (
3 2 1
m m m = = ), then the
complete solution is
( )
x m
n
x m
4
x m
3 2
2
1
n 4 1
e c .......... e c e c x c x c y + + + + + = .

7
Case 3: If one pair of roots be imaginary, i.e. + = i m
1
, = i m
2
:
In this case, the complete solution is
( ) ( ) x m
n
x m
3
x i
2
x i
1
n 3
e c ... .......... e c e c e c y + + + + =
+

( )
x m
n
x m
3
x i
2
x i
1
x
n 3
e c ... .......... e c e c e c e y + + + + =

( ) ( ) [ ]
x m
n
x m
3 2 1
x
n 3
e c ... .......... e c x sin i x cos c x sin i x cos c e + + + + + =

( )
x m
n
x m
3 2 1
x
n 3
e c .. .......... e c x sin C x cos C e + + + + =

,
where
2 1 1
c c C + = and ( )
2 1 2
c c i C = .
Case 4: If two pairs of imaginary roots be equal,
i.e. + = = i m m
2 1
, = = i m m
4 3
:
In this case, the complete solution (by case 2) is
( ) ( ) [ ]
x m
n 4 3 2 1
x
n
e c .. .......... x sin c x c x cos c x c e y + + + + + =

.

Working rule to find the complementary function:
(i) Write the auxiliary equation
i.e. ( ) 0 k m k ......... m k m
n 1 n
1 n
1
n
= + + + +
and solve it for m.

(ii) Write the complementary function as follow:
Roots of Auxiliary Equation (A.E.) Complementary Function (C.F.)
1. ,....... m , m , m
3 2 1

(real and different roots)
2. ,....... m m , m
3 , 2 1

(two real and equal roots)
3. ,....... m , m m , m
4 3 2, 1

(three real and equal roots)
4.
3
m , i , i + ,........
(a pair of imaginary roots)
5.
5
m , i , i ,.........
(2 pairs of equal imaginary roots)
........ e c e c e c
x m
3
x m
2
x m
1
3 2 1
+ + +

( ) ........ e c e c x c
x m
3
x m
2 1
3 1
+ + +

( ) ........ e c e c x c x c
x m
4
x m
3 2
2
1
3 1
+ + + +

( ) ..... e c x sin c x cos c e
x m
3 2 1
ax
3
+ + +
( ) ( ) [ ]
........
e c x sin c x c x cos c x c e
x m
5 4 3 2 1
ax
5
+
+ + + +

Now let us solve some linear differential equations:
8
Q.No.1.: Solve the following differential equation: 0 y 2
dx
dy
dx
y d
2
2
= + .
Ans.: Given equation in symbolic form is ( ) 0 y 2 D D
2
= + .
Its auxiliary equation is ( ) 0 2 m m
2
= + ( )( ) 0 1 m 2 m = + 1 , 2 m = .
Here roots are real and different.
Thus, the complete solution (C.S.) is
x
2
x 2
1
e c e c y + =

.
dx
dy
7
dx
y d
3
3
= .
Sol.: The given equation in symbolic form is ( ) 0 y 6 D 7 D
3
= .
Its auxiliary equation is 0 6 m 7 m
3
= ( )( )( ) 0 3 m 2 m 1 m = + +
3 2, , 1 m = .
x 3
3
x 2
2
x
1
e c e c e c y + + =

.
Q.No.3.: Solve the following differential equation: 0 x a 4
dt
dx
a 3
dt
x d
2
2
2
= + .
Sol.: The given equation in symbolic form is ( ) 0 x a 4 aD 3 D
2 2
= + .
Its auxiliary equation is
( ) 0 a 4 am 3 m
2 2
= + 0 a 4 am am 4 m
2 2
= + ( )( ) 0 a m a 4 m = +
a 4 , a m = .
at 4
2
at
1
e c e c x

+ = .
Q.No.4.: Solve the following differential equation: 0 x 9
dt
dx
6
dt
x d
2
2
= + + .
Sol.: Given equation in symbolic form is ( ) 0 x 9 D 6 D
2
= + + .
Its auxiliary equation is ( ) 0 9 m 6 m
2
= + + ( ) 0 3 m
2
= + 3 , 3 m = ,
which are two repeated roots.
9
Thus, the complete solution (C.S.) is ( )
t 3
2 1
e c t c x

+ = .
Q.No.5.: Solve the following differential equation: 0 y
dx
dy
3
dx
y d
3
dx
y d
2
2
3
3
= + .
Sol.: The given equation in symbolic form is ( ) 0 y 1 D 3 D 3 D
2 3
= + .
Its auxiliary equation is 0 1 m 3 m 3 m
2 3
= + ( ) 0 1 m
3
= .
1 1, , 1 m = ,
which are three repeated roots.
x
3 2
2
1
e c x c x c y + + = .
Q.No.6.: Solve the following differential equation: 0 y 4y y 4 = + + .
Sol.: The given equation in symbolic form is ( ) 0 y D D 4 D 4
2 3
= + + .
Its auxiliary equation is ( ) 0 m m 4 m 4
2 3
= + + ( ) 0 1 m 4 m 4 m
2
= + + ( ) 0 1 m 2 m
2
= +
2
1
,
2
1
, 0 m = .
Here roots are real roots of which two roots are equal.
( )
2 / x
3 2
x 0
1
e c x c e c y

+ + = ( )
2 / x
3 2 1
e c x c c y

+ + = .
Q.No.7.: Solve the following differential equation: ( ) 0 y D 4 D 4 D
2 3
= + .
Sol.: The given equation is ( ) 0 y D 4 D 4 D
2 3
= + .
Its auxiliary equation is 0 m 4 m 4 m
2 3
= + ( ) 0 4 m 4 m m
2
= + .
( ) 0 2 m m
2
= 2 2, , 0 m = .
Here roots are real and out of which two roots are equal.
( )
x 2
3 2
x 0
1
e c x c e c y + + = ( )
x 2
3 2 1
e c x c c y + + = .
Q.No.8.: Solve the following differential equation: ( ) 0 y 4 D 4 D D
2 3
= + + + .
Sol.: The given equation is ( ) 0 y 4 D 4 D D
2 3
= + + + .
10
( ) 0 4 m 4 m m
2 3
= + + + ( )( ) 2i , 1 m 0 1 m 4 m
2
= = + + .
Here one root is real and one pair of roots is imaginary.
( ) x 2 sin c x 2 cos c e e c y
3 2
x 0 x
1
+ + =

x 2 sin c x 2 cos c e c
3 2
x
1
+ + =

.
dt
x d
4
4
= + .
Sol.: Given equation in symbolic form is ( ) 0 x 4 D
4
= + .
0 4 m
4
= + ( ) ( ) ( ) 0 m 2 2 m 0 m 4 4 m 4 m
2
2
2 2 2 4
= + = + +
( )( ) 0 2 m 2 m 2 m 2 m
2 2
= + + +
0 2 m 2 m , 0 2 m 2 m
2 2
= + = + +
2
4 2
m

= and
2
4 2
i 1 and i 1 m = .
Here two pairs of roots are imaginary.
Thus, the complete solution (C.S.) is ( ) ( ) t sin c t cos c e t sin c t cos c e x
4 3
t
2 1
t
+ + + =

.
Q.No.10.: Solve the following differential equation: 0 y
dx
y d
3
3
= + .
Sol.: The given equation in symbolic form is ( ) 0 y 1 D
3
= + .
( ) 0 1 m
3
= + ( )( ) 0 1 m m 1 m
2
= + + 1 m = ,
2
3 i 1
2
4 1 1
m

=

= .
Here one is real root and one pair of roots is imaginary.
|
|
\
|
+ + =

2
x . 3
sin c
2
x . 3
cos c e e c y
3 2
2 / x x
1
.
dx
y d 8
dx
y d
2
2
4
4
= + + .
11
2 4
= + + .
2 4
= + + ( ) 0 4 m
2
2
= + 4 , 4 m
2
= .
i2 i2, m = .
So, two pairs of imaginary roots are equal.
Thus the complete solution (C.S.) is
( ) ( ) [ ] x 2 sin c x c x 2 cos c x c e y
4 3 2 1
x 0
+ + + =
( ) ( ) x 2 sin c x c x 2 cos c x c y
4 3 2 1
+ + + = .
dx
y d
13
dx
y d
2
2
4
4
= + + .
2 4
= + + .
2 4
= + + ( )( ) 0 9 m 4 m
2 2
= + +
3i , i 2 m = .
Here, two pairs of roots are imaginary.
( ) ( ) x 3 sin c x 3 cos c e x 2 sin c x 2 cos c e y
4 3
x 0
2 1
x 0
+ + + = .
x 3 sin c x 3 cos c x 2 sin c x 2 cos c y
4 3 2 1
+ + + = . Ans.
Q.No.13.: Solve the following differential equation: 0 y a
dx
y d
4
4
4
= + .
Sol.: The given equation in symbolic form is ( ) 0 y a D
4 4
= + .
( ) 0 a m
4 4
= + 0 m a 2 a a m 2 m
2 2 4 2 2 4
= + + ( ) ( ) 0 am . 2 a m
2
2
2 2
= +
( )( ) 0 am . 2 a m am . 2 a m
2 2 2 2
= + + +
0 am . 2 a m
2 2
= + + , 0 am . 2 a m
2 2
= +
2
ai . 2 a . 2
m

= ,
2
ai . 2 a . 2
m

=
( ) i 1
2
a
m = , ( ) i 1
2
a
m = .
12
Here, two pairs of roots are imaginary.
|
\
|
+ + |
\
|
+ =

2
ax
sin c
2
ax
cos c e
2
ax
sin c
2
ax
cos c e y
4 3
2 / ax
2 1
2 / ax
.
Hence, this is the required solution.
Q.No.14.: If x m
dt
x d
4
4
4
= , show that mt sinh c mt cosh c mt sin c mt cos c x
4 3 2 1
+ + + = .
Sol.: The given equation in symbolic form is ( ) 0 x m D
4 4
= .
Its auxiliary equation is ( ) 0 m m
4 4
1
= ( )( )( ) 0 m m m m m m
1 1
2 2
1
= + +
im , m m, m
1
= .
t m i
4
t m i
3
t m
2
t m
1
e a e a e a e a y

+ + + =
Since we know that
2
e e
mt sinh ,
2
e e
mt cosh
mt mt mt mt
=
+
= .
( ) ( ) ( ) mt sin i mt cos a mt sinh mt cosh a mt sinh mt cosh a y
3 2 1
+ + + + =
( ) mt sin i mt cos a
4
+
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) mt sin a a i mt cos a a mt sinh a a mt cosh a a
4 3 4 3 2 1 2 1
+ + + + + =
mt sinh c mt cosh c mt sin c mt cos c
4 3 2 1
+ + + = .
Hence, this is the required solution.
Q.No.15.: Solve the following differential equation: . 0 y 18 y 3 y 4 y = +
Sol.: The given equation in symbolic form is ( ) . 0 y 18 D 3 D 4 D
2 3
= + .
2 3
= + ( )( ) 0 2 m 9 m 6 m
2
= + +
( ) ( ) 0 2 m 3 m
2
= +
2 3, , 3 m = .
x 2
3
x 3
2 1
e c e c x c y

+ + = .
13
2 3
= + .
2 3
= + ( )( ) 0 1 m 2 m 3 m
2
= +
( )( ) 0 1 m 3 m
2
= 3 1, , 1 m = .
x 3
3
x
2 1
e c e c x c y + + = .
Q.No.17.: Solve the following differential equation: . 0 y 8 y 4 y 6 y 5 y = + +
Sol.: The given equation in symbolic form is ( ) 0 y 8 D 4 D 6 D 5 D
2 3 4
= + + .
Its auxiliary equation is 0 8 m 4 m 6 m 5 m
2 3 4
= + + ( )( ) 0 2 m 1 m
3
= +
1 2, 2, , 2 m = .
Here roots are real and out of which three roots are equal.
x
4
x 2
3 2
2
1
e c e c x c x c y

+ + + = .
Q.No.18.: Solve the following differential equation: . 0 y 3 y 2 y =
Sol.: The given equation in symbolic form is ( ) . 0 y D 3 D 2 D
2 3
=
2 3
= ( ) 0 3 m 2 m m
2
=
( )( ) 0 1 m 3 m m = + 1 3, , 0 m = .
x
3
x 3
2 1
e c e c c y

+ + = .
Q.No.19.: Solve the following differential equation: 0 y 6 y 11 y 6 y = + + + .
Sol.: The given equation in symbolic form is ( ) 0 y 6 D 11 D 6 D
2 3
= + + + .
2 3
= + + + ( )( ) 0 6 m 5 m 1 m
2
= + + +
( )( )( ) 0 3 m 2 m 1 m = + + + 3 2, , 1 m = .
x 3
3
x 2
2
x
1
e c e c e c y

+ + = .
Q.No.20.: Solve the following differential equation: 0 y 4 y 5 y = + .
2 4
= + .
14
2 4
= + ( )( ) 0 4 m 1 m
2 2
=
2 2, , 1 , 1 m = .
x 2
4
x 2
3
x
2
x
1
e c e c e c e c y

+ + + = .
Q.No.21.: Solve the following differential equation: . 0 y 6 y y 4 y = + +
Sol.: The given equation in symbolic form is ( ) . 0 y 6 D D 4 D
2 3
= + +
Its auxiliary equation is 0 6 m m 4 m
2 3
= + + ( )( ) 0 6 m 5 m 1 m
2
= + +
( )( )( ) 0 3 m 2 m 1 m = + 3 , 2 , 1 m = .
x 3
3
x 2
2
x
1
e c e c e c y + + =

.
2 3
= +
2 3
= + ( )( ) 0 6 m 5 m 1 m
2
= +
( )( )( ) 0 3 m 2 m 1 m = 3 , 2 , 1 m = .
x 3
3
x 2
2
x
1
e c e c e c y + + = .
Q.No.23.: Solve the following differential equation: . 0 y 3 y y 3 y = +
Sol.: The given equation in symbolic form is ( ) . 0 y 3 D D 3 D
2 3
= +
Its auxiliary equation is 0 3 m m 3 m
2 3
= + ( ) ( ) 0 3 m 1 3 m m
2
=
( )( ) 0 3 m 1 m
2
= ( )( )( ) 0 3 m 1 m 1 m = + 3 , 1 , 1 m = .
x 3
3
x
2
x
1
e c e c e c y + + =

.
2 3
= +
2 3
= + ( )( ) 0 15 m 8 m 1 m
2
= +
15
( )( ) 0 15 m 5 m 3 m 1 m
2
= + ( )( )( ) 0 5 m 3 m 1 m = 5 , 3 , 1 m = .
x 5
3
x 3
2
x
1
e c e c e c y + + = .
Q.No.25.: Solve the following differential equation: . 0 y 8 y 12 y 6 y = + .
2 3
= + .
2 3
= + ( ) 0 2 m
3
=
2 2, , 2 m = ,
which are three repeated roots.
x 2
3 2
2
1
e c x c x c y + + = .
Q.No.26.: Solve the following differential equation: 0 y = .
Sol.: The given equation in symbolic form is 0 y D
4
= .
Its auxiliary equation is 0 m
4
=
0 0, 0, , 0 m = ,
which are four repeated roots.
4 3
2
2
3
1
c x c x c x c y + + + = .
Q.No.27.: Solve the following differential equation: . 0 y 6 y 2 y = + .
Sol.: The given equation in symbolic form is ( ) . 0 y D 6 D 2 D
3 4 5
= + .
3 4 5
= + ( ) 0 6 m 2 m m
2 3
= +
0 0, , 0 m = and i 5 1
2
24 4 2
m =

= .
Here we have three repeated roots and one pair of complex conjugate roots.
x
5 4 3 2
2
1
e x 5 cos c x 5 sin c c x c x c y + + + + = .
Q.No.28.: Solve the following differential equation: 0 y 9 y = + .
2
= + .
Its auxiliary equation is 0 9 m
2
= + i 3 m = .
Here one pair of roots is imaginary.
16
Thus, the complete solution (C.S.) is x 3 cos c x 3 sin c y
2 1
+ = .
Q.No.29.: Solve the following differential equation: 0 y 9 y = .
2
= .
Its auxiliary equation is 0 9 m
2
= 3 m = .
x 3
2
x 3
1
e c e c y

+ = .
2
= + .
2
= + i 4 3
2
100 36 6
m =

= .
Thus, the complete solution (C.S.) is ( ) x 4 sin c x 4 cos c e y
2 1
x 3
+ = .
Q.No.31.: Solve the following differential equation: 0 y 11 y 6 y = + + .
2
= + + .
2
= + + i 2 3
2
44 36 6
m =

= .
2 1
x 3
+ =

.
2
= + .
2
= + i 3 2
2
52 16 4
m =

= .
Thus, the complete solution (C.S.) is ( ) x 3 cos c x 3 sin c e y
2 1
x 2
+ = .
Q.No.33.: Solve the following differential equation: 0 y a y cos a 2 y
2
= + + .
Sol.: The given equation in symbolic form is ( ) 0 y a D cos a 2 D
2 2
= + + .
Its auxiliary equation is 0 a m cos a 2 m
2 2
= + +
17
( ) =

= sin a i cos a
2
a 4 cos a 4 cos a 2
m
2 2 2
.
Thus, the complete solution (C.S.) is ( ) ( ) [ ] + =

sin ax sin c sin ax cos c e y
2 1
cos ax
.
Q.No.34.: Solve the following differential equation: 0 y y y = + + .
Sol.: The given equation in symbolic form is ( ) 0 y 1 D D
2
= + + .
Its auxiliary equation is 0 1 m m
2
= + +
2
3
i
2
1
2
4 1 1
m =

= .
(
+ =
x
2
3
sin c x
2
3
cos c e y
2 1
2
x
.
Q.No.35.: Solve the following differential equation:
0 y 10 y 2 y = + , where ( ) 4 0 y = , ( ) 1 0 y = .
2
= + .
2
= + 3 i 1
2
6 i 2
2
40 4 2
m =
=

= .
Here roots are imaginary roots.
2 1
x
+ = .
But given ( ) 4 0 y = ( )
1 1
0
c 4 0 c e 4 = + = 4 c
1
= .
Also ( ) 1 0 y = .
( ) ( ) x 3 sin c x 3 cos c e x 3 cos c 3 x 3 sin c 3 e y
2 1
x
2 1
x
+ + + =
( )
1 2
c c 3 0 y + = 4 c 3 1
2
+ =
1 c
2
= .
Thus, the complete solution (C.S.) is ( ) x 3 sin x 3 cos 4 e y
x
= .
y(0) = 6, 0 ) 0 ( y = , ( ) 2 0 y = .
Ans.: The given equation in symbolic form is ( ) . 0 y 6 D 11 D 6 D
2 3
= + .
18
2 3
= + ( )( ) 0 6 m 5 m 1 m
2
= +
( )( )( ) 0 3 m 2 m 1 m = 3 , 2 , 1 m = .
x 3
3
x 2
2
x
1
e c e c e c y + + = .
x 3
3
x 2
2
x
1
e c 3 e c 2 e c y + + = and
x 3
3
x 2
2
x
1
e c 9 e c 4 e c y + + =
Given y(0) = 6
3 2 1
c c c 6 + + =
Given 0 ) 0 ( y =
3 2 1
c 3 c 2 c 0 + + =
Given ( ) 2 0 y =
3 2 1
c 9 c 4 c 2 + + =
Solving these three equations, we obtain 1 c , 2 c , 1 c
3 2 1
= = = .
Thus, under these conditions, the complete solution (C.S.) is
x 3 x 2 x
e e 2 e y + = . Ans.
Q.No.37.: Solve the following differential equation: . 0 y 4 y 3 y = +
y(0) = 1, 8 ) 0 ( y = , ( ) 4 0 y = .
Sol.: The given equation in symbolic form is ( ) . 0 y 4 D 3 D
2 3
= +
2 3
= + ( )( ) 0 4 m 4 m 1 m
2
= + +
( )( ) 0 2 m 1 m
2
= + 2 , 2 , 1 m = .
x 2
3 2
x
1
e c x c e c y + + =

.
( )
x 2
3
x 2
2
x
1
e c 2 e 1 x 2 c e c y + + + =

and ( ) ( )
x 2
3
x 2
2
x
1
e c 4 e 1 x 2 2 2 c e c y + + + + =

Given y(0) = 1
3 1
c c 1 + =
Given 8 ) 0 ( y =
3 2 1
c 2 c c 8 + + =
Given ( ) 4 0 y =
3 2 2 1
c 4 c 2 c 2 c 4 + + + =
3 2 1
c 4 c 4 c 4 + + =
Solving these three equations, we obtain
9
23
c ,
3
2
c ,
9
32
c
3 2 1
= = = .
Thus, under these conditions, the complete solution (C.S.) is
19
x 2 x
e
9
23
x
3
2
e
9
32
y |
\
|
+ =

.
Q.No.38.: Solve the following differential equation: 0 y 2 y 3 y = +
y(0) = 2, 0 ) 0 ( y = , ( ) 2 0 y = , ( ) 2 0 y = .
Sol.: The given equation in symbolic form is ( ) 0 y D 2 D 3 D
2 3 4
= + .
2 3 4
= + ( ) 0 2 m 3 m m
2 2
= +
( )( ) 0 2 m 1 m m
2
= 2 , 1 , 0 , 0 m = .
Here roots are real and different of which two are equal.
x 0
4 3
x
2
x 2
1
e c x c e c e c y + + + =
4 3
x
2
x 2
1
c x c e c e c y + + + =
3
x
2
x 2
1
c e c e c 2 y + + = ,
x
2
x 2
1
e c e c 4 y + = and
x
2
x 2
1
e c e c 8 y + =
Given y(0) = 2
4 2 1
c c c 2 + + = (i)
Given 0 ) 0 ( y =
3 2 1
c c c 2 0 + + = (ii)
Given ( ) 2 0 y =
2 1
c c 4 2 + = (iii)
Given ( ) 2 0 y =
2 1
c c 8 2 + = (iv)
Solving (iii) and (iv), we obtain 2 c , 0 c
2 1
= = .
Solving (i) and (ii), we obtain 2 c , 0 c
3 4
= = .
Thus, under these conditions, the complete solution (C.S.) is ( )
x
e x 2 y + = . Ans.
0 y 29 y 4 y 4 = + , where y(0) = 0, 5 ) 0 ( y = .
Sol.: The given equation in symbolic form is ( ) 0 y 29 D 4 D 4
2
= + .
Its auxiliary equation is ( ) 0 29 m 4 m 4
2
= + 5 i 2
2
116 16 4
m =

= .
2 1
x 2
+ = .
Also
|
\
|
+ + |
\
|
+ =
x 2
2 2
x 2 x 2
1 1
x 2
e
dx
d
x 5 sin c x 5 sin c
dx
d
e e
dx
d
x 5 cos c x 5 cos c
dx
d
e y
20
( ) ( )
x 2
2 2
x 2 x 2
1 1
x 2
e . x 5 sin c 2 x 5 cos c 5 e e . x 5 cos c 2 x 5 sin c 5 e y + + + =
But given ( ) 0 0 y =
( )
( )
1 2 1
0 2
c 0 ) 0 sin( c ) 0 cos( c e 0 = + = 0 c
1
= .
Also ( ) 5 0 y = .
( ) ( )
0 . 2
2 2
0 . 2 0 . 2
1 1
0 . 2
e . 0 sin c 2 0 cos c 5 e e . 0 cos c 2 0 sin c 5 e 5 + + + =
2
c 2 5 = 1 c
2
= .
Thus, the complete solution (C.S.) is x 5 sin e y
x 2
= .
0 y 01 . 4 y 2 . 0 y = + + , where y(0) = 0, 2 ) 0 ( y = .
Sol.: The given equation in symbolic form is ( ) 0 y 01 . 4 D 2 . 0 D
2
= + + .
Its auxiliary equation is 0 01 . 4 m 2 . 0 m
2
= + + 2 i 1 . 0
2
04 . 16 04 . 0 2 . 0
m =

= .
2 1
x 1 . 0
+ =

.
Also
|
\
|
+ + |
\
|
+ =
x 1 . 0
2 2
x 1 . 0 x 1 . 0
1 1
x 1 . 0
e
dx
d
x 2 sin c x 2 sin c
dx
d
e e
dx
d
x 2 cos c x 2 cos c
dx
d
e y
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
x 2
2 2
x 1 . 0 x 2
1 1
x 1 . 0
e . x 2 sin c 1 . 0 x 2 cos c 2 e e . x 2 cos c 1 . 0 x 2 sin c 2 e y + + + =

But given ( ) 0 0 y =
( )
( )
1 2 1
0 1 . 0
c 0 ) 0 sin( c ) 0 cos( c e 0 = + =

0 c
1
= .
Also ( ) 2 0 y = .
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
0
2 2
0 0
1 1
0
e . 0 sin c 1 . 0 0 cos c 2 e e . 0 cos c 1 . 0 0 sin c 2 e 2 + + + =
2
c 2 2 = 1 c
2
= .
Thus, the complete solution (C.S.) is x 2 sin e y
x 1 . 0
= .

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21
Home Assignments
Linear differential equation of second order: Distinct real roots:
Solve the following differential equations:
Q.No. Differential equation Answer
1. 0 y 2 y 3 y = + x 2
2
x
1
e c e c y + =
2. 0 y 6 y 5 y = + x 3
2
x 2
1
e c e c y + =
3. 0 y 5 y 12 y 4 = +
2
x 5
2
2
x
1
e c e c y + =
4. 0 y 6 y y 2 = +
x 2
2
2
x 3
1
e c e c y

+ =
5. 0 y 2 y y = + x
2
x 2
1
e c e c y + =

6. 0 y y 2 y 2 = +
7. 0 8 y 2 y 2 = + x 4
2
x 2
1
e c e c y

+ =
8. 0 y 4 y 3 y = x
2
x 4
1
e c e c y

+ =
9. ( ) 0 aby y b a y = + + + bx
2
ax
1
e c e c y

+ =
10. 0 y y 4 y = + ( ) ( )x 3 2
2
x 3 2
1
e c e c y
+
+ =
11. 0 y 8 y 6 y = + , y(0) = 1, 6 ) 0 ( y = . x 4 x 2
e 2 e y + =
12. 0 y 12 y y = , y(0) = 3, 5 ) 0 ( y = . x 3 x 4
e e 2 y

+ =
13. 0 y 2 y y = + , y(0) = 4, 5 ) 0 ( y = . x 2 x
e 3 e y

+ =
Linear differential equation of second order: Equal (or repeated or double) roots:
1. 0 y 16 y 8 y = + +
( )
x 4
2 1
e c x c y

+ =
2. 0 y 9 y 6 y = +
( )
x 3
2 1
e c x c y + =
22
3. 0 y y 4 y 4 = +
( )
2
x
2 1
e c x c y + =
4. 0 y 16 y 8 y = +
( )
x 4
2 1
e c x c y + =
5. 0 y y 8 y 16 = +
( )
4
x
2 1
e c x c y + =
6. 0 y 25 y 30 y 9 = +
( )
3
x 5
2 1
e c x c y + =
7.
0 y k y k 2 y
2
= + + ( )
kx
2 1
e c x c y

+ =
8. 0 y 9 y 6 y = + + , y(0) = 2, 3 ) 0 ( y = .
( )
x 3
e 2 x 3 y

+ =
9. 0 y 4 y 4 y = + , y(0) = 3, 1 ) 0 ( y = .
( )
x 2
e 3 x 5 y + =
10. 0 y 4 y 4 y = + + , y(0) = 3, 7 ) 0 ( y = .
( )
x 2
e 3 x 13 y

+ =

Linear differential equation of second order: Complex conjugate roots:
1. 0 y 13 y 6 y = + + ,
y(0) = 3, 1 ) 0 ( y = .
( ) x 2 cos 3 x 2 sin 4 e y
x 3
+ =

2. 0 y 5 y 6 y 9 = + + ,
y(0) = 6, 0 ) 0 ( y = .
|
\
|
+ =
3
x 2
cos 2
3
x 2
sin e 3 y
3
x

Linear differential equation of higher order: Complex (conjugate) roots:
1. 0 y y y y = +
x cos c x sin c e c y
3 2
x
1
+ + =
2. 0 y 12 y 2 y 2 y 3 y = + +
( ) x cos c x sin c e e c e c y
4 3
x x 3
2
x 2
1
+ + + =

3. 0 y 25 y 20 y 14 y 4 y = + + Roots are i 2 1+ , i 2 1 , i 2 1+ , i 2 1
(each pair of conjugate complex roots is double)
23
( ) ( ) [ ] x 2 cos c x c x 2 sin c x c e y
4 3 2 1
x
+ + + =
4. 0 y 16 y 8 y = + +
( ) ( ) x 2 cos c x c x 2 sin c x c y
4 3 2 1
+ + + =
5. 0 y y 3 y 3 y = + + +
( ) ( ) x cos c x . c x c x sin c x c x c y
6 5
2
4 3 2
2
1
+ + + + + =
6. 0 y y 2 y = +
( ) ( ) ( )
(
+ + + + + =
2
3
sin c x c
2
3
cos c x c e e c x c y
6 5 4 3
2
x
x
2 1

7.
( ) ( ) 0 y 1 D D 1 D
2
2
3
2
= + + +
( ) ( ) x sin c x c x c x cos c x c x c y
6 5
2
4 3 2
2
1
+ + + + + =
( ) ( )
(
+ + + +
x
2
3
sin c x c x
2
3
cos c x c e
10 9 8 7
x
2
1

Some More Home Assignments
dt
dx
3
dt
y d
2
2
= + ,
given that when 0 x , 0 t = = and 0
dt
dx
= .
Ans.: 0 x = .
Q.No.2.: Solve the following differential: 0 y 29
dx
dy
4
dx
y d
2
2
= + + ,
given that when 0 y , 0 x = = and 15
dx
dy
= .
Ans.: x 5 sin e 3 y
x 2
= .

2 22 2
nd nd nd nd
Topic Topic Topic Topic
Linear Differential Equations Linear Differential Equations Linear Differential Equations Linear Differential Equations
Definition of Inverse operator and Particular Integral
(Working procedure to solve the equation)

24
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*** *** ***
***

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Linear Differential Equation:

, where ks are constants. (i)

, where ks are constants. (i)

, the solution of (v) is

and solve it for m.

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