Nitin M1

International Journal of
Computer Science Issues
Volume 8, Issue 3, No 2, May 2011

ISSN (Online): 1694-0814
© IJCSI PUBLICATION
www.IJCSI.org

IJCSI proceedings are currently indexed by:
© IJCSI PUBLICATION 2011

www.IJCSI.org
IJCSI Publicity Board 2011
Dr. Borislav D Dimitrov

Department of General Practice, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland
Dublin, Ireland
Dr. Vishal Goyal

Department of Computer Science, Punjabi University
Patiala, India
Mr. Nehinbe Joshua

University of Essex
Colchester, Essex, UK
Mr. Vassilis Papataxiarhis

Department of Informatics and Telecommunications
National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
EDITORIAL
In this third edition of 2011, we bring forward issues from various dynamic computer science
fields ranging from system performance, computer vision, artificial intelligence, software
engineering, multimedia, pattern recognition, information retrieval, databases, security and
networking among others.
Considering the growing interest of academics worldwide to publish in IJCSI, we invite

universities and institutions to partner with us to further encourage open-access publications.
As always we thank all our reviewers for providing constructive comments on papers sent to
them for review. This helps enormously in improving the quality of papers published in this
issue.
Google Scholar reported a large amount of cited papers published in IJCSI. We will continue to
encourage the readers, authors and reviewers and the computer science scientific community and
interested authors to continue citing papers published by the journal.
It was with pleasure and a sense of satisfaction that we announced in mid March 2011 our 2-year
Impact Factor which is evaluated at 0.242. For more information about this please see the FAQ
section of the journal.
Apart from availability of the full-texts from the journal website, all published papers are
deposited in open-access repositories to make access easier and ensure continuous availability of
the proceedings free of charge for all researchers.
We are pleased to present IJCSI Volume 8, Issue 3, No 2, May 2011 (IJCSI Vol. 8, Issue 3, No.
2). The acceptance rate for this issue is 33.6%.
IJCSI Editorial Board

May 2011 Issue
© IJCSI Publications
www.IJCSI.org
IJCSI Editorial Board 2011
Dr Tristan Vanrullen
Chief Editor
LPL, Laboratoire Parole et Langage - CNRS - Aix en Provence, France
LABRI, Laboratoire Bordelais de Recherche en Informatique - INRIA - Bordeaux, France
LEEE, Laboratoire d'Esthétique et Expérimentations de l'Espace - Université d'Auvergne, France
Dr Constantino Malagôn
Associate Professor
Nebrija University
Spain
Dr Lamia Fourati Chaari

Associate Professor
Multimedia and Informatics Higher Institute in SFAX
Tunisia
Dr Mokhtar Beldjehem
Professor
Sainte-Anne University
Halifax, NS, Canada
Dr Pascal Chatonnay
Assistant Professor
MaÎtre de Conférences
Laboratoire d'Informatique de l'Université de Franche-Comté
Université de Franche-Comté
France
Dr Karim Mohammed Rezaul

Centre for Applied Internet Research (CAIR)
Glyndwr University
Wrexham, United Kingdom
Dr Yee-Ming Chen
Professor
Department of Industrial Engineering and Management
Yuan Ze University
Taiwan
Dr Vishal Goyal
Assistant Professor
Department of Computer Science
Punjabi University
Patiala, India
Dr Dalbir Singh
Faculty of Information Science And Technology
National University of Malaysia
Malaysia
Dr Natarajan Meghanathan
Assistant Professor
REU Program Director
Department of Computer Science
Jackson State University
Jackson, USA
Dr Deepak Laxmi Narasimha

Department of Software Engineering,
Faculty of Computer Science and Information Technology,
University of Malaya,
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Dr. Prabhat K. Mahanti

Professor
Computer Science Department,
University of New Brunswick
Saint John, N.B., E2L 4L5, Canada
Dr Navneet Agrawal
Assistant Professor
Department of ECE,
College of Technology & Engineering,
MPUAT, Udaipur 313001 Rajasthan, India
Dr Panagiotis Michailidis
Division of Computer Science and Mathematics,
University of Western Macedonia,
53100 Florina, Greece
Dr T. V. Prasad
Professor
Department of Computer Science and Engineering,
Lingaya's University
Faridabad, Haryana, India
Dr Saqib Rasool Chaudhry

Wireless Networks and Communication Centre
261 Michael Sterling Building
Brunel University West London, UK, UB8 3PH
Dr Shishir Kumar
Department of Computer Science and Engineering,
Jaypee University of Engineering & Technology
Raghogarh, MP, India
Dr P. K. Suri
Professor
Department of Computer Science & Applications,
Kurukshetra University,
Kurukshetra, India
Dr Paramjeet Singh
Associate Professor
GZS College of Engineering & Technology,
India
Dr Shaveta Rani
Associate Professor
GZS College of Engineering & Technology,
India
Dr. Seema Verma

Associate Professor,
Department Of Electronics,
Banasthali University,
Rajasthan - 304022, India
Dr G. Ganesan
Professor
Department of Mathematics,
Adikavi Nannaya University,
Rajahmundry, A.P, India
Dr A. V. Senthil Kumar
Department of MCA,
Hindusthan College of Arts and Science,
Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, India
Dr Jyoteesh Malhotra
ECE Department,
Guru Nanak Dev University,
Jalandhar, Punjab, India
Dr R. Ponnusamy
Professor
Department of Computer Science & Engineering,
Aarupadai Veedu Institute of Technology,
Vinayaga Missions University, Chennai, Tamilnadu, India.
N. Jaisankar
Assistant Professor
School of Computing Sciences,
VIT University
Vellore, Tamilnadu, India
IJCSI Reviewers Committee 2011
 Mr. Markus Schatten, University of Zagreb, Faculty of Organization and Informatics, Croatia
 Mr. Vassilis Papataxiarhis, Department of Informatics and Telecommunications, National and
Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
 Dr Modestos Stavrakis, University of the Aegean, Greece
 Dr Fadi KHALIL, LAAS -- CNRS Laboratory, France
 Dr Dimitar Trajanov, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Information technologies, ss. Cyril and
Methodius Univesity - Skopje, Macedonia
 Dr Jinping Yuan, College of Information System and Management,National Univ. of Defense Tech.,
China
 Dr Alexis Lazanas, Ministry of Education, Greece
 Dr Stavroula Mougiakakou, University of Bern, ARTORG Center for Biomedical Engineering
Research, Switzerland
 Dr Cyril de Runz, CReSTIC-SIC, IUT de Reims, University of Reims, France
 Mr. Pramodkumar P. Gupta, Dept of Bioinformatics, Dr D Y Patil University, India
 Dr Alireza Fereidunian, School of ECE, University of Tehran, Iran
 Mr. Fred Viezens, Otto-Von-Guericke-University Magdeburg, Germany
 Dr. Richard G. Bush, Lawrence Technological University, United States
 Dr. Ola Osunkoya, Information Security Architect, USA
 Mr. Kotsokostas N.Antonios, TEI Piraeus, Hellas
 Prof Steven Totosy de Zepetnek, U of Halle-Wittenberg & Purdue U & National Sun Yat-sen U,
Germany, USA, Taiwan
 Mr. M Arif Siddiqui, Najran University, Saudi Arabia
 Ms. Ilknur Icke, The Graduate Center, City University of New York, USA
 Prof Miroslav Baca, Faculty of Organization and Informatics, University of Zagreb, Croatia
 Dr. Elvia Ruiz Beltrán, Instituto Tecnológico de Aguascalientes, Mexico
 Mr. Moustafa Banbouk, Engineer du Telecom, UAE
 Mr. Kevin P. Monaghan, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan, USA
 Ms. Moira Stephens, University of Sydney, Australia
 Ms. Maryam Feily, National Advanced IPv6 Centre of Excellence (NAV6) , Universiti Sains Malaysia
(USM), Malaysia
 Dr. Constantine YIALOURIS, Informatics Laboratory Agricultural University of Athens, Greece
 Mrs. Angeles Abella, U. de Montreal, Canada
 Dr. Patrizio Arrigo, CNR ISMAC, italy
 Mr. Anirban Mukhopadhyay, B.P.Poddar Institute of Management & Technology, India
 Mr. Dinesh Kumar, DAV Institute of Engineering & Technology, India
 Mr. Jorge L. Hernandez-Ardieta, INDRA SISTEMAS / University Carlos III of Madrid, Spain
 Mr. AliReza Shahrestani, University of Malaya (UM), National Advanced IPv6 Centre of Excellence
(NAv6), Malaysia
 Mr. Blagoj Ristevski, Faculty of Administration and Information Systems Management - Bitola,
Republic of Macedonia
 Mr. Mauricio Egidio Cantão, Department of Computer Science / University of São Paulo, Brazil
 Mr. Jules Ruis, Fractal Consultancy, The netherlands
 Mr. Mohammad Iftekhar Husain, University at Buffalo, USA
 Dr. Deepak Laxmi Narasimha, Department of Software Engineering, Faculty of Computer Science and
Information Technology, University of Malaya, Malaysia
 Dr. Paola Di Maio, DMEM University of Strathclyde, UK
 Dr. Bhanu Pratap Singh, Institute of Instrumentation Engineering, Kurukshetra University
Kurukshetra, India
 Mr. Sana Ullah, Inha University, South Korea
 Mr. Cornelis Pieter Pieters, Condast, The Netherlands
 Dr. Amogh Kavimandan, The MathWorks Inc., USA
 Dr. Zhinan Zhou, Samsung Telecommunications America, USA
 Mr. Alberto de Santos Sierra, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain
 Dr. Md. Atiqur Rahman Ahad, Department of Applied Physics, Electronics & Communication
Engineering (APECE), University of Dhaka, Bangladesh
 Dr. Charalampos Bratsas, Lab of Medical Informatics, Medical Faculty, Aristotle University,
Thessaloniki, Greece
 Ms. Alexia Dini Kounoudes, Cyprus University of Technology, Cyprus
 Dr. Jorge A. Ruiz-Vanoye, Universidad Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco, Mexico
 Dr. Alejandro Fuentes Penna, Universidad Popular Autónoma del Estado de Puebla, México
 Dr. Ocotlán Díaz-Parra, Universidad Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco, México
 Mrs. Nantia Iakovidou, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece
 Mr. Vinay Chopra, DAV Institute of Engineering & Technology, Jalandhar
 Ms. Carmen Lastres, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid - Centre for Smart Environments, Spain
 Dr. Sanja Lazarova-Molnar, United Arab Emirates University, UAE
 Mr. Srikrishna Nudurumati, Imaging & Printing Group R&D Hub, Hewlett-Packard, India
 Dr. Olivier Nocent, CReSTIC/SIC, University of Reims, France
 Mr. Burak Cizmeci, Isik University, Turkey
 Dr. Carlos Jaime Barrios Hernandez, LIG (Laboratory Of Informatics of Grenoble), France
 Mr. Md. Rabiul Islam, Rajshahi university of Engineering & Technology (RUET), Bangladesh
 Dr. LAKHOUA Mohamed Najeh, ISSAT - Laboratory of Analysis and Control of Systems, Tunisia
 Dr. Alessandro Lavacchi, Department of Chemistry - University of Firenze, Italy
 Mr. Mungwe, University of Oldenburg, Germany
 Mr. Somnath Tagore, Dr D Y Patil University, India
 Ms. Xueqin Wang, ATCS, USA
 Dr. Borislav D Dimitrov, Department of General Practice, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland,
Dublin, Ireland
 Dr. Fondjo Fotou Franklin, Langston University, USA
 Dr. Vishal Goyal, Department of Computer Science, Punjabi University, Patiala, India
 Mr. Thomas J. Clancy, ACM, United States
 Dr. Ahmed Nabih Zaki Rashed, Dr. in Electronic Engineering, Faculty of Electronic Engineering,
menouf 32951, Electronics and Electrical Communication Engineering Department, Menoufia university,
EGYPT, EGYPT
 Dr. Rushed Kanawati, LIPN, France
 Mr. Koteshwar Rao, K G Reddy College Of ENGG.&TECH,CHILKUR, RR DIST.,AP, India
 Mr. M. Nagesh Kumar, Department of Electronics and Communication, J.S.S. research foundation,
Mysore University, Mysore-6, India
 Dr. Ibrahim Noha, Grenoble Informatics Laboratory, France
 Mr. Muhammad Yasir Qadri, University of Essex, UK
 Mr. Annadurai .P, KMCPGS, Lawspet, Pondicherry, India, (Aff. Pondicherry Univeristy, India
 Mr. E Munivel , CEDTI (Govt. of India), India
 Dr. Chitra Ganesh Desai, University of Pune, India
 Mr. Syed, Analytical Services & Materials, Inc., USA
 Mrs. Payal N. Raj, Veer South Gujarat University, India
 Mrs. Priti Maheshwary, Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology, Bhopal, India
 Mr. Mahesh Goyani, S.P. University, India, India
 Mr. Vinay Verma, Defence Avionics Research Establishment, DRDO, India
 Dr. George A. Papakostas, Democritus University of Thrace, Greece
 Mr. Abhijit Sanjiv Kulkarni, DARE, DRDO, India
 Mr. Kavi Kumar Khedo, University of Mauritius, Mauritius
 Dr. B. Sivaselvan, Indian Institute of Information Technology, Design & Manufacturing,
Kancheepuram, IIT Madras Campus, India
 Dr. Partha Pratim Bhattacharya, Greater Kolkata College of Engineering and Management, West
Bengal University of Technology, India
 Mr. Manish Maheshwari, Makhanlal C University of Journalism & Communication, India
 Dr. Siddhartha Kumar Khaitan, Iowa State University, USA
 Dr. Mandhapati Raju, General Motors Inc, USA
 Dr. M.Iqbal Saripan, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia
 Mr. Ahmad Shukri Mohd Noor, University Malaysia Terengganu, Malaysia
 Mr. Selvakuberan K, TATA Consultancy Services, India
 Dr. Smita Rajpal, Institute of Technology and Management, Gurgaon, India
 Mr. Rakesh Kachroo, Tata Consultancy Services, India
 Mr. Raman Kumar, National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar, Punjab., India
 Mr. Nitesh Sureja, S.P.University, India
 Dr. M. Emre Celebi, Louisiana State University, Shreveport, USA
 Dr. Aung Kyaw Oo, Defence Services Academy, Myanmar
 Mr. Sanjay P. Patel, Sankalchand Patel College of Engineering, Visnagar, Gujarat, India
 Dr. Pascal Fallavollita, Queens University, Canada
 Mr. Jitendra Agrawal, Rajiv Gandhi Technological University, Bhopal, MP, India
 Mr. Ismael Rafael Ponce Medellín, Cenidet (Centro Nacional de Investigación y Desarrollo
Tecnológico), Mexico
 Mr. Supheakmungkol SARIN, Waseda University, Japan
 Mr. Shoukat Ullah, Govt. Post Graduate College Bannu, Pakistan
 Dr. Vivian Augustine, Telecom Zimbabwe, Zimbabwe
 Mrs. Mutalli Vatila, Offshore Business Philipines, Philipines
 Mr. Pankaj Kumar, SAMA, India
 Dr. Himanshu Aggarwal, Punjabi University,Patiala, India
 Dr. Vauvert Guillaume, Europages, France
 Prof Yee Ming Chen, Department of Industrial Engineering and Management, Yuan Ze University,
Taiwan
 Dr. Constantino Malagón, Nebrija University, Spain
 Prof Kanwalvir Singh Dhindsa, B.B.S.B.Engg.College, Fatehgarh Sahib (Punjab), India
 Mr. Angkoon Phinyomark, Prince of Singkla University, Thailand
 Ms. Nital H. Mistry, Veer Narmad South Gujarat University, Surat, India
 Dr. M.R.Sumalatha, Anna University, India
 Mr. Somesh Kumar Dewangan, Disha Institute of Management and Technology, India
 Mr. Raman Maini, Punjabi University, Patiala(Punjab)-147002, India
 Dr. Abdelkader Outtagarts, Alcatel-Lucent Bell-Labs, France
 Prof Dr. Abdul Wahid, AKG Engg. College, Ghaziabad, India
 Mr. Prabu Mohandas, Anna University/Adhiyamaan College of Engineering, india
 Dr. Manish Kumar Jindal, Panjab University Regional Centre, Muktsar, India
 Prof Mydhili K Nair, M S Ramaiah Institute of Technnology, Bangalore, India
 Dr. C. Suresh Gnana Dhas, VelTech MultiTech Dr.Rangarajan Dr.Sagunthala Engineering
College,Chennai,Tamilnadu, India
 Prof Akash Rajak, Krishna Institute of Engineering and Technology, Ghaziabad, India
 Mr. Ajay Kumar Shrivastava, Krishna Institute of Engineering & Technology, Ghaziabad, India
 Mr. Deo Prakash, SMVD University, Kakryal(J&K), India
 Dr. Vu Thanh Nguyen, University of Information Technology HoChiMinh City, VietNam
 Prof Deo Prakash, SMVD University (A Technical University open on I.I.T. Pattern) Kakryal (J&K),
India
 Dr. Navneet Agrawal, Dept. of ECE, College of Technology & Engineering, MPUAT, Udaipur 313001
Rajasthan, India
 Mr. Sufal Das, Sikkim Manipal Institute of Technology, India
 Mr. Anil Kumar, Sikkim Manipal Institute of Technology, India
 Dr. B. Prasanalakshmi, King Saud University, Saudi Arabia.
 Dr. K D Verma, S.V. (P.G.) College, Aligarh, India
 Mr. Mohd Nazri Ismail, System and Networking Department, University of Kuala Lumpur (UniKL),
Malaysia
 Dr. Nguyen Tuan Dang, University of Information Technology, Vietnam National University Ho Chi
Minh city, Vietnam
 Dr. Abdul Aziz, University of Central Punjab, Pakistan
 Dr. P. Vasudeva Reddy, Andhra University, India
 Mrs. Savvas A. Chatzichristofis, Democritus University of Thrace, Greece
 Mr. Marcio Dorn, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul - UFRGS Institute of Informatics, Brazil
 Mr. Luca Mazzola, University of Lugano, Switzerland
 Mr. Nadeem Mahmood, Department of Computer Science, University of Karachi, Pakistan
 Mr. Hafeez Ullah Amin, Kohat University of Science & Technology, Pakistan
 Dr. Professor Vikram Singh, Ch. Devi Lal University, Sirsa (Haryana), India
 Mr. M. Azath, Calicut/Mets School of Enginerring, India
 Dr. J. Hanumanthappa, DoS in CS, University of Mysore, India
 Dr. Shahanawaj Ahamad, Department of Computer Science, King Saud University, Saudi Arabia
 Dr. K. Duraiswamy, K. S. Rangasamy College of Technology, India
 Prof. Dr Mazlina Esa, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia
 Dr. P. Vasant, Power Control Optimization (Global), Malaysia
 Dr. Taner Tuncer, Firat University, Turkey
 Dr. Norrozila Sulaiman, University Malaysia Pahang, Malaysia
 Prof. S K Gupta, BCET, Guradspur, India
 Dr. Latha Parameswaran, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, India
 Mr. M. Azath, Anna University, India
 Dr. P. Suresh Varma, Adikavi Nannaya University, India
 Prof. V. N. Kamalesh, JSS Academy of Technical Education, India
 Dr. D Gunaseelan, Ibri College of Technology, Oman
 Mr. Sanjay Kumar Anand, CDAC, India
 Mr. Akshat Verma, CDAC, India
 Mrs. Fazeela Tunnisa, Najran University, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
 Mr. Hasan Asil, Islamic Azad University Tabriz Branch (Azarshahr), Iran
 Prof. Dr Sajal Kabiraj, Fr. C Rodrigues Institute of Management Studies (Affiliated to University of
Mumbai, India), India
 Mr. Syed Fawad Mustafa, GAC Center, Shandong University, China
 Dr. Natarajan Meghanathan, Jackson State University, Jackson, MS, USA
 Prof. Selvakani Kandeeban, Francis Xavier Engineering College, India
 Mr. Tohid Sedghi, Urmia University, Iran
 Dr. S. Sasikumar, PSNA College of Engg and Tech, Dindigul, India
 Dr. Anupam Shukla, Indian Institute of Information Technology and Management Gwalior, India
 Mr. Rahul Kala, Indian Institute of Inforamtion Technology and Management Gwalior, India
 Dr. A V Nikolov, National University of Lesotho, Lesotho
 Mr. Kamal Sarkar, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Jadavpur University, India
 Dr. Mokhled S. AlTarawneh, Computer Engineering Dept., Faculty of Engineering, Mutah University,
Jordan, Jordan
 Prof. Sattar J Aboud, Iraqi Council of Representatives, Iraq-Baghdad
 Dr. Prasant Kumar Pattnaik, Department of CSE, KIST, India
 Dr. Mohammed Amoon, King Saud University, Saudi Arabia
 Dr. Tsvetanka Georgieva, Department of Information Technologies, St. Cyril and St. Methodius
University of Veliko Tarnovo, Bulgaria
 Dr. Eva Volna, University of Ostrava, Czech Republic
 Mr. Ujjal Marjit, University of Kalyani, West-Bengal, India
 Dr. Prasant Kumar Pattnaik, KIST,Bhubaneswar,India, India
 Dr. Guezouri Mustapha, Department of Electronics, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, University of
Science and Technology (USTO), Oran, Algeria
 Mr. Maniyar Shiraz Ahmed, Najran University, Najran, Saudi Arabia
 Dr. Sreedhar Reddy, JNTU, SSIETW, Hyderabad, India
 Mr. Bala Dhandayuthapani Veerasamy, Mekelle University, Ethiopa
 Mr. Arash Habibi Lashkari, University of Malaya (UM), Malaysia
 Mr. Rajesh Prasad, LDC Institute of Technical Studies, Allahabad, India
 Ms. Habib Izadkhah, Tabriz University, Iran
 Dr. Lokesh Kumar Sharma, Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University Bhilai, India
 Mr. Kuldeep Yadav, IIIT Delhi, India
 Dr. Naoufel Kraiem, Institut Superieur d'Informatique, Tunisia
 Prof. Frank Ortmeier, Otto-von-Guericke-Universitaet Magdeburg, Germany
 Mr. Ashraf Aljammal, USM, Malaysia
 Mrs. Amandeep Kaur, Department of Computer Science, Punjabi University, Patiala, Punjab, India
 Mr. Babak Basharirad, University Technology of Malaysia, Malaysia
 Mr. Avinash singh, Kiet Ghaziabad, India
 Dr. Miguel Vargas-Lombardo, Technological University of Panama, Panama
 Dr. Tuncay Sevindik, Firat University, Turkey
 Ms. Pavai Kandavelu, Anna University Chennai, India
 Mr. Ravish Khichar, Global Institute of Technology, India
 Mr Aos Alaa Zaidan Ansaef, Multimedia University, Cyberjaya, Malaysia
 Dr. Awadhesh Kumar Sharma, Dept. of CSE, MMM Engg College, Gorakhpur-273010, UP, India
 Mr. Qasim Siddique, FUIEMS, Pakistan
 Dr. Le Hoang Thai, University of Science, Vietnam National University - Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
 Dr. Saravanan C, NIT, Durgapur, India
 Dr. Vijay Kumar Mago, DAV College, Jalandhar, India
 Dr. Do Van Nhon, University of Information Technology, Vietnam
 Mr. Georgios Kioumourtzis, University of Patras, Greece
 Mr. Amol D.Potgantwar, SITRC Nasik, India
 Mr. Lesedi Melton Masisi, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, South Africa
 Dr. Karthik.S, Department of Computer Science & Engineering, SNS College of Technology, India
 Mr. Nafiz Imtiaz Bin Hamid, Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Islamic University
of Technology (IUT), Bangladesh
 Mr. Muhammad Imran Khan, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Malaysia
 Dr. Abdul Kareem M. Radhi, Information Engineering - Nahrin University, Iraq
 Dr. Mohd Nazri Ismail, University of Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
 Dr. Manuj Darbari, BBDNITM, Institute of Technology, A-649, Indira Nagar, Lucknow 226016, India
 Ms. Izerrouken, INP-IRIT, France
 Mr. Nitin Ashokrao Naik, Dept. of Computer Science, Yeshwant Mahavidyalaya, Nanded, India
 Mr. Nikhil Raj, National Institute of Technology, Kurukshetra, India
 Prof. Maher Ben Jemaa, National School of Engineers of Sfax, Tunisia
 Prof. Rajeshwar Singh, BRCM College of Engineering and Technology, Bahal Bhiwani, Haryana,
India
 Mr. Gaurav Kumar, Department of Computer Applications, Chitkara Institute of Engineering and
Technology, Rajpura, Punjab, India
 Mr. Ajeet Kumar Pandey, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India
 Mr. Rajiv Phougat, IBM Corporation, USA
 Mrs. Aysha V, College of Applied Science Pattuvam affiliated with Kannur University, India
 Dr. Debotosh Bhattacharjee, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Jadavpur University,
Kolkata-700032, India
 Dr. Neelam Srivastava, Institute of engineering & Technology, Lucknow, India
 Prof. Sweta Verma, Galgotia's College of Engineering & Technology, Greater Noida, India
 Mr. Harminder Singh BIndra, MIMIT, INDIA
 Dr. Lokesh Kumar Sharma, Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University, Bhilai, India
 Mr. Tarun Kumar, U.P. Technical University/Radha Govinend Engg. College, India
 Mr. Tirthraj Rai, Jawahar Lal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
 Mr. Akhilesh Tiwari, Madhav Institute of Technology & Science, India
 Mr. Dakshina Ranjan Kisku, Dr. B. C. Roy Engineering College, WBUT, India
 Ms. Anu Suneja, Maharshi Markandeshwar University, Mullana, Haryana, India
 Mr. Munish Kumar Jindal, Punjabi University Regional Centre, Jaito (Faridkot), India
 Dr. Ashraf Bany Mohammed, Management Information Systems Department, Faculty of
Administrative and Financial Sciences, Petra University, Jordan
 Mrs. Jyoti Jain, R.G.P.V. Bhopal, India
 Dr. Lamia Chaari, SFAX University, Tunisia
 Mr. Akhter Raza Syed, Department of Computer Science, University of Karachi, Pakistan
 Prof. Khubaib Ahmed Qureshi, Information Technology Department, HIMS, Hamdard University,
Pakistan
 Prof. Boubker Sbihi, Ecole des Sciences de L'Information, Morocco
 Dr. S. M. Riazul Islam, Inha University, South Korea
 Prof. Lokhande S.N., S.R.T.M.University, Nanded (MH), India
 Dr. Vijay H Mankar, Dept. of Electronics, Govt. Polytechnic, Nagpur, India
 Dr. M. Sreedhar Reddy, JNTU, Hyderabad, SSIETW, India
 Mr. Ojesanmi Olusegun, Ajayi Crowther University, Oyo, Nigeria
 Ms. Mamta Juneja, RBIEBT, PTU, India
 Dr. Ekta Walia Bhullar, Maharishi Markandeshwar University, Mullana Ambala (Haryana), India
 Prof. Chandra Mohan, John Bosco Engineering College, India
 Mr. Nitin A. Naik, Yeshwant Mahavidyalaya, Nanded, India
 Mr. Sunil Kashibarao Nayak, Bahirji Smarak Mahavidyalaya, Basmathnagar Dist-Hingoli., India
 Prof. Rakesh.L, Vijetha Institute of Technology, Bangalore, India
 Mr B. M. Patil, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, Uttarakhand, India
 Mr. Thipendra Pal Singh, Sharda University, K.P. III, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
 Prof. Chandra Mohan, John Bosco Engg College, India
 Mr. Hadi Saboohi, University of Malaya - Faculty of Computer Science and Information Technology,
Malaysia
 Dr. R. Baskaran, Anna University, India
 Dr. Wichian Sittiprapaporn, Mahasarakham University College of Music, Thailand
 Mr. Lai Khin Wee, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia
 Dr. Kamaljit I. Lakhtaria, Atmiya Institute of Technology, India
 Mrs. Inderpreet Kaur, PTU, Jalandhar, India
 Mr. Iqbaldeep Kaur, PTU / RBIEBT, India
 Mrs. Vasudha Bahl, Maharaja Agrasen Institute of Technology, Delhi, India
 Prof. Vinay Uttamrao Kale, P.R.M. Institute of Technology & Research, Badnera, Amravati,
Maharashtra, India
 Mr. Suhas J Manangi, Microsoft, India
 Ms. Anna Kuzio, Adam Mickiewicz University, School of English, Poland
 Mr. Vikas Singla, Malout Institute of Management & Information Technology, Malout, Punjab, India,
India
 Dr. Dalbir Singh, Faculty of Information Science And Technology, National University of Malaysia,
Malaysia
 Dr. Saurabh Mukherjee, PIM, Jiwaji University, Gwalior, M.P, India
 Dr. Debojyoti Mitra, Sir Padampat Singhania University, India
 Prof. Rachit Garg, Department of Computer Science, L K College, India
 Dr. Arun Kumar Gupta, M.S. College, Saharanpur, India
 Dr. Todor Todorov, Institute of Mathematics and Informatics, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences,
Bulgaria
 Mr. Akhter Raza Syed, University of Karachi, Pakistan
 Mrs. Manjula K A, Kannur University, India
 Prof. M. Saleem Babu, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Vel Tech University,
Chennai, India
 Dr. Rajesh Kumar Tiwari, GLA Institute of Technology, India
 Dr. V. Nagarajan, SMVEC, Pondicherry university, India
 Mr. Rakesh Kumar, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, India
 Prof. Amit Verma, PTU/RBIEBT, India
 Mr. Sohan Purohit, University of Massachusetts Lowell, USA
 Mr. Anand Kumar, AMC Engineering College, Bangalore, India
 Dr. Samir Abdelrahman, Computer Science Department, Cairo University, Egypt
 Dr. Rama Prasad V Vaddella, Sree Vidyanikethan Engineering College, India
 Prof. Jyoti Prakash Singh, Academy of Technology, India
 Mr. Peyman Taher, Oklahoma State University, USA
 Dr. S Srinivasan, PDM College of Engineering, India
 Mr. Muhammad Zakarya, CIIT, Pakistan
 Mr. Williamjeet Singh, Chitkara Institute of Engineering and Technology, India
 Mr. G.Jeyakumar, Amrita School of Engineering, India
 Mr. Harmunish Taneja, Maharishi Markandeshwar University, Mullana, Ambala, Haryana, India
 Dr. Sin-Ban Ho, Faculty of IT, Multimedia University, Malaysia
 Mrs. Doreen Hephzibah Miriam, Anna University, Chennai, India
 Mrs. Mitu Dhull, GNKITMS Yamuna Nagar Haryana, India
 Mr. Neetesh Gupta, Technocrats Inst. of Technology, Bhopal, India
 Ms. A. Lavanya, Manipal University, Karnataka, India
 Ms. D. Pravallika, Manipal University, Karnataka, India
 Prof. Ashutosh Kumar Dubey, Assistant Professor, India
 Mr. Ranjit Singh, Apeejay Institute of Management, Jalandhar, India
 Mr. Prasad S.Halgaonkar, MIT, Pune University, India
 Mr. Anand Sharma, MITS, Lakshmangarh, Sikar (Rajasthan), India
 Mr. Amit Kumar, Jaypee University of Engineering and Technology, India
 Prof. Vasavi Bande, Computer Science and Engneering, Hyderabad Institute of Technology and
Management, India
 Dr. Jagdish Lal Raheja, Central Electronics Engineering Research Institute, India
 Mr G. Appasami, Dept. of CSE, Dr. Pauls Engineering College, Anna University - Chennai, India
 Mr Vimal Mishra, U.P. Technical Education, Allahabad, India
 Dr. Arti Arya, PES School of Engineering, Bangalore (under VTU, Belgaum, Karnataka), India
 Mr. Pawan Jindal, J.U.E.T. Guna, M.P., India
 Prof. Santhosh.P.Mathew, Saintgits College of Engineering, Kottayam, India
 Dr. P. K. Suri, Department of Computer Science & Applications, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra,
India
 Dr. Syed Akhter Hossain, Daffodil International University, Bangladesh
 Mr. Nasim Qaisar, Federal Urdu Univetrsity of Arts , Science and Technology, Pakistan
 Mr. Mohit Jain, Maharaja Surajmal Institute of Technology (Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh
Indraprastha University, New Delhi), India
 Dr. Shaveta Rani, GZS College of Engineering & Technology, India
 Dr. Paramjeet Singh, GZS College of Engineering & Technology, India
 Prof. T Venkat Narayana Rao, Department of CSE, Hyderabad Institute of Technology and
Management , India
 Mr. Vikas Gupta, CDLM Government Engineering College, Panniwala Mota, India
 Dr Juan José Martínez Castillo, University of Yacambu, Venezuela
 Mr Kunwar S. Vaisla, Department of Computer Science & Engineering, BCT Kumaon Engineering
College, India
 Prof. Manpreet Singh, M. M. Engg. College, M. M. University, Haryana, India
 Mr. Syed Imran, University College Cork, Ireland
 Dr. Namfon Assawamekin, University of the Thai Chamber of Commerce, Thailand
 Dr. Shahaboddin Shamshirband, Islamic Azad University, Iran
 Dr. Mohamed Ali Mahjoub, University of Monastir, Tunisia
 Mr. Adis Medic, Infosys ltd, Bosnia and Herzegovina
 Mr Swarup Roy, Department of Information Technology, North Eastern Hill University, Umshing,
Shillong 793022, Meghalaya, India
 Mr. Suresh Kallam, East China University of Technology, Nanchang, China
 Dr. Mohammed Ali Hussain, Sai Madhavi Institute of Science & Technology, Rajahmundry, India
 Mr. Vikas Gupta, Adesh Instutute of Engineering & Technology, India
 Dr. Anuraag Awasthi, JV Womens University, Jaipur, India
 Dr. Dr. Mathura Prasad Thapliyal, Department of Computer Science, HNB Garhwal University (Centr
al University), Srinagar (Garhwal), India
 Mr. Md. Rajibul Islam, Ibnu Sina Institute, University Technology Malaysia, Malaysia
 Mr. Adnan Qureshi, University of Jinan, Shandong, P.R.China, P.R.China
 Dr. Jatinderkumar R. Saini, Narmada College of Computer Application, India
 Mr. Mueen Uddin, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia
 Mr. S. Albert Alexander, Kongu Engineering College, India
 Dr. Shaidah Jusoh, Zarqa Private University, Jordan
 Dr. Dushmanta Mallick, KMBB College of Engineering and Technology, India
 Mr. Santhosh Krishna B.V, Hindustan University, India
 Dr. Tariq Ahamad Ahanger, Kausar College Of Computer Sciences, India
 Dr. Chi Lin, Dalian University of Technology, China
 Prof. VIJENDRA BABU.D, ECE Department, Aarupadai Veedu Institute of Technology, Vinayaka
Missions University, India
 Mr. Raj Gaurang Tiwari, Gautam Budh Technical University, India
 Mrs. Jeysree J, SRM University, India
 Dr. C S Reddy, VIT University, India
 Mr. Amit Wason, Rayat-Bahra Institute of Engineering & Bio-Technology, Kharar, India
 Mr. Yousef Naeemi, Mehr Alborz University, Iran
 Mr. Muhammad Shuaib Qureshi, Iqra National University, Peshawar, Pakistan, Pakistan
 Dr Pranam Paul, Narula Institute of Technology Agarpara. Kolkata: 700109; West Bengal, India
 Dr. G. M. Nasira, Sasurie College of Enginering, (Affliated to Anna University of Technology
Coimbatore), India
 Dr. Manasawee Kaenampornpan, Mahasarakham University, Thailand
 Mrs. Iti Mathur, Banasthali University, India
 Mr. Avanish Kumar Singh, RRIMT, NH-24, B.K.T., Lucknow, U.P., India
 Dr. Panagiotis Michailidis, University of Western Macedonia, Greece
 Mr. Amir Seyed Danesh, University of Malaya, Malaysia
 Dr. Terry Walcott, E-Promag Consultancy Group, United Kingdom
 Mr. Farhat Amine, High Institute of Management of Tunis, Tunisia
 Mr. Ali Waqar Azim, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Pakistan
 Mr. Zeeshan Qamar, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Pakistan
 Dr. Samsudin Wahab, MARA University of Technology, Malaysia
 Mr. Ashikali M. Hasan, CelNet Security, India
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. HYBRED-An OCR Document Representation for Classification Tasks 1-8
Sami Laroum, Nicolas Bechet, Hatem Hamza and Mathieu Roche
2. Fundamentals for the Automation of Object-Relational Database Design 9-22

Maria Fernanda Golobisky and Aldo Vecchietti
3. Algorithm for Reducing Overhead of Message Purging in Large-Scale Sender-Based 23-29

Logging
Jinho Ahn
4. Towards Representation and Validation of Knowledge in Students Learning 30-35

Pathway Using Variability Modeling Technique
Abdelrahman Osman Elfaki, Md Gapar Md Johar, Kevin Loo Teow Aik, Sim Liew
Fong and Ruzi Bachok
5. Logic Fusion of Color based on new Fast Feature extraction for face authentication 36-44
M Fedias, D Saigaa and M Boumehraz
6. Efficient Application-Level Causal Multicasting for Pre-Planned Sensor Networks 45-52

Using Resynchronization Method
Chayoung Kim and Jinho Ahn
7. Geographic Spatiotemporal Dynamic Model using Cellular Automata and Data 53-61
Mining Techniques
Ahmad Zuhdi, Aniati Murni Arymurthy and Heru Suhartanto
8. The Design of Ubiquitous Learning System with Embedded Ganglia Agent 62-69
Fu-Chien Kao, Chia-Chun Hung and Ting-Hao Huang
9. A Novel Effective Secure and Robust CDMA Digital Image Watermarking in YUV 70-78
Color Space Using DWT2
Mehdi Khalili
10. Hybrid Algorithm for Multiprocessor Task Scheduling 79-89

Mostafa R Mohamed and Medhat H A Awadalla
11. Neural Networks as Improving Tools for Agent Behavior 90-95

Alketa Hyso and Betim Cico
12. Towards a Framework for a validated content management on the collaborative 96-104
Web-Blogs case
Anouar Abtoy, Noura Aknin, Boubker Sbihi, Ahmed El Moussaoui and Kamal Eddine
El Kadiri
13. Chain-Chain Based Routing Protocol 105-112

Samia A Ali and Shreen K Refaay
14. A Hybrid Method for Color Image Steganography in Spatial and Frequency 113-120
Domain
Asghar Shahrzad Khashandarag, Akbar Shahrzad Khashandarag, Amin Rahimi
Oskuei, Hamid Haji Agha Mohammadi and Mirkamal Mirnia
15. Detecting Malicious Packet Dropping Using Statistical Traffic Patterns 121-126
P Julian Benadit, Sharmila Baskaran and Ramya Taimanessamy
16. Photonic-Crystal Band-pass Resonant Filters Design Using the Two-dimensional 127-132
FDTD Method
Hadjira Badaoui, Mohammed Feham and Mehadji Abri
17. A New Data Imputing Algorithm 133-139

Ahmed Sobhy Sherif, Hany Harb and Sherif Zaky
18. A Survey about the Latest Trends and Research Issues of Cryptographic Elements 140-149
Ijaz Ali Shoukat, Kamalrulnizam Abu Bakar and Mohsin Iftikhar
19. Empirical Evaluation of the Proposed eXSCRUM Model-Results of a Case Study 150-157
M Rizwan Jameel Qureshi
20. Hybrid Fuzzy Direct Cover Algorithm for Synthesis of Multiple-Valued Logic 158-166
Functions
Mostafa Abd-El-Barr
21. Elliptic Curve Diffie Hellman technique extended for multiple two party keys at a 167-172
time
Vankamamidi S. Naresh, Nistala V.E.S. Murthy and V V Narasimha Rao
22. Design and Realization of an Arabic Morphological Automaton-New Approach for 173-183
Arabic Morphological Analysis and Generation
Mourad Gridach and Noureddine Chenfour
23. Field Association words with Naive Bayes Classifier based Arabic document 184-190
classification
M E Abd El-Monsef, El-Sayed Atlam, Mohammed Amin and O El-Barbary
24. Semantic understanding of Image content 191-195

D D Dhobale, B S Patil, S B Patil and V R Ghorpade
25. A Comparative Study on ANFIS and Fuzzy Expert System Models for Concrete 196-210
Mix Design
Mehdi Neshat, Ali Adeli, Azra Masoumi and Mehdi Sargolzae
26. A Business Intelligence Model to Predict Bankruptcy using Financial Domain 211-218
Ontology with Association Rule Mining Algorithm
A Martin, M Manjula and Prasanna Venkatesan
27. SPC for Software Reliability-Imperfect Software Debugging Model 219-224

R Satya Prasad, N Supriya and G Krishna Mohan
28. Performance improvement of the software development project using the Value 225-233
Management approach
Amel Ben Hadj Salem-Mhamdia and Bahia Bejar Ghadhab
29. Using Evolutionary Strategies Algorithm in the Evolutionary Design of Sequential 234-239
Logic Circuits
Parisa Soleimani, Reza Sabbaghi-Nadooshan, Sattar Mirzakuchaki and Mahdi
Bagheri
30. A Protocol for Re-authentication and Handoff Notification in Wireless Mesh 240-249
Networks
Ikbel Daly, Faouzi Zarai and Lotfi Kamoun
31. Automatic Road Extraction based on Level Set Normalized Cuts and Mean Shift 250-257
Methods
M Rajeswari, K S Gurumurthy, L.Pratap Reddy, S N Omkar and J Senthilnath
32. A Study on Fraud Detection Based on Data Mining Using Decision Tree 258-261
A. N. Pathak, Manu Sehgal and Divya Christopher
33. Design of Arabic Diacritical Marks 262-271

Mohamed Hssini and Azzeddine Lazrek
34. Use Pronunciation by Analogy for text to speech system in Persian Language 272-275
Ali Jowharpour, Masha allah Abbasi Dezfuli and Mohammad Hosein Yektaee
35. Making Ad Hoc Network Stable, Secured and Energy Efficient 276-281
Divya Sharma and Ashwani Kush
36. Adaptive Multi-model Biometric Fusion for Digital Watermarking 282-289

P Jidesh and Santhosh George
37. Performance Analysis of Web Service Model for Video on Demand 290-294
Lavanya Rajendran and Ramachandran Veilumuthu
38. MODSPIRITE-A Credit Based Solution to Enforce Node Cooperation in an Ad- 295-302
hoc Network
Rekha Kaushik and Jyoti Singhai
39. A Review of Packet Reservation Multiple Access 303-312

Varsha Sharma and R C Jain
40. Rule based Word Morphology Generation Framework 313-318

Ramchandra P Bhavsar and B. V. Pawar
41. E-government Frameworks Survey 319-323

A.M. Riad, Hazem M. El-Bakry and Gamal H. El-Adl
42. Image Segmentation Based on a Finite Generalized New Symmetric Mixture Model 324-331
with K Means
M Seshashayee, K Srinivas Rao, Ch Satyanarayana and P. Srinivasa Rao
43. An Insight to Build an E-Commerce Website with OSCommerce 332-343

V Srikanth and R Dhanapal
44. Channel Estimation using Adaptive Filtering for LTE-Advanced 344-352

Saqib Saleem and Qamar-ul-Islam
45. On Comparison of DFT-Based and DCT-Based Channel Estimation for OFDM 353-358
System
Saqib Saleem and Qamar-ul-Islam
46. A Survey on the Performance Evaluation of Various Meta Search Engines 359-364
K. Srinivas, P V S Srinivas and A. Govardhan
47. :LWKGUDZQ
-
48. ECC over RSA for Asymmetric Encryption-A Review 370-375

Kamlesh Gupta and Sanjay Silakari
49. A Novel Elliptic curve cryptography Processor using NoC design 376-381
Hamid Javashi and Reza Sabbaghi-Nadooshan
50. Electrocardiogram based methodology for computing of Coronary Sinus Pressure 382-386
Loay Alzubaidi, Ammar El Hassan and Jaafar Al Ghazo
51. Energy Efficient Clear Channel Assessment for LR-WPAN 387-393

Praveen Kaushik, Nilesh Kumar R Patel and Jyoti Singhai
52. Enhanced Chain Based Data Collection Sensor Network Technique 394-399
Shilpa Mahajan and Jyoteesh Malhotra
53. Network Selection Using TOPSIS in Vertical Handover Decision Schemes for 400-406
Heterogeneous Wireless Networks
K Savitha and C. Chandrasekar
54. Enhancement of QoS in Mobile Network through Channel Allocation using 407-411
Software Agents
Nitin Muchhal, Swapnil Jain and Yogesh Sharma
55. Effective Ways of Secure Private and Trusted Cloud Computing 412-420
Pardeep Kumar, Vivek Kumar Sehgal, Durg Singh Chauhan, P K Gupta and Manoj
Diwakar
56. An Efficient Paging Algorithm for Multi-Carrier CDMA System 421-426

Sheikh Shanawaz Mostafa, Khondker Jahid Reza, Gazi Maniur Rashid, Muhammad
Moinuddin, Md. Ziaul Amin and Abdullah Al Nahid
57. Coalesce Model to Prevent Format String Attacks 427-432
Jayant Shekhar, Seema Yadav and Khaleel Ahmad
58. Applying Genetic Algorithm for Prioritization of Test Case Scenarios Derived from 433-444
UML Diagrams
Sangeeta Sabharwal, Ritu Sibal and Chayanika Sharma
59. Generalized Bandwidth Adaptive System for Multimedia Transmission in Multi- 445-451
Cell Wireless Networks
O Said and A Tolba
60. Hybrid Web Services Ranking Algorithm 452-460

R Manoharan, A Archana and Siddhika Nitin Cowlagi
61. Improvement of QoS of Land Mobile Satellite Systems Using Diversity Techniques 461-467
Sonika Singh and R C Ramola
62. Survey of propagation Model in wireless Network 468-472

Hemant Kumar Sharma, Sanjeev Sharma and Krishna Kumar Pandey
63. A Recent Survey on Knowledge Discovery in Spatial Data Mining 473-479

M Hemalatha and N Naga Saranya
64. A New Knot Model for Component Based Software Development 480-484
Rajender Singh Chhillar and Parveen Kajla
65. Surface Plasmon Waves on noble metals at Optical Wavelengths 485-490

Niladri Pratap Maity and Reshmi Maity
66. Survey of Latest Wireless Cellular Technologies for Enhancement of Spectral 491-497
Density at Reduced Cost
R K Jain, Sumit Katiyar and N K Agrawal
67. Swarm Intelligence based Soft Computing Techniques for the Solutions to 498-510
Multiobjective Optimization Problems
Hifza Afaq and Sanjay Saini
68. Withdrawn
69. The IT Service Management according to the ITIL framework applied to the 515-522
enterprise value chain
Abdelaali Himi, Samir Bahsani and Alami Semma
70. Issues Challenges and Tools of Clustering Algorithms 523-528

Parul Agarwal, M Afshar Alam and Ranjit Biswas
71. Enhanced of color matching algorithm for image retrieval 529-532

Krishna Kumar Pandey, Nishchol Mishra and Hemant Kumar Sharma
72. A New Design for Array Multiplier with Trade off in Power and Area 533-537
Nirlakalla Ravi, Anchula Satish, Talari Jayachandra Prasad and Thota Subba Rao
73. Data Encryption in the Hostile Environment for Wireless Sensor Network Using 538-542
Virtual Energy and Trigger Time Response Protocol
Krishan Kant Lavania, Saumitra Mani Tiwari and Sahil Batra
74. Fixed Advance Priority based Bandwidth Utilization in TDM EPON 543-552
Muhammad Bilal
75. Performance Comparison of Adaptive Algorithms for Adaptive line Enhancer 553-558
Sanjeev Kumar Dhull, Sandeep K Arya and O P Sahu
76. Contrast of Watermarking Techniques in different domains 559-563

Mansi Hasija and Alka Jindal
77. Attaining High Learning Performers in Social Groups using Web-Based 564-569
Cooperative Learning Environment
L Venkateswara Reddy, Lakshmi Paidimarri, Vendoti Monica Reddy, Rufus
Chakravarthy Sharma, B Sujatha and I Sheeba
78. Minimization of Handoff Latency by Vector Analysis Method 570-576

Debabrata Sarddar, Shubhajeet Chatterjee, Ramesh Jana, Hari Narayan Khan, Shaik
Sahil Babu, Utpal Biswas and Mrinal Kanti Naskar
79. Minimization of Handoff Failure by Introducing a New Cell Coverage Area in the 577-583
Handoff Region
Debabrata Sarddar, Shubhajeet Chatterjee, Ramesh Jana, Shaik Sahil Babu, Prabir
Kr Naskar, Utpal Biswas and Mrinal Kanti Naskar
80. User Experience-UX-and the Web Accessibility Standards 584-587

Osama Sohaib, Walayat Hussain and M Khalid Badini
81. Some Topological Properties of Rough Sets with Tools for Data Mining 588-595
A S Salama
82. A Low-complexity Power and Bit Allocation Algorithm for Multiuser MIMO- 596-601
OFDM Systems
Ayad Habib, Khalid El Baamrani and Abdellah Ait Ouahman
83. Cross-Layer Design For Energy-Efficient In Wireless Underwater 602-609

Communication: Acoustic Frequency IDentification Case Study
Ghada Zaibi, Nejah Nasri, Abdennaceur Kachouri, Laurent Andrieux and Mounir
Samet
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011
www.IJCSI.org 1
HYBRED: An OCR Document Representation for Classification

Tasks
1 2 3 4
Sami Laroum , Nicolas Béchet , Hatem Hamza , and Mathieu Roche
1
Biopolymères Intéractions Assemblages, INRA
BP 71627, 44316 Nantes – France
2
INRIA Rocquencourt, Domaine de Voluceau
BP 105, 78153 Le Chesnay Cedex – France
3
ITESOFT: Parc d'Andron
Le Séquoia 30470 Aimargues – France
4
LIRMM, Université Montpellier 2, CNRS
161 Rue Ada, 34392 Montpellier – France
the same problems by evaluating OCR documents using

Abstract various representations. In our work, we propose an
The classification of digital documents is a complex task in a evaluation of more significant amount of features. The aim
document analysis flow. The amount of documents resulting of this paper is to combine the best features on a single
from the OCR retro-conversion (optical character recognition) representation in order to enhance the classification
makes the classification task harder. In the literature, different results. For this purpose, we first propose a hybrid
features are used to improve the classification quality. In this
approach. Then, we apply basic classification algorithms
paper, we evaluate various features on OCRed and non OCRed
documents. Thanks to this evaluation, we propose the HYBRED (KNN, Naive Bayes, SVM) to evaluate our approach.
(HYBrid REpresentation of Documents) approach which To test the relevance of our approach, we have used
combines different features in a single relevant representation. dataset given by the ITESOFT1 company. The ITESOFT
The experiments conducted on real data show the interest of this dataset results from an OCR retro-conversion of digital
approach. documents. This kind of noisy textual data makes the
Keywords: Text Mining, Information Retrieval, Data Mining, classification tasks much harder than using a clean text.
OCR. ITESOFT uses classes like attestation salaire (salary slip),
facture optique (lenses bill), frais médecin (doctor fee),
etc.
1. Introduction The paper is organized as follows: Section 2 describes
different document representation approaches, our
In this paper we present an approach of text classification
HYBRED approach is described in Section 3. Section 4
for OCRed documents. The OCR (optical character
discusses the experiments and results. Section 5 concludes
recognition) technology allows to transfer digital images
the paper giving a summary and the future work.
into an editable textual document. The task of OCR
documents classification is very difficult because of the
process of transformation (spelling errors, missing letters, 2. Related work
etc.). As a result, the identification and categorization of
documents based on their contents are becoming crucial. Text categorization [16] is the task of automatically
sorting documents into categories from a predefined set.
Text classification attempts to associate a text with a given An important task in text categorization is to prepare and
category based on its content. This paper focuses on
OCRed document classification improvement. [9] adresses 1
http://www.itesoft.fr/
www.IJCSI.org 2
represent text in a way usable by a classifier. Many Document representation: The Salton [1] representation
methods can be used in document representation. In [9] consists in making a vector for each text of the corpus. In
the authors investigate seven text representations to general, the only information used is the presence and/or
evaluate the classification of OCR texts. Among the the frequency of specific words. This representation
different methods of text representation, we present some transforms each text into a vector of n dimensions. The n
of the relevant works in related areas as following (1) features may be the n different words appearing in the
document features and (2) document representation. documents. A segmentation step [2] is necessary for
segmenting the sentences of the text into distinct words in
Document features: Different features can be used order to identify lexical units which constitute the vector.
in order to represent data for classification task: There are also several ways to assign a weight to a feature.
Two main methods can generally be used. The first one is
• N-grams of words: N words sequence [4], for instance: based on a boolean model (i.e. "1" if the word is present
- N=1 (unigrams): "biology", "medical", "fee", "disease", in the text, "0" otherwise) or a frequency model (i.e.
etc. number of occurrences of the word in the text).
- N=2 (bigrams): "medical-biology", "disease-fee", etc.
- N=3 (trigrams): "sick-n-bill", "prescription-acts- After a relevant representation of the documents, we apply
information", etc. classical algorithms which will be described in section 4
• Lemmatization: lemmatization consists in associating

the canonical form of each word (e.g. the verbs by their 3. Our Approach
infinitive form and the nouns by their singular form). [3]
reveals that it is necessary to be careful in the use of the In this section, we present our approach called HYBRED
lemmatization to extract relevant words. Indeed, with the (HYBrid REpresentation of Documents). This approach is
lemmatization we are likely to lose crucial information used to represent data in classification process.
because the contexts of the words in singular and plural
can be associated with distinct concepts. 3.1 Motivation
• N-grams of characters: The N-gram of characters is a In our context, it is important to propose an approach
sequence of N characters from any given sequence ([15], improving the performances of the classification of
[17], [18]). For example: complex data. Various experiments are carried out on
different features: The N-grams of words, the n-grams of
"the nurse feeds infant". characters, and the selection of grammatical categories.
N =3 These features are associated with statistical approches
if , we have: [the, he_, e_n, _nu, nur, urs, rse, se_, (TF, Tf-Idf). This work enabled us to identify and
e_f, _fe, fee, eed, eds, ds_, s_i, _in, inf, nfa, fan, ant]. combine the most relevant features for classification tasks.
• Statistical filtering: We can apply two main methods 3.2 Choice of the features
to assign a statistical weight to each feature: On the one
hand, the "document frequency" approach calculates the The experiments presented in section 4 and the results of
frequency of a word in the document. In an other the state-of-the-art lead us to select three methods:
hand,"TF.IDF method" [8] measures the importance of a • Grammatical filtering.
word based on its frequency in the document weighted by • N-grams of characters.
the frequency of the word in the complete corpus. • Statistical filtering.
• Grammatical filtering: This approach selects the This choice is motivated by the following reasons. The
words according to a Part-of-Speech (POS) tag choice of grammatical filtering is to retain only data
(grammatical label: Noun, verb, adjective, etc.) or respecting a grammatical category (noun, verb, adjective,
combination of Part-of-Speech tags (noun-verb, noun- noun-verb, noun-adjective, etc.). The main objective of
adjective, etc.). To label a word, the “Tree Tagger11” [6] this process is to keep relevant semantic knowledge.
tool can be used. Many studies in the literature [22] show that nouns are
relevant in order to determine the meaning and the topic of
documents.
The representation of data based on the N-grams of
1
http://www.ims.uni- characters is motivated by the data complexity (noisy data
stuttgart.de/projekte/corplex/TreeTagger/ from the OCR retro-conversion). Indeed, the use of N-
www.IJCSI.org 3
grams of characters is adapted to the context of OCRed • A second kind of representation is based on the N-
data [9] that our experiments have also confirmed. The last grams of characters application for each extracted word
selected method is the application of statistical measures in separately. As result, we have:
order to give a weight to select features. By assigning a
weight, we favor the most discriminating features in " _bijo, bijou, ijoux, joux_, _plaq, plaqu, laqué, aqué_,
specific class. _cham, chamr, harme, arme_"
3.3 Order of features This representation corrects the defects caused by the
previous method but provides fewer data (in particular
The selection of methods depends on the order in which with short words). For example, by using the N-grams of
they are used. The application of grammatical filtering can characters with N ≥ 5 , the noun "or" cannot be
only be applied on a "full" word. In other words, it is not identified. This deletion causes a loss of information.
applicable on the words truncated by N-grams of
characters. The established order is: Application of POS • These representations have major defects with the
tagging (selection of words according to their tag), introduction of noise (first method) and silence (second
followed by a representation of N-grams of characters. method). Thus, we have introduced a principle of border.
After the selection of features and their representation in It corrects the noise added during the first proposed
N-gram of characters, we apply a statistical filtering. This treatment. This method takes into account groups of words
one allows to give an adapted weight to the different (e.g. "plaqué or"). The result according to the principle of
features. border is shown below:
3.4 How to combine the approaches?
" X bijoux plaqué or a X charme", "X" represents the
In the previous section, we showed that the different border.
processing techniques must be applied in a certain order.
Now we describe the combination of these approaches. Then we can extract the 5-grams of characters in the two
As a first step, the selection of words with Part-of-Speech fragments of the text (i.e. " bijoux plaqué or a " and "
tag is done. The selection depends on the tags. For charme "):
instance, with the “noun” and “verb” selection, the
sentence “or le bijoux plaqué or a du charme (the gold- " _bijo, bijou, ijoux, joux_, oux_p, ux_pl, x_pla, _plaq,
plated jewellery has charm)”, returns the following results: plaqu, laqué, aqué_, qué_o, ué_or, é_or_, _or_a, or_a_,
“bijoux plaqué or a charme”. We can note that the _cham, chamr, harme, arme_ "
grammatical filtering can distinguish the word “or” (
French conjunction) from the noun “or” (gold). In the next subsection, we introduce our HYBRED
After this initial processing, we represent the words from approach.
the N-grams of characters. The application of N-grams of
characters process gives three possibilities of
3.5 The HYBRED Approach
representation: Here we present the principles that we have chosen for
data representation in our system.
• The first representation is based on a bag of selected
words (grammatical selection). The application of N- Step (a): Selection according to a Part-of-Speech tag.
grams where N = 5 gives the following result: A selection of data according to a Part-of-Speech tag can
keep discriminating data. The experiments carried out in
« _bijo, bijou, ijoux, joux_, oux_p, ux_pl, x_pla, _plaq, section 4.2 show that a selection according to the tags NV
plaqu, laqué, aqué_, qué_o, ué_or, é_or_, _or_a, or_a_, (NounVerb), NA (NounAdjective), or NVA
r_a_c, _a_ch, a_cha, _cham, chamr, harme, arme_ » (NounVerbAdjective) is relevant and provides improved
quality while reducing the size of the vector
This application is flawed because it adds noise and representation.
unnecessary N-grams. For example: “a_cha”' is a N-
grams which represents noise (N-grams from the fragment Step (b): Application of the principle of border.
"a du charme (has charm)" where the word "du" was The LEXTER system [5], proposed by D. Bourigault is a
deleted). Indeed, the elimination of the words of the initial terminology extraction tool which uses the border
sentence returns irrelevant results. technique. This system extracts maximum nominal phrases
by identifying border marker. These boundaries are
www.IJCSI.org 4
linguistically determined (examples of border:

"preposition + possessive adjective", "preposition + Thus, we can calculate the sum of all 3-grams:
determiner", etc.). The candidate terms (maximum N-grams("_requires infinite patience_") + N-
nominal phrases) are extracted by the use of the border grams("_wait_") + N-grams("_happen_").
marker information.
In our study, the words giving less information (i.e. with Finally, digital filtering (pruning according to a threshold
less relevant Part-of-Speech tags) are replaced by a border. and TF.IDF) will be applied. The threshold (manually
The objective is the same as the LEXTER system. The given) is used to reduce the number of features in step (c)
difference of our work is that our borders are the (N-grams representation).
words/tags less relevant to the classification task (adverb, After applying these different stages we obtain a
preposition, etc.). representation for each text of the corpus.
Step (c): Representation w ith the N-grams of

characters. 4. Experiments
After retaining the data belonging to a Part-of-Speech tag
and applying the principle of border, the next step is to In this section, we present the various tests that we carried
represent the characters with the N-grams. It is a merger of out to determine the relevant features. Then we test the
N-grams of different fragments separated by the border. relevance of our HYBRED approach. First, we present the
experimental protocol applied.
Nbr N gramsof characters =i{all fragments} N  grams (fragmenti)
4.1 Experimental protocol
To assess the relevance of the various features, we choose
After the representation of the N-grams of characters, we to use supervised learning algorithms as following: K
realize a filtering step of irrelevant N-grams. Our goal is to Nearest Neighbours (KNN) [14], Naive Bayes ([11], [19]),
remove the uncommon N-grams which may constitute and Support Vector Machines (SVM) algorithm [12].
noise (number of N-grams threshold). These algorithms are often efficient for automatic
classification of documents ([10], [13]).
Step (d): Statistical filtering. Note that we have not implemented these algorithms, but
Finally, following many works in the literature, we apply a we used the Weka1 software [7]. Weka contains a set of
filter based on statistical TF.IDF to assign weights to data-mining algorithms implemented in Java language. It
features. contains tools for data pre-processing, classification,
regression, clustering, and visualization. The parameters
3.6 Example of the application of the HYBRED used with the classification algorithms are the default
appoach Weka ones.
In order to determine which features are most relevant, we
This section develops a complete example of the compare the results with the three algorithms. The results
HYBRED approach. We consider the sentence " It of the classification are based on the accuracy of
requires infinite patience to wait always what never algorithms (correct classification of documents in the
happen". appropriate categories).
(a) The selection of data according to the combination
NVA (Noun Verb Adjective) returns: " requires infinite number of documents correctly classified
Accuracy =
patience wait happen". all documents classified
(b) The application of the principle of border, gives us: " This accuracy measure has been calculated after applying
X requires infinite patience X wait X happen". a 10 fold cross validation.
(c) The N-grams of characters representation, where
N = 3 returns: To assess the usage performance of our various features
for a classification task, we used two OCRed text
word N-grams of characters collections:
[ _requires [_re, req, equ, qui, uir, ire, res, Dataset A is corpus obtained after applying an OCR
infinite es_,s_i, _in, inf, nfi, fin, ini, nit, ite, system, it consists of 250 documents divided into 18
patience_] te_, e_p, _pa, pat, ati, tie, ien, enc, categories. This one is given by ITESOFT Company. The
nce, ce_] texts contain only few sentences that are well formulated
[_wait_] [_wa, wai, ait, it_] in natural language. Note that some classes contain more
[_happen_] [_ha, hap, app, ppe, pen, en_]
www.IJCSI.org 5
documents than others (unbalanced distribution between characters gives good results with the both datasets. In
classes). The second collection (dataset B) is taken from general, we note that the results are significantly poor
the same company (ITESOFT): 2021 OCRed texts divided when N = 2. The application of the selection according to
into 24 categories. The main characteristic of the dataset B a Part-of-Speech tag may, in some cases, prove the ability
is the diversity of documents and their lack of content. of our method to select only the discriminating data (with
These collections represent newsletters, certificates, a significant reduction of the representation space, as we
expenses, invoices, etc. will show in subsection 4.3). Our results show that a
combination as NV (Noun Verb), NVA (Noun Verbe
Table 1: Summary of main characteristics of the used datasets. Adjective), and NA (Noun Adjective) is the most relevant
Dataset A Dataset B among the possible combinations.
Number of 250 2000
texts The results with the dataset A (presented in annex) are
Number of 18 24 usually better than the corpus B. We can explain the
categories results by the complexity of the corpus B (corpus with
Size (MB) 52 29.7 noise and with fewer words per document).
Type of texts OCR OCR
documents documents KNN Algorithm (TF.IDF)
Features N V NV NVA NA VA
4.2 Experimental Results 2-char. 74.8 85.5 74.6 72.7 74.6 77.3
3-char. 85.0 85.5 95.8 87.0 86.3 86.6
We present the experiments under different features and 4-char. 85.0 86.5 96.7 92.6 92.1 90.2
HYBRED approach. We give results on the dataset B. For
5-char. 91.8 88.4 93.0 93.4 92.4 90.0
dataset A, the experiments are given in annex.
Actually, corpus B is the most representative according to SVM Algorithm (TF.IDF)
size and difficulty of processing (heterogeneous and noisy Features N V NV NVA NA VA
data). In addition, the documents of dataset B has fewer 2-char. 89.5 89.9 87.4 86.4 89.0 88.1
words: 130 words per document for the dataset B and 295 3-char. 96.4 94.2 96.6 96.9 96.8 96.3
words per document for the dataset A. 4-char. 96.5 93.8 98.0 96.8 96.7 95.8
The table 2 presents the results obtained with the various 5-char. 96.4 93.2 96.8 96.8 96.7 95.2
features according to a 10 fold cross-validation. NB Algorithm (TF.IDF)
Features N V NV NVA NA VA
Table 2: Results of dataset B with various features (accuracy).
Algo KNN SVM NB 2-char. 61.4 92.6 60.7 59.4 73.5 63.6
Measure Freq. TF.IDF Freq. TF.IDF Freq. TF.IDF 3-char. 61.4 88.3 60.7 92.2 73.5 91.4
word 91.1 91.1 95.8 95.8 94.1 93.8 4-char. 92.6 88.3 96.9 92.2 92.7 91.9
2-words 92.2 90.9 93.7 93.7 91.9 92.2 5-char. 92.6 86.9 93.1 92.1 92.4 91.5
3-words 90.5 90.5 90.1 89.9 82.8 86.1
2-char. 73.7 72.6 89.6 88.2 74.3 58.5 The table 3 presents the results obtained by applying the
3-char. 85.7 86.0 96.5 96.8 93.4 91.9 HYBRED approach on the dataset B.
4-char. 95.0 96.1 96.0 96.3 93.1 90.7
5-char. 91.4 92.5 96.2 95.6 92.0 90.8
Lemme 92.3 93.8 95.4 95.5 93.7 94.4 Table 3: Accuracy obtained with the HYBRED approach for the corpus
N 91.1 93.0 95.6 95.1 93.6 94.6 B.
V 88.2 87.5 88.4 87.8 85.2 84.9
NV 92.4 92.7 95.5 95.5 94.1 94.3
The results of the dataset A are given in annex. In all
NVA 93.3 92.6 95.6 95.8 94.1 94.5
cases, we obtain the best quality with the SVM algorithm
NA 92.8 92.4 95.6 95.4 93.9 94.8 compared to the K-NN and Naive Bayes approaches. We
VA 92.0 91.4 93.7 93.7 91.7 91.4 note that the selection NV (Noun Verb) associated with
the 4-grams gives very satisfying results on the dataset B.
We observe that the best results are obtained with the We noted generally the same behavior on the dataset A.
SVM algorithm compared to the K-NN and Naive Bayes
approaches. The representation with the N-grams of
www.IJCSI.org 6
4.3 Summary NV (Noun Verb) combination followed by a 4-grams of

characters representation.
As presented in the experiments, it is very difficult to
determine the best methods (a lot of results seem very
close). However, we find that some methods behave 5. Conclusions
differently.
Compared to the usage of each method separately, we In this paper, we proposed a new document representation
observe that HYBRED method based on the combination approach for textual documents classification. The
of features tends to improve the quality of classification. experiments carried out on OCRed data produced good
We can see this improvement on both datasets, including classification results. One perspective of this work is
the dataset B which is the most complex to classify. The based on the application of semantic knowledge (for
table 4 presents a comparison between the proposed instance, the use of specialized dictionaries to enrich the
approach with a combination of NV (NounVerb) selected feature) which might improve classification
combined with a 4-grams of characters representation and quality. However, such dictionaries are not available for
the various features. all domains. The second perspective is related to the
classification techniques. We are currently experimenting
Table 4: Comparison of different features used for the HYBRED other algorithms to study the different results according to
approach. features and algorithms. We also wish to apply the
Dataset A Dataset B approach an other types of noisy data in order to reinforce
Algorithm KNN SVM NB KNN SVM NB
the relevance of our approach in other contexts. We can
word 96.5 97.5 96.7 91.1 95.8 93.8 finally apply our approach for the classification of opinion
3-character 94.7 97.9 93.5 86.0 96.8 91.9
data (with feature selections as adjective and/or adverb
4-character 97.5 98.3 94.3 96.1 96.3 90.7
often relevant for opinion documents). Indeed, such
5-character 96.7 98.3 95.1 92.5 95.6 90.8
NV 95.9 98.0 96.7 92.7 95.5 94.3
opinion data as Blogs has a lot of noise. Then, our
NVA 95.5 98.0 96.7 92.6 95.8 94.5 approach can be adapted for this type of task (e.g. Blog
NA 95.1 98.0 96.7 92.4 95.4 94.8 classification).
HYBRED 96.8 98.4 93.6 96.7 98.0 96.9
In general, improvements have been obtained by applying References

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www.IJCSI.org 8
Sami Laroum is a Ph.D. student at the University of Angers,

France. He obtained a master degree on 2008 at Montpellier 2
Appendix University. His current research interests focuses on the solution of
combinatorial problems and on the design of effective heuristics
methods for practical applications at LERIA (Computer Science
Research Laboratory of Angers) / Metaheuristics, Optimization and
Table 6: Results obtained with corpus A with various features application (MOA) research group.
(accuracy).
KNN Algorithm Nicolas Béchet obtained his Ph,.D. degree in 2009 and master
degree in 2006. He worked in LI laboratory in Tours-France (2005-
Feature N V NV NVA NA VA 2006), next in French Montpellier University 1 and 2 (2006-2010).
2-character 75.6 78.4 72.8 71.2 71.2 77.6 He is currently in INRIA Rocquencourt in France.
His research focuses on Information Retrieval and textual
3-character 92.0 92.0 94.0 95.2 94.0 90.4
classification fields. Currently, he studies corpora which have not
4-character 94.8 86.0 96.8 98.0 96.8 90.8 enough knowledge to perform relevant classification. The work
5-character 94.4 85.2 95.2 96.4 94.0 90.4 deals with corpora expansion, combining NLP (e.g. POS Tags
and/or Syntax), and statistical approaches (e.g. Latent Semantic
SVM Algorithm Analysis) in order to resolve the lack of knowledge in corpora.
Feature N V NV NVA NA VA Currently, Nicolas Béchet focuses on recommendation system
fields applied on e-tourism issue.
2-character 90.0 81.6 88.8 84.4 86.4 87.2
3-character 97.6 91.2 98.0 97.6 98.4 96.4 Hatem Hamza obtained his Phd in 2007 from the University of
Nancy and his Engineering diploma in 2004 from the Ecole
4-character 97.6 95.2 98.4 98.4 98.0 98.0
Supérieure de Chimie Physique Electronique de Lyon in 2004.
5-character 96.8 94.0 98.0 98.4 98.0 96.4 Since 2007, he has been working for ITESOFT. His main research
NB Algorithm interests are document analysis, artificial intelligence and image
processing. He is focused now on implementing document
Feature N V NV NVA NA VA classification and information extraction systems in ITESOFT’s
2-character 77.6 76.4 78.4 76.8 76.8 77.6 software.
3-character 93.6 88.8 90.4 92.0 91.6 91.6 Mathieu Roche is Assistant Professor at the University Montpellier
4-character 94.8 91.2 93.6 94.8 96.0 92.4 2, France. Currently he is responsible of the Master IC (Intégration
de Compétences). Mathieu Roche received a Ph. D. in Computer
5-character 92.8 90.8 92.0 94.0 96.4 91.6
Science at the University Paris XI (Orsay - France) in 2004. With J.
Azé, he created in 2005 the DEFT challenge ("DEfi Francophone
Table 7: Accuracy obtained with the approach HYBRED for corpus A. de Fouille de Textes" meaning "Text Mining Challenge") which is a
Algo KNN SVM NB francophone equivalent of the TREC Conference. His main
research interests at LIRMM (Montpellier Laboratory of
Measure Freq. TF.IDF Freq. TF.IDF Freq. TF.IDF Informatics, Robotics, and Microelectronics) are Natural Language
Word 95.7 96.5 97.9 97.5 96.7 96.7 Processing, Text Mining, Information Retrieval, and Terminology.
He is co-editor with V. Prince of the book "Information Retrieval in
2-words 88.7 85.5 90.3 86.7 91.9 89.5 Biomedicine: Natural Language Processing for Knowledge
3-words 77.1 76.3 74.2 74.6 77.1 73.0 Integration" (Medical Information Science Reference, IGI Gobal,
2009) and with P. Poncelet of the journal "Fouille de Données
2-char. 94.3 77.9 95.9 85.9 87.9 77.9 d'Opinions" (Revue des Nouvelles Technologies de l'Information,
3-char. 96.3 94.7 97.9 97.9 96.3 93.5 E-17, 2009).
4-char. 94.3 97.5 97.9 98.3 96.3 94.3
5-char. 95.5 96.7 97.5 98.3 96.7 95.1
Lem. 95.3 95.1 95.8 96.7 95.1 95.9
N 95.9 95.9 97.1 97.1 96.7 97.1
V 84.7 83.5 86.3 83.9 92.7 84.3
NV 96.3 95.9 97.1 98.0 96.7 96.7
NVA 95.9 95.9 97.5 98.0 97.1 96.7
NA 95.5 95.1 97.5 98.0 97.1 96.7
VA 93.1 92 95.5 95.0 95.1 91.0
www.IJCSI.org 9
Fundamentals for the Automation of
Object-Relational Database Design

María Fernanda Golobisky1 and Aldo Vecchietti1
1
INGAR – UTN, Facultad Regional Santa Fe
Santa Fe, S3002GJC, Argentina.
Abstract Designer4 [8], DatabaseSpy [3], among others, which

In the market there is a wide amount of CASE tools for the offer the possibility of drawing a conceptual model as an
design of relational databases. Object-relational database entity-relationship diagram and automatically
management system (ORDBMS) emerged at the end of the transforming it into the logical schema.
90’s to incorporate the object technology into the relational
databases, allowing the treatment of more complex data and
relationships than its predecessor. The design for this database
Object-relational database management system
model is not straightforward. Most of the works proposed in (ORDBMS) and its standards [18][19][12][13] emerged
the literature fail because they do not provide consistent at the end of the 90’s to incorporate the object
transformation formalization such that the mappings from the technology into the relational databases, allowing the
conceptual model to the logical schema can be automated to treatment of more complex data and relationships than
generate an ORDB design toolkit. This is one of the goals of its predecessor. Till the moment, to the knowledge of
this paper. For this purpose, UML class diagram metamodel these authors, there is not a CASE tool that performs the
for the conceptual design and SQL:2003 standard metamodel same task for an ORDBMS. The lack of software design
for logical schemas are considered. A characterization of the tools in this particular database model is because it does
components involved in the ORDB design is made in order to
propose mapping rules that can be further automated. The
not exists a design method widely accepted in the IT
architecture of a CASE tool prototype is presented. Model community feasible to be automated in a CASE tool.
Driven Architecture for software design and XML for the Several works related to this matter can be found in the
model definitions and transformations are employed. literature. Liu, Orlowska, and Li [15] have presented a
Keywords: ORDBMS, SQL:2003, UML, database design, proposal to implement object-relational databases using
MDA, XML. distributed database system architecture. Although the
SQL:1999 standard was not complete at this time, their
work was valuable in the sense they did some definitions
1. Introduction to formalize the object-relational database (ORDB)
design. Even though, Mok and Paper [20] showed the
Databases are a crucial component of information transformation of UML class diagrams into normalized
systems playing a strategic role in the support of the nested tables and an algorithm to achieve this goal, they
organization decisions; its design is essential to obtain did not contribute to any formal procedure for the
an efficient and effective information system realization of more general mappings. Marcos, Vela,
management. Database design process consists in Cavero, and Caceres [17] have listed some guidelines
defining the conceptual, logical and physical structure of about the transformation of UML class diagrams into
the schema. The logical design of a database is obtained objects of the SQL:1999 standard, and then in the Oracle
by transforming the conceptual one. For large projects 8i ORDBMS. The authors provided a short explanation
conceptual database models are complex making its on these topics but they did not make a deep analysis.
transformation a non-trivial task. In order to perform this The same authors [16], in 2003, presented a design
work, it is important to count with a CASE tool based on methodology for ORDB in which defined stereotypes for
a specific design methodology such that the designer can them and suggested some guidelines to transform a
concentrate his work making decisions among different UML conceptual model into an object-relational schema.
mapping possibilities the CASE tool has. The guidelines were based on the SQL:1999 standard
Nowadays, the relational databases are the most widely and Oracle 8i was employed as an example of
used. In this model, the conversion from the conceptual commercial product, though they did not propose a way
to the logical representation is directly made following to automate the transformation. Arango, Gómez, and
perfectly defined steps [7]. Because of this, in the market Zapata [4] performed the mapping of a class diagram
there is a wide amount of CASE tools for relational into Oracle 9i and showed some mapping rules written
databases, such as ToadTM Data Modeler [26], DB in set theory. The authors used an Oracle 9i metamodel
www.IJCSI.org 10
instead of one based on SQL:2003 standard. Grissa-

Touzi and Sassi [11] have proposed a tool to help in the
design and implementation of an ORDB called Navig-
tools from which the user can generate the modeling
code in SQL3 language. The tool was based on the
entity-relationship modeling. Most of the works
presented in the literature fail because they do not
provide consistent transformation formalization such
that these mappings can be automated by a design
process which can then be employed to generate a
toolkit for ORDBMS design.
In this paper, a characterization of the components

involved in the design of an ORDBMS is made, and
mapping rules between them have been proposed. The
idea behind this strategy is to generate a design process
which can be further automated into a CASE tool. UML
Fig. 1. Mapping layers involved in the ORDB design
class diagram metamodel for the conceptual design and
SQL:2003 standard metamodel for logical schemas are
considered in this work. The architecture of a CASE tool The mapping layers are characterized as follows:
prototype is presented which applies these metamodels UML Class Diagram Layer: includes the conceptual
and mapping functions. MDA (Model Driven model corresponding to the system requirements. It is
Architecture) for software design and XML (Extensible composed of classes, associations, properties,
Markup Language) for the definition and transformation association ends, etc. Different types of associations
models that MDA requires are used. between classes can be established: aggregation,
composition, association itself, hierarchy, association
class.
2. Object-Relational Design Object-Relational Layer: is composed by the elements
proposed by SQL:2003 standard: user-defined types,
In the database design process different data models are structured types, references, row types and collections:
used for the conceptual, logical and physical arrays and multisets. The definitions made on this tier do
representation. At the conceptual design level a database not allow the persistence of any object or “data” until
independent model is generated identifying tables to store them are created.
classes/entities, attributes and relationships which Object-Relational Persistent Layer: is composed by
determine the semantic of data involved in the problem tables and typed tables of the objects defined in the
domain under study. In this work UML class diagrams previous layer. Some other “relational” elements such
are selected for this purpose. For the logical design, the as constraints, domains, etc., are also components of this
element definitions composing the database schema layer.
must be made, in this sense, the SQL:2003 standard
specifications are chosen for this work. Since the scope In Fig. 1 the mapping from a class diagram to a
of this article does not include the physical relational database was included in order to show the
representation of a database, no model is selected for it. difference between the relational and the object-
As a first step in the characterization, three mapping relational design. Due to SQL:2003 is a superset of the
layers are identified (Fig. 1) in the process of previous SQL standards it has the ability to support pure
transforming UML class diagrams to ORDB schema, relational transformations (1) or object-relational
where two mapping steps are involved [9]. transformations (2 and 3). From Fig. 1 can be observed
that transformation from UML class diagrams to
relational designs (tables) involves just one mapping
step, while the mapping from UML class diagrams to
object-relational schemas (typed tables) involves two
step because of the intermediate layer.
2.1 Metamodels involved in the design
UML Class Diagram Metamodel

A metamodel is involved for each mapping layer to get a
better comprehension of a data model because it
describes the structure, relationships and semantic of the
data. The one used on the first tier is depicted in Fig. 2.
It is a proposal of the class diagram metamodel of UML
www.IJCSI.org 11
Fig. 2. First layer: UML class diagram metamodel
2.0, based on Object Management Group [23][24]. A explained later.

simplified version with the parts of the metamodel that
are of interest for this work is used. Finally, an AssociationClass is a statement of a semantic
relationship between classifiers, with a set of
Class groups a set of objects with the same characteristics that are owned by the relationship and not
specifications of characteristics, restrictions and to the classifiers. The association class can be seen as an
semantic. It has attributes represented by instances of association that has class properties, or as a class that has
Property that are owned by the class, and moreover, it association properties.
has Operations. Properties are Structural Features
which inherits from MultiplicityElement the capacity of SQL:2003 Data Type Metamodel
defining inferior and superior multiplicity bounds Metamodels corresponding to the second and third layer
indicating the cardinalities allowed for classes and were proposed by Baroni, Calero, Ruiz, and Abreu in
associations. When a property is instantiated, the values [5]. The authors produced a SQL:2003 ontology based
of their attributes are related to the instance of a class on the standard information and they separated their
and/or with the instance of an association type. approach in two parts, one contains the aspects related to
the data types (Fig. 3) and the other has information
An Association specifies a semantic relationship that can about the SQL:2003 schema objects: columns, domains,
occur between typed instances (in general Class tables, constraints and other “relational” components
instances) and it has at least two ends called association corresponding to the persistent third layer (Fig. 4). These
ends that indicate the participation of the class in the metamodels have been chosen because they are a state of
association. The association ends can be navigables the art representation containing all the elements needed
(Navigable_end) or not navigables for this work. Moreover, the data type metamodel is
(Non_navigable_end). associated to the non-persistent second layer and the
schema metamodel is related to the persistent third layer
When a property represents an association end of the work presented in this paper.
connecting two classes its values are related with the
instances of the other end. Association ends have a name In Fig. 3, it can be seen that there are three different
(rolename) that identifies the function of the class in the kinds of Data Types: Predefined, User Defined Types
association; when implemented it allows the navigation and Constructed Types.
between objects. According to Rumbaugh, Jacobson,
and Booch in [22] the rolename on the far side of the Predefined or simple data types are those such as
association is like a pseudoattribute of a class and have integer, number, character, boolean or large objects
no independency apart from its association; it can be (LOBs). User Defined Types can be Structured Types
used as a term in an access expression to traverse the composed by Attributes; or Distinct Types which are
association. This concept is essential to represent defined over a predefined data type. Constructed types
associations and make its mappings, as it will be
www.IJCSI.org 12
Fig. 3. Second layer: Data types of the SQL:2003 metamodel
can be Reference Types that addresses the structured

types; or Composite Types that are Collection Types
which can be Arrays or Multisets composed by 3. Element Characterization
Elements. Row Types are another composite type which
are in turn composed of Fields. 3.1 UML Class Diagram Layer
SQL:2003 Schema Metamodel Fig. 5 shows UML class diagram representing the
Fig. 4 shows that there are three different kinds of administration of purchase orders from a company. This
schema objects: Constraints, Domains and Tables. Table model contains all the concepts needed to work out on
Constraints includes the definition of primary this paper.
(PrimaryKey), unique (UniqueKey) and foreign keys
(ReferentialConstraint). Tables can be Derived Tables In this example, the business has stores in different
which are those generated through the execution of SQL locations having stock of the products it commercializes.
commands (Views generation) or Base Tables simply Business customers can be persons or companies, and
known as “tables”. The latter can be specialized in can be grouped into associations in order to get
Typed Tables when they are generated from a Structured advantage of promotions. Every customer issues
Type of the previous layer. Tables are composed by purchase orders about products they need.
Columns that can be defined over a Domain and can Although the model is very simple, it contains different
have some of the referential constraints before defined. types of multiplicities and relationships needed to
achieve the goals of this work.
SQL:2003 introduced new datatypes to the relational While UML class diagrams have several elements for
model, enriching it. That is why the transition from the modeling, the most commonly used in database schema
conceptual to the logical model can not be made designs are: Classes (C), Attributes (A), Operations (O)
directly, such as in the relational case, in which an and Relationships (R) among classes: aggregation (Agg),
entity-relationship diagram or a class diagram becomes composition (Cm), binary association (BAS), association
base tables. class (AC) and generalization-specialization (GS).
www.IJCSI.org 13
Fig. 4. Third layer: SQL schema of the SQL:2003 metamodel
The formalization of these elements in order to its where isAbstract is a qualifier to indicate whether the
subsequent transformation into object-relational schemas class can be instantiated or not. Superclass corresponds
is specified below. to the name from which the class inherits properties and
operations. Operations specify a set of methods the class
Fig. 5. Class diagram for a purchase order application
Class can execute. Properties represent a set of class attributes

According to the UML metamodel, a class can be and association ends. Attributes can be simple or
characterized by the following expression: multivalued. The difference between them is given by
the multiplicity. A simple attribute has multiplicity of 1,
C = (name, isAbstract, properties, operations, while a multivalued can go from 1 to n.
(1)
superclass)
Taking this into account, an attribute can be formally
www.IJCSI.org 14
defined as: PA = (name, isComposite, multiplicity,

(4)
navigable = ‘Yes’, endType)
A = (name, attributeType, multiplicity) (2)
where name is the rolename assigned to the association
where name is the name assigned to the attribute; end of the opposite side. The rest of the PA attributes are
attributeType is a predefined datatype as: integer, real, equal to the AEs.
character, boolean, etc.; and multiplicity is the set of
possible values an attribute can take. Taking the expressions 1, 2, 3 and 4 into account, the
formal definition of a class is given by:
As was mentioned before, classes are linked to the
association ends in two different forms. By one side, C = (name, isAbstract, A, AEs, PA, O,
(5)
they define the class participation into the association, superclass)
and by the other, they correspond to a pseudoattribute of
the class. [22] states the association ends have several where name is the name assigned to the class; isAbstract
attributes, including a name and navigability. The indicates whether the class can be instantiated or not; A
“navigability” indicates whether the association end can is the finite set of attributes; AEs is the finite set of the
be used to cross the association from one object to an navigable association ends; PA is the finite set of the
object of the class on the other end. If the association pseudoattributes; O is the finite set of operations; and
ends is navigable, the association defines a superclass is an attribute to indicate the name of the
pseudoattribute of the class that is in the opposite end of superclass when the class participates of a
the association end (rolename) – i.e., the rolename can generalization-specialization relationship.
be similarly used to an attribute of the class to get Using the Expression 5, the Purchaseorder class of Fig.
values. Therefore, an association end in a class can have 5 is defined as:
two different forms: as association end itself or as
pseudoattribute (Fig. 6). These concepts are essential to C = (name = ‘Purchaseorder’, isAbstract = ‘No’, A =
map relationships between classes. (name = ‘order_number’, attributeType = ‘integer’,
multiplicity = 1..1), A = (name = ‘shipping_date’,
attributeType = ‘date’, multiplicity = 1..1), A = (name
= ‘city’, attributeType = ‘string’, multiplicity = 1..1), A
= (name = ‘street’, attributeType =‘string’, multiplicity
= 1..1), A = (name = ‘zip_code’, attributeType =
‘string’, multiplicity = 1..1), AEs = (name =
‘orders_mult’, multiplicity = 0..*, isComposite = ‘No’,
navigable = ‘Yes', endType = ‘none’), PA = (name =
‘customer_ref’, multiplicity = 1..1, isComposite = ‘No’,
navigable = ‘Yes’, endType = ‘none’), PA = (name =
Fig. 6. Pseudoattributes and association ends ‘items_arr’, multiplicity = 1..20, isComposite = ‘Yes’,
navigable = ‘Yes’, endType = ‘none’), superclass = ‘’)
Association ends are formally defined as:
Aggregation Relationship (3)
AEs = (name, isComposite, multiplicity, navigable, An Aggregation Relationship is a binary association that
(3)
endType) specifies a whole-part type relationship, and it can be
defined by the following expression:
where name is the name assigned to the association end
and is equal to the rolename; isComposite is a Boolean Agg = (name, AEs) (6)
property that when true states that the association end is
part of a composition relationship [24]; multiplicity is where name is the name assigned to the aggregation;
the set of possible values (0 to n) the association end can AEs are the association ends, navigables or not, that link
take; navigable is a property indicating whether is the whole with the part. These association ends are
navigable or not; and endType is a property which can defined like the Expression 3.
take 3 different values:
i). Aggregate: the end is the “whole” of an aggregation In the aggregation a part may belong to more than a
relationship whole, and can exists independently of this. This feature
ii). Composite: the end is the “whole” of a composition is very important to distinguish the aggregation to the
relationship composition, which is a stronger whole-part relationship.
iii). None: the end is not an aggregate or composite Another aggregation feature is that it has no cycles, i.e.
an object can not directly or indirectly be part of itself
In a similar way, when the association ends are class [22].
pseudoattributes are defined as follows:
www.IJCSI.org 15
Following the Expression 6, the aggregation relationship Association Class Relationship

between Customer and CustomerAssociation can be An Association Class has both association and class
defined as: properties. Its instances have attributes values and also
references to the class objects linked by the association.
Agg = (name = ‘Customer_Custassoc’, AEs = (name = It is not possible to link an association class to more than
‘custassoc_ref’, multiplicity = 1..1, isComposite = ‘No’, one association, because it contains a set of specific
navigable = ‘Yes’, endType = ‘aggregate’), AEs = properties of the association to which it belongs [6]. As a
(name = ‘customers_arr’, multiplicity = 2..15, consequence, the association class never participates of
isComposite = ‘No’, navigable = ‘Yes’, endType = generalization-specialization relationships and can not
‘none’)) be an abstract class. The introduced concepts related
with the association class are depicted in Fig. 7.
Composition Relationship
A Composition Relationship is an association that
specifies a whole-part type relationship, but this
relationship is stronger than the aggregation due to the
part life depends on the whole existence. The part must
belong to a unique whole [22]. Furthermore, in a
composition relationship the data flow generally in only
one direction, from the whole to the part.
Taking this into account, a composition relationship is
formally expressed as:
Fig. 7. Association class
Cm = (name, AEs) (7)
[22] states that an association class can be seen as a class
where name is the name assigned to the composition; with extra references to the classes participating in the
AEs are the navigable association ends, corresponding to association to which it belongs. According to [23] the
the part. These association ends are defined like the multiplicity of the extra references is 1. Those references
Expression 3. In respect of the multiplicity, the one of to the objects of the other classes become the association
the whole will always be of 1, while the one of the part class pseudoattributes. Due to association class has no
can take any value from 0 to n. key it can not be accessed directly but through the other
classes participating in the association. These classes
In accordance with the formalized in the Expression 7, relate to each other by means of the association class.
the composition relationship definition is: Due to these characteristics, it is necessary to rectify its
representation in order to automate the mapping. Fig. 8
Cm = (name = ‘Purchaseorder_Orderlineitem’, AEs = shows the rectification, where stock_arr and stock_mult
(name = ‘items_arr’, multiplicity = 1..20, isComposite = are now association ends of Stock and new association
‘Yes’, navigable = ‘Yes’, endType = ‘none’)) ends (product_ref and store_ref) are added to Product
and Store to specify the extra references. With this
Binary Association Relationship representation the association class can be treated as a
class having the particularities mentioned before.
Associations are links between two or more entities. A
Binary Association is a special one having exactly two
association ends. It is particularly useful in order to
specify navigability path among objects [22].
A binary association can be formally defined as follows:
BAs = (name, AEs) (8)

Fig. 8. Association class treatment
where name is the name assigned to the association; AEs

In the rectified form, Product, Stock and Store have a
are the association ends, navigables or not, linking
complete set of association ends and pseudoattributes,
classes which particpates in the association. The
which facilitate the mapping.
association ends are defined like the Expression 3.
Therefore, an association class is defined as follows:
The definition of the Purchaseorder_Customer
association is written as follows:
AC = (name, isAbstract = ‘No’, A, AEs, PA, O,
(9)
superclass = ‘’)
BAs = (name = ‘Purchaseorder_Customer’, AEs =
(name = ‘customer_ref’, multiplicity = 1..1, isComposite
where name is the name assigned to the association
= ‘No’, navigable = ‘Yes’, endType = ‘none’), AEs =
class; A is the finite set of simples and multivalued
(name = ‘orders_mult’, multiplicity = 0..*, isComposite
attributes, corresponding to the relationship itself; O is
= ‘No’, navigable = ‘Yes’, endType = ‘none’))
the finite set of operations for the association class; AEs
www.IJCSI.org 16
are the navigable association ends that link the type such as integer, real, character, LOB, etc.
association class with the classes participating in the
association to which it belongs; and PA is the finite set Reference Type
of the pseudoattributes of the association class. A Reference Type is a datatype that contains a value that
According to Fig. 8 the association class is defined using reference an object corresponding to a structured type.
the expressions 3, 4 and 9, as follows: This datatype is defined as:
AC = (name = ‘Stock’, isAbstract =‘No’ A = (name = Ref = Ref(ST) (12)

‘quantity’, attributeType = ‘integer’, multiplicity = 1..1),
A = (name = ‘date’, attributeType = ‘date’, multiplicity where ST indicates the referenced structured type.
= 1..1), AEs = (name = ‘stock_arr’, multiplicity = 1..15,
isComposite = ‘No’, navigable = ‘Yes’, endType = Collection Type
‘none’), AEs = (name = ‘stock_mult’, multiplicity = Array
0..*, isComposite = ‘No’, navigable = ‘Yes’, endType =
‘none’), PA = (name = ‘product_ ref’', multiplicity = An Array is an ordered collection of elements of any
1..1, navigable = ‘Yes’), PA = (name = ‘store_ref’, admissible type, except another array, and it has a
multiplicity = 1..1, navigable = ‘Yes’), superclass = ‘’) maximum length. An array is defined as follows:
Generalization-Specialization Relationship Arr = (eType, MQ) (13)

A Generalization-Specialization Relationship is a where eType is the type of element of the array and it
taxonomic relationship between a more general element can be a row type, a reference type, an structured type or
(called the superclass) and a more specific one (called a predefined type; and MQ is the maximum number of
the subclass). Subclasses inherit the properties from elements of the array.
superclasses, but also have additional properties that are
peculiar to it [22]. Multiset
In order to specify a relationship of this type when the
class is defined it must be specified the superclass from A Multiset is an unordered collection of elements of any
which it inherits (Expression 1). admissible type. It has no a maximum length specified.
A multiset is defined as:
3.2 The Object-Relational Layer
Mult = (eType) (14)
For the characterization of the SQL:2003 metamodel
components the elements closely related to the mappings where eType is the type of element the collection can
needed for this work are considered. These elements are: have and it can be a row type, a reference type, an
 Distinct type structured type or a predefined type.
 Row type
 Reference type Structured Type
 Collection types: Arrays and Multiset The essential component of SQL:2003 that supports the
 Structured types object orientation is the Structured Type. The
The definitions made over this layer do not allow the “structured” word distinguishes it from the distinct type
persistence of any object until table creation. that is also a user defined type, which is based on the
predefined types and does not have an associated
Distinct Type structure.
A Distinct Type is the simplest kind of user-defined
Structured types have attributes of different types,
type. It is defined over a predefined data type.
behavior, and can be inherited by other structured types,
between other characteristics.
DT = (name, type) (10)
Note that SQL:2003 structured type is the equivalent
concept of a UML class.
where name is the name assigned to the distinct type;
The structured type can be defined as:
and type is a predefined data type such as integer, real,
character, LOB, etc., over which is defined.
ST = (name, A, M, P) (15)
Row Type
where name is the name assigned to the structured type;
A Row Type is defined as a set of pairs: A is a finite set of attributes; M is a finite set of methods;
and P is a finite set of properties.
RT = (Fi : DTi) (11)
An attribute of a structured type (Expression 15) can be
where Fi = F1, F2;…, Fn is the name of a field in the row simple or a collection. If it is simple, it can be defined as
type; and DTi = DT1, DT2,…, DTn is a predefined data follows:
www.IJCSI.org 17
A = (name, type) (16) mappings needed to obtain an object-relational database

schemas complying with SQL:2003 specifications.
where name is the name assigned to the attribute; and These are formalized such that they can be performed
type can be any of the standard defined types: without ambiguity and in an automatic way. For the
predefined, structured, distinct, row and/or reference sake of clarity, this section is split in 2 parts:
types.  Mappings from the UML Class Diagram to Object-
If it is a collection type, it is defined like in the Relational layer
expressions 13 and 14.  Mappings from the Object-Relational to Object-
With respect to the properties of the Expression 15, they Relational Persistent layer
are formally defined as:
Transformations between the layers are formalized by
P = (inheritFrom, isInstantiable, isFinal) (17) means of mapping functions of the f:AB form. A
Mapping function f from A to B is a binary relationship
where inheritFrom is a property that indicates the name between A and B. It can be seen as a transformation of
of the structured type corresponding to the supertype the elements of A into elements of B. Therefore, every
from which it inherits; isInstantiable specifies whether element of A becomes exactly one element in B.
the type can have instances or not; and isFinal indicates
whether the type can have subtypes or not. 4.1 Mappings from the UML Class Diagram to
Object-Relational Layer
3.3 The Object-Relational Persistent Layer
UML class formal definition contains all the elements
The object-relational persistent layer is not a physical required to be transformed into the middle layer (object-
layer but is a logical representation of how data are relational layer). Having this concept in mind, mappings
represented. It takes the form of a table in the object- to transform components from UML class diagrams into
relational technology as well as in the relational system. object-relational layer are centered in the following
Unlike the latter, in the object-relational databases the elements:
columns are not restricted to predefined data types.  Attributes
As was mentioned above, only the typed tables of the  Pseudoattributes
SQL:2003 metamodel are taken into account since they  Operations
are employed to store objects of a specific structured
 Generalization-Specialization Relationships
type.
 Classes
Typed Tables  Association Class
A Typed Table can be defined as: Attribute Transformation
TT = (name, ST, R) (18) Class attributes are transformed into structured type
attributes by means of the following mapping function:
where name is the name assigned to the table; ST is the
structured type from which is created the table; and R is f:AC(name, attributeType, multiplicity) 
(19)
the finite set of restriction definitions such as primary, AST(name, type)
unique and/or foreign key, not null and/or check type
restrictions. For the sake of clarity in the previous mapping function,
class attributes and the structured type attributes are
Typed tables provide persistence and identity to objects indicated with the subscript “C” and “ST”, respectively.
created from a structured type. Moreover, they When the attribute multiplicity is 1, the attributeType of
automatically map structured type attributes into typed the class will match with the type of the structured type.
table columns. SQL:2003 standard uses the collection types to represent
The primary and unique key definitions must be attributes with multiplicity greater than 1, which may
considered at this point because they optionally have an upper and lower limit indicating the
define the access paths to the objects; the query number of possible values. However, collection types
optimizer can take advantage to execute a query from can not be used arbitrarily, but they must fulfill some
these definitions. conditions to be correct. These restrictions apply not
only to represent multivalued attributes, but also to
extend to other kinds of transformations.
4. Transformations to ob tain Object-  If the attribute multiplicity is 1 it is a single
Relational Schemas attribute, then, the mapping function is the
following:
For object-relational databases there is not a consensus
in a technique or methodology to transform conceptual f:AC(name, attributeType, 1..1) 
(20)
model into a logical schema. This section propose all AST(name, type = eType)
www.IJCSI.org 18
 If lower and upper limits are well known, then an o If the multiplicity is undefined (specified by an
array should be used with a specific length; it *) it is transformed into a multiset of reference
eventually it may grow if it is necessary. types.
f:AC(name, attributeType, 1..n)  f:PA(name, multiplicity = 1..*,

(21)
AST(name, type = Arr(eType, n)) isComposite = ‘No’, navigable = ‘Yes’,
(25)
endType = ‘none’/‘aggregate’)
In the previous expression Arr stands for array; AST(name, type = Mult(Ref(OST)))
eType represents the attribute type of the element
composing the array and n its length.  If the pseudoattribute is composite (isComposite =
‘Yes’) and its endType property is “none”, then the
 If the upper and lower limits are not defined, a pseudoattribute represents the association end
multiset must be used because this collection type corresponding to the part of a composition
does not limit the values to store. relationship, and it is transformed into a structured
type embedded into the structured type of the
f:AC(name, attributeType, 1..*)  AST(name, (22 whole. It must also be considered the multiplicity of
type = Mult(eType)) ) the pseudoattribute, as follows:
In the previous expression Mult stands for multiset; o If the multiplicity is of 1, the pseudoattribute is
eType corresponds to the element type composing it. transformed as an attribute of the structured
type corresponding to the part.
In all the previous cases the type of eType matches the
type of attributeType of the class. f:PA(name, multiplicity = 1..1,
isComposite = ‘Yes’, navigable =
(26)
Pseudoattribute Transformation ‘Yes’, endType = ‘none’) AST(name,
When a class participates in a relationship (association, type = OST)
aggregation, composition, association class) and it has
navigable ends, these can be considered as o If the multiplicity has a maximum of n, it is
pseudoattributes of the class presented in the opposite transformed into an array of length n of the
side of the relationship. These ends involve a structured type of the part.
multiplicity, a navigability and a type, among others
properties. f:PA(name, multiplicity = 1..n,
Pseudoattributes become crucial in the transformation of isComposite = ‘Yes’, navigable =
(27)
class relationships. Mapping functions are generated ‘Yes’, endType = ‘none’) AST(name,
with the objective of preserving relationship semantic, as type = Arr(OST, n))
follows:
 If the pseudoattribute is not composite (isComposite o If the multiplicity is undefined (*), it is
= ‘No’) and its endType property is “none” or transformed into a multiset of structured types.
“aggregate”, it is transformed using references,
having into account its multiplicity. f:PA(name, multiplicity = 1..*,
o If the multiplicity is 1, it is transformed into a isComposite = ‘Yes’, navigable =
(28)
reference type single attribute. ‘Yes’, endType = ‘none’) AST(name,
type = Mult(OST))
f:PA(name, multiplicity = 1..1,
isComposite = ‘No’, navigable = ‘Yes’, For the previous cases, OST is the opposite structured
(23) type of the relationship corresponding to the part of the
endType = ‘none’/‘aggregate’)
AST(name, type = Ref(OST)) composition relationship.
where OST is the opposite structured type of the Pseudoattributes whose eType property is “composite”
relationship. represent the whole of a composition relationship. In
agreement with the definition the whole of a
o If the multiplicity is defined and it has a composition is not navigable. Therefore,
maximum of n, it is transformed into an array pseudoattributes of type before mentioned are not
of reference types of length n. converted into the object-relational layer.
f:PA(name, multiplicity = 1..n, Operation Transformation

isComposite = ‘No’, navigable = ‘Yes’, The description of class operations and its subsequent
(24)
endType = ‘none’/‘aggregate’) mapping need to disaggregate their components and a
AST(name, type = Arr(Ref(OST), n)) more detailed study than the presented here. Its
www.IJCSI.org 19
treatment is performed in a simple manner because its where name indicates the name assigned to the typed
analysis goes beyond the scope of this article. Having table; and ST specifies the structured type which origins
this issue into account, the UML operations are it.
transformed into methods of the structured types by
means of the following function: To complete the mapping of this layer, the designer must
enter additional information which is not included in the
f:O  M (29) metamodels of the previous ones. The first case is
related with table restrictions (primary key, unique key,
where O is a finite set of operations; and M is a finite set not null restrictions, check type restrictions, etc.), which
of methods. do not have an equivalent neither UML class diagram
nor object-relational layer. The other one corresponds to
Generalization - Specialization Relationship the transformation of generalization-specialization
Transformation relationships from the object-relational layer to typed
In the UML class diagram as well as in the object- tables. In the latter, the user must choose the mapping
relational layer generalization - specialization from the three different possibilities that exist:
relationships are specified by means of qualifiers  Flat Model: this model includes the definition of a
(isAbstract, superclass, inheritFrom, isInstantiable). The single table for the whole hierarchy. It must create a
transformation of this relationship type is made using typed table for the supertype, with the
those ones. The mapping function defined to the substitutability property that enables the storage of
generalization-specialization relationship is: subtypes in the same supertype table.
 Vertical Partition: in this mapping a typed table for
f:C(name, isAbstract = ‘No’,… , superclass = every class in the hierarchy is created. The
‘superclass_name’)  ST(name,…, isInstantiable (30) substitutability property is removed, so only the
= ‘Yes’, inheritFrom = ‘supertype_name’) appropriated structured types can be stored in those
tables.
Class Transformation  Horizontal Partition: in this transformation typed
tables for subtypes are created, translating all
Classes of the UML diagram of the conceptual design supertype attributes to them. The substitutability
are mapped into a structured type the object-relational property is removed.
technology.
f:C(name, isAbstract, A, AEs, PA, O, superclass)

(31) 5. Automation of Database Design Process
 ST(name, isInstantiable, A, M, inheritFrom)
The automation proposal presented in this paper is based
The transformation of each class component was on MDA and XML. The Model Driven Architecture [21]
previously described. Note that attributes and was originated in response to the new technology
pseudoattributes of a class are transformed into attributes advances, diversity of system exploitation platforms and
of the structured type. business model continuous changes. MDA decouples the
functional specification from the implementation
Association Class Transformation specification of that functionality for a specific platform.
The mapping of an association class is similar to the one It proposes a development process based on the
defined for a class. Hence, attributes, pseudoattributes realization and transformation of the models. The
and operations are transformed in the same way. The principles on which MDA is based are abstraction,
difference is on the fact that an association class can not automation and standardization. Those are the main
participate of generalization-specialization relationships. reasons to select MDA for the ORDB automation
process.
f:AC(name, A, PA, O)  ST(name, A, M) (32) The models used by MDA are classified into:
 Platform Independent Models (PIM): are models
4.2 Mappings from the Object-Relational to the with a high level of abstraction, independents of any
Object-Relational Persistent Layer implementation technology. The UML class
diagram metamodel is the PIM of this work.
Once the object-relational elements are obtained typed  Platform Specific Models (PSM): combine
tables must be defined in order to provide persistence to specifications of the platform independent model
the objects. For this purpose, every structured type of the with the details of a specific platform. The PSM of
object-relational layer is transformed into a typed table this work is related with SQL:2003.
of the object-relational persistence layer. This mapping
function is defined as follows: The MDA framework allows the application
development on any open or proprietary platform. To
f:ST  TT(name, ST) (33) achieve this goal, the development process of MDA
www.IJCSI.org 20
starts from the requirements of an application (Platform depicted in Fig. 10.

Independent Model) which is then transformed into one
or more Platform Specific Models which are finally
converted into code (Fig. 9).
Fig. 9. Development process in MDA Fig. 10. Transformation methodology architecture
On the other hand, XML has also a number of The architecture is based on different abstraction levels
advantages for application development that justifies its [10]:
use for the automation process of ORDB schemes. These  Metamodel Level: contains XML schemas
are: generated for the three metamodels used for the
 It is a formal and concise language, from the point transformations: UML class diagramas, SQL:2003
of view of the data and the way of storing them. Data Types and SQL:2003 Schema. Besides, XSLT
 It is extensible, which means that once the structure transformation rules between the XML schemas are
of a document was designed and put into defined in this level.
production, it is possible to extend it with the  Model Level: contains the XML documents
addition of new tags, allowing the model evolution. fulfilling the XML Schemas defined in the
 It is expressive, its files are easy to read and edit. If metamodel level. The first XML document
a third person chooses to use a complying with the UML metamodel represents the
document created in XML, it is easy to understand hierarchical and structured information of the
its structure and process it, which improves the application. Mappings from one XML document to
compatibility among applications. another are performed executing the XSLT rules
 There are commercial and free tools that facilitate defined in the metamodel level.
its implementation, programming and the  Data Level: this level contains the input and output
production of different systems. of the model level. The UML class diagram
corresponding to the application requirements is the
The XML schema definition language [26] has become a input while the output is the code of the object-
dominant technology to describe the type and the relational database schema.
structure of XML documents. This capability makes it
appropriate for the definition of the metamodels used in The transformation method starts with the definition of
this work. XML schemas provide the basic infrastructure the application UML class diagram which is converted
for building interoperable systems because they provide into an XML document complying with the
a common language for the XML document description. corresponding XML Schema after that. Mapping rules
The specification of the XML transformations (XSLT) defined between the UML and the SQL:2003 data types
defines a language for expressing rules which allows metamodels are then executed. The XML document of
transforming an XML document into another. XSLT the SQL:2003 data type obtained in the previous step is
[14] has many of the traditional constructors of the converted into a XML document fulfilling the SQL:2003
programming languages, including variables, functions, schema executing the XSLT rules defined between
iterators and conditional sentences, so XSLT can be them. Finally, a Java code generates the object-relational
thought as a programming language. Furthermore, database script having this last XML document as input.
XSLT documents are also useful as general purpose
language to express transformations from an XML This architecture was implemented in a tool prototype
schema to another. In fact, the use of XSLT documents employing the Altova XMLSpy tool [2]. It provides a
can be imagined as an XML translation engine, so this flexible and efficient environment to create and edit
technology was selected for this, for the implementation XML schemas and XML files. For writing the rules in
of mapping rules. XSLT language a graphical interface of Altova
MapForce [1] was used. MapForce has a complete set of
5.1 Transformation Methodology Architecture graphic functions that allows an easy writing,
modification and deletion of the rules, providing a great
The architecture to perform the model transformation is flexibility and modificability of the transformations.
www.IJCSI.org 21
6. Conclusions Edition User and Reference Manual. Revised September

5, 2006, from
Nowadays, there are several commercial tools which http://www.altova.com/download/2006/XMLSpyPro.pdf
[3] Altova GmbH (2010). Altova DatabaseSpy 2010.
automate relational database design (ToadTM Data
http://www.altova.com/databasespy.html
Modeler, DB Designer4, DatabaseSpy), but it is not the [4] Arango, F., Gómez, M. C., & Zapata, C. M. (2006).
case for object-relational ones. The reason for this Transformación del modelo de clases UML a Oracle9i®
situation is that does not exist a standard methodology bajo la directiva MDA: Un caso de estudio. DYNA, Vol.
accepted in the database community. This paper 73 (149), (pp. 166-179).
describes a method to overcome this gap. First, three [5] Baroni, A. L., Calero, C., Ruiz, F., & Abreu, F. B. (2004).
mapping layers for the object-relational database design Formalizing object-relational structural metrics. 5a
process were defined: UML class diagram layer, object- Conferência da APSI.
relational layer and object-relational persistent layer. [6] Booch, G., Rumbaugh, J., & Jacobson, I. (1999). The
Unified Modeling Language. User Guide. Addison-
This is a novel aspect of this work because it represents
Wesley Professional.
a difference respect of other works proposed in the [7] Elmasri, R., & Navathe, S. (2006). Fundamentals of
literature. A metamodel is used and adapted for each Database Systems, 5th Edition. Addison-Wesley.
layer, for the conceptual design, the UML class diagram [8] fabFORCE (2003). DB Designer 4 Online
metamodel; for the logical design, the SQL:2003 Documentation. Fabulous Force Database Tools. Revised
metamodel, split in two parts: datatypes and schema. A 2003, from http://www.fabforce.net/dbdesigner4/
detailed description of the elements composing the [9] Golobisky, M. F., & Vecchietti, A. (2005). Mapping
metamodels was made superseding other works UML class diagrams into object-relational schemas. In
proposed in the open literature. A key issue in the Proceedings of the Argentine Symposium on Software
Engineering (ASSE 2005), 34 JAIIO, (65-79 pp).
characterization of the UML class diagram is the
[10] Golobisky, M. F., & Vecchietti, A. (2008). A flexible
distinction of association ends participating as approach for database design based on SQL:2003.
pseudoattributes of the classes. This concept facilitates Proceedings of the XXXIV Conferencia Latinoamericana
the mapping definition for associations between classes. de Informática CLEI 2008 (pp. 719-728).
Mapping functions between metamodels were proposed [11] Grissa-Touzi, A., & Sassi, M. (2005). New approach for
and formalized by means of f:AB type expressions. In the modeling and the implementation of the object-
this article, the most common transformation set relational databases. World Academy of Science,
between the UML class diagrams and the object- Engineering and Technology. Vol. 11 (pp. 51-54).
relational databases is presented. [12] ISO/IEC 9075-1 (2003). Information technology -
Database languages – SQL- Part 1: Framework (SQL/
The automation of the ORDB design process is
Framework), International Organization for
addressed with an architecture based on the MDA Standardization.
specification and the XML technology. MDA is selected [13] ISO/IEC 9075-2 (2003). Information technology -
because is the indicated technology for model-based Database languages – SQL- Part 2: Foundation
software design. The platform independent model (PIM) (SQL/Foundation), International Organization for
is represented by the UML class diagram metamodel and Standardization.
platform specific models (PSM) are composed by the [14] Kay, Michael (2007). XSL Transformations (XSLT),
SQL:2003 metamodels. The architecture has different Version 2.0. Revised January 23, 2007, from W3C
levels of abstraction: metamodels, models and data. Recommendation, http://www.w3.org/TR/xslt20.
[15] Liu, C., Orlowska, M. E., & Li, H. (1997). Realizing
These specifications separate the functionalities
object-relational databases by mixing tables with objects.
facilitating the transformation rule generation. OOIS, (pp. 335-346).
The architecture implementation was made using XML [16] Marcos, E., Vela, B., & Cavero, J. M. (2003). A
technology: XML schemas for the metamodel methodological approach for object-relational database
definitions, XSLT rules for transforming the schemas, design using UML. Software and Systems Modeling, 2(1),
and XML documents that represent the structured 59-72.
information of the application complying with the XML [17] Marcos, E., Vela, B., Cavero, J. M., & Caceres, P. (2001).
schemas. The use of the XML technology facilitates the Aggregation and composition in object-relational database
reading, understanding, modifying, testing and fixing the design. In Albertas Caplinskas and Johann Eder (Ed.) 5th
Conference on Advances in Databases and Information
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For future work, properties and the impact that present [18] Melton, J., & Simon, A. R. (2002). SQL:1999-
the inclusion of the behavior in the first steps of the Understanding Relational Language Components.
design, and its next mapping to the object-relational Morgan Kaufmann.
model, will be investigated with the objective of [19] Melton, Jim (2003). Advanced SQL:1999: Understanding
completing the design and the case tool implementation. Object-Relational and Other Advanced Features. Morgan
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References [20] Mok, W. Y., & Paper, D. P. (2001). On transformations
from UML models to object-relational databases.
[1] Altova GmbH (2006). Altova MapForce 2007 User and
Proceedings of the 34th Annual Hawaii International
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Conference on System Sciences (HICSS-34): Vol. 3 (p.
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3046).
[2] Altova GmbH (2007). Altova XMLSpy 2008 Enterprise
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[21] Mukerji, J., & Miller, J. (2003). MDA Guide Version M.F. Golobisky obtained his PhD degree in Engineering, major
1.0.1. Object Management Group. Revised June 12, 2003, in Information Systems Engineering, in 2009, at Universidad
from http://www.omg.org/cgi-bin/doc?omg/03-06-01. Tecnológica Nacional, Facultad Regional Santa Fe, Argentina.
She is Professor at this University and research fellow of
[22] Rumbaugh, J., Jacobson, I., & Booch, G. (1999). The
CONICET.
Unified Modeling Language. Reference Manual. Addison-
Wesley. A Vecchietti. Obtained his PhD degree in 2000 in Chemical
[23] OMG (2005). Unified modeling language: Superstructure, Engineering at Facultad de Ingeniería Química Universidad
Version 2.0. OMG Final Adopted Specification. Retrieved Nacional del Litoral, Argentina. He is a researcher of CONICET
July 2005, from and Professor at Universidad Tencnológica Nacional, Facultad
http://www.omg.org/spec/UML/2.0/Superstructure/PDF Regional Santa Fe, Argentina.
[24] OMG (2006). Unified modeling language: Infrastructure,
Version 2.0. OMG Final Adopted Specification. Object
Management Group. Retrieved July 2005, from
http://www.omg.org/spec/UML/2.0/Infrastructure/PDF
[25] Quest Software (2010). ToadTM Data Modeler 3. Quest
Software, Inc.
http://www.casestudio.com/enu/default.aspx
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from XML Schema Working Group Public Page,
http://www.w3.org/XML/Schema
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No. 2, May 2011 23
www.IJCSI.org
Algorithm for Reducing Overhead of Message

Purging in Large-Scale Sender-Based Logging
Jinho Ahn
Dept. of Computer Science, College of Natural Science, Kyonggi University

Suwon, Gyeonggi-do 443-760, Republic of Korea
based message logging approach [11], [15] logs the

Abstract recovery information of every received message into the
When attempting to apply sender-based message logging stable storage before the message is delivered to its
with checkpointing into large-scale and geographically receiving process. Thus, the approach simplifies the
distributed systems, two important things should be recovery procedure of failed processes. However, its main
reconsidered: reducing the number of messages passing on drawback is the high failure-free overhead caused by
core networks during its fully message logging and synchronous logging. Sender-based message logging
recovery procedures and purging effectively logged approach [2], [6], [14] enables each message to be logged
messages from their senders' volatile memories. This paper in the volatile memory of its corresponding sender for
presents a novel message purging algorithm to solve the avoiding logging messages into the stable storage
second problem based on our previous work having synchronously. Therefore, it significantly reduces the
alleviated the first one. Its first step results in no extra failure-free overhead compared with the first approach.
message and forced checkpoint by piggybacking a vector But, the second approach forces each process to maintain
on each sent message. If additional empty buffer space for in its limited volatile storage the log information of its sent
logging is needed even after the first step has executed, its messages required for recovering their receivers when they
second step is performed to remove the useful log crash.
information each sender maintains while satisfying the
consistency condition by using a vector recording its size As architectural aspects of current and future distributed
for every other process. computing systems are changing to geographically group-
Keywords: distributed systems, roll-back recovery, based and peer-to-peer based, many of these systems are
message logging, checkpointing, message purging. adopting representative-based architecture like broker-
based sensor networks, super-peer based P2P systems, etc.,
to accommodate these topological features well. Thus, this
1. Introduction change is making a lot of issues about their fundamental
building blocks reconsidered to work well for these newly
Thanks to highly rapid advances in processor and network fashioned systems in highly effective manners. Sender-
technologies, a lot of architectural variations in distributed based message logging abbreviated by SBML should also
computing systems are being experienced and reflected on be examined properly before its application to
many application fields such as p2p computing, accommodate this architectural change. Two important
collaborative computing, ubiquitous sensor networks, things should be reconsidered:
network monitoring, grid and cloud computing and so on.
But, as their collaborative feature may cause themselves to  Be reducing the number of messages passing on
be more vulnerable to process failures, the systems require core networks during its fully message logging and
some cost-effective fault-tolerance techniques [8]. Log- recovery procedures
based rollback recovery is such a technique in that each  Purging effectively logged messages from their
process periodically saves it local state by or without senders' volatile memories.
synchronizing with other processes [3], [9], [10] and logs
each received message [5]. Message logging protocols are In our previous work [1], the first drawback was alleviated
classified into two approaches, i.e., sender-based and to enable the representative elected in a cluster or group of
receiver-based message logging, depending on which nodes like broker or super-peer to localize both of the
process each message is logged by [5]. First, receiver- logging and recovery procedures to a maximum. This
www.IJCSI.org
paper presents a novel message purging algorithm to uniquely determined. Let p’s state, spi = [sip0, sip1, …, sipi],
efficiently remove logged messages from the volatile represent the sequence of all state intervals up to sipi. spi
storage while ensuring the consistent recovery of the and sqj (p  q) are mutually consistent if all messages from
system in case of node failures. As the first step, the q that p has delivered to the application in spi were sent to
algorithm eliminates useless log information in the volatile p by q in sqj, and vice versa [4]. A set of states, which
storage with no extra message and forced checkpoint. But, consists of only one state for every process in the system,
even if the step has been performed, the additional empty is a globally consistent state if any pair of the states is
buffer space for logging messages in future may be mutually consistent. In the remainder of this paper, the
required. In this case, the second step of our algorithm messages applications generate are called application
forces some useful log information in each sender’s messages and the messages used for the message logging
volatile memory to become useless by maintaining a and recovery procedures, control messages.
vector recording the size of the information for every other
process’ failure. This algorithm can choose a minimum
number of processes participating in the message purging 3. The Proposed 2-step Message Purging
procedure based on the vector. Thus, this behavior incurs Algorithm
fewer additional messages and forced checkpoints than the
existing ones. 3.1 Basic Concepts
The remainder of the paper is as follows. Section 2 In this section, we describe an efficient algorithm
describes the distributed computing system model consisting of two steps taken depending on the available
assumed in this paper and section 3 introduces our empty buffer space for logging messages in future. The
message purging algorithm in details. In sections 4 and 5, proposed algorithm is executed as follows. As the first step,
we prove the correctness of the algorithm and evaluate while the free buffer space of each process is larger than
performance of our work and the representative previous its lower bound LB, the process locally removes useless
work in several aspects. Section 6 summarizes our work. log information from its volatile storage by using only a
vector piggybacked on each received message. In this case,
the algorithm results in no additional message and forced
2. System Model checkpoint. In case that the free buffer space is smaller
than LB in some checkpointing and communication
A distributed computation consists of a set P of n (n > 0) patterns, the second step forces a part of useful log
sequential processes executed on hosts in the system and information in the buffer to be useless and removed until
there is a distributed stable storage that every process can the free space becomes the upper bound UB. In this case,
always access that persists beyond processor failures, the algorithm chooses a minimum number of processes to
thereby supporting recovery from failure of an arbitrary participate in the message purging procedure based on an
number of processors[5]. Processes have no global array recording the current size of the log information in
memory and global clock. The system is asynchronous: its buffer for every other process. Therefore, regardless of
each process is executed at its own speed and particular checkpointing and communication patterns, the
communicates with each other only through messages at 2-step algorithm enables the cost of the message purging
finite but arbitrary transmission delays. Exchanging procedure performed during failure-free operation to be
messages are reliably delivered in FIFO order. We assume significantly reduced compared with the existing
that the communication network is immune to partitioning algorithms.
and hosts fail according to the fail stop model where every The first step of the proposed algorithm is designed to
crashed process on them halts its computation with losing enable a process p to locally remove the useless logged
all contents of its volatile memory [12]. Events of messages from the volatile storage without requiring any
processes occurring in a failure-free execution are ordered extra message and forced checkpoints. For this purpose,
using Lamport’s happened before relation [7]. The each process p must have the following data structures.
execution of each process is piecewise deterministic [13]:
at any point during the execution, a state interval of the - Sendlgp: a set saving e(rid, ssn, rsn, data) of each
process is determined by a non-deterministic event, which message sent by p. In here, e is the log information of a
is delivering a received message to the appropriate message and the four fields are the identifier of the
application. The k-th state interval of process p, denoted receiver, the send sequence number, the receive sequence
by sipk (k > 0), is started by the delivery event of the k-th number and data of the message respectively.
message m of p, denoted by devpk (m). Therefore, given - Rsnp: the receive sequence number of the latest message
p’s initial state, sip0, and the non-deterministic events, delivered to p.
[devp1, devp2, …, devpi], its corresponding state spi is - Ssnp: the send sequence number of the latest message
www.IJCSI.org
sent by p. for e(m)  Sendlgp. When q receives the request message
- SsnVectorp: a vector in which SsnVectorp[q] records the with the rsn from p, it checks whether the rsn is greater
send sequence number of the latest message received by p than RsnVectorq[q]. If so, it should take a checkpoint and
that q sent. then send p a reply message including RsnVectorq[q].
- RsnVectorp: a vector in which RsnVectorp[k] is the Otherwise, it has only to send p the reply message. When p
receive sequence number of the last message delivered to k receives the reply message from q, it removes all e(m)s
before k has saved the last checkpointed state of k on the from Sendlgp such that the receiver of m is q.
stable storage.
- EnableSp: a set of rsns that aren’t yet recorded at the
senders of their messages. It is used for indicating whether 3.2 Algorithmic Description
p can send messages to other processes.
The procedures for process p in our algorithm are formally
Informally, our algorithm is performed as follows. described in figures 1 and 2. MSG-SEND() in figure 1 is
Taking a local checkpoint, p updates RsnVectorp[p] to the the procedure executed when each process p sends a
receive sequence number of the latest message delivered to message m to its receiver or the representative of the
p. If p sends a message m to another process q, the vector receiver and logs the message into its volatile memory. In
is piggybacked on the message. When receiving the this case, p piggybacks RsnVectorp on the message for the
message with RsnVectorp, q takes the component-wise first step of the algorithm and then adds the size of e(m) to
maximum of two vectors, RsnVectorp and RsnVectorq. LogSizep[q] after transmitting the message for the second
Afterwards, q can remove from its message log Sendlgq all step. In procedure MSG-RECV1(), the following two parts
e(u)s such that for all k  a set of all processes in the are performed according to who its final receiver is. If the
system, e(u).rid is k and e(u).rsn is less than or equal to process receiving the message is its final receiver, it
RsnVectorp[k]. However, in some checkpointing and invokes procedure MSG-RECV2(). Otherwise, it forwards
communication patterns, the first step may not allow each the message to its final destination and then performs the
process to autonomously decide whether log information first step by calling procedure MAX-RSNS&PURGE-
of each sent message is useless for recovery of the receiver MSGS(). Next, it logs the message into its volatile
of the message by using some piggybacking information. memory and then adds the size of e(m) to LogSizeAi[rcvr].
In the traditional sender-based message logging protocols, Procedure MSG-RECV2() is executed when p receives a
to purge away each e(m) in Sendlgp, p requests that the message. In this procedure, p first notifies the sender of the
receiver of m (m.rid) takes a checkpoint if it has indeed message of its rsn and then performs the first step for
received m and taken no checkpoint since. Also, processes removing useless log information from its log based on the
occasionally exchange the state interval indexes of their piggybacked vector. In procedure RSN-RCVR(), process p
most recent checkpoints for purging the log information receives the rsn of its previously sent message and updates
from their volatile storages. However, the previous the third field of the element for the message in its log to
algorithm may result in a large number of additional the rsn. Then, it confirms fully logging of the message to
messages and forced checkpoints needed by the forced its receiver, which executes procedure RSN-CONFIRM().
purging procedure in an explicit manner. In this case, it purges useless log information from its
The second step obtains such information by maintaining volatile storage by using RsnVector piggybacked on the
an array, LogSizep, to save the size of the log information message. If process p attempts to take a local checkpoint,
in the volatile storage by process. Thus, the algorithm can it calls procedure CHECKPOINTING(). In this procedure,
reduce the number of additional messages and forced the element for p of RsnVectorp is updated to the rsn of the
checkpoints by using the vector compared with the last message received before the checkpoint. STEP2() in
traditional algorithm. The second step needs a vector figure 2 is the procedure executed when each process
LogSizep where LogSizep[q] is the sum of sizes of all attempts to initiate the forced garbage collection of the
e(m)s in Sendlgp, such that p sent message m to q. second step and CHECKLRSNINLCHKPT() is the
Whenever p sends m to q, it increments LogSizep by the procedure for forcing the log information to become
size of e(m). When p needs additional empty buffer space, useless for future recovery.
it executes the second step of the algorithm. It first chooses
a set of processes, denoted by participatingProcs, which
will participate in the forced purging procedure. It selects
the largest, LogSizep[q], among the remaining elements of
LogSizep, and then appends q to participatingProcs until
the required buffer size is satisfied. Then p sends a request
message with the rsn of the last message, sent from p to q,
to all q  participatingProc such that the receiver of m is q
www.IJCSI.org
Module MSG-SEND(data) OF SENDER Psndr Module STEP2(sizeOflogSpace)

wait until (EnableSsndr = ) ; participatingProcs ←  ;
Ssnsndr ← Ssnsndr + 1 ; while sizeOflogSpace > 0 do
if(data is destined to a process Prcvr in another area not
playing the role of area representative) then
if(there is r st ((r  P) ^ (r is not an element of
send m(Ssnsndr, data) with RsnVectorsndr to the participatingProcs) ^ (LogSizep[r]  0)^
representative of Prcvr ; (max LogSizep[r]))) then
else send m(Ssnsndr, data) with RsnVectorsndr to Prcvr ; sizeOflogSpace ← sizeOflogSpace – LogSizep[r] ;
Sendlgsndr ← Sendlgsndr ∪ {(rcvr, Ssnsndr, -1, data)} ; participatingProcs ← participatingProcs ∪ {r} ;
LogSizesndr[rcvr] ← LogSizesndr[rcvr] + size of (rcvr, Ssnsndr, T: for all u  participatingProcs do
-1, data) ;
MaximumRsn ← (max e(m).rsn) st
Module MSG-RECV1(m, RsnVector) OF Representative RAi ((e(m)  Sendlgp)^(u = e(m).rid)) ;
if(m is a message destined to another process Prcvr in send Request(MaximumRsn) to u ;
its managing area) then while participatingProcs   do
send m with RsnVector to Prcvr ; receive Reply(rsn) from u st (u  participatingProcs) ;
call MAX-RSNS&PURGE-MSGS(Ai, RsnVector) at for all e(m)  Sendlgp st (u = e(m).rid) do
itself ;
remove e(m) from Sendlgp ;
SendlgAi ← SendlgAi ∪ {(rcvr, m.ssn, -1, m.data)} ;
LogSizeAi[rcvr] ← LogSizeAi[rcvr] + size of (rcvr, m.ssn, LogSizep[u] ← 0 ;
-1, m.data) ; participatingProcs ← participatingProcs ∪ {u} ;
else call MSG-RECV2(m, RsnVector) at itself ;
Module CHECKLRSNINLCHKPT(Request(MaximumRsn),
Module MSG-RECV2(m(sid, ssn, data), RsnVector) OF RECEIVER q)
Prcvr if(RsnVectorp[p] < MaximumRsn) then
if(SsnVectorrcvr[m.sid] < m.ssn) then CHECKPOINTING() ;
Rsnrcvr ← Rsnrcvr + 1 ;
SsnVectorrcvr[m.sid] ← m.ssn ;
send Reply(RsnVectorp[p]) to q ;
EnableSrcvr ← EnableSrcvr ∪ {(Rsnrcvr)} ;
if(m is a message sent directly from its original sender
Pm.sid) then
send ack(m.ssn, Rsnrcvr, RsnVectorrcvr) to m.sid ; Fig. 1 Step 2 procedures during failure-free operation
else send ack(m.ssn, Rsnrcvr, RsnVectorrcvr) to the
representative of Prcvr ;
call MAX-RSNS&PURGE-MSGS(rcvr, RsnVector) at
itself ;
deliver m.data to its corresponding application ; 4. Correctness Proof
else discard m ;
In this section, we prove the correctness of the first and the
Module RSN-RCVR(ack(ssn, rsn, rid, RsnVector)) OF PROCESS P
find e  SendlgP st ((e.rid = ack.rid) ^ (e.ssn = ack.ssn)) ;
second steps of the proposed algorithm.
e.rsn ← ack.rsn ;
send confirm(ack.rsn) to ack.rid ; Lemma 1. If siqj is created by message m from p to q (p 
call MAX-RSNS&PURGE-MSGS(P, RsnVector) at itself ; q) for all p, q  P and then q takes its latest checkpoint in
Module MAX-RSNS&PURGE-MSGS(pid, RsnVector)
siql(j  l), lge(m) need not be maintained in Sendlgp for q’s
for all k  other processes in the system do future recovery in the sender-based message logging.
if(RsnVectorpid[k] < RsnVector[k]) then
RsnVectorpid[k] ← RsnVector[k] ; Proof : We prove this lemma by contradiction. Assume
for all e  Sendlgpid st ((e.rid = k) ^(e.rsn  that lge(m) in Sendlgp is useful for q’s future recovery in
RsnVector[k])) do
Sendlgpid ← Sendlgpid - {e} ; case of the condition. If q fails, it restarts execution from
LogSizepid[k] ← LogSizepid[k] - size of e ; its latest checkpointed state for its recovery in the sender-
based message logging. In this case, p need not retransmit
Module RSN-CONFIRM(m) OF RECEIVER Prcvr m to q because devqi(m) occurs before the checkpointed
EnableSrcvr ← EnableSrcvr – {(m.rsn)} ;
state. Thus, lge(m) in Sendlgp is not useful for q’s recovery.
Module CHECKPOINTING() OF RECEIVER P This contradicts the hypothesis.
RsnVectorP [P] ← RsnP ;
take its local checkpoint on the stable storage ;
Theorem 1. The first step of the proposed algorithm
removes only the log information that will not be used for
Fig. 1 Message logging with Step 1 procedures future recoveries in sender-based message logging any
longer.
Proof: Let us prove this theorem by contradiction. Assume

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that our algorithm removes the log information useful for failures.
future recoveries. As mentioned in section III.A, the
algorithm forces each process p to remove log information
from its volatile memory only in the following case. 5. Performance Evaluation
Case 1: p receives a message m from another process q. In 5.1 Simulation Environment
this case, RsnVectorq was piggybacked on m. Thus, p
removes from Sendlgp all lge(l)s such that for k  P (k  p), To evaluate performance of our algorithm (2-step) with
lge(l).rid is k and lge(l).rsn is less than or equal to that of the traditional one (Tradi) [6], some experiments
max(RsnVectorp[k], RsnVectorq[k]), which is the rsn of the are performed in this paper using a discrete-event
last message delivered to k before k has taken its latest simulation language. First, one performance index is used
checkpoint. In here, message l need no longer be replayed for evaluating the effectiveness of the first step of the
in case of failure of process k because of its latest proposed algorithm; the average elapsed time required
checkpoint. Thus, lge(l) isn’t useful for its future until the volatile memory buffer for message logging of a
recoveries. process is full(Tfull). The performance index Tfull is
measured under the condition that the two algorithms
Therefore, the first step of the proposed algorithm removes perform no forced garbage collection procedure, i.e., incur
only useless log information for sender-based message no additional messages and no forced checkpoints. Second,
logging in any case. This contradicts the hypothesis. the following performance indexes are used for comparing
forced garbage collection overheads of both the second
step of algorithm 2-step and algorithm Tradi; the average
Theorem 2. Even if every process has performed the number of additional messages (NOAM) and the average
second step of the proposed algorithm in the sender-based number of forced checkpoints (NOFC) required for
message logging, the system can recover to a globally garbage collection per process.
consistent state despite process failures. A simulated system consists of four areas where there
are each one representative node and four normal nodes. In
Proof: the second step of the proposed algorithm removes each area, five nodes including representative are
the useful log information in the storage buffer of every connected through a 100Mbps wired multi-access LAN.
process in the following cases. All representatives communicate with each other through a
10Mbps wired WAN. For simplicity of this simulation, it
Case 1: Process p for all p  P removes any lge(m) in is assumed each node has one process executing on it and
Sendlgp. 20 processes are initiated and completed together. For the
In this case, it sends a request message with the rsn of the experiments, it is also assumed that the size of each
last message, sent from p to lge(m).rid, to lge(m).rid. application message ranges from 50 to 200 Kbytes and the
When lge(m).rid receives the request message with the rsn size of the memory buffer for logging of every process is
from p, it checks whether the rsn is greater than 10Mbytes.
RsnVectorlge(m).rid[lge(m).rid]. Each process takes its local checkpoint with an interval
following an exponential distribution with a mean
Case 1.1: The rsn is greater than Ckpttime=3 minutes. The simulation parameter is the mean
RsnVectorlge(m).rid[lge(m).rid]. message sending rate, Tinterval, following an exponential
In this case, lge(m).rid takes a checkpoint. Afterwards, distribution. All simulation results shown in this section
lge(m) becomes useless for the sender-based message are averages over a number of trials.
logging by lemma 1.
Case 1.2: The rsn is less than or equal to 5.2 Simulation Results
RsnVectorlge(m).rid[lge(m).rid].
Figure 3 shows the average elapsed time of the two
In this case, lge(m).rid took its latest checkpoint after
algorithms required until the volatile memory buffer for
having received m. Thus, lge(m) is useless for the sender-
message logging of a process is full for the specified range
based message logging by lemma 1.
of the Tinterval values. In this figure, as their Tintervals of
algorithms 2-step and Tradi increase, their corresponding
Thus, all the useful log information for the sender-based
Tfulls also increase. The reason is that as each process sends
message logging is always maintained in the system in all messages more slowly, the size of its message log also
cases. Therefore, after every process has performed the increases at a lower rate. However, as it is expected, Tfull of
second step of the proposed algorithm, the system can algorithm 2-step is significantly higher than that of
recover to a globally consistent state despite process algorithm Tradi. In particular, as Tinterval increases, the
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increasing rate of the first rises much faster than that of the
latter. This benefit of our algorithm results from its
desirable feature as follows: it enables a process p to
autonomously and locally eliminate useless log
information from the buffer by only carrying a vector
RsnVectorp on each sent message whereas the traditional
algorithm does not so.
Figure 4 shows NOAM for the various Tinterval values. In
this figure, we can see that NOAMs of the two algorithms
increase as Tinterval decreases. The reason is that forced
garbage collection should frequently be performed because
the high inter-process communication rate causes the
storage buffer of each process to be overloaded quickly.
However, NOAM of algorithm 2-step is much lower than
that of algorithm Tradi. Algorithm 2-step reduces about
38%-50% of NOAM compared with algorithm Tradi.
Figure 5 illustrates NOFC for the various Tinterval values.
In this figure, we can also see that NOFCs of the two Fig. 4 NOAM vs. Tinterval
algorithms increase as Tinterval decreases. The reason is that
as the inter-process communication rate increases, a
process may take a forced checkpoint when it performs
forced garbage collection. In the figure, NOFC of
algorithm 2-step is lower than that of algorithm Tradi.
Algorithm 2-step reduces about 25% - 51% of NOFC
compared with algorithm Tradi.
Therefore, we can conclude from the simulation results
that, regardless of the specific checkpointing and
communication patterns, algorithm 2-step enables the
garbage collection overhead occurring during failure-free
operation to be significantly reduced compared with
algorithm Tradi.
Fig. 5 NOFC vs. Tinterval
6. Conclusions
This paper presents a novel message purging algorithm to
effectively eliminate the volatile log information at sender
processes on demand without the violation of the system
consistency. The first step of the algorithm gets rid of
needless logged messages from the corresponding senders’
volatile memories only by piggybacking a vector on their
sent messages. This advantageous feature results in no
additional message and forced checkpoint. If additional
empty buffer space for the volatile logging is needed even
after the first step has executed, the next step of this
Fig. 3 Average elapsed time required until the volatile memory buffer for
message logging of a process is full according to Tinterval
proposed algorithm is performed to address this limitation.
This step uses a vector for saving the size of the log
information required to recover every other process and
enables the information to be efficiently removed while
satisfying the consistency condition.
www.IJCSI.org
[13] R.E. Strom and S.A. Yemeni, “Optimistic recovery in
References distributed systems,” ACM Transactions on
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JINHO AHN(Corresponding author) received his B.S., M.S. and
Conf. on High Performance Networking and
Ph.D. degrees in Computer Science and Engineering from Korea
Computing, 2003. University, Korea, in 1997, 1999 and 2003, respectively. He has
[3] D. Buntinasd, C. Coti, T. Herault, P. Lemarinier, L. been an associate professor in Department of Computer Science,
Pilard, A. Rezmerita, E. Rodriguez, F. Cappello, Kyonggi University. He has published more than 70 papers in
refereed journals and conference proceedings and served as
“Blocking vs. non-blocking coordinated
program or organizing committee member or session chair in
checkpointing for large-scale fault tolerant MPI several domestic/international conferences and editor-in-chief of
Protocols,” Future Generation Computer Systems, journal of Korean Institute of Information Technology and editorial
vol. 24, pp. 73-84, 2008. board member of journal of Korean Society for Internet Information.
His research interests include distributed computing, fault-
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www.IJCSI.org 30
Towards Representation and Validation of Knowledge in

Students’ Learning Pathway Using Variability Modeling
Technique
Abdelrahman Osman Elfaki, Md Gapar Md Johar, Kevin Loo Teow Aik, Sim Liew Fong, Ruzi Bachok
Faculty of Information Science and Engineering
Management and Science University, Malaysia
Abstract - Nowadays, E-learning system is considered as one learning pathway is missing [9, 10]. As a conclusion, the
of the main pillars in the lea rning system. Mainly, E-Learning problem that is discussed here is how to represent learning
system is de signed to se rve different types of stude nts. Thus, pathway‘s knowledge using standard notations in which it
providing different learning pathways are a must. In this paper, supports the diversity.
we introduce the variability technique to represent the knowledge
in E-learning system. This representation provides different
In this paper, we introduce a variability modeling for
learning pathways which supports the students’ diversity. representing the learning pathway. Our modeling is based on
Moreover, we validate the selection of learning path way by two layers. The first layer is graphical representation of all
introducing First Order Logic (FOL) rules. courses. The second layer is mathematical representation
using First Order Logic (FOL). The second layer is a direct
Index Terms – Learning Pathway, Variability and knowledge translation of the first layer in which every item in the first
representation. layer is represented using FOL predicates in the second layer.
I. INTRODUCTION Moreover, we introduce FOL rules to validate the course
Learning pathway is defined as the chosen route taken by selection process.
a learner, which allows him to build knowledge progressively, II. BACKGROUND: WHAT IS THE VARIABILITY
i.e., in learning pathways, the control of choice moves away
from the tutor to the learner [1]. Learning pathway aids Variability is defined as the ability of a system to be
learners to access information and courses by which they can modified, updated, or customized to be used in a specific
construct personalized transitions between the information to context [11]. Variability identifies the common and variant
be accessed and their own cognitive structures [2]. Students in assets within the specific domain [12]. Pohl et al. [13] suggest
the learning pathway program will be responsible for their that the three following questions be answered in order to
own learning in a self-directed, independent manner, including define variability: What, Why and How?
when, where, what, and how to study. Examinations will be What? At this point, the variable item is precisely
taken when students consider themselves ready [3]. In identified. The variable represents a property of the real world.
literature, there are many useful usages of learning pathway, The definition of the term variability introduces a new term,
e.g., one of the main importance usages of learning pathways the ‘variability subject’. A variability subject is defined as a
according to Jin [4] is to explore and explain human variable item of a real world property. The word ‘machine’ is
behaviours during learning processes. More useful usages of an example of a real world property. The word ‘car’ is an
learning pathways are discussed in [5]. example of a variability subject of the real world property
Nowadays, one of the new major directions in research on ‘machine’.
web-based educational systems is the notion of adaptability Why? Generally, there could be many reasons for an item
[6]. Adaptability means the system should service different or property to vary, for example, diversity of stakeholders’
preferences and different students’ abilities. Moreover, needs, diversity of business and country laws, and technical
Carchiolo [7] mentioned the importance of supporting e- issues. Furthermore, for related items, the diversity of one
learning system by a mechanism that works to provide item could be the reason for the variation of other related item.
different pathways for students. According to Bauerova [8] the How? To answer this question, the term ‘variability
design of learning pathways requires knowledge management object’ is introduced. Different shapes can be handled by one
system for representing knowledge to assist students in course variability subject. A variability object is defined as a
selection. Although learning pathway has wide particular instance of a variability subject. For example, the
implementations recently, still the standard specification of the word ‘car’ is a variability subject. The words ‘Toyota’,
www.IJCSI.org 31
‘Nissan’, and ‘BMW’ are examples of variability objects of
the variability subject ‘car’.
III. REPRESENTING LEARNING PATHWAY’S KNOWLEDGE

USING VARIABILITY NOTATIONS
In the learning pathway, different courses can be
presented based on the study area (for example, software
engineering, or networking). In order to implement the
selection of learning pathway, the study area is divided into
main points or what we called here as fields. Each field could
be divided into options.
Figure 2: Example of the upper layer of our model
Figure 1, illustrates the general structure of our modeling.

Figure 2 shows an example of our modeling. In figure 2,
computer science represents the study area; programming,
mathematical computing, and artificial intelligence could
represent the fields; in programming field: Java, C, and C++
could represent the options. In any field, students must select
one option or more. Cardinality describe the minimum and
maximum number that must be selected from each field. For
instance, in figure 2, the field computing mathematics has the
Figure 1: General Structure of our proposal modeling.
cardinality of 1 to 3. There are two possibilities for the fields
and options, either common or not common. Common field
means that this field must be chosen to be included in any
pathway. In more details, common field means that the student
must select one or more from its options. For instance, in
figure 2, methodology represents a common field, and
programming language theory represents not common option.
According to [13], variability elements are: decision
points, choices, and constraint dependency rules between
them. Therefore, we can claim that our notations (after we add
the constraint dependency rules) are enough to represent the
variability.
In the following, the notations of the proposed modeling
are explained. Our modeling consists of two layers. The upper
layer is graphical notations that work as user interface to guide
user among the selection process. The lower layer is a direct
translation of the upper layer. First, the upper layer is
described and later fields, options, and constraint dependency
rules are represented using predicates as a lower layer. The
output of the lower layer is a complete modeling of student
pathway as a knowledge- base.
www.IJCSI.org 32
max:
A. The Upper Layer Syntax: max(Id1,int)
Nowadays, Feature Model (FM)[14] and Orthogonal Semantic: identifies the maximum number allowed to be
Variability Model (OVM) [13] are the well-known techniques selected from a specific field. Id1 is identification of a field
to represent variability. In our modeling, we combined FM and int is an integer. For instance, max(computer graphics, 3).
diagram with OVM notations. The upper layer of our model is min:
a graphical representation to satisfy the visualization Syntax: min(Id1, int).
condition. Visualization is defined in [15] as a graphical Semantic: identifies the minimum number allowed to be
representation in a hierarchical form in order to increase the selected from a field. Id1 is identification of a field and int is
understandability of the variability. an integer. For instance, min(computer graphics, 1).
Our first layer is a merging between FM and OVM The common option(s) in a field is/are not included in
notations. Figure 1 represents the example of the upper layer maximum-minimum numbers of selection.
of our modeling. Optional and mandatory constraints are common:
defined in figure 1 by original FM notations [14], and Syntax: common(Id1,yes).
constraint dependency rules are described using OVM Semantic: describes the commonality of the field (whether the
notations. field is common or not). Id1 represents identification of the
According to Milašinović [16], a graphical representation field. The term “yes” is a constant denotes that this field is
is a suitable form to illustrate the course structure. Although common. For instance, common(methodology, yes).
the graphical representation support readability which
enhances the user’s interactivity, there is no formal definition The commonality of the item denotes that this item is
for the graphical representations. The lack of formal definition common for the specific study area and must be included in
prevents the use of standard software tools to validate the any student learning pathway.
selection process. The lower layer is suggested to provide
formal definition for our graphical model, i.e., the upper layer. b) Option
Option is a choice that belongs to a specific field. As an
example, in figure 2, “2D graphics” is an option belongs to the
B. The Lower Layer Representation “computer graphics” field. Two predicates are used to
The lower layer of the proposed approach is a logical represent each option (type and common). In the following,
representation of the variability using FOL. Representing the syntaxes and semantics of these predicates are illustrated:
variability using FOL provides formalization for the proposed type:
modeling. In the following, field, option, and dependency Syntax: type(Id1,option).
constraint rules are described using predicates as a lower layer Semantic: defines the type of feature. Id1 represents the
of the proposed modeling (examples are based on figure 2). variant name, e.g., type(3D graphics, option).
Terms starting with capital letters represent variables and common:
terms starting with lowercase letters represent constants. Syntax: common(Id1,yes).
Semantic: describes the commonality of the option (whether
a) Field the option is common or not). Id1 represents option’s
A field is a point that can select one or more of its options. identification, e.g., common(discrete mathematics, yes).
Five predicates (type, choiceof, max, min, and common) are
used to represent each field. In the following, we explain the The option could be option and field in the same time, e.g.,
syntaxes and semantics of these predicates: “discrete mathematics”. The option that has some also options
type: is defined as option and field in the same time.
Syntax: type(Id,field).
Semantic: this predicate is used to define the type of item in c) Constraint dependency rules
the learning path. In the learning path, the item is either a field The “require” and “exclude” relations are used to describe
or an option. The term “Id” identifies the identification of the the dependency constraint [13]. Require means if an item is
field and the term “field” is a constant denoting that this item selected and this item requires another item then the required
is field. For instance, type( computer graphics, field). item must follow the selected item. Exclude means if an item
is selected and this item excludes another item then the
Choiceof: excluded item must not be selected. Item can be field or
Syntax: choiceof(Id1,Id2). option.
Semantic: identifies the field of a specific option, i.e., assigns Here, we define the six relations to describe the constraint
each option to its field. Id2 is an option that belongs to the dependency rules discussed in [13], to be implemented in our
filed Id1. For instance, choiceof(computer graphics,2D proposed model. These relations are: option requires another
garphics). This example shows that “2D graphics” is an option option, option excludes another option, option requires field,
belongs to field “computer graphics”. option excludes field, field requires another field, and field
www.IJCSI.org 33
excludes another field. The relation, field require/exclude no-selected:
another field, is not included in the constraint dependency Syntax: no-selected(Idi,n).
rules because it could be divided into option require/exclude Semantic: the predicate no-selected(Idi,n) counts the number
another option relations. of selected items (Idi) in the student learning pathway. The
In our proposed modeling, six predicates are used to letter n is an integer denoting the number of selected Idi.
describe the constraint dependency rules. In the following, the
syntaxes and semantics of these predicates are illustrated: Table1 and Table 2 illustrate lower layer representation. Table
requires_option_option: 1 shows the representation of the filed “computer graphics”.
Syntax: requires_option_option(Id1,Id2). Table 2 illustrates representation of the option “distributed
Semantic: option requires another option. Id1 represents the systems”.
requiring option and Id2 represents the required option, e.g.,
requires_option_option(programming language theories, TABLE 1
REPRESENTATION OF THE FIELD COMPUTER GRAPHICS IN THE LOWER LAYER
advance discrete mathematics).
excludes_option_option: type(computer graphics, field).
Syntax: excludes_option_option(Id1, Id2). choiceof(computer graphics,2D graphics).
Semantic: option excludes another option. Id1 represents the choiceof(computer graphics,3D graphics).
exclusion option and Id2 represents the excluded option, e.g., choiceof(computer graphics, image processing).
requires_field_field(computer graphics, programming methodology and
excludes_option_option(database concepts, network operating languages).
systems). common(computer graphics, no).
requires_option_field: min(computer graphics,1).
Syntax: requires_option_field(Id1,Id2). max(computer graphics,3).
Semantic: option requires field. Id1 represents the requiring
TABLE 2
option and Id2 represents the required field, e.g., REPRESENTATION OF THE OPTION DISTRIBUTED SYSTEM IN THE LOWER
requires_option_field(client server programming, LAYER
programming language).
excludes_option_field: type(distributed systems, option).
common(distributed systems, no).
Syntax: excludes_option_field(Id1,Id2). excludes_option_field(distributed systems, computer graphics).
Semantic: option excludes field. Id1 represents the requiring
option and Id2 represents the excluded field, e.g.,
excludes_option_field(distributed systems, computer IV. VALIDATING THE SELECTION OF STUDENT
graphics). LEARNING PATHWAY
requires_field_field:
Syntax: requires_field_field(Id1,Id2). By validating the selections of students’ learning
Semantic: field requires another field. Id1 represents the pathway, we mean the checking of the satisfaction of four
requiring field and Id2 represents the required field, e.g., constraints: constraint dependency rules (require and exclude),
Requires_field_field(computer graphics, programming the relation between the field and its option, commonality
methodology and language) (whether the item is common or not), and cardinality of the
excludes_field_field: field. The proposed modeling triggers rules for validating the
Syntax: excludes_field_field(Id1, Id2). following constraints:
Semantic: field excludes another field. Id1 represents the 1) Constraint dependency rules. According to Pohl et al [13],
exclusion field and Id2 represents the excluded field, e.g., there are six constraint dependency rules;
excludes_field_field (computer network and communication, 2) The relation between the field and its options and vice
Artificial Intelligence). versa. As an example, if a field is selected, this means that
its common options are also selected;
3) Commonality. If the field is common, this means that it
d) Additional Predicates
must be included in any student pathway; and
In our proposed modeling, we use additional predicates to
4) Cardinality: Cardinality defines the maximum and
complete the validation operations. In the following, each
minimum numbers allowed to be selected from the any
additional predicate is defined:
field.
select: TABLE 3
Syntax: select(Idi). THE GENERAL VALIDATION RULES IN THE USER’S SELECTIONS
Semantic: the predicates select(Idi) mean that the item Idi is
selected by the user. Item could be either field or option. Definitions: type(Id1,field),type(Id2,field),type(Id3,option),type(Id4,option),
notselect: choiceof(Id1,Id4), and n is an integer.
Syntax: notselect(Idi).
Semantic: the predicates notselect(Idi) mean that the item Idi is
excluded from being part of the student learning pathway.
www.IJCSI.org 34
‫ ׊‬Id3, Id4: require_option_option(Id3, Id4) ‫ ר‬select(Id3) ฺ select(Id4) (1) Rule 10:
‫ ׊‬Id3, Id4: exclude_option_option(Id3 ,Id4) ‫ ר‬select(Id3)ฺ notselect(Id4) (2) For all option Id4 and field Id1; where Id4 is a common option
‫ ׊‬Id3, Id1:require_option_field(Id3, Id1) ‫ ר‬select(Id3) ฺ select(Id1) (3) and belongs to Id1 and Id1 is selected, then Id4 is selected.
This rule states that if an option is common and its field is
‫׊‬Id3, Id1: exclude_option_field(Id3, Id1) ‫ ר‬select(Id3) ฺ notselect(Id1) (4)
selected, then this option must be selected in all student
‫ ׊‬Id1, Id2: require_field_field(Id1, Id2) ‫ ר‬select(Id1) ฺ select(Id2) (5) learning pathway.
‫ ׊‬Id1, Id2:exclude_field_field(Id1, Id2) ‫ ר‬select(Id1) ฺ notselect(Id2) (6) Rule 11:
‫ ׊‬Id4, Id1: select(Id4) ฺ select(Id1) (7) For all field Id1; if Id1 is common, then Id1 is selected. This
rule states that if a field is common then it must be selected in
‫׌‬Id4 ,‫׊‬Id1: select(Id1) ฺ select(Id4) (8)
the learning pathway.
‫ ׊‬Id4, Id1: notselect(Id1) ฺ notselect(Id4) (9) Rule 12:
‫ ׊‬Id4, Id1: common(Id4,yes) ‫ ר‬select(Id1) ฺ select(Id4) (10) For all option Id4 and field Id1; where Id4 belongs to Id1 and
‫ ׊‬Id1: common(Id1,yes) ฺ select(Id1) (11) Id4 is selected, then the summation of Id4 must be less than
‫ ׊‬Id4, Id1:select(Id4) ‫( ר‬no_selected(Id4,n) ≥ max(Id1,n))ฺnotselect(Id4) (12) the maximum number that is allowed to be selected from Id1.
Rule 13:
‫ ׊‬Id4,Id1: select(Id4) ‫( ר‬no_selected (Id4,n) ≤ min(Id1,n))ฺnotselect(Id4) (13)
For all option Id4 and field Id1; where Id4 belongs to Id1 and
Id4 is selected, then the summation of Id4 must be greater than
Each of the rules in Table 3 is described in the following: the minimum number allowed to be selected from Id1. The
Rule 1: notselect predicate prevents any option or any field from being
For all options Id3 and Id4; if Id3 requires Id4 and Id3 is selected.
selected, then Id4 is selected.
Rule 2: V. RELATED WORKS
For all options Id3 and Id4; if Id3 excludes Id4 and Id3 is
selected, then the notselect predicate is assigned to Id4. In the literature, many researchers focused on cognitive
Rule 3: process when they study the students’ learning pathways. In
For all options Id3 and field Id1; if Id3 requires Id1 and Id3 is this paper, we focus in the real and physical selection of the
selected, then Id1 is selected. course materials. Mainly, this is a hot issue in E-learning
Rule 4: systems. Semet et al.[17] optimize the searching in students’
For all options id3 and field Id1; if Id3 excludes Id1 and Id3 is pathway using Ant Colony Optimization (ACO). In Semet et
selected, then the notselect predicate is assigned to Id1 . al.[17] model, the underlying structure of the E-learning
This rule is also applicable if the field is selected first: material is represented by a graph with valued arcs whose
‫ ׊‬Id3, Id1: type(Id3, option) ‫ ר‬type(Id1, field) ‫ר‬ weights are optimized by virtual ants that release virtual
exclude_option_field(Id3, Id1) ‫ ר‬select(Id1)ฺ notselect(Id3), pheromones along their paths. This gradual modification of
i.e., for all option Id3 and filed Id1; if Id3 excludes Id1 and Id1 is the graph’s structure improves learning pathways by matching
selected, then the notselect predicate is assigned to Id3. similar topics. Carchiolo et al. [18] provide adaptive
Rule 5: environment for E-learning system by defining different
For all field Id1 and field Id2; if Id1 requires Id2 and Id1 is learning pathways and match between students’ capabilities
selected, then Id2 is selected. and suitable pathway. Chen et al.[19] introduce association
Rule 6: rules to tune the learning pathway. The model in [18] mined
For all field Id1 and Id2; if Id1 excludes Id2 and Id1 is the learners’ profile to discover the common misconception
selected, then the notselect predicate is assigned to Id2. and after that tune courseware structure through modifying the
Rule 7: difficulty parameters of courseware in the courseware
For all option Id4 and field Id1; where Id4 belongs to Id1 and database. Wong and Looi [20] suggest ACO as a tool to adapt
Id4 is selected, this means that Id1 is selected. This rule the learning pathway. Our modeling can provide all the
determines the selection of the field if one of its options has functions that are discussed in [17-20]. To the best of our
been selected. knowledge, our work is the first work that introduces the
Rule 8: variability as a modeling technique in e-learning systems.
For all fields Id1 there exists an option Id4; if Id1 is selected
and Id4 belongs to Id1, then Id4 is selected. This rule states VI. CONCLUSION
that if a field has been selected, then the option(s) belonging to
this field must be selected. In reality, different types of students with different
Rule 9: backgrounds are using the same E-learning system. Therefore,
For all option Id4 and field Id1; where Id4 belongs to Id1 and modeling E-learning system to allow different students’
the predicate notselect is assigned to Id1, then the notselect pathways is a must. In this paper, we introduce a new model
predicate is assigned to Id4 also. This rule states that if a field for modeling students’ learning pathway. In this proposed
has been excluded, then none of its options must be selected.
www.IJCSI.org 35
modeling, variability is explicitly represented which satisfy information technologists on IT research in developing countries, White
the diversity. River, South Africa, pp 182 – 191, 2005.
In our model, the E-learning system is divided into group [16] Milašinović B., Fertalj, K., Using partially defined workflows for
course modelling in a learning management system. The 4th
of study areas. Each study area is also divided into groups of
International Conference on Information Technology (ICIT 2009),
fields, and each field is divided into groups of options. Our Amman, Jordan, 2009.
model consists of two layers. The first layer is graphical [17] Semet, Y., Jamont,Y., Biojout, R., Lutton, E., Collet, P. Artificial Ant
interface, and the second layer is mathematical representation Colonies and E-Learning: An Optimisation of Pedagogical Paths, Book
of the first one. In the second layer, fields and options are chapter in Human-computer interaction: theory and practice By Julie A.
represented using FOL predicates. Moreover, we introduce Jacko, Constantine Stephanidis, 2003.
FOL rules to validate the students’ learning pathway selection. [18] Carchiolo, V., Longheu, A., Malgeri, M., Adaptive Formative Paths in a
In our future work, we plan to implement this model in Web-based Learning Environment, Educational Technology & Society
our E-learning system of http://klas.msu.edu.my/login.php. 5(4) 2002.
[19] Chen ,C.M., Hsieh, Y. L., Hsu, S.H. Mining learner profile utilizing
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www.IJCSI.org 36
Logic Fusion of Color based on new Fast Feature extraction for

face authentication
M. Fedias 1, D. Saigaa2 and M.Boumehraz3
Genie electric Department, University of Biskra, MSE Laboratory

B.P 145 RP Biskra (07000), Algeria
Abstract co-occurrence parameters with different orientations.

Identity verification using face information is a challenging In this paper we propose a new approach using only
research area that was very active recently, mainly because first order statistical features. The proposed approach is
of its natural and non intrusive interaction with the based on the use of face image mean and standard
authentication system. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) deviation (MSD) as features. To demonstrate its
is a typical face based method which considers face as global
feature. In this paper, we propose a new face based
efficiency the new approach is compared with the well
authentication approach based on the use of face image mean established algorithm of Eigenfaces.
and standard deviation (MSD) as feature vector. Once the The main characteristic of the proposed approach is its
feature vector is extracted, the next stage consists in simplicity. In the proposed face authentication system,
comparing it with the feature vector of the claimed client the face image is collected by a camera. The subject
face. To demonstrate the efficiency of the MSD approach can arise in front of this one and according to the
many experiments have been done using XM2VTS database technique used the system extracts the characteristics
according to the protocol of Lausanne. The obtained results from the face to make the comparison with the
show that the proposed method is more efficient and faster characteristics of the claimed person which are
than PCA.
preserved in a database.
The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Section II
Keywords: PCA, face authentication, statistical pattern
recognition, feature extraction, Color. formulates the problem of face authentication. Section
III shows how to extract features from images with
PCA, and presents feature extraction procedure based
1. INTRODUCTION on MSD approach. Experimental results and the
analysis of these results are presented in Section IV.
Research in face recognition is currently one of the Finally, a conclusion and a brief discussion on future
most important computer vision applications, including research directions are outlined in Section V.
matching, surveillance, access control, personal
identification, forensic and law enforcement
applications. Face authentication system knows a priori 2. FACE AUTHENTICATION
the identity of the user (for example through its pin
code), and has to verify this identity; the system has to Face authentication systems often compare a feature
decide whether the a priori user is an impostor or not; it vector X extracted from the face image to verify with a
is a binary decision. client template, consisting in similar feature vectors Yi
PCA (Principal Component Analysis) [1][2], is one of extracted from images of the claimed person stored in a
the often used methods for feature extraction in face database ( i p, where p is the number of images of
authentication. Eigenfaces approach is based on this person in the learning set). The matching may be
Principal Components Analysis (PCA) dimensionality. made in different ways, one being to take the
The basic idea is to treat each image as a vector in a Euclidean distance between vectors. If the distance
high dimensional space. Then, PCA is applied to the between X and Yi is lower than a threshold, the face
set of images to produce a new reduced subspace that from which X is extracted will be deemed to
captures most of the variability between the input correspond with the face from which Yi is extracted.
images. The Principal Component Vectors Choosing the best threshold is an important part of the
(eigenvectors of the sample covariance matrix) are problem: a too small threshold will lead to a high False
called the Eigenfaces. Every input image can be Rejection Rate (FRR), while a too high one will lead to
represented as a linear combination of these eigenfaces a high False Acceptance Rate (FAR); FRR and FAR
by projecting the image onto the new eigenfaces space. are defined as the proportion of feature vectors
Recently, Mohan and al. [16] proposed a new method extracted from images in a validation set being
of face recognition based on a second order statistical wrongly classified, respectively wrongly authentified
texture features. The texture features are derived from and wrongly rejected. The validation and test sets must
www.IJCSI.org 37
be independent (though with faces of the same people) property, dimensionality reduction is an immediate
from the learning set, in order to get objective results. application of PCA.
One way of setting the threshold is to choose the one
leading to equal FRR and FAR. If the a priori Yi  W T xi (3)
probabilities of having false acceptances (impostors)
and false rejections are equal. We use the global
threshold leading to FRR = FAR in the remaining of WhereW  12 ...i ...m , m  n and W  nn .
this paper. The lower dimensional vector Yi  m captures the
most expressive features of the original data x i .
3. FEATURE EXTRACTION
3.2 Proposed approach MS
3.1 Principal component analysis When a large collection of numbers is assembled,
The principal component analysis (PCA) is a linear certain descriptive quantities such as the average or the
mathematical method to data analysis, the rule is to median are usually more significant than the values of
seek the directions of axes which maximizes the the individual numbers. In this paper, the face image
variance of the data and minimizes the variation feature extraction uses two descriptive quantities; the
squared compared to the axes [1][2][5][13][15][10]. mean(M) and standard deviation (SD) [6]-[9].
In face recognition, the training set of face images is
expressed as a set of random vectors where the rows of a. Mean
pixels in each image are placed one after the other to
form a one-dimensional image. The PCA is applied to The mean of a collection of pixels is their arithmetic
the matrix of image vectors. It consists in carrying out intensity value average, computed by adding them and
a reduction of dimensionality by coding the faces in a dividing the result by their their total number and is
new base formed by the first clean vectors defined by:
n
 xi
(EigenFaces) coming from the calculation of the PCA.
  i 1n
The EigenFaces method proceeds as follows:
(4)
Let A  ( x1 x 2 ...xi ...x N ) represents the (n  N ) data
matrix, where x i , i  1 ,..., N is the ith n
b. Standard Deviation
dimension face vector. Here n represents the total
number of pixels in the face image and N is the number The standard deviation (SD) is extremely important. It
the training set face images. The vector x i belongs to a is defined as the square root of the variance:
high dimensionality space.
Let   nn be the data matrix A covariance: n
 ( xi   ) 2
    ( xi   ( xi ))( xi   ( xi )) T  
N
i 1
(1) (5)
i 1 n
Where  (.) is the expectation operator. The PCA of a
If we consider the image as a matrix where every row
data matrix A factorizes its covariance matrix  into
and column is a numerically valued random variable,
the following form: the feature vector Yi is the concatenation of the
   T (2)
horizontal and vertical profile. Vertical profile and
horizontal profile are the combination between mean
and standard deviation of each row and column
With   12 ...i ...n  ,   diag 1, 2 ,....n  respectively. So the size of the feature is reduced
to (2  (n  m)) , where m is the number of columns and
Where   n n is an orthogonal eigenvector n is the number of rows .
matrix and   n n is a diagonal eigenvalue matrix The figure 1 and 2 represent an example of the mean
with diagonal elements in decreasing order and the standard deviation for one image.
(1   2  ...   n ) .
The most important PCA property is its optimal signal
reconstruction in the sense of minimum mean square
error when only a subset of principal components is
used to represent the original signal. Following this
www.IJCSI.org 38
of the claimed individual obtained from his database

images.
Furthermore, horizontal and vertical standard
deviation can be used to detect the position of human
face parts like eyes; mouth and nose which are located
at the maxima of the standard deviation and the figure
4 explain clearly this idea.
Fig.1 Mean of an image.
(a) (b)
(c)
Fig.4 Detection of eyes, mouth and nose of a human face by

vertical and horizontal standard deviation. (a) Image of the face, (b)
Vertical standard deviation, (c) Horizontal standard deviation.
Fig2. Standard deviation of an image.

4. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
4.1 Data base XM2VTS
The experiments were carried out on the frontal

face images of the XM2VTS data base. The choice of
this database is motivated by its big size, 295 people
and 2360 images in total and its popularity since it
became a standard in the audio and visual biometric
community of multimodal checking of identity [3]. The
XM2VTS database is a multi-modal database
containing 295 identities, among which 200 are used as
true clients (the remainders are considered as
impostors). Recordings were acquired during four
Fig.3 Feature vector of the MSD method. sessions over a period of five months under controlled
conditions (blue background, uniform illumination).
Figure 3 shows the feature vector which is the
Each session contains two pictures of each individual.
combination of the image rows and columns mean and
The protocol related to XM2VTS divides the database
standard deviation.
into two categories 200 clients and 95 impostors; the
subjects are of the two sexes and various ages. The
The principal of the proposed face authentication
photographs are color of high quality and size
system is based on the extraction and the comparison
(256x256).
of the MSD feature vector with the MSD feature vector
The data base is divided into three sets [4]:
www.IJCSI.org 39
1. The training set: contains information concerning

the known people of the system (clients) Afterwards, we apply a photonormalization. That
2. The evaluation set: used to establish client- wants quite simply to say that for each image, we
specific verification thresholds of the face withdraw from each pixel the average value of those on
authentication system. the image, and that we divide those by their standard
3. The test set: used to obtain estimates of the true deviation. Finally we make standardization. The
verification rate on independent data. photonormalization acts on an image whereas
For the class of impostors, 95 impostors are divided standardization acts on a group of images (for each
into two sets: 25 for the set of evaluation and 75 for the component, one withdraws the average of this
set of test. The sizes of the various sets are included in component for all the images and one divides by the
table I. standard deviation).
Table. I
Photos distribution in the various sets 4.3 Similarity measures and classification
Set Clients Imposters The similarity measures used in our experiments to
600 evaluate the efficiency of different representation and
Training 0
(3 by subject) authentication method are correlation similarity
600 200 measure, which are defined as follows:
Evaluation
(3 by subject) (8by subject)
Corr ( A, B)   ( Ai   A )( Bi   B )
N
400 400 (6)
Test
(2 by subject) (8by subject) i 1  A B
The threshold is fixed to have FAR= FRR on
The next figure represents some examples of faces in evaluation set; finally, the performances of the method
the data base XM2VTS. (including the threshold value) are measured on an
independent test set (on this set, FAR will not be
necessarily equal to FRR).
IV.4.1 Comparison between PCA and MS

Fig.5 represents some examples of faces images in the data base In order to assess the efficiency of the proposed
XM2VTS. method we compared it with the PCA approach.
The experiments were performed following the In table II we observe that the use of the mean or the
Lausanne Protocol Configuration I. standard deviation alone with photo-normalization and
correlation distance achieves a rate of success about
4.2 Preprocessing 85.66% and 84.06% respectively which are similar
with the result of the PCA approach without photo-
In order to reduce the computational complexity and normalization. But if we combined the mean and the
memory consumption we resize the face database from standard deviation we found that the rate of success
256x256 to 150x110. By looking at the images we note with MSD method is higher than PCA approach if we
the appearance of non desired characteristics on the applied photo-normalization and correlation distance
level of the neck, like the collars of shirt. In addition, for classification. The best rate of success is 89.48 %
the hair is a changing characteristic during time for the MSD method and 88.70% for the PCA
(change of cut, colour, baldness...). The background approach for the grey scale space.
inflates the size of the data unnecessarily. Finally the In general, the MSD method is more efficient than
ears cause a problem. If the person presents herself the PCA approach. The rate of success of MSD method
slightly differently in front of the camera (rotation), we is higher than PCA, and the MSD method is faster
can see only one ear. This is why we decided to cut because PCA involves the eigenvector computation of
the image vertically and horizontally and to keep only high-dimensional matrix. Furthermore, MSD method
one window of size 150x110 centred on the face. This doesn’t need an additional memory to store face
window is automatically extracted from the frontal features while the PCA approach needs a memory
image by a gradient projection based technique. space to preserve the projection space. Also, the
addition of new client to the authentication system
using MSD approach is straightforward and doesn’t
need any additional computations. However, for the
other methods like PCA, LDA [15] and EFM [17], the
(a) (b) addition of a new client needs the redoing of all
computations to extract a novel projection matrix.
Fig. 6 The image before (a) and after (b) Cutting.
www.IJCSI.org 40
From this table, we can see that the best results are Fig. 6 results of the MS method applying the wavelet9/7
obtained with the S component color of the HSV color
space followed by those of the component Y of color The following figure represents different distances
space XYZ, and the G component color of the color intra for clients and extra for impostors for the two sets
space RGB then by the luminance component of of evaluation and test.
I1I2I3, YUV, YIQ, YCbCr color spaces.
In particular, the proposed MSD method achieves
90.44 % success rate on face authentication using the
component S of the HSV color space with photo-
normalization and correlation distance for
classification. We can observe that the error rates in
validation and test sets are equal in the MSD method
with all color spaces, which demonstrates the stability
of the proposed approach
In order to reduce the feature vector dimensionality we
have applied a wavelet 9/7 filter to each gray image.
Figure 5 shows the three stage transform of the wavelet
9/7, and the success rate are shown in figure 6. When
the feature vector dimension was reduced to 62 with
the 3-stage wavelet 9/7 transform the success rate for
the MSD method is 85.80% witch is still acceptable
compared to the size of the original feature vector
equal to 520.
Fig. 5 the three stages transform of the wavelet9/7 of the face image
www.IJCSI.org 41
(a) (aa)
(b) (bb)
(c) (cc)
(dd)
(d)
Fig.7 Different distances by PCA and MS method for grey scale.
The table II shows error rates of the PCA and MSD method for different color spaces.
www.IJCSI.org 42
TABLE II DIFFERENT ERRORS RATE OF THE PCA AND MSD METHOD FOR DIFFERENT COLOR SPACES.
Dimension of Color Space or
Type of Validation Set Test Set feature vector Component
distance Photo-normalisation color
‘Correlation’ FAR= FRR FAR FRR SR (%)
PCA 7.55 7.66 7.75 84.60 NO 520 Grey

MSD 8.67 10.02 9.25 80.74 NO 520 Grey
PCA 4.67 6.54 4.75 88.70 YES 520 Grey
Mean 6.99 7.59 6.75 85.66 YES 260 Grey
Std 7.04 8.94 7.00 84.06 YES 260 Grey
MSD 5.47 5.77 4.75 89.48 YES 520 Grey
6.13 6.41 6.50 87.09 YES 520 R
MSD RGB 5.13 5.42 5.00 89.58 YES 520 G
4.35 4.44 6.75 88.81 YES 520 B
28.16 29.45 29.25 41.30 YES 520 H
MSD HSV 4.13 4.81 4.75 90.44 YES 520 S
5.80 6.12 6.75 87.13 YES 520 V
5.64 5.93 5.75 88.32 YES 520 X
MSD XYZ 5.51 5.78 4.50 89.72 YES 520 Y
4.46 4.54 6.75 88.71 YES 520 Z
5.49 5.76 4.75 89.49 YES 520 I1
MSD I1I2I3 5.54 5.77 6.25 87.98 YES 520 I2
8.81 8.06 9.75 82.19 YES 520 I3
5.47 5.76 4.75 89.49 YES 520 Y
MSD YUV 5.03 4.96 6.50 88.54 YES 520 U
5.16 5.07 6.00 88.93 YES 520 V
5.47 5.76 4.75 89.49 YES 520 Y
MSD YIQ 5.47 5.27 5.50 89.23 YES 520 I
13.46 14.55 19.50 65.95 YES 520 Q
5.47 5.76 4.75 89.49 YES 520 Y
MSD YCbCr 5.04 4.97 6.50 88.53 YES 520 Cb
5.14 5.04 6.00 88.96 YES 520 Cr
www.IJCSI.org 43
FAR FRR SR (%)
I1I2I3 0.81 14.50 84.69
HSV 0.65 35.75 63.60

IV.4.2 Logic Fusion of Color decisions for MSD
method RGB 3.13 8.75 88.12
In this section, we investigate the use of a logic fusion XYZ 3.88 8.00 88.12
decision of the three component colors of each color
YCbCr 0.73 11.50 87.77
space in order to improve the performance of the face
authentication system [14]. YIQ 0.35 23.25 76.40
Table III explains the logic fusion of decisions with the
YUV 0.73 11.50 87.77
three component colors in each color space.
With the logic fusion 2AND we obtain stable results
Table III logic fusion of colors decisions shown in table VI.
Color Decision Of each Logic fusion
Table VI error rate with the Logic fusion 2AND
component component Color
OR 2 AND AND FAR FRR SR (%)
I1I2I3 5.54 4.75 89.71
Component 01 Client
HSV 4.27 4.00 91.73
Component 02 Impostor Client Client Impostor
RGB 5.07 5.25 89.68
Component 03 Client XYZ 5.64 4.75 89.61
YCbCr 3.21 4.25 92.54
With the logic fusion OR we obtain the results shown in YIQ 3.07 5.25 91.68
table IV. YUV 3.21 4.25 92.54
Table IV error rate with the Logic fusion OR
OR in test set
With OR logic fusion the system can be used in low
security because the FRR<<FAR with rate of success
FAR FRR SR (%) about 89.01 % using XYZ color space.
With a logic fusion AND the system can be used in a
I1I2I3 13.23 1.50 85.27 high security because the FAR<<FRR. The system
HSV 35.47 1.00 63.53 rejects clients easily so it is a very strict system, the rate
of success SR about 88.12 % with a XYZ or RGB color
RGB 8.07 4.25 87.68
space.
XYZ 6.74 4.25 89.01 We observed that the use of the logic fusion 2AND
improve the performance of the face authentication
YCbCr 11.84 1.50 86.66
system, the best rate of success SR is 92.54 % with the
YIQ 22.16 1.25 76.59 color space YUV and YCbCr.
Finally, we can conclude that the color decision logic
YUV 11.85 1.50 86.65
fusion improves the performance of the face
authentication system especially with the use of the YUV
With the logic fusion AND we obtain the results shown or YCbCr color space and correlation distance measure
in table V. for classification. Also, it represents an improvement in
the rate of success about 03% compared to the use of
images represented in grey level.
5. CONCLUSION
In this paper, an MSD face authentication approach is
proposed. The MSD method has many advantages over
Table V error rate with the Logic fusion AND conventional PCA approach. In the first place, since
AND in test set MSD method is based on the use of image mean and
standard deviation as image features, it is simpler and
www.IJCSI.org 44
faster than PCA which involves calculating the [10] G. Shakhnarovich, B. Moghaddam, “Face Recognition in
Subspaces.” Handbook of Face Recognition, Eds. Stan Z. Li
eigenvectors of a big covariance matrix. Secondly, it has
and Anil K. Jain, Springer-Verlag, December 2004.
a high success rate which made it better to use for [11] A. Bronstein, M. Bronstein, and R. Kimmel, “Expression-
authentication systems. Third, MSD method needs a invariant 3D face recognition.” Proc. Audio & Video-based
lower memory size than PCA which need more memory Biometric Person Authentication (AVBPA),Lecture Notes in
size for projection matrix storage. Furthermore, new Comp. Science 2688, Springer, pp. 62-69, 2003.
[12] C. Kotropoulos, I. Pitas, S. Fischer, B. Duc, and J. Bign.
client addition to the MSD based authentication system "Face authentication using morphological dynamic link
is not a problem; we can add a new client directly to the architecture". In Proceedings of the First International
training data. However, this can be difficult with other Conference on Audio- and Video-based Biometric Person
methods like PCA, LDA or EFM which need to redo all Authentication, Lecture Notes in Computer Science.
Springer Verlag, 1997.
the computations to extract a novel projection matrix. [13] P. Hancock, V. Bruce, A. M. Burton. “Testing Principal
But the difficulty caused by facial expression and aging Component Representations for Faces.” 4th Neural
still exists for the MSD method like PCA. Computation and Psychology Workshop, London, England,
MSD approach achieves 90.44% as face authentication Springer pp. 84-97, 1998.
[14] A. Ford and A. Roberts. Colour space conversions. August
success rate using correlation distance and component 1998.
color S of the HSV color space. With the use of a color [15] P. N. Belhumeur, J. P. Hespanha, and D. J. Kriegman.
decision logic fusion, MSD method achieves 92.54% as Eigenfaces vs. Fisherfaces: Recognition using class specific
success rate using color space YUV or YCbCr and linear projection. IEEE Trans. on Pattern Recognition and
Machine Intelligence, 19(7):711– 720, 1997.
correlation distance. This means that the use of color [16] Mohan et al. ‘A New Method of Face Recognition Based on
information with a color decisions logic fusion in the Texture Feature extraction on individual components of face
proposed MSD method using color space YUV or / pp. 69-74 International Journal of Signal and Image
YCbCr represents an improvement of 03% in the rate of Processing (Vol.1-2010/Iss.2).
[17] M.Fedias, D.Saigaa’ Nonlinear fusion of colors to face
success compared to the use of grey scale images. authentication using EFM method’ Journal of applied
As future work we propose the use of nonlinear computer science & mathematics, no. 9 (4) /2010, Suceava,
fusion of different components of colors to improve Romania.
MSD approach efficiency.
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[3] K. Messer, J. Matas, J. Kittler et K. Jonsson : Xm2vtsdb :
The extended m2vts database. Audio- and Video-based
Biometric Person Authentication (AVBPA), pages 72–77,
Mars 1999.
[4] J. Luettin and G. Maitre. “Evaluation protocol for the
extended M2VTS database”. IDIAP, available at:
http://www.ee.surrey.ac.uk/Research /VSSP/xm2vtsdb/face-
avbpa2001/protocol.ps, 1998.
[5] T. D. Bie, N. Cristianini, and R. Rosipal. Handbook of
Geometric Computing, chapter Eigenproblems in Pattern
Recognition, pages 129–167. Springer Berlin Heidelberg,
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[6] Fukunaga, K. Introduction to Statistical Pattern Recognition,
Springer, second ed., Academic Press, New York 1990.
[7] L.F Chen et Al. Why recognition in a statistics based face
recognition system should be based on the pure face
purtion : a probabilistic decision based proof. Pattern
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[8] Y.N. Vapnik, The Nature of statistical learning theory,
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[9] Schneiderman, H., and Kanade, T. "A Statistical Method for
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www.IJCSI.org
Efficient Application-Level Causal Multicasting for Pre-Planned

Sensor Networks Using Resynchronization Method
Chayoung Kim1 and Jinho Ahn2*
1
Contents Convergence Software Research Center, Kyonggi University
2
Dept. of Computer Science, College of Natural Science, Kyonggi University
most meaningful information from the data collected by

Abstract the distributed sensor nodes, to make decisions in a
In this paper, we present a causal order guaranteeing multicast reliable and efficient manner. Therefore, the
protocol based on sensor brokers as publishers that aggregate the implementation of the communication protocols such as
information of results in sensor networks, periodically gossiping data aggregation, data propagation and collaborative
about the result messages to the query nodes according to their interaction processing, explored as sensor network services,
interesting topics. Although subscribers’ join and leave are
highly perturbed in such sensor networks, some sensors can form
can significantly affect energy consumption and end-to-
overlapping multicast groups and query nodes as subscribers end delay in WSNs [13, 18]. Data aggregation and
receive the results of the queries based on gossip-style compression reduce communication cost and increase
dissemination. Each sensor broker manages a vector for each reliability of data transfer and aid in reducing the amount
overlapping multicast group that represents its knowledge for of data to be transferred [13, 18]. And these above
every member of the group, and uses a vector whose dimension applications in WSN need a variety of collaboration
is the number of groups to time-stamp message. Each sensor features, such as chat windows, white boards, p2p video
broker needs piggybacking only one value per group for each and other media streams, and coordination mechanisms
message, which carries only one vector. Also, the broker makes
[13, 14, 15, 18]. Therefore a new data dissemination
information of the causally ordered delivery list and attaches the
list to all messages. It gossips about them to their subscribers in
paradigm for such sensor networks is required to handle
overlapping multicast groups Therefore, this protocol guarantees data propagation and aggregation generated by a very
causally ordered delivery of messages in a highly reliable manner large number of sensor nodes in an efficient manner [10,
using gossip-style dissemination technique. 16]. There are several researches based on the P
Keywords: Sensor Network, Reliable Group Communication, (publish)/S (subscribe) paradigm in the area of sensor
Overlapping Groups, Scalability, Resynchronization. network communications to address the problem of
querying sensors from subscribing nodes in order to
minimize the number of sent result packets [10, 16]. In P/S
1. Introduction paradigm systems, a query node periodically runs an
algorithm to identify the sensors it wishes to track and
Wireless sensor networks(WSNs) are gaining high "subscribe" to these sensors of its interesting topics, and
attention from academia and industry with its potentially the sensors periodically "publish" [10, 16]. In a grid cell of
infinite applicability to a lot of areas, being actively WSN, sensor nodes might lead to making overlapping
researched for energy-efficiency and optimization in multicast groups organized by subscriber's interests and
various aspects. Their architectural styles are categorized using this grouping, a priori known to all subscriber nodes,
in two approaches, structured and unstructured. An query nodes can be quite easily mapped onto topics [16].
unstructured WSN is one that constrains a dense collection These overlapping groups are prevailing in such networks
of sensor nodes, deployed in an ad hoc manner into the and forcing researchers to reconsider issues about novel
field. A structured WSN consists of all or some of the types of group communication facilities to satisfy the
sensor nodes which are deployed in a pre-planned manner complicated requirements stated earlier [16, 18]. In this
[18]. Especially, in terrestrial pre-planned deployment, paper, we present a causal order guaranteeing multicast
there is grid placement, optimal placement, 2-d and 3-d protocol based on sensor brokers as publishers that
placement model [18]. The challenge is how to gain the aggregate the information of results in sensor networks,
www.IJCSI.org
periodically gossiping about the result messages to the messages, or corruption of message i.e. we do not consider
query nodes to subscribe according to their interest topics. Byzantine failures.
Although subscribers join and leave are highly perturbed In proposed protocols, a group of processes is defined
in such sensor networks, some sensors can form through two primitives, PMCAST and PDELIVER, which
overlapping multicast groups and query nodes as use gossip protocols to provide probabilistic reliability in
subscribers receive the results of the queries based on networks. Processes communicate with these two pairs of
gossip-style dissemination. Each sensor broker manages a primitives, PMCAST and PDELIVER, which model
vector per overlapping multicast group, that represents its unreliable communication associated with probability  of
knowledge for each member of the group and use a vector successful message transmission. We refer to probability 
whose dimension is the number of groups to time-stamp as the expected reliability degree. These primitives are as
message. Each sensor broker needs for each message follows: (Integrity) For any message m, every correct
piggybacking of only one value per group, so a message process PDELIVER m at most once, and only if m was
carries only one vector. Also, the broker makes previously PMCAST by send(m). (Validity) If a correct
information of the causally ordered delivery list and process p PMCASTs a message m then p eventually
attaches the list to all messages. It gossips about them to PDELIVERs m. (Probabilistic Agreement) Let p and q be
their subscribers in overlapping multicast groups. This two correct processes. If p PDELIVERs a message m, then
protocol guarantees causally ordered delivery of messages with the probability of , q PDELIVERs m. In other terms,
in a highly reliable manner using gossip-style the only probabilistic property is Agreement. This
dissemination protocols, yet still achieving high degree of probabilistic notion of agreement also captures a weakly
both scalability and reliability rather than those of the consistent membership of local view, typical for large
protocols by traditional reliable group communication. scale settings.
2. System Model 3. The New Application-Level Causal

In the distributed system, a group consists of a set of
Multicast
processes. Processes join and leave the system
3.1 Basic Idea
dynamically and have ordered distinct identifiers. The
process maintains a local membership list called a "local We assume that in our proposed protocol based on sensor
view". It can send unicast messages to another process brokers, some sensors designed as brokers can form
through the communication network. A finite set of overlapping multicast groups and query nodes subscribe to
processes communicate only by exchanging messages over the brokers publishing their interest topics. The mapping
a fully connected, point-to-point network. Processes of subscribers and brokers (publishers) is entirely driven
communicate using the primitives send(m) and receive(m). by the application matching their interest queries. Recently,
Communication links are fair-lossy, but correct processes much research has been devoted to designing broker
can construct reliable communication links on top of fair- selection methods that best suits application needs [10, 16].
lossy links by periodically retransmitting messages. Each Common sensors can update information periodically to
member performs operations according to a local clock. some of its brokers based on gossip communication
Clock rates at all members are the same. Runs of the protocols or other highly reliable communications and the
system proceed in a sequence of rounds. Members may brokers might aggregate the query results by combining
undergo two types of failures, both probabilistic in nature. reports from several sensors [10, 16]. There is a two-
The first is process failure. There is an independent, per- dimensional area of interest (AoI), which the sensor broker
process probability of at most that a process has a crash publishes messages to a particular topic, while query nodes
failure during the finite duration of a protocol. Such subscribe to all the topics that match their interests. It is
processes are called faulty. Processes that survive despite possible that there are two or more brokers in a grid and
the failures are correct. The second type of failures is each broker can know every other broker. All brokers
message omission failure. There is an independent, per- representing a sensor grid and having interests of their
message probability of at most δ that a message between subscribers can participate in overlapping multicast groups.
non-faulty processes experiences a send omission failure. But, if all subscribers in a grid lose their interests in
The union of all message omission failure events and information published on a particular topic, the brokers
process failure events are mutually independent. For representing the grid send leave messages to the
simplicity, we do not include process recovery in the corresponding overlapping multicast groups and then all of
model. Also, we expect that both and δ are small their group members are updated by leaving brokers. The
probabilities. There are no malicious faults, spurious sensor brokers periodically gossip about the messages of
the results, while guaranteeing the message delivery order,
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such as causally ordered delivery, with aggregating the
information of the results in overlapping multicast groups.
In this protocol based on sensor brokers, we present a
causal order guaranteeing multicast protocol supporting
overlapping multicast groups and useful for distributed
applications with a variety of collaboration features, such
as chat windows, white boards, p2p video and other media
streams, and coordination mechanisms requiring causally
ordered delivery of messages. In this protocol, because
Fig. 1 An example of each sensor broker publishing messages to
every broker knows every other brokers, it manages a subscribers by gossip-style disseminations
vector per group, that represents its knowledge for each
member of the group, of the number of message multicast 3.2 Detailed Description
by this member within this group, as same as a member in
the protocol of Birman et. al. [2]. In the protocol [2], each In figure 1, we can see that each sensor broker A121, B124
member, pi has to manage a vector per group and each involved in overlapping multicast groups, Group1 and
message has to piggyback the whole set of these vectors. It Group2, respectively in a grid A and B of a sensor network.
is correct but expensive. Therefore, we propose the Each broker publishes desired messages of query results to
protocol similar to that of [12] that needs for each message all query nodes subscribing to their brokers based on
piggybacking of only one value per group. So a message interest topics by gossip-style disseminations. Figure 2
carries only one vector whose dimension is the number of shows that all sensor brokers implement the rules that
groups. There is a trade-off between the optimality in guarantee causally ordered delivery of messages in a
terms of the delay in the delivery of messages and the size sensor network like in Fig. 1. In this paper, we implement
of vectors carried by messages. The choice of a particular the protocol similar to that of [12] in each broker. In figure
protocol actually depends on various kinds of factors in the 2, Gi is the set of groups that pi is member of.
distributed applications [12].
For data dissemination between sensor brokers as
publishers and subscribers, every sensor broker makes the
causally ordered delivery list by aggregating information
based on VTs of overlapping multicast groups and attaches
the list to all messages. It gossips about the result
messages with the causally ordered delivery list to their
subscribers and periodically updates the digest information
of causally ordered delivery list using gossip protocols.
Therefore, this proposed protocol might result in its very
low cost compared with the cost incurred by traditional
reliable group communication protocols [2] because this
protocol makes up transient message losses between
publishers and subscribers and deals with subscribers’
leave using gossip communication protocols[16]. That is,
the processing of traditional group communication
protocol [2] is different from that of the protocol based on
gossip [3, 5]. This assumption has led to rigorously
establish many desirable features of gossip protocols like Fig. 2 An example of each sensor broker processing the information for
the causally ordered delivery based on the highest time-stamped value
scalability, reliability, and efficiency and a wide range of and each vector per group
higher functions, which include information dissemination,
aggregation, and network management [10, 16]. Each sensor broker pi manages a local array
expectedgxi[1..n](initialized to (0, ..., 0)) where n is the
number of broker members constituting the group, gx; an
entry has the following meaning: [12]
for gx ‫ ג‬Gi, pj ‫ ג‬gx :

expectedgxi[j] = હ: It indicates pi's knowledge that the next
timestamp used by pj to multicast within gx will be greater
or equal to હ.
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all messages from g1 and g2. Subscriber s1 receives
In order to guarantee causally ordered delivery of messages only from g1 and s4 receives messages only from
messages, each pi manages a vector Ki of size |G| (one g2. On receiving gossip messages, a subscriber validates its
entry per group) and uses the vector Ki to timestamp receipt of predecessor messages according to causal order
messages. The meaning of Ki initialized to (0, ..., 0) is as delivery list, m1g1->m2g2->m3g2 piggybacked by the
follows: messages. Also, there are undesired messages are sent to a
subscriber, forcing it to discard them. When s1 belonging
Ki[x] = હ: હ is the highest timestamp value concerning gx to g1 receives gossip messages from broker p2, it discards
and known by pi. m2g2 and m3g2 without delivering them to the application
If pi ‫ ג‬gx , Ki[x] = expected i[i] holds[12].
gx layer because s1 does not belong to g2. Subscriber s2
requests m1g1 to the latest gossip sender after receiving
m2g2 and m3g2 because it knows that the predecessor, m1g1 is
This "expectedg11 = (0, 0,*)" means as follows: "process p1
not received by verifying piggybacked causal order list,
belongs to g1 and each entry, p1 and p2 is a member of
m1g1->m2g2->m3g2 . Subscribers4 requests m2g2 to the latest
group g1 and p3 does not participate in the group g1". For
gossip sender after receiving m3g2 but it discards m1g1
each message generated by a member, each vector,
because it does not belong to g1.
expectedgxi[j] and Ki[x] is incremented by one respectively.
Figure 4 shows that a sensor broker, pi implements the
So, if a member p1 belonging to g1 generates a multicast
proposed protocol in this paper. In procedure INITIALIZE,
message, then expected 1 and K1 is (1, 0, *) and (1, 0)
g1
pi initializes vectors expectedgxi[j] and Ki[x] for each group
g1
respectively. In the causal order of p1(m1 )->p2(m2 )- g2
gx. In procedure SEND_MULTICAST, pi sends multicast
>p2(m3g2) of Fig. 3, sensor brokers aggregate the messages to broker members constituting each group, gx.
information about the causally ordered delivery list based In procedure SEND_GOSSIP, pi gossips about multicast
on the following condition becoming true: for ∀gx ‫ ג‬Gi, messages to subscribers randomly selected as gossip-
targets in its local view. If there are no new messages, pi
∀pj ‫ ג‬gx : expectedgxi[j] ‫ ؤ‬Ki[x]. When p3 knows there is a gossips about the summary of causal order delivery list. In
message m2g2 preceding m3g2 by verifying piggybacked procedure RECEIVE_RESYNCH, on receiving resynch
vector information, p3 should delay the delivery of the (the highest timestamp information) message from pj, pi
message m3g2 after the receipt of the predecessor, m2g2. updates expectedgxi[j] accordingly, like the protocol of [12].
In procedure RECEIVE_MULTICAST, pi receives
multicast messages from pj and processes them according
to piggybacked vectors. So, pi puts the received message
into the Pending_List and then updates expectedgxi[j] to
k+1. If necessary, expectedgxi[j] is updated and the new
timestamp is multicast using resynch message. If the
delivery condition, ∀gx ‫ ג‬Gi, ∀pj ‫ ג‬gx : expectedgxi[j] ‫ ؤ‬Ki[x]
is satisfied and the message is delivered to the application
layer. In procedure SEND_SOLICITATION, subscriber si
requests the not-received predecessor messages to the
latest gossip sender, pi, after verifying piggybacked causal
order list from sensor broker pi. In procedure
RECEIVE_SOLICITATION, on receiving solicitation
message, pi gossips about the requested messages by
attaching causal order lists to the subscriber si.
4. Performance Evaluation
Fig. 3 An example of each sensor broker gossiping about messages
including a causal order delivery list for subscribers In this section, we compare average throughput of our
protocol based on gossip-style dissemination protocol
Figure 3 shows that all sensor brokers gossip about between sensor brokers and subscribers with that of a
messages piggybacking a causal order delivery list to previous protocol based on traditional reliable group
subscribers associated with their interesting topics. This communication using resynch messages carrying a
example of Fig. 3 illustrates sensor brokers(publishers) , timestamp indicating that the next phase in a member will
g1={p1,p2} and g2={p2,p3} and subscribers={s1,s2,s3,s4}. possibly send messages [12]. In this comparison, we rely
The subscribers={s2,s3}, overlapped in two groups receive
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on a set of parameters referred to Bimodal Multicast [3] Procedure INITIALIZE
and LPBCast [5] for gossiping parameters. Expected[i]gx (Vector timestamp for each group gx,)
And we assume that processes gossip in periodic rounds, K[gx] (MAX timestamp values for each group gx)
gossip period is constant and identical for each process and
maximum gossip round is log N. The probability of
network message loss is a predefined 0.1% and the Procedure SEND_MULTICAST
probability of process crash during a run is a predefined for all interest groups, x do
0.1% using UDP/IP. The group size of each sub-figure is Unreliable_Multicast(msg, K[gx], x) to gx
32(2), 64(4), 128(8) and 256(16). Expected[i]gx = Expected[i]gx + 1
K[gx] = Expected[i]gx
Procedure SEND_GOSSIP
select subscribers as gossip-target in Local_View
for each subscriber do
DIGEST = the summary of delivered msgs in causal order
Gossip_MSG(msg with DIGEST)
if Periodically GOSSIP then
Gossip_MSG(DIGEST)
do Garbage_Collection
Procedure RECEIVE_RESYNCH(time)
Expected[j]gx = timestamp
Procedure RECEIVE_MULTICAST
put (msg, K[gx], x) in Pending_List
Expected[j]gx = K[gx] + 1
if Expected[i]gx < K[gx] + 1 then
Expected[i]gx = K[gx] + 1
Ki[gx] = K[gx] + 1
Multicast_Resynch(K[gx] + 1)
for every msg in Pending_List do
for all interest groups, x do
Expected[j]gx >= K[gx] then
deliver msg to the application
remove msg from Pending_List
Ki[gy]=max(K[gy],Ki[gy]) in all groups, y, not interested
call Procedure SEND_GOSSIP
Procedure SEND_SOLICITATION
check DIGEST piggybacked with msg
if there are msg, not received then
call for SOLICITATION to the Sensor_Broker
Procedure RECEIVE_SOLICITATION
DIGEST = the summary of delivered msgs in causal order
Gossip_MSG(msg with DIGEST) to the Subscriber
Fig. 4 Formal form of our proposed protocol

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is very expensive. In gossip-style dissemination networks,
Figure 5 shows the average throughput as a function of there is no ACK mechanism because members periodically
perturb rate for various group sizes. The x-axis is the gossip about the summary of received messages. So, we
group size (the number of overlapping groups) and the y- argue that gossip-style dissemination approach outperform
axis is the number of messages processed in the perturb computations in a distributed fashion without any
rate, (a)20%, (b)30%, (c)40% and (d)50%. In the four sub- synchronous computation and in terms of memory
figures from 6(a) to 6(d), the average throughput of overhead. There are no needs of big memory between
causally ordered delivery protocol based on sensor brokers (publishers) and subscriber because subscribers
broker(publishers) by gossiping about messages to receive aggregated causal order delivery list from them
subscribers is not a rapid change than that of the protocol without any information of computation.
based on traditional reliable group communication by
resynch messages [12] among members. Especially, the
two protocols are compared to each other in terms of 5. Related Work
scalability by showing how many members execute by
phases; in each phase each member multicasts exactly one Recently, there is a multicast platform based on gossip
message. In perturbed networks with members join and technique, Quicksilver Multicast Platform [15]. QSM is
leave, synchronous multicast-based executions [12] are built in two layers. One extends a system such .NET to
very expensive because events of sending and receiving support live objects by embedding them in the .NET
messages are governed by application that do not always common language runtime, as well as focusing on the
progress synchronously. hooks connecting the objects to the .NET type system and
the Windows shell (the GUI that interprets mouse actions).
Quicksilver's second layer provides the scalable and
extensible communication infrastructure needed to make
the objects "live" and "distributed" [14]. Live distributed
objects [14] are designed to offer developers a scalable
multicast infrastructure such as QSM that's tightly
integrated with a runtime environment. A live object can
be understood as a distributed mechanism through which a
group of software components communicate with each
other, share data, exchange events, and coordinate actions
in a decentralized, p2p fashion. A live object can represent,
for example, a streaming video, a news channel, a
collaboratively edited document, a replicated variable, or a
fault-tolerant service. If live objects were to take off, they
could be the gateway to an active, trustworthy Web. An
active Web based on live objects could be a world with
millions of IPTV streams and live electronic health records
that integrate regional medical providers, or banking
systems that could trade "live" financial instruments. And
such kind of collaborative applications will need to
combine two types of content: traditional web service
hosted content, such as data from geographic and
Fig. 5 Simulation results
topologic map servers, image repositories, and other
databases, with a variety of collaboration features, such as
The proposed protocol based on sensor brokers is more chat windows, white board, p2p video and other media
scalable because communications between brokers streams, and coordination mechanisms [9].
(publishers) and subscribers are based on gossip-style Early work in gossip-style protocol, Birman et al. [3]
disseminations and sensor brokers among themselves use proposes bimodal multicast thanks to its two phases: a
traditional reliable group communications. We know that "classic" best-effort multicast such as IP multicast is used
which approach is more preferable depends on the user for the first rough dissemination of messages. The second
applications. If the underlying network is a communication phase assures reliability with a certain probability by using
bus, multicasting resynch messages to all the other a gossip based retransmissions. But Lpbcast [5] proposes
members consists of only one operation. But, in the gossip-style broadcast membership mechanisms based on
network layers not using some sort of ACK mechanism to a partial view without a global view. Each process has a
ensure reliability, such a use of additional resynch message randomly chosen local view of the system. Lpbcast [5] is a
www.IJCSI.org
completely as a decentralized membership protocol "location-specific 3D animated constructs" in virtual
because of no dedicated messages for membership worlds to in-building sensors [11]. MIT has also created a
management based on gossips. In P. Eugster et. al. [6], the whole portal network that maps sensors to virtual worlds,
protocol deals with the case of multicasting events only to called the Ubiquitous Sensor Portal [11]. There are 45
subsets of the processes in a large group by relying on a portals currently in the Media Lab, each one featuring a
specific orchestration of process as a superimposition of myriad of environmental sensors - such as motion, light
spanning trees. and sound level, vibration, temperature, and humidity.
As a fundamental problem in distributed computing, much They have a small touch-screen display and audio speaker,
effort has been invested in solving atomic broadcast. Early for user interaction.
work such as [2] mostly focuses on stronger notions of
Agreement and also membership than the proposed
protocols discussed in this paper. Also, there are some 6. Conclusions
works to solve atomic delivery order in gossip-style
protocol such as atomic probabilistic broadcast (apbcast) In this paper, we present a causal order guaranteeing
[7], a hybrid approach implemented for publish/subscribe multicast protocol based on sensor brokers as publishers
programming. Its deterministic ordering of messages that aggregate the information of results in sensor
ensures the consistency of the delivery order of broadcast networks, periodically gossiping about the result messages
messages and its probabilistic propagation of broadcast to the query nodes to subscribe according to their interest
messages and order information provides a high level of topics. Although subscribers join and leave are highly
reliability in the face of an increasing number of process perturbed in such sensor networks, some sensors can form
failures because of more heroic efforts by making use of overlapping multicast groups and query nodes as
the membership of delegates. Probabilistic Atomic subscribers receive the results of the queries based on
Broadcast (pabcast) [8] is fully probabilistic by mixing gossip-style dissemination. Each sensor broker manages a
message atomic ordering and propagation, basing these on vector per overlapping multicast group that represents its
gossips without a membership of delegates. But, a knowledge for each member of the group, and uses a
promising approach for increasing scalability is to weaken vector whose dimension is the number of groups to time-
the deterministic ordering guarantees to make the stamp message. Each sensor broker needs for each
properties of dependencies between broadcast messages message piggybacking of only one value per group, so a
probabilistic. Also, it does not give the guarantees message carries only one vector. Also, the broker makes
achieved for the consistency of the delivery order of information of the causally ordered delivery list and
overlapping groups. attaches the list to all messages. It gossips about the
To ensure the causal order in [2], each process manages a aggregated result messages based on topics with the
vector of integers per group and each message is time- information of causal order list to their subscribers.
stamped with the whole set of vectors of the sending Therefore, this protocol guarantees causally ordered
process. This protocol is correct but expensive. So, in [12], delivery of messages in a highly reliable manner using
the paper proposes a protocol that needs for each message gossip-style dissemination protocols, yet still achieving
the piggybacking of only one value per group, so a high degree of both scalability and reliability rather than
message carries only one vector of integers whose those of the protocols by traditional reliable group
dimension is the number of groups. In a real system, the communication.
choice of a particular protocol actually depends on several
factors. We use the protocol, like that of [12] because our
protocol stands for structured sensor networks in a pre-
planned manner.
References
[1] I. Akyildiz, W. Su, Y. Sankarasubramaniam, and E. Cayirci,
And there are researches based on the P (publish)/S “A survey on Sensor Networks”, IEEE Communications
(subscribe) paradigm in the area of sensor network Magazine. Vol. 40, No. 8, 2002, pp. 102-114.
communications to approach the problem of querying [2] K. Birman, A. Schiper and P. Stephenson, "Lightweight
sensors from mobile nodes [10, 16]. Directed Diffusion Causal and Atomic Group Multicast", ACM Transactions on
[10] can be seen as publish-subscribe mechanism, which is Computer Systems, Vol.9, No.3, pp.272-314, 1991.
implemented using the tree-based architecture rooted at the [3] K. Birman, M. Hayden, O. Ozkasap. Z. Xiao, M. Budiu and
publisher. SENSTRACT [16] is mapping from queries to Y. Minsky, "Bimodal Multicast," ACM Transactions on
topics and the corresponding underlying sensor network Computer Systems, Vol.17, No.2, pp.41-88, 1999.
[4] D. Culler, D. Estrin, and M. Srivastava, “Overview of Sensor
structure. SENSTRACT [16] is a tree-based P/S system Networks”, IEEE Computer, Vol. 37, No. 8, pp.41-49, 2004.
structured by service providers as roots, representing one [5] P. Eugster, R. Guerraoui, S. Handurukande, P. Kouznetsov,
of the data-centric routing protocols for data dissemination and A.-M. Kermarrec, "Lightweight probabilistic broadcast",
of sensor networks. Cross Reality is about connecting
www.IJCSI.org
ACM Transactions on Computer Systems, Vol.21, No.4, pp.341- interests include distributed computing, group communications and
374, Nov. 2003. peer-to-peer computing.
[6] P. Eugster and R. Guerraoui, "Probabilistic Multicast",
Proceedings of the 2002 International Conference on Dependable JINHO AHN(Corresponding author) received his B.S., M.S. and
Systems and Networks, pp.313-324, Vienna, Austria, June 2002. Ph.D. degrees in Computer Science and Engineering from Korea
University, Korea, in 1997, 1999 and 2003, respectively. He has
[7] P. Eugster, "Atomic Probabilistic Broadcast", EPFL,
been an associate professor in Department of Computer Science,
IC_TECH_REPORT_200303. Kyonggi University. He has published more than 70 papers in
[8] P. Felber, and F. Pedone, “Probabilistic Atomic Broadcast”, refereed journals and conference proceedings and served as
in Proceedings of 21st IEEE Symposium on Reliable Distributed program or organizing committee member or session chair in
Systems (SRDS'02), Osaka, Japan, Oct. 2002, pp.170-179. several domestic/international conferences and editor-in-chief of
[9] D. Freedman, Ken. Birman, K. Ostrowski, M. Linderman, R. journal of Korean Institute of Information Technology and editorial
Hillman, and A. Frantz, “Enabling Tactical Edge Mashups with board member of journal of Korean Society for Internet Information.
Live Objects”, in Proceedings of the 15th International His research interests include distributed computing, fault-
tolerance, sensor networks and mobile agent systems.
Command and Control Research and Technology
Symposium(ICCRTS '10), Information Sharing and
Collaboration Processes and Behaviors Track. Santa Monica, CA, *
USA, Jun. 2010. Corresponding author: Tel.: +82 31 249-9674
[10] C. Intanagonwiwat, R. Govindan and D. Estrin, "Directed
diffusion: A scalable and robust communication paradigm for
sensor networks", In Proceedings of the Sixth Annual
International Conference on Mobile Computing and Networking
(MobiCOM '00), pp.56-67, Boston, MA, Aug, 2000.
[11] J. Lifton, M. Laibowitz, D. Harry, N.-W. Gong, M. Mittal,
and J.A. Paradiso, "Metaphor and Manifestation—Cross-Reality
with Ubiquitous Sensor/Actuator Networks", IEEE Pervasive
Computing, Vol.8, No.3, pp.24-33, Jul.-Sep. 2009.
[12] A. Mostefaoui and M. Raynal, "Causal Multicasts in
Overlapping Groups: Towards a Low Cost Approach",
Proceedings of the 4th IEEE International Conference on Future
Trends in Distributed Computing Systems, pp.136-142, 1993.
[13] C. Meesookho, S. Narayanan, and C. S. Raghavendra,
“Collaborative Classification Applications in Sensor Networks”,
in Proceedings of Sensor Array and Multichannel Signal
Processing Workshop, Rosslyn, USA, pp. 370-374, Aug. 2002.
[14] K. Ostrowski, K. Birman, and D. Dolev, "Live Distributed
Objects: Enabling the Active Web", IEEE Internet Computing,
Vol.11, Issue 6, pp.72-78, Nov.-Dec. 2007.
[15] K. Ostrowski, K. Birman, and D. Dolev, "QuickSilver
Scalable Multicast", 7th IEEE International Symposium on
Network Computing and Applications (IEEE NCA 2008). pp.9-
18, Cambridge, July 2008.
[16] S. Pleisch and K. Birman, "SENSTRAC: Scalable Querying
of SENSor Networks from Mobile Platforms Using TRACking-
Style Queries", International Journal of Sensor Networks. Vol.3,
Issue 4, pp.266-280, June 2008.
[17] L. Rodrigues, R. Baldoni, E. Anceaume, and M. Raynal,
"Deadline-Constrained Causal Order," in Proceedings of Third
IEEE International Symposium on Object-Oriented Real-Time
Distributed Computing, 2000, pp. 234-243.
[18] J. Yicka, , B. Mukherjeea, and D. Ghosal “Wireless sensor
network survey", Computer Networks, Vol.52, Issue 12,
pp.2292-2330, Aug. 2008.
CHAYOUNG KIM B.S. and M.S. degrees from the Sookmyung

Women's University, Seoul, Korea, in 1996 and 1998, respectively
and Ph.D. degree from the Korea University in 2006. From 2005 to
2008, she was a senior researcher in Korea Institute of Science
and Technology Information, Korea, where she has been engaged
in National e-Science of Supercomputing Center. Since 2009, she
has been a researcher at Contents Convergence Software
Research Center in Kyonggi University, Korea. Her research
www.IJCSI.org 53
Geographic Spatiotemporal Dynamic Model using Cellular

Automata and Data Mining Techniques
Ahmad Zuhdi1, Aniati Murni Arymurthy2 and Heru Suhartanto3
1
Informatics Engineering Dept., Trisakti University and Post Graduate Student in University of Indonesia
Jakarta, 11440, Indonesia
2
Faculty of Computer Science, University of Indonesia
Depok, 16424, Indonesia
3
Faculty of Computer Science, University of Indonesia
Depok, 16424, Indonesia
magnetic cards, smartcards, Circuit Camera Television,

Abstract camera recorders, telephone calls, automatic sensors,
Geospatial data and information availability has been remote sensing and so forth. These developments resulted
increasing rapidly and has provided users with knowledge in the size of data stored on a computer system in an
on entities change and movement in a system. Cellular organization [18]. They were recorded with remote sensing
Geography model applies Cellular Automata on devices and telescope or an array of micro devices, as well
Geographic data by defining transition rules to the data as simulation or recording of data transactions using
grid. This paper presents the techniques for extracting smart cards, Radio Frequency Identification Data, and
transition rule(s) from time series data grids, using Programmable Logic Circuit. On the other hand, the
multiple linear regression analysis. Clustering technique is development of studies on the issue and the demand
applied to minimize the number of transition rules, which on automatic data analysis become more complex.
can be offered and chosen to change a new unknown grid.
Each centroid of a cluster is associated with a transition However, in contrast to the growth of data volume, the
rule and a grid of data. The chosen transition rule is development of analysis techniques for automatic data
associated with grid that has a minimum distance to the processing has not show a significant result. The
new data grid to be simulated. Validation of the model can availability of a large data stored in database has invited
be provided either quantitatively through an error an intelligent user to dig and find the important knowledge
measurement or qualitatively by visualizing the result of and understanding the phenomena, inference and decision
the simulation process. The visualization can also be more making studies. There is a raising gap, between the
informative by adding the error information. Increasing availability of data and the analytical knowledge that
number of cluster may give possibility to improve the could be exploited. Therefore, user needs knowledge,
simulation accuracy. which is extracted from the data, using appropriate
analysis tool. The study of knowledge extraction
Keywords: Geocomputing, Predictive Spatiotemporal Data technique has been attracted many researchers in
Mining, Cellular Automata, Continues Transition Rule, Fuzzy c various field of study [10].
Means Clustering.
The rapid development of geospatial information
technology also has an impact on the increasing number of
1. Introduction users that need for knowledge on entities change and
movement in a system. The changes deal with the location
The availability of accumulated geospatial data have been and time, because the entity that is stored in the database
increased exponentially, with a growth rate twice in less 80% having a geographical reference [12]. That is way a
than 20 months [14]. This condition is an impact of the visualization of spatiotemporal dynamics of a system
tremendous rising of the number of digital transactions based on geographical knowledge is important to be
and the development of automatic data input techniques, studied [2][15]. The change can be presented in spatio-
ranging from barcodes, Electronic Data Interchange,
www.IJCSI.org 54
temporal trend, which can be presented in sequence of applying data mining techniques. Three data mining
data grids, with dynamic change of their cells. We require techniques were applied, namely finding sequential
modeling of spatiotemporal dynamic, to present patterns in the data, clustering analysis of the pattern,
relationship between each cell with its surrounding cells.
and classification of a new data grid into certain found of
The mechanism changes all of the cell value regularly.
The popular approach in this issue is Cellular cluster, which had associated with chosen transition rule.
Geography model, which integrates Geographic
Information System approach and Cellular Automata (CA) We define transition rules elicitation as an exploration of
[13][16]. transition rule formula, which is contained in the
spatiotemporal data in a grid data set. The formulas can be
CA model have been studied on presenting spatial and derived from the change in the cells value of the grid, for
subsequent time observation. Hence they are grouped into
temporal dynamics of a system [7][4]13]. It has become an
some clusters, and each cluster has a centroid, which
interest for researchers to study the model on spatial and
represent a class of transition rule. We can identify the
temporal dynamic behavior. With CA model, they can
closest transition rule to the centroid and its association
explore the complex knowledge of spatiotemporal grid. The association grid is the first grid used to build the
dynamic by simple computational formulas. Moreover, transition rule. We can predict the next state of an
with adequate thematic and attributes data support and an observed grid, based on the centroid grid data set, which
expert knowledge is needed to formulate an accurate have association with a class of transition rules. They can
transition rules. This simplicity cause increasing the be applied to classify an unknown data grid class, because
implementation of CA model, particularly in urban and each of data grid which is associate with the cluster,
land use dynamics [1][13][19]. However, in practice it is correspond to a transition rule that has been explored. The
still difficult to transform the expert knowledge into classification based on distance between data grid, that
the transition rule of a CA model, because generally expert represent the center of the cluster, and the data grid
knowledge has subjective value and to justify it there is a that will be identified. Chosen transition rule has relation
need the empowerment of spatiotemporal data. with the closest centroid data grid to the evaluation data
grid.
The reliability of data mining engineering, which extract
knowledge from large data volume, especially from In this study, we propose a research methodology that
geographic spatiotemporal, also an interesting study [1][6][ follows in 7 steps:
[12][14][16][18]
. The technique is used to extract the i). Applying multiple linear regression analysis to analyze
dynamics pattern of the spatiotemporal data, especially the relationship between cell value at the present with the
geographic referenced data, which are expressed in the CA value of the cell and neighboring cells at the previous
model, by eliciting the CA model transition rules from the time. If the model is built by p pieces of data, then this
existing data sets. technique is applied (p-1) times, to produce TR1 , TR2,
. . . , TR (p-1), which are candidate of transition rules
2. Exploration of geographic spatiotemporal from data grid in the time series. Transition rule is
dynamic function of neighborhood cell, it is depended on
neighborhood scheme and its radius applied, e.g. equation
Spatiotemporal objects are presented in the form of (1). Two most popular schemes are von Neumann and
sequence of 2-d grid consists of mn cells, which is derived Moore (see figure 3).
from m rows and n columns of a certain spatial data. Their
value is updated regularly by following the changes Formulation for transition rule of CA with Moore scheme
in observation time (called state). It is driven by the and R = 1, can be defined as:
transition rules of CA model. These rules determine the C i,j (t+1) = a. C i,j (t) + b.C i-1,j-1 (t) + c.C i-1,j (t)
dynamics of cell values, which are formulated, based on it + d. C (t) + e.Cij-1 (t) + f.C (t) + g. C (t) +
i-1,j+1 i,j+1 i+1,j+1
cell value and the value of neighboring cells. The main
problem in this research is in how to find the transition h.Ci+1j (t) + k.Ci+1j+1 (t) (1)
rules of CA model of spatiotemporal data from geographic
data set. The input data was captured from a certain time TR-presented with the vector = (a, b, c, d, e, f , g, h)
period of observation, and transition rules are extracted by
www.IJCSI.org 55
3. Spatiotemporal Knowledge Exploration

Dynamics of geospatial objects is presented in the form of
spatiotemporal trend of geographic data, which requires
modeling of spatiotemporal dynamics. The model is
visualized in two dimensional grid, which is presented on
mn cells or pixels, each cell has a state variables. Spatial
interaction presents the relationship between a cell with its
surrounding cells. While the temporal interaction, presents
cell value changes at present to the next time.
Several techniques had been studied in the exploration of
Figure 1
spatiotemporal dynamics knowledge [12], one of which is,
knowledge spatiotemporal trends. Prediction of trends is
General formulation of transition rules for Moore the analysis adopted in data mining, which has reference
neighborhood scheme with radius R = 1 time. Trend prediction can be explored by applying
regression analysis and artificial neural network model.
ii. Clustering (p-1) vector TR become the q clusters Time series analysis can also provide a fairly accurate
(q <<p) based on proximity, and visualize it to give users approach on knowledge extraction, using sequential
better understanding. patterns to extract the temporal correlation of data.
The application of computational theory to the problems

of geography led to discipline of a new study called Geo-
computing or geocomputation [11]. It focuses on computer-
based modeling and geospatial analysis, and the
integration of computational science with the essence of
the problems of geographical and terrestrial systems.
Geocomputing research grows rapidly, as the growing in
collaborative study on computational science and
geography, also increasing demand on wide application
domain. Geocomputing approach, which is based on
the theory and procedures of computation, is effective for
problem solving, since it focuses on the simulation of
Figure 2 analysis and spatial modeling. Simulation dynamic of
Illustration of Objects Grouping Techniques geographic object presents spatiotemporal dynamics
with Clustering Analysis of physical systems, human systems or both, by examining
dynamic processes. The aim is solving or understanding
iii. Determining the vector representation of the class of the problem, although they are sometimes contradictory
patterns (TR), which are relations with the centroids. objectives [19]. Building spatiotemporal model, needs three
system requirements that must be met, namely the
iv. Determining the closest TR to the centroid, for each presentation of its spatial, temporal and analytical aspect
[8]
cluster and data grid that corresponds with its TR. . Analytical presentation is related with knowledge
structures, stored in the dynamics of the object.
v. Utilizing the results of extraction, to classify a new data
object, i.e. determining the exact dynamics of the pattern A thematic map for the application of GIS provides a
for the new evaluating object. variable value in a certain time on the domain space,
generally in raster format. Pixel size depends on the level
vi. Testing (calibration) for the model is built, how to of spatial accuracy or resolution, which represents one
measure the validation of models produced. area of the region in the observation area. The partition
region of observation by two-dimensional array of mn
vii. Evaluating the model, to criticize the advantages and pixels, which is mapped into the cells of the 2d CA.
disadvantages of the model. Variable value, which is also its value of pixels, then
mapped into the cell.
www.IJCSI.org 56
Model CA (S, N, c, t, TR), defined on the grid, which is then the cells should refer to 9 parameters described in
comprised of m rows and n columns, composed of cells figure 3).
of S. Sij represent one unit area on the earth surface in i-th
row j-th column, and has a value (state) cij, deals with the Concept of Data Mining is becoming increasingly popular
observation variables, can be either qualitative (binary or as an information management tool, since its capability
nominal) or quantitative (numerical, discrete and real). of revealing the structure of knowledge that can lead to
Each cell has neighbor cells, which are determined based decisions under conditions of limited certainty. In many
on the neighborhood scheme selected. prediction applications, the approach used to understand
the data involve logical rules, similarity to evaluate the
prototype or through visualization [5]. This techniques can
help in classifying and segmenting data and formulating
hypotheses.
In this paper, the applied data mining techniques are

regression analysis, clustering and classification. Through
regression analysis we obtained 29 transition rules that
describe the dynamic change from a grid to its
subsequence. Clustering technique is applied to select the
Figure 3
q ( q << 29 ) alternative transition rules from all the rules,
Popular Neighborhood Scheme which can be used to predict next state of evaluation grid.
Classification Analysis is applied to determine, which the
Spatiotemporal dynamic behavior of the grid is defined transition rules to be applied to, as described in the
as the rule of state change or the transition rule. These research approach.
rules determine the state change of the cell from the
present to the next, as presented in equation (2),
depending on its state and the neighbor’s state at the
present. Transitional rules change the value of cells 4. Case Study
based on its value and the value of its neighbor’s
cells at the previous time [16]. Our work studied the dynamic spatiotemporal model of
the Fire Danger Rating System (FDRS) based on data of
potential drought and smoke or drought code (DC) [9], [17] .
(2)
Data are downloaded from Indonesia National Outerspace
Equation (1) is implementation of formula of equation and Aviation Institution, which are published daily. [20]
(2) and Moore neighborhood on figure 3. The defined
formula apply a simple form transition rules for R = 1,
i.e. outer totalistic approach [3], which was adopted for
continues CA. The general form of its formula for R=1
is obtained as follows:
a) If von Neumann's scheme is applied
(3)
b) If Moore’s scheme is applied
Figure 4
a sample of Input Data Resource [20]
(4)
Model of expanded neighborhood scheme, both spatial Only data from south Sumatera are taken. Image maps are
and spatiotemporal expansion, the number of weight refined with pre processing treatment by cropping
parameters will be extended, for example for the spatial proceses and noise removing. Based on 30 days spatial
extension of von Neumann's scheme with radius R = 2
data observed, partially shown in Figure 5, application of
www.IJCSI.org 57
multiple linear regression analysis on them generates 4 Yellow Land / 3 G > 200 and
29 transition rules. Forest, B < 100
high DC
Surface R > 200 and
5. Red Land / 4 G < 100 and
Forest, B < 100
DC
extreme
Table 2 Randomization Data Models
DC Transformation to
Figure 5 Class estimate DC
Example of Input Data after pre-processing Low Randomize (0, 140)
Medium Randomize (141, 260)
Input data are provided in ordinal type y ‫{ א‬0, 1, 2, 3, 4},
High Randomize (261, 350)
each element presents one category of DC, the results of
Extreme Randomize (351,500)
classification based on the real variable x ( 0 < x < 500 ).
Spatiotemporal knowledge exploration model is built
based on the variable x, so the first problem is the need of 5. Experiments and Result
transformation that returns the results of classification
prior to the computation output in quantitative data. Our preliminary research shows, that according to random
The quantification of qualitative data is conducted in stage number generator applied, uniform continues distribution
is better then normal distribution and uniform discrete
1, namely image segmentation pattern and the
distribution. We apply 3 schemes of neighborhood, as
transformation of y value into x value. The process shown in figure 3. Application of von Neumann
observes the dominant RGB value of the five categories of neighborhood with R=2 gives the best result, as we can
DC, as shown in Table 1. Transformation process of the see in figure 6, so for further experiment we use this
qualitative data into quantitative values is provided by scheme.
generating random numbers at each interval associated
with each cell value as described in Table 2.
Table 1
Color Segmentation
No Color Object Code Characteris-

. tic
R > 200 and
1 White Sea level 0 G > 200 and
B > 200
Surface R <100 and
Figure 6
2 Blue Land / 1 G <100 and Performance comparison of 3 neighborhood schemes
Forest, B > 200
low DC
5.1 Clustering Analysis
Surface
Land R < 100 and Using principal component analysis, we can describe the
3 Green /Forest, 2 G > 200 and
scatter of 29 transition rules, with its 2 main variables,
moderate B < 100
which has maximum variance. Figure 7 shows the scatter
DC
Surface R > 200 and
of them, with respect to neighborhood scheme applied and
the number of cluster was chosen.
www.IJCSI.org 58
Figure 7 also shows that an outlier, which is lied near the

center of coordinate, can identify a cluster, specifically for
itself. The model is used in classification of an unknown
data grid, that should be identified, which is the transition
rule candidate suitable to apply. Classification process is
given in two step, identify the closet data grid associate to
the unknown, and choose transition rule number that
associated with data grid number to be applied.
5.2 Model Evaluation
Validation model is based on the matching between

the two qualitative data, i.e. between testing data and the
simulation result data. Simulation process start with
running grid#30 for 5 runs, to produce simulation result
data Gs1, Gs2, …, Gs5. Output investigation and error
calculation based on the comparing between the value of
Figure 7 simulation result data and actual data as the testing data
Performance of Fuzzy c Mean clustering Analysis for the
transition rules
The testing data contain of data grid captured after
grid#30, i.e. grid # 31 to # 35. Since both are ordinal
From figure 7 we can choose number of transition rules, data type, the difference in value is not applied uniformly,
that will be applied for classification an unknown grid. If the value should be measured proportionally based on
we use 3 transition rule schemes (figure 3b), then we the difference in value of his cell. The largest value = 3,
should identify them, by finding the nearest transition where the maximum difference, the value of simulation
rules to the centroid of the cluster, which associate with
data 3 and test data value 0 or vice versa. Value
them, and also which data grid associate. The experiment
result is shown in Table 3: differences 1 (e.g. between extreme and high) are clearly
thinner than the 2 (extreme- moderate) and 3 (extreme
Table 3 low). Visualization of the value can be improved
Transition rules number and Grid number, which is associated understanding of user, with respect to error rate and
with centroid
distribution of the error spatially and temporally.
Scheme Centroids Transition
(center of Rule# and Errors are calculated based on the percentage deviation
cluster) Grid# between the simulation data and test data, following the
#1: 0.0002 #1 is TR 16 formulation as follows:
Von 0.0003 0.0001 associated For example if von Neumann with R=1 applied, U is
Neumann 0.0002 0.9985 with 16th grid a matrix with m rows, n columns, from 5 runs simulation
R=2 and 0.0002 0.0002
number 0.0003 0.0002 process, as simulation results data, and P matrix with the
of cluster #2: 0.0656 #2 is TR 7 same size as testing data matrix, then
=3 0.0875 0.0616 associated the test error model is:
0.0884 0.3523 with 7th grid
0.0843 0.0623 G(U,P).=
0.0843 0.0684 m1 n1 34
#3: 0.0579 #3 is TR 6 {k0l0 m30| uij(t)  pij(t)|}/(3*m*n*5)*100% (5)
0.0573 0.0560 associated
0.0531 0.4747 with 6th grid
0.0529 0.0529
0.0600 0.0631
www.IJCSI.org 59
In simulation process grid#30 is given as initial state to

generate grid#31, grid#32, grid#33, grid#34 and grid#35,
the process of classification shows table 4 and figure 7.
Table 4
Simulation result and its error for 3 clusters
Distance Grid-30 to
No. Association Grid Centroids Nearest Grid Error %
( 1.0e+004 * ) Cluster Ref Error
Grid Grid7 Grid6
16
1 3.585 3.487 1 31 0.177 17,7 (c) 3rd Iteration (error 22,53 % )
3.214 5 8 5 5
8
2 3.984 3.904 1 32 0.209 20,9
3.639 4 9 0 0
0
3 4.045 3.906 1 33 0.225 22,5
3.698 6 2 3 3
3
4 4.084 3.974 1 34 0.241 24,1
3.710 0 5 9 9
1
5 4.138 4.039 1 35 0.257 25,7
3.798 8 9 1 1
9
Figure 8
Simulation result for 3 number of cluster
(a) 1st iteration (error 17,75 % )

Finally, our experiment explores error performance, with
respect to number of cluster. The comparison is shown in
Table 5.
Table 5
Simulation result and its error for (a) 4 clusters and (b) 5 clusters
Distance Grid-30 to Association
N Grid Centroids ( 1.0e+004 * ) Nearest Grid %
o. Grid Grid Grid Grid17 Cluster Ref Error
(b) 2nd Iteration (error 20,90 % ) 6 7 16
1 3.70 3.58 3.10 3.4125 3 31 17,75
10 77 98
2 4.10 3.98 3.52 3.8056 3 32 20,90
51 16 15
3 4.16 4.04 3.58 3.8693 3 33 22,53
46 71 55
4 4.18 4.08 3.60 3.9055 3 34 24,19
www.IJCSI.org 60
34 84 82 informative message, because it also show the distribution

5 4.24 4.14 3.68 3.9613 3 35 25,71
78 74 72
of error spatially. From experiment result, the increasing
(a) number of cluster gives possibility to improve simulation
Distance Grid-30 to Association Grid process accuracy.
N Centroids ( 1.0e+004 * ) Near Grid
%
o. Grid Grid Grid Grid Grid est Ref
17 24 4 7 16 Clust Err Actually 30 number of data used in this research is not
er or adequate to get good inference. Its just prototype for
1 3.12 3.11 3.44 3.41 3.10 5 31 17, building such a simulation tool and explore various system
64 51 11 39 57
75 requirement. So, to obtain confidential result of
2 3.54 3.49 3.82 3.80 3.51 2 32 18, experiment, we have plan to add the number of data at
14 46 96 96 35
39 least 100, for building model and testing it. We need to
3 3.60 3.55 3.87 3.58 2 33 18, explore more in depth knowledge to improve the
60 08 65 3.87 67
82 performance of the model, which is indicated by its error
00
4 2.98 2.96 3.21 3.22 2.94 5 34 20, rate. Some potential improvements according to
39 63 84 83 24
08 application of neighborhood scheme, regression analysis
5 3.04 3.02 3.27 3.28 3.00 5 35 21, scheme and clustering analysis technique.
71 26 13 44 84
39
(b)
References
Above figure and table show, there is performance
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www.IJCSI.org 62
The Design of Ubiquitous Learning System with Embedded

Ganglia Agent
Fu-Chien Kao, Chia-Chun Hung and Ting-Hao Huang
Dept. of Computer Science and Information Engineering, DAYEH University

Changhua, 51591, Taiwan


has become an indispensable supporting method of

Abstract learning. From the early periods of personal stand-alone
This research proposes a context-aware computing ubiquitous learning, to learning using wired or wireless
learning system architecture design. The system integrates data communication methods. The studying contents have
grid, the ability to perform context-awareness computing, and evolved from simple text, figure, animation, to three-
embedded Ganglia Agent design, structuring an architecture that dimensional virtual reality. The changes of digital
is able to perform context awareness mobile network, creating a
learning methods and its’ contents have once again
ubiquitous learning environment. The embedded Ganglia Agent
could provide context information on system network traffic, the proved the diversity and flexibility of digital technology
CPU load of the content server, and hard disk capacity, and when applied to learning methods.
utilize the information to balance the load of back-end content With the widespread of wireless LAN and basic
server, providing a flexible expandability mechanism for the
construction of mobile network, learners are now able to
back-end content server. The framework of the proposed
ubiquitous learning system that has context-awareness use their mobile devices as convenient devices of learning,
computing ability is consisted of 3 major parts: Learning without the restrictions of time and space. This kind of
Management System (LMS), Learning Content Management learning is called Mobile Learning. Mobile learning
System (LCMS) and the embedded Ganglia Agent (EGA). LMS utilizes mobile devices that are highly mobile and
is responsible for managing the learners’ basic personal convenient as supporting tools for learning, enabling
information and studying records, LCMS is responsible for the learners to acquire the wanted information anytime,
management and storage of back-end learning contents, and anywhere, therefore accomplishing their learning goals.
EGA is responsible for the management network traffic, CPU With the increasing diversity of mobile learning devices
load and hard disk capacity. With the three, the load of the back-
(including Tablet PC, Pocket PC, PDA or mobile phones),
end content server could be balanced, offering a flexible
mechanism for the expansion of the server. the concept of ubiquitous computing is proposed. The
Keywords: EGA, Data Grid, Context-aware, Learning technology of ubiquitous computing implements wireless
Management System. network technology, enable people to acquire information
without limits. Meanwhile, the differences comparing to
mobile computing, is that it is context aware, which can
1. Introduction decide the most effective and appropriate environment for
learning according to the user’s position, information
about the surroundings, and personal studying conditions.
As information and internet technology advances, the Due to the fact that the sizes of mobile devices are getting
popularization of Mobile Devices has made smaller and smaller while becoming more powerful, the
communication between people more multi and real time, mobile learning method combined with context awareness
also making the relationship between man and electronic is rapidly spreading. This kind of learning method that
devices more intimate. In the recent years, multi-media implements ubiquitous computing is called Ubiquitous
learning (e-Learning), with computers as the medium, Learning.
www.IJCSI.org 63
Harris points out that ubiquitous learning is where mobile 2. Context-Aware Learning
technology and digital learning intersects, producing a
learning experience that can be had anywhere, with the Context means any information about a person, an event,
help of PDA or mobile phones [1]. Lehner& Nosekabel time, location, things and all entities. The interaction of
thinks that ubiquitous learning is to provide digital user, program, and environment is composed of the above
information and contents without the limits of time and mentioned elements, and is applied on the basics of
space, to help the learner acquire information [2]. With context-awareness [5]. The concept of context-awareness
ubiquitous computing, the mobile device used for learning was first proposed by Schilit and Theimer in 1994. Due to
doesn’t only display learning contents, but also detects the the rise of Mobile Distributed Computing, users are made
learner’s surroundings, and apply it to display related able to interact with other mobile devices and computers
information and interacts more with the learner. using mobile devices, and mobile computing is no longer
Ubiquitous computing integrates new types of computing limited to a restricted position or environment, it can be
such as Mobile Computing, Context Awareness, and spread to the office, home, air ports, bus stops etc [6]. For
Pervasive Computing, while hiding the technology and example, as a learner enters a classroom, library or
making it meld into our daily lives, so we could acquire all meeting room, his surroundings, time, location, activity,
sorts of service and information without even noticing, and equipment he uses are all variables to the mobile
without the help of traditional desktop computers. computing device. The device has to be implemented with
Ubiquitous learning has 5 features: (1) learning content context-awareness in order to provide adequate service to
(including studying content, useful resources, interaction the learner. Other than this, the mobility of the device
with other learners etc); (2)The learning interface is no makes the information of the current location very
longer mouse and computer screen, but is provided with important, since with information of the location, the user
conversation and interaction in the surroundings; (3)The can check out the devices and services in the area. The
computer system that supports learning is more intricate, department of defense of USA proposed context-
so the learner will not notice it, avoiding conflict with the awareness in 1970 by utilizing GPS to acquire information
process of studying; (4)Communication between learners about coordinates, traveling speed, time and etc. This
and learning systems are made with mobile devices that accelerated the concept of Context-Aware Computing [7],
has little burden on carrying and controlling; (5)The which context-awareness program adjusts its’ services
communication between man and machine will further according to the people, computers, the status of accessing
more advance. In the future, a learner may not notice that equipment in the surroundings and adjust the services in
he is using a computer device [3]. real-time. This kind of application requires the help from
In order to construct an ubiquitous learning environment, sensors or mobile devices. Context-Awareness must fit the
the following 3 elements are required [4]: following 3 points: (1) Provide information or service to
(1) Wireless communication devices: With wireless the user (2) Automatically executes the service for the user
communication technology, we can achieve (3) Adds context information on the initial data, to enable
ubiquitous learning that can avoid the limits of time advanced inquiries by the contents of the labels of context
and space, achieving interactive learning with information. The types of context information can be
teachers, peers and the system. sorted into Computing Context, User Context, Physical
(2) Ubiquitous learning device: A ubiquitous learning Context, and Time Context. Computing Context gathers
device is an important element of ubiquitous information on network access, bandwidth and hardware;
learning. The device must have wireless network, User Context gathers information on the users preference,
small, lightweight and portable. Hand writing input location, people in the surrounding, the current social
is also a must for interaction. environment, or the user’s current position or action etc.
(3) Learning activity mode: Other than wireless network Physical Context takes care of the environment
and a ubiquitous device, the other important element information such as lighting, sound, traffic, temperature.
is learning activity mode. With learning activity Time Context gathers information on time such as day,
mode, the learner can complete a series of learning week, month, and season.
and establish his own learning style.
The reason why this research uses mobile phones as 2.1 Architecture of Context-Awareness
supporting tools is because not only are mobile phones
light and convenient to carry. Mobile phones support Most of the early context-aware systems provide specific
wireless network abilities such as GPRS and WiFi and is functions according to information based on the position.
also much more affordable than laptop computers so that However, the development of context aware application is
almost everyone has one, making it suitable to be complicated work, leading to recent studies on Context-
promoted to schools and users for ubiquitous learning. Aware Frameworks, providing all sorts of context-
www.IJCSI.org 64
awareness development platforms [10]. The architecture (1) Grids are able to integrate a variety of resources and
can be divided into 5 layers, as shown in figure 1. Sensor coordinate a host of users enabling users of different
Layer is composed of many different sensors. It not only environment to access resources in different
captures the actual hardware but also capture all available environment. With that, under the grid environment,
information from different information sources. The types there is a need to take into account pertinent security,
of sensors can be sorted as entity sensor, virtual sensor, certification, and authorization issues.
and logic sensor. Raw data retrieval Layer can capture raw (2) Grids need to utilize standard, open, universal
data of the sensor. Preprocessing Layer is not equipped in protocols, and these protocols must solve the
all context-awareness systems, but when the raw data is certification, resource sharing, and resource storage
too rough, it could provide useful data. The preprocessing and retrieval problems.
layer is used to interpret and inference the context data. (3) Grids allow the resources to be accessed and utilized
Storage/Management Layer is to gather data in an to satisfy the user’s varied utilization needs.
organized way, and provide an open interface for the Under the foresaid concept, rules have been developed
client to use. The client can choose to access the data with to define a virtual organization [14]. Under such virtual
or without sync. Application Layer provides programmers organization, any resource can satisfy the foresaid concept
a flexible and friendly way to manage and program for the and development. In recent years, many organizations
needs of various contexts. The application layer can also around the world have presented many types of grids, and
provide tools for clients, or them to understand the there are two groupings when classified by the nature of
condition of the sensors. An example of this is the problems the grids are designed to solve: (1)
application of context-aware outdoor environmental Computational grids and (2) Data grids, while in fact a
majority of grid computing environments are a
tutorial system [11], which utilize the GPS function of the
combination of the two.
PDA, and provide the adequate learning content in real-
(1) Computational Grids: As computational grids
time by connecting to the content database after
emphasizes on computing resource integration, thus
identifying the location of the client. The U-Go Net
computing the nodes in a grid has been done through
learning system [12] is a PDA that has RFID function,
clustering computers or with high-performance computers.
which can identify the client’s location by wireless
(2) Data Grids: Data grids integrate a virtual
network technology, and provide related information of
organization’s file system, enabling the user to conduct
the context in real-time to the client.
cross-virtual organizational file storage and retrieval [15].
The main objective of data grid computing is to divide
huge amounts of calculations, storage or analyzing
procedures, into smaller sections, and appoint them on to
idle computers on the internet, achieving super-computer
class processing speed with existing hardware, meanwhile
also sharing data. All this can be done by releasing the
processing capability and storage capability when the
computer is idle. You could also say that grid computing
is integrating scattered processing resources by
implementing the correct routine, network bandwidth, and
storage ability, to create a powerful virtual computer
system. Grid computing can be seen as requesting
resources to many computers in the network at the same
time, using it to process problems that require a significant
Fig. 1 Context-Aware Framework. amount of time or data. Many organizations around the
work have proposed many kinds of grids. They can be
assorted into two categories, one is Computational Grid,
and the other is Data Grid [13]. Computational grid places
3. The learning architecture of ubiquitous its focus on sharing the calculation resources to achieve
learning with Embedded Ganglia Agent fast data processing. Data grid focuses on sharing data,
storage of data, quicker access to data and the transferring
Grid computation refers to integrating shares resources of scattered data.
on the World Wide Web Internet by systematically Of the many organizations researching on grid, the Globus
regrouping such resources to achieve resource sharing and
Alliance’s Globus ToolKit is the more mature one. Globus
a collaborated computation. In 2002, Ian Foster presented
that grids need to satisfy three concepts [13], was developed by the Argonne National Research Lab
near Chicago, and there are 12 universities and research
www.IJCSI.org 65
facilities participating in this project. Globus has fulfilled Gmetric、Gstat and Ganglia PHP Web Frontend. Gmond
the theories and concepts of planning a grid, and is a multi-threading daemon that monitors system data of
researches on source management, data management, nodes, while broadcasts by UDP to gather system data of
information management and grid security. The outcomes other nodes, and sends all system status information in
are now widely applied on many large scale grid platforms. XML format to Gmetad; Gmetad will regularly require its’
This research utilizes RFT (Reliable File Transfer) for data child nodes to provide context monitoring data, and
management. The RFT works under the grid environment analyzes the XML files collected, then send the organized
of GT4.0. It is set up on the GridFTP transfer mechanism, context data to the client in XML format; Gmetric is a tool
and therefore has the features of GridFTP, combined with customized for clients. The client can input commands to
GSI’s accountable secure transfer, and uses the HTTP request Gmond to combine the requested monitoring data;
protocol and Third Party Transfer via standard SOAP Gstat is a command line tool provided by Ganglia to
information, to provide data about TCP buffer size, acquire all the node’s context data. The context data
parallel data flow, confirmation of data routine and other provided are those such as the number of CPUs of the
parameter setting interface; The Third Party Transfer cluster computer and its CPU load etc; Ganglia PHP Web
system can control two remote computers to proceed with Frontend provides a graphical monitoring interface. The
data duplication or deletion, used with the data base to client can monitor the contexts of all the cluster system’s
achieve monitoring of the process of transfer, as shown in nodes. The XML monitoring data collected by this
figure 2 [15]. research is transformed in to a data chart that can be
shown on a web page, as shown in figure 4.
This research integrates RFT components with embedded
Ganglia Agent (EGA), and proposes a ubiquitous learning
system architecture that is context-aware. The proposed
system architecture is as shown in figure 5. The EGA
provided could analyze the XML files the Gmetad has
received, and acquire the network load context
information of the LCMS server, to find the LCMS server
with the lightest load, providing a convenient mobile
learning environment anytime, anywhere, automatically.
Fig. 2 RFT Supports Third Party Transfer and combines data base
storage transfer condition.
3.1 Ganglia Agent

Fig. 3 Ganglia System Architecture Diagram.
Ganglia is an operation system with dispersion type
context-awareness function. The information includes
CPU, Memory, hard disk usage, I/O load and net traffic
etc; This context-awareness software is often used with
grid architectures, to monitor high spec cluster systems.
Ganglia executes Gmond Daemon at every node, and
Gmond will monitor the condition of the system. These
daemons execute data exchange and communication with
UDP broadcasting, and send all data via a tree map
structure for Gmetad to organize all the monitored data.
Cluster computers communicate with each other by XML
via TCP. As figure 3 indicates, the whole architecture of
Ganglia includes 5 cores that are Ganglia Monitoring
Daemon (Gmond)、Ganglia Meta Daemon (Gmetad)、
Fig. 4 Ganglia Sensor system information.
www.IJCSI.org 66
shown in figure 6. The system is set that every 15 seconds

Gmond will automatically transfer LCMS context data to
the EGA server, and when the LCMS server’s CPU load
goes up to 40%, the grid RFT file transfer service will be
activated, duplicating learning content to idle servers in
the grid, effectively balancing the network load, achieving
the flexible expansion mechanism of the LCMS. The
following are explanations of executing grid RFT
component services:
(1) When the RFT service in inactivated, the LCMS
network load stays below 25Bytes, as shown in
figure 7, its CPU load below 15%, as shown in
figure 8.
(2) With the increase in clients, the LCMS’s CPU load
increases. When the CPU load goes over 40%, as
shown in figure 9, the system will activate RFT file
duplication function to copy the learning content on
to an idle server in the grid, as shown in figure 10,
and the idle LCMS will begin receiving the content,
Fig. 5 Ubiquitous learning system architecture with Embedded Ganglia
Agent.
as shown in figure 11.
(3) After flexibly expanding a LCMS, as shown in
figure 12, the LCMS network load will be relieved,
3.2 Proposed Embedded Ganglia Agent and the CPU load will decrease, as shown in figure
13.
To ensure a real-time learning effect, and ensure that all
learners can proceed the learning from LCMS; therefore,
the research designed an embedded Ganglia Agent, which
is designed by the Xscale DMA-270 development
board[13], to interpret the surveillance data gathered at the
rear-end LCMS. The Ganglia component– Gmetad
program records system information on the rear-end’s
nodes, such as the CPU utilization rate, memory cache
size, networking flow volume and so forth, and produce
these information into XML files. The proposed embedded
Fig. 6 Context data collection of the embedded Ganglia Agent
Ganglia Agent will download and interpret the XML files,
locate a rear-end LCMS server with the lightest load and
make a decision to the replication of teaching materials. In
order for many learners to smoothly access the LCMS
contents, this research proposes the embedded Ganglia
Agent design that collects and analyzes related back-end
server context information. By analyzing context data,
EGA will decide the adequate order of LCMS servers
providing contents. When the monitored LCMS server is
overloaded, the system activates the data transfer function
of the RFT component of the grid, and automatically
duplicates the content to an idle LCMS server within the
grid, meanwhile guiding the learner to the LCMS server to
proceed with his learning. The Embedded Ganglia Agent
has Gmetad daemon implemented, and is capable of Fig. 7 Network load of LCMS (192.168.1.5) without activating RFT
collecting back-end LCMS servers’ context data (such as service.
CPU load, memory space, hard disk capacity, network
bandwidth etc). The Gmetad collects the system context
data provided by Gmond in all back-end LCMS servers,
and automatically organizes the data into XML format, as
www.IJCSI.org 67
Fig. 8 CPU load of LCMS (192.168.1.5) without activating RFT service. Fig. 13 CPU load of the LCMS(192.168.1.5) decreasing.
4. System Implementation
The system architecture proposed by this research mainly
includes LMS, embedded Ganglia agent with context-
awareness, and back-end learning content management
system (LCMS) with flexible expandability. LMS is
responsible for the management of students’ personal
Fig. 9 The CPU load of LCMS(192.168.1.5) going over 40%. information, learning log, and provides lesson catalogues
for the student to choose from. LCMS is responsible for
the management and storage of back-end learning contents.
EGA is responsible for not only the sensory data of back-
end LCMS server’s network bandwidth, CPU load, hard
disk capacity, but also integrates the grid RFT components
for it to provide LCMS server with more effective flexible
expandability, and by this information offers the clients
the IP address of the LCMS servers with lower loads, thus
effectively balancing back-end LCMS server’s load; the
Fig. 10 Activating RFT function of the grid to duplicate content to idle actual implementations are as shown in figure 14.
LCMS(192.168.1.6).
Fig. 11 Idle LCMS(192.168.1.6) starting to receive content.
Fig. 14 Implementing EGA’s ubiquitous learning system architecture.
Fig. 12 Network load after flexibly expanding a LCMS(192.168.1.6).

www.IJCSI.org 68
4.1 Performance analysis of EGA

In Figure 19 and 20, the x-axis stands for the number of
connection while the average response time for the users
requesting the LCMS IP from Ganglia agent (unit: ms,
millisecond) is indicated by the y-axis. While 100
connections are using the system simultaneously, the
response time for each learner will be different because the
received status data calculated by averaging the sum of
each learner’s response time are orderly updated via
Fig. 15 Lesson option.
Ganglia agent into each learner’s PC. Under PC Ganglia
agent and embedded Ganglia agent, the experimental
results for the system’s response time against increasing the
number of learners are respectively listed below:
(1) Under PC Ganglia agent, while learning is done by
grouping, the average response times for Group 1, 2, 3,
and 4 are respectively “0.3ms,” “0.4ms,” “0.43ms,”
and “0.45~1.15ms,” as illustrated in Figure 19.
(2) Under embedded Ganglia agent, while learning is done
by grouping, the average response times for Group 1,
2, 3, and 4 are respectively “0.5ms,” “0.6ms,”
“0.61ms,” and “0.62~1.3ms,” as illustrated in Figure
20.
Under embedded Ganglia agent Architecture, when the
Fig. 16 Computing context data users continuously connect to the embedded Ganglia agent
to request the IP of most suitable LCMS, the maximum
averaged waiting time for the user is about 1.3 ms, as
shown in Figure 20. This means that the user only needs to
spend about 1.3 ms at most to connect the appropriate
LCMS and begin the learning.
Fig. 17 Using a mobile phone to learn the contents(1).
Fig. 19 Response time of PC Ganglia agent.
Fig. 18 Using a mobile phone to learn the contents(2)

Fig.20 Response time of embedded Ganglia agent.
www.IJCSI.org 69
5. Conclusion Systems”, International Journal of Ad- Hoc and Ubiquitous

Computing,Vol.2,No.4, 2007.
Most digital learning systems nowadays combine learning [11] C.H. Yin, “Ubiquitous-Learning System for the
Japanese Polite Expressions”, IEEE International Workshop
management system and content management system on a
on Wireless and Mobile Technologies in Education, 2005.
single high-end server. This kind of architecture is easier [12] S.J.H.Yang, “Context Aware Ubiquitous Learning
to design and implement, and is suited for a teaching Environments for Peer-to-Peer Collaborative Learning”,
environment for a less amount of learners. If there were to Educational Technology & Society, Vol.9, No.1, pp.188-201,
be a huge number of clients logging on the system to learn, 2006.
the limits of network bandwidth and data access will [13] F.C. Kao, Y.S. Tsai, A.S. Chiou, S.R. Wang, C.W. Liu,
become an obstacle to learning. This research proposes ” The Design of Intelligent Sensor Network Based on Grid
ubiquitous learning system architecture with embedded Structure”, IEEE Asia-Pacific Services Computing
Ganglia Agent. With an agent that has the capability to Conference, pp.623-630, 2008.
[14] I. Foster, C. Kesselman and S. Tuecke, “The Anatomy
integrate load balancing, implementing many LCMS to of the Grid Enabling Scalable Virtual Organizations”,
provide learning services could be achieved. After the Supercomputer Application, 2001, pp. 2 – 6.
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chooses a lesson service, the EGA will connect to a LCMS of the Grid Enabling Scalable Virtual Organizations”
Supercomputer Application, 2001, pp. 6-14.
with lower load, and proceed with the lesson. This system
utilizes dispersed low-cost hardware equipment to build a
high-cost server system architecture. Not only does it
effectively decrease the total cost of the system, but by the
RFT component’s file duplication function in the grid, the
back-end LCMS server’s flexible expandability
mechanism could be achieved, thus effectively improving
the total performance of the system.
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Technical Report TR2000-381, 2000.
[9] Schiller & Voisard, “Location-based services”, San
Francisco, CA: Morgan Kaufmann, 2004.
[10] M. Baldauf et. al, “A Survey on Context-Aware
www.IJCSI.org 70
A Novel Effective, Secure and Robust CDMA Digital Image

Watermarking in YUV Color Space Using DWT2
Mehdi Khalili1
1
Institute for Informatics and Automation Problems, National Academy of Science
Yerevan, Armenia
applications, which for more security, watermark W is

Abstract converted to a sequence and then a random binary
This paper is allocated to CDMA digital images watermarking sequence R of size n is adopted to encrypt the watermark,
for ownership verification and image authentication applications, where n is the size of the watermark. This adopting
which for more security, watermark W is converted to a sequence process uses a pseudo-random number generator to
and then a random binary sequence R of size n is adopted to determine the pixel to be used on a given key. This
encrypt the watermark; where n is the size of the watermark.
This adopting process uses a pseudo-random number generator to
adopted watermark embeds into the selected subbands
determine the pixel to be used on a given key. After converting coefficients of Y channel of YUV color space of host
the host image to YUV color space and then wavelet image using the correlation properties of additive pseudo-
decomposition of Y channel, this adopted watermark is random noise patterns. Obtained results of the experiments
embedded into the selected subbands coefficients of Y channel show the efficiency of proposed technique in acceptable
using the correlation properties of additive pseudo- random noise transparency, high security and robustness against jpeg
patterns. The experimental results show that the proposed compression and different noise attacks in comparing
approach provides extra imperceptibility, security and robustness earlier works such as [5].
against JPEG compression and different noises attacks compared
to the similar proposed methods. Moreover, the proposed
approach has no need of the original image to extract watermarks.
2. YUV Color Space
Keywords: CDMA, DWT2, Image watermarking, Pseudo- The YUV color space is widely used in video and
random number generator, YUV color space.
broadcasting today. It is very different from RGB color
space; instead of three large color channels, it deals with
1. Introduction one brightness or luminance channel (Y) and two color or
chrominance channels (U-blue and V-red). The
Nowadays, watermarking of images is becoming transformation from RGB to YUV that retains the same
increasingly of interest in tasks such as copyright control, number of colors in both spaces is [9]:
0.299 0.114 
image identification, verification, and data hiding [4].
 0.587
Advances in computer networking and high speed
computer processors have made duplication and Y    R 
 U    0.147  0.289 0.436  G 
distribution of multimedia data easy and virtually costless,     

and have also made copyright protection of digital media V    B 
0.615  0.515  0.100
an ever urgent challenge. As an effective way for
copyright protection, digital watermarking, a process  
which embeds (hides) a watermark signal in the host
signal to be protected, has attracted more and more (1)
research attention [1-3]. A variety of watermarking while the inverse conversion can be achieved with [9]:
techniques has been proposed in recent years. One of the
earlier watermarking techniques, which used wavelet
transform, was based on the adding pseudo random codes
to the large coefficients at the high and middle frequency
bands of the discrete wavelet transform [6]. This paper is
allocated to CDMA digital images watermarking for
ownership verification and image authentication
www.IJCSI.org 71
  technique is utilized to embed the watermark coefficients

1.000 0 1.140 for completely controlling the imperceptibility of
R    Y  watermarked images and the robustness of watermarks. To
   1 000  0.395

 0.581  U retrieve the watermark, after converting watermarked
G   .   (2)
B    V  image from RGB color space to YUV color space, the Y
1.000 2.032 0  channel will be decomposed into the wavelet coefficients.
  Then the same pseudo-random noise generator algorithm
is seeded with the same key, and the correlation between
the noise pattern and possible watermarked image in
details subbands embedded coefficients will be computed.
3. CDMA By computation of the each coefficient correlation whit a
certain threshold T, the watermark is detected, and a single
CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) is a form of bit is set. The block diagram of the proposed
spread spectrum where the signal i.e., watermark watermarking scheme is shown in Figure (1).
information, is transmitted on a bandwidth much greater
than the frequency content of the original information, in
this case, an image. In other words the transmitted signal
bandwidth is much greater than the information
bandwidth. Spread spectrum uses wide-band, noise-like
signals, hence making it hard to detect. The band spread is
accomplished by a pseudo-random code, which is
independent of the data [14].
4. Proposed Watermarking Scheme

The current study task of digital watermarking is to make
watermarks invisible to human eyes as well as robust to
various attacks. The proposed watermarking scheme can
hide visually recognizable patterns in images. This scheme
is based on the discrete wavelet transform (DWT).
Moreover, it has no need of the original host image to
extract the embedded watermarks. RGB color space is
highly correlated and is not suitable for watermarking
applications [8]. So, in the proposed scheme, the host
image is converted into YUV color space; the Y channel is
then decomposed into wavelet coefficients. For more
security of watermark, the watermark W is converted to a
sequence and then a random binary sequence R of size n is
adopted to encrypt the watermark, where n is the size of
the watermark. This adopting process uses a pseudo-
random number generator to determine the pixel to be
used on a given key. The selected details subbands
Fig. 1 Block diagrams of the proposed watermarking scheme;
coefficients for embedding i.e. HL and LH coefficients are (a)Embedding procedure and (b)Extracting procedure.
quantized and then their most significant coefficients are
embedded by the adopted watermark using the correlation
properties of additive pseudo-random noise patterns 4.1 Watermark Embedding Framework
according to equation shown in below:
I x ,y  k * Wi if W  0 The algorithm for embedding watermark in details

I W x ,y ( u , v )   (3) subbands coefficients of the Y channel of host image is
I x ,y * Wi Otherwise described as follows:
In this equation k denotes a gain factor for completely Step 1: Convert RGB channels of the host image I into
controlling the imperceptibility of watermarked images YUV channels using Eq. (1).
and the robustness of watermarks and also IW is the Step 2: For more security of watermark, the watermark W
resulting watermarked image. This adaptive casting is converted to a sequence and then a random binary
www.IJCSI.org 72
sequence R of size n is adopted to encrypt the watermark, 5. Experimental Results

where n is the size of the watermark image. Then, the
encrypted watermark sequence W1 is generated by a Robustness is the most highly desired feature of a
pseudo- random number generator to determine the pixel watermarking algorithm especially if the application
to be used on a given key. demands copyright protection, and persistent owner
Step 3: Decompose the Y channel into a one-level wavelet identification.
structure with four DWT subbands, F(H). The coarsest The proposed perceptual watermarking scheme was
coefficient of subbands HL and LH are taken as the target implemented for evaluating both properties of
for embedding the watermark. imperceptibility and robustness against different attacks
Step4: Take absolute values on coefficients of all LH and such as jpeg compression and noise.
HL, and record their signs in sign matrices. Three 512×512 famous images: Lena, Peppers and
Step 5: Quantize absolute values of selection coefficients. Baboon, shown in Fig. 2(a-c) were taken as the host
Step 6: Embed encrypted watermark W1 into the coarsest images to embed a 15×64 binary watermark image, shown
coefficient of subbands HL and LH by the watermark in Fig. 2(d). For gain factor k, different values 0.5, 1.0 and
embedding strategy shown in Eq. (3). 1.5 were taken entire implementation of the proposed
Step 7: Effect sign matrices into the embedded CDMA scheme. For the entire test results in this paper,
coefficients. MATLAB R2007a software is used, too. 9 digit "key"
Step 8: Reconvert YUV channels of the changed host used as initial state of MATLAB random number
image into RGB channels. generator. Also for computation of the wavelet transforms,
Step 9: A watermarked image I' is then generated by 9-7 biorthogonal spline (B-spline) wavelet filters are used.
inverse DWT with all changed and unchanged DWT Cause of use of B-spline function wavelet is that, B-spline
coefficients. functions, do not have compact support, but are
Step 10: Record the pseudo-random noise generator orthogonal and have better smoothness properties than
algorithm and the key. other wavelet functions [6, 10].
4.2 Watermark Extracting Framework

The embedded watermark in details subbands coefficients
of the Y channel of host image is extracted using the same
pseudo-random noise generator algorithm is seeded with
the same key, and computation of the correlation between
the noise pattern and possible watermarked image as
follows:
Step 1: The RGB channels of the watermarked image are
converted into YUV channels.
Step 2: Decompose the Y channel into four DWT
subbands. Fig. 2 Proposed (a-c) The host images (Lena, Peppers, and Baboon) and
Step 3: Seeding the recorded key using the recorded (d) The watermark image.
pseudo-random noise generator algorithm.
Step 4: Quantize absolute values of HL and LH subbands. After watermark embedding process, the similarity of
Step 5: Computation of threshold T as follows: original host image x and watermarked images x' was
Correlation( HL )  Correlation( LH ) (4) measured by the standard correlation coefficient (Corr) as
T 
2 fallows [4, 7, 11]:
Step 6: Computation of the threshold T and each
Correlation 
 x  xy  y (6)
embedded coefficient correlation, separately. x  x 2 y  x 2
Step 7: The sequence watermark is extracted as follows:
where y and y' are the discrete wavelet transforms of x and

W  0 if Ci T x', respectively. Moreover, the peak signal-to-noise ratio
 i (5)
 (PSNR) was used to evaluate the quality of the
W  1 Othetwise
 i watermarked image. The PSNR is defined as [4, 7, 11]:
255 2
Step 8: The image watermark is produced by reconverting PSNR  10 log 10 dB (7)
the extracted sequence watermark. MSE
where mean-square error (MSE) is defined as [5, 7, 11 and
12]:
www.IJCSI.org 73
2
 h 
m n
MSE 
1
 h i , j
(8)
i ,j
mn i 1 j1
Where h i ,j  and h i ,j  are the gray levels of pixels in the

host and watermarked images, respectively. The larger
PSNR is, the better the image quality is. In general, a
watermarked image is acceptable by human perception if
its PSNR is greater than 30 dBs. In other words, the
correlation is used for evaluating the robustness of
watermarking technique and the PSNR is used for
evaluating the transparency of watermarking technique [4,
7 and 11].
Also the normalized correlation (NC) coefficient was used
to measure the similarity between original watermarks W
and the extracted watermarks W' that is defined as [4, 7
and 11]:
 w * w 
i j
i ,j i ,j
(9)
NC  Fig. 3 (a) Influence of the gain factor k on correlation and
 w i j
i ,j
2
(b) Influence of the gain factor k on PSNR.
The proposed CDMA watermarking scheme yields Table 1: Obtained results of watermark extracting
satisfactory results in watermark imperceptibility and with different values of the gain factor k
robustness. The embedding of large watermarks using
CDMA requires the embedding gain k to be lowered to Image k PSNR Corr NC Error
preserve the visual quality of the image. The obtained (dB) Bit %
results show that larger gains are reason that CDMA will 0.5 106.07 0.9980 1.00 0
be remained as more PN sequences are added to the host Lena 1.0 94.30 0.9958 1.00 0
image but it will be caused to decrease the transparency of 1.5 87.42 0.9839 1.00 0
the image, because of decreasing correlation between 0.5 86.81 0.9987 1.00 0
original image and watermarked image. Also, this results Peppers 1.0 84.36 0.9648 1.00 0
show that, the best compression can be made with CDMA, 1.5 81.48 0.9503 1.00 0
although CDMA is more resistant to different noise 0.5 81.13 0.9971 1.00 0
attacks such as Gaussian and salt & pepper. The PSNRs of Baboon 1.0 79.77 0.9576 1.00 0
the watermarked images produced by the proposed 1.5 78.03 0.9477 1.00 0
scheme for different gain factors k are all greater than 78
dBs and Normalized correlations (NC) between original
watermark images and extracted watermark images are all 5.1 Robustness to JPEG compression
equal 1. The results for effecting k on watermark
imperceptibility are illustrated in figure (3) and table (1). To evaluate the response of the watermarking scheme to
The PSNR and correlation plots shown in figure (3) JPEG compression, watermarked images were compressed
indicates that the proposed scheme satisfy imperceptibility with different JPEG qualities Qs: 10, 15, 25, 50 and 75.
as well. After able to achieve the desired fidelity, various Figure (4) shows the JPEG compression of the
attacks were performed to test the robustness of the watermarked images under quality factor 10 and gain
proposed scheme and it was found that the proposed factor 1. Figure (5) shows the extracted watermarks from
scheme performs excellently against JPEG compression watermarked images after JPEG compression under
and different noise attacks. different qualities and different gain factors. To the similar
references [5 and 12], the experimental results respectively
under different JPEG qualities and gain factors are
compared.
Fig. 4 Watermarked images under JPEG compression (Q=10, k=1);

www.IJCSI.org 74
(a) Lena, (b) peppers and (c) Baboon. NC 0.067 0.1591 0.3123 0.7367 0.9527
Peppers
PSNR 87.35 89.40 91.48 93.83 95.91
NC 0.2608 0.3728 0.5629 0.7681 0.9210
Baboon
PSNR 81.05 82.95 85.25 88.65 92.54
k=1.0
Image Q 10 15 25 50 75
NC 0.2107 0.5114 0.9094 0.9953 1.00
Lena
PSNR 87.49 89.14 91.05 93.65 97.98
NC 0.1591 0.4538 0.8475 0.9953 1.00
Peppers
PSNR 84.85 86.39 88.03 90.31 93.41
NC 0.5278 0.6828 0.8736 0.9838 1.00
Baboon
Fig. 5 Extracted watermarks from watermarked images after JPEG PSNR 79.87 81.58 83.73 87.14 91.56
compression with different values for Q and k. k=1.5
Image Q 10 15 25 50 75
The percentage of the error bit for extracted watermarks NC 0.4996 0.8459 0.9907 1.00 1.00
Lena
under JPEG compression is shown in figure (6). As it is PSNR 83.74 84.98 86.65 89.85 95.66
seen, the percentage of error bit plot shown in Fig. (6) NC 0.4761 0.8214 0.9884 0.9977 1.00
Peppers
indicates that the margin of error is very less for the PSNR 81.87 83.05 84.58 87.37 91.90
detection statistic, and CDMA proposed scheme has NC 0.7147 0.8825 0.9681 1.00 1.00
Baboon
increased in comparing with the earlier works such as [5 PSNR 78.24 79.81 81.86 85.63 90.87
and 12]. Table (2) shows the response of the detector to From the obtained results it can be seen that for JPEG
extract the watermark in JPEG compression. compression with a quality factor of 75 and gain factor
0.5, a quality factor of 50 and gain factor 1 and also a
quality factor of 15 and gain factor 1.5, the watermark
detection and extraction is near perfect. The recovered
watermarks for a quality factor of 25 and gain factor 1
show a number of detection errors and these only become
highly noticeable for a quality factor of 15 and gain factor
1. The watermarks are still recognizable for a quality
factor of 10 and gain factor 1. The overall robustness of
proposed scheme for JPEG compression is considered
high level, according to the robustness requirements table
provided by Petitcolas [13] and is higher than earlier
works such as [5]; therefore, It can be said that the
proposed scheme is more robust than earlier works such as
[5] against JPEG compression, even for low JPEG quality.
5.2 Robustness to Noise Attacks

The CDMA proposed scheme was tested for its robustness
against different types of noise. This is done by first
introducing noise into the watermarked images. Gaussian
noise with zero mean is introduced to verify as to what
extent the proposed scheme can withstand noise. From the
results shown below, it is observed that for a Gaussian
noise of 1% with the gain factor 0.5; the watermark
recovery is almost recognizable, for a Gaussian noise of
1% with the gain factor 1, the watermark recovery is
Fig. 6 The percentage of error bit in extracted watermarks
in JPEG compression under deferent qualities and gain factors.
moderate and for a Gaussian noise of 1% with the gain
factor 1.5, the watermark recovery is near perfect with
very few detection errors. We must keep in mind that most
Table 2: Obtained results of extracted watermarks in JPEG compression schemes offer moderate robustness to noise [14].
k=0.5 Figure (7) shows added Gaussian noise of 0.5% with gain
Image Q 10 15 25 50 75 factor 1 to watermarked images. Figure (8) shows the
NC 0.0575 0.1753 0.4066 0.8107 0.9725 extracted watermarks in Gaussian noise of 1% with
Lena
PSNR 91.07 93.48 96.28 99.24 97.25 different gain factors.
www.IJCSI.org 75
Fig. 7 Watermarked images under Gaussian noise of 0.5%

with gain factor 1; (a) Lena, (b) Peppers and (c) Baboon.
Figure (9) shows the percentage of error bit in extracted

watermarks under different variances and different gain
factors. Figure (10) shows the results of PSNR in
Gaussian noise experiment. As it is obvious, the lowest
value for PSNR is still greater than 49 db (Gaussian noise
of 1% with gain factor 0.5). Figure (11) shows the results
of NC in Gaussian noise experiment. It is visible, the NC
is acceptable for Gaussian noise of 1% with the gain
factor 1.5 and it is moderate in Gaussian noise of 1% with
the gain factor 1. The obtained results from Gaussian
noise experiment show that, the proposed CDMA scheme
is more robust than the earlier works such as [5].
Fig. 9 Percentage of error bit under Gaussian noise experiment.

Fig. 8 Extracted watermarks from Gaussian noise of 1%
with different gain factors; (a) Lena, (b) Peppers and (c) Baboon. When the salt & pepper noise with zero mean and
different noise densities 0.01 to 0.5 with different gain
factor introduced in the watermarked images, the
extracted watermarks are recognizable in gain factor 0.5
and noise density 0.5, they are recovered in gain factor 1
and noise density 0.5 moderately and they are recovered
in gain factor 1.5 and noise density 0.5 with a few
detection errors.
Figure (12) shows the watermarked images under salt &
pepper noise attacks with noise density 0.5 and gain
factor 1. Figure (13) shows the extracted watermarks
from noisy watermarked images under noise density 0.5
with different gain factors and figure (14) shows the
percentage of error bit in extracted watermarks under salt
& pepper noise with different noise densities and
different gain factors. The PSNR results in salt & pepper
noise experiment is shown in figures (15). As it is
obvious, the lowest value for PSNR is still greater than 50
(noise density 0.5 with gain factor 0.5). Figure (16) shows
the NC results in salt & pepper noise experiment. The
obtained results show that, NC in salt & pepper noise
experiment is acceptable for noise density 0.5 with the
gain factor 0.5, it is moderate for the same noise density
with the gain factor 1 and it is near perfect for the same
noise density and gain factor 1.5 with a few detection
www.IJCSI.org 76
errors. From the obtained results it can be said that the

proposed CDMA scheme is very efficient in robustness
against salt & peppers attacks and it improves the results
in the earlier works such as [5].
Fig. 11 NC in Gaussian noise experiment.
Fig. 10 PSNR under Gaussian noise experiment.
6. Conclusions
This paper provides a novel CDMA watermarking scheme Fig. 12 Salt & pepper noise on watermarked images with variance 0.5
using DWT2 with satisfactory results in watermark and gain factor 1; (a) Lena, (b) Peppers and (c) Baboon.
imperceptibility, robustness and security that improves
upon the earlier work such as [5].
Fig. 13 Extracted watermarks from salt & pepper noise with noise
density 0.5different gain factors.
www.IJCSI.org 77
is found to be very good at a quality factor of 75 and gain

factor 0.5, a quality factor of 50 and gain factor 1 and also
a quality factor of 15 and gain factor 1.5. Reasonably, the
robustness of the proposed scheme to JPEG compression
is found to be good at a quality factor of 25 and gain factor
1 with a number of detection errors and for a quality factor
of 15 and gain factor 1, this becomes highly noticeable.
(3) The results show that, the watermark is still
recognizable for a quality factor of 10 and gain factor 1.
These results show that, the proposed scheme improves
the results in earlier works such as [5]. (4) The robustness
of the proposed scheme to Gaussian noise with zero mean
is found to be very good for a Gaussian noise of 1 % with
the gain factor 1.5, and it is good for a Gaussian noise of 1
% with the gain factor 1, and it is recognizable for a
Gaussian noise of 1 % with the gain factor 0.5. This
results show the improving in comparing with the earlier
works such as [5]. (5) The robustness of the proposed
scheme to salt & pepper noise with zero mean with noise
density 0.5 is found to be very good for a gain factor 1.5,
it is good for the same noise density and a gain factor 1
and it is recognizable for the same noise density and a gain
factor 0.5.
Fig. 14 Percentage of error bit under salt & pepper noise experiment.
In the scheme, the host image is converted into YUV

channels; then, the Y channel is decomposed into wavelet
coefficients. For more security of watermark, the
watermark W is converted to a sequence and then a
random binary sequence R of size n is adopted to encrypt
the watermark, where n is the size of the watermark using
a pseudo-random number generator to determine the pixel
to be used on a given key. The selected details subbands
coefficients for embedding are quantized and then their
most significant coefficients are replaced by the adopted
watermark using the correlation properties of additive
pseudo-random noise patterns. To embed the watermark
coefficients for completely controlling the imperceptibility
and the robustness of watermarks, an adaptive casting
technique is utilized using a gain factor k. Also, the
CDMA watermark scheme has no need to original Image
in extracting process. The observations regarding the
proposed watermarking scheme are summarized as
follows: (1) Increasing gain factor k increases the PSNR
and NC. In a result, it decreases the percentage of error bit
and increases the robustness of the watermark against
JPEG compression and different noise attacks such as
Gaussian and salt & pepper. In opposite, increasing gain Fig. 15 PSNR under salt & pepper noise experiment.
factor k, decreases the transparency property.(2) The
robustness of the proposed scheme to JPEG compression
www.IJCSI.org 78
[8] Qian-Chuan Zhong, Qing-Xin and Ping- Li- Zhang, "A Satial
Domain Color Watermarking Scheme Based on Chaos", IEEE,
2008.
[9] Annajirao Garimella, M. V. V. Satyanarayana, P.S.
Murugesh and U.C. Niranjan, "Asic for Digital Color Image
Watermarking", 11th Digital Signal Processing Workshop &
IEEE Signal Processing Education Workshop, 2004.
[10] Chiunhsiun Lin, "Face detection in complicated
backgrounds and different illumination conditions by using
YCbCr color space and neural network", Elsevier, Pattern
Recognition Letters 28 (2007), pp. 2190–2200, July 2007.
[11] Ming-Shing Hsieh, "Wavelet-based Image Watermarking
and Compression", Ph.D Thesis, Institute of Computer Science
and Information Engineering National Central University,
Taiwan, Dec. 2001.
[12] William A. Irizarry-Cruz, "FPGA Implementation of a
Video Watermarking Algorithm", M.S. Thesis, University of
Puerto Rico Mayaguez Campus, 2006.
[13] F. A. P. Petitcolas, "Watermarking schemes evaluation."
IEEE Signal Processing, vol. 17, no. 5, pp. 58–64, September
2000.
[14] Arvind Kumar Parthasarathy, "Improved Content Based
Watermarking for Images", M.S. Thesis, Louisiana State
University and Agricultural and Mechanical College,
Kanchipuram, India, August 2006.
Mehdi Khalili Ph.D. student in Computer engineering in the

Institute for Informatics and Automation Problems in National
Academy of Science of Armenia with the thesis title: An
Investigation on Digital Image Watermarking in Color Spaces
Fig. 16 NC in salt & pepper noise experiment. Using DWT2. Masters Degree in Electrical-electronic engineering
(2006-2008), Bachelors Degree in Electrical-electronic engineering
(1998-2003). Number of published papers in conferences and
journals: 4. Number of published books: 2 entitled: (1) An
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www.IJCSI.org 79
Hybrid Algorithm for Multiprocessor Task Scheduling

Mostafa R. Mohamed1, Medhat H. A. AWADALLA 2
1
Information Systems Department, Faculty of Computers and Information, Fayoum University,
El Fayoum, Egypt
2
Communication, Electronics and Computers Department, Faculty of Engineering, Helwan University,
Helwan, Egypt
Abstract Many heuristic approaches for task scheduling have been

Multiprocessors have become powerful computing means for proposed [5–10]. The reason for such proposals is because the
running real-time applications and their high performance depends precedence constraints between tasks can be non-uniform
greatly on parallel and distributed network environment system. therefore rendering the need for a uniformity solution. We
Consequently, several methods have been developed to optimally assume that the parallel processor system is uniform and non-
tackle the multiprocessor task scheduling problem which is called NP-
hard problem. To address this issue, this paper presents two
preemptive.
approaches, Modified List Scheduling Heuristic (MLSH) and hybrid Recently, Genetic Algorithms (GAs) have been widely
approach composed of Genetic Algorithm (GA) and MLSH for task reckoned as a useful vehicle for obtaining high quality
scheduling in multiprocessor system. Furthermore, this paper solutions or even optimal solutions for a broad range of
proposes three different representations for the chromosomes of combinatorial optimization problems including task scheduling
genetic algorithm: task list (TL), processor list (PL) and combination problem [ 11, 12]. Another merit of a genetic search is that its
of both (TLPLC). Intensive simulation experiments have been inherent parallelism can be exploited so as to further reduce its
conducted on different random and real-world application graphs such running time. Thus, several methods have presented to solve
as Gauss-Jordan, LU decomposition, Gaussian elimination and this problem based on GAs [13-16].
Laplace equation solver problems. Comparisons have been done with
the most related algorithms like: list scheduling heuristics algorithm To tackle the multiprocessor task scheduling problem
LSHs, Bipartite GA (BGA) [1] and Priority based Multi-Chromosome (MTSP), this paper presents two approaches: a modified list
(PMC) [2]. The achieved results show that the proposed approaches scheduling heuristic and hybrid approach composed of GA and
significantly surpass the other approaches in terms of task execution MLSH. GA used three new different types of chromosomes:
time (makespan) and processor efficiency. task list, processor list, and a combination of both types.
Keywords: Multiprocessors, task scheduling, Genetic algorithm, This paper is organized as follows: The multiprocessor
makespan, parallel and distributed system, Modified List Scheduling
task scheduling problem on the general models of a DAG is
Heuristic (MLSH).
presented in section 2. Section 3 outlines the most related work
to the theme of this paper. Section 4 proposes MLSH. Hybrid
1. Introduction approach composed of genetic algorithm and MLSH
The problem of scheduling a task graph of a parallel comprising three different new types of chromosomes is
program onto a parallel and distributed computing system is a presented in section 5. Genetic operators are presented in
well-defined NP-hard problem that has received much section 6. Simulated experiments and discussions are presented
attention, and it is considered one of the most challenging in section 7. Section 8 concludes the paper.
problems in parallel computing [3]. The scheduling problem
has been addressed in several applications such as information 2. Multiprocessor task scheduling problem
processing, database systems, weather forecasting, image
Multiprocessor scheduling problems can be classified into
processing, fluid flow, process control, economics, operation
many different classes based on the following characteristics:
research and real time high-speed stimulations of dynamical
systems. The multiprocessor task scheduling problem  The number of tasks and their precedence.
considered in this paper is based on the deterministic model,  Execution time of the tasks and the communication cost
which is the execution time of tasks and the data which is the cost to transmit messages from a task on one
communication time between tasks that are assigned; and the processor to a succeeding task on a different processor
directed acyclic task graph (DAG) that represents the (Communication cost between two tasks on the same
precedence relations of the tasks of a parallel processing processor is assumed to be zero).
system [4]. The goal of such a scheduler is to assign tasks to  Number of processors and processors uniformity (A
available processors such that precedence requirements homogeneous multiprocessor system is composed of a set
between tasks are satisfied and the overall length of time P = {P1… Pm} of ‘m’ identical processors.
required to execute the entire program, the schedule length or  Topology of the representative task graph.
makespan, is minimized. Directed Acyclic Graph (DAG) can represent applications
executed within each multiprocessor system. A DAG G = (V,
www.IJCSI.org 80
E ) consists of a set of vertices V representing the tasks to be The genetic-based methods have attracted a lot of
executed and a set of directed edges E representing researcher attention in solving the MTSP [2, 11, 13, 14, 15, 17,
communication dependencies among tasks. The edge set E 21]. Genetic operators are the main differences of these genetic
contains directed edges eij for each task Ti  V that task Tj  V approaches, such as crossover and mutation. Using different
depends on. The computation weight of a task is represented crossover and mutation methods for reproducing the offspring
by the number of CPU clock cycles to execute the task. Given is strongly dependent upon the chromosome representation
an edge eij, Ti is called the immediate predecessor of Tj and Tj which may lead to the production of legal or illegal solutions.
is called the immediate successor of Ti. An immediate Another important point in designing GA is the simplicity of
successor Tj depends on its immediate predecessors such that the algorithm and complexity of evolutionary optimization
Tj cannot start execution before it receives results from all of process.
its immediate predecessors. A task without immediate Hou et al. [13] reported that the results of GA were within
predecessors is called an entry-task and a task without 10% of the optimal schedules. Their results are based on task
immediate successors is called an exit-task. A DAG may have graphs with dependencies but without communication delays.
multiple entry tasks and one exit-task. Randomly generated The method proposed in [30], though it is very efficient, it does
task model, Gauss Jordan elimination, LU decomposition [17] not search all the solution space. Due to the strict ordering that
and Laplace equation solver [6] task graphs are considered in only the highest priority ready task can be selected for
this paper. Some of these task graphs are illustrated in Fig.1. scheduling, there can be many valid schedules omitted from
the search. Correa et al. [7] proposed modifications to the
approach in [30] to broaden the search space to include all
valid solutions. This modified approach was tested on task
graphs that represent well-known parallel programs. Wu et al.
[11] proposed a novel GA which allows both valid and invalid
individuals in the population. This GA uses an incremental
fitness function and gradually increases the difficulty of fitness
values until a satisfactory solution is found. This approach is
not scalable to large problems since much time is spent
evaluating invalid individuals that may never become valid
ones. Moore [31] applies parallel GA to the scheduling
problem and compares its accuracy with mathematically
predicted expected value. More GA approaches are found in
[30, 32–35].
Another genetic-based multiprocessor scheduling method
has been presented in [7]. The authors of this paper claimed
that the task duplication is a useful technique for shortening the
Fig.1. Description of task dependencies for (a) Laplace equation solver and
length of schedules. In addition, they added new genetic
(b) LU decomposition
operators to the GA to control the degree of replication of
tasks.
3. RELATED WORK
Some works tried to change the conventional approach of
Several approaches have been adopted to solve the
GA. They combined other problem solving techniques, such as
multiprocessor task scheduling such as heuristic approaches
divide and conquer mechanism with GA. A modified genetic
[18-20], evolutionary approaches [2, 11, 13, 14, 15, 17, 21, 22]
approach called partitioned genetic algorithm (PGA) was
and hybrid methods [23, 24]. Kwok and Ahmad [25] presented
proposed [15]. In PGA: the input DAG is divided into partial
a comprehensive review and classification of deterministic
graphs using b-level partitioning algorithm and each of these
scheduling algorithms. Among the most common methods is a
separate parts is solved individually using GA. After that, a
class of methods called list scheduling techniques. List
conquer algorithm cascades the subgroups and forms the final
scheduling techniques are widely used in task scheduling
solution. In [36], a new GA called task execution order list
problems [26]. Insertion Scheduling Heuristic (ISH) and
(TEOL) was presented to solve the scheduling problem in
Duplication Scheduling Heuristic (DSH) are well-known list
parallel multiprocessor systems. The TEOL guarantees that all
scheduling heuristic methods [27, 28]. ISH [27] is a list
feasible search space is reachable with the same probability.
scheduling heuristic that was developed to optimize scheduling
DAGs with communication delays. ISH extends a basic list Some researchers proposed a combination of GAs and list
scheduling heuristic from Hu [29] by attempting to insert ready heuristics [37-39]. Correa et al. [7] proposed a modified GA by
tasks into existing communication delay slots. DSH [27] the use of list heuristics in the crossover and mutation in a pure
improved ISH by using task duplication to reduce the starting genetic algorithm. This method is said to dramatically improve
time of tasks within a schedule. DSH reduces inter-processor the quality of the solutions that can be obtained with both pure
communication time by scheduling tasks redundantly to genetic algorithm and pure list approach. Unfortunately, the
multiple processors. running time is larger than the time of running pure genetic
www.IJCSI.org 81
algorithm. Therefore the aim of this paper is to reduce that time
however GA is modified by the chromosomes representations.
4. The Proposed Modified List Scheduling

Heuristic (MLSH)
List scheduling techniques assign a priority to each task to
be scheduled and then sort the list of tasks in decreasing
priority. As processors become available, the task with highest
priority is processed and removed from the list. If two or more
tasks have the same priority, the selection which is performed
among the candidate tasks is typically random [26]. The
problem with list scheduling algorithms is that the priority
assignment may not always order the tasks for scheduling
according to their relative importance. In MLSH, Priorities
have been determined from DAG and then assigned to the
tasks in such way that the important task will be assigned to the
processor that eventually leads to a better scheduling. MLSH
flowchart is illustrated in Fig.2.
In this paper, real-time tasks are considered. Each task is
characterized by the following parameters:
 ts (T) : is the starting time of task T of G.
 ts (T, P) : is the starting time of task T on processor P.
 tf (T) : is the finishing time of task T.
 w (T) : is the processing time of task T.
The algorithm starts by assigning levels for the tasks (the
root task has level 0). The level of a task graph is defined as:
0 , if Pred (Ti)  

Level (Ti)  1  max Level (Tj) , otherwise (1)
 Tj  PRED (Ti)
where, Pred (Ti) is the set of predecessors of Ti.
Firstly, the Level function indirectly conveys precedence

relations between the tasks. If the task Ti is an ancestor of task
Tj, then Level (Ti) < Level (Tj). If there is no path between the
two tasks, then there is no precedence relation between them
and the order of their execution can be arbitrary [13, 40].
Secondly, the sequence of tasks’ execution in each level is
determined. For the root level (T1, T2 in Fig.3), if there is only
one parent task, then it comes first.
If there is more than one parent tasks the number of the
children for each parent in the next level is calculated and their
parent has got a priority according to that number in a
descending order. The parent with the highest number of Fig.2. Flowchart of MLSH algorithm
children comes first (T1 will be executed before T2).
If two or more parents have the same number of children
(T3, T4 and T5) then the parent that has a common child is to be
executed first (T4 and T5 will be executed before T3). When
two parents have the same common child, they will be listed in
an arbitrary order (T4 and T5).
Thirdly, we assign each task to an appropriate processor to
reach the minimum finishing time for all tasks according to
equations (2-11).
www.IJCSI.org 82
case (1) : if T j is a root task.
then, t (T j )  0
s
t (T j )  t (T j )  w(T j ) ( 2)
f s
case (2) : if T j is not a root task, then :*
case (2.1) : if T j depends only on one task (i.e. T j depends on T i )

then , t (T j )  t (Ti)  c(e ) (3)
s f T iT j
form (2) and (3),
t (T j )  t (T i )  c(e )  w(T j ) ( 4)
f f T iT j
Fig.3. DAG with 8 tasks

case (2.2) : if T j depends only on one task (i.e. T j depends on T i )
and T j waits until T k completes.
5. The Proposed Hybrid approach.
The hybrid approach composed of GA and MLSH.  t f (Tk) if c(e )  t (T k ) - t (T i )
Genetic algorithms try to mimic the natural evolution process  T iT j f f
then t (Tj)   (5)
s
and generally start with an initial population of chromosomes,  t f (T i )  c(e T i T j ) othewise
which can either be generated randomly or based on some other form (2) and (5),
algorithms. Here, the initial population has started based on
t (T j )  t (T j)  w(T j) ( 6)
MLSH. Three different types of chromosomes are developed to f s
generate the genetic chromosome. In each generation, the
population goes through the processes of fitness evaluation, case (2.3) : if T j depends on more than one task (i.e.T j depends
selection, crossover and mutation. The following subsections on more than T i) and no waiting
will present these processes in full details.
5.1. Chromosomes the n t (T i )  c(e

n
)  max  t (T i )  c(e ) (7)
f i  1  f
T iT j T i T j 
For task scheduling, a chromosome represents a solution n : no. of dependenci es
to the scheduling problem. We present three different types of form (7),
chromosomes for genetic algorithm: Task List (TL), Processor
t (T j )  t (T i )  c(e ) (8)
List (PL) and combination of them (TLPLC). s f T iT j
form (2) and (8),
5.1.1. Chromosome construction using TL t (T j )  w(Tj)  t (T i )  c(e ) ( 9)
f f T iT j
Every chromosome is a permutation of the V tasks of the
DAG. Each gene represents a position in the task list and the case (2.4) : if T j depends on more than one task (i.e. T j depends
value of the gene is the index of the task at that position as on more than T i ) and T j waits until T k completes
shown in Fig.4. MLSH is used to form the chromosomes in the
initial population.
form (7),
 t f (Tk) if c(e )  t (T k ) - t (T i )
 T iT j f f
t (T j )   (10)
s t (T i )  c(e ) othewise
 f T iT j
Fig.4. Chromosome that encodes task list
form (2) and (10),
t (T j )  t (T j )  w(T j ) (11)
f s
5.1.2. chromosome construction using PL
-----------------------------------------------
Every chromosome consists of V genes, each of which *
 c if task T i and T k are assigned to different processor
c(e )   ij
represents one task of the DAG. Assuming a consecutive T iT j  0 otherwise
numbering of the tasks and processors, starting with 1, gene i
corresponds to task Ti Є V. The value of the gene corresponds
to the index of the processor, 1 to P, to which the task is
allocated as shown in Fig.5. The chromosomes have uniform
distribution of the available number of processors.
www.IJCSI.org 83
In this paper elitism is used to eliminate the chance of any
undesired loss of information during the selection process. It
selects the best two chromosomes and copies them into the
mating pool, meanwhile in the next generation. Because such
chromosomes might be lost if not selected for reproduction and
Fig.5. chromosome that encodes processor list also they may be destroyed by the crossover or the mutation
process. This issue significantly improves the GA’s
performance.
5.1.3. chromosome construction using TLPLC
Tournament selection randomly picks a tournament size
In this case, the chromosome has a combination of tasks (Ts) of chromosomes from the tournament which is a copy of
and processors as show in Fig.6. the population (pop). The best chromosome from (Ts) that has
the highest fitness (fit) is the winner. It is then inserted into the
mating pool (which is for example half of the tournament).
The tournament competition is repeated until the mating pool
for generating new offspring is filled. After that, crossover and
mutation are performed. The developed tournament method is
Fig.6. Chromosome that encodes task list and processor list as shown in Fig.7.
5.2. Fitness function Tournament Selection Method
tournamentselection (pop, fit, Ts);
The Fitness function (FF) is essentially the objective BEGIN
function for the problem. It is used to evaluate the solution, and 1. Compute size of mating pool as size of population/2;
it also controls the selection process. For the multiprocessor 2. Compute the best two individuals from population
scheduling problem we can consider factors, such as 3. Add them at mating pool m & at new population
throughput, finishing time and processor utilization for the FF. 4. for j1 to Ts
5. DO compute random point as any point between 1 and
t f ( P)  max t f ( T). (12) population size
T V 6. T[j]  pop [point];
7. TF[j]  fit [point];
tf (p): is the finishing time of processor P, the time at which the
8. ENDFOR
last task scheduled on P terminates. 9. Compute the best one from T according to fitness
Genetic algorithm works naturally on the maximization 10. Add it to the mating pool
problem, while the mentioned objective function (finishing 11. Repeat steps 4 to 10 until mating pool is full
time of schedule) has to be minimized. Therefore, it is END
necessary to convert the objective function into maximization Fig.7. Tournament Selection Method
form called fitness function. Here, the calculation of the FF.
which is determined by the following equation: 6.2. Crossover operator
The crossover operator is a reproduction operator which
FF  ft max  max t f ( T) (13)
T V implements the principles of evolution. It creates new
where, ft max is the maxmium finishing time observed in chromosomes (children or offspring) by combining two
the current population randomly selected parent chromosomes. These newly created
chromosomes inherit the genetic material of their ancestors.
Chromosomes in the mating pool are subjected to crossover
6. Genetic operators with probability pc. Two chromosomes are selected from the
mating pool, and a random number RN [0, 1] is generated. If
The selection operator should be applied before using the RN < pc, these chromosomes are subjected to the crossover
crossover and mutation operators. operation using single point crossover operator. Otherwise,
these chromosomes are not changed.
6.1. Selection operator
This selection operator allocates the reproductive trials to 6.2.1. Crossover of task list.
chromosomes according to their fitness. Different approaches The chromosome encoding of a task list states that each
were used in the selection operators such as roulette wheel task T  V, can appear only once in the chromosome. To
selection and tournament selection. The tournament selection understand this, see Fig.8, the child (offspring) ch1 and ch2 will
was found to be the better one [38]. have tasks T5 and T4 twice, respectively.
The purpose of the selection is to emphasize fitter
individuals in the population in hopes that their offspring’s
have higher fitness. Chromosomes are selected from the initial
population to be parents for reproduction.
www.IJCSI.org 84
Fig.8. Single-point crossover for task list chromosomes and error Crossover of TLPLC combines the task list and the
The problem is overcome with the following single-point processor list in one chromosome. Since these parts differ
crossover operator. Given two randomly chosen chromosomes strongly, the simple solution for the operator is to apply the two
c1 and c2, a cut point x, 1 ≤ x < V, is selected randomly. The previously described operators separately to each part. If
genes [1, x] of c1 and c2 are copied to the genes [1, x] of the 0.35≤pc ≤ 0.55 we apply on the first part. If 0.55< pc ≤ 0.75 we
new children ch1 and ch2, respectively. To fill the remaining apply on the second part and if 0.75< pc ≤ 0.95 we apply on the
genes [x + 1, V] of ch1 (ch2), chromosome c2 (c1) is scanned two parts as shown in Fig.11.
from the first to the last gene and each task that is not yet in ch1 6.3. Mutation operator
(ch2) is added to the next empty position of ch1 (ch2) in the
order that it is discovered. Fig.9, illustrates the procedure of this The mutation operator (pm) has a much lower probability
operator. Under the condition that the task lists of chromosomes than the crossover operator. Its main function is to safeguard
c1 and c2 are in precedence order, this operator even guarantees avoiding the convergence of the state search to a locally best
that the task lists of ch1 and ch2 also are. It is easy to see this solution. A swapping mutation operator is very suitable for
for the genes [1, x] of both ch1 and ch2 as they are only copied chromosomes in TL as in Fig. 12 and PL as in Fig. 13, where
from c1 and c2. The remaining genes of ch1 and ch2 are filled we swap the two genes that are randomly selected. Another
in the same relative order in which they appear in c2 and c1, alternative for PL is to change the values of the genes that were
respectively. Hence, among themselves, these remaining tasks randomly picked shown in Fig.14.
must also be in precedence order. Furthermore, there cannot be The mutation in TLPLC is based on the same methods
a precedence conflict between the tasks on the left side of the used in TL and PL.
crossover point with those on the right side of the crossover
point, this separation of the tasks into two groups has not
changed from c1 to ch1 neither from c2 to ch2 and it adheres to
the precedence constraints in c1 and c2. Fig.12. Swapping mutation operator for task list chromosome
Fig.13. Swapping mutation operator for processor list chromosome
Fig.9. Single-point crossover for task list chromosomes after error
6.2.2. Crossover of Processor List

Fig.14. Mutation operator for processor list chromosome
For the chromosome encoding of the processor list, quite
simple crossover operators can be employed. The processor list
chromosome in each gene can assume the same range of values
(1 to P). Furthermore, the value of one gene has no impact on
the possible values of the other genes. Fig.10, illustrates how the
single point crossover operator works. Note that the generated
new children are always valid chromosomes.
Fig.11. single-point crossover for combination between task list and processor list chromosomes (TLPLC)
7. E
x
perimental results
In this section, intensive simulated experiments on random
Fig.10. Single-point crossover for processor list chromosomes
and real applications have been conducted. The genetic
6.2.3. Crossover of TLPLC
www.IJCSI.org 85
algorithms used the following parameters throughout the Table 1: Comparative results based on problem1
simulations: Algorithms MCP DSC MD DCP MLSH
• Population size = 20. No.of

3 4 2 2 2
processors
• Maximum number of generation = 1000
Best solution 29 27 32 32 23
• Crossover probability (pc) = 0.7
• Mutation probability (pm) = 0.3
• Number of generation without improvement (with same
fitness) = 200.
7.1. simulated experiments based on MLSH

In this section, MLSH is compared with the most related
heuristics, such as modified critical path (MCP) [6], dominant
sequence clustering (DSC) [4], mobility directed (MD) [6] and
dynamic critical path (DCP) [20]. Table 1 demonstrates the
makespan of randomly generated task graph, problem 1 shown
in Fig. 15. The obtained performance shown in Fig. 16 shows
that processor efficiency with MLSH outperforms all other
algorithms.
In experimental problem 1: Fig.16. performance analysis of MCP, DSC, MD, DCP, and MLSH
 Best solution: the best result from the 15 times iterations.

 Processor efficiency (%) = Sequential Time /total 7.2. Comparison between TL, PL, and TLPLC
processing time In this section, the TLPLC is compared with the TL and
 Sequential Time: is actually task execution time on the PL for two problems. Problem 1 mentioned above and
uniprocessor. problem 2, Gaussian elimination method graphs shown in Fig.
 Processing time: is (number of used processors × 17. Tables 2 and 3 demonstrate the best solution (the
makespan). makespan) for 15 iterations of problems 1 and problem 2
For example: Efficiency for MLSH = (30 / 2*23) =65.2% respectivly. The achieved results shown in Fig.18 and Fig.19
prove that the efficiency of TLPLC is better than TL and PL.
Efficiency for DCP and MD = (30 / 2*32) =46.9%
Efficiency for DSC = (30 / 4*27) =27.8%
Efficiency for MCP = (30 / 3*29) =34.48%
Table 2: Comparative results based on problem 1

Algorithms TL PL TLPLC
No.of processors 2 2 2
Best solution 22 21 21 Fig.17. Gaussian elimination with 18 tasks
Fig.15. Randomly generated task graph
www.IJCSI.org 86
 TL required small number of iterations to reach the
optimum solution however, each iteration consumes high
computational time.
 PL required much iteration.
 TLPLC required small number of iterations with less
computational time.
Algorithms TL PL TLPLC
No. of 3- Crossover and Mutation operation
2 3 4 2 3 4 2 3 4
processors  TL applies the crossover operation on tasks that might
Best cause task duplication in the same chromosome. Mutation
460 440 450 510 490 490 440 440 440
solution operation when applied on tasks, it might cause conflict
with their precedence that requires more processing time
to get rid of it.
 PL applies the crossover operation on processors which is
easy to be implemented. The mutation is also simple and
can be done using two different methods:
1. Swapping two tasks between any two processors
2. Migration, assigning a processor’s task to any other
processor.
 TLPLC applies the crossover operation on the
chromosome using the methods used in PL and TL. The
mutation is applied in the same way as in PL and TL.
So we can conclude that TLPLC based GA (TLPLC-GA)
algorithm is better than PL and TL based GA and hence it will
be used in the rest of the paper when comparing some heuristics
Fig.18. Performance analysis of TLPLC, TL, and PL based on problem 1 and genetic algorithms.
7.3. Comparison between TLPLC-GA and some well

known heuristics
In this section, the proposed algorithm, TLPLC-GA, is
compared with MCP, DSC, MD, and DCP. Table 4 and 5
demonstrate the makespan of problem 1 and problem 2,
respectively. The results of TLPLC-GA in all cases are better
than the compared algorithms. TLPLC-GA was run 15 times in
each case (using 2, 3 and 4 processors) and the best makespan
of each case has been reported in Table 4 and 5. The obtained
results shown in Fig.20 for problem 1 and Fig.21 for problem 2
prove that the performance of TLPLC-GA surpasses the other
algorithms.
Fig.19. Performance analysis of TLPLC, TL, and PL based on problem
2 Table 4: Comparative results based on problem 1
Algorithms MCP DSC MD DCP TLPLC-GA
No. of processors 3 4 2 2 2 3 4
Based on the achieved results:- Best solution 29 27 32 32 21 21 21
1- Optimum solution
 TL method reached the optimum solution several times
with the same chromosome, and sometimes, it did not Algorithms MCP DSC MD DCP TLPLC-GA
reach it. No. of
4 6 3 3 2 3 4
processors
 PL method did not reach the optimum solution for these
Best solution 520 460 460 440 440 440 440
two problems, but it did in some other problems.
 TLPLC method did reach the optimum solution many
times with different chromosomes (TLPLC has many
optimum solutions).
2- Number of Iterations
www.IJCSI.org 87
Fig.22 Performance analysis of TLPLC-GA, BGA and PMC for problem 1

Fig.20 Performance analysis of MCP, DSC, MD, DCP, and TLPLC-
GA for problem 1 Second, the three algorithms are applied on the problem 2.
Table 7 shows that TLPLC-GA has better makespan compared
to BGA and PMC in terms of average solutions in all
cases.Fig.23 shows that Processor efficiency for the proposed
algorithm, TLPLC-GA is quite better than that of BGA and
PMC.
Table 7: Comparative results for Gaussian elimination on problem 2
Algorithms TLPLC-GA BGA PMC
No. of
2 3 4 2 3 4 2 3 4
processors
Average
446 443 451 463 461 461 491 522 544
makespam
Fig.21 Performance analysis of MCP, DSC, MD, DCP, and TLPLC-GA

for problem 2
7.4. Comparisons with GA Based Algorithms
Here we compare the proposed algorithm, TLPLC-GA,

with other GA-based methods, BGA and PMC and two
test benchmarks were employed. Fig.23 Performance analysis of TLPLC-GA, BGA and PMC for problem 2
Test bench 1: Test bench2:

First, TLPLC-GA, BGA and PMC are applied on problem Table 8 summarizes different problems that have been
1. Table 6 and Fig. 22 show that the obtained results in terms addressed in this paper for the sake of comparison among
of average makespam and processor efficiency for TLPLC-GA TLPLC-GA, BGA and PMC.
and BGA in all cases are the same, and they are both better Table 8. Selected Test Problems
than PMC. Problem # tasks Comm. costs Description
P1[17] 15 25 (fixed) Gauss-Jordan algorithm
P2[17] 15 100 (fixed) Gauss-Jordan algorithm
Algorithms TLPLC-GA BGA PMC P3[17] 14 20 (fixed) LU decomposition
No. of P4[17] 14 80 (fixed) LU decomposition
2 3 4 2 3 4 2 3 4
processors Variable for
Average P5[41] 17 Random
21 21 21 21 21 21 21.9 22.4 22.3 each graph edge
makespam Variable for
P6[6] 18 Gaussian elimination
each graph edge
P7[6] 16 40 (fixed) Laplace equation solver
P8[6] 16 160 (fixed) Laplace equation solver
The three algorithms applied on the test benches are
presented in Table 8.
www.IJCSI.org 88
According to results in Table 9, TLPLC-GA and BGA [2]. R. Hwang, M. Gen and H. Katayama, “A comparison of
showed the same average makespan for problems 1, 2, 3, and multiprocessor task scheduling algorithms with communication
6. In some cases, the TLPLC-GA achieved better average costs”, Computers and Operations Research, Vol. 35, No. 3,
makespan than BGA as in problems 4, 5, 7, and 8. The 2008, pp. 976–993.
[3]. H. El-Rewini, T. G. Lewis and H. H. Ali, “Task Scheduling in
TLPLC-GA showed better makespan than PMC in all Parallel and Distributed Systems”, Prentice-Hall International
problems. Fig. 24 shows that the efficiency of TLPLC-GA is Editions, 1994.
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www.IJCSI.org 90
Neural Networks as Improving Tools for Agent Behavior

Alketa Hyso 1, Betim Çiço 2
1
Department of Informatics, “Ismail Qemali” University,
Vlora, Albania
2
Computer Engineering Department, Polytechnic University
Tirana, Albania
Abstract
Current trends in software development show a move towards reactivity or proactivity [6]. Learning is a crucial ability of
supporting autonomous, rational components (agents). One of the intelligent agents. Machine Learning tools and techniques
most interesting issues in agent technology has always been the enable an agent to get knowledge from observations or
modeling and enhancement of agent behavior. In this paper we experiences [7][8][9][10]. Agent’s programming has a
are focused in the intersection of agent technology and machine
specific. Agent works in an environment even if the
learning techniques for producing intelligent agents. Our
application shows that using neural network techniques we programmer does not provide him all the knowledge about
improve the reasoning mechanism of our agent supplying to it a the environment. If the programmer or designer has
new behavior which it did not possess from the beginning. The incomplete knowledge about the environment where the
learning process can be applied initially to train ‘dummy’ agent agent operates, the only way the agent to work in this
to further improve agent reasoning. The machine learning environment is through learning the necessary knowledge.
algorithms allow for an agent to adequately respond to Machine learning algorithms provide the agent with
environment changes and improve the behavioral rules or acquire additional autonomy, the result of his experience. Thus,
intelligent behavior. A case study will be given to demonstrate new agents exhibit behavior that does not possess before.
such enhancement. We simulate the behavior of a robot moving
Agents ensure the presentation of knowledge, generation
in an environment with random obstacles. Learning techniques
that are added to the reasoning mechanism of this robot enrich of rules and strategies used in making decisions on their
his behavior in the dynamic environment, displaying a rational part through inductive learning.
and intelligent behavior. This paper aims to present how machine learning methods
Keywords: Mobile robot, Intelligent Agent, Machine Learning can be integrated with agent technology in building more
Techniques, Neural Network, Agent Behavior. intelligent agents. Simulation shows the behavior of a
mobile robot seen in that perspective. The objective of this
work is not to study the optimal decision-making
1. Introduction algorithm but to simulate the new rational behavior our
agent own because intersection of agent technology and
Agent and multi-agent system technologies, methods and machine learning techniques.
theories are currently contributing in many diverse
domains. Applications range from small programs that
intelligently search the Web buying and selling goods via 2. Multilayer Perceptron Neural Network as
electronic commerce, to autonomous space probes. This is Function Approximation
not only a very promising technology, it is emerging as a
new way of thinking a conceptual paradigm for analyzing The field of neural networks covers a very broad area. We
problems and for designing systems [1], for dealing with will concentrate on using neural network as function
complexity, distribution and interactivity [2], [3], [4] , and approximation. Fig 1 presents a neural network as a
perhaps a new perspective on computing and intelligence function approximator.
[5]. Numerous approaches exists, attempting to optimally
reflect both the inner states as well as perceived
environment of an agent in order to provide it either with
www.IJCSI.org 91
locomotion. So this new ability and information that

come from sensors help the robot to create a map, which
represents the environment partially. The robot shows
an intelligent rational behaviour – it makes its
movement plan based on knowledge provided by the
map.
The stages we have to follow to realize what we
previously mentioned are:
a) monitor the behaviour of the robot in the environment
with obstacles based only in the perceptions of the
Fig 1. Neural network as function approximator
sensors. b) Apply the machine learning technique -
MultilayerPerceptron, which is a neural network that
trains the robot using backpropagation to measure the
Two-layer networks, with sigmoid transfer functions in
distance. c) Creating the map of the obstacles and
the hidden layer and linear transfer functions in the
incorporating this knowledge model in the reasoning
output layer, are universal approximators. We could use
mechanism of the agent. d) Monitor the new behavior of
such networks to approximate almost any function, if
the agent.
we had a sufficient number of neurons in the hidden
layer. 3.1 The Agent’s Reactive Behavior.
Let’s consider the behaviour of the robot in the
environment with obstacles based only in the
perceptions of the sensors. The obstacles are generated
randomly; i.e. in random numbers, sizes and distance
between them, and their shapes are rectangular.
For convenience, we assume that the mobile robot
enters on the left side and exits from the right side of the
environment. This robot will be equipped with
obstacle’s sensors to memorize information of the
world.
Fig 2. Example function approximation network
The robot percepts the environment through sensors and
acts on that based on these perceptions.
Hornik, Stinchcombe and White, [11] present a proof
that multilayer perceptron networks are universal
approximators. Pinkus, [12] gives a review of the
approximation capabilities of neural networks; Niyogi
and Girosi, [13] develop bounds on function
approximation error when the network is trained on
noisy data.
3. The Application
Figure 3. The agent’s reactive behavior in a unknown
We will represent an application that simulate the new
environment
intelligent rational behavior that our robot gains because
of the intersection of agent technology and machine
The environment is not completely accessible. The agent
learning techniques. Our robot operates in an
should reason about the set of states it can pass, not just
environment with obstacles. Its goal is to find its way
for one single state. The agent knows that when the sensor
out in this environment. The obstacles’ sensors help it to
of obstacle gives a signal, it has reached an obstacle, but it
memorize information about the world. Every time
doesn’t know if the obstacle comes from the bottom or the
those sensors feel an unknown obstacle, the robot acts
top. The agent will try the action ‘move straight forward’
according to the reflections. We will supply a neural
as long as it doesn’t encounter an obstacle. When it
network in robot’s reasoning mechanism. It will be
encounters an obstacle, it moves ‘one step downwards and
trained to learn to measure the distance during its
again straight forward’. The agent repeats this sequence
www.IJCSI.org 92
until it finds a free state or reaches the bottom bound. If it signal from a given sensor, the agent moves through a
finds a free state, it moves ‘straight forward’. The set of straight line without obstacles, starting from a position of
actions ‘straight-downwards-straight’ or ‘straight- “rest”, to which corresponds a 0 moment of time. Its
upwards-straight’ will reach a free state, if it exists in the moving accelerates with a given acceleration that our
environment generated randomly. This is the way our agent is not able to calculate. We suppose that in equal
agent acts to realize its goal. Figure 3 presents the reactive distances our agent must leave a trace. We should make
behavior of the robot in a unknown environment. the agent learn the process of calculating the distance it
covers, only based on its capacity to calculate the time.
The Agent Movement Algorithm 1 In order to solve the above mentioned problem, we use
input: state (the map of the obstacles), origin of the agent, exit sources of data extracted during the movement of the
destination, percept, rules (that will follow by the agent according to the
agent. These sources include data about movement: time
perception and state), g (goal, initially null), problem formulation, s - an
action sequence (the plan of movement). intervals, the speed of movement in that starting moment,
acceleration and distance. Acceleration: 2 m/s2; Time in
state  UPDATE-STATE (state, origin, exit) seconds (0; 1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7) and distance in meters (0; 1;
//the goal is the first obstacle in the map. 4; 9; 16; 25; 36; 49).
g  FORMULATE-GOAL (state)
//the environment is unknown by the agent

Problem FORMULATE-PROBLEM (state, g)
//solution that will be chosen by the agent.

actionPlan1 : While ( agent does not achieve the exit ) {
if (the agent percepts an obstacle) {

state UPDATE-STATE (state, percept)
// The agent chooses the action based on perception and rules)

rule  RULE-MATCH (state, percept, rules)
//the agent moves one step downwards and then straight forward’... Fig 4. Architecture of neural network
action  RULE – ACTION [rules]
We apply machine learning method – multilayer
//the state is updated after the action
perceptron neural network, by means of which we can
state  UPDATE-STATE (state, action)
} find a model, which can be incorporated within our agent
in the next step. Fig 4 present the architecture of the neural
// the goal is the next obstacle of the map network. Our neural network has an input layer that
g  FORMULATE-GOAL (state) designate the values of the elements in the hidden layer
}
which has with 3 nodes with sigmoidal activation
function. Whereas, nodes in the hidden layer designate the
value for the output layer element with a linear activation
The lack of a map of the environment forces it to act just
function.
using its reflexes. The plan that our agent follows is not
Among the learning algorithm the one that gives the best
rational. We would have a rational behavior of the robot if
solution is the backpropagation algorithm (BP) of neural
its motion is based on a map of the environment created by
networks which is supported by Multilayer Perceptron
the robot.We have to improve the robot’s reasoning
method [14] [15].
mechanism to fulfill new requirements:
BP learns the weights for a multilayer network. It employs
- the agent should build the path through the obstacles
gradient descent in an attempt to reach the outputs.
before beginning its movement.
For this purpose, we equip the reasoning mechanism of the
robot with a neural network, and we train it to calculate
the distance of its locomotion, this based on learning
techniques.
3.2 Training the Robot to Measure its Locomotion

Distance
Fig 5. Back-propagation
We shall take into consideration that our physical agent is
able to move and calculate the time. After getting the
www.IJCSI.org 93
The learning process has two stages: Forward stage:

calculating of outputs based on an input pattern and In a second phase we incorporate the neural network
Backward stage: updating of weights by calculating the within the robot’s reasoning mechanism and monitor the
errors. Fig 5 shows the stages of back-propagation behavior of the agent. Now, our robot can measure the
algorithm. distance of movement based on the law which it
The back-propagation algorithm in a multilayer network discovered through the training process. Figure 6,
is presented here: presents the traces that our robot leaves during his
 Initialize all weights to small random numbers. movement, based on the covered distances every
w i to 0.
second.
Initialize each The upper traces (1) are left by our agent based on the
 Until satisfied, Do measurement according the knowledge it gained from
//after a fixed number of iterations (epochs) or once the the training process (approximation function). They are
error falls below some thresholds based on the distance that our agent thinks it covers
 For each training example Do every second. The traces below are the actual values of

//(training example - a pair of the form  x , t , the distance covered– every second. We see that for the
 first 50 m that correspond 7 seconds, the distance
// where x is the vector of input values,
 measured by the agent is equal with the distance it
// and t , is the vector of target output values.
accomplishes. But, if the agent continues moving we
1. Input the training example to the network and compute can see that there will be faults in the measurement it
the network outputs does. This shows that the function of calculation of the
2. For each output unit k covered distance is valid only for the range of data
 k  ok (1  ok )  (tk  ok ) included in the training process of the agent. This
//ok – output value, and tk – target output value function is not valid for the uncovered data by the
3. For each hidden unit h training process.
 h  oh (1  oh )   wh, k  k
k outputs
4. Update each network weight wi,j
wi , j  wi , j  wi , j
where
wi , j (n)   j xi , j  wi , j (n  1)
//  - learning rate,  - momentum, (n)-iteration. Fig 6. The traces, that our agent leaves based on the distance that our
agent thinks it covers every second (1), and covered distances every
As input parameters we consider time and acceleration, second (2).
while, as an output we consider parameter the covered
distance. Number of iterations (for backpropagation), Nit We see that the agent displays a new behavior: it is able to
= 100. We perform the training of the agent according to realize an approximate calculation of distance; by developing
this algorithm by adjusting these parameters of algorithm an intelligent behavior of the agent.
such as the number of training cycles, learning rate or
even the given model of the neural network. In the end,
the neural network adjusts the proper weights. 3.3 The Process Of Mapping
We include in our robot the reasoning mechanism - a
The model that we gain is a non-linear function of the software agent that creates and recreates, the environment
type: map the way the robot perceives the environment. The
1
d  20761.777221  ( a3.983986 t( -0.077077)(-7.592238))
 map will present the distance between the obstacles
1  exp encountered during the agent’s motion, and the direction
1 of motion (up or down), which the robot will follow to
335.640279  
1  exp ( a0.226480 t0.378405(-1.142265)) overcome the obstacles ahead. The distance measured by
1 the neural network at the moment it encounters the
 705.166631   obstacle, is recorded on the map. Robot moves up or
1  exp ( a0.912341 t0.335880(-2.606184))
down to avoid the obstacle. When it moves down the
a  4967.103182  t  (-363.815049)  2483.551591
obstacle, it registers in a state variable the value (-1), but
www.IJCSI.org 94
when it moves up the obstacle, it registers in this state //the agent moves upwards or downwards according to the map.
variable the value (+1). The moment the robot passes this action  RULE – ACTION [rules]
barrier this value is stored in the map, attached to the //the state is updated after the action
distance. The robot follows this procedure for every state  UPDATE-STATE (state, action)
obstacle it encounters until it exits. This way, it creates }
the map of obstacles and recreates it each time it detects
// the goal is the next obstacle of the map
changes in its environment; g  FORMULATE-GOAL (state)
In a dynamic environment it will show reflexive behavior

intertwined with pro-active behavior. The agent has one
plan for the unknown environment and another for the
known one. It will choose which plan to apply and
combines them autonomously according to the situation.
This way, the agent autonomously creates a movement
plan every time it is set in a dynamic environment.
(a) (b)
Fig 7. The real environment a) , the environment according to robot 4. Conclusions

perception.
Table 1 the map that the agent creates This paper aims to present how machine learning methods
can be integrated with agent technology in building more
obstacle distance direction
intelligent agents. Using machine learning techniques
1 11 -1 makes it possible to develop agents able to learn from and
2 37 +1 adapt to their environment. In this way, the performance
... .... ... of these agent systems can be improved. We demonstrate
... .... ... the use of learning techniques to provide a map, which
helps generate new behaviors. By using a neural network
Fig 7 presents the real environment (a), the environment as a reasoning mechanism and by analyzing input and
according to robot perception (b), and Table1 presents the output, our agent will acquire a new intelligent behavior
map that it creates . which it did not possess from the beginning.
This paper is a brief summary of what we have done in the
practice of combining agents and machine learning
3.4 The Behavior of the Agent Based on the Map. techniques. We will make more efforts to explore this new
trend of research. The agents are rational decision-making
Since the agent has a map of its environment, it has system: they are able to show their reflexive and pro-
information about it. It acts based on a plan, made before active behavior and intertwines these kinds of behavior
beginning to move. It follows the same trajectory of according to the situation by making the best decisions
motion as in the case of reflex motion, but when facing an offered at the moment.
obstacle it follows the direction of motion that is stored
on the map. So another movement plan is included in the References
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[11] Hornik, K. et al 1989, ‘Multilayer feedforward networks are simulation” , Albanian Journal of Natural and Technical Sciences ;
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"Agents as Tools for Solving Complex Control Problems", 4th
[12] Pinkus A., 1999, ‘Approximation theory of the MLP model Annual South-East Europian Doctoral Student Conference;
in neural networks,’ Acta Numerica, p 143–195. “Agents in the Control Domain Process” 5th Annual South-East
[13] Niyogi, P., et al, 1999, ‘Generalization bounds for function Europian Doctoral Student Conference;
approximation from scattered noisy data,’Adv. Comp. Math.,
vol. 10, 51–80. Second Author. Betim Çiço: Prof. Dr. Betim CICO was
[14] Werbos, P. J., ‘Beyond regression: New tools for prediction graduated as electronic engineer in Polytechnic University of
and analysis in the behavioral sciences,’ Ph.D. Thesis, Tirana (PUT) in 1970 with excelent results. After one year of
Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 1974. Also published working as electronic engineer in Shijak Radiostation, Albanian
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York, 1994. microprocessors and computers, computer based on-line systems,
[15] Russell, S., et al, P., 1995, Artificial Intelligence A Modern Head of the Electronics Department, part time professor in PUT. In
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www.IJCSI.org 96
Towards a Framework for a validated content management on

the collaborative Web: Blogs case
A. ABTOY, N. AKNIN, B. SBIHI, A. EL MOUSSAOUI and K.E. EL KADIRI
Faculty of Sciences, Abdelmalek Essaadi University

Tetuan, Morocco
Abstract
Since 2004, the web 2.0 has been based on the contributions and  Software above the level of a single device.
the interaction of internet users to easily produce and publish the  Rich user experiences.
content. This type of philosophy which has been approved by the
Web 2.0 is both a usage and a technology paradigm .Web
web community encourages users to participate and exchange,
has resulted in a huge mass of diverse information. However, this 2.0 gains its success and popularity through its
philosophy based on the collaboration of users brings many applications and tools which are based on the seven
problems such as the information overload, the lack of principles. These applications are characterized by a rich
information quality’s control, the search results accuracy and responsive user interfaces, dynamic contents and services
possibilities of sorting and classifying by the level of relevancy. interoperability. The main tools of collaborative web are
This paper is a part of a work research conducted in our represented in the following table:
laboratory that focuses on the quality of information on the
collaborative web and its related issues. We propose a content Table 1: Web 2.0 tools and their utility [3]
management framework that will handle the content during its Tool Utility
lifetime on the web. Our approach reuses the static validation Blog Publish and share content
mechanism of content and adds the concept of dynamic
validation mechanism performed by internet user’s community. Wiki Collective Intelligence
In this context, we will model a validated blog’s system Social network Create online communities
management based on our approach using UML standard.
Keywords: Collaborative web; content management; blogs; RSS Information awareness
quality of content. Tag Customize and improve research
Podcast and Videocast Share audio and video contents
1. Introduction Even though web 2.0 brings so many improvements to the
The term Web 2.0 was introduced in October 2004 by Tim internet world; the current Web has several limitations
O'Reilly [1], since that date, web 2.0 has been considered which represent obstacles to its development [4]:
as the second phase of the web’s evolution. The new  Information quality: The current web does not
philosophy of this web has revolutionized the use of online insure or guaranty the quality of content produced
services comparing to the previous ones. The fundamental and published on the web.
concept of web 2.0 is based on the involvement of users in  Information obesity: The huge amount of content
the process of production. The internet users are produced makes the search for trustworthy
considered as active co-producers rather than passive information a very challenging task; also the
consumers which increases the mass of data produced and content management becomes more and more
stored on the Web [2]. difficult.
 Low rate of participants: Even with the simplicity
According to Tim O'Reilly [1], Web 2.0 brings new of publishing, editing and participating on the Web
features to the Web thanks to the seven concepts which are: 2.0, the number of active internet users remains
 The Web is a services platform. very low compared to those non-productive.
 The power of collective intelligence should be  Information lifetime: The massive production of
exploited efficiently. content makes the content lifetime very short. In
 Data is the next Intel inside. the case of blogs, content is stored and browsed in
 End of the software release cycle. a reverse chronological order which shows content
by publication date instead of relevancy.
 Lightweight programming models
www.IJCSI.org 97
 Security and copyright: The content published on  Information’s level: This web proposes a
the web is not secure by access rights; also Web subdivision of the information in several
2.0 cannot offer copyright to content that needs it. categories; each category represents a content
 Lack of semantics: the search for relevant quality in order to simplify the content
information requires semantics to give more sense classification and management. The table below
to data and to avoid outdated erroneous search summarizes the different categories of the levels
results. of information’s quality:
The massive production of content in the web has Table 3: The subdivision of information into categories on the web [7]
made its management very difficult and complex [5]. The Symbol quality meaning
problem of the information quality of content represents a B Good Validated and relevant
real challenge for the current Web [6]. This subject has
M Medium Validated with an average degree
been ignored in the web development and there are a few
researches addressing this issue in a sufficient precise way F Poor Validated subject that needs correction
in the current Web. In this paper we propose an approach E Erroneous Not validated
of a Framework that supports the quality-relevancy aspect
of the validated information on the web. C Opinion or comment
In the following paragraph, we will define the content

validation mechanisms, and then we will detail the two 2.1 Static Validation
types of this mechanism: static and dynamic. Then we will
propose some principles and concepts to integrate with the Static validation is mainly based on both users and
content management Framework on the Web to resolve information quality classification. Basically, this validation
and fix its limitations. In the next paragraph, we present a process is performed by authoritarian internet users who
validated blog management’s system based on our are members of the validation committee on the web. The
approach using a UML diagrams to demonstrate the use of producer is the user who participates in the production of
the validation mechanisms. Finally we will give an overall the information/content. Depending on participation rate,
conclusion which will present a set of perspectives. users will have access to the validated content and its
related services and applications. This philosophy
encourages users to change their attitude of passive
2. Content Validation consumption and contribute in the collective intelligence.
The validator decides whether the content published by the
Our team presented a series of a work research that
producers is relevant and pertinent or not, he will assign a
proposes a new version of the Web that solves the
score to describe the content’s quality. In other words,
limitation and the problems of the current one. The global
validators regulate and control the quality of information.
idea is to publish valid and pertinent information on the
So that content can be validated, it takes two validators
net with a measurable quality that can be controlled. This
elected by an expert to evaluate it. Finally, the expert's role
Web (called Web 2.2) [7] is based on the improvement
is the monitoring of the validation process besides the
that will be done at both levels: users and information.
election of validators. Fig.1 below represents the different
 User’s level: The community of internet users steps of the static validation process:
will be organized in four types of user’s
categories; these ones are formed by new types:
users, producers, validators and experts. Each one
of them offers both new functions and privileges
within the web. The table below details the
different categories of the users:
Table 2: The categories of users and their roles on the web [7]
Actor Role
User Read content
Producer Read and produce content
Validator Validate the produced content
Expert Monitor and verify the published content
Fig. 1 The Process Of Static Validation.
www.IJCSI.org 98
The blog is a very powerful tool to publish ideas and to Threshold is defined by the validation committee, and it
share knowledge on the web [8], on the other side; a varies depending on the theme and the subject. For
published content suffers from a major disability: absence example, where the blogs which have a scientific aspect
of relevancy and lack of information quality control. The will have a high threshold, the social ones will have a low
static validation allows the classification of blog’s contents one. The excess of the threshold will trigger the archiving
(tickets) which makes web search easier and eliminates or the eliminating of the content depending on the nature
redundant information and poor quality content [9]. of the blog and its policy regarding the quality’s
degradation.
The major disadvantage of static validation is that the
validated content will keep a static score during its
lifetime. The evaluation performed to the content does not 3. Content Management Framework
take into account the opinion of the rest of the Internet
community. Our approach intends to develop a Framework that handles
the content and not the container. We have used in our
2.2 Dynamic Validation approach the layers model concept because it allows the
functional division of services in a way that make them
The dynamic validation works by monitoring the quality complementary to each other. Also, we based our
of the content during its lifetime on the web. In the case of approach on the concept of information packet. We
blogs, the validation committee gives its opinion towards assume that instead of exchanging and storing raw content,
the quality of the information, this value (score) presents we can add a header and a tail to the content in order to
the first evaluation of the content performed by the consider it as a logical packet of information in analogy
validators. Later the users attribute values in favor of the with the IP packet [10]. According to our approach, every
ticket. This continuous assessment provides a dynamic layer offers some features distinct from each other. In our
validation during the whole content life time. case, this framework model well separates the
management of content and container.
While the navigation on the web, the obesity and the
Fig.3 below shows the relationship between content and
overload information has composed a big problem for the
container in both actual web and our approach. Content
users, in the dynamic validation a decision mechanism is
will be encapsulated with the new header and tail instead
proposed to compare the content quality to a threshold. For
of a raw content.
example, the validation committee decided that a ticket has
average quality content. When the content is published on
the web, it begins to accumulate comments and bad scores.
Thanks to the dynamic validation, its quality takes into
account the opinion of the community of users and when it
becomes lower to a certain threshold it will be archived or
eliminated automatically. Fig.2 illustrates the concept of
dynamic validation of content during its lifetime on the
web.
Fig. 3 The relationship between content and container
3.1 Information Packet

The information packet contains sections used to manage
and deal with the content on Web 2.0. The sections are
divided between a header and a tail depending on the
functionality of each section [9]. The information packet
has the following structure:
Fig. 2 Dynamic validation during content’s lifetime

www.IJCSI.org 99
 Extensibility: to support the fast development of

web 2.0 applications, the information packet
header can integrate customized functionality
depending on the application specification.
The information packet tail includes dynamic validation
data. This part will be calculated continuously to have an
evaluation to the content quality. The header data will be
set statically throughout all content lifetime on the web, on
the other side; the tail is going to be updated in every
interaction with the published content.
Fig. 4 Structure of information packet 3.2 Implementation into Layers Architecture
The header contains essential information to identify The content management framework’s implementation
content on the web. This information will be added during will be based on the layer model. Fig.5 represents this
the static validation process. The header sections guarantee architecture:
the following functionalities:
 Content uniqueness: this section contains the

digital signature of the content. The content,
through information packet, will be identified on
the net. Thanks to this functionality it will be
possible to eliminate overload and redundant
content on the Web.
 Security and copyright: crypting content before
publishing on the net in the case of pay services.
The access rights to contents can be easily
managed through this section. For example, violent
content can be banned to underage internet users.
 Content integrity: to verify content integrity on the
Fig. 5 The Framework’s implementation into the layers stack
reception after being transported by internet
protocol. This option is very useful because content
can be altered and this measure will prevent data of  Infrastructure layer: This layer represents all
being tampered. underlying infrastructure of Web services. This
infrastructure includes: communications networks
 Validity of time: this section contains content (wired, optical fiber, satellite …), hardware
expiry date which handles the management of the infrastructure (routers, servers, machines …) and
validated content during its lifetime; this communications protocols (TCP/IP, IPv6 [12]…).
functionality is inspired from TTL field IP protocol
[11].  Actual Web 2.0 layer: includes all applications and
contents published on actual Web 2.0.
 User’s identity: in order to participate in this web,
users should be identified: producers, co-  Validated applications layer: This layer represents
producers, validators and experts. Even with the the web applications that support the validated
identification of users, they will be able to surf content management framework.
anonymously.  Validated content layer: represents the validated
 Content type: this section improves and refines content produced by the validated application layer
search criteria in order to get the best pertinent and processed by the validation committee. The
search results based on content type (Blog, validated applications layer manages the
Podcast, Videocast, Wiki…) information published within this layer and
guarantees a validated pertinent content that can be
 Content quality (static validation): contains a rating easily found.
score assigned by validators. This information will
be combined with dynamic validation score to  Technological components layer: includes all the
obtain a final score. technologies that incorporate web 2.0 [13]: Ajax,
Widgets, Mashups, APIs…
www.IJCSI.org 100
4. Case Study: Case of Blogs

4.1 Blogs and the Collaborative Web
Blogs are considered as one of the most important web 2.0
applications. In the last few years, the Blogosphere
increased exponentially .According to Blogpulse, there are
more than 148 million blogs in the world in late 2010,
publishing 1 million posts per day [14].the growth of the
Blog’s popularity among internet surfers due to the fact
that it doesn’t need any technical background to create,
publishes or uses a blog. Technorati claims in its annual
report of state of the blogosphere of 2009 that 59% of
bloggers use a free third party hosting service to create
their blogs [15].
The blogging rises as an emergent way of publishing

contents and information over the web. The number of
Fig. 6 Use case diagram
people who rely on the web to seek information has
increased dramatically over the last few years, which
The structural aspect of our system is presented through a
makes blogs a competitive source of information regarding
class diagram in Fig.7. Every blog is identified in the
the traditional media [16]. Blogs also are used for
blogosphere with its own and unique ID. Thus we used
educational proposes such as in e-learning [17] or
blogID attribute in Blog_system class.
combined with other web 2.0 tools to build a collaborative
e-learning approach [18].
4.2 Validated Blogs

Our goal is to design and develop a blogs that uses the
concept of combined static-dynamic validation approach
to resolve the blog’s content relevancy and pertinence
issue. We presented the concept Vbloges [9] and the
design of the proposed blog’s system is described through
several UML diagrams in order to complete our recent
work.
The use case diagram contains a several use cases that

were identified from the needs analysis. Fig.6 represents
the use case diagram of the blog’s system. The primary
actors that suppose to interact with the blog are: the users,
the producers, the validators and the experts. An
administrator is required to perform administration and
supervising tasks .The blog system offers the possibility to
login into the blog system using a username and password
or a digital fingerprint. The blog can use an internal
authentication or an external one so that the users can
participate easily in the blogosphere with the same profile.
In the case of biometric authentication, a device is needed
in order to scan and identify the user’s fingerprint.
Fig. 7 Class diagram

www.IJCSI.org 101
According to our approach, the structure of the blog post is

a composition of a header and a tail which we modeled The blogosphere is the community made up of blogs. In
using composition relationships between blog_post and the this context, the blog system can use its inner
two classes: Post_header and Post_tail. The Post_header authentication system or use an external one that belongs
contains the information about the static validation process to another system. This part is modeled by using a
such as the following attributes: multiplicity between Blog_system and Auth_sys in the
 quality: post’s quality class diagram.
 sScore: the static score which is the combination of
Fig.8 shows a simplified sequence diagram of the
the two scores given by validators.
authentication process. We take into account both possible
 producerPID, validator1PID, validator2PID and authentication methods: using a biometric fingerprint, in
expertPID: contains the profileIDs of the users who this case an authentication device will be needed. The
participates in the production and the validation of second method is the classical login using a username and
the blog post. a password.
The Post_tail contains all the details about dynamic
validation including:
 nbViews: the times that this post has been viewed.
 nbDynamicValidation: the times that this post has
been dynamically validated . The two attributes
(nbViews and nbDynamicValidation) are useful to
have an idea about the rate of user’s participation
on the validation process.
 dScore: every time a user gives his opinion on the
blog post, this value is processed in order to obtain
the new value. Each user has an influential factor
that will be combined with his score, because for
example we should not give the same weight of a
score giving by an ordinary user and an expert. The
following table represents the score’s weight that
we call the influential factors of users according to
our approach:
Table 4: The users profile and their influential factors

Profile User/reader Validator Expert
Influential
Factor 25 50 100
Fig. 8 Authentication sequence diagram
InFa
The users can easily post in the system after logged in.
We note that the producer of the blog post cannot
This operation is explained in the sequence diagram of
participate in the validation process: neither the
posting a content Fig.9. The user in this case is the author
static nor the dynamic one.
or the producer of this blog post
The dynamic validation score Sd of a post:
∑ .
∑
(1)
Where Su(k) is the score giving by the user k and

InFak his influential factor.
The abstract class Profile contains the most common

attributes needed by other classes of users such as:
profileID, username, password… The tags attribute will
be useful for experts to help them assigning validators
interested with the blog post’s subject in order to validate
it.
www.IJCSI.org 102
validated) or not (remains unpublished and unvalidated).

In this case of positive decision, each validator gives a
score and a brief description about the content’s quality.
As a result, the blog system will process the scores in
order to obtain the score of static validation via sValidate
method which needs as arguments blogPostID, sScore1
(validator 1’s score) and sScore2 (validator 2’s score).
This process offers an initial reviewing for the content’s
quality.
After being statically validated, the blog post will be

available (validated and published) for other users to read
it. The post viewing sequence diagram in Fig.11 includes
all the possible use cases related to viewing a post.
Fig. 9 Post a content sequence diagram
After posting the content, the blog post remains

unvalidated and unpublished; therefore it needs to be
statically validated by the validation board which is
composed by an expert and two validators. The static
validation sequence diagram in Fig.10 represents the
interaction between actors and the system in the static
validation process.
Fig. 11 View a post sequence diagram
While reading or viewing the post, users can comment or

participate in the validation process. The sequence
diagram of the dynamic validation is represented in Fig.12.
Fig. 10 Static validation sequence diagram
Once the blog receives a post, it requests form an expert a

static validation. Two validators will be assigned by this
expert based on their tags (validators in the same field of
the post’s subject). The decision of the two validators will Fig. 12 Dynamic validation sequence diagram
determine if this content will be published (content
www.IJCSI.org 103
The producer or the author of the post cannot participate in proposing a framework that supports the content to
the dynamic validation in order to keep the objectivity of provide an effective, organized and structured one. The
the content’s quality. Once the user scores the post, the information quality is going to be monitored during time
blog system evaluates the new dynamic score by dValidate using combination of the static and the dynamic validation.
method. The dynamic score contains the users’s opinions The structuring of the information in logical packets
about the post’s quality. provides additional features to manage the content on the
web.
The content produced in the blog goes through several As an application to our approach, we propose to develop
states. Fig.13 represents the content lifecycle and its and extend by integrating the concept of the validated
different states in the blog system: content management framework to existing tools of web
2.0 such as Wikis and social networks in order to reach a
validated web.
References
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[6] G. Pullman, Content Management: Bridging the gap
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Once the user produced a post, its remains unvalidated and [8] B. Walsh, Clear Blogging: How people blogging are
unpublished unless booth validators approved and changing the world and how you can join them, Apress,
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[9] B. Sbihi, K.E. El Kadiri, and N. Aknin, “The Vblogs:
validated and published in the blog. By then, users have Towards a New Generation of Blogs”, International Journal
access to view the post and give their opinion on its quality of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 7, issue 3, No. 2, May
by the dynamic validation process. Whenever a user 2010, pp. 9-14.
validates and gives a score to the content, the system [10] G.C. Vinton, and E.K. Robert, “A Protocol for Packet
evaluate the new dynamic score and compares the new Network Intercommunication“, IEEE Transactions on
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value and the threshold set by the validation board. If it’s
[11] G. Pujolle, O. Salvatori, and J. Nozick, Les réseaux,
always greater than the threshold, the blog keep publishing Eyrolles, 2008.
the content. Otherwise the system will archive or eliminate [12] J. Davies, Understanding IPv6, Second Edition, Microsoft
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[15] Technorati, State of the Blogosphere 2009,
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result, the web has grown up in a huge way raising many [16] T. J. Johnson, B. K. Kaye, S. L. Bichard, W. J. Wong,
problems such as: the information obesity, the lack of the “Every Blog Has Its Day: Politically-interested Internet
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[17] Wei-Jane Lin, Hsiu-Ping Yueh, Yi-Ling Liu, Masayuki

Murakami, Koh Kakusho, Michihiko Minoh, "Blog as a
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2010, pp. 1-7.
Anouar ABTOY received the Master degree in electronics and

telecommunications in 2008 from Abdelmalek Essaadi University
in Tetouan, Morocco. Currently, he is a PhD Student in Computer
Science. He is also is a student member of the IEEE Computer
Society. Ongoing research interests: Web 2.0, collaborative
intelligence, online identity, evaluation and assessment of
information and content.
Noura AKNIN received the the PhD degree in Electrical

Engineering in 1998 from Abdelmalek Essaadi University in
Tétouan, Morocco. She is a Professor of Telecommunications and
Computer Engineering in Abdelmalek Essaadi University since
2000. She is the Co-founder of the IEEE Morocco Section since
November 2004 and she is the Women in Engineering
Coordinator. She has been a member of the Organizing and the
Scientific Committees of several symposia and conferences
dealing with RF, Mobile Networks, Social Web and information
technologies.
Boubker SBIHI received the PhD degree in computer science.

professor of computer science at the School of Information
Science in morocco. He is also the head of Information
management department. He has published many articles on E-
learning and Web 2.0. He is part of many boards of international
journals and international conferences.
Ahmed EL MOUSSAOUI received the PhD degree in electronics

at the University of BRADFORD in 1990. In 2007 he received the
international master in E-learning in the Curt Bosh institute in
Switzerland. He has been a member of the Organizing and the
Scientific Committees of several symposia and conferences
dealing with RF, Mobile Networks and information technologies.
He has participated in several projects with France and Spain.
Currently, his is the vice president of Abdelmalek Essaadi
University in Tétouan - Morocco.
Kamal Eddine EL KADIRI received the PhD degree in computer

science and he is professor of computer science at Faculty of
Sciences of Tetuan in Morocco. Currently, He is the director of the
National School of Applied Sciences (ESNA) of Tétouan and also
the director of LIROSA laboratory. He has published several
articles on E-learning and Web 2.0. He is also part of many boards
of international journals and international conferences.
ISSN (Online): 1694‐0814
www.IJCSI.org 105
Chain-Chain Based Routing Protocol

Samia A. Ali and Shreen K. Refaay
Electrical Engineering Department, Assiut University, Assiut, 71516, Egypt
Electrical Engineering Department, Assiut University, Assiut, 71516, Egypt
Abstract
Wireless sensor network (WSN) is an emerging technology
for monitoring physical world.
Communication devices densely deployed throughout a
WSNs consist of large numbers of sensor nodes operated by physical space. These WSNs can be used in a various
battery mostly in harsh environment. Thus energy applications such as disaster management, Military
conservation is a primary issue for organization of these field reconnaissance, border protection and security
sensor nodes. Another crucial issue is the data delivery time surveillance. Due to their features, these applications
by sensor nodes to the sink node, especially in Military, need data delivery without delay and the energy
medical fields, and security monitoring systems where consumed by them must be small. Since, WSNs are
minimum delay is desirable. deploy in harsh physical environment it is impossible
Number of protocols has been proposed in the literature for to charge or replace the batteries of these sensor nodes.
routing. One of such protocols is the cluster based routing
protocol LEACH (low energy adaptive clustering hierarchy).
Therefore it is desirable to design communication
LEACH protocol organizes WSN into a set of clusters and a network protocol such that energy source is used
periodic voting for cluster head is performed in order to be efficiently and with minimum delay, for these purposes
evenly distributed among all the sensors of the WSN. This many routing protocols have been proposed.
periodical cluster head voting in LEACH, however, LEACH (low energy adaptive clustering hierarchy)
consumes an amount of non-negligible energy and other [1][8][9] is the first hierarchical cluster-based routing
resources. For energy conservation, PEGASIS (power protocol for WSN. LEACH protocol partitions the
efficient gathering in sensor information systems) a near sensor nodes of WSN into clusters; each cluster has
optimal chain-based protocol has been proposed, however, it cluster nodes (CNs) and cluster head (CH). CH
is faced with the challenge of long delay for the transmitted
data. Another routing protocol called CCM (Chain-Cluster
receives data from CNs in their cluster, aggregates the
based Mixed routing), which is mainly a hybrid of LEACH data, and forwards them to the sink. LEACH protocol
and PEGASIS is proposed, the consumed energy increases as achieves even energy dissipation by randomly re-
network size increases. choosing CH at regular intervals. It leads to an eight
In this paper, we propose an efficient routing protocol called times improvement compared to the direct transmission
CCBRP (Chain-Chain based routing protocol), it achieves protocol.
both minimum energy consumption and minimum delay. The CALS(Efficient Clustering Protocol in the Large-scale
CCBRP protocol mainly divides a WSN into a number of WSN) [5] is self-organizing and adaptive multi-hop
chains (Greedy algorithm is used to form each chain as in clustering protocol that uses efficient MAC to
PEGSIS protocol) and runs in two phases. In the first phase,
sensor nodes in each chain transmit data to their chain leader
distribute the energy load evenly and guarantee
nodes in parallel. In the second phase, all chain leader nodes minimum energy consumption for large scale WSNs
form a chain (also, using Greedy algorithm) and choose and the ones that deployed in frequently idle
randomly a leader node then all chain leader nodes send their environments due to low data occurrence.
data to this chosen leader node. This chosen leader node PEGASIS (Power-Efficient gathering in Sensor
fuses the data and forwards it to the Base Station, BS. Information Systems) [2][10][11], which is a near
Experimental results demonstrate that the proposed CCBRP optimal protocol for high rate data gathering
outperforms LEACH, PEGASIS and CCM with respect to applications in sensor networks. The key idea of the
the product of the energy consumed and the experienced PEGASIS protocol is the formation of a chain among
delay.
the sensor nodes so that each node will receive from
Keywords: Wireless Sensor Network, LEACH, PEGASIS, and transmit to a close neighbor. Gathered data moves
CCM, CCBRP, Routing Protocols.
from node to node, get fused, and eventually a
designated node transmits it to the BS. The PEGASIS
1. Introduction protocol achieves improvement varies between 100 to
300% when 1%, 20%, 50% and 100% of nodes die in
Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) consist of a large the deployed field compared to the LEACH protocol.
number of small, inexpensive, battery-powered CBERP (Cluster Based Energy Efficient Routing
Protocol for Wireless Sensor Network) [4] is a hybrid

www.IJCSI.org 106
protocol of LEACH and PEGASIS. CBERP combines 2.1 Chain Formation

the clustering mechanism of LEACH and the chaining
mechanism of PEGASIS. More specifically, it To construct the chain PEGASIS protocol starts from
organizes the clusters using the same mechanism of the furthest node from the BS and uses Greedy
LEACH-C with the exception that each of the header algorithm to form a chain. The main idea here is that
nodes is not permitted to transmit data directly to BS; it each sensor node communicates only with its closest
sends its data through a chain to reduce the energy two neighbors in order to minimize the power
consumption as in PEGASIS protocol. consumption.
CCM (Chain-Cluster based Mixed routing) protocol [3]
makes full use of the advantages of LEACH and
PEGASIS, and provides improved performance over
both of them. CCM protocol mainly divides a WSN
into a number of chains and runs in two phases. In the
first phase, sensor nodes in each chain transmit data to
their own chain head nodes in parallel, using an
improved chain routing protocol. In the second phase,
all chain head nodes grouped as a cluster in a self
organized manner, where they transmit fused data to a
voted cluster head using the cluster based routing. Fig. 1 Chain formation in PEGASIS using Greedy algorithm
In this paper we present a new efficient routing
protocol called CCBRP (Chain-Chain based routing In Fig.1 node C0 lies the furthest from the base station
protocol). The proposed CCBRP divides a WSN into a so the chain construction starts from C0 which is
number of chains and runs in two phases. The CCBRP connected to node C1, C1 is connected to node C2, and
utilizes Greedy algorithm to form each of the chains. In so on till C5 [6].
the first phase, sensor nodes in each chain transmit
their data to their chain leader nodes in parallel. In the
2.2 Leader Selection
second phase, all chain leader nodes form a chain (also
using Greedy algorithm) and then all the leader nodes
At the beginning of each round, a chain leader is
send their data to a randomly chosen leader node. This
selected randomly. This way of selection is easy and
chosen leader node fuses its data with the received data
fast since no extra computation is performed.
and sends to the BS. Experimental results demonstrate
Moreover, the random selection has the benefit that as
that the proposed CCBRP outperforms each of
it is more likely for nodes to die at random locations
LEACH, PEGASIS and CCM with respect to the
thus providing robust network.
product of the consumed energy and delay.
After the leader has been selected it passes a token
The paper is organized as follows. Section 2 presents
message to initiate a data gathering process. Passing a
the PEGASIS protocol which is the proposed CCBRP
token also consumes energy however; the cost of
based upon. In section 3, the proposed CCBRP is
passing a token is very small since the size of the token
presented. Experimental results of the proposed
message is very small.
CCBRP are given in section 4. Section 5 presents the
conclusions and future works. The references are
given in section 6. 2.3 Data Transmission
2. PEGASIS (power-efficient gathering in Gathering the data in each round, each node receives
data from one neighbor, fuses its own data with it, and
sensor information system) transmits it to the other neighbor on the chain until the
whole chain data reaches the chain leader. Finally, the
PEGASIS is a near optimal chain-based routing chain leader sends this data to the BS.
protocol. The basic purpose of this protocol is the Fig.-2 shows a simple example for data transmission in
extension of the WSN lifetime. In PEGASIS protocol PEGASIS protocol. First the chosen leader C3 sends a
all the WSN nodes communicate only with their closest token to all the nodes in the chain. Immediately after
neighbors and continue communicating in their turns the chain nodes receive the token both nodes C0 and
until the aggregated data reaches the BS. This method C5 (the two ends of the chain) start sending their data
of communication reduces the power consumption to C1and C4 respectively and fuse their data with the
required to transmit data per round. Thus PEGASIS received data to C2 and C3 respectively. Then in turn,
protocol achieves a factor of two improvements in C2 fuses its data with C1’s data and sends it to C3.
energy consummation over the LEACH protocol [2]. After that Leader node C3 fuses its data with the data
PEGASIS protocol starts forming a chain using Greedy received from both C2 and C4 and sends it to the BS.
algorithm then randomly selects a leader for the formed
chain after that data transmutation takes place.

www.IJCSI.org 107
to the next node in the chain and so on. This process is

repeated till the data has reached all the chain leader
nodes. Fig. 4a presents a pseudo code for the first
phase of the proposed CCBRP.
The second phase of CCBRP starts after all the chain

leader nodes have received all the data from their chain
nodes. These chain leader nodes form a chain (using
Greedy algorithm) and randomly choose a chain leader
for the newly formed chain. Then the randomly chosen
leader sends a token message to the two ends of the
newly formed chain. Thereafter, each of the two nodes
Fig. 2 Data transmission
at the two ends of the formed chain of leaders
simultaneously starts sending its data to its closest
3. The Proposed CCBRP neighboring node. The neighboring nodes receive the
sent data and fuse their data with the received data and
In this section, we present the new efficient CCBRP send to the next neighboring nodes and so on. This
that achieves both minimum energy consummation and process of sending data is repeated till all the data of
minimum delay. CCBRP divides the WSN into a the WSN under consideration has reached the leader
number of chains; Greedy algorithm is used to node of the chain of leader nodes. After the node leader
construct each of the chains as in PEGASIS [2]. Each of leaders has received this data it is fused with its own
chain contains a number of sensor nodes, the number data and sent to the BS. Fig. 4b presents a pseudo code
of chains and the number of sensor nodes in each chain for the second phase of the proposed CCBRP. Fig. 5
depend on the number of sensor nodes in the WSN illustrates the data transmission for the proposed
under consideration. CCBRP.
To illustrate the proposed CCBRP let us consider an
WSN with N sensor nodes distributed in a 2-dimension Partition the N nodes of the given WNS into n
area having a size of L(m)×L(m). If N is equal to chains (C0 to Cn-1), and let y (y=N/n) be the
hundred nodes and let us assume for now that the number of nodes in each chain Ci
number of chains is equal to ten percent of N, then For i= 0 to n-1 do
there are ten chains each of which contains ten sensor {Select a chain leader Li randomly
nodes as show in Fig. 3. Case CLi:
Ci (1): the first node of Ci
{ CLi sends a token message
to Ci(y) the end of this chain
Ci(y) sends its data (i ,y) to
Ci(y-1);
While y >j
Ci(y-1) fuses its own data (i,
y-1) and received data (i , y)
Ci(y-1) sends the fused data
to its neighbor Ci(y-2);
y=y-1}
Ci(N/n): the last node of Ci
{ x=1;
CLi sends a token message
to Ci(x)
Ci(x) sends its data ( i ,x) to
Fig. 3 100 Sensor nodes WSNs, divided into 10 chains each chain Ci(x+1);
contains 10 sensor nodes. While x<j
Ci(x+1) fuses its own data (i,
The proposed CCBRP forms each of the partitioned x+1) and received data (i , x)
chains using Greedy algorithm and runs in two phases. Ci(x+1) transmits the fused
The first phase starts by randomly selecting a leader for data to its neighbor Ci(x+2);
each chain, and then each chain leader sends a token x=x+1}
message to the two ends of its chain to notify them. Ci(2.. N/n - 1): all the intermediate
After that each of the two end nodes of each chain nodes of Ci
simultaneously starts sending its data to its closet {x=1, y=N/n;
neighbor node, the neighboring nodes receive the data
and fuse its data along with the received data and send

www.IJCSI.org 108
CLi sends a token message {Let x=1, y=n;

to Ci(x); ML sends a token message to CLs (x);
If(x<j) then CLs (x) sends its fused_ data(x) to CLs
{ Ci(x) sends its data( i ,x) to (x+1);
Ci(x+1); If(x<j)
While x<j {
Ci(x+1) fuses its own data (i, While x<j
x+1) and received data (i , x) CLs (x+1) fuses its own fused_
Ci(x+1) transmits the fused data( x+1) and the received fused_ data(
data to its neighbor x)
Ci(x+2); CLs (x+1) sends the fused data
x=x+1; } to its neighbor CLs (x+2);
CLi sends a token message x=x+1;
to Ci(y); }
If(y>j) Li sends a token message to CLs (y)
{Ci(y) sends its data (i ,y) to If(y>j)
Ci(y-1); {
While y >j CLs (y) sends its fused_ data(y) to
Ci(y-1) fuses its own data (i, CLs (y-1);
y-1) and received data (i , y) While y >j
; CLs (y-1) fuses its own fused_
Ci(y-1) transmits the fused data( y-1) and received fused_ data( y) ;
data to its neighbor Ci(y-2); CLs (y-1) sends the fused data to
y=y-1 ;} its neighboring s CLs (y-2);
} y=y-1;
CLi fuses its data ( i ,j) with the data }
received from Ci(j+1) and data received from Ci(j-1); }
ML fuses its data with data from CLs(j+1) and CLs(j-1)
and sends it to the BS;
Fig. 4a a pseudo code for the first phase of the CCBRP
Fig. 4b a pseudo code for the second phase of the CCBRP

Constitute a new chain from the chain leaders Li (i=
0..n-1) using Greedy algorithm as in PEGASIS[1]
Randomly select the main leader ML.
Let x=1 and y=n, j index of ML in CLs;
Case ML:
CLs (0); the first node of CLs
{ML sends a token message to CLs(y) end
of chain
CLs (y) sends its fused_ data(y) to CLs (y-
1);
While y >j
CLs (y-1) fuses its own fused_ data( y-1)
and received fused_ data( y)
CLs (y-1) sends the fused data to its
neighbor CLs (y-2);
y=y-1; }
CLs (n-1); the last element of CLs
{Let x=1;
ML sends a token message to CLs (x) Fig. 5 Data transmission for CCBRP protocol
CLs (x) sends its fused_ data(x) to CLs
(x+1); 4. Experimental Results
While x<j
CLs (x+1) fuses its own fused_ data(x+1)
and received fused_ data( x) To evaluate the performance of the proposed CCBRP
CLs (x+1) sends the fused data to its we have developed a simulation program written in
neighbor CLs (x+2); Java. For our simulation we have chosen the WSN
x=x+1 ;} sizes of 100m x100m and 50mx50m in order to be able
CLs (1 .. n); intermediate node in CLs to compare the results of the proposed CCBRP with the

www.IJCSI.org 109
simulation results available in the literature

[1][2][3][4][5].
4.1 Simulation Results for 100 x 100 Network
We have simulated the proposed CCBRP in a self

organized network of 100-node in a 100m x 100m
field; the BS is located at (50,300). The size of each
packet was set to 2 k bits. The time for transmitting
such a packet is considered to be one unit time delay. Fig. 6.b Transmission delay
4.1.1 Energy × Delay metrics
We have claimed that the proposed CCBRP achieves

minimum Energy × Delay metrics. Next, the
experimental results verify this claim. The average
energy consumption per round can be estimated as:
(1)
Where N is the number of sensor nodes in the Fig. 6.c Energy × delay during a round
considered WSN, and r is the number of rounds. Fig. -6
show the performance evaluation comparison among Fig. 6 Performance evaluation and comparison among LEACH,
PEGASIS, CCM, and CCBRP for 100x100 WSN
LEACH, PEGASIS, CCM and the proposed CCBRP.
For this test of performance the sensor nodes of the
4.1.2 Optimal Number of chains
considered WSN were evenly distributed within a
100m×100m area. It is clear from Fig. -6 a that the
The number of the partitioned chains in the proposed
energy consumption of the proposed CCBRP is almost
CCBRP is a critical design issue because it affects both
the same as PEGASIS, but 60% less than LEACH and
the energy consumed and the delay. Thus our quest
10% less than CCM. Moreover, the simulations result
here is to find the number of chains that achieves the
shown in Fig. -6 b indicates that the delay of the
minimum delay*energy metrics. Fig.-7 draws the
proposed CCBRP is the same as of LEACH and CCM
delay*energy metric as a function of the number of
but 75% less than of PEGASIS. Furthermore, Fig. -6 c
chains.
presents the energy × delay metrics, which clearly
illustrates that the proposed CCBRP has the best
energy × delay metrics in comparison with all the
protocols available to us in the literature
[1][2][3][4][5].
Fig. 7 the delay*energy metric as a function of the number of chains

for 100x100 WSN
As it is clear from Fig. 7, as the number of the

partitioned chains increases the product of the delay
Fig. 6.a Consumed energy per round and the energy consumed decreases up to a point and
then the reverse happens. This is logical and expected;
if the number of partitioned chains is small the
consumed energy will be small but the delay will be
very high. On other hand if the number of partitioned
chains is big the delay will be small but the consumed

www.IJCSI.org 110
energy will be very high. Thus a number in between a 50m×50m area. It is clear from Fig. -10 a that the
has to be found to obtain the best value for the product energy consumption of the proposed CCBRP is almost
of the energy consumed and the delay experienced for the same as PEGASIS, but 60% less than LEACH and
a given size of WSN. Fig.7 indicates that the size of 1% less than CCM. Fig. -9 b presents the energy ×
chain that achieves best product of energy consumed delay metrics, the proposed CCBRP achieved better
and delay experienced (i.e., lowest value) is around ten energy × delay metrics compared to all the other
percent of the number of nodes in the WSN. protocols.
4.1.3 Energy Efficiency
PEGASIS is a near optimal protocol in energy

consumption, but it suffers from high delay. However,
the proposed CCBRP achieves minimum product of
delay and energy consumed since the consumed energy
by CCBRP is very close to the energy consumed by
PEGASIS. Fig. -8 shows the energy consumed per
node as a function of the number of rounds. From Fig.
8, it is clear that the proposed CCBRP consumes less
Fig. 9.a Consumed energy per round
energy than the consumed energy by all the other
protocols except PEGASIS. More specifically, the
proposed CCBRP consumed 70% less than consumed
by LEACH 1% in ‘first 750 rounds less than CALS
and 2% for more than 750 rounds in CALS.
Fig. 9.b Energy × delay during a round

Fig. 9 Performance evaluation and comparison among LEACH,
PEGASIS, CCM and CCBRP for 50x50 WSN
4.2.2 Optimal Number of Chains
The number of the partitioned chains in the proposed

CCBRP is a critical design issue because it affects both
Fig. 8 The Energy consumed per node as a function of the number of the energy consumed and the experienced delay. Thus
rounds for 100x100 WSN our quest is to find the number of chains that achieves
the minimum delay*energy metrics. Fig.10 draws the
4.2 Simulation Results for 50 x 50 Network delay*energy metric as a function of the number of
chains.
Also, we have performed simulation for the proposed
CCBRP in a self organized network of 100-node in a
50m x 50m field; the BS is located at (50,300). The
size of each packet was set to be 2 k bits. The time for
transmitting such a packet is considered as one unit of
delay.
4.2.1 Energy × Delay metrics
Fig. 9 shows performance evaluation and comparison

among LEACH, PEGASIS, CCM and the proposed
CCBRP. For this test of performance the sensor nodes Fig. 10 The delay*energy metric as a function of the number of
of the considered WSN were evenly distributed within chains for 50x50 WSN

www.IJCSI.org 111
Proceedings of the 33rd Annual Hawaii

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As part of our future work, we are planning to Samia A. Ali B.Sc. in Electrical Engineering, Assiut University
investigate how to optimize the procedure of chain 1977 top of the class, M.Sc Electrical and Computer
leader selection by using different leader selection Engineering Oregon State University 1981. Ph,D, Electrical
strategies [6], to enhance the performance of the and Computer Engineering University of California at Davis.
proposed CCBRP. University1989. Research Associate Taxes instruments from
January 1990 to August 1990,
References Assistant Professor North Carolina A&T State University 1990
[1] W. Heinzelman, A. Chandrakasan and H. to 1993, Assistant Professor Assiut University 1994 to 2000.
Associate Professor: Assiut University 2000 to 2002.
Balakrishnan, “Energy Efficient Communication
Associate Professor: Bahrain University 2002 to 2006.
Protocol for Wireless Microsensor Networks”, in

www.IJCSI.org 112
Associate Professor Assiut University: 2006 to present.

Grants: P.I. HP Innovation in Education and Manager Cisco
Network Labs. Research Interest: Wireless Sensor Networks,
RFID Security and Privacy, Fault Tolerant Computing and
Parallel Processing.
Shreen K. Refaay B.Sc. in Electrical Engineering, Assiut

University 2006 very good with honor grad , ITI software
development diploma 2007. Software developer in UENCOM
company outsourcing for ITS Company from 2008 to present.

www.IJCSI.org 113
A Hybrid Method for Color Image Steganography in Spatial and

Frequency Domain
Asghar Shahrzad Khashandarag 1, Akbar Shahrzad Khashandarag 2, Amin Rahimi Oskuei 3,
Hamid Haji Agha Mohammadi 4 and Mirkamal Mirnia 5
1
Young Researchers Club of Tabriz, Islamic Azad University Tabriz Branch
Tabriz, Iran
2
Department of Computer Engineering, Islamic Azad University Tabriz Branch
Tabriz, Iran
3
Department of Computer Engineering, Islamic Azad University Tabriz Branch
Tabriz, Iran
Abstract of steganography can be predicted 440 BC by Herodotus.

A hybrid method for color image steganography is suggested to Data hiding methods are divided into two methods:
conceal a secret data into the cover image in the spatial and  Steganography
frequency domain. In this method, Lempel–Ziv–Welch (LZW)
 Watermarking
compression is used to obtain a low bit rate; Also Linear
Feedback Shift Register (LFSR) technique is used to enhance the
The word steganography is derived from Greek and means
security of the scheme. In the embedding process in spatial concealed writing. Steganography techniques [1-5] are
domain, a K-means clustering and EA algorithms are used for used to hide digital data in coverage media so that no one
secret data embedding. Also in the embedding process in can find it. Watermarking techniques [6-10] is a process to
frequency domain, a Coefficients selection and frequency embedding data into a coverage media that is difficult to
hopping algorithm (CSFH) and Adaptive Phase Modulation remove. In this paper, a hybrid method for color image
mechanism (APM) are used for secret data embedding. Abilities steganography in spatial and frequency domain is
of the proposed method are high security, because of using a presented.
hybrid method (spatial and frequency domain) and Data
Encryption Standard (DES).
2. Related Works
Keywords: steganography; Linear Feedback Shift Register
(LFSR); Data encryption standard (DES); K-means algorithm; Wen-Yuan Chen [11] proposed a method for color image
Discrete Fourier Transform; spatial domain; frequency domain. steganography using SPHIT and DFT Sending with JPEG
format (hiding secret image in cover image). His method
was designed in the frequency domain. He believes that
1. Introduction phase is suitable for secret data embedding, because the
Now a day, information security is very important. phase enjoys high noise immunity. For more information
Information that you sent, how and under what see [11]. Asghar Shahrzad Khashandarag [12] proposed a
circumstances to reach the receiver, is not clear to us. method for color image steganography using SPIHT and
Therefore, information security will be important to you. DFT Sending with JPEG format based on Wen-Yuan
Due to growth and progress of science in the world, Chen works (hiding secret information in cover image).
computers and the Internet to send data are used. His method uses frequency domain. There are some
Therefore the information, as more digital data will be. disadvantages such as low capacity of color image for
Today, Image, sound, and etc are known as digital data information embedding in both methods. Here we propose
and we can in addition to information and the digital data a hybrid method for color image steganography in the
to hide the main recipient, we send. The first application spatial and frequency domain to overcome to this problem.
www.IJCSI.org 114
Fig. 1 The conceptual model of the secret data-embedding algorithm
3. Proposed method
For more information about DES algorithm see [13]. In
3.1 Data-embedding algorithm spatial domain the cover image is parted into R, G and B
A steganography process must be completely secure, and and after R, G and B clustered to k cluster by k-means
does not reduce the visual quality of the cover image when algorithm where k is known. Then the result of DES
the secret data is concealed. The overall concealing embeds in clusters randomly by EA algorithm. In
process of our proposed scheme is shown in Fig1. The frequency domain the cover image also is parted into R, G
Secret information (SI) is compression by LZW technique. and B and after by transmitting into frequency domain by
The Result of compression stages, with pseudo-random DFT, hashing and modulation algorithms are applied. Then
number is xor , and then bit streams are split into three the result of the EA stage is embedded into the CSFH
parts (SI1, SI2 and SI3) and then DES is used for security. results. Then they are transmitted to spatial domain by
www.IJCSI.org 115
Inverse Discrete Fourier Transform (IDFT). Finally they

are merged and stego-image is created.
3.1.1 LZW data compression

Lempel–Ziv–Welch (LZW) is a universal lossless data
compression algorithm created by Abraham Lempel, Jacob
Ziv, and Terry Welch It was published by Welch in 1984
as an improved implementation of the LZ78 algorithm
published by Lempel and Ziv in 1978. The algorithm is
designed to be fast to implement. LZW compression uses Fig. 2 The structure of LFSR technique
a code table. A common choice is to provide 4096 entries
in the table. In this case, the LZW encoded data consists
entirely of 12 bit codes, each referring to one of the entries
in the code table. Uncompressing is achieved by taking
each code from the compressed file, and translating it
through the code table to find what character or characters
it represents. Codes 0-255 in the code table are always
assigned to represent single bytes from the input file. For
example, if only these first 256 codes were used, each byte
in the original file would be converted into 12 bits in the
LZW encoded file, resulting in a 50% larger file size. 4 1
Fig. 3 The structure of LFSR for G(x) = x + x + 1.
During uncompressing, each 12 bit code would be
translated via the code table back into the single bytes. Of
In Fig3 the structure of LFSR for G ( x )  x  x  1 is
4
course, this wouldn't be a useful situation [14].
shown.
3.1.2 Linear Feedback Shift Register
4 1
Table 1: The generation of random-numbers for G(x) = x +x +1
A linear feedback shift register (LFSR) is a shift register
whose input bit is a linear function of its previous state
[15]. The initial value of the LFSR is called the seed, and D3 D2 D1 D0
because the operation of the register is deterministic, the 0 0 0 1
stream of values produced by the register is completely 1 0 0 0
determined by its current (or previous) state. Likewise, 0 1 0 0
because the register has a finite number of possible states, 0 0 1 0
it must eventually enter a repeating cycle. However, an 1 0 0 1
LFSR with a well-chosen feedback function can produce a 1 1 0 0
sequence of bits which appears random and which has a 0 1 1 0
very long cycle. In Fig2 the structure of LFSR is shown, Pattern generation
again 1 0 1 1
where D i is register for store bit. LFSR is an n-bit shift 0 1 0 1
n 1 0 1 0
register which pseudo-randomly scrolls between 2 -1
values, but does it very quickly because there is minimal 1 1 0 1
combinational logic involved. Once it reaches its final 1 1 1 0
state, it will traverse the sequence exactly as before. It has 1 1 1 1
many applications you should already be familiar with if 0 1 1 1
you’re reading this [15]. In the equation (1), the 0 0 1 1
Polynomial function for the LFSR is shown. 0 0 0 1
In Table1 the generation of random-numbers for Fig3 is

shown. In Table1 the period is calculated as follows:
(1)
www.IJCSI.org 116
3.1.3 K-means clustering algorithm LSB of R, G and B. The L=4 means the fourth LSB of R,
G and B. TP is total pixel of cover image. TM is number
Simple clustering methods use greedy interactions with
of bits for embedding. In the condition1 (3 TP>=TM) in
existing clusters to come up with a good overall
Fig6, number 3 means the first LSB of R, G and B. In the
representation. K-means clustering is a method of cluster
condition2 (6  TP>=TM) in Fig6, number 6 means the
analysis which aims to partition n observations into k
first and second LSB of R, G and B. In the condition3
clusters in which each observation belongs to the cluster
(9 TP>=TM) in Fig7, number 9 means the first, second
with the nearest mean. K-means is one of the simplest
and third LSB of R, G and B. In the condition4
unsupervised learning algorithms that solve the well
(12 TP>=TM) in Fig6, number 12 means the first,
known clustering problem. Finally, this algorithm aims at
second, third and fourth LSB of R, G and B.
minimizing an objective function, in this case a squared
error function. The objective function in equation (2) is
shown.
(2)
where is a chosen distance measure between
a data point and the cluster center , is an indicator

of the distance of the n data points from their respective
cluster centres.
Algorithm1: clustering by K-Means
Choose k data points to act as cluster centers.

Until the cluster centers are unchanged Fig. 4 The selected data points in screen page.
1. Allocate each data point to cluster whose center
is nearest.
2. Now ensure that every cluster has at least one
data point; possible techniques for doing this
include supplying empty clusters with a point
chosen at random from points far from their
cluster center.
3. Replace the cluster centers with the mean of the
elements in their clusters.
End
Fig4 shows the selected data points in Screen page. Fig5
shows the simulation of K-means clustering algorithm
with k=4.
3.1.4 EA algorithm
Fig. 5 The result of K-means clustering with k=4.
Fig6 shows the embedding algorithm (EA) which L is
number of Least Significant Bit (LSB) for embedding. The
L=1 means the first LSB of R, G and B. The L=2 means
the second LSB of R, G and B. The L=3 means the third
www.IJCSI.org 117
Fig. 6 The structure of EA algorithm is shown.
3.1.5 Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) 3.1.6 Inverse Discrete Fourier Transform (IDFT)
We need DFT to transfer an image from spatial domain The equation (4) the DFT is shown. Note that M and N are
into frequency domain. In the equation (3) the DFT is the size of image.
shown. Note that f  x, y  is image in spatial domain
(host-image) and F u , v  is image in frequency domain
(stego-image).
(4)
3.2 Inverse Data-embedding algorithm

The process of inverse data embedding is shown in Fig7.
(3) Note that APD and ILZW are the inverse of APM and
LZW technique which explained in [13].
www.IJCSI.org 118
Fig. 7 The conceptual model of the inverse data-embedding algorithm
4.2 Hybrid method

4. Experience and results
For an m  n image, number of characters for embedding
The proposed method in this paper has high capacity in is calculated as follows:
comparing with previous method [12].
4.1 Previous method

For an m  n image, number of characters for embedding
is calculated as follows:
Fig. 9 twelve bits for data embedding in hybrid method is shown.
Fig. 8 Three bits for data embedding in previous method is shown.
Here we assume for the simplicity of showing the

efficiency; Table2 shows the deference between the
www.IJCSI.org 119
number of characters re-presentable by previous and References

present method in six images. [1] A. Cheddad, J. Condell, K. Curran, P.M. Kevitt, Digital
image steganography: Survey and analysis of current
Table 2: The comparison with six images methods, Signal Processing, Volume 90, Issue 3, March
2010, Pages 727-752.
[2] G.C. Kessler, C. Hosmer, An Overview of Steganography,
Images Capacity (based on Difference Advances in Computers, Volume 83, 2011, Chapter Chapter
character) (based on 2, Pages 51-107
[3] Z. Chen, L. Huang, W. Yang. Detection of substitution-based
(nn)
character)
# linguistic steganography by relative frequency analysis,
Previous Hybrid Digital Investigation, In Press, Corrected Proof, Available
method method online 21 April 2011
1 50  50 937 3750 2813 [4] Z.G Qu, X.B Chen, M.X. Luo, X.X. Niu, Y.X. Yang,
2 100  100 3750 15000 11250 Quantum steganography with large payload based on
3 150  150 8437 33750 25313 entanglement swapping of χ-type entangled states, Optics
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5 800  800 240000 960000 720000 [5] C.C. Chang, J.S. Lee, T.H.N. Le, Hybrid wet paper coding
6 1024  1024 393216 1572764 1179648 mechanism for steganography employing n-indicator and
fuzzy edge detector, Digital Signal Processing, Volume 20,
The deference is shown in Fig10 graphically. Issue 4, July 2010, Pages 1286-1307
[6] M.A. Akhaee, N.K. Kalantari, F. Marvasti, Robust audio and
speech watermarking using Gaussian and Laplacian
modeling, Signal Processing, Volume 90, Issue 8, August
2010, Pages 2487-2497
[7] Y. Liu, J. Zhao, A new video watermarking algorithm based
on 1D DFT and Radon transform, Signal Processing, Volume
90, Issue 2, February 2010, Pages 626-639
[8] C.C. Lai, A digital watermarking scheme based on singular
value decomposition and tiny genetic algorithm, Digital
Signal Processing, Volume 21, Issue 4, July 2011, Pages
522-527
[9] Y.R. Wang, W.H. Lin, L. Yang, An intelligent watermarking
method based on particle swarm optimization , Expert
Systems with Applications, Volume 38, Issue 7, July 2011,
Pages 8024-8029
[10] C.C Chang, K.N Chen, C.F Lee, L.J. Liu, A secure fragile
watermarking scheme based on chaos-and-hamming code,
Journal of Systems and Software, Available online 21 March
Fig. 10 The comparison of two methods is shown. 2011.
[11] W.Y Chen, Color image Steganography scheme using set
partitioning in hierarchical trees coding, digital Fourier
transform and adaptive phase modulation, Elsevier 2006.
5. Conclusions doi:10.1016/j.amc.2006.07.041
[12] A.S. Khashandarg, N. Ebrahimian. A new method for color
The proposed method in this paper has high capacity and image Steganography using SPIHT and DFT, sending with
security in comparing with previous method. The high JPEG format, 978-0-7695-3892-1/09 $26.00 © 2009 IEEE
capacity because of used the EA algorithm in spatial doi:10.1109/ICCTD.2009.14
domain. Also the high security because of used the DES [13] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Encryption_Standard
algorithm and frequency domain. [14] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lempel_Ziv_Welch
[15] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_Feedback_Shift_Registe
Acknowledgments
Asghar Shahrzad Khashandarag received the B.Sc. degree in
computer engineering from the Payame Noor University, Bonab, Iran,
I would like to express my thanks to the referee for the and the M.Sc. degree in computer engineering from the Islamic Azad
suggestion to promote the quality of the paper to publish University Tabriz Branch, Tabriz, Iran, in 2008 and 2010, respectively.
the paper. From 2008, he works as a researcher with the Young Researchers Club of
Tabriz. His research interests include image processing, signal processing
and wireless sensor network. He is a member of the IEEE and the IEEE
Computer Society and Young Researchers Club of Tabriz.
www.IJCSI.org 120
Akbar Shahrzad Khashandarag received the B.Sc. degree in

computer engineering from the Islamic Azad University Bonab Branch,
Iran in 2009. He is currently M.Sc. student in Mechatronics engineering
at the Islamic Azad University Tabriz Branch. His research interests
include image processing, signal processing and wireless sensor network.
Amin Rahimi Oskuei received the B.Sc. degree in computer

engineering from the Islamic Azad University Shabestar Branch, Iran in
2007. He is currently M.Sc. student in computer engineering at the
Islamic Azad University Tabriz Branch.
Hamid Haji Agha Mohammadi received the B.Sc. degree in computer

engineering from the Payame Noor University Bonab Branch, Iran in
2009. He is currently M.Sc. student in computer engineering at the
Islamic Azad University Gazvin Branch.
Dr. Mirkamal Mirnia received the B.Sc. degree in mathematical Physics

from Ferdowsi University, Mashhad, Iran in 1967, and M.Sc. degree in
pure mathematics from teacher training University of Tehran in 1969 also
M.Sc. degree in numerical analysis and computing from Owen university
of Manchester, UK in 1975 and PhD. in applied mathematics
(optimization) from university of St.Andrews, UK in 1979. He is a
member of the Mathematical society of Iran, Iranian operations
researches, institute of applied mathematics, UK and member of SIAM.
www.IJCSI.org 121
Detecting Malicious Packet Dropping Using Statistical Traffic

Patterns
Julian Benadit.P1, Sharmila Baskaran2 and Ramya Taimanessamy3
1
Computer Science and Engineering, Pondicherry University,
Pondicherry, India
2
Computer Science and Engineering, Pondicherry University,
Pondicherry, India
3
Computer Science and Engineering, Pondicherry University
Pondicherry, India
was designed for a trusted environment and provides

Abstract relatively minimal security against an attacker. We need a
Internet is a global network where it is easily prone to be way to securely detect and localize the source of packet
attacked by hackers. Packet loss exhibits temporal dependency. forwarding misbehavior so that the problem can then be
Many approaches have been implemented to provide secure corrected by routing around the trouble spot.
route for the packets sent and finding out malicious packets. In
this paper, we use a protocol and maintain log at each router to
find out where the loss actually occurred. Our paper mainly
2. Related Works
focuses on where the packet has dropped or attacked. There are two threats posed by a compromised packet:
Keywords: Internet dependability, distributed systems, reliable The first is that it might be attacked by the hacker. The
networks, malicious routers. second is the malfunctioning of the router. Secure
traceroute [15] is a link-level detection scheme that could
conceivably be applied at the path level. However, this
1. Introduction scheme may fail to detect attacks that target low-rate
components of the aggregate traffic in a path or attacks
THIS document details the approach, methodology and that exploit the TCP mechanism. Other proposals, such as
results of recent experimentation for of detecting packet Listen [16] and Feedback-Based Routing [17], detect data-
loss in a network. In this paper, we propose an plane attacks by monitoring traffic at the TCP level.
operationally viable approach to find out where the loss However, this scheme may fail to detect attacks that target
occurred. If an attacker gains control over a router, he low-rate components of the aggregate traffic in a path or
could disrupt the communication by dropping or attacks that exploit the TCP mechanism. The earliest work
manipulating the packets sent. Traffic can be severely on fault-tolerant forwarding is due to Perlman [1], [2]
disrupted by routers refusing to serve their advertised developed a novel method for robust routing based on
routes, announcing nonexistent routes, or simply failing to source routing, digitally signed route-setup packets,
reserved buffers. However, many implementation details
withdraw failed routes, as a result of either malfunction or
are left open and the protocol requires higher network
malice. The key idea behind detecting malicious packet
level participation to detect anomalies. Assumptions were
loss is finding where the packet loss has occurred in the
made that the network uses a single-path routing protocol
network using a protocol and maintaining log. The [3] of some kind. Networks where, for example, all traffic
attackers may disrupt packet forwarding (i.e., the data is propagated by flooding can achieve robustness in the
plane of the network) by dropping packets routed to it by complete absence of identities and quite possibly in the
its neighbors. Authentication of the routing protocol presence of numerous malicious adversaries. But
messages is not sufficient to prevent the disruption of singlepath routing protocols have more difficulty dealing
routing. Even though the Border Gateway Routing with individual misbehaving routers, since it is easier for
Protocol (BGP)[6] is central for Internet packet routing, it the adversary to disrupt the forwarding of a stream of
www.IJCSI.org 122
unreplicated packets along a common path. A mechanism the information about each packet that passes through it. If
to detect such misbehavior is therefore desirable. the actual behavior deviates from the predicted behavior,
WATCHERS system detects disruptive routers passively then a failure has occurred.
via a distributed monitoring algorithm that detects
deviations from a “conservation of flow” invariant [4], [5].
However, work on WATCHERS was abandoned, in part a. Packets Information
due to limitations in its distributed detection protocol, its
Consider a queue Q as shown in figure. The neighbor
overhead, and the problem of ambiguity stemming from
routers rb, rc feed data in queue Q. Each Q has the order by
congestion[5]. [8], [9] present a secure router routing a
which the packets should enter along with its associated
combination of source routing,
information. Each router maintains a log
record.
Let Qin be the traffic before entering the queue and Qout be
the traffic after leaving the queue.
hop by hop authentication, end-to-end reliability At any instant time, the traffic is represented as
mechanisms, and timeouts. But, it still has a high overhead R(Q,qp(t),I,F) where
to be deployable in modern networks. 1. qp(t) is the predicted state of queue at any time
‘t’.
4.Assumptions 2. I is the traffic before entering the queue by the
information collected from neighbouring routers
 Low rates of packet loss are assumed to be
(rb, rc).
congestive, while rates above some predefined
3. D is the traffic after leaving the queue, collected
threshold are malicious.
at router rd.
 Packet loss rates are predicted as a function of
traffic parameters and losses beyond the
If R(Q,qp(t),I,F) is false and the routers are not protocol
prediction are malicious.
faulty, then the packets are dropped maliciously at time ‘t’.
 Individual packet losses are predicted as a
Each packet forwarded maintains a log record which
function of measured traffic load and router includes:
buffer capacity. Deviations from these  Header name P
predictions are malicious  IP address (from where it was forwarded)
 Packet size(no. of routers it should traverse) ps
3.Protocol  Time at which it arrived at the router
The protocol used maintains log in each router stating
www.IJCSI.org 123
Every log is compared with the previous one before it is Z = ((qlim- - -μ)/(σ√n))
forwarded. In our case, if loga ≠ logb, then rb stops
forwarding packets further- detect failure.
Three criteria could be used for predicting the state of the 4.1Protocol Faulty
packet P: A faulty router can also be protocol faulty. It can
 If P came from F, then the packet is leaving Q behave arbitrarily with respect to the protocol, by
 If P came from I (P traversed D), the packet is dropping or altering the control messages of X. We mask
entering the Q and will exit at qp+ps the effect of protocol faulty routers using distributed
 If P came from I (P hasn’t traversed D), the detection.
packet is entering the final Queue and is received For a queue Q, the routers involved in the detection are:
at the destination. rb,rc – which sends the traffic
rd – the router to which Q’s traffic is forwarded.
To detect how the attack occurred, two conditions have to
be satisfied : Each router in the network collects the following
 Buffer limit(B) is maintained at each router. If information at time t.
B<qp+ps, then the packet P is dropped due to rs : collects R(rs,Qin,(rb,rc),t)
congestion. rd: collects R(rd,Qout(rs,rd),t)
 Otherwise, the packet P is dropped due to
malicious access. 1. Let T be the max time to forward traffic information
a. If rd doesn’t receive any traffic information within T,
We use two tests: then it detects (rb,rd) and (rc,rd)
Confidence value test b. If rd has received the traffic information, it verifies
Detecting malicious router test R(rs,Qin(rb,rc),t) to see whether it matches R(rd,Qin(rd),t). If
so, it forwards the packet to the next router.
Confidence value test: If not, it again detects (rb,rd) and (rc, rd). If a failure is
We introduce a term Cv which is the probability of an detected, then it forwards its own copy of traffic
attack to occur. If a packet P is dropped at time t at information R(rd,Qin(rd),t).
queuelength qp, then Cv is raised. This is suitable only
when a single packet is lost. 2. a. If rd doesn’t receive any traffic information after 2T,
We use the following terms : then it announces rb and rc as faulty.
qs(t) – size of the queue for packet P b.After receiving the traffic information, it checks the
ps – size of the packet P integrity and the authenticity of the message. If it fails, it
qlim – max size of queue again detects (rc,rd) and (rb,rd).
X – new malicious packet inserted c. After receiving all traffic information by rd, it calculates
Cv is calculated as below: the predicated traffic R1. If R1(rd,Qin(rd),t) evaluates to
Cv = Prob(Packet P to be dropped) false, it detects (rc,rd) and (rb,rd).
= Prob( more space in the queue) Fault detections Ia, Ib, IIa, and IIb are due to protocol
= Prob(qs(t)+ps ≤ qlim) faulty routers, and fault detection IIc is due to the traffic
= Prob(X+qp(t)+ps ≤ qlim) validation detecting traffic faulty routers.
= Prob(X ≤ qlim-qp(t)-ps)
= Prob(Y ≤ (qlim-qp(t)-ps-μ)/σ) 4.2 Protocol Analysis
Random variable Y= (X- μ)/σ
=Prob(Y ≤ y) Computing Traffic Validation:
y = (qlim-qp(t)-ps- μ)/ σ The time complexity of computing TV depends
= (1+erf(y/√2))/2 on the size of the traffic information collected and
received from the neighbors that are within two hops
Detecting malicious router test: Hence, it depends on the traffic volume of the network. If
This is based on the well-known Z-test4 [10]. Let N be the traffic information stores the packets in order of increasing
no. of packets lost due to malicious access. For those N time stamps, then a straightforward implementation of
packets, let be the mean of qs(t). Let be the traffic validation exists.
mean of ps and be the mean of qp(t). The packet Router:

loss occurs only when X > qlim-qp-ps. The Z test score is: Let M be the number of routers in the network,
and L be the maximum number of links incident on a
www.IJCSI.org 124
router. Our Protocol requires a router to monitor the path

segments that are at most two hops away.
Upon receiving a packet, a router parses that packet’s

header, extracting, among other things, the destination
5.Performance Evaluation address. The router then checks its routing table, performs
any maintenance or special instructions requested in the
We evaluate mainly the performance according to the packet header, and sends the packet out on the correct
following metrics. network interface.. A router can be traffic faulty by
Control overhead: The control overhead is defined as the maliciously dropping packets and protocol faulty by not
ratio between total number of packets to be sent to the following the rules of the detection protocol.
total number of received data packets.
Average end-to-end delay: .The end-to-end-delay is the 6.2 Log Record
average time taken by data packets to reach from the Each router in the network maintains a log
sources to the destinations. This includes all the delays record[13] containing information about the number of
caused during route acquisition, buffering and processing packets sent and received (N), the size of each packet(ps),
at intermediate routers, etc. header of the packet(P), time at which the packet was
Average Packet Delivery Ratio: This is the fraction of received(t). This log record helps in detecting where the
the data packets generated by the sources that are loss in packet occurred. Each router maintains a queue(Q)
delivered to the destination. This evaluates the ability of before it gets the particular packets. Attacks occur only
the protocol to discover routes [12]. when Qlim(maximum size of queue) is not full. When
Router Reliability: The node reliability is calculated by Qlim<ps+t, then the packet is dropped due to congestion or
else some malicious attack has occurred. When a packet
the packet delivery ratio of that particular router. If the
arrives at router r and is forwarded to a destination that
ratio is high means reliability is also high
will traverse a path segment ending at router x, r
6.System Architecture increments an outbound counter associated with router x.
Conversely, when a packet arrives at router r, via a path
In this paper, we have implememented a router based segment beginning with router x, it increments its inbound
protocol. The system architecture shown has 4 principal counter associated with router x. Periodically, router x
components. sends a copy of its outbound counters to the associated
routers for validation. Then, a given router r can compare
the number of packets that x claims to have sent to r with
the number of packets it counts as being received from x,
and it can detect the number of packet losses. The
6.1 Router
mechanism is already discussed in section 4 and 4.1
Routers are machines that direct traffic flow on
any sizeable computer network. Every packet of data a 6.3 Link State Routing
router receives must be correctly forwarded to the next
appropriate router, or hop. In order to do this, each router The Routing Daemon, which is based on Zebra
maintains a routing table listing the appropriate next hop [14] in the current prototype manages link state
for specific destinations and/or destination networks. announcements, shortest path computation and forwarding
www.IJCSI.org 125
table calculation and installation. We define a path to be a hackers for malicious attack. When the queue is too small,
finite sequence (r1,r2…rn) of adjacent routers. then the packet could be lost as a result of congestion as
Operationally, a path defines a sequence of routers a shown in figure 2c.
packet can follow. We call the first router of the path the
source and the last router its sink; together, these are
called terminal routers. A path might consist of only one
router, in which case the source and sink are the same.
Terminal routers are leaf routers: they are never in the
middle of any path. In addition, we have modified the
protocol to incorporate input from log record. When the
router has received the traffic information, it verifies its
log record with the previous router. If any changes are
found, then the verification proceeds to see whether it was
due to congestion or malicious accesss or router faulty, the
loss has occurred as described in section 4.1
6.4 Packet Forwarding

A router maintains a distinct forwarding table for
each detected suspicious path segment that the current
router is in the middle. The database defines the criteria
used to decide which forwarding table should be used to
look-up a packet.
7.Results
7.1 ATTACKERS VS RELIABILTY RATIO:

Figure shows the reliability for misbehaving
routers (5,10,…) Clearly, our protocol receives
more reliability than the previous works.
7.3 QUEUE RESULTS:

Fig 3a shows the data dropped due to congestion
in queue. That is when the packet size has exceeded the
queue limt(Qlim). The selected(circled) packets will be
dropped since it has exceeded Qlim. Fig 3b shows the
malicious packet inserted(circled) since the queue is not
full and it is prone to be attacked by hackers.
Fig
7.2 QUEUE SIZE:

As queue size is empty, it is prone to be attacked by
hackers and introduce malicious contents in the packet as
shown in the figure 2a . When the queue size is
maintained small as in figure 2b and when the queue is
almost full, packet could not be as easily accessed by the
www.IJCSI.org 126
[10] R.J. Larsen and M.L. Marx, Introduction to Mathematical Statistics

and Its Application, fourth ed. Prentice Hall, 2005
[11] J. Black, S. Halevi, H. Krawczyk, T. Krovetz, and P. Rogaway,

“UMAC: Fast and Secure Message Authentication,” LNCS, vol. 1666,
pp. 216-233, 1999.
[12] Kimaya Sanzgiri, Bridget Dahill, Brian Neil Levine, Clay Shields
and Elizabeth M. Belding-Royer, "A Secure Routing Protocol for Ad Hoc
Networks", in proc. of 10th International Conference on Network
Protocols, pp: 78-87, 12-15 November 2002.
[13] Alper T. Mizrak, Stefan Savage and Keith Marzullo, “Detecting

Malicious Packet Losses” IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON PARALLEL
AND DISTRIBUTED SYSTEMS, VOL. 20, NO. 2, FEBRUARY 2009
8. Conclusion
[14] GNU Zebra, http://www.zebra.org, 2006.
We have implemented a compromised router
detection protocol that dynamically infers, based on [15] V. Padmanabhan and D. Simon. Secure traceroute to detect faulty or
measured traffic rates and buffer sizes, the number of malicious routing. In Proc. ACM SIGCOMM
HotNets Workshop, Oct. 2002.
congestive packet losses that will occur. Subsequent
packet losses can be attributed to malicious actions. Our [16] L. Subramanian, V. Roth, I. Stoica, S. Shenker, and R. Katz. Listen
protocol maintains log record and helps the user to know and Whisper: Security mechanisms for BGP. In Proc. Symposium on
where the packet loss happened in the topology of the Networked System Design and Implementation, Mar. 2004.
network. It also tells us whether it is due to malicious [17] D. Zhu, M. Gritter, and D. Cheriton. Feedback based routing. In
access or traffic congestion. Proc. ACM SIGCOMM HotNets Workshop, Oct.
2002.
Julian Benadit.P is currently working as a lecturer in Rajiv Gandhi

9.References College of Engineering and Technology, Pondicherry. He received
B.Tech degree in computer science and engineering from Pondicherry
[1] R. Perlman, “Network Layer Protocols with Byzantine Robustness,” University. He also received M.Tech degree in computer science and
PhD dissertation, MIT LCS TR-429, Oct. 1988 engineering from Anna University. He is a life member in ISTE
(International Society for Technology in Education) ,CSI,IETE,SSI and
[2] R. Perlman, Interconnections: Bridges and Routers. Addison Wesley Instituion of Engineers. He has published paper in IEEE Explore. He has
Longman Publishing Co. Inc., 1992. attended International Conference on Wireless Communication and
Sensor Computing.
[3] “ Securing Routing in Open Networks Using Secure Traceroute “,
Gaurav Mathur, Venkata N. Padmanabhan ,Daniel R. Simon,Microsoft
Sharmila.B is currently pursuing her final year of B.Tech degree in
Research, July 2004
computer science and engineering from Rajiv Gandhi of College and
Technology, Pondicherry. She has presented various papers in college
[4] S. Cheung and K.N. Levitt, “Protecting Routing Infrastructures from
symposiums.
Denial of Service Using Cooperative Intrusion Detection,” Proc.
Workshop on New Security Paradigms (NSPW ’97), pp. 94-106, 1997.
Ramya.T is currently pursuing her final year of B.Tech degree in
computer science and engineering from Rajiv Gandhi of College and
[5] K.A. Bradley, S. Cheung, N. Puketza, B. Mukherjee, and R.A.
Technology, Pondicherry.
Olsson, “Detecting Disruptive Routers: A Distributed Network
Monitoring Approach,” Proc. IEEE Symp. Security and Privacy (S&P
’98), pp. 115-124, May 1998.
[6] R. White. Deployment Considerations for Secure Origin BGP

(soBGP), draft-white-sobgp-bgp-deployment-01.txt. Draft, Internet
Engineering Task Force, June 2003
[7] J.R. Hughes, T. Aura, and M. Bishop, “Using Conservation of Flow

as a Security Mechanism in Network Protocols,” Proc. IEEE Symp.
Security and Privacy (S&P ’00), pp. 131-132, 2000.
[8] I. Avramopoulos, H. Kobayashi, R. Wang, and A. Krishnamurthy,

“Highly Secure and Efficient Routing,” Proc. INFOCOM Conf.,
Mar. 2004.
[9] I. Avramopoulos, H. Kobayashi, R. Wang, and A. Krishnamurthy,

“Amendment to: Highly Secure and Efficient Routing,” amendment,
Feb. 2004.
www.IJCSI.org
Photonic-Crystal Band-pass Resonant Filters Design

Using the Two-dimensional FDTD Method
Hadjira Badaoui1, Mohammed Feham1 and Mehadji Abri2
1
Laboratoire STIC, Département de Génie Electrique et d’Electronique
Faculté de Technologie, Université Abou-Bekr Belkaïd -Tlemcen
BP 230, Pôle Chetouane, 13000 Tlemcen- Algeria
2
Laboratoire de Télécommunication, Département de Génie Electrique et d’Electronique
Faculté de Technologie, Université Abou-Bekr Belkaïd -Tlemcen
in two different geometric paths for two distinct

Abstract wavelength ranges [1]. Such structures can be used to
Recently, band-pass photonic crystal filters have attracted great design highly efficient new optical devices. Optical
attention due to their important applications in the fields of waveguides in two-dimensional (2D) PhCs produced by
optical interconnection network and ultrahigh speed information insertion of linear defects into PhC structures had been
processing. In this paper we propose the design of a new type of proposed [2-3].
photonic crystal band-pass resonant filters realized in one-
For instance, it has been demonstrated in PhCs the
missing-row waveguide by decreasing proper defects along the
waveguide with broadband acceptable bandwidth. Two types of prohibition of propagating modes at certain frequency
photonic crystal band-pass filters are utilized and optimized regions (the so-called photonic band gap), inhibition of
using the Two-dimensional finite-difference time-domain spontaneous emission, and localization of EM waves in
(FDTD) technique. The first one is based on the Fabry-Pérot cavities [4-5]. It may very well be possible to create large-
cavities and in the second one a cavity is introduced in the scale photonic integrated circuits (PICs) based on PhCs
middle by omitting two neighboring air holes in waveguide. and to improve the performance and cost efficiency of
Numerical results show that a band [1.47 μm-1.57 μm] around photonic systems. A PhCW is constructed by introducing
1.55µm is transmitted with a maximum transmission of about a line defect into a perfect PhC to create defect modes
68% and as a result wide band-pass filters are designed.
within the photonic band gap; thus, the EM wave
Keywords: Fabry-Pérot (FP) cavities, integrated optics, band-
propagating in the PhCW is guided by the band gap,
pass filter, photonic crystal (PhC) waveguide, Finite-difference
time-domain (FDTD). instead of index-guided as in traditional waveguides.
PCWs have various unmatched features such as extremely
slow group velocity and zero loss at sharp bends. Many
1. Introduction compact photonic devices based on PhCWs have been
proposed, e.g., bends, splitters, demultiplexer and couplers
Photonic crystals (PhCs) are novel class of optical media [6-11].
represented by natural or artificial structures with periodic One of the key elements of integrated optical devices
modulation of the refractive index. Such optical media receiving great consideration is a resonant filters because
have some particular properties which gives an they can act as a demultiplexer to select a particular
opportunity for a number of applications to be channel or multiple channels in Dense Wavelength
implemented on their basis. During the last years, much Division Multiplexed (DWDM) communication system.
attention has been paid to two-dimensional (2D) photonic Many papers have investigated different types of filters in
crystals. These crystals have many potential applications order to improve its transmission characteristics [12-15].
because of their ability to control light-wave propagation In this paper we present different design strategies, which
and because PhC-based optical waveguides may be we have used to improve the performance of various
integrated into optical circuits. The periodicity is broken resonant filters. The properties of these PhC structures are
by introduction of some defects into the crystals. It has numerically investigated by using the Two-dimensional
been shown that doped PhCs permit the guiding of waves finite difference time-domain (FDTD) method.
www.IJCSI.org
2. Two-dimensional FDTD Method (even and odd) with respect to the center line parallel to
the waveguide. With carefully chosen input light, only the
In the presence of non vanishing conductivity, the 2D fundamental (even) guided mode will be excited.
FDTD time stepping formulas for the TE modes are [16]: Therefore, the W1KA waveguide can be considered as a
single mode waveguide in this case. The waveguides,
E n n  which are obtained by removing one or several rows of the
 x i , j 1 / 2  E x i , j 1 / 2 
  (1) rods, are along the direction of the longer side of the
n 1 / 2 n 1 / 2 t  y  computational domain. We design a W1KA waveguide
Hz
i, j
 H z i, j   
 n n
with a triangular lattice of air holes. The dielectric material
 Ey  Ey 
 i 1 / 2, j i 1 / 2, j 

 x


has a dielectric constant of 10.5 (that is, refractive index of
3.24, which corresponds to the effective refractive index in
 H n 1 / 2  H n 1 / 2 
n 1  t  z i , j 1 / 2 z i , j 1 / 2  an InP/GaInAsP/InP structure) to obtain a complete
Ex  Ex
n
   (2)
i, j i, j 
i, j   y  photonic band gap of 1.55 µm and a lattice constant of 0.48
  µm and air filling factor of about 44%. In this paper, this
 H n 1 / 2  H n 1 / 2  structure is excited with TE polarization. A pulsed
n 1 n t  z i 1 / 2, j z i 1 / 2, j 
(3) Gaussian source is used to excite the fundamental
Ey  Ey   
i, j i, j  i, j  x  waveguide mode at the entrance of the input waveguide. In
 
our simulations x= y=0.04 µm and the total number of
time steps is 5000. The size of the computing window is
Where, the index n denotes the discrete time step, indices i 10.4 µm×10 µm. The length of the channel is 0.8 µm.
and j denote the discretized grid point in the x-y planes,
respectively. The FDTD time stepping is given by:
1 (4)
t 
2 2 r
 1   1  a  M
c     
w
 x   y  K
Where c is the light speed, to satisfy the numerical

stability condition and x and y are the intervals between
two neighboring grid points along the x- and y-directions
in the xy-coordinate system, respectively. y

With x  y  z x
10.  r (a)
We have used in this paper a two-dimensional FDTD code 0.4
that captures the simulation parameters (spatial step,
Normalized frequency [a /]
simulation mode (TE/TM), number of iterations), the 0.3

injection conditions (injection of a guided mode through a
Huygens surface) and the boundary conditions Type 0.2
(Wall, symmetric or anti-symmetric). Further details
concerning the FDTD method and the Mur absorbing
0.1
conditions are given in [17-19].
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
3. Band-pass filters characterization Wave vector k [m-1]
6
x 10
For simplicity, only a 2D photonic crystal is considered in (b)

the present paper as shown in Fig. 1 (a) , i.e., the air holes
are infinitely long, the 2D PhC structure support a photonic Fig. 1 (a) Design of the triangular photonic-crystal waveguide. (b)
band gap in the region 0.205<c/a<0.301 for TE polarized Dispersion curves of the guided modes in a W1KA PhC waveguide. The
light. Even a W1KA PhC waveguide has two guided photonic crystal is a triangular lattice of air holes (r = 0.348a) in a
dielectric medium (ε = 10.5). The W1KA PhC waveguide is obtained by
modes, as shown in Fig. 1 (b) (The guided modes in the removing 1 row of air holes.
PhC waveguide are calculated using the PWE method).
However, these two modes have different symmetries
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4. Simulation results and discussion
(c)
In this section, we analyze three different configurations.
To determine PhC filters parameters required, we need to
specify wavelength range within which filters will be
working. In these structures we take one incident Fig. 3 Resonant band-pass filters realized by cascading Fabry-Pérot (FP)
wavelengths λ = 1.55 μm since this wavelength is widely cavities in a one-missing-row PhC waveguide. (a) Three cavities are used
used in telecommunications. The waveguide is formed by utilizing 4 extra rods, (b) five cavities are used utilizing 6 extra rods, (c)
removing one row of dielectric rods and the Fabry-Pérot Seven cavities are used utilizing 8 extra rods.
(FP) cavities are introduced inside the waveguides by Figures 4 and 5, shows respectively the spectral response in
reducing the radius of holes. We note that using one transmission and reflection for the pass-band resonant
missing row, the mode expansion is suppressed, also the filters and excited by TE mode through a Huygens surface
optical volume is then reduced, the mode cannot expand obtained with the 2D FDTD calculation method.
and the excitation of higher order modes is concealed,
1,0
resulting in efficient filtering. Following the design in Fig.
(a)
2, respectively 3, 5 and 7 identical cavities are periodically (b)
spaced along the PhC waveguide direction. The size of 0,8
(c)
power
holes was designed to be rw= 0.348a and the radius of the
Transmission
inserted holes defects along the PhC waveguide is 0,6
Normalized
rc=0.167a as shown in the inset of Fig. 2.
0,4
0,2
0,0
1,4 1,5 1,6
Wavelength [µm]
Fig. 4 Normalized transmission spectra obtained by the two-dimensional

finite difference time domain (2D FDTD) simulation for the structure
illustrated in fig. 3.
1,0
(a)
0,8 (b)
(c)
power
Reflection
0,6
Normalized
Fig. 2 Design of the triangular photonic-crystal resonant filters using the

Fabry-Pérot (FP) cavities. 0,4
0,2
Structures with three, five and seven cavities are depicted
in Fig. 3 (a), (b) and (c).
0,0
1,3 1,4 1,5 1,6 1,7 1,8
Wavelength [µm]
Fig. 5 Normalized reflection spectra obtained by the two-dimensional
Based on our simulation and from fig. 4 we clearly see a

selective extraction of the guided light and are transmitted
directly toward output (a band that spans the range [1.47
μm-1.57 μm]). The central wavelength 1.55 μm is well
covered; such operation can be interpreted as a filter.
www.IJCSI.org
Obviously the three curves are different. We obtain a
transmission peak of about 62% for the structure (a) and
(b) and of about 52% for the structure (c). However, the
(c)
structure (b) presents good rejection than structure (a). The
computed reflection at the transmitted band is almost nul
as shown in Fig. 5. It seems that the whole input power is
coupled in the waveguide cavities, since it is partially
backward scattered into the bus waveguide as shown in Fig. 7 Resonant band-pass filters realized by cascading (FP) cavities in a
one-missing-row PhC waveguide and omitting two neighboring air holes,
Fig. 6 (a), (b) and (c) representing the distribution shape of (a) four cavities are used utilizing 4 extra rods, (b) six cavities are used
the magnetic field Hz after 3000 time step. In fact, the utilizing 6 extra rods, (c) three cavities are used utilizing 4 extra holes.
reduction of the coupling factor by using small holes
yields a reduced backward scattering. These structures act The computed transmission and reflection spectra of the
as wide band-pass filters. simulated filters for TE like polarization of incident light
obtained with the 2D FDTD calculation method are
depicted respectively in Fig. 8 and 9.
1,0
(a)
0,8 (b)
(c)
Transmission
0,6
0,4
0,2
0,0
1,44 1,46 1,48 1,50 1,52 1,54 1,56 1,58 1,60 1,62
Wavelength [µm]
Fig. 8 Normalized transmission spectra obtained by the two-dimensional

Fig. 6 The distribution shape of the magnetic field Hz excited in TE finite difference time domain (2D FDTD) simulation for the structure
mode, x= y=0.04 µm. (a) Three cavities are used utilizing 4 extra rods, illustrated in fig. 7.
(b) five cavities are used utilizing 6 extra rods, (c) Seven cavities are used
utilizing 8 extra rods.
1,0
In order to improve filtering, a cavity is introduced in the (a)
middle by omitting two neighboring air holes in (b)
0,8
waveguide as illustrated in Fig. 7 (a), (b) and (c). This (c)
technique used especially to create resonant cavities.

Reflection
0,6
0,4
(a)
0,2
0,0
1,44 1,46 1,48 1,50 1,52 1,54 1,56 1,58 1,60 1,62
Wavelength [µm]
(b)
Fig. 9 Normalized reflection spectra obtained by the two-dimensional
www.IJCSI.org
From Fig. 8, it is clear that the proposed structure filter the We have proposed two types of filters, the first one is
wavelength band [1.47 μm-1.57 μm] around 1.55µm and based on the Fabry-Pérot cavities by using one missing
the maximum peak obtained from output filter (c) is of row and in the second one a middle cavity is introduced by
about 68%. The structure (a) present a wide band than omitting two neighboring air holes in waveguide.
structure (c) as seen from Fig. 8 but the structure (c) Numerical results show that a band [1.47 μm-1.57 μm]
presents a good rejection than structure (a). A maximum around 1.55µm is transmitted with a maximum
transmission of about 62% is obtained for structure (b) in transmission of about 68% and as a result wide band-pass
the transmitted band. The corresponding reflection at the filters are designed.
peak of transmission is null as can be seen from the
observation of Fig. 9 for the three structures. The
transmission properties are clearly improved with this References
configuration. If we compare our structure with some
litteratures like [20] when the waveguide is combined with [1] E. Centeno, and D. Felbacq, "Guiding waves with photonic
crystals", Opt Commun, Vol. 160, 1999, pp. 57-60.
a PhC microcavity, the results have shown the extraction
[2] A. Ghaffari, F. Monifi, M. Djavid and M. S. Abrishamian,
of the wavelength 1.55 μm with only [1.54 μm -1.56 μm] "Analysis of Photonic Crystal Power Splitters with Different
band. In addition, the double ring photonic crystal add- Configurations", Journal of Applied Sciences, Vol. 8, 2008,
drop filter referenced in [21-22] showed a maximum band pp. 1416-1425.
obtained is [1.537 μm -1.59 μm]. [3] N. Nozhat, and N. Granpayeh, "Analysis and Simulation of a
Fig. 10 shows the two-dimensional finite difference time Photonic Crystal Power Divider", Journal of Applied
domain simulation results of the magnetic field maps Hz Sciences, Vol. 7, 2007, pp. 3576-3579.
performed on the filters after 3000 time steps. [4] V. Tabatadze, Jr. A. Bijamov, D. Kakulia, G. Saparishvili,
D. Kakulia, R. Zaridze, Ch. Hafner and D. Erni, "Design and
Analysis of Planar Photonic Band Gap Devices", Int J
Infrared Milli Waves, Vol. 29, 2008, pp. 1172–1185.
[5] S. Olivier, H. Benisty, C. Weisbuch, C. J. M. Smith, T. F.
Krauss and R. Houdré, "Coupled-mode theory and
propagation losses in photonic crystal waveguides", Optics
Express, Vol. 11, 2003, pp. 1490.
[6] L. Dekkiche, and R. Naoum, "Optimal Design of 90° Bend in
Two Dimensional Photonic Crystal Waveguides", Journal of
Applied Sciences, Vol. 8, 2008, pp. 2449-2455.
[7] M. K. Moghaddami, M. M. Mirsalehi and A. R. Attari, "A
60° photonic crystal waveguide bend with improved
transmission characteristics", Optica Applicata, Vol. 39,
2009, pp. 309-317.
[8] P. Strasser, G. Stark, F. Robin, D. Erni, K. Rauscher, R.
Wüest and H. Jäckel, "Optimization of a 60° waveguide bend
in InP-based 2D planar photonic crystals", Journal of Optical
Society of the America B., Vol. 25, 2008, pp. 67–73.
[9] S. Li, Zhang, H. W., Q. Y. Wen, Y. Q. Song, W. W. Ling
Fig. 10 The distribution shape of the magnetic field Hz excited in TE and Y. X. Li, "Improved amplitude–frequency characteristics
mode, x= y=0.04 µm. (a) four cavities are used utilizing 4 extra rods, for T-splitter photonic crystal waveguides in terahertz
(b) six cavities are used utilizing 6 extra rods, (c) three cavities are used regime" Applied Physics B., Vol. 95, 2009 , pp. 745–749.
utilizing 4 extra holes. [10] R. K. Sinha, and S. Rawal, "Modeling and design of 2D
Fig 10 respectively shows clearly the return of rejected photonic crystal based Y type dual band wavelength
demultiplexer ", Opt Quant Electron, Vol. 40, 2008, pp. 603–
power to the input waveguide and resonance phenomena
613.
in the formed cavities. Although most of the light that [11] L. Dekkiche, and R. Naoum, "A Novel All-Optical Switch
reaches the edge of the computational cell is absorbed by Based on a Photonic Crystal Coupler", Journal of Applied
the boundaries, some light gets reflected back from the Sciences, Vol. 7, 2007, pp. 3518-3523.
end of the waveguide. [12] C. Chao, H. Li, X. Li, K. Xu, J. Wu and J. Lin, "Band pass
filters based on phase-shifted photonic crystal waveguide
gratings", Opt Express, Vol. 15, 2007, pp. 11278-11284.
5. Conclusion [13] L. Scolari, C.B. Olausson, J. Weirich, D. Turchinovich, T.T.
Alkeskjold, A. Bjarklev and L. Eskildsen, "Tunable
In this paper, a novel filters were proposed and their polarisation-maintaining filter based on liquid crystal
properties were theoretically investigated by using the photonic bandgap fibre", Electron Lett, Vol. 44, 2008, pp.
1189-1190.
Two-dimensional finite-difference time-domain method.
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[14] T. R. Wolinski, A. Czapla, S. Ertman, M. Tefelska and A.W.
Domanski, "Tunable highly birefringent solid-core photonic
liquid crystal fibers", Opt Quantum Electron, Vol. 39, 2007,
pp. 1021-1032.
[15] L. Scolari, T. T. Alkeskjold and A. Bjarklev, "Tunable
gaussian filter based on tapered liquid crystal photonic
bandgap fibre", Electron Lett, Vol. 42, 2006, pp. 1270-1271.
[16] A. Taflove, and S. C. Hagness, Computational
Electrodynamics: The Finite Difference Time Domain
Method. 3rd Ed, Artech House Publishers, Norwood, MA,
USA, 2005.
[17] M. Koshiba, Y. Tsuji and S. Sasaki, "High-performance
absorbing boundary conditions for photonic crystal
waveguide simulations", IEEE Microwave Wireless Compon
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[18] G. Mur, "Absrobing boundary conditions for the finite-
difference approximation of the time-domain
electromagnetic-filed equations", IEEE Trans. Electromagn
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[19] K. S. Yee, "Numerical solution of initial boundary value
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www.IJCSI.org 133
A New Data Imputing Algorithm

Ahmed Sobhy Sherif , Hany Harb and Sherif Zaky3
1
Department of Computer Science, Faculty of Computers & Informatics,
Suez Canal University, Ismailia, 41511, Egypt
2
Department of Computers & Eng., Faculty of Engineering,
Al Azhar University, Cairo, 11651, Egypt.
3
Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science,
Suez Canal University, Ismailia,41511, Egypt.
Abstract Many analysis methods, such as Principal component

DNA microarray analysis has become the most widely used analysis, singular value decomposition or clustering
functional genomics approach in the bioinformatics field. analysis, require complete matrices. Missing log2
Microarray gene expression data often contains missing values transformed data are often replaced by zeros [1] or, less
due to various reasons. Clustering gene expression data
often, by an average expression over the row, or ‘row
algorithms requires having complete information. This means
that there shouldn't be any missing values. In this paper, a
average’. This approach is not optimal, since these
clustering method is proposed, called "Clustering Local Least methods do not take into consideration the correlation
Square Imputation method (ClustLLsimpute)", to estimate the structure of the data. Thus, many analysis techniques, as
missing values. In ClustLLsimpute, a complete dataset is well as other analysis methods such as hierarchical
obtained by removing each row with missing values. K clusters clustering, k-means clustering, and self-organizing maps,
and their centroids are obtained by applying a non-parametric may benefit from using more accurately estimated missing
clustering technique on the complete dataset. Similar genes to values.
the target gene (with missing values) are chosen as the smallest There is not a lot of work in the literature that deals with
Euclidian distance to the centroids of each cluster. The target
missing value estimation for microarray data, but much
gene is represented as a linear combination of similar genes.
Undertaken experiments proved that this algorithm is more
work has been devoted to similar problems in other fields.
accurate than the other algorithms, which have been introduced The question has been studied in contexts of non-response
in the literature. issues in sample surveys and missing data in experiments
Keywords: Missing Values, Imputation, Microarray, [11]. Common methods include filling in least squares
Regression. estimates, iterative analysis of variance methods [3]
randomized inference methods, and likelihood-based
approaches [21]. An algorithm similar to the nearest
1. Introduction neighbors was used to handle missing values in CART-
like algorithms [8]. Most commonly applied statistical
In the last decade, molecular biologists have been using techniques for dealing with missing data are model-based
DNA microarrays as a tool for analyzing information in approaches. Local least squares imputation as k-nearest
gene expression data. During the laboratory process, some neighbor imputation (KNNimpute) [2] and an estimation
spots on the array may be missing due to various factors method based on Bayesian principal component analysis
e.g. insufficient resolution, image corruption, or simply (BPCA) have been introduced [5].
due to dust or scratches on the slide. Repeating the In this paper, a local least squares imputation is proposed,
experiments is often very costly or time consuming. As a where a target gene that has missing values is represented
result, molecular biologists, statisticians, and computer as a linear combination of similar genes. A k-means
scientist have made attempts to recover the missing gene clustering algorithm has been used to cluster the complete
expressions by some ad-hoc and systematic methods. microarray matrix. Rather than using all available genes in
Microarray gene expression data have been formulated as the data, only the genes with high similarity with the target
gene expression matrix E with m rows, which correspond gene are used in the proposed method which has the
to genes, and n columns, which correspond to experiments. smallest Euclidian distance between the target gene and
www.IJCSI.org 134
the centeroid of each cluster. The rest of the paper is …

organized as follows: … , ,
, , ,
Section 2 includes a description of a mathematical model ,
of local least squares imputation based on regression
model. Section 3, discusses the proposed k-means , , , … , ,
algorithm which is used in the clustering process. Section

where and are the missing values and ,…, are
4, introduces the proposed PCA as a solution for the initial
the k genes that are most similar to g. The known elements
number of clusters parameter and the initial centeroid for of w can be represented by
each of the clusters. Section 5, explains the proposed
novel imputing algorithm based on the previous solutions. ,
The results of numerical experiments are given in Section
6. Section 7 concludes the paper. where are the coefficients of the linear combination,
found from the least squares formulation (1). And, the
missing values in g can be estimated by
2. Local Least Squares Imputation
, , , ,
A matrix denotes a gene expression data ,
, , ,
matrix with m genes and n experiments, and assume
. In the matrix , a row represents where α1 and α2 are the first and the second missing values
expressions of the ith gene for n experiments. In order to in the target gene. For estimating missing values of each
recover the total of q missing values in any locations of a gene, we need to build the matrices A and B and a vector
target gene g, the k-nearest neighbor genes of g, w, and solve the least squares problem of Eq. (1).
,1 , 3. K-Means Clustering
are found. In this process of finding the similar genes, the
q components of each gene at the q locations of missing K-means [7] is one of the simplest unsupervised learning
values in g are ignored. Then, based on these k-nearest algorithms that solve the well known clustering problem.
neighbor genes, a matrix , a matrix The procedure follows a simple and easy way to classify a
, and a vector are formed. The given data set through a certain number of clusters
ith row vector of the matrix A consists of the ith nearest (assume k clusters) fixed a priori. The main idea is to
neighbor genes , 1 , with their define k centroids; one for each cluster. These centroids
elements at the q missing locations of missing values of g should be placed in an accurate way because different
excluded. Each column vector of the matrix B consists of locations cause different results. As a result, the best
the values of the jth location of the missing values (1 ≤ j ≤ choice is to place them as much as far away as possible
q) of the k vectors . The elements of the vector are
from each other. The next step is to take each point
the n − q elements of the gene vector whose missing
belonging to a given data set and associate it with the
items are deleted. After the matrices A and B and a vector
w are formed, the least squares problem is formulated as nearest centroid. When no point is pending, the first step is
completed and an early group page is done. At this point
min AT x w , (1) we need to re-calculate k new centroids as new centers of
the clusters resulting from the previous step. After we have
Then, the vector of q missing values these k new centroids, a new binding has to be done
can be estimated as between the same data set points and the nearest new
centroid. A loop has been generated. As a result of this
, (2) loop we may notice that the k centroids change their
location step by step until no more changes are done.
where is the pseudo inverse of . Finally, this algorithm aims at minimizing an objective
For example, assume that the target gene g has two function, in this case a squared error function. The
missing values in the 1st and the 10th positions among total
objective function
10 experiments. If the missing value is to be estimated by
the k similar genes, each element of the matrix A and B, J ∑ ∑ x c , (3)
and a vector w are constructed as
www.IJCSI.org 135
where is a chosen distance measure between a vectors of X. This shows that X can be reconstituted as a
sum of L rank one matrices (i.e., the δℓ pℓ qTℓ terms). The
data point and the cluster centre , is an indicator of first of these matrices gives the best reconstitution of X by
the distance of the n data points from their respective a rank one matrix, the sum of the first two matrices gives
cluster centers. the best reconstitution of X with a rank two matrix, and so
The algorithm is composed of the following steps: on, and, in general, the sum of the first M matrices gives
1- Place K points into the space represented by the the best reconstitution of X with a matrix of rank M.
objects that are being clustered. These points The goals of PCA are to (a) extract the most important
represent initial group centroids. information from the data table, (b) compress the size of
2- Assign each object to the group that has the the data set by keeping only this important information, (c)
closest centroid. simplify the description of the data set, and (d) analyze the
structure of the observations and the variables.
3- When all objects have been assigned, recalculate
In order to achieve these goals, PCA computes new
the positions of the K centroids. variables called principal components which are obtained
4- Repeat Steps 2 and 3 until the centroids are as linear combinations of the original variables.
longer moving. This produces a separation of the The first principal component is required to have the
objects into groups from which the metric to be largest possible variance. Therefore, this component will
minimized can be calculated. "explain" or "extract" the largest part of the inertia of the
data table. The second component is computed under the
4. Principal Component Analysis constraint of being orthogonal to the first component and
to have the largest possible inertia. The other components
are computed likewise. The values of these new variables
Principal component analysis (PCA) is probably the most
for the observations are called factor scores, these factors
popular multivariate statistical technique and it is used by
scores can be interpreted geometrically as the projections
almost all scientific disciplines. It is also likely to be the
of the observations onto the principal components.
oldest multivariate technique. In fact, its origin can be
In PCA, the components are obtained from the singular
traced back to Pearson [14] or even Cauchy [7].
value decomposition of the data table I. Specially, with
The modern instantiation was formalized by Hotelling [9]
X P∆QT , the I L matrix of factor scores, denoted F is
who also coined the term principal component. PCA
obtained as
analyzes a data table representing observations described
by several dependent variables, which are, in general,
inter-correlated. Its goal is to extract the important F P∆, (6)
information from the data table and to express this
information as a set of new orthogonal variables called The matrix Q gives the coefficients of the linear
principal components. PCA also represents the pattern of combinations used to compute the factors scores. This
similarity of the observations and the variables by matrix can also be interpreted as a projection matrix
displaying them as points in maps [11][8]. because multiplying X by Q gives the values of the
The data table to be analyzed by PCA comprises I projections of the observations on the principal
observations described by J variables and it is represented components. This can be shown by combining Eq.(4) and
by the matrix X, whose generic element is , . The Eq.(6) as
matrix X has rank L where , .
The matrix X has the following singular value F P∆ P∆QQT XQ, (7)
decomposition [19][2]:
The components can also be represented geometrically by
∆ (4) the rotation of the original axes. The matrix Q is also
called a loading matrix. The matrix X can be interpreted as
the product of the factors score matrix by the loading
where P (Principal direction) is the matrix of left
matrix as:
singular vectors, Q (Principal components) is the
matrix of right singular vectors, and is the diagonal
X FQT with F T F ∆ and QQT I, (8)
matrix of singular values. Eq. (4) can also be rewritten as
This decomposition is often called the bilinear
X ∑Lℓ δℓ pℓ qTℓ (5) decomposition of X .
with ℓ being the rank of X and δℓ , pℓ and qℓ being
5. The proposed algorithm
(respectively) the ℓ singular value, left and right singular
www.IJCSI.org 136
In this section, a Local Least Squares imputation that are often poor. Another problem with the basic K-means
depends on the Clustering model will be introduced. algorithm given earlier is that empty clusters can be
Clustering complete data sets into K clusters with K obtained. This paper proposes that principal components
centroid per each clusters will also be discussed. Target are actually the continuous solution of the cluster
gene that has missing values represented as a linear membership indicators in the K-means clustering method.
combination of similar genes. The similar genes are the The main basis of PCA-based dimension reduction is that
clusters whose centroids have the smallest Euclidian PCA picks up the dimensions with largest variances Eq.
distance to the target gene. (5). Mathematically, this is equivalent to finding the best
low rank approximation of the data via the singular value
5.1. Getting number of clusters decomposition Eq. (6). As a result, the first component is
used as an index indicator to the K initial centroids.
Clustering algorithms are unsupervised learning processes
i.e. users are usually required to set some parameters for The algorithm is composed of the following steps:
these algorithms. These parameters vary from one
algorithm to another, but most clustering algorithms
1. will be the complete microarray matrix by
require a parameter that either directly or indirectly
specifies the number of clusters. This parameter is removing each gene row with missing value.
typically either k, the number of clusters to return, or some 2. By Eq. (4) get , ∆ .
other parameter that indirectly controls the number of 3. Compute first component by Eq.(6).
clusters to return, such as an error threshold. Setting these 4. Sort first component vector.
parameters requires either detailed prior knowledge of the 5. Let the first K component indexes of be the
data, or time-consuming trial and error. The latter case still
first K initial centroids.
requires that the user has sufficient domain knowledge to
know what a good clustering “looks” like. However, if the
data set is very large or is multidimensional, human 5.3. Clustering
verification could become difficult. It is necessary to have
an algorithm that can efficiently determine a reasonable K-means clustering algorithm, as shown in section 3, has
number of clusters to return from any clustering algorithm. been used as a clustering algorithm for our proposed
The following proposed algorithm will identify the correct imputation algorithm. After applying this algorithm, K of
number of clusters to return from a clustering algorithm. disjoint subsets , 1, , are obtained. Each cluster
The algorithm is composed of the following steps: is identified by its centroid , 1, , .
1. will be the complete microarray matrix by
removing each gene row with missing value. 5.4. Imputing.
2. By Eq. (4) get the eigengene matrix ∆ with
0. K-nearest neighbor method (KNNimpute) does not
∑
introduce an optimal and restricted method to find the
3. Compute ∑
, 1, , nearest neighbor. Bayesian Principal Component (BPCA),
depends on a probabilistic model. This model requires
4. Choose the eigengenes that contribute to be certain statistical parameters that must be known before.
about 70%-75% of the total expression level as Local Least Squares Imputation (LLSimpute), depends on
the number of clusters K . K coherent genes that have large absolute values of
Pearson correlation coefficients. This can be costly in
calculations. This paper proposes Local Least Squares
5.2. Getting initial centroids of clusters imputation. This method represents a target gene that has
missing values as a linear combination of similar genes.
The k-means algorithm starts by initializing the K cluster The similar genes are the cluster whose centroid has the
centers. Two simple approaches to cluster center smallest Euclidian distance to the target gene.
initialization are either to select the initial values The algorithm is composed of the following steps:
randomly, or to choose the first K samples of the data
points. However, testing different initial sets is considered 1. will be the original microarray matrix.
impracticable criteria, especially for large number of 2. will be the target gene (with q missing
clusters [14]. Therefore, different methods have been elements).
proposed in literature [5][8][4]. When random 3. By using algorithm proposed in section 5.1 get K.
initialization is used, different runs of K-means typically 4. By using algorithm proposed in section 5.2 get K
produce different clusters groups and the resulting clusters
www.IJCSI.org 137
centroids.
5. By using algorithm proposed in section 5.3 get K , (9)
clusters.
6. Get the nearest cluster to the target gene. Where and are vectores whose elements are
the estimated values and the known answer values,
respectively, for all missing entries.
6.1. From with columns The similarity between the target genes and the closest
corresponding to complete elements of . centroid is defined by the reciprocation of the Euclidian
distance calculated for non-missing components.
6.2. From with columns
corresponding to missing elements of . 6.1. Experimental results
7. with columns corresponding to In the experiments, we randomly removed some

complete elements of . percentage, i.e. missing rate, of expression level to create
missing values (between 1 and 20% of the data were
8. Solve Eq. 2 to get estimated q missing values of .
deleted). Each method was then used to recover the
9. Repeat steps from 2 to 8 until estimation of all introduced missing values for each data set, and the
missing genes. estimated values were compared to those in the original
data set.
6. Results and Discussion From the plots of NRMSE values (Fig. 1) achieved by all
five methods on six datasets, we can see that KNNimpute
Six microarray datasets were obtained for the purpose of method always performs the worst and ClustLLsimpute
comparison. The first data set was obtained from -factor always performs the best. For all the other three methods,
block release that was studied for identification of cell- they perform equally well on env-dataset and crc-dataset
cycle regulated genes in Saccharomyces cerevisiae[19]. A but ClustLLsimpute performs better than the other three.
complete data matrix of 4304 genes and 18 experiments In fact, from Figures 1(b) and 1(e), it is hard to tell which
(ALPHA) that does not have any missing value to assess one of them performs better than the other three except
missing value estimation methods. The second data set of ClustLLsimpute which is outperform. All other three
a complete matrix of 4304 genes and 14 experiments methods again perform equally well on elu-, cyc-a-, and
(ELU) is based on an elutriation data set [19]. The 4304 alpha-datasets when the missing rate is small, i.e. less than
genes originally had no missing values in the -factor 5% (cf. Figures 1(a), 1(d), and 3(f)) and also
block release set and the elutriation data set. The third data ClustLLsimpute is outperform all of them. However, the
set was from 784 cell cycle regulated genes, which were performances differ when the missing rate is large. Our
classified by Spellman et al. [19] into five classes, for the method ClustLLsimpute performs very close to other three
same 14 experiments as the second data set. The third data as in Figures 1(f) with 20% rate, though still a little better.
set consists of 2856 genes and 14 experiments (CYC-a). From these results, it is deduced that the ClustLLsimpute
The fourth data set of 242 genes and 14 experiments method performs better than both BPCA and LLSimpute,
(CYC-b). The fifth data set is from a study of response to the two most recent imputation methods [3][25].
environmental changes in yeast [6]. It contains 5431 genes
and 13 experiments that have time-series of specific 7. Conclusions
treatments (ENV). The sixth data set is the cDNA
microarray data relevant to human colorectal cancer This paper proposes a novel version of Local Least
(CRC)[21]. This data set contains 758 genes and 205 Squares Imputation (ClustLLsimpute) method to estimate
primary CRCs that include 127 non-metastatic primary the missing values in microarray data. In ClustLLsimpute,
CRCs, 54 metastatic primary CRCs to the liver and 24 the complete dataset is clustered by using a novel
metastatic primary CRCs to distant organs exclusive of the clustering k-nearest clustering method to obtain k-clusters
liver, and 12 normal colonic epithelia (CRC). and its centroids. The number of nearest neighbors for
This is a challenging data set with multiple experiments every target gene is automatically determined as the
with no time course relationships. The ALPHA, ELU, and cluster with the nearest centroid, rather than pre specified
CRC are the same data sets that were used in the study of in most existing imputation methods. The experimental
BPCA [5] and LLsimpute[8]. results on six real microarray datasets show that
The performance of the missing value estimation is ClustLLsimpute outperforms the four most well known
evaluated by normalized root mean squared recent imputation methods BPCA, LLSimpute, ,
error(NRMSE) :
www.IJCSI.org 138
ILLSimpute and KNNimpute, on all datasets with

simulated missing values.
Fig. 1 NRMSE comparison for ILLsimpute, BPCA, LLSimpute,

KNNimpute and ClustLLsimpute on six datasets with various percent of
missing values.
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A Survey about the Latest Trends and Research Issues of

Cryptographic Elements
Ijaz Ali Shoukat1, 2 , Kamalrulnizam Abu Bakar1 and Mohsin Iftikhar2
1
Department of Computer Systems and Communication, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
81310, Johor Bahru, Malaysia
2
College of Computer and Information Sciences, King Saud University
P. O. Box. 51178 Riyadh 11543, Saudi Arabia
Abstract secret and public key is publically available. In

Progression in computing powers and parallelism technology asymmetric encryption public key is used to encrypt the
are creating obstruction for credible security especially in message and private key is used to decrypt the same
electronic information swapping under cryptosystems. An message.
enormous set of cryptographic schemes persist in which each
has its own affirmative and feeble characteristics. Some
schemes carry the use of long bits key and some support the
Just to encrypt and decrypt the message cannot fulfill
use of small key. Practical cryptosystems are either symmetric overall security requirements because the word security
or asymmetric in nature. In this painstaking gaze, the accurate is itself relies on confidentially, integrity (authenticity,
selection of right encryption scheme matters for desired non-repudiation) and availability [1]. Confidentiality
information swap to meet enhanced security objectives. This concerns with secrecy and privacy which means
survey compares trendy encryption techniques for convinced message should be visible to whom person for which it
selection of both key and cryptographic scheme. In addition, has been sent and integrity can be further classified into
this study introduces two new encryption selection constrains two terms: (1) authenticity – which means the identity
(section 4.1) which are neglected in previous studies. Finally of sender should be verified on delivering the message
this comprehensive survey thrash outs the latest trends and
research issues upon cryptographic elements to conclude
weather the information is coming from authentic
forthcoming necessities related to cryptographic key, sender, from whom we are expecting. (2) Non-
algorithm structure and enhanced privacy especially in repudiation – it means message should not be falsely
transferring the multimedia information. modified with any kind of fake addition or deletion.
Availability means information (message, key,
Keywords: Encryption schemes, symmetric vs. asymmetric, Certificate Verification) and medium (Certification
steganography, digital signature, hash functions, Authority Server, online services) should be timely
Cryptographic Issues available when needed. These security objectives births
to key exchange methods (Diffie, Hellman, digital
1. Introduction signature) and the asymmetric encryption which
involves third trust party and the use of two key(s).
Cryptography can be categories as a branch of
mathematics and computer science which further relates Cryptanalysis is art of breaking cryptographic algorithm
with information security and computer engineering. using analytical reasoning, pattern locating, guessing
KrptÕs (“hidden”) is a Greek word gives birth to and statistical analysis. The person who uses
English word called cryptography- an art of changing cryptanalysis science is called cryptanalyst or attacker
the actual face look of information as well as converting where the both cryptography and cryptanalysis lie under
it into unreadable form. Cryptography further relies on cryptology [2]. Security is the major controlled factor
encryption techniques (symmetric and asymmetric) to now days mostly concerns with large information
encode the actual text message (Plain Text) with the use exchange system like Internet. Mostly users demand
of secret code called key. The process of encoding or secure communication especially in case organizational
encrypting the plain text is referred as enciphering or linkage, Governmental communication and banking
encryption and the vise versed process is called transactions. Cryptographic algorithms are reliable
deciphering or decryption. Symmetric encryption phenomena in this situation. Some cryptographic
requires a single shared secret code known as private algorithms are symmetric and some are asymmetric in
key and asymmetric encryption is based on two key(s); nature as summarized in table below.
private key and public key where private key remains
Ijaz Ali Shoukat – PhD Student, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Kamalrulnizam Bin Abu Bakar – Main Advisor/ Supervisor
Dr. Mohsin Iftikhar – Co-Supervisor

www.IJCSI.org 141
Table 1: Algorithm Categories [3]

Encryption Techniques Algorithms Country(s)
Symmetric Data Encryption Standard (DES) US(IBM)
Advanced Encryption Standard(AES) Belgium
International encryption Standard (IDEA) Switzerland
Twofish US (Counterpane)
Blowfish US (Counterpane)
TEA (Tiny Encryption Algorithm UK (Cambridge)
Serpent UK, Israel, Norway
MARS US US (IBM)
Kasumi Europe (ETSI)
SEED South Korea (Korea Information Security
Agency)
RC6 US (RSA)
Asymmetric Rivest-Shamir-Adleman (RSA) US (RSA)
Diffie-Hellman
Digital Signature Algorithm (DSA)
EIGAMAl
XTR stands for ' ECSTR' Efficient and
Compact Subgroup Trace Representation
secrecy through encryption. New look of

In Symmetric cryptography, algorithms are either cryptography revolves around the some factors like
block cipher or stream cipher in block cipher plain confidentially, integrity (authenticity, non-
text is converted into blocks (64 or 128 bits) and repudiation) and availability to enhance security
arithmetic operations (XOR, NOT, OR and etc.) are issues [4].
implemented on block level in such a way each
block is encrypted separately. Each block can be 2. Cryptographic Types and Elements
encrypted either with a operation and the same
operation may be repeated for any other next block These types and elements based on Encryption
but in stream cipher whole plain text is considered (symmetric and asymmetric) ,signature and key
as single block and its every bit or byte (bit stream) agreement where the signature can be further
relatively very small than block size is encrypted classified as Short Signature, Blind Signature, Multi
with different operation (may be repeated for any signature, Aggregate Signature, Verifiably
other bit or byte). The use of symmetric algorithms Encryption Signature, Ring Signature, Group
require that both parties have to share and agreed on Signature, Proxy Signature and Unique Signature
same secret or private key before starting encryption /invariant signature Schemes[5]. Furthermore the
procedure but in case of asymmetric algorithms survey [5] reported that the Identity base Public Key
public key is publically available to start encryption Cryptography (ID-PKC) scheme involves third
any time when needed before asking the other party trusted party to generate public and private key(s);
and private key remains secret in both sides. due to the involvement of third party the following
Symmetric key length is shorter than asymmetric risks can be associated with this scheme.
key length.
1. Third party knows private key which may be
This survey does not concern with the issues of risky.
cryptographic algorithms but it mostly concerns the 2. To get private key once again person has to
cryptographic primitives to point out the latest authenticate himself which require extra effort
trends, research issues and future necessities. and loss of time.
Cryptography is a secure technological phenomenon 3. Secure channel is required to transmit private
for information security. Prehistory of cryptography key.
is reliant on message hiding art called 4. The both parties (sender and receiver) have to
steganography. Classical cryptography is based on know and verify the public key of each other.
information theory appeared in 1949 with the
publication of “Communication Theory of Secrecy 2.1 Comparison of Cryptographic Schemes
Systems” by C. Shannon. In classical cryptography
Generalized encryption schemes are symmetric
both plain text and key were same length to support
encryption and asymmetric encryption but there are

www.IJCSI.org 142
some other cryptographic techniques are also the under symmetric or asymmetric schemes. Table 2
part of literature like Chaotic image encryption, shows the comparison of symmetric and asymmetric
Quantum cryptography, BioCryptosystems, Visual encryption scheme.
Cryptography, Elliptic Cryptography which lie
Table 2: Symmetric vs. Asymmetric Encryption Schemes
Symmetric Encryption OR Private-Key Cryptosystems Asymmetric Encryption OR Public-Key Cryptosystems
It is based on single secret key to encrypt and decrypt data. It deals with pair of key(s) Public key and Private key.
Key is called share, secret or private key [6]. Public key is used to encrypt the message and private key is
used to decrypt the message [6].
Symmetric key size and length is often smaller than Key size and length is often larger than symmetric key
asymmetric key(s).
In symmetric encryption process there is need to agree on There is no need to agree on same secret key before starting
same secret key before starting encryption [6]. encryption process [6]. Because public key is publically
available but the verification of public is required.
It deals with operations like XOR, OR NOT, OR, It deals with nontrivial mathematical computations, modular
substitution etc. [6]. arithmetic functions, huge integers (512- 2048 bits) [6].
The symmetric based algorithms are 100 times faster than Asymmetric based methods are 100 times slower than
asymmetric ones [23]. symmetric ones [23].
It requires less processing and electric power than It requires more processing and electric power than
asymmetric algorithms of equal length and complexity [6]. symmetric algorithm of equal length and complexity [6].
It provides confidentiality [7]. It provides confidentiality [7].
It did not provide integrity by itself [7]. It did not provide integrity by itself because it also relies on
message digest and digital signature for this purpose [7].
It did not provide origin authentication [7]. It provides origin authentication [7] as it uses digital
signature for this purpose.
Key must be remained secret in both sides because there is Public key is publically available and each part has its own
need to share private key. private key which needs not to be shared.
The life of key is not longer because it has shared with the The life time of key is longer because each party has its own
other person so in case of any future secret transaction for private key which needs not be shared and it remains secret
any other person there is need to be changed it for security for both parties.
reasons.
Group key generation formula for symmetric encryption There is no need to get and remember more and more secret
scheme is n(n-1)/2 = ? keys is used to calculate required keys because it has only 2 keys for any no. of users.
key(s) for n users. So this approach is less feasible in case
of mutual communication of a group of n users because if
there are 5 users in a group then total key(s) required to
exchange for whole group will be 5(5-1)/2 = 10 keys. This
situation will result more load on network. Similarly if a
user wants to communicate with 8 different users then
against each user the same sender will require to select and
share another secret key which is difficult to remember.
It did not involve third party. It involves third party called Certification Authority (CA).
There is only one key which results less hedge to manage. Managing of key(s) and certificate is complex and it is also
time consuming to get touch with the trusted party.
It did not need any kind of certificate or extra registration It requires extra registration charges due to third party
charges because it did not deal with third party. involvement and renewal of certificates.
It did not share any other personal information except the The public key contains much information about the person
secret key. So it has no miss use information which may be wrongly used by the other person(s) to whom
vulnerabilities. we are going to share it.
It did not require any extra validation time like client Each time there is needs to validate the client’s certificate
validation in asymmetric scheme. which may be stopped or delayed if the CA’s server is
damaged or down.
It has not any danger of third party related political or spy In case of highly secret information related to Governmental
miss use. plans or any country’s defense the involvement of third party
may be risky due to political or spy based attack especially
in case of Identity based Public Key Cryptography (ID-
PKC) due to private key escrow problem which means third
party knows the private keys of registered users.
It did not require any extra space to store or manage digital For third trusted party the storage and management of
certificates like asymmetric scheme. certificates is becoming critical due to the increase of large
no. of demands.
Symmetric encryption often referred as secret-key same name as public-key cryptosystems. Public-key
cryptosystems and asymmetric encryption is the cryptosystems further birth to digital signature in

www.IJCSI.org 143
which verification is done with public key and authentication codes is also available to provide
signing is performed with private key [7]. message integrity. The benefits to authentication
Moreover, the study [7] reported that digital codes are same as hash function with additional
signatures are slow in processing but it can be characteristic of producing shorter length message.
improved by combing it to hash functions that are Table 3 reports the comparison of digital signature,
fast in speed and also known as message digest or hash functions and Message Authentication Code
deletion codes but another technique called (MAC).
Table 3: Comparison of Digital Signature, Hash Functions and Message Authentication Code [7]
Digital Signatures Hash Functions Authentication codes (MACs)
They deal with 1024 bit minimum key length Has functions mostly deals with MACs are able to reduce message
[3] and have not been patented or licensed 128 to 256 bit key. examples: into short length. It is typically 32 or
yet. MD5, RFC, SHA1, RACE 64 bit long and key is 56 bit long.
MAC= hash value+ Public Key
Digital signatures rely on public key MACs are based on secret key or
cryptography; where verification key is private key.
public and signing key is referred as secret or
private key.
As a prerequisite, parties did not need to As a prerequisite, parties did not As a prerequisite, a secret key needs
agree on shared key before starting need to agree on shared key before to be shared therefore both parties
encryption. starting encryption. need to agree on same key before
starting the encryption through
authentication code.
Digital signatures are slow in processing than Fast in processing speed. Quite fast in processing.
hash function and symmetric encryption
scheme.
Did not provide confidentiality. Did not provide confidentiality. Did not provide confidentially.
Digital signatures provide origin They did not provide origin They provide origin authentication.
authentication. authentication.
Digital signatures provide integrity. They provide integrity. They provide integrity.
Electronic passport scheme primarily relies on, methods rely on large numbers (chaos) belong to
Public Key Infrastructures (PKI), Biometrics and nonlinear dynamics field. Chaotic based
Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) to avoid cryptographic functions follow deterministic
unfair means of authentication. The purpose of dynamics, non guessable behavior with non-linear
RFID wireless system with 13.56MHz frequency is functions and chao’s properties. Most significantly
to extract biometric identity (natural physiological for any cryptographic method the performance is
characteristics) and PKI is the process of document major factor. The notable issue is that different
verification through Country Verifying Certificate authors have different opinions for evaluating
Authorities (CVCA) which deals with public and chaotic encryption methods even the no. of factors
private key(s) [8]. and their nature is also vary from person to person.
A survey [9] for comparing the performance metric
2.2 Performance Factors of Chaotic Image of chaotic based image encryption has been
encryption conducted in 2011 which reported following
General cryptographic methods are based on findings as summarized in a Table 4 below.
algebraic notations and number theory but Chaotic
Table 4: Performance Factors of Chaotic Image Encryption

Performance metrics for performance Year By
analysis of chaotic Image encryption
 Simplicity 2001 Goce Jakimoski and Ljupˇ co Kocarev [10]
 Security
 Speed 2004 Yaobin Mao, Guanrong Chen and Shiguo Lian [11]
 Resistance
 Key space
 Key sensitivity

www.IJCSI.org 144
 Speed, 2006 Haojiang Gao, Yisheng Zhang, Shuyun Liang, Dequn Li [12]
 Key space,
 Key sensitivity,
 Histogram,
 Pixel correlation
 Resistance to known attacks.
 Confusion 2008 Su Su Maung, and Myitnt Myint Sein [13]
 Diffusion properties,
 Correlation coefficient
 Histogram.
 Key space, 2009 Musheer Ahmad and M Shamsher Alam [14]
 Correlation coefficient
 Information entropy
 Probability distribution, 2009 Wang, Yongping Zhang, Tianjie Cao [15]
 Complexity
 Cipher sensitivity
2.3 Characteristics of Visual Cryptography denial of service (DoS) which both rely on network
structure are still possible to implement them in
An easy kind of cryptographic technique relies on quantum cryptography. Recently Quantum
hiding information by utilizing overlying method of Cryptography does facilitate reliable digital
a single or multiple images. Overlying method signature because it relies on public key
consists of preparing the two layers where one cryptography for integrity and authentication.
contains secret information in visual form and other Moreover, the available quantum signature
did not contain any secret information. By techniques provide only limited function such as
utilization of pixel expansion and pixel merging verification that’s why its practical use is limited to
schemes the encryption is implemented on secret specified situations [18].
visual information (printed text, image, handwritten
notes). It was firstly designed by Naor and Shamir 2.5 Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) and its
in 1994 [28]. It does not require complex Characteristics [19]
mathematical computations [29] for decryption
process. Following characteristics are associated IBM cryptographer Victor Miller and Neal Koblitz
with visual cryptography [16]. from Washington University firstly proposed
Elliptic Curve Cryptography as a combined fashion
1. Computations are avoided. of number theory and algebraic geometry in 1985. It
2. Encryption time is small because no is a type of public key cryptosystem in which there
complex algorithm is available in visual is need to share secret key because EEC deals with
cryptography two points(x, y) which satisfied the curve equation
3. To avoid extra disk space for encrypted y2 = x3 + ax + b with particular condition (4a3 +
data, compression techniques are needed. 27b2 ≠ 0). Points on curve behave as a Public key
4. Compressed data takes more time to and a randomly selected number is considered as
transmit in visual cryptography rather than private key. Its key size (160 bits) is small and
other cryptography. considered as much secure as RSA with 1024 bits
key. On the other hand ECC uses small length key
2.4 Quantum Cryptography and its Issues [17] pairs (Public and Private) to make it robust in case
of memory requirement and processing time as
The high performance computers are called compared to RSA but the issue with ECC is that it is
quantum machines which necessitate the use of slower in case of signature verification and
quantum cryptography that restricts the attacker enciphering process than symmetric encryption [20].
under the implementation of polarization properties ECC is better decision for small devices with
of quantum mechanics. In both cryptographic limited computational power and memory chip.
techniques (symmetric and asymmetric) the sender
and receiver cannot rely the interception of key by 2.6 Bio Cryptosystems [27]
attacker but in quantum cryptography it is possible
because it uses an invisible photon. This invisible It is based on biometric key and restricts the user to
photo based on no cloning theory which means it be present at the time of authentication to avoid
impossible to replace it without notifying the other duplication. Cryptographic key(s) are often large
related party. Quantum cryptography creates more and difficult to remember. On the other hand
processing efforts for attackers rather to general password codes are mostly short and relies on a
cryptography in case of brute force attack (plain text common habit to use them repeatedly therefore
attack) but two other attacks like man in middle and rather to password code and cryptographic key

www.IJCSI.org 145
(public, private) biometric key is considered as characters from string (first one or last one). The
superior because it needs not to be remembered. The other one is Electronic Steganography- it deals with
other benefits of biometric key are that it provides the following mediums like Image, Audio and
grunted identification and privacy while Video to hide information. We can store and hide
authenticating the user. But the major issue with the message in image bits or in audio/video bits.
BioCrytosystems is the high variability of biometric Mostly message is stored in video or audio file
traits which creates fuzziness problems. where there are inter-bit delays. In audio file if only
first or last bit is changed within each byte then the
2.7 Steganography audio and video become out of understand. But the
significance issue is that by applying statistical and
It is the art of hiding information. Steganography Radiofrequency methods, like Measurement and
has two types that differ with the usage of mediums. Signature Intelligence Technique (MASINT), the
First type is Physical steganography- it use physical inter– bit delays can be realized. The comparison of
mediums to hide the message like Invisible Links, steganography and cryptography is described in
Microdots, Puzzles, Spam messages and selection of Table 5 below.
Table 5 : Steganography Vs. Cryptography

Steganography Cryptography
Process of hiding information on digital media through Its motive is to obscure the message so that it could not
concealing the existence of information. Its motive is to readable with its original meanings.
keep secret the presence of message to fool the attacker in
order to prevent the detection of the hidden message [21].
Message cannot be seen. Message cannot be understood and remains visible to

attacker in encrypted form.
It is hard to guess that whether message is private or In case of secure governmental or country secret
ordinary or is it contains secret information behind it or communication from country to country the encrypted
not which minimize the unwanted attentions of attackers. message may attract unwanted attentions of cracker to
realize it.
Issue: In many countries the use of cryptography is
prohibited. It can provide enhanced privacy between parties
but it is negotiable incase of protection while
communicating the highly secret information about criminal
shifting or transferring times from one location to other.
If we hide the message under the image may it is possible No such case
some important data is altered or lost automatically while
communicating the image over internet. This change is
minor like change in color (grey or white pixel) which
does not detectable by human eye in case of seeing the
image but a single bit change may effected the loss of
those bit(s) which is the part of secret message.
The size is major problem because if we conceal the Size remains consistent or bearable.
message with image; its size becomes large and in case of
large data this is more notable problem.
It cannot provide most of security objectives (Integrity, It can provide complete security objectives by
authenticity, non repudiation) by itself without using the implementing the public and private key(s) with hash
cryptographic techniques. However it provides functions or authentication codes or digital signatures.
confidentiality by itself because mostly, the concerning
person knows that the message is hidden in what kind of
medium.
3. Research Issues and Problems in is the key exchange because without secret and
Cryptography secure key exchange, symmetric encryption
becomes unconfident. Origin authentication and
The existence of high computing power processors group based secure information exchange under
are the creating diversified situation for symmetric symmetric approach are the big issues. It cannot be
encryption that relies on small length of key because assured at the time of exchanging secret key, either
distributed computation methods can broke small the received key is not falsely modified by hacker
key easily. 56 bits symmetric key of Data and it is really send by the authentic sender from
Encryption Standard (DES) has already been whom we are expecting? Similarly, if a person P
cracked practically by Electronic Frontier wants to send 50 different secret messages to 50
Foundation in 1998 within the duration of less than group members then P required to generate 50 secret
3 days [22]. Other problem of symmetric encryption key(s) for completing this task under symmetric

www.IJCSI.org 146
encryption scheme which is difficult to remember; For chaotic image encryption there is no standard
moreover, in this case if each user wants to criteria to measure performance as different authors
communicate with each other user of the same have different opinions. Quantum cryptography
group then the total no. of key(s) required to does not provide reliable signature scheme for
exchange for whole group can be calculated as authentication and integrity; furthermore, it
follows associates the possibility of man-in-middle attack
and Denial of Service attack. Elliptic Curve
Let “G” is the no. of group members Cryptography is slow in signature verification and
So G = 50 enciphering process than symmetric encryption.
Total Key(s) required for mutual communication of NIST and ISO do not recommend quantum
whole group = G(G-1) / 2 cryptography and elliptic cryptography.
= 50(50-1) / 2 Steganography itself is just process of hiding
= 50(49)/2 information but it cannot provide required security
= 1225 keys objectives and concealing process with image
It means for mutual communication of all group results the large size of message. The critical issue
members; 1225 secret keys will be required to with steganography is the implementation of
exchange and this situation will result extra load on statistical and Radiofrequency methods like
the network. Asymmetric scheme is 100 times Measurement and Signature intelligence (MASINT)
slower than symmetric one [23]. It deals with large to realize the inter–bit delays for cracking the
key(s) and involvement of third trusted party which information.
may be risky from country to country
communication due to spy attacks or political 4. Latest Trends and Analysis
reasons. Issuing and renewing of certificate requires Symmetric scheme associates probability of
cost and extra penalty of time consumption. In case happening many things for the cracker where the
of large data it is not feasible due to laziness of asymmetric scheme is based on factorization of
encrypting process that requires more Random large no. with large mathematical functions but it
Access Memory (RAM) and electric power. can be determined mathematically that means
Certification Authority behaves like a central server asymmetric technique is just increasing the
so the central point of failure is another notable processing time but lacked to confuse the cracker
issue that may leads the situation to large penalty of with randomness. A study [6] conducted in 2007
waiting time due to load or failure. Furthermore, the that claims; the practical encryption scheme should
increasing demand of public key cryptosystem is be probabilistic like symmetric encryption rather
creating problem for managing and storing of large than deterministic scheme like a symmetric
no. of certificates. Natural disasters, security threats encryption. In 2009, Perlner. R. A. and Cooper. D.
and vulnerabilities may lead the Certification A. said, there is no particular need to replace
Authority to a critical situation. It means sufficient symmetric encryption with quantum cryptographic
backup and enhanced security plans are required for methods [24]. In 2007 study [25] reported that the
central point authority. International Standard Organization ISO 9564-1
Origin authentication is necessary for security and recommends that the minimum key length for
this objective can be achieved with digital signature symmetric scheme should be 112 bits for sufficient
but the minimum key size is 1024 bit [3] for digital security. In 2008, Cryptographic Key Injection
signature that is the greatest hurdle in processing Facility: Auditor’s Guide Version 1.0 reported the
speed. Hash functions are fast in processing but following key lengths for following cryptographic
hash function did not provide origin authentication algorithms as shown in Table 6.
[7]. Message authentication codes are quite fast and Table 6: Minimum Key lengths
based on symmetric key, so these are required to Cryptographic Schemes Minimum Key Length
share and agreed on single key as a prerequisite of Symmetric Cipher (DES) 112 bits
encryption; moreover, key is small as compared to Asymmetric Elliptic 160 bits
public key that makes the user unconfident due to Cryptography
large computation power processors that can act in Asymmetric RSA and 1024 bits
distributed fashion with parallelism to break the DSA
security of small length key.
Studies [25] and [26] reported that National Institute of Standard and Technology (SP800-57, NIST [2005a])
recommends the follow key sizes as summarized in Table 7.
Table 7: Minimum Recommend Key Length by NIST and ISO
Cryptographic Schemes Minimum Key lengths Year Practical Attacks
(2DEA) 80 bits 2007- 2010 Sound assumption of practical Attack is reported
Symmetric Cipher 112 bits Up to 2030 No practical attack is reported yet.

www.IJCSI.org 147
(3DES) 128 bits Beyond 2030 No practical attack is reported yet.

Asymmetric Cipher 1024 bits 2007- 2010 No practical attack is reported yet.
2048 bits Up to 2030 No practical attack is reported yet.
3072 bits Beyond 2030 No practical attack is reported yet.
Elliptic Curve 160 bits 2007 -2010 No practical attack is reported yet.
Cryptography 224 bits Up to 2030 No practical attack is reported yet.
256 Beyond 2030 No practical attack is reported yet.
In the light of above discussion and analysis it is 4. Nature of data: Nature of data means the
clear that Public key cryptography is not feasible in communicating information is how much
case large data. For asymmetric encryption Large confidential or important. If the information is
key(s) are based on complex factorization where the small in size and not too much important; then
diversified situation with large factorization is that any encryption scheme is suitable. If information
663 bits and 911 bits composite number has been is highly secret or important then joint hybrid
practically factorized in 2005 and 2006 respectively combination of symmetric + asymmetric scheme
[25]. NIST supports the use of symmetric will be suitable.
encryption scheme DES and AES up to 2030 as 5. Type of Data: In case of video data the privacy
mentioned in NIST stranded (SP800-57, 2005a). is more valuable and considerable constraint. If
Still symmetric and asymmetric schemes are latest the data is small and in video format the previous
trends and most widely used in all over the world. described constrains (Time, memory, security)
Key size should be optimal which means not too suggest the use of asymmetric scheme but this
long but not too small because large key creates selection is not sufficient because the third party
problems for small computing devices having low especially in case of Identity based Public Key
memory and extra ordinary small key is not Cryptography (ID-PKC) can view the video clip
sufficient for brute force attacks. Our analysis as they have all information (key(s), encrypted
founds that the data block length should not be data). So in this case the privacy is nothing.
fixed; it should be more than 64 bits long in such a That’s why the type of data constraint is highly
way some blocks length should be more than 128 important constraint which should not be
bits long but should be less than 512 bits long for neglected in case of right selection of
creating difficulties for cracker at the time of block cryptographic scheme. If data type is
matching. This objective requires change in the confidential multimedia (personal video clip)
structure of cryptographic algorithms. then the symmetric scheme is good but hybrid
encryption method (symmetric + asymmetric)
4.1 Selection of Right Cryptographic Scheme can provide all security objectives.
The selection of right cryptographic technique relies 5. Conclusion

on time, memory and security where memory
constraint is highly significant in case of small In the light of all above debate and analysis, this
devices as they have low memory where the time is study suggests the necessity of randomness in both
most important for processing speed [6]. In this key and data blocking to get optimal encryption
paper we introduced two new constraints as security. To select lengthy key means just to
discussed at no. 4 and 5. increase the processing time, wastages of extra
memory and electric power. So selection of
1. Time: How much time will be needed for extended bits key is not a confident verdict to
encrypting and decrypting the data and how achieve optimal performance. Furthermore to
much time is need to fulfill the pre-requisites presume outsized key with complex factorization is
before starting an encryption. not an adequate solution against brute force attack
2. Memory: How much memory will be need especially in the presence of parallelism capabilities
especially in case of small devices like PDAs, of super and quantum computers of current era.
smart cards, RFID tags. Actual need is to revise the structure of
3. Security: Selected encryption scheme should cryptographic algorithms by creating large number
meet the confidentiality, integrity of random probabilities under optimal key length
(authentication, non-repudiation) and (not too long, nor too small). Symmetric scheme is
availability. still a good decision with at least 112 bits key if it is
combined with public key cryptography in such a
According to our opinion, the above selection way, for encrypting the data, algorithm should be
constraints are not enough for the selection of symmetric in nature and for getting complete
sufficient encryption scheme. We introduced two security objectives the key (symmetric secret key)
new worth full constraints in this regard as stated should be exchange under public key infrastructure
below. (PKI) having third trusted party. Therefore, hybrid
encryption scheme (symmetric + asymmetric) can

www.IJCSI.org 148
provide more secure satisfaction against the [8] Nithyanand. R., A Survey on the Evolution of
hypothetical feelings of miss use or spy attempts of Cryptographic Protocols in ePassports,
third party. Too meet this satisfaction we support to University of California – Irvine.
exchange just symmetric secret key under the
[9] Philip. M. and Das. A. (2011), Survey:
involvement of third party by using PKI but the
Image Encryption using Chaotic
encrypted data should be exchanged separately
Cryptography Schemes, IJCA Special Issue
within sender and receiver only as compared to
on “Computational Science - New
Identity based Public Key Cryptography (ID-PKC).
Dimensions & Perspectives” NCCSE, 2011
In this way third party cannot view our data and the
confidentiality of communicated information will [10] Jakimoski, G. and Kocarev L., (2001), Chaos
remain 100%. On the other hand if we use only ID- and Cryptography: Block Encryption Ciphers
PKC to encrypt and exchange small video clip then Based on Chaotic Maps . IEEE Transactions
it does not mean the privacy is there because the on Circuits and Systems: Fundamental
third party can view the personal video clip which Theory and Applications. 48(2): 163-169.
means privacy will be nothing in this case. Our
newly proposed two constrains (nature of data and [11] Mao Y.B. and Chen G. et. al. (2004), A novel
type of data) are really worth full in selection of fast image Encryption scheme based on the
right encryption scheme for proper data. 3D chaotic baker map, International Journal
of Bifurcate Chaos, vol. 14, pp. 3613–3624,
2004.
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www.IJCSI.org 150
Empirical Evaluation of the Proposed eXSCRUM

Model: Results of a Case Study
M. Rizwan Jameel Qureshi
Faculty of Computing and Information Technology,

King Abdul Aziz University,
Ministry of Higher Education,
Jeddah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia P.O.BOX 80221 Jeddah 21589
Abstract followed throughout development cycle. Finalizing

Agile models promote fast development. XP and Scrum are the requirements during early phases may risk the
the most widely used agile models. This paper investigates success of a project. If there is no interaction of client
the phases of XP and Scrum models in order to identify with the development team during the development
their potentials and drawbacks. XP model has certain
of a release/s, vague requirements may be considered
drawbacks, such as not suitable for maintenance projects
and poor performance for medium and large-scale
by the team. This may leads to the failure of a project
development projects. Scrum model has certain limitations, or may maximize the development cost. The
such as lacked in engineering practices. Since, both XP and traditional development methodologies stress on
Scrum models contain good features and strengths but still extensive documentation increasing the burden on
there are improvement possibilities in these models. development teams.
Majority of the software development companies are Due to above mentioned reasons, it is concluded that
reluctant to switch from traditional methodologies to agile traditional software development methodologies
methodologies for development of industrial projects. A cannot cope with the changing environment [2].
fine integration, of software management of the Scrum
Therefore, new development methodologies were
model and engineering practices of XP model, is very much
required to accumulate the strengths and remove the
required to tackle the dynamically changing
limitations of both models. This is achieved by proposing environment and requirements efficiently. Agile
an eXScrum model. The proposed model is validated by development methodologies include best software
conducting a controlled case study. The results of case engineering practices that allows fast delivery of high
study show that the proposed integrated eXScrum model quality software. The development approach is
enriches the potentials of both XP and Scrum models and aligned with customer requirements and company
eliminates their drawbacks. objectives. The requirements and their solutions are
built by collaboration of independent functional
Key Words: XP, Scrum, Sprint, Backlog, Quality teams. Agile software development methodologies
emphasize on direct interaction with the development
1. Introduction team. For the distributed environment, the main
Several researchers have discussed traditional modes of communications involve video
development models during decades [1]. It is difficult conferencing, voice and e-mail.
to have a single common definition for traditional Agile framework is based on iterative software
methodology. A traditional methodology is an development [3]. An independent working module is
explicit way of structuring one’s thinking and actions built after the completion of iteration. According to
[1]. Traditional methodologies are considered as the authors [3], iteration must not consume more than
heavyweight methodologies that are adopted for two weeks to complete a code. Code is tested by a
software development. In fact, traditional quality assurance team. The agile methodologies are
methodologies rely on a sequential series of steps that light weight in nature [4]. Agile methodologies are
include requirements gathering, designing and suitable in changing environments because of new
building the solution, testing and deployment. In practices and principles helping to develop a product
order to define and document, the traditional in short duration. XP model is one the most widely
development methodologies, there is needed to accepted agile models. Though agile XP model have
establish consistent requirements from the start of a several benefits but many software development
project. There are several development companies hesitate to transit from traditional
methodologies that include Waterfall, Spiral Model methodologies to agile XP model [5]. Main strengths
and Unified Process. In conventional software of XP are fast development, cost saving, high
development methodologies, planning is done during satisfaction of client, test driven development
the early stages of development that is strictly resulting in less errors and acceptance of changing
www.IJCSI.org 151
requirements. Following are few main limitations of modeling. The importance of agility in requirement
XP model. XP model: gathering and analysis is discussed in [7]. This
 focuses on code centered approach rather research [8] describes agile techniques of
than design centered; requirement processes and proposed the “re-
 recommends less documentation making it consideration” of electronic documentation of
suitable only for small projects and limiting requirements in a project. A comparative analysis of
the opportunities and advantages of requirement engineering between traditional software
reusability; development methodologies and agile practices is
 suggests to documenting the project after described in [9]. The authors [9] also focused on
coding and this practice is very difficult and advantages provides by the agile practices in
time consuming; requirement engineering that positively impact on the
 lacks in structured reviews that ultimately project velocity. The empirical study describes the
results in lack of quality; agile requirement practices along with the advantages
 Test driven approach is more time and cost as well as challenges [10]. This research [11]
consuming as compared to structured described the advantages of agile requirement
reviews. engineering and explored that how an “intranet”
 teams fully depend upon customer that may project adopt agile practices to save time and cost.
sometime become a cause for the failure of The authors [12,13,14,15,16] discussed the issues
projects. regarding architecture of agile models and their
customization. The weaknesses in documentation
Scrum model is getting popularity from the last few phase of agile models are discussed to provide
years. Main strength of the Scrum model is high solutions [17,18,19,20,21]. These papers
project management capability and its main [22,23,24,25,26] focused on the testing issues using
limitations are summarized as follows. agile practices. Many researchers [27,28, 29,30]
 Scrum is a combination of generic project provide comparative analysis between agile software
models and their customization like:
management practices and lacked in system
development life cycle (SDLC) phases about  experience of XP practices wrapped up with
engineering of a software Scrum model;
 As compared to XP model, Scrum demands  experience of satisfying the requirement of
high quality professionals to build scrum CMM level 2 and ISO 9001 with the
team combination of XP and Scrum models;
 Scrum lacks in the team activities to  experience of research context in building
complete iterations in contrast to XP that has the agile software development group.
pair programming, continuous integration
and automated builds. Next section describes the motivation for the
 Lack of unit testing in SCRUM could lead to eXScrum model to be proposed.
project failure.
3. Motivation Towards eXScrum Model
Further paper is arranged as follows. A comparison of XP and SCRUM is provided in
Section 2 focuses on the related work. Section 3 deals Table 1. The comparison is based on the quality
with the motivation towards the eXScrum. Section 4 parameters of agile practices and their level of
proposes a new eXScrum model. Section 5 presents availability in both models.
validation of the proposed new eXScrum model using Table 1: A Comparison of XP and Scrum
a case study. Quality Parameter XP Scrum
2. Related Work Engineering practices Yes No

A lot of research work has been done on agile
development to explore and customize its practices Project management No Yes
since 2001. The main objectives of research are the practices
issues raised during the implementation of phases and
relevant agile principles and methods to be practiced. Accept changes in Yes No
The authors [6] describe “knowledge engineering”, a iteration at any time
new approach of requirement analysis. This paper [7]
focuses on the importance of understanding the Requirement Yes No
requirements rather than jumping on the design and
www.IJCSI.org 152
prioritization complete product development cycle without

affecting the Scrum framework. All the engineering
Refactoring Yes No practices of the XP model exist in Sprint cycle of the
Scrum model. Each phase of eXScrum model is
Pair programming Yes No shown in figure 1. Sprint zero is used before the start
of the scrum development process. It is basically pre
Project size Small to Medium to Scrum activity but in ordinary Scrum process, no
medium high clear guidelines or steps are defined. The Scrum
model starts from product backlog. The proposed
Test driven Yes No eXScrum process provides complete steps of the
development sprint zero. The process starts with the creation of
product attributes and end resultant is product
Self organization No Yes backlog. The proposed eXScrum model starts with
product attributes which is much similar with user
Unit testing Yes No stories by the customer. Product attributes include
salient features of a new product as required by the
Design approach Code centered Design product master. Each item of the product attribute
centered covers certain objectives as per client needs. Product
attributes includes definitions of customer
Documentation level Less more requirements that allows development team to
produce a reasonable estimate of the effort during the
Team size <10 <10 and
implementation. Product attributes become part of the
multiple product backlog after going through the processes of
teams estimation and prioritization.
The selected product attributes are estimated on the
Code style Clean and Not specified
basis of effort required to build and implementing
simple these attributes. The product attributes should be
focused on user needs and benefits as opposed to
Technology Quick feed back Not specified
specifying GUI layouts. The design focuses the
Environment current requirements. The formats of the design
followed keep it simple (KIS) principle. In the
Physical Environment Co-located and Not specified
designing phase, two types of diagrams are
limited
developed. These diagrams include class diagrams
distribution and object diagram. The class diagram is used to
develop interfaces (front end), whereas object
Business culture Collaborative Not specified
diagram helps in building database (back end). Test
and cooperative classes are also designed. The real development of
the product is done during this phase. The process of
Project size Small to Medium to
coding requires coding standards, code ownership,
medium high
pair programming and continuous integration.
Coding process needs continuous testing and
Business culture Collaborative Not specified
refactoring. Code is tested frequently through unit
and cooperative
tests. Each feature/attribute of the product is
designed, implemented and tested individually with
in the sprint development cycle. As a new code
Table 1 shows the main limitations of both XP and passes through testing, it is integrated to system. This
Scrum models. There is a desperate need of fusing process continues until the whole system is built. The
the both XP and Scrum models to remove their process of continuous integration helps in reducing
shortcomings to solve the industry problem in major. implementation risks. Continuous integration ensures
that working module is available to use with new
4. The Proposed eXScrum Model features. Scrum Meeting is conducted before start of
The proposed eXScrum model is an improved the work daily. The duration of this meeting is 15
paradigm enriching with complete project minutes. The main participants of this meeting are
management and engineering practices of both Scrum scrum master, product owner and development team.
and XP models. The main characteristic of the
proposed eXScrum process model is that it provides a
www.IJCSI.org 153
Sprint Zero
Prioritization
------ ------
------ ------
- -
------
-------
---------
------ ------
------ ------
Product Backlog
- -
------
Estimated Product
-------
---------
Attributes ------
Estimation -------
---------
Sprint
Planning
Incomplete Backlog
------
------
-
Product ------
------
Attributes
------ -
------
-
------
New
------ ------
- -------
------ ---------
------
-
Attributes Sprint Tasks
Sprint Backlog ------
-------
---------
------
-------
---------
Daily Scrum
Design
Sprint
Retrospective
Coding
Plan Sprint
Development cycle
Sprint
Review Testing
Integration
Product
Increment
Sprint Release
Fig. 1 The Proposed eXScrum Model

www.IJCSI.org 154
After the completion of sprint iteration, the working Project Duration 5 weeks
set of the product is released. This part of the product Iterations 4
is presented in sprint review meeting. All stake
holders are invited in the sprint review meeting. After Team size 5 members
the successful completion of all product increments, Programming Approach Object Oriented
the whole product is launched with its full features.
At the end of each sprint, sprint review meeting is Feed back Daily Feedback Require
conducted in which results of the new deliverable are Language Java
provided to stakeholders. The purpose of Sprint
review meeting is to ensure whether the required Development Net Beans 6.9
goals are achieved or not. The approval of the Environment
product increment depends upon the extent of the
Documents Ms Office XP
customer satisfaction.
The product owner is participated throughout the Other Tools Rational Rose
sprint development cycle of eXScrum model to
Testing J-Unit
achieve high level of customer satisfaction. The
decision about next sprint backlog prioritization is Reports IReport
taken in this meeting. The working of the product
increment release is closely watched by all the Web Server Apache Tomcat
stakeholders during the sprint review meeting. Any
change or new suggestion, rises during sprint review
meeting, becomes the part of sprint retrospective. The main Scrum practices introduced to the team are
The items of sprint retrospective become the part of sprint zero, product backlog, sprint backlog, sprint
next sprint. Sprint retrospective helps a team to be planning meetings, daily scrum meeting, sprint
more successful to complete the next sprint. Only review meeting, and sprint retrospective. The main
those items are considered in backlogs that do not XP practices introduced to team during training are
disturb the normal working of the product increment. simple design, collective, pair programming,
Although this process limits the working of product following coding standards, continuous testing,
increment but it allows the opportunity to deliver a continuous integration and refactoring. Main tools
successful product increment at the end of each used during the case study project are Rational Rose,
sprint. Net Beans, My SQL, J-Unit, and IReport.
5. Validation of the Proposed Model 5.1 Empirical Analysis of the Case Study
The proposed eXScrum model is validated by The data is collected from four sprint releases. The
conducting a case study to develop a payroll collected data is represented in Table 3. All the
application for COMSATS Institute of information columns represent cumulative/average data about
Technology Lahore, Pakistan. Manger account releases of the case study while all the rows represent
initiates the request for the development of Payroll data of a particular attribute of the case study.
Management System. A team was selected The first release (row one in the Table 3) was
comprising of 6 members. The duration of project completed in two weeks time, whereas each of
was five weeks. The description of case study project remaining three releases took one week duration. The
is provided in Table 2. The project was to complete term ‘sprint release’ is used in eXScrum model that
in four iterations. An intensive one week training shows the fact that system was released to actual
program was conducted to educate the team about the customer test.
proposed model, agile XP and Scrum practices and The number of modules (row 2), built during
principles before starting the project practically. development process, are represented in each sprint
release. Total tasks defined in these modules are
represented in row 3. Each release shows number of
Table 2: Description of Case Study
tasks defined in their respective columns. Total work
Characteristics Description
effort (row 4) of the project is remained constant
Product Type Payroll Application throughout all releases. However, the direct hours
Size Medium dedicated to tasks (row 5) was reduced to 353 (h) in
the first the release and in 2nd and 3rd release it was
Project Type Average 150 (h) to 170 (h) respectively, whereas task effort
Type of Case Study Controlled was reduced to 120 (h) in 4th release. Comparing task
effort in percentage form (row 6), it was reduced
www.IJCSI.org 155
from the initial 88% in 1st release to 75-85% in 2nd Test coverage is calculated as number of test LOC
and 3rd releases respectively and was 60 % in 4th per system total LOC. Row 14 represents test
release. This indicates an increase in over-head for coverage in percentage form. The results show that
short development cycles. test coverage varies at each sprint release. The
Total number of interfaces built during the average test coverage as shown in row 13 is 51.81%
development was 48. The number of interfaces for of total LOC that is quite satisfactory. Row 15 shows
the respective releases is represented in row 7. The integration data from the project which is used for
line of code (LOC) of the interfaces in all sprint software configuration management (SCM). The
releases is 16820. Total number of classes built main purpose of software configuration management
during the development process was 71 and line of (SCM) is for tracking and controlling changes in the
code (LOC) of these classes remained 4240 (row 9 & software.
10). Total number of 24 test classes built for testing Rows 16-17 are related to the quality of the system.
purpose having 8335 line of code (LOC). The results show that total defect density of the
The amount of logical lines of code, the team system was relatively low. Post release defects per
produced in a release, is represented in rows 11 and KLOC were 0.431. The defect density was evaluated
12. Team’s productivity (row 13) varied somewhat as quite satisfactory that gives an indication of
from 25.05 to 66.36 LOC/hour. quality product.
Table 3: Exploratory Data from all Sprint Releases
ID Item Release 1 Release 2 Release 3 Release 4 Total
1 Calendar Time (weeks) 2 1 1 1 5

2
Number of Modules (Items Sprint backlog) 8 4 5 3 20
3 Total Tasks defined 50 12 14 6 82

4 Total work effort (h) 400 200 200 200 1000
5 Task allocated actual hours 353 150 170 120 793
6 Task allocated actual (%) 88 75 85 60 77
7 Interfaces 30 5 7 6 48
8 Classes 54 7 7 3 71
9 Test Classes 14 4 5 7 30
10 Test Classes LOC 11518 1780 2296 4182 19776
11
Total LOC
21036 3758 4365 7963 37122
12
Total KLOC
21.036 3.758 4.365 7.963 37.122
13 Team Productivity (LOC/h) 59.59 25.05 25.68 66.36 46.81
14 Test Coverage (%) 54.75 47.37 52.60 52.52 51.81
15 Number of Integration 40 22 30 20 112

16 Post release defects 7 3 3 3 16
17 Post release defects /KLOC 0.333 0.798 0.687 0.377 0.431

www.IJCSI.org 156
18 Post release suggestions (Sprint Retrospective) 7 5 4 1 17

19 Pair programming % 80% 80% 80% 80% 80%
20 Customer involvement (sprint hrs/5 days (week)) 30% 28% 20% 22% 25%
21 Customer Satisfaction 80% 80% 90% 90% 85%
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www.IJCSI.org 158
Hybrid Fuzzy Direct Cover Algorithm for Synthesis of

Multiple-Valued Logic Functions
Mostafa Abd-El-Barr
Information Science Department, Kuwait University, Safat 13060, P.O. Box 5969, Kuwait
[50]. A number of heuristic algorithms for producing near

Abstract minimal sum-of-products realization of MVL functions
Direct Cover (DC) based techniques for synthesis of have been introduced in the literature [9] [31] [34][36].
multiple-valued logic (MVL) functions have been reported These algorithms can be categorized as direct cover-based
in the literature. In this paper, we propose Fuzzy-based [2][8][10][15], algebraic-based [12][16][18][26][29],
DC algorithm for synthesis of MVL functions. The decomposition-based [1][4]-[7] [12] [25] [35], decision
proposed algorithm uses the principles of Fuzzy Logic in diagram-based [21], [22], [27], [28], [32], and [37], and
selecting the set of minterms and the appropriate set of iterative-based [29]. Among these, the direct cover-based
implicants needed to synthesize a given MVL function. techniques have shown promising results and therefore
The proposed Fuzzified-Direct-Cover (FZDC) heuristic is have received increasing attention by MVL systems
tested in comparison with five other DC-based algorithms designers.
reported in the literature. The benchmark used in our In the context of MVL functional synthesis, the following
comparison consists of 50000 2-variable 4-valued definitions are relevant to present.
randomly generated functions. The basis for comparison is Definition 1: An n -variable r -valued function, f ( X ) ,
the chip area consumed in terms of the average number of
implicants needed to synthesize a given MVL function. It is a mapping f : R  R , where
n
R  0,1,, r  1
is shown that on average the FZDC heuristic requires less is a set of r logic values with r  2 and
number of implicants to synthesize a given MVL function X  x1 , x 2 ,  , x n  is a set of r -valued n variables.
as compared to those required by any of the other five DC-
Definition 2: A window literal of a MVL variable x is
based heuristics.
defined as:
Keywords: Multi-Valued Logic (MVL) synthesis, Heuristic
algorithms, Direct Cover (DC) algorithms, Weighted (r  1) if (a  x  b)
direct cover algorithm (WDC), Ordered DC algorithm
xb  
a
(ODC), Fuzzified-Direct-Cover algorithm (FZDC).

0 otherwise
where a, b  R and a  b .
Definition 3: A tsum (truncated sum) operator is defined
1. Introduction as
 n
Signal processing using multiple-valued logic (MVL) is a1  a2  ...  an if  ai  r 1
carried out using more than two logic levels tsum(a1, a2 ,...,an )  a1  a2  ... an  
i 1
[11][14][17][19]. Successful hardware realization of MVL 
r 1 otherwise
circuits has been reported in the literature. Examples of
MVL circuits reported in the literature using binary
CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor) Where ai  R and  represents the truncated sum
circuits [45]-[47] include arithmetic circuits [24], [39], operation.
[48], and [49], memory (ROM, RAM, and Flash) [38] and Definition 4: The maximum (MAX) of two MVL
[51]-[52], and machine learning [4][7]. variables is defined as:
 x1 if x1  x 2
MAX ( x 1 , x 2 )  
Deterministic synthesis of MVL functions is more
 x2 otherwise
complex than its binary counterpart. Exact minimization
Definition 5: The minimum (MIN) of two MVL variables
of MVL functions is prohibitively expensive and the use
is defined as:
of heuristic algorithms in MVL synthesis is eminent [33],
www.IJCSI.org 159
 x1 if x1  x 2 DC-based heuristics using a benchmarks consisting of

MIN ( x1 , x 2 )   50000 2-variable 4-valued randomly generated functions
 x2 otherwise
are presented in Section 4. In Section 5, we show a case
A functionally complete set of operators is the set capable study for the application of both the introduced and the
of realizing all possible functions. A number of related heuristics. The presented case study is that for a 1-
functionally complete sets have been used in synthesizing bit 4-valued adder block. Concluding remarks are drawn
MVL functions. In terms of the set of MVL operators in Section 6.
discussed above, the set consisting of {Literal, MIN,
TSUM, Constant} is used in this paper. This document is set in 10-point Times New Roman. If
Definition 6: A product term (PT), P ( x1 , x 2 ,..., x n ) , is absolutely necessary, we suggest the use of condensed line
defined as the minimum of a set of window literals such spacing rather than smaller point sizes. Some technical
that formatting software print mathematical formulas in italic
a1 ,b1 a2 ,b2 an ,bn a1 ,b1 a2 ,b2 an ,bn type, with subscripts and superscripts in a slightly smaller
P( x1 , x2 ,..., xn )  c  x1 , x2 ,..., xn  min(c, x1 , x2 ,..., xn ) font size. This is acceptable.
with ai ,biR, ai ≤ bi and c (the value of the PT)  {1,2,…,
r-1}.
Definition 7: An assignment of values to variables such
2. Related Work
that x1  a1 , x 2  a 2  ..., x n  a n , where ai {0, 1, …, In this section, we briefly cover the related work published
r-1}, in an MVL function f ( x1 , x 2 ,..., x n ) is called a in the literature.
minterm, iff: f ( x1 , x 2 ,..., x n ) ≠ 0. 2.1 The Direct Cover Algorithm

A minterm is a special case of a PT for
which a1  b1 , a 2  b2  ..., a n  bn . If the value of a The Direct Cover (DC) techniques for synthesis of MVL
functions consist of the following main steps:
minterm is r, then it is considered as don’t care and is 1. Choose a minterm (see Definition 7),
represented as d. 2. Identify a suitable implicant (see Definition 8) that
Definition 8: An implicant of a covers the chosen minterm,
function f ( x1 , x 2 ,..., x n ) , is a PT, I ( x1 , x 2 ,..., x n ) , 3. Obtain a reduced function by subtracting the identified
such that f ( x1 , x 2 ,..., x n ) ≥ I ( x1 , x 2 ,..., x n ) for all implicant from the (remaining part of the) function, and
4. Repeat steps 1 to 3 until no more minterms remain
assignments of xi’s. uncovered.
The method used in the selection of minterms and
Fig. 1 shows an example of a 2-varaible 4-valued function. implicants is crucial in obtaining reduced number of
Some of the minterms in the figure are 10X103X23, product terms to cover a given function. The Direct Cover
20X101X21 and 30X102X22 while 20X111X21and approaches reported in the literature differ in the way
20X111X22 are examples for implicants. minterms are selected and the way according to which
implicants are identified. Different minterm selection
metrics have been reported in the literature. These include
using the Isolation Weight (IW) [3] as a measure of the
degree to which other minterms cluster around a given
minterm, the Isolation Factor (IF) [10] which measures the
number of directions in which a given minterm can be
combined with a nonzero number of other minterms, and
the Clustering Factor (CFN) [8] which measures the
number of minterms that are connected to a given
minterm. Similarly, a number of metrics were used in
selecting the appropriate implicant to cover a given
Fig. 1. A Tabular Representation of f(X1, X2). minterm. These include the Largest Number of Minterms
Reduced to Zero (LRZ) [3] [15] which counts the number
The paper is organized as follows. In Section 2, we briefly of 0 (or don’t care) that resulted from removing the
present related published work. In Section 3 we introduce selected implicant from the given MVL function, the
the hybrid Fuzzy based Direct Cover heuristic (FZDC). Relative Break Count (RBC) [10] which a measure of the
The results obtained using the proposed and the related degree to which a function is simplified if a specific
www.IJCSI.org 160
implicant is chosen, and the Neighborhood Relative Count 23 33 33 23 02 11 11 02 01 22 22 01 00 33 33 00

(NRC) [8] which measures the degree of the strength to Si (xi, yi)  1.  xi  yi 1.  xi  yi 1.  xi  yi 1.  xi  yi 2 xi  yi 2.  xi  yi 3.  xi  yi 3.  xi  yi
which a given implicant couples with its neighbors.
A benchmark consisting of 50000 randomly generated 4-
It should be noted that there is no general agreement on valued 2-variable functions has been used to test the
which set of criteria is the best to use for a given MVL performance of the WDC. It was found that the (best)
function. An analysis of a limited subset of the different average number of product terms required to cover a given
suggested criteria has been reported in [23]. Considering 4-valued 2-variable function is 7.24914. More details
the different minterm/implicant selection criteria, it is about the obtained results are included in Section 4, in
possible to combine all metrics to create a new selection which we hold a comparison between the DC-based
criterion. One possible way to achieve this is by using the heuristics.
weighted sum approach. However, the different scale and xi yi
1 2 3
behavior of each criterion makes it difficult to determine 0
the perfect weights for each objective and the perfect way 0 0 1 2 3
1 1 2 3 0
of aggregating these into a single function. We have 2 2 3 0 1
reported in the literature two approaches to deal with such 3 3 0 1 2
issue. These are the weighted DC-based (WDC) and the
Fig. 2. The SUM output S i of a 1-bit 4-valued adder block
Ordered DC-based (ODC) heuristic algorithms [53]. These
are briefly covered below.
2.2 The Ordered Direct Cover (ODC) [53]
2.2 The Weighted Direct Cover (WDC) [53] We have observed that different ordering of the Minterm
and the Implicant criteria can result in different number of
In the WDC, the term weight pattern is used to specify the product terms for a given MVL function. Hence, in the
weight for each selection criterion. Assuming 4-valued ODC the ordering of the selection criteria for both
logic, we assume that the weight should be integer in the minterm and implicant selection is taken into
set {0, 1, 2, 3}. Consider the minterm selection process. In consideration while synthesizing a given MVL function.
this case, a weight pattern of (112) means that the It should be noted that the minterm selection criteria are:
following weights are used: wCF =1, wCFN =1, and wIW =2. Smallest CF, Smallest CFN, and Smallest IW. The
The number of different weight patterns for minterms (CF, implicant selection criteria are: Smallest RBC, Smallest
CFN and IW) combined with the different weight patterns NRC, and Largest LRZ. A number of different orderings
for implicants (LRZ, RBC, and NRC) is calculated of these criteria have been experimented with using the
as 4 6  4096 . We have shown in [53] that it is possible to same benchmark consisting of 50000 randomly generated
reduce the number of weight combinations to 4-valued 2-variable functions. It was found that the
( 24 ) 2  576 . It has also been shown in [53] that the best following criteria ordering: minterm selection: Smallest
weighted combination of criteria is as follows: IW; implicant selection: Smallest RBC followed by
(a) Minterm Selection: Largest LRZ.
wCF  0 , wCFN  1, w IW  2 , weight pattern (012) Example 2: We have applied the ODC in synthesizing the
(b) Implicant Selection: SUM output function of the 1-bit 4-valued adder building
block (as explained in Example 1 above). The total
wRBC  1, w
NRC  0, W LRZ 0 , weight patter (100).
number of implicants needed to synthesize the SUM
function is eight (the same as in the case of the WDC).
Using the patterns the patterns shown above, a combined This is shown below using the MVL operators introduced
weight patter is written shortly as 012-100. in Section 1.
Example 1: Consider the SUM output function of the 1- 33 23 23 33 11 02 02 11 22 01 01 22 33 00 00 33
bit 4-valued adder building block. This building block Si (xi , yi )  1.  x i  yi 1.  x i  yi 1.  x i  yi 1.  x i  yi  2  x i  yi  2.  x i  yi  3.  x i  yi  3.  x i  yi
receives two 4-valued inputs x i and y i and produces two The same benchmark consisting of 50000 randomly
outputs S i and C i . The SUM output S i is given by the generated 4-valued 2-variable functions which has been
table shown in Fig. 2. We have used the WDC algorithm used in the case of WDC has been used to test the
to synthesis the SUM function. The total number of performance of the ODC. It was found that the (best)
implicants needed to synthesize the SUM function is eight. average number of product terms required to cover a given
This is shown below using the MVL operators introduced 4-valued 2-variable function is 7.20234. This is somewhat
in Section 1. better than the results obtained using the WDC.
www.IJCSI.org 161
More details about the obtained results are included in two fuzzy sets A and B are expressed in the following
Section 4, in which we hold a comparison between the equations.
DC-based heuristics.  ( x )    Max (  A ,  B )  (1   ) 
1
( A   B )
A B
2
3. Fuzzy based Direct Cover Algorithm  ( x )    Min (  ,
1
)  (1   )  (  A   B )
A B A B
2
In DC-based algorithms, the implicants that should be In the above equations  represents the membership value
included in the final synthesis of the given function are the in a fuzzy function;  [0, 1] is a constant parameter,
ones that best cover the chosen set of minterms and such which represents the degree to which the OWA operator
that all minterms are covered. The selection of a minterm resembles the pure ‘‘OR’’ or pure ‘‘AND’’, respectively.
is based on the quality of its CF, CFN, IW or a Our proposed Fuzzy-based Direct Cover (FZDC)
combination thereof. We observe that such condition can algorithm employs fuzzy rules (along with preferences) to
be translated into a Fuzzy Logic Rule of the form: select the best set of minterm and the most appropriate
implicant covering each such that the whole function is
IF a given minterm has a good CF criterion OR a good covered. The goodness of a minterm (implicant) is
CFN criterion OR a good IW criterion, THEN it is a examined using the abovementioned fuzzy rules and
potential minterm to select. preferences. Looking at these rules, it is easy to deduce
that we can use the ‘OR-‘like operator to aggregate all
If a designer wants to emphasize a given criterion he/she decision criteria. Tables 1 shows the mathematical
will have to use a set of Preference Rules in order to give formulae we introduced for each membership function in
more significance to that particular criterion. In order to the minterm selection. Table 2 shows the same for
formulate the (PRs), preference terms need to be defined. implicant selection.
These terms will be associated with the main linguistic
terms. In the fuzzy rules, the linguistic terms ‘‘low’’, Table 1: Membership functions in Min terms selection.
‘‘high’’, and ‘‘good’’ have been used. A number of Minterm Selection
approaches to find preference terms and preference rules Technique Criterion Our Formulated Membership Function
based on Membership Functions has been reported in the DM [10] CF 1 if CF  0

literature [20][40][41][43][44]. These approaches map a  Max CF  CF
μ CF   if 0  CF  Max CF
PR relation P to a fuzzy membership function P in the 
0
Max CF
 if other wise
range [0, 1] with ‘1(0)’ means the criterion is definitely
preferred (not preferred). ND [8] CFN 1 if CFN 0

MaxCFN CFN
μCFN   if0  CFN  MaxCFN
There are two basic types of fuzzy operators. The  MaxCFN
operators for the intersection, interpreted as the logical 0 otherwise

“AND", and the operators for the union, interpreted as the
BS [3] IW 1
if IW  MinIW
logical “OR" of fuzzy sets. The intersection operators are 

 Max
known as triangular norms (t-norms), and union operator IW   IW  IW if MinIW  IW  MaxIW
 MaxIW  MinIW
as triangular co-norms (t-co-norms or s-norms). In multi 

criteria decision problem, such as ours, this translates to 0

otherwise
two extremes which lead to the formation of overall

functions. One extreme is the case requiring all criteria to Table 2: Membership functions in implicant selection.
be satisfied, which leads to the pure-AND-ing operation. Implicant Selection
On the other hand, when it is required to satisfy any of the Technique Criterion Our Formulated Membership Function
criteria, the pure OR-ing operation is used. The DM [10] RBC 1
 if RBC  MinRBC

formulation of multi criterion decision functions neither  MAXRBC  RBC
 RBC   if MINRBC  RBC  MaxRBC
 MaxRBC  MinRBC
requires the pure “AND-ing" of t-norm nor the pure “OR- 
0 otherwise
ing" of s-norm. The reason for this is the complete lack of 
compensation of t-norm for any partial fulfillment and ND [8] NRC 1

 if NRC  MinNRC

complete submission of s-norm to fulfillment of any  MAXNRC  NRC
NRC   if MINNRC  NRC  MaxNRC
criteria.The use of ordered weighted averaging OWA  MaxNRC  MinNRC

operator has been used by a number of researchers in the 
0
otherwise
solution of multi-objective problems [42]. The OWA BS [3] LRZ 1 if LRZ  Max LRZ

category of operators allows easy adjustment of the degree 
 LRZ
 LRZ   if 0  LRZ  Max LRZ
of ‘‘ANDing’’ and ‘‘ORing’’ embedded in the  Max LRZ

aggregation. The ‘‘OR-like’’ and ‘‘AND-like’’ OWA for  0
otherwise
www.IJCSI.org 162
Efficiency of the proposed fuzzy selection process is 2. implicant selection process

influenced by the value of  in OWA operator (see the PL2a. RBC is strongly preferred as compared to other
 equations above). In order to assess such influence, we criteria
PL2b. LRZ is slightly preferred as compared to NRC
have experimented with the effect of  on the results As can be seen, the preference rules for implicant’s
obtained using the FZDC algorithm. Table 3 summarizes selection are consistent in both WDC and ODC. However,
such effect in terms of the average number of product this is not the case with minterm’s selection. Although we
terms needed to synthesize a given function from the can also deduce a general rule that IW is the strongly
50000 benchmark functions. preferred criterion from PM1a and PM2b, there is some
inconsistency in PM1b, PM1c and PM2b. However, since
Table 3: Effect of 
results of ODC are superior to those of WDC, we will use
 0.2 0.5 0.8 0.9
the preference rules deduced from ODC experiments.
Table 4 shows the fuzzy preference used for the first
# PT 7.19526 7.1945 7.19358 7.1945
experiment. It should be noted that we have used  = 0.5
for the OWA operator in the obtaining the results reported
in Table 4.
In addition to the impact of  there is also the impact of
the fuzzy preference rules. Since there are three criteria for Table 4: Fuzzy preference for minterm and implicant criteria
each of the minterm and implicant selection, there will be Minterm Implicant
additional 6 parameters that need to be fine tuned to get
Criteria Fuzzy Preference Criteria Fuzzy Preference
the best performance of the algorithm. In order to obtain
the best result using the proposed fuzzy-based selection IW 0.9 RBC 0.9
criteria, the following set of experiments are conducted: CF 0.2 LRZ 0.2
1. Experiments with different fuzzy operators CFN 0.1 NRC 0.1
2. Experiments with different parameter values in the
fuzzy operators
For the first experiment, the following fuzzy operators are Using the abovementioned fuzzy preferences, we tested
used: the proposed fuzzy selection criteria against the 50000
1. Max operator randomly generated 4-valued 2-variable benchmark MVL
2. Max operator with fuzzy preference rules functions. Five different fuzzy operators are used for this
3. The Ordered Weighted Averaging (OWA) operator purpose. Table 5 shows the results of the experiment.
4. OWA operator with fuzzy preference rules
Table 5: Performance of different fuzzy operators in FZDC.
5. Weighted Averaging (using fuzzy preference as the Operator # PT No CMV # PT With CMV
weight) Max 8.55136 8.03014
The fuzzy preference rules can be obtained by looking at Max with pref. 7.30344 7.21964
the results of WDC and ODC algorithms. Using the OWA 7.38226 7.28898
information obtained from our work on these two OWA with pref. 7.27186 7.19450
approaches, we adopted some general rules: Weighted average 7.30646 7.19784
(A) According to the WDC:
1. minterm selection process It should be noted that we list the results obtained in two
PM1a. IW is preferred as compared to other criteria cases: not considering minterm values in any order (No
PM1b. Either IW or CFN is preferred as compared to CMV) and taking minterm values in ascending orders;
CF lower to higher values (With CMV). The results show that
PM1c. If CF is preferred more than IW, then the taking the minterm value into consideration while
preference of CFN should be greater than or equal selecting the next minterm to cover produces on average
to that of CF. better results in terms of the average number of implicants
2. implicant selection process needed to cover a given MVL function. This can be
PL1a. RBC is strongly preferred as compared to other attributed to the use of the tsum operator as a connecting
criteria operator for the obtained implicants. This result is
PL1b. LRZ is slightly preferred as compared to NRC consistent with the observation made in [10].
(B) According to the ODC: Example 3: We have applied the FZDC in synthesizing
1. minterm selection process the SUM output function of the 1-bit 4-valued adder
PM2a. IW is strongly preferred as compared to other building block (as explained in Example 2 above). The
criteria total number of implicants needed to synthesize the SUM
PM2b. CF is slightly preferred as compared to CFN function is eight (the same as in the case of the ODC).
www.IJCSI.org 163
This is shown below using the MVL operators introduced generated. The average number of Product Terms (PTs)
in Section 1. required to synthesis the functions in each category are
23 33 33 23 02 11 11 02 01 22 22 01 00 33 33 00
Si (xi, yi ) 1. xi yi 1. xi yi1. xi yi 1. xi yi2 xi yi 2. xi yi 3. xi yi 3. xi yi
listed in Table 7.
In addition, we have also applied the three reported DC Table 6: Overall Comparison among different algorithms
algorithms, i.e. ARM, BS, and MD in synthesizing the Algorithm Average Number of Product Terms needed
SUM output function of the 1-bit 4-valued adder block.
ARM [15] 7.89012
The results obtained are shown below.
Example 4: The results obtained in the case of ARM [15] BS [3] 7.93882
DM [10] 7.24786
Si ( xi , yi )  13X132X22  11X120X20  10X111X21  12X123X23  WDC [53] 7.24914
20X102X22  12X130X20  23X133X23  11X111X22  23X130X20 
ODC [53] 7.20234
32X121X21  21X112X22  30X103X23
FZDC 7.19422
Example 5: The results obtained in the case of BS [3]
Table 7: Average # PTs using MVL Functions having Different Number
Si ( xi , yi )  13X132X23  12X133X23  10X101X23  10X102X22  of Minterms
11X130X20  12X120X20  21X111X22  32X121X21  23X130X20 
#Minterms/ ARM BS DM ODC WDC FZDC
20X103X23  11X112X22 #Fuctions [15] [3] [10] [53] [53]
16/500 7.594 7.562 7.002 7.086 7.01 6.946
15/2679 8.295 8.307 7.51 7.481 7.501 7.423
Example 6: The results obtained in the case of DM [10] 14/6589 8.355 8.405 7.569 7.516 7.559 7.500
13/10585 8.275 8.352 7.541 7.491 7.545 7.484
Si ( xi , yi )  12X133X23  13X132X23  10X121X21  11X110X22  12/11230 8.049 8.098 7.382 7.33 7.383 7.320
20X112X22  22X120X21  30X103X23  33X130X20 11/9003 7.707 7.757 7.129 7.086 7.134 7.087
10/5434 7.323 7.366 6.831 6.787 6.837 6.794
9/2575 6.871 6.879 6.473 6.436 6.479 6.444
As can be seen synthesis of the SUM output function of 8/1038 6.309 6.322 6.023 5.978 6.022 5.981
the 1-bit 4-valued adder using the ARM [15] requires 11 7/277 5.726 5.751 5.527 5.484 5.523 5.505
PTs as compared to 8 PTs if the FZDC is used (a saving of 6/75 5.133 5.147 4.973 4.96 4.987 4.960
50%) while synthesis of the same function using the BS 5/13 4 4 4 3.923 4 4
[3] requires 11 PTs as compared to 8 PTs using the FZDC 4/1 4 4 4 4 4 4
3/1 3 3 3 3 3 3
(a saving of 37.5%). It is only in the case of DM [10] that
the same number of PTs will be needed as in the case of
The results shown in Table 7 reveal that the proposed
the FZDC. A number of other experiments were
FZDC algorithm performs better than the other DC-based
conducted in order to further assess the performance of the
algorithms in each category of functions within the 50000
FZDC. These are explained below.
benchmark.
In order to analyze further the results obtained, we have
4. Comparison
computed the maximum percentage improvement
achieved by the FZDC algorithm with respect to any of the
In order to assess the performance of the proposed FZDC
other DC-based algorithm. Table 8 provides such
algorithm with respect to the performance of existing DC-
information. From Table 8 we can see that the maximum
based techniques, we have tested the five DC-based
percentage of improvement achieved over all DC-based
algorithms (ARM [15], BS [3], DM [10], WDC [53], and
techniques is 12.0667 and this is achieved in 6589
ODC [53]) as well as the proposed FZDC algorithm using
functions out of the 50000 (about 13.2% of the benchmark
the set of benchmark consisting of 50000 4-valued 2-
functions).
variable randomly generated functions. The criterion used
for assessing these algorithms is the average number of
Furthermore, we have categorized in Table 9 the
implicants required to cover a given function. The results
improvement achieved by the proposed FZDC.
obtained are shown in Table 6.
The results shown in Table 9 reveal that for about 62%
As can be seen from Table 6 the proposed FZDC
(31083 functions) of the 50000 benchmark functions
algorithm performs on average better than the other five
improvement greater than or equal to 10% have been
DC-based algorithms. For more insight into the obtained
achieved using FZDC. For about 37% (18550 functions)
results, we report in Table 7 the constituents of the 50000
of the 50000 benchmark functions improvement between
4-valued 2-variable functions benchmark classified
5% and 10% has been achieved. This indicated that for
according to the number of minterms in each function
www.IJCSI.org 164
99.9 % (49985 functions) of the 50000 benchmark 62% of the benchmark functions). It has also been shown
functions an improvement greater than or equal to 5% that in 49633 functions (about 99% of the benchmark
have been possible with the proposed FZDC algorithm. It functions) an improvement of greater than or equal to 5%
is only in 15 functions out of the 50000 (about 0.003%) is possible using the proposed FZDC algorithm. We have
there has been no improvement. also shown the applicability of the FZDC algorithm in
synthesizing the SUM output of a 1-bit 4-valued adder
Table 8: Maximum improvement achieved by FZDC
circuit. In this later case, it was found that the FZDC
#Functions ARM BS DM FZDC Max.%
[15] [3] [10] Improvement algorithm produces results that are as good as those
500 7.594 7.562 7.002 6.946 9.329 produced by our previously proposed ODC & WDC [53]
2679 8.295 8.307 7.51 7.423 11.909 and the algorithm reported in [10].
6589 8.355 8.405 7.569 7.500 12.067
10585 8.275 8.352 7.541 7.484 11.598 Acknowledgment
11230 8.049 8.098 7.382 7.320 10.628
9003 7.707 7.757 7.129 7.087 9.454 The author would like to acknowledge the contribution
5434 7.323 7.366 6.831 6.794 8.419 made by Mr. Bambang Sarif in an earlier draft of the
2575 6.871 6.879 6.473 6.444 6.750 paper.
1038 6.309 6.322 6.023 5.981 5.701
277 5.726 5.751 5.527 5.505 4.469
75 5.133 5.147 4.973 4.960 3.770 References
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Mostafa Abd-El-Barr (Senior Member of IEEE) has received his

B.Sc. and M.SC. degrees in Electrical Engineering (Computer
Track), Cairo University, Egypt in 1973 and 1979, respectively. He
received his PhD degree in Computer Engineering, University of
Toronto, Ontario, Canada in 1986. In July 1986 he joined the
faculty of the Department of Computer Science, University of
Saskatchewan (U. of S.), Saskatoon, Canada, where he was
promoted to the rank of full professor in July 1993. He was also an
associate member of the Department of Electrical Engineering, U.
of S. In September 1996, he joined the Department of Computer
Engineering at King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals
(KFUPM), Saudi Arabia as a full professor. In September 2003 he
was appointed as the founding chairman of the Information
Science Department, Kuwait University (KU). In September 2005
he was appointed as the Vice Dean for Academic Affairs, CFW,
KU. He is currently an Adjunct Professor with the Department of
Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Victoria, BC,
Canada. His research interests include Design and Analysis of
Reliable & Fault-Tolerant Computer Systems, Computer Networks
Optimization, Parallel Processing/Algorithms, Information and
Computer Systems Security, Beyond-Binary Logic System Design
& Analysis, VLSI System Design & Algorithms, and Digital
Systems Testing. He is the author and/or co-author of more than
150 scientific papers published in journals and conference
proceedings. He is a certified professional engineer in the
Province of Ontario, Canada.
IJJCSI Internationall Journal of Compu
uter Science Issuess, Vol. 8, Issue 3, No.
N 2, May 2011
ISSSN (Online): 16994-0814
w
www.IJCSI.org 167
Ellipttic curv
ve cryptography-Difffie Helllman ttechniqque
ex
xtended d for m ultiple two pa
arty keeys at a time
1
Van
nkamamidi S. Naresh
N a V.E.S.Murthyy2 and V.V.Naraasimha Rao 3
, Nistala
1
Depa mputer Science, S.V.K.P&Dr.K
artment of Com K.S.Raju Arts&
&Science collegee
Peenugonda,AndhhraPradesh,5344320,India
2
Department of Com
mputer Science & Systems Enggineering, Andh
hra University
Visakhapatnam, Anndhra Pradesh, 530003,India
3
Dep mputer Science & Engineeringg, J.N.T Universsity Kakinada
partment of Com
Ka
akinada, Andhrra Pradesh, 5333003, India
Absttract suggestts that cryptossystems that uutilize numberr derived

Inn recent years elliptic curve cry
yptography (ECC C) is emerging asa from eelliptic curve can be moree secure. As with all
aan alternative to traditional publiic key cryptosysstems(DSA, RSA A, cryptosyystems and especially wiith public-keyy crypto
AAES, etc).ECC offers
o equivalentt security with smaller
s key sizees systemss, it takes yeears of publicc evaluation before a
resulting in fasteer computationss, lower power consumption, as a reasonaable level of confidence in a new syystem is
wwell as memory y and bandwidth h saving. This work
w presents an
a
EExtension of Elliiptic curve Diffiie Hellman techn nique to generatte
establishhed. ECC seem m to have reacched that levell now. In
mmultiple shared keys at a tim me with reduced d Key exchang ge the laast couple oof years, thhe first com mmercial
ooperations (KEO O), for increassing security an nd widening of o implemmentations are aappearing, as toool kits but also in real-
aapplicability. A comparative stu udy between prroposed protoco ol world aapplications, suuch as email security, web security,
aand other crypto systems was madem and satisfacctory results hav
ve smart ccards, etc. The security of EC CC has not beeen proven
bbeen obtained. Also
A an upper bound
b for the number
n of shared but it iss based on the difficulty of ccomputing ellipptic curve
kkeys in terms off the number of exchanged keyss and for a given discretee logarithm in thhe elliptic curvve group
nnumber of shared d keys, the minim mum required number
n of keys to
t
bbe exchanged. Becausee of the rapid increase off popularity of remote
KKeywords: Difffie Hellman, ellipptic curves, multtiple shared keyss, commuunication throuugh unsecuredd channels succh as the
ddiscrete log probblem.
Internett, the use of crryptographic prrotocols to seccure them
increasees.Even thouugh there are many efficient
11. Introducttion cryptossystems currenttly available, ttheir reliabilityy depends
on the keys being ussed, because thhe messages aare easily
In recent years some cryptogrraphic algorithm ms have gained interpreeted when oppponents knoow the secrett values.
ppopularity due tot properties th
hat make them suitable for usse Althouggh this probllem is overcoome by changing the
inn constrained d environmen nt like mobille information n cryptoggraphic keys frrequently, the question is hoow it can
aappliances, where
w computting resourcess and poweer be donee through public communicaation channelss. In fact,
aavailability aree limited. Onee of these crryptosystems is i the abillity to dynamiccally and publlicly establish a session
EElliptic curve which requirees less compu utational powerr, key forr secured com mmunication iis a big challlenge in
mmemory and co ommunication bandwidth com mpared to otheer cryptoggraphy.
ccryptosystem. This
T make the elliptic curve cryptography
c to
ggain wide accceptance as an n alternative to
t conventionaal Althouggh public keyy algorithms prior to commuunication
ccryptosystems (DSA, RSA, AES, A etc). Mu
uch smaller key y may bee used for estaablishing the seession keys, itt requires
leengths are requuired with ECC C to provide a desired level of
o additionnal key exchannge (KEOs) peer session and increases
ssecurity, whicch means faster fa key ex xchange, useer overheaad. In such coonditions, if muultiple shared keys are
aauthentication, signature gen neration and verification, inn exchangged securely aat a time withh comparativeely fewer
aaddition to smaller key storaage needs. Thee terms elliptic KEOs aand if a key oor even multiplle keys are used in the
ccurve cipher an nd elliptic currve cryptography refers to an n same seession, it not onnly eases the eestablishment oof session
eexisting generic cryptosysstem which use numberrs keys, bbut also redduces the keyy exchange overhead
ggenerated from m an elliptic curve. Empiirical evidence significcantly. The saame is implem mented in thee Biswas
N 2, May 2011
w
www.IJCSI.org 168
wwork, where th he generation of multiple twwo-party shared

kkeys and a multiparty key is proposed
p But there are known n RSA/DSA ECC Key length for
ssub exponential algorithms for breaking g RSA, Diffiie Key length Equivalent Seecurity
HHellman based d on modular arithmetic EC CC is importannt
bbecause the mathematician
m s do not (yeet?) have sub b
eexponential alggorithms for breaking
b it, Therefore,
T it is
i 1024 160
bbelieved to be secure with muuch smaller keey size which is
i
2048 224
immportant for performance.
3072 256
EECC is a candidate
c rep
placement forr public key y
ccryptographic schemes like DH, RSA, DSS D etc as ECC 7680 384
ggroups are advvantages becau
use they offerr more security
y
15360 512
thhan other grooups with sm maller key sizzes and fasteer
ccomputation tim
mes.
SSo combining the advantaages of ECC C and Biswaas

wwork[2].We prroposed ECC crypto
c systemss Elliptic curv
ve From thhe table it is vvery clear thatt elliptic curvees offer a
mmultiple key Exchange pro otocol (ECMK KEP) with th he comparrable amount of security offered by thhe other
aaddition operattion in proposeed cryptosysteem as a counteer popularr public key ffor a much sm maller key lenggth. This
ppart of modulaar multiplicatio
on and multiplle addition as a propertyy of ECC hass made the scheme quite poopular of
ccounter part of modular exp ponentiation inn Biswas work k late.
[2]. In this pressent work insteead of exchangging one publiic
kkey as in EC CC-DH, exchan nge m publicc keys between n 2. Cryyptography with elliptiic curves:
tw a B we geneerates 2
wo parties A and 1 shared 2.1 Revview of ECC DH Techniqque:
kkeys in which m keys are called
c base keeys and thesse
kkeys are used d to generattes 2 ‐1‐m keys k which arre First picck a prime num
mber 2 aand elliptic currve
ccalled as extend
d keys . parametters a and b forr equation
11.1 The main advantages of present worrk: y (2)
11. ECC-DH offfers more secu urity than moddular arithmetic This deefines elliptic ggroup of 2 .Next pickk a
DDH with smaller key sizes, leess processing
g overheads and generattor point , ∈ , , whose oorder is a
ffaster computattion times. very larrge value n.
Step 1: A selects an inntegern . This is A’s prrivate key
22. The propo osed techniqu ue reduces not only th he and thenn A generates a public key
ccomputational cost significan
ntly but also thee key exchang
ge
oover heads.
P n G∈ , (3)
33. Depending on
n the applicatio
on and the secu
urity needed, we
w
ccan generate sufficient
s nummber of shared keys N, by y Step 2: B selects an innteger n . This is B 's prrivate
sselecting key andd then B generaates a public keey
|√ 1 / 2 | (1)
P n G∈ , (4)
44. The advantagge of elliptic cu
urve over the other
o public key
y
ssystems such asa RSA, DSA A etc is the key length. Th he Step 3: A and B exchhanges their pubblic keys.
ffollowing tablee [3] summariizes the key length
l of ECC C
bbased systems in
i comparison to other publicc key schemes.. Step 4: A generates thhe secret key
K n P (5)
Table 1: Comp
parison of the key lengths of RSA/D
DSA and ECC
and B ggenerates the ssecret key
K n P . (6)
N 2, May 2011
w
www.IJCSI.org 169
iii. Addding m2-1 basee keys at a tim

me out of m2 bbase keys
TThe two calcullations in step 4 produce thee same result as
a generattes ∁ , 1 shared keyys such as
ffollows.
⋯ ⋯ ⋯
n P n n G
= n n G (14)
= n P (7)
Finally adding all m2 bbase keys geneerates one sharred key.
33. Proposed Protocol:
⋯ ⋯ ⋯
33.1 Elliptic cu
urve multiple shared key Exchange
(15)
PProtocol (ECM MKEP):
11. A selects m private keys for 1

1 i m and
4 Secu
urity of prop
posed techn
nique:
thhen generatess m public keys
The ellliptic curve cryyptosystems w which are baseed on the
P n G ∈ E a, b , for 1 i m (8) EC-DL LP (Elliptic curvrve Discrett logg problem) oveer a finite
field haave some advaantage s over other systems, the key
sizes caan be much ssmaller than thhose in other schemes
22. B selects m private keyss n < n, for 1 i m and since oonly exponentiaal time attacks have been kknown so
TThen generatess m public keyss. far.If thhe curve is careefully chosen aand EC-DLP m might still
intractaable even if faactoring and thhe multiplicativve group
P n G ∈ E a, b ,for 1 i m (9) discretee log turn out tto be tractable problem. The EC-DLP
is definned as follows.
3 .A and B exch
hanges their pu
ublic keys.
4.1 EC
C-DLP (Elliptiic curve Disccrett log probllem):
44. A and B generates their " " base keys as
a follows
Def: LLet E be an elliiptic curve deffined over a finnite field
K n P , for 1 i m1 j m (10) FP andd let p ∈ E(FP ) ,be a point off order n. Givenn Q
E(FP) The Elliptic curve DLP is to find the innteger l,
'
K n P , for 1 i m1 j m (11)
1 l n‐1,∋ Q=l.P
CClearly ,these shared keyss are called as

a 1.Propoosition: two paarty shared keys
, ,…, … , ,…
bbase keys. (base keys)) derived
in thee application of the EC CCDH techniique are
55. Additional shared
s keys can
n be derived by
b adding these indistinnguishable in polynomial time from random
bbase keys in different
d combbinations which
h are called as
a numberrs.
eextended keys
Proof: Since each oof the sharred keys is baasically a
i. Adding two base keys at a time out off m2 base key
ys ECC-DDH style key and for ECC C-DH shared key the
ggenerates ∁ , 2 shared key
ys such as proposiition is true, ouur proposition ffollows.
K=K11+K12
1 (12) 2. Corrollary: The extended 2 ‐1‐m sharred keys
generatted by addinng the baase keys in different
iii .Adding Threee base keys at a time out of m2 base combinnations are alsoo indistinguishaable in polynom
mial time
keys generates ∁ , 3 ) shared
s keys succh as from raandom numberss.
(13)
.................................
………...
………………
………………
………...
N 2, May 2011
w
www.IJCSI.org 170
55. Comparrison betw

ween ECM MKDP and d Table22: Comparative A
Analysis
EECC-DH reepeated m--times and Polynomia

al Interrcha Executionn
TTime Comp
plexity: nge of
N
Number Number Time
Pro of Number
of of complexit
55.1 Comparaative Analysiis between the Proposed d tocol numb ber of
R
Rounds additions y.
of multiple
PProtocol and Elliptic Curv
ve Diffie Helllman (ECDH
H) messsages additionss
RRepeated N Times
T
EC - O 2
F
First observe th
hat 2 1 2(2 1) 2 2( 2 1) NIL
DH (exponenti
i. To generate 2 1 sharedd keys in ECC D-H techniqu
ue al)
itt requires 2 1 roundds and propo osed techniquue
ECM O (m2)
$O
(ECMKEP) req quires single ro
ound 1 2m
m m2 +2m.
KEP (quadratic)
iii. To generrate 2 1 shared key

ys it requirees
innterchange of 2( 2 1 ) messages in ECCD-H H
teechnique and 2m
2 messages in
n ECMKEP. Tab
ble3: Complexityy Comparison forr Various Protocools:
iiii. To generatee 2 1 shared keys it req

quires 22(2 prrotocol complexity
1
1) multiple add dition operation
ns in ECC D-H H technique and
d AKKAP 3
SA
AKAP 1
E
ECMKEP requ uires 2 +2m MQQVKC 2.5
MQQV 2.5
ivv. To generaate 2 1 shared
s keys it requires no EC
CDH 2
aadditions and ECMKDP
E requuires MTTI/AO 3
MTTI/CO 2
JO
OUX 2
2 2 2 1) SM
MART 4
EC
CMKDP 0.8, for m=2
vv. The time com
mplexity of D-H
H is Geeneralized algorrithm, 0.047 for m=3…
coomplexity decreeases as m
2 +2m/2 1
( = Ce 22 (2
TECCDH (m) 1) = O 2 (16)) inccreases
W
Where Ce den notes time neeeded for exeecution of on
ne
m
multiple additio
on operation.
6. Seleection of shaared key:
SSo, D-H possibbly has non polynomial (exp ponential) tim
me
ccomplexity. Heence, it requiress more time for execution. Now thhat the propoosed extensionn can generatee multiple
SSince multipliications are very less expensive
e thann shared kkeys, it is neceessary for us tto be able to seelect a key
eexponentiation,, for time complexity we consideer for a seession. Here wee suggest that oone can followw a method
eexponential operations and hence
h the timee complexity ofo similar to that in the well knownM Merkle’s puzzlee which is
MMSK recalledd below:
TECMKKDP (m) = Ce(2 +2m) =O (m m 2) (17))
A partyy generates n m messages eachh with having a different
wwhere Ce den notes time needed for exeecution of on ne puzzle number and a secret key nuumber and sennds all the
mmultiple addiition operatio on. Thus, ECMKEP
E haas messagges to the otherr party in encrrypted form. N Note that a
ppolynomial (quuadratic) time complexity.
c So
o it requires lesss differennt 20 bit key iss used for encrryption of eachh message.
tiime for executtion than ECC D-H
D The otther party chhooses one m message at ranndom and
performms brute-force aattack to decryypt it -althoughh it needs a
large ammount of workk, it is still com
mputable. It theen encrypts
its messsage with the key thus recovvered and sendds it to the
first parrty along with the puzzle num mber. Since it knows the
puzzle number, it thuus identifies thhe key and deecrypts the
messagge.
Similarrly, in ordder to seleect a key out of
2 11 shared keyys, one partyy generates a message
N 2, May 2011
w
www.IJCSI.org 171
ccomprising a shared key and a a puzzlee number. Affter [7] A. M

Menezes, P. vaan Oorschot, S
S. Vanstone, H
Handbook
eencrypting it either with the smallest or laargest key of the
t of Appplied Cryptogrraphy (Boca R Raton, FL: CRRC press,
sshared keys geenerated, it is sent to the other
o party. The
T 1997).
mmessage is easiily decrypted asa the recipiennt knows all keeys
aand the (sharedd key, puzzle number)
n pair is recovered. The
T [8] S. Blake-Wilsonn, D. Johnsoon, A. Menezzes, Key
pparty then eithher sends thee puzzle numb ber alone or an ment Protocolls and Theiir Security A
Agreem Analysis,
eencrypted messsage along with h the puzzle nu
umber to the fiirst Proceeddings of Sixth IIMA Internatioonal Conferencce
pparty, where thhe message is encrypted with h the shared key
k on Crypptography andd Coding, Cirenncester, UK, 11997, 30-
ffound. Since the first party knows the pu uzzle number, it 45.
thherefore identtifies the session key and can decrypt the t
mmessage. For subsequent
s chaanges, the present session key
k [9] B. K
Kaliski, An unnknown key-shhare attack on tthe MQV
mmay be used to o encrypt a sh hared key at on ne end, and itt is key agrreement protoccol, ACM Trannsaction on Infformation
ddecrypted at thee other end to obtain
o the new
w session key. and Sysstems Security, 4 (3), 2001,2775-288.
77. Conclusio
on: [10] NN.P. Smart, A An identity baased authenticaated key
agreem
ment protocol bbased on the W Weil pairing, E
Electronic
IIn this paper we proposed a secure pro otocol ECMKE EP Letters,, 38 (13), 20022, 630-632.
bbased on DH using
u EC as public key cryp ptosystems usiing
EEC group worrks with smalller key sizes less processiing [11] F. Zhang, S. Liuu, K. Kwangjo, ID-Based Onne Round
ooverheads and provides
p moree security in competitive to DH,
D Authennticated Triparrtite Key Agrreement Protoocol with
DDSS, RSA baseed on modularr arithmetic and d proved that our
o Pairingss, Proceedingss of IEEE Intternational Sym
mposium
pprotocol is seccured under ED DLP, Further using the low wer on Inforrmation Theorry, Yokohama, Japan, 2003,136-148.
aand upper boun nds for m andd N , the securrity levels can be
inncreased in SDT
S with relaatively lesser operations ov ver [12] CC. Popescu, I. Mang, Ann Authenticatted Key
hheads. Agreemment Protocoll Based onn the Weil Pairing,
Proceeddings of International Conferrence on Applieed
R
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Austria, 2003, 7797-800.
[13] KK. Shim, Effficient ID-bassed authenticaated key

[1] M. Bellare, P. Rogaway, Entity Authen
ntication and Key
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U
US
[14] A.. Joux, A onee-round protocol for tripartitte Diffie-
[2] G.P.Biswas, Diffie Helllman Techniqu ue Extended To
T Hellman
an, Proceedinggs of Algorithhmic Numberr Theory
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Multiple Two Party
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ET Sympossium, Leiden, TThe Netherlands, 2000,385-3394.
innf. Sec., 2008, Vol.2(1), pp.1
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A
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authentticated key aagreement prootocols from pairings,
[3] L. Law, A. Menezes, M. Qu,
Q J. Solinas, & S. Vanstonee, Proceeddings of IMA A Conference on Cryptograaphy and
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[16] L. Law, A. Menezes, M. Qu, JJ. Solinas, S. V
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[4] A. Menezess, M. Qu, S. Vanstone,
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N 2, May 2011
w
www.IJCSI.org 172
A
About the Autthors:
VVankamamidii Srinivasa Na aresh is curren

ntly working as
a
a Director, for the Post Graduuate Departmennt of Computeer
SScience Coursees in S.V.K.P P. and Dr. K.S.R. Arts and d
SScience Collegge. He obtained
d an M.Sc. in Mathematics
M
ffrom Andhra University,
U an M.Phil. in Maathematics from
m
MMadurai Kamaaraj University and an M.Tecch in Computeer
SScience and Engineering from J.N.T T. Universityy-
KKakinada. Hee is also a recipient of U.G.C..-
CC.S.I.R.JUNIOOR RESEARCH FELLOSHIIP and cleared
NNET for Lecturreship
NNistala V.E.S S. Murthy is i currently working

w as a
PProfessor in th he departmentt of Computeer Science and
SSystems Enngineering of Andhra y,
University
VVisakhapatnam m. He developeed f-Set Theo ory –wherein f- f
mmaps exists between
b fuzzy
y sets with trruth values in n
ddifferent comp plete lattices,, generalizing
g L-fuzzy seet
TTheory of Gog guen which geeneralized the [0,1]-fuzzy seet
thheory of Zad deh, the Fatherr of Fuzzy Seet Theories. HeH
aalso published papers on Rep presentation off various Fuzzy y
MMathematical (Sub)
( structures in terms of th
heir appropriatte
ccrisp cousins.
VV.V.Narasimh haRao is currrently pursuin ng his M.Tech h

ccomputer scien
nce from J.N.T University Kaakinada. He haas
ppresented nummber of tech hnical paperss in Nationaal
CConferences. His
H research intterests are Mob
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www.IJCSI.org 173
Design and Realization of an Arabic Morphological Automaton: New

Approach for Arabic Morphological Analysis and Generation
Mourad Gridach1 and Noureddine Chenfour2
1
Computer Science Department, Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah University, Faculty of Sciences
Fez / 30000 , Morocco
2
Computer Science Department, Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah University, Faculty of Sciences
Fez / 30000 , Morocco
Abstract To construct an Arabic morphological automaton, we used

Arabic morphological analysis is one of the essential stages in Arabic particularities of Arabic morphology that are concretized on
Natural Language Processing. In this paper we present an approach multilevel: verbs and nouns are also characterized by a specific
for Arabic morphological analysis. This approach is based on Arabic representation named the matrix “root – scheme”. Arabic
morphological automaton (AMAUT). The proposed technique uses a nouns and verbs are derived from roots by applying schemes to
morphological database realized using XMODEL language. Arabic
morphology represents a special type of morphological systems
these roots to generate Arabic stems and then adding prefixes
because it is based on the concept of scheme to represent Arabic and suffixes to the stems to form a correct word in Arabic
words. We use this concept to develop the Arabic morphological language. Table 1 show some schemes applied to the root “ktb”
automata. The proposed approach has development standardization (‫)آﺘﺐ‬. Our approach is used to develop a morphological
aspect. It can be exploited by NLP applications such as syntactic and analyzer for Arabic language.
semantic analysis, information retrieval, machine translation and
orthographical correction. The proposed approach is compared with
Xerox Arabic Analyzer and Smrz Arabic Analyzer. Table 1: Some examples of schemes to generate stems from the root “ktb”
Keywords: Morphological automaton, Arabic language, (‫)آﺘﺐ‬
morphological analysis, morphological generation Scheme facal FAcil mafcUl Mafcal ficAl
Stem
katab KAtib MaktUb Maktab kitAb
generated
1. Introduction
The structure of the article is as follows. First, in the
Nowadays, Arabic language faces many challenges. The first introduction we discuss the challenges of Arabic language and
important challenge is the requirement to analyze Arabic the importance of morphological analysis as an essential step in
morphology with high quality because it is considered as the Natural Language Processing. We present an overview of
essential stage in many NLP applications such as Information Arabic morphology in the second section. We discuss some
Retrieval and Machine Translation. The second challenge is Arabic morphological analysis approaches related to the
concerning the use of morphology in machine translation presented work in the third section. In the fourth section, we
systems. Koehn & Hoang (2007) have shown that factored present our lexicon. In section five, we present our approach
translation models containing morphological information lead for Arabic morphological analysis. We present the application
to better translation performance. Morphological analysis of the presented work in Arabic morphological analysis in
becomes more important when translating to or from section six. In the seventh section, we evaluate the proposed
morphologically rich languages such as Arabic. The third technique. Finally, in the last section, we draw some
challenge is that morphological analysis is considered as the conclusions.
first step before syntactic analysis.
Arabic is a morphologically complex language. Recent 2. Overview of Arabic morphology

research has shown that morphological analysis of any word
consists of determining the values of a large number of Morphology is the branch of linguistics that deals with the
features, such as basic part-of-speech (i.e., noun, verb, etc.), internal structure of words. It studies word formation, including
gender, person, number, voice, information about the clitics, affixation behavior, roots, and pattern properties. Morphology
etc. (Habash, 2005). There has been much work on Arabic can be classified as either inflectional or derivational.
morphology (see Al-Sughaiyer & Al-Kharashi, 2004). Since, Inflectional morphology is applied to a given stem with
lots of morphological analysis approaches are available now, predictable formation. It does not affect the word’s
some of them have a commercial purpose and the others are grammatical category, such as noun, verb, etc. Case, gender,
available for research and evaluation (Attia, 2006). number, tense, person, mood, and voice are some examples of
characteristics that might be affected by inflection.
In this paper we present an approach for Arabic morphological Derivational morphology, on the other hand, concatenates to a
analysis based on Arabic morphological automaton technique. given word a set of morphemes that may affect the syntactic

www.IJCSI.org 174
category of the word. The distinction between these two classes Table 3: Some schemes for some Arabic verbs
is not an easy one to make, and it differs from one language to Facala einfacala Faclala fAcala eistafcala tafAcala
another. In this section, we deal with Arabic morphology. ‫ﻞ‬
َ ‫َﻓ َﻌ‬ ‫ﻞ‬
َ ‫اﻧْ َﻔ َﻌ‬ ‫ﻞ‬
َ ‫َﻓﻌَْﻠ‬ ‫ﻞ‬
َ‫ﻋ‬
َ ‫ﻓَﺎ‬ ‫ﻞ‬
َ ‫اﺳْ َﺘﻔْ َﻌ‬ ‫ﻞ‬
َ‫ﻋ‬َ ‫َﺗﻔَﺎ‬
The origin of Arabic is very different from the other languages For the affixes morphemes, they can be added before or after a
especially European languages. It includes 28 letters and they root or a stem as a prefix or suffix. For prefixes, they can be
are all considered as consonants. The Arabic writing system is added before the stem like the prefix “sa” /‫س‬/ which used to
very different from the most of the other languages because it express the future while suffixes can be added after the stem
is written from right to left. Arabic morphological like the suffix “Una” /‫ون‬/. In this paper, we use this
representation is rather complex because of some classification of Arabic morphemes to concretize our approach
morphological phenomenon like the agglutination for Arabic morphological analysis.
phenomenon. Letters change forms according to their position
in the word (beginning, middle, end and separate). Table 2
gives an example of different forms of the letter “g” /‫اﻟﻐﻴﻦ‬/ at 3. Related work
different positions.
Much work has been done in the area of Arabic morphological
Table 2: the letter “g” /‫اﻟﻐﻴﻦ‬/ representation in the different position analysis and generation in a variety of approaches and at
Beginning Middle End Separate different degrees of linguistics depths (Al-Sughaiyer & Al-
‫ﻏ‬ ‫ﻐ‬ ‫ﻎ‬ ‫غ‬ Kharashi, 2004). The most of the approaches tend to target a
specific application (Khoja, 2001; Darwish, 2002; Diab et al.,
In other work (Ibrahim, 2002), Arabic traditional grammarians 2007a). The most referenced systems are works done by
have been persuaded by morphology to classify words into Habash et al., Smrz, Buckwalter and Beesley. They are
only three types: verbs, nouns and prepositions and particles. available for research and evaluation and well documented. In
Adjectives take almost all the morphological forms of nouns. this section, we discuss these works to clarify their working
Compared to other languages, Arabic is mainly derivational method and approach in Arabic morphological analysis.
while others are concatenative. It is characterized by its very
rich derivational morphology, where almost all of words are 3.1 MAGEAD: A Morphological Analyzer and
derived from roots by applying patterns (Darwish, 2002). There Generator for Arabic Dialects
is in Arabic around 10000 roots, which are in general made up
of three, four, or five letters. The roots with three letters alone MAGEAD is one of the existing morphological analyzers for
generate approximately 85% of the Arabic words (De Roeck, the Arabic language available for research. It’s a functional
2000). Concerning the Arabic morphemes, they fall into three morphology systems compared to Buckwalter morphological
categories: templatic morphemes, affixes morphemes, and non- analyzer which models form-based morphology (M. Altantawy
templatic word stems (NTWSs). NTWSs are word stems that et al., 2010). To develop MAGEAD, they use a morphemic
are not constructed from a “root – scheme” combination. Verbs representation for all morphemes and explicitly define
are never NTWSs (Habash, 2006). morphophonemic and orthographic rules to derive the
allomorphs. The lexicon is developed by extending Elixir-
In this presented work, we have classified the first category of FM’s lexicon. The advantage of this analyzer is that it
morphemes in two types which are needed to create an Arabic processes words from the morphology of the dialects which
word stem: roots and schemes. The root morpheme is an they considered as a novel work in this domain, but
ordered sequence of valid three or four characters from the unfortunately this analyzer needs a complete lexicon for the
alphabet and rarely five characters. The root is not a valid dialects to make the evaluation more interesting and
Arabic word (for example /ktb/ /‫آﺘﺐ‬/). The scheme morpheme convincing, and to verify these claims.
is an ordered sequence of characters. Some of these characters
are constants and some are variables. The variables characters 3.2 ElixirFM: an Arabic Morphological Analyzer by
are to be substituted with the characters of an Arabic root to Otakar Smrz
generate a word called the “stem”. There are different schemes
for the triliteral and tetraliteral roots. Table 3 shows schemes ElixirFM is an online Arabic Morphological Analyzer for
for some Arabic verbs classified as original schemes. Note that Modern Written Arabic developed by Otakar Smrz available
the scheme is not a valid Arabic word, whereas the stem is a for evaluation and well documented. This morphological
valid word. The word stem is formed by substituting characters analyzer is written in Haskell, while the interfaces in Perl.
of the root into certain verb schemes. The following example ElixirFM is inspired by the methodology of Functional
shows an example of constructing an Arabic word stem using Morphology (Forsberg & Ranta, 2004) and initially relied on
the root and scheme. the re-processed Buckwalter lexicon (Buckwalter, 2002). It
contains two main components: a multi- purpose programming
Root “ktb” /‫ك ت ب‬/ library and a linguistically morphological lexicon (Smrz,
Scheme “tafAcala” /َ‫ﻋﻞ‬ َ ‫ َﺗﻔَﺎ‬/ 2007). The advantage of this analyzer is that it gives to the user
Stem “takAtaba” /َ‫ َﺗﻜَﺎ َﺗﺐ‬/ four different modes of operation (Resolve, Inflect, Derive and
Lookup) for analyzing an Arabic word or text. But the system
is limited coverage because it analyzes only words in the
Modern Written Arabic.

www.IJCSI.org 175
3.3 Buckwalter Arabic Morphological Analyzer There has been much work to construct an Arabic lexicon with
the optimal way. For an overview see (Al-Sughaiyer & Al-
This analyzer is considered as one of the most referenced in the Kharashi, 2004). Currently, another method is used for
literature, well documented and available for evaluation. It is representing, designing and implementing the lexical resource.
also used by Linguistic Data Consortium (LDC) for POS This method used the Lexical Markup Framework (LMF). It
tagging of Arabic texts, Penn Arabic Treebank, and the Prague was used in lots of languages (Indo-European), but for Arabic
Arabic Dependency Treebank (Atwell et al., 2004). It takes the language this method still in progress towards a standard for
stem as the base form and root information is provided. This representing the Arabic linguistic resource. Lexical Markup
analyzer contains over 77800 stem entries which represent Framework (LMF, ISO-24613) is the ISO standard which
45000 lexical items. However, the number of lexical items and provides a common standardized framework for the
stems makes the lexicon voluminous and as result the process construction of natural language processing lexicons. The US
of analyzing an Arabic text becomes long. delegation is the first which started the work on LMF in 2003.
In early 2004, the ISO/TC37 committee decided to form a
3.4 Xerox Arabic Morphological Analysis and common ISO project with Nicoletta Calzolari (Italy) as
Generation convenor and Gil Francopoulo (France) and Monte George
(US) as editors (Francopoulo & George, 2008).
Xerox Arabic morphological Analyzer is well known in the To represent Arabic morphological knowledge with the
literature and available for evaluation and well documented. optimal way, we conceived an innovative language adapted for
This analyzer is constructed using Finite State Technology this specific situation: it is the XMODEL language (XML-
(FST) (Beesley, 1996; Beesley, 2000). It adopts the root and based MOrphological DEfinition Language). As a result, all
pattern approach. Besides this, it includes 4930 roots and 400 morphological entries are gathered in an XMODEL files.
patterns, effectively generating 90000 stems. The advantages Using the new language helps direct search for information. It
of this analyzer are, on the one hand, the ability of a large allows representing the whole components, properties and
coverage. On the other hand, it is based on rules and also morphological rules with a very optimal way. To clarify the
provides an English glossary for each word. But the system last point, we note that our morphological database contains
fails because of some problems such as the overgeneration in 960 lexicon items (morphological components) and 455
word derivation, production of words that do not exist in the morphological rules to be applied to these morphological
traditional Arabic dictionaries (Darwish, 2002) and we can components which present a remarkable reduction in the
consider the volume of the lexicon as another disadvantage of number of entries in the lexicon compared to the existing
this analyzer which could affect the analysis process. systems (Xerox and Buckwalter). This representation helps us
achieve the following goals:
4. Lexicon  A symbolic definition, declarative and therefore progressive

of the Arabic morphology.
The lexicon is the set of valid lexical forms of a language. As  A morphological database independent of processing that
in any morphological analysis approach, the enhancement level will be applied (see later).
of the lexicon determines the quality of the analysis. There are  A considerable reduction of the number of morphological
two aspects that contribute to this enhancement level. The first entries.
aspect concerns the number of lexicon entries contained in the  The scheme allows defining the maximum morphological
lexicon. Second aspect concerns the richness in linguistics components by means of XMODEL language.
information contained by the lexicon entries. We mention that Our language makes it possible to represent Arabic
large Arabic morphological analyzers used the BAMA lexicon. morphology as morphological classes and rules. Accordingly,
It was used in the creation of Elixir-FM. Also MAGEAD used our Arabic morphological database will be composed of three
it by extending Elixir-FM’s lexicon. main parts: morphological classes, morphological properties
and morphological rules.
Let us first introduce the XMODEL language which permits to

represent the Arabic morphological knowledge and consists of
three main parties. The first of which is:
4.1 Morphological component class

It allows representing all Arabic morphological components. It
also permits to gather a set of morphological components
having the same nature, the same morphological characteristics
and the same semantic actions. Relying on the notion of
scheme “ealwazn” /‫اﻟﻮزن‬/, this class allows a better
optimization hence, a considerable reduction of morphological
entries. So, we do not need represent all the language items, but
only their schemes. We note that our lexicon contains 960
items (morphological components) which is a remarkable

www.IJCSI.org 176
reduction in the number of the items compared to the other characterize the morphological components using the
lexicons. Figure 1 shows a morphological component class properties:
representing four schemes (“facala”, “facila”, facula” and
faclala”). These schemes are called original schemes. In this Components property
morphological component class, they are considered as
morphological components. A morphological class can use a list of morphological
descriptors to define its components. Generally speaking; each
morphological component can have its own morphological
descriptors. As for the “Gender” property, some components of
this class can be masculine while the others can be feminine.
This type of properties is named the components property. In
order to put them into practice, we have introduced the “uses”
tag. This means that the different morphological descriptors
defined by components property can be used by the different
morphological components of the morphological class. Figure
3 shows an example of three components property (Gender,
Number and Place). They are used to characterize the two
morphological components “hAvA” / / and “vAlika” / /.
Fig. 1 Representation of some verbs schemes using XMODEL language
4.2 Morphological properties class

It allows characterizing the different morphological
components represented by the morphological class: a
morphological property class contains a set of morphological
descriptors or morphological values of properties that would be
assigned to different morphological components. We mention,
for example, the property “Gender” which will distinguish
between masculine and feminine components. The
morphological properties are not related to a specific
morphological class which makes it necessary to define them Fig. 3 Components property (« Gender » « Number » and « Place »)
outside the morphological classes. Figure 2 shows an example characterizing the components “hAvA” and “vAlika”.
of morphological properties class that contains two
morphological properties (Person and Gender). Each Classes property
morphological property contains a set of descriptors.
This one requires assigning a set of morphological components
the commons morphological properties. For example, all
components are masculine names. This type of property is
known as classes property. To concretize the use of classes
property, we introduce the “is” tag. Figure 4 shows an example
of two classes property (“Number.NSg” and “Gender.GMa”).
It means that all the five schemes are singular and have
masculine gender. We mention that the same morphological
components class can use both of the tags “uses” and “is”.
Fig. 2 Representation of morphological properties “Gender” and “Person”
We have added the attribute “type” to work out the problem of

the semantic of the morphological descriptors that might be
exclusive (the morphological component can not be
characterized by the morphological descriptors of the same
Fig. 4 Example of classes property
property as in the case of the “Person” property) or additive
(the morphological component can be characterized by the
Reference property
morphological descriptors of the same property as it is the case
in the “Gender” property). There are two strategies to
Another strong point of the XMODEL language is the
introducing of the notion of reference property which has an

www.IJCSI.org 177
important role to benefit from the specificities of the Arabic
morphology. As for the Arabic language some morphological
components might be conjugated forms of other components
which we call original components. An example of these forms
is the following components “afcalu”, “afcilu “, “afculu” (see
figure 6). These components are all conjugated forms of the
component “facala” (see figure 5). We have specified the
reference between components using the “ref” tag.
Fig. 7 Morphological rules class representing the components prefixed by the

prefix “la” and “bi”
The structuring of our morphological database using

XMODEL language allows us to generate the Arabic
morphological automaton.
Fig. 5 Example of some verbs schemes
5. Our approach
There has been much work on Arabic morphological analysis
where lots of approaches are implemented to satisfy that area
of research. For an overview of the approaches of Arabic
morphological analysis, see (Al-Sughaiyer & Al-Kharashi,
2004).
Fig. 6 The conjugated forms of some verbs

The method presented is based on Arabic Morphological
Automaton (AMAUT). It is considered among the most
In order to concretize this reference between components, we efficient methods. AMAUT is responsible for both analysis and
have opted the attribute “id” to the original component (see generation tasks. A word is accepted by an AMAUT if it
figure 5). This attribute is specified in the “component” tag. belongs to a correct word in Arabic. Generally speaking, an
The components that are conjugated forms will use this code as Arabic morphological automaton is represented as <Q, ∑, q0,
an attribute of that tag (the “key” attribute) to indicate this F, >. Where:
reference (see figure 6).
 Q is a finite set of states of the control unit which represents
4.3 Morphological rules class the states of an AMAUT.
 ∑ is a finite input tape alphabet symbols. For an AMAUT,
Firstly, it should be noted that we developed 455 it is constituted of the Arabic alphabets or characters.
morphological rules for the Arabic language. They help us
combine some morphological components (morphemes)  q0 is the start state of the AMAUT. It is constituted of only
together to generate correct language words. They use the one start state in the case of a morphological automaton.
different morphological components classes as well as the  F is a subset of Q. It represents the accepting states of the
morphological properties classes. The morphological rules AMAUT. It gives the morphological descriptors (features)
classes allow us to add new morphological descriptors which that characterize each word analyzed.
do not belong to the union of morphological descriptors of  The set  also represents the transition function of the
components of rules. As a result, they are considered as a AMAUT.
generator of language words. The implementation of the
morphological rules class permits to put into practice all the Consequently, implementing AMAUT needs to use the lexicon
possible concatenations between components. Figure 7 shows a discussed in the previous section. We have to extract all the
morphological rules class named “prefixesSuffixes” that morphological rules from the lexicon and implement an
contains two rules. The two rules allow generating words AMAUT for each rule. So to realize that implementing, we
which begin by the prefix “la” and “bi”. have to use some operations such as concatenation and union.
In the next paragraphs, we explain how we can use these two
operations to generate an AMAUT for a definite morphological
rule. The following morphological rule (“rule_1”) is
responsible to product Arabic numbers that accept the suffix
“un”.

www.IJCSI.org 178
So to generate the AMAUT representing this morphological
rule (“rule_1”), we concatenate the first morpheme (key =
“CardNumber.CNAccepteSCID”), which represents Arabic
numbers that accept suffixes (like “wAHid” / /, “caârat”
/ /, “~amAn” / /, etc.), with the second one (key =
“CasSuffixe.SCD” component = “un”), which represents the
suffix “un”. Figure 8 shows the resulting AMAUT obtained
from the rule “rule_1”.
Fig. 8 A morphological automaton representing the above morphological rule
In addition to the concatenation used to concatenate

morphemes or morphological automata together, we used the
union operation to associate two or several morphological
automata generated by the first operation, each one represent a
definite morphological rule. Figure 9 concretizes the use of the
union operation. It contains a morphological rules class
(“cardNbCRules”) that shows an example of two
morphological rules (“rule_1” and “rule_2”) each one
represents the Arabic numbers that accept suffixes which will
be concatenated with the two suffixes “un” and “an”.
Fig. 9 Morphological rule representing the Arabic numbers which accept
The AMAUT generated by the morphological rule “rule_1” is suffixes “un” and “an”
showed in figure 8. Figure 10 shows an AMAUT generated by
the morphological rule “rule_2” which represents the Arabic
numbers that accept the suffix “an”.
Fig. 10 The AMAUT generated by the morphological rule “rule_2”

www.IJCSI.org 179
In figure 9, we have two morphological rules; each one represents the rule identified by “rule_1” with the second
generates an AMAUT. We used the union operation to AMAUT (represented in figure 10) which represents the rule
associate the first AMAUT (represented in figure 8) which identified by “rule_2”. Figure 11 shows the resulting AMAUT.
Fig. 11 The AMAUT generated by the morphological rule in figure 9
In the following paragraphs, we present a detail of how to  Strong verbs “ealeafcAl eaSSaHiyHa” / /: these
implement all the AMAUT and the technique used in the are the verbs that contain no weak letters. In the Arabic
implementation. language, there are three weak letters: “w” / /, “A” / / and
“y” / /.
So as to implement an AMAUT, we have classified Arabic  Weak verbs “ealeafcAl ealmuctalla” / /: these are
words in to two categories: the first category is that which the verbs that contain a weak letter. Weak verbs are also
submits to the derivation process, while the second one classified into three categories (Attia, 2005):
doesn’t. This derivation process is generated by a set of
morphological rules known in the Arabic grammar under the a. Assimilated “ealmi~al” / /: a verb that contains
name “qawAcidu eaSSarfi” / /. They repose on the an initial weak letter.
manipulation of a set of very determined schemes named b. Hollow “ealajwaf” / /: a verb that contains a
“ealeawzAn” / /. middle weak letter.
The scheme (measure or form) is a general mould composed of c. Defective “eannAqiS” / /: a verb that contains a
an ordered sequence of characters. Some of these characters are final weak letter.
constants (instantiated) and some are variables (uninstantiated)
(El-Sadany, 1989). The uninstantiated characters are to be While the second words category contains three families of
substituted (instantiated) with the characters of an Arabic root words:
to generate a word called the “stem.” There are different
schemes for the trilateral and tetraliteral roots. Note that the  The particular nouns “ealasmAe ealxASSa” / /:
scheme is not a valid Arabic word, whereas the stem is a valid these nouns comprise proper nouns, names of cities, names
word. of countries, etc. It also regroups the exclusive nouns
At the graphical level, a scheme generally constitutes of (Tahir “easmAe ealeisti~nAe” / /, the interrogative
et al., 2004): nouns “easmAe ealeistifhAm” / /, the
demonstrative nouns “easmAe ealeiÂra” / /, the
 Three main consonants that are represented by the letters conditional nouns “easmAe ea^ârt” / /, etc.
“f” / /, “c” / / and “l” / / with a possibility to duplicate the  The particles “ealHurUf” / / likes for example
last letter “l” as in the schemes case that correspond to a “HurUfu ealjarri” / /, “HurUfu ealjazmi” /
four letters root like “faclala” / /. /, “HurUfu ealcaTfi” / /, etc.
 Some consonants that serve as tools to extend the root like  The incomplete verbs “ealeafcAl eannAqiSa” / /:
“stafcala” / / and “tafAcala” / /. this family of verbs contains the family of verb “kAda” / /,
 An adequate vowels group. the family of verb “kAna” / / and the family of verb
“Zanna” / /.
We have grouped in the first category of words the following
items: Finally, after generating a series of AMAUT, their size is about
120 MB. Concerning the number of the entries generated, it’s
 Derived nouns “ealaSmAe ealmu taqqa” / /. about 5961 entries, which represent a remarkable reduction of
the entries number and makes our approach as one of the best

www.IJCSI.org 180
existing approaches in the literature. We could mention that features according to the valid affixes and the scheme.
using XMODEL to implement the lexicon could be another Additional information is extracted called in our approach
advantage that explains the obtained results. morphological descriptors. They describe the word analyzed
and they are very useful especially in Natural Language
Processing applications. Finally, the morphological analyzer
6. Application in Arabic Morphological Analysis displays the results in a table where each row contains the word
analyzed and all the data characterizing this word (see figure
In this section, we operate our approach in Arabic 12).
morphological analysis. It is based on the Arabic
Morphological Automaton (AMAUT) method presented in the Concerning the morpho-syntactic features given by the
previous section. The implementation of our approach has been morphological analysis using the proposed technique, they are
done using an oriented object framework. It is developed using very rich regarding the information given to the user (see figure
Java Programming Language and based on a reduced lexicon 12). It concerns the morphological level, the syntactic and
built using XMODEL language. semantic level which makes the richness of our system
compared to the others system (see the Evaluation section).
The use of AMAUT technology makes our system usable as a Here are some important features which will be given by the
generator as well as an analyzer, unlike some morphological system.
analyzers which cannot be converted to generators in a
straightforward manner (Sforza, 2000; Buckwalter, 2004;  The word gender: masculine or feminine.
Habash, 2004).  The word person: first, second or third person.
 The word number: singular, dual or plural.
So as to develop an Arabic morphological analyzer and
 The word case: “marfUc” (‫)ﻣﺮﻓﻮع‬, “manSUb” (‫)ﻣﻨﺼﻮب‬,
generator, firstly, we used a lexicon built using the XMODEL
“majrUr” (‫)ﻣﺠﺮور‬, “majzUm” (‫)ﻣﺠﺰوم‬.
language integrating the entries suitable for Arabic language. It
 The type of the word: verb, noun or particle.
regroups three packages: morphological components package
that contains verbs, nouns, particles and affixes. The second  If the word is a verb, we give its tense: present
package includes the morphological rules and the last package (“ealmuDAric”: ‫)اﻟﻤﻀﺎرع‬, past (“ealmADI”: ‫ )اﻟﻤﺎﺿﻲ‬or
is concerned with the morphological properties. Secondly, we imperative (“ealeamr”: ‫)اﻷﻣﺮ‬. We also give its voice: active
used a set of Arabic morphological automata each one or passive.
represents a very specific morphological category. It is  The scheme of the word is given if available.
considered as the main idea to develop an Arabic
morphological analyzer. Finally, we developed a framework To concretize these obtained results, we analyze some
handling the lexicon and the morphological automata. examples of Arabic verbs and nouns using the proposed
technique. These examples are taken from a standard input text
The presented method involves five steps. In this paragraph, provided by ALECSO (Arab League, Educational, Cultural and
we provide a brief description of the principle of this method. Scientific Organization) which organized a competition in
As input, the proposed technique accepts an Arabic text. The April 2009 of the Arabic Analyzers in Damascus. The standard
first step is to apply a tokenization process to the text given. input text provided by ALECSO is unvocalized, in this test, we
Then, a set of AMAUT are loaded, in a second step. The part- used a vocalized version. This standard input text is provided
of-speech is determined in the third step. After that, the method in this file: http://www.alecso.org.tn/images/stories/OULOUM/
MOHALLILAT%20SARFIADAMAS2009/020%20NIZAR.html.
determines all possible affixes. Then the next step consists of
extracting the morpho-syntactic features according to the valid
Figure 12 shows the morphological analysis results of some
affixes.
words analyzed using the proposed technique. As discussed
before, the analyzer displays the Part-of-speech (verb, noun or
The tokenization process consists of extracting all the words
particle), the original scheme is displayed in column B because
from the text given. A set of Arabic morphological automata
Arabic has this particularity which is summarized in that some
are loaded from a package that contains all the implemented
words might be conjugated forms of other words like “afcalu”,
Arabic morphological automata. Then, the approach
“afcilu “, “afculu”, these three words are all conjugated forms
determines which AMAUT is suitable for that word. The result
of “facala”. The gender (masculine or feminine) is displayed in
may be one or more AMAUT loaded. Then, the method
column D, the person (first, second or third person) is
determines the part-of-speech. If the word analyzed is a noun
displayed in column E, the number (singular, dual or plural) is
or a verb, the method determines if it contains a scheme. Then,
displayed in column F. For the column G, it concerns some
if it is a verb, the method determines the type of the verb
properties that characterize the word analyzed and they are
(strong, weak, or incomplete), its tense (“mADI” /‫ﻣﺎﺿﻲ‬/,
very useful to the user. Some morphological descriptors are
“muDAric” /‫ﻣﻀﺎرع‬/ or “eamr” /‫أﻣﺮ‬/), its voice (active or
displayed in column H. Finally, the column I and J show the
passive), etc. If it is a noun, we determine if it is a derived noun
affixes attached to the word.
or particular noun. If it is a particle, the method determines if it
is a preposition particle /‫ﺣﺮوف اﻟﺠﺮ‬/, conjunction particle /
Finally, the proposed technique for Arabic morphological
‫ ﺣﺮوف اﻟﻌﻄﻒ‬/, etc. After that, the method applied a process of
analysis has many advantages such as:
extracting the possible affixes attached to the word analyzed.
The next step consists of extracting the morpho-syntactic

www.IJCSI.org 181
 The separation between the linguist and the developer task. analyzers the number of words (nouns, verbs and particles)
 We can also reuse our programs in future works. with no solution.
 Development standardization means in our application that Table 4: The evaluation process results
we have build all the applications with the same standards. Part-of- The Xerox ElixirFM Our
 The facility of maintenance: it’s easy to add some new Speech number Morphological System
features or morphological characteristics to the presented Analyzer
system if the user or the linguist needs them for his Arabic Nouns 576 60 56 40
morphological analysis. It’s also easy to extend our system Verbs 457 31 24 19
to include some new works related to Arabic NLP such as Particles 167 42 45 -
information retrieval, syntactic and semantic analyzers, Total 1200 133 125 59
correction and generation of Arabic texts. Success (%) 88,91 89,58 95,08
7. Evaluation
The analyzer presented in this paper reaches a success of
For Arabic language, a standard annotated corpus is not yet 95,08% which will make it one of the best existing
available which complicate the evaluation process. To evaluate morphological analyzers for Arabic language and it will be
our system, we select two of the best known morphological very useful for the next future works to be done in NLP
analyzers in the literature: ElixirFM by Otakar Smrž (Otakar applications such as syntactic and semantic analysis, machine
Smrž and Viktor Bielický, 2010) and Xerox Arabic translation, information retrieval, etc.
Morphological Analyzer. We note that the corpus used for the
evaluation is taken from a standard input text provided by
ALECSO (Arab League, Educational, Cultural and Scientific
8. Conclusion
Organization) which organized a competition in April 2009 of
We have described an approach for Arabic morphological
the Arabic Morphological Analyzers in Damascus. analysis. It is called the Arabic Morphological Automaton
(AMAUT). We have evaluated the presented approach using
The evaluation process shows that our morphological analyzer
Xerox Arabic Morphological Analyzer and Arabic
is strong concerning the features given by each analyzer which Morphological Analyzer by Otakar Smrz because they are
makes our system useful for the most of NLP applications
considered as the most referenced approaches for Arabic
unlike the others; they are destined for specific applications. In
morphological analysis and they are available for research and
addition, the presented morphological analyzer gives more evaluation. The use of the Arabic morphological automaton
additional information about each word analyzed and more
makes the morphological analyzer efficient and very fast.
precision.
Concerning the development of the lexicon, we have used
XMODEL language for representing, designing and
In the evaluation done we process words in a corpus selected
implementing the lexical resource. Our approach has another
from ALECSO input text containing different part-of-speech advantage because it’s developed using Java language and
(verbs, nouns and particles), then, we calculate success of each XML technology which makes the system portable and
analyzer as: S = number of words with solutions / number of
reusable.
words. Table 4 provides the evaluation results of the three
analyzers. Note that table 4 contains in each column of the

www.IJCSI.org 182
Fig. 12: A morphological analysis of some verbs using the proposed technique
Appendix 1. The English translation of Arabic words : A : s :

The Arabic Transliteration English Translation : B : :
Word : T : :
ealeafcAl eaSSaHiyHa Strong verbs : ~ : :
ealeafcAl ealmuctalla Weak verbs : J : :
ealeafcAl eannAqiSa Defective verbs : H : :
ealmi~al Assimilated : X : :
Ealajwaf Hollow : D : :
EannAqiS Defective : V : :
ealasmAe ealxASSa Particular nouns : r : :
ealaSmAe ealmu taqqa Derived nouns : z
easmAe ealeistifhAm Interrogation nouns
easmAe ealeiÂra Demonstrative nouns
easmAe ea^ârt Condition nouns
HurUfu ealjarri Preposition particles
HurUfu ealcaTfi Conjunction particles
Kana Was
Zanna To think
MarfUc Nominative case
ManSUb Accusative case
MajrUr Genitive case
MajzUm Jussive case
EalmuDAric The Imperfect
EalmADI The Perfect
Appendix 2. Letter mappings

www.IJCSI.org 183
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Feature Description Morphology Generation Using a Concatenative Strategy. In
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Def Defined (NAACL 2000), Seattle, USA.
Ind Undefined [11] Darwish K. (2002). Building a Shallow Morphological Analyzer
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Raf marfUc « ‫» ﻣﺮﻓﻮع‬ the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL-02).
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Methods for Processing Arabic Text: From Tokenization to Base
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ACT Active [15] Forsberg M. & Ranta A. (2004, September). Functional
PAS Passive Morphology ICFP'04, Proceedings of the Ninth ACM SIGPLAN
AccepteSC Accept Case Suffixes International Conference of Functional Programming, 19-21.
Efc Eismu fAcil « ‫» اﺳﻢ ﻓﺎﻋﻞ‬ Snowbird, Utah.
Emf Eismu mafcUl « ‫» اﺳﻢ ﻣﻔﻌﻮل‬ [16] Francopoulo G. & George M. (2008). ISO/TC 37/SC 4 N453
Mmi maSdar mImI « ‫» اﺳﻢ ﻣﻴﻢ‬ (N330 Rev.16). Language resource management — Lexical
Zam Zarfu zamAn « ‫» ﻇﺮف زﻣﺎن‬ markup framework (LMF).
Mak Zarfu makAn « ‫» ﻇﺮف ﻣﻜﺎن‬ [17] Habash Nizar (2004). Large scale lexeme based Arabic
Mmr maSdar_ealmarrat « ‫» ﻣﺼﺪر اﻟﻤﺮة‬ Morphological generation. In Proceedings of Traitement
MaS maSdar « ‫» ﻣﺼﺪر‬ Automatique du Langage Naturel (TALN-04). Fez, Morocco.
JtS jamcu taksIr li Sifatin « ‫» ﺟﻤﻊ ﺗﻜﺴﻴﺮ ﻟﺼﻔﺔ‬ [18] Habash Nizar & Rambow Owen (2005). Arabic Tokenization,
Smb SIgatu ealmubalagati « ‫» ﺻﻴﻐﺔ اﻟﻤﺒﺎﻟﻐﺔ‬ Part-of-Speech Tagging and Morphological Disambiguation in
Sif Sifatun « ‫» ﺻﻔﺔ‬ One Fell Swoop. In Proceedings of the 43rd Annual Meeting of
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[19] Habash Nizar & Rambow Owen (2006). Morphological Analysis
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[3] Attia M. (2005). Developing a Robust Arabic Morphological Methods in Natural Language Processing and Computational
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Research Colloquium. Manchester, UK. Prague, Czech Republic.
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www.IJCSI.org 184
Field Association words with Naive Bayes Classifier based

Arabic document classification
M. E. Abd El-Monsef 1, El-Sayed Atlam2, M. Amin3, O. El-Barbary4
1, 2, 4
Mathematics Department, Faculty of Science, Tanta University
Tanta, Egypt
2
Faculty of Engineering, Tokishima University
Tokishima, Japan

3
Mathematics Department, Faculty of Science , Menofia University
Shebin El-Kom, Egypt
Abstract Most of the work in this area was carried out for the English
Document classification aims to assign a document to one or more text, on the other hand very few researches have been carried
categories based on its contents. This paper suggests the use of Field out for the Arabic text. [4] use K-NN algorithm and Naïve
association (FA) words algorithm with Naïve Bayes Classifier to the Bayes algorithm in order to make a practical comparison
problem of document categorization of Arabic language Our between them and previous studies, also [17] suggests the use
experimental study shows that using FA algorithm with Naïve Bayes
(NB) Classifier gives the ~ 79% average accuracy and, using
of rooting algorithm with Naïve Bayes Classifier and reports
compound FA words with NB classifier gives ~ 89% average the algorithm performance in terms of error rate, accuracy, and
accuracy of the training documents. micro-average recall measures. And the experimental study
Keywords: Field association words; compound Field association shows that using rooting algorithm with (NB) Classifier gives
words; Arabic Information retrieval; precision; recall; F-measure; ~62.23% average accuracy. [15] Used Naive Bayes (NB) to
Naïve Bayes theorem. classify non-vocalized Arabic web documents and the overall
classification achieves about 62%.
In this paper we use the naïve bayes classifier with FA words
1. Introduction to Arabic document classification. Field Association (FA)
word is a word that can be related to the field. Based on
For to the rapid growth of the number of online, Several specific FA word information, topics of documents (e.g.
document retrieval systems have been developed along in computer science, algorithm) can be recognized. Some
many areas such as keyword retrieval, similar file retrieval, keywords appear frequently in texts and relate strongly to text
automatic document classification, cross language retrieval topics. The research documented in this paper focuses on
and document summarization [8, 10, 11, 12, 15, 16, 18, 19, finding Arabic FA words automatically. Moreover, using it in
20]. naïve bayes classifier to classifying Arabic document. To do
Arabic Information Retrieval (AIR) has recently become a so, a large quantity of document data for building FA word
focus of research and commercial development. Arabic candidates is necessary. This paper presents a system for
documents, automatic Arabic document categorization automatically finding FA words by adding new FA word
become an important task. Very few standards for evaluation candidates which change over time to an FA word dictionary.
of such tools are known and available. A concrete evaluation There are several research developed in FA words area, some
for AIR systems is necessary for the advancement of this field. of these researches introduced this concept and gave
Document Categorization (DC) is a significant due to several algorithms to find FA terms in a specific field [10], other
information systems have to deal with various numbers of papers used FA terms in document similarity [6] and other
documents; for this, there must be techniques and tools that papers used FA terms in passage retrieval.
can be used to classify those documents to their categories The reset of paper organized as follows. Section 2 of this
efficiently. Naïve Bayes algorithm classifier is DC techniques, paper presents Arabic word formation. Also, defines
which are used to classify documents in different languages. Compound FA words in Arabic language. Section 3 defines

www.IJCSI.org 185
Arabic document field tree. Section 4 identifies Field  Normalizat ion ( w,  c ) 
If concentrat ion ( w, c)    
association words, its levels and how we determine it. Section  Normalizat ion ( w,  s ) 
5 is a comparison with traditional classification methods. then, is a perfect FA word, means is associate with
Section 6 illustrates how we classify Arabic document using only one subfield.
FA words and compound FA words. Section 7 discusses Else
Arabic document classification using Naïve Bayes (NB) if conc w, S conc w, S/c
classifier. Section 8 represents the experimental evaluation then, is a semi perfect FA word, means associate with
and the comparison with other traditional approaches. Section more than one subfield.
9 focuses on conclusion and future work. Else
2. Document Field Association Terms is a medium FA words if it is associated with one
A Single Field Association (FA) word is a minimum unit super-field.
(word) which cannot be divided without losing semantic End
meaning. A Compound FA term consists of two or more 3. Naïve Bayes Classifier
single FA term is regarded as being single if it loses field A Naïve Bayes (NB) classifier is a simple probabilistic
information when divided [1, 2, 3]. classifier based on applying Bayes theorem (from Bayesian
Single FA Term Levels statistics) with strong (naïve) independence assumptions [13].
A document field can be ranked as: super-fields, sub-fields or In simple terms, a naïve bayes classifier assumes that the
terminal fields. FA terms are grouped according to how well presence (or absence) of particular feature of class is unrelated
they indicate specific fields. FA terms have different rank to to the presence (or absence) of any other feature. For example,
associate with document fields, so five Field levels can be a fruit may be considered to be an apple if it is red, round and
used to classify FA terms according to document fields. about 4 in diameter. Even though these features depend on the
Definition 1 existence of other features, a naïve bayes classifier considers
FA words have different level to associate with a field; three all of these properties to independently contribute to the
useful precision levels are used to classify FA words to probability that this fruit is an apple [19].
document fields, they are: perfect if FA words are associated Depending on the precise nature of the probability mode,
with one subfield uniquely, semi perfect if FA words are naïve bayes classifier [9] can be trained very efficiently in a
associated with a few subfields of one super- field, medium if supervised learning setting. This type of learning is called
FA words are associated with one super-field. supervised learning because a supervisor (the human who
defines the classes and labels training documents) serves as a
Definition 2 teacher directing the learning process.
Let (<T>) be the total frequency of all words in the terminal We use the multinomial naïve bayes or multinomial
field <T>; let (w, <T>) be the frequency of the word w in the NB model introduced in [7], of probabilistic learning method
terminal field <T>, the (Normalization (w, <T>)) can be to normal keyword, FA word and compound FA word.
defined as follows: The probability of a document d being in class c is computed
 Frequency ( w, T )  as
Normalization (w, <T>) =   (1) p(c / d ) p (c)  p (t k / c) (5).
 Total _ Frequency (  T  )  1k nd
The normalized frequency defines how much a specific word t

is concentrated in a specific field. where, p(tk / c) is the conditional probability of the term k
Definition 3 occurring in a document of class c . We interpret p(tk / c) as a
For the parent <S>, the child field <C>, the concentration ratio
(Concentration (w, <C>)) of the FA word w in the field <C> is measure of how much evidence t k contributes that c is the
defined as in the following: correct class. p(c) is the prior probability of a document
 Normalizat ion( w,  c )  occurring in a class c.
concentration( w, c )    (2) In text classification, the goal is to find the best class for the
 Normalizat ion( w,  s ) 
The following algorithm determines FA words by considering document. The best class in NB classification is the most
their ranks. likely or maximum a posteriori (MAP) class C map :
Algorithm 1 Cmap  arg max pˆ (c / d )  arg max pˆ (c)  pˆ (tk / c) (6).
cC cC 1k nd
FA words determination algorithm
We write p̂ for p because we do not know the true values of
Input: W is a set of words, W w ,w ,w ,…,w the parameters p(c) and p(tk / c) .
Threshold α, to judge FA words ranks, In Equation (6), many additional probabilities are multiplied
Document field tree, set of documents ordered as a field one for each position 1  k  nd . This can result in a floating
Output: classified FA words according to its field. point underflow. It is therefore better to perform the
Method computation by adding logarithms of probabilities instated of
multiplying probabilities.

www.IJCSI.org 186
Cmap  arg max[log pˆ (c )   log pˆ (t k / c )] (7). Tct  1
cC 1k nd
 (Tct  1)
where, N
pˆ (c)  c , N c is the number of documents in class c do condprob[t][c]  t
N return V, prior, condprob.
and N is the total number of documents. We estimate pˆ (t / c) as Apply multinomial NB(C,V, prior, condprob,d)
the following: w  extract token from Doc(V,d)
Inc= for each c  C
Doc
ID
Words in document ‫اﻧﻔﻠﻮﻧﺰا‬ do score[c]  logprior[c]
‫اﻟﺨﻨﺎزﻳﺮ‬
for each t  w
1 (12) ‫( ﻓﻴﺮوس‬vairoos which means Virus in English) Yes
(9) ‫( اﻧﻔﻠﻮﻧﺰا‬anfluanza - which means flu in English) do score[c]+ =log condprob[t][c]
(5) ‫( اﻟﺨﻨﺎزﻳﺮ‬al khanazeer - which means the swine in English) return arg maxcC score[c]
( 3) ‫( ﻣﺮض‬marad - which means disease in English)
2 (6) ‫( ﻓﻴﺮوس‬vairoos which means Virus in English) Yes
(9) ‫( اﻧﻔﻠﻮﻧﺰا‬anfluanza - which means flu in English)
(6)‫( اﻟﺨﻨﺎزﻳﺮ‬al khanazeer - which means the swine in English)
4. Arabic FA words with NB classifier
Training set
In this section, we apply our new method on modified Naïve

(8) ‫( ﺗﻄﻌﻴﻢ‬tataeem - which means vaccination in English
3 (10) ‫( ﻓﻴﺮوس‬vairoos which means Virus in English) Yes Bayes (NB) classifier algorithm. That is extracted Arabic FA
(11) ‫( اﻧﻔﻠﻮﻧﺰا‬anfluanza - which means flu in English)
(9) ‫( ﻣﺮض‬marad - which means disease in English)
words and used it innaive bayes classifier.in the following we
(9) ‫( اﻟﺼﺤﺔ‬al seha - which means health in English) will illustrste our method by the following example.
(4) ‫( ﻟﻘﺎح‬leqah - which means inoculation in English)
4 (6) ‫( ﺗﻄﻌﻴﻢ‬tataeem - which means vaccination in English No Example 4: Naïve Bayes for normal word of Table 1, the
(1) ‫( وﺑﺎء‬wabaa - which means epidemic in English
(1) ‫( ﺟﺮﻋﺔ‬gora - which means dosage in English multinomial parameters we need to classify the test document
(3) ‫( ﻟﻘﺎح‬leqah - which means inoculation in English) as the priors pˆ (c)  0.75 and pˆ (c )  0.25 and the conditional
5 (2) ‫( اﻧﻔﻠﻮﻧﺰا‬anfluanza - which means flu in English) ?
(2) ‫( اﻟﺨﻨﺎزﻳﺮ‬al khanazeer - which means the swine in English) probabilities are given in Table 1.
Test set
(2) ‫( وﺑﺎء‬wabaa - which means epidemic in English

(3) ‫( ﺟﺮﻋﺔ‬gora - which means dosage in English
(5) ‫( ﻟﻘﺎح‬laqah - which means inoculation in English) Table 1: Data for parameter estimation examples
Tct When we apply NB(C, D) algorithm on Example (3)
pˆ (t / c )  (8). we get;
tv Tct
Where Tct the number of occurrence of t in the training
pˆ (c / ‫حاقل‬ )  0.045 , pˆ (c / ‫ازنولفنأ‬ )  0.273 ,
document of the class c , and Tct is the number of occurrence
pˆ (c / ‫ريزانخلا‬ )  0.109 , pˆ (c / ‫ ) ةعرج‬ 0.009 ,
of t with remain documents of the class c including multiple pˆ (c / ‫ءابو‬ )  0.009
occurring of a term in a document. If a term t k in the training
p̂ (c/d5)= 0.75  (0.045)5  (0.273) 2  (0.109) 2  (0.009) 2  (0.009) 3  8  10 21
document only occurred in one document; then the estimates
Also
for the other classes will be zero. To eliminate zeros, we
simply add one or using Laplace smoothing, which simply pˆ (c / ‫حاقل‬ )  0 .2 , pˆ (c / ‫ءابو‬ )  0 .1 ,
adds one to each count. pˆ (c / ‫ ) ةعرج‬ 0.1 , pˆ (c / ‫ازنولفنأ‬ )  0.05 ,

Tct  1 Tct  1
pˆ (t / c)   (9). pˆ (c / ‫ريزانخلا‬ )  0.05 ,
tv (Tct  1) tv Tct  B
Where B  v is the number of terms in the vocabulary. Add p̂ ( c /d5)= 0.25  (0.2)  (0.05)  (0.05) 2  (0.1) 2  (0.1)3  5  10 15 .
5 2
one smoothing can be interpreted as a uniform prior (each From the above results, the classifier transformed the
term occurs one for each class) that is updated as evidence document d5 from class c to c . But the true location of d5 is
from the training data aims in. in c. Therefore, we suggest the modification of the train
Naïve Bayes algorithm (multinomial model): Training and
multinomial algorithm as below:
testing
TRAIN MULTINOMINAL NB(C,D) Modifying TRAIN MULTINOMINAL NB(C,D)
V  Extract vocabulary(D) V  Extract vocabulary(D)
N  Count Docs(D) N  Count Docs(D)
for each c  C for each c  C
do Nc  count Docs in class(D,C) do Nc  count Docs in class(D,C)
prior[c]  Nc/N
prior[c]  Nc/N
textc  concatenate text of all Doc in class(D,C)
textc  concatenate text of all Doc in class(D,C)
for each t V
do Tct  count token of each term(textc,t) 1 for each t V
do Tct  count token of each term(textc,t)
for each t V

www.IJCSI.org 187
Do Inc=
c Words in document ‫اﻧﻔﻠﻮﻧﺰا‬
ID ‫اﻟﺨﻨﺎزﻳﺮ‬ When we apply NB (C, D) algorithm on Example (4) we get;
p̂ ( c /1 ‫ أن‬1‫=)ﻓﻴﺮوس أﺗﺶ‬0.25 , p̂ ( c / ‫=) أﻧﻔﻠﻮﻧﺰا اﻟﺨﻨﺎزﻳﺮ‬0.625,
1 (2) 1 ‫ ان‬1 ‫( ﻓﻴﺮوس اﺗﺶ‬vairoos H1N1- which means virus Yes
H1N1 in English) Table 2: parameter estimation examples with compound FA words
(5) ‫( أﻧﻔﻠﻮﻧﺰا اﻟﺨﻨﺎزﻳﺮ‬anfluanza al khanazeer - which means
swine flu in English) p̂ ( c /‫=)ﺣﻤﻠﺔ ﺗﻄﻌﻴﻢ‬0.04, , p̂ ( c /‫=)ﻣﻨﻈﻤﺔ اﻟﺼﺤﺔ‬0.032, p (c / d 5 )  57  10 9 .
(1)‫( ﻣﻨﻈﻤﺔ اﻟﺼﺤﺔ اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﻴﺔ‬monazamet al seha al alamya -
which means the International Health Organization in p̂ ( c /1 ‫ أن‬1‫=)ﻓﻴﺮوس أﺗﺶ‬0.05, p̂ ( c / ‫ = )أﻧﻔﻠﻮﻧﺰا اﻟﺨﻨﺎزﻳﺮ‬0.05,
English)
p̂ ( c /‫=)ﺣﻤﻠﺔ ﺗﻄﻌﻴﻢ‬0.09 , p̂ ( c /‫= )ﻣﻨﻈﻤﺔ اﻟﺼﺤﺔ‬0.18, p (c / d 5 )  7.9  10 15 .
2 (1) 1 ‫ ان‬1 ‫( ﻓﻴﺮوس اﺗﺶ‬vairoos H1N1- which means virus Yes
H1N1 in English)
(6) ‫( أﻧﻔﻠﻮﻧﺰا اﻟﺨﻨﺎزﻳﺮ‬anfluanza al khanazeer - which means
By using compound FA words instated of using single FA
swine flu in English) words, tends to more accurate result and better classification.
(1) ‫( ﺣﻤﻠﺔ ﺗﻄﻌﻴﻢ‬hamlat tateem- which means vaccination
expeditions in English)
Training set
3 (1) 1 ‫ ان‬1 ‫( ﻓﻴﺮوس اﺗﺶ‬vairoos H1N1- which means virus Yes Table 2: parameter estimation examples with compound FA words
H1N1 in English)
(6) ‫( أﻧﻔﻠﻮﻧﺰا اﻟﺨﻨﺎزﻳﺮ‬anfluanza al khanazeer - which means 5. Experimental
swine flu in English)
(1) ‫( ﺣﻤﻼت اﻟﺘﻄﻌﻴﻢ ﺑﺎﻟﻠﻘﺎﺣﺎت‬hamalat tateem bel leqahat- which The new method for using FA words can be applied
means vaccination expeditions with inoculations in to classify any Arabic document such as web documents,
English)
4 (2)‫( ﻣﻨﻈﻤﺔ اﻟﺼﺤﺔ اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﻴﺔ‬monazamet al seha al alamya - No scientific paper, articles, news and others. In this paper the
which means the International Health Organization in
English) experimental is formed on a collection of web documents
(2) ‫( ﺣﻤﻼت اﻟﺘﻄﻌﻴﻢ ﺑﺎﻟﻠﻘﺎﺣﺎت‬hamalat tateem bel laqahat- which because, its unstructured data and hardly to classify it.
means vaccination expeditions with inoculations in
English) Our experiments trained the system using Arabic documents
expedition in English) collected from the Internet. It mainly collected from Al-
(1) ‫( ﻣﺮض ﻓﻴﺮوﺳﻰ‬marad vayrossy- which means virus jazeera Arabic news channel which is the largest Arabic site,
disease in English)
Al-Ahram newspaper, Al-watan newspaper, Al Akhbar, Al
5 (1) 1 ‫ ان‬1 ‫( ﻓﻴﺮوس اﺗﺶ‬vairoos H1N1- which means virus ?
H1N1 in English)
Arabiya and Wikipedia the free encyclopedia. The documents
(6) ‫( أﻧﻔﻠﻮﻧﺰا اﻟﺨﻨﺎزﻳﺮ‬anfluanza al khanazeer - which means categorized into 16 super-field and 137 subfields. The number
swine flu in English)
of files in our corpus is 1,819 file and it is about 26.4 MB. For
Test set

expedition in English) experimental evaluation, we download a source code written
(1)‫( ﻣﻨﻈﻤﺔ اﻟﺼﺤﺔ اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﻴﺔ‬monazamet al seha al alamya -
which mean the International Health Organization in in JAVA from
English)
http://nlp.cs.byu.edu/mediawiki/index.php/CS601R:Project_1
for each t V
_Guidelines. In addition, we modified it to be suitable for the
if pˆ (t / c)  0
new NB algorithm. Also, we prepare the system according to
do condprob[t][c]  Tct  1
http://nlp.cs.byu.edu/mediawiki/index.php/How_to_prepare_y
 (Tct  1)
t
our_system.
Tct
else, do
 Tct
t V 5.1 Experimental Evaluation for FA Naïve Bayes Text
return V, prior, condprob. Classifier
By applying the modifying algorithm to the same example we
get: System measurements (Recall, Precession, F-Measure) have
pˆ (c / ‫ ) حاقل‬ 0.039 , pˆ (c / ‫ازنولفنأ‬ )  0.29 ,
been used as defined in the following, for 6 super-fields with
ˆp (c / ‫ريزانخلا‬ )  0.10 , p (c / ‫ ) ءابو‬ 9  10 ,
ˆ 3
NB classification using keyword, FA words and compound
pˆ (c / ‫ ) ةعرج‬ 9 103 , p(c / d 5 )  40905  10 13 . FA as shown in Table 3, Table 4 and Table 5.
pˆ (c / ‫حاقل‬ )  0.272 , pˆ (c / ‫ازنولفنأ‬ )  0.05 , Correct Classified Documnts
Re call ( R ) 
pˆ (c / ‫ريزانخلا‬ )  0.05 , pˆ (c / ‫ءابو‬ )  0.09 , Totall Corrected Classified
pˆ (c / ‫ ) ةعرج‬ 0.09 , p(c / d 5 )  1.3736  10 14 . Correct Classified Documnts
Pr ecison( P) 
Thus, the classifier assigns the test document to c= ‫أﻧﻔﻠ ﻮﻧﺰا‬ Totall Re trieved Classified
‫اﻟﺨﻨ ﺎزﻳﺮ‬.The reason for this classification decision is that the 2 P R
F  measure 
occurrence to the positive indicator‫ أﻧﻔﻠﻮﻧﺰا اﻟﺨﻨﺎزﻳﺮ‬. PR
Example 5: Applying the classifier to compound FA words. From the estimation results, the performance for each method
Naïve Bayes for compound FA words of Table 5, the priors is calculated and the best performance is recorded for NB
pˆ (c)  0.75, and pˆ (c )  0.25 and the conditional probabilities are
classification using compound FA-words as shown in Table 6.
given in Table 2, Moreover, the calculation of F-measure for NB classification

www.IJCSI.org 188
for each class separately using compound FA-words are more Classification Classification Classification
with with FA with compound
accurate than normal keywords and FA words. keywords words FA words
Precision 0.31 0.71 0.81
Recall 0.81 0.92 0.99
F- 0.43 0.79 0.89
F- measure
Name of field Precision Recall
measure
‫( اﻻﺳﺘﻨﺴﺎخ‬al estensakh- which 0.3 0.66 0.4125 Table 6: The Comparison of Medium for Results of NB
means the cloning in English)
‫( اﻷﻣﺮاض‬al amrad- which 0.59 0.79 0.6755 In conclusion, the results of F-measure of both
means diseases in English)
‫( اﻟﺒﻴﺌﺔ‬al beaa- which means the 0.24 0.9 0.378 classifiers using in this study for each class separately
environment in English) using compound FA words are more accurate than
‫( اﻟﺘﻜﻨﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ‬al tecnologia- which 0.33 0.87 0.4785
means tecnology in English) normal keywords and FA words. Figure 1 show that NB
‫( ﺟﺴﻢ اﻹﻧﺴﺎن‬gesem al ensaan- 0.18 0.75 0.29 classification using compound FA words more accurate
which means the human body
in English) than others.
‫( ﻣﻘﺎﻻت ﻋﻠﻤﻴﺔ‬makalat elmiah- 0.22 0.89 0.35
which means scientific
articles in English) 1.2
Table 3: NB classification using Normal Keyword
1
NB classification
0.8
with keywords
F-
Name of field Precision Recall 0.6
measure
‫( اﻻﺳﺘﻨﺴﺎخ‬al estensakh- which 0.73 0.95 0.825 NB Classification
means the cloning in English) 0.4
‫(اﻷﻣﺮاض‬al amrad- which means 0.82 0.77 0.794
with FA words
diseases in English) 0.2
‫( اﻟﺒﻴﺌﺔ‬al beaa- which means the 0.69 1 0.81
environment in English) NB Classification
‫( اﻟﺘﻜﻨﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ‬al tecnologia- which 0.86 0.84 0.849 0 with compound
means technology in English) FA words
‫( ﺟﺴﻢ اﻹﻧﺴﺎن‬gesem al ensaan- 0.67 0.98 0.796
which means the human body in
English)
‫( ﻣﻘﺎﻻت ﻋﻠﻤﻴﺔ‬makalat elmiah- 0.54 1 0.70
which means scientific articles
in English) Figure 1: NB classification comparison
Table 4: NB Classification using FA Words
6. Conclusion
Name of field Precision Recall F-
measure
‫( اﻻﺳﺘﻨﺴﺎخ‬al estensakh- which 0.78 0.98 0.86
With increasing popularity of the internet and
means the cloning in English) tremendous amount of online text, automatic document
‫(اﻷﻣﺮاض‬al amrad- which means 0.89 1 0.94
diseases in English) classification is important for organizing huge amounts
‫( اﻟﺒﻴﺌﺔ‬al beaa- which means the 0.84 1 0.91 of data especially Arabic documents. Moreover,
environment in English)
‫( اﻟﺘﻜﻨﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ‬al tecnologia- which 0.80 1 0.88 document fields can be decided efficiently if there are
means the technology in many FA words and if the frequency rate is high. FA
English)
‫( ﺟﺴﻢ اﻹﻧﺴﺎن‬gesem al ensaan- 0.73 1 0.84 words are used to classify Arabic documents. Words are
which means the human body in extracted from these document corpora to get FA word
English)
‫( ﻣﻘﺎﻻت ﻋﻠﻤﻴﺔ‬makalat elmiah- 0.86 1 0.92 candidates. Furthermore, we used the NB classifier with
which means scientific articles
in English)
our modification to refine Arabic document
Table 5: NB Classification using Compound FA Words classification. From the experiential results, the NB
classifier using FA words recorded of F-measure is 79%
and, using compound FA words of F-measure is 89%.

www.IJCSI.org 189
Future work could focus on automatic building of Arabic [10] Forman G. "An Extensive Empirical Study of Feature
FA words using morphological analysis. Selection Metrics for Text Classification", Journal of
Machine Learning Research 3 pp. 1289–1305, (2003).
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www.IJCSI.org 190
Cooperating/distributed systems, web information retrieval, Petri nets
for semi-supervised classification", Knowledge and and its applications, and finite automata and cryptograph.
Information Systems Volume 23, Number 3, 345-372,
O. El-Barbary received B.Sc. Degree in Statistics and computer
DOI: 10.1007/s10115-009-0220-4, (2010). science from, Faculty of Science, Tanta University, Egypt, in 2004 and
M.Sc. in computer science from, Faculty of Science, Menofya
University, Egypt, in 2007, and now she is studying Ph.D. in Faculty of
M . E. Abd El-Monsef M . E. Abd El-Monsef received the B.S&ED degree Science, Menofya University, Egypt in the field of information retrieval
in Mathematics from Assuit University, Egypt, in 1968 and the B.S degree and natural language processing.
from Faculty of Science, Assuit University, Egypt, in 1973. He received the
MS degree in Mathematics from Al Azhar University, Cairo, Egypt, in 1977.
He received his PhD degree in Mathematics from Tanta University,
Tanta, Egypt, in 1980. He was assistant professor in the Department of
Mathematics, Faculty of Science, Tanta University, from 1984. He was
a professor of Mathematics in the Department of Mathematics, Faculty
of Science, Tanta University, from 1988. He worked as Vice Dean of
Faculty of Science, Tanta University, for postgraduate and researches
affair from 1991 to 1996. He worked as Vice Dean of Faculty of
Science, Tanta University for students affairs from 1996 to 1999. He
worked as Dean of Faculty of Science, Tanta University from 1999 to
2005. He was Chairman of the Scientific Committee of Promotion to
Assistant Professors Post in Mathematics of the Scientific Council of
the Egyptian Universities from 2001 to 2004. Member of the Scientific
Committee of Promotion to Professors Post in Mathematics from 2004
to 2008. He is a member of National Committee for Mathematics, a
member of National Committee for History and Philosophy of Science,
member of the Board of Directors of Egyptian mathematics Society,
member of the editorial board of the Journal of Egyptian Mathematical
Society, member of the Egyptian Society for the Arabization of
Sciences. He Was the Editor of the Delta Science Journal .He is
Representative of Tanta University in the League of Islamic
Universities, member of Editorial Board of the international scientific
journal Science Echoes and Applied Mathematics & Information
Sciences. He is a member of the Supreme Advisory Committee of the
Centre for Development of the Delta Region of the Academy of
Scientific Research and Technology. He participated in more than 90
Scientific Conference and seminar specialist. He Also supervised over
51 PhD and about 47 Master. Sovereignty to a lot of researches in the
fields of general topology and fuzzy topology about 100 research
papers published in scientific journals, interior and exterior prestigious.
Was awarded the University of Tanta estimated in the basic sciences
for the year 2001/2002. His research interests include General
Topology, Rough Sets, Digital Topology and Fuzzy Sets.
Dr. El-Sayed Atlam: Received B.Sc. and M. Sc. Degrees in

Mathematics from, Faculty of Science, Tanta University,
Egypt, in 1990 and 1994, respectively, and the Ph.D. degree in
information science and Intelligent systems from University of
Tokushima, Japan, in 2002. He has been awarded by a Japan Society
of the Promotion of Science (JSPS) postdoctoral Fellow from 2003 to
2005 in Department of Information Science & Intelligent Systems,
Tokushima University; He is currently Associate professor at the
Department of information science and Intelligent systems from
University of Tokushima, Japan. He is also Associate professor at the
Department of Statistical and Computer science, Tanta University,
Egypt. Dr. Atlam is a member in the Computer Algorithm Series of the
IEEE computer society Press (CAS) and the Egyptian Mathematical
Association (EMA). His research interests include information retrieval,
natural language processing and document processing.
Mohammed Amin was graduated in mathematics in 1983 at

Menoufiya University. He studied computer science from 1986 to 1989
at Ain Shams University in Cairo and received the M.Sc. degree in
1990 and the Ph.D degree in computer science in 1997 at the
University of Gdansk, Poland. He is associate professor of computer
science at the faculty of science, Menoufiya University, and research
visitor to the faculty of Philosophy and sciences of the Silesian
University, Opava, Czech Republic. Hisresearch area in formal
languages and their application in compiler design.

www.IJCSI.org 191
Semantic understanding of Image content

1 2 3
Miss D. D. Dhobale Mr. B. S. Patil Mrs. S. B. Patil 4 Dr. V. R. Ghorpade
1, 2
PVPIT Budhgaon, Sangli, Maharashtra (India).
3
JJM COE, Jaysingpur.
4
DYPCET, Kolhapur, Maharashtra, (India),
depends on the choice of the set of visual features and on the

Abstract—Large amounts of s patial data are b ecoming choice of the metric that models the user’s perception of
available today due to the rapid development of remote sensing similarity. Several systems are proposed to improve the
techniques. Several retrieval s ystems are p roposed to retrieve retrieval quality and to provide semantic in retrieval process
necessary, interested and effective in formation such as key- such as relevant feedback [4], semantic template [5],
word based image retrieval an d content based image retrieval. machine learning [6] and ontology [7], etc.
However, the results of th ese approaches are gen erally
unsatisfactory, unpredictable and don’t matc h human
perception due to th e well gap between visual features and Our retrieval system is based on two modules:
semantic concepts [1]. In th is paper, we propose a ne w ontological model merging and semantic strategic retrieval.
approach allowing semantic satellite image retrieval, describing The first module allows developing ontological models
the semantic image con tent and managing uncertain which represent spatial knowledge of the satellite image. In
information. It’s base d on ontology model which represents addition, it manages uncertain information and resolves
spatial knowledge in or der to pr ovide semantic understanding conflicts situations using a fusion algorithm for merging
of image content.
ontological models which represent satellite image
knowledge. The second module allows retrieving satellite
Our retrieval system is based on two modules: images basing on their ontological model. In order to
ontological model merging and semantic strategic image improve the quality of retrieval system and to facilitate the
retrieval. The first module allows developing ontological models retrieval process, we propose two retrieval strategies which
which represent spatial knowledge of the satellite image, and
are the opportunist strategy and the hypothetic strategy.
managing uncertain information. The second module allows
retrieving satellite images basing on their ontological model. In
These strategies allow reducing the ontological model base
order to improve the quality of retrieval system and to facilitate and facilitate the retrieval process.
the retrieval process, we propose two retrieval strategies which
are the opportunist strategy and the hypothetic strategy. II. IMAGE RETRIEVAL SYSTEMS
Our approach attempts to improve the quality of Image retrieval systems are developed such as text
image retrieval, to red uce the semantic gap between visual
based image retrieval and content-based image retrieval. In
features and semantic concepts and to pr ovide an automatic
solution for efficient satellite image retrieval. the text-based approach, the images are manually annotated
by text descriptors (keyword) which are then used in the
retrieval process. But, this approach requires a considerable
Keywords- Semantic image retrieval; scene interpretation;
effort for manual annotation, and the keyword does not
knowledge representation; ontology merging; semantic similarity.
necessarily describe image content. In addition, the user may
know little about the domain, and thus can’t specify the most
I. INTRODUCTION appropriate keywords for image retrieval [8]. To overcome
the above disadvantages in text-based retrieval system,
Content-Based image retrieval (CBIR) systems are content-based image retrieval (CBIR) was introduced in the
usually based on the description of images by low-level early 1980s. In this approach, images are indexed by their
(colors, gray shades, textures), and middle-level (contours, visual content, such as color, texture, shapes, etc [9]. To
regions, shapes) features [2], [3]. A retrieval algorithm retrieve images, users provide image query or sketched
matches these descriptions with a user query according to figures; then, the system changes these examples into its
some similarity metric. The effectiveness of a CBIR system internal representation of feature vectors. The similarities
www.IJCSI.org 192
between the feature vectors of the query example and those with possible restrictions. The conceptualization describes
of the images in the database are then calculated and knowledge about the domain, not about the particular state
retrieval is performed with the aid of an indexing scheme. of affairs in the domain. In other words, the
The indexing scheme provides an efficient way to search for conceptualization is not changing, or is changing very rarely.
the image Ontology is then specification of this conceptualization - the
conceptualization is specified by using particular modeling
database [1]. However, the similarity measures between language and particular terms. Formal specification is
visual features do not match human perception [8]; for required in order to be able to process ontologies and operate
example, two images can be very similar in color, size, and on ontologies automatically. Three kinds of inter-
shape, despite containing different objects. Thus, the relationships are generally represented in an ontology: “IS-
retrieval results of low level features based retrieval A”, “Instance-Of”, and “Part-Of”. These relations
approach are generally unsatisfactory and often correspond to key abstraction primitives in object based and
unpredictable. semantic data models. “Instance-Of” relation shows
membership between concepts, while “Part-Of” shows
composition relationships. “IS-A” relation shows concept
While [10] and [11] based their solutions on visual inclusion, it used in similarity comparison in ontology-based
features, argued that in many domain specific applications, image retrieval. When concept has an “IS-A” relation to
such as medical image databases, the semantic content is another concept, this means that the second concept is more
more desirable. They also introduced the I-Browse general than the first concept. If concept A has relation “IS-
histological image retrieval system. I-Browse associates A”to concept B, we call concept A sub-concept and call
semantic meaning, visual properties, contextual knowledge concept B a super-concept. One characteristic of “IS-A”
and textual annotations into a single framework for relation is that all the attributes of a super-concept can be
retrieving histological images. Two major techniques may be inherited by its sub concepts. Sub-concepts normally have
used for building the retrieval engines: more attributes than super-concepts and as a result,
correspondingly sub-concepts are more specific.
• Retrieval using visual features.
A. Measuring similarity between ontological models:
• Retrieval using semantic features
The measures for similarity computation can be
A. The semantic gap divided into two general groups [13]; namely, lexical
measures comparing entity labels, and structural measure
comparing taxonomic hierarchy. In [13], seven criteria are
The approach first classifies a query using the features
extracted for deciding that two entities are similar:
that best differentiate the Level 1 classes and then
customizes the query to that class by using the features that
best distinguish the Level 2 classes within the chosen Level  Their direct super-entities (or all of their super-entities)
1 class. Level 1 class corresponds to seven main disease are already similar.
classes and Level 2 classes correspond to the Level 1  Their sibling-entities (or all of their sibling-entities) are
subclasses. The discriminating features for each level are already similar.
automatically chosen from 256 visual features for image  Their direct sub-entities (or all of their sub-entities) are
color, texture and geometry. In order to derive high-level already similar.
semantic features, machine learning techniques have been  All (or most) of their descendant-entities (entities in the
introduced in CBIR such as neural network for concept sub-tree rooted at the entity in question) are already
learning, Bayesian network for indoor/outdoor image similar.
classification and SVM for image annotation.  All (or most) of their leaf-entities (entities, which have
no sub-entity, in the sub-tree rooted at the entity in
III. ONTOLOGY question) are already similar.
 All (or most) of entities in the paths from the root to the
entities in question are already similar.
Ontologies now play an important role for many
 All (or most) of relative entities to the entities in
knowledge-intensive applications for which they provide a
question using properties are similar.
source of precisely defined terms. The term "ontology" can
be defined as an explicit specification of conceptualization.
IV. THE MAIN APPROACH
Ontologies capture the structure of the domain, i.e.
conceptualization. This includes the model of the domain
www.IJCSI.org 193
We propose an ontology approach for satellite This module allows retrieving satellite images
image retrieval as shown in figure 1. The proposed system basing on their ontological model. The retrieval system
contains two main modules: ontological model merging and contains a scene base composed of satellite images, and an
semantic strategic retrieval. ontological model base composed of ontological models
which correspond to these satellites images. The idea is to
A. Module 1: Ontological model merging retrieve satellite images basing on their ontological models;
two images are similar if their ontological models are
1) Ontological modeling of the scene: Scene modeling similar. In order to improve the quality of retrieval system
consists of creating an ontological model describing features and to facilitate the retrieval process, we propose two
and spatial relations between them. This process contains retrieval strategies which are the opportunist strategy and the
two steps as shown in figure 2: the treatment step and the hypothetic strategy.
modeling step.
In the first step, we classify the satellite image, and
extract objects from these classes. In the second step, we
develop an ontological model representing extracted objects
and spatial relation between them: The sensor ontological
model, the scene ontological model and the spatial relation
ontological model. The sensor ontological model allows
representing the types of sensor according to their
functioning mode. The scene ontological model allows
representing objects in the satellite scene and their semantic
hierarchy. The spatial relation ontological model allows
representing spatial relation, position, direction and distance
between objects.
2) Merging ontological models: The developed

ontological models given by the first module cannot
represent all objects of the real scene. Each model gives a
particular aspect of the scene. For example, acquired by an
optic sensor is clearer than a radar sensor. In addition, there
are many conflicts situations: a scene feature can have many
significations. For example, a line object in a scene can be
interpreted as a road in a satellite image, and a River in
another image.
3) Probabilistic method for merging ontological

models: An approach for merging uncertain information is
presented in [14]. It allows merging structured reports in
XML document by using fusion approach such as
probabilistic method, evidence method and possibility
method. Our ontological model is formalized in OWL
language. This language is based on XML/RDF. Therefore,
we propose to adapt this approach in our fusion module by
adding a specific attribute representing and managing Fig. 1 The main conceptual diagram
uncertain information. Especially, we add the probability
attribute to the object of the Ontological model. For
example, Scene feature is a cultivated parcel with probability
value of 80%, and forest with probability value of 20%.
B. Module 2: Semantic strategic retrieval

www.IJCSI.org 194
these objects. The result of this strategy is the set of

ontological models which contains these atypical objects.
2) The hypothetic strategy: This strategy is based

on the result of the opportunist strategic and the merged
ontological model. It establishes the similarity degree for
each model in the ontological model base according to its
conformity with the query model. The result of this strategy
is a set of ontological models ordered by their similarity
degree. The similarity between ontological models is based
on several levels such as the lexical similarity and the
structural similarity.
V. CONCLUSION
In this paper, we presented an ontology approach

for semantic retrieving satellite image taking into account
the representation of spatial knowledge and based on two
main modules: ontological models merging and semantic
strategic retrieval. Our approach permits to overcome the
obstacles of keyword-based approach. It has the potential to
fully describe the semantic content of an image. Besides, it
Fig. 2 Ontological modeling process manages uncertain information and resolves conflicts
situation by fusion algorithm that allows developing an ideal
and reliable ontological model describing satellite scene.
This work contributes the methodologies for the semantic
representation, and the retrieval processes using ontology
approach.
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www.IJCSI.org 196
A Comparative Study on ANFIS and Fuzzy Expert System

Models for Concrete Mix Design
Mehdi Neshat1, Ali Adeli2 , Azra masoumi3 , Mehdi sargolzae4
1
Department of Computer, Shirvan Branch, Islamic Azad University,
Shirvan, Iran
2
Shirvan, Iran
3
Shirvan, Iran
4
Shirvan, Iran
making process in areas such as diagnostics, design, and

Abstract repair and rehabilitation .
The aim of this study is to design ANFIS model and Fuzzy In the civil engineering field, acquiring the concrete
Expert System for determination of concrete mix design and mix design is so difficult and sensitive. Classical way to
finally compare their results. The datasets which has been loaded determination of concrete mix design is based on
into ANFIS contains 552 mix designs and has been based on ACI uncertainty and depends on expert idea.
mix designs. Moreover, in this study, a Fuzzy Expert System has
Concrete is a material consisting of a binder within
been designed. Input fields of fuzzy expert system are Slump,
Maximum Size of Aggregate (Dmax), Concrete Compressive which aggregate particles are imbedded [8].
Strength (CCS) and Fineness Modulus (FM). Output fields are Under normal conditions, concrete grows stronger as it
quantities of water, Cement, Fine Aggregate (F.A) and Course grows older .The chemical reactions between cement and
Aggregate (C.A).In the ANFIS model, there are 4 layers (4 water that cause the paste to harden and bind the
ANFIS models) that first layer takes values of Dmax and Slump aggregates together require time .The reactions take place
and then determines the quantity of Water, second layer takes very rapidly at first and then more slowly over a long
values of Water (that computed in previous layer) and CCS to period of time [16].
measure the value of Cement, third layer takes values of Dmax Concrete production is a complex process that involves the
and F.M to computes the measure of C.A and 4th layer takes
effect of several processing parameters on the quality
values of Water, Cement, C.A (which determined in previous
layers) and the measure of concrete density to compute the value control parameter of 28-day compressive strength. These
of F.A. Comparison of two systems (FIS and ANFIS) results parameters are all effective in producing a single strength
showed that results of ANFIS model are better than Fuzzy Expert quantity of 28-day compressive strength. So, an
System when these systems designed and tested. In ANFIS inconvenient mix design doesn't have very good result.
model, for Water output field, training and average testing errors These factors are: Water, Cement, Slump, Maximum Size
are 0.86 and 0.8, respectively. In cement field, training error and of Aggregate, Fine aggregate, Coarse aggregate,
average testing error are 0.21 and 0.22, respectively. Training Age(day), Exposure condition, Absorption of fine
and average testing error of C.A are 0.0001 and 0.0004, aggregate and coarse aggregate, Specific gravity of water
respectively and finally, F.A’s training and average testing errors
and cement and fine aggregate and coarse aggregate and
are 0.0049 and 0.0063, respectively.
etc.
Keywords: concrete mix design, ANFIS, fuzzy expert Human experts perform the design of concrete mix and the
system, Water, Cement, slump. design process is not amenable to precise mathematical
formulations .It is practically impossible to achieve the
1. Introduction design strength of the mix in the field and what is realized
in field is somewhere around the design strength .This is
The Artificial intelligence (AI) is receiving greater due to uncertain behavior of constituent materials,
attention from the building industry to aid in the decision impreciseness and vagueness in various parameters
involved in the design. Due to this, the process of mix
www.IJCSI.org 197
design turns out to be approximate .It is thus essential to their developed expert systems, mix design codes derived
formulate approximate procedure of mix design in a way from data obtained from experience with concrete
that is more natural, humanistic and more scientific .The materials. The expert systems were developed using expert
potential of fuzzy logic really lies here [10]. system shells such as EXSYS Professional, level 5, level 5
Motivated by the need of such an important tool, in this object and kappa-PC [16].
comparative study, first, a fuzzy expert system and an Lawrence J. Kaetzel and James R. Clifton have worked on
ANFIS model have been developed to design best Expert/Knowledge-Based Systems for Cement and
concrete mix designs. These models which deal with mix Concrete. This survey is the initial step in the development
design have been implemented and experimental results of expert systems for the SHRP C-206 project. The report
showed that ANFIS model did quite better than the FIS addresses three topics: 1)the potential for the application
system and the other non-fuzzy systems. of expert systems for concrete mixture design and
Remaining of the paper organized as follows. Previous diagnostics, repair and rehabilitation, 2)a description of
research concerning concrete mix design will be shown in inference procedures that are best suited for representing
the next part .In section 3, the dataset has been introduced . the concrete pavement and structure knowledge domain,
In section 4, method of designing will be shown that and 3)recent expert/knowledge based systems activities
includes fuzzy expert systems designing. In section 4-1-1, [15].
FIS designing will be introduced. Rule base of FIS has S. Tesfamariam and H. Najjaran designed Adaptive
been described in section 4-1-2, and in section 4-1-3, we Network-Fuzzy Inferencing to Estimate Concrete Strength
show fuzzification and defuzzification of FIS. Section 4-1- Using Mix Design. In this paper, the use of adaptive
4 contains FIS testing. Designing of ANFIS models starts neuro-fuzzy inferencing system (ANFIS) is proposed to
from section 4-2 that has been divided to four parts: In train a fuzzy model and estimate concrete strength. The
section 4-2-1, we introduce method of designing that efficiency of the proposed method is verified using actual
includes The ANFIS model 1 designing. Section 4-2-2 concrete mix proportioning datasets reported in the
includes the designing of The ANFIS model 2, section 4- literature, and the corresponding coefficient of
2-3 includes The ANFIS model 3 designing and final part determination r2 range from 0.970-0.999. Further,
is about The ANFIS model 4 designing. Final section sensitivity analysis is carried out to highlight the impact of
(section 5) shows conclusion. different mix constituents on the estimate concrete
strength [17].
2. Previous Research Mahmut Bilgehan worked a comparative study for the
Despite the fact that these fields, in which the computers concrete compressive strength estimation using neural
are used, have very high complexity and uncertainty and network and neuro-fuzzy modeling approaches. In this
the use of intelligent systems such as fuzzy logic[3], paper, adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS)
artificial neural network[4] and genetic algorithm have and artificial neural network (ANN) model have been
been developed. These papers will be reviewed as successfully used for the evaluation of relationships
following section: between concrete compressive strength and ultrasonic
M.C.Nataraja, M.A.Jayaram and C.N.Ravikumar designed pulse velocity (UPV) values using the experimental data
A Fuzzy-Neuro Model for Normal Concrete Mix Design. obtained from many cores taken from different reinforced
This paper presents the development of a novel technique concrete structures having different ages and unknown
for approximate proportioning of standard concrete mixes. ratios of concrete mixtures. A comparative study is made
Distinct fuzzy inference modules in five layers have been using the neural nets and neuro-fuzzy (NF) techniques.
framed to capture the vagueness and approximations in Comparing of the results, it is found that the proposed
various steps of design as suggested in IS: 10262-2003 ANFIS architecture with Gaussian membership function is
and IS456-2000. A trained three layer back propagation found to perform better than the multilayer feed-forward
neural network is integrated in the model to remember ANN learning by backpropagation algorithm. The final
experimental data pertaining to w/c ratio v/s 28 days results show that especially the ANFIS modelling may
compressive strength relationship of three popular brands constitute an efficient tool for prediction of the concrete
of cement. The results in terms of quantities of cement, compressive strength [5].
fine aggregate, course aggregate and water obtained M. L. Nehdi and M. T. Bassuoni found a Fuzzy logic
through the present method for various grades of standard approach for estimating durability of concrete. A fuzzy
concrete mixes are in good agreement with those obtained inference system was built for the specific case of various
by the prevalent conventional method [10]. self-consolidating concrete mixtures subjected to
M. Abdullahi, H. M. A. Al-Mattarneh, A. H. Hassan, M. ammonium sulfate attack. The performance of this model
H. Abu Hassan and B. S. Mohammed have studied on A was compared with that of other models that enable
Review on Expert Systems for Concrete Mix Design. For decision making: the remaining service life model and
www.IJCSI.org 198
compromise programming. Results of the fuzzy inference 15 0.79 0.7

system had a better correlation with compromise Note that in designing FIS and ANFIS models, structures
programming (R 2 = 0·7) than that with the remaining have been based on non-air entrained concrete. To
service life model (R 2 = 0·5), and better represented the measure of coarse aggregate in kg/m3 unit, values of Table
actual degradation observed in test specimens. It is shown 2 must be multiplied to seeming specified gravity of
that the proposed fuzzy inference model is rational, clear, coarse aggregate in range of [1600, 1800]. For these
reliable, versatile and flexible since it can be easily models, all values of Table 2 have been multiplied to 1700
updated with new data or modified to accommodate future (average value of above range).
findings [2]. Harun Tanyildizi and Ahmet Qoskun, fuzzy With analyzing of these two datasets, two systems have
logic model for prediction of compressive strength of been purposed for acquiring mix design that has been
lightweight concrete made with scoria aggregate and fly based on Fuzzy Logic. First designed system is fuzzy
ash[6]. Tayfun Uyunoglu, Osman Unal, A new approach expert system and second is Adaptive Neural-Fuzzy
to determination of compressive strength of fly ash Inference System (ANFIS) model.
concrete using fuzzy logic[11].
Table 2: Dry bulk volume of coarse aggregate per unit volume of
Song-Sen Yang and Jing Xu and Guang-Zhu Yao have concrete
studied on Concrete strength evaluation based on fuzzy Dry bulk volume of coarse
aggregate per unit volume
neural networks. They were built a fuzzy neural network Maximum size
of concrete for fineness
(FNN) to evaluate concrete strength. It takes full of aggregate
modulus of sand
(mm)
advantage of the merits of the common concrete testing
2.4 2.6 2.8 3
methods, i.e. rebounding and drilling core, and the abilities
of FNN including self-learning, generation and fuzzy logic 9.5 0.5 0.48 0.46 0.44
inference. Verification test shows that the max relative 12.5 0.59 0.57 0.55 0.53
error of the predicted results is 1.12%, which meets the 19 0.66 0.64 0.62 0.6
need of practical engineering [7]. 25 0.71 0.69 0.67 0.65
37.5 0.75 0.73 0.71 0.69
50 0.78 0.76 0.74 0.72
3. Dataset 75 0.82 0.8 0.78 0.76
150 0.87 0.85 0.83 0.81
The idea of these systems has been based on two powerful
resources: first, rules and principles of American Concrete Table 3: Approximate requirement for mixing water and air content for
Institute (ACI) for determination of mix designs and different work abilities and maximum sizes of
second, concrete mix designs database at the University of aggregate (Non-air entrained)
California (UCI) that has been collected via Prof. I-Cheng Water content (kg/m3) of concrete for indicated
Yeh[14]. In the UCI's database, input fields are quantities Workability maximum aggregate size (mm)
or
of water, cement, blast furnace slag, fly ash, Super
Air content 9.5 12.5 25 37.5 50 75 150
plasticizer, coarse aggregate, fine aggregate and age (day)
and output field is the quantity of concrete compressive Slump
strength. Non-air entrained concrete
(mm)
The ACI rules has been based on ACI-211-89 that in FIS 25-50 207 199 179 166 154 130 113
system, have been used for determination of range of
75-100 228 216 193 181 169 145 124
variables, membership functions and rules but in ANFIS
model, have been used for FIS training. 150-175 243 228 202 190 178 160 -
Approximat
Table 1: Relation between water/cement ratio and average compressive e entrapped
3 2.5 1.5 1 0.5 0.3 0.2
strength of concrete (Fm) air content
Average Effective water/cement ratio (%)
compressive
Non-air
strength at Entrained Table 4: First estimate of density (unit weight) of concrete
entrained
28 days concrete First estimate of density of
concrete Maximum
(Kg/m3) concrete (kg/m3)
size of
40 0.42 - Non-air
aggregate Entrained
35 0.47 0.39 entrained
(mm) concrete
30 0.54 0.45 concrete
25 0.61 0.52 9.5 2280 2200
20 0.69 0.6 12.5 2310 2230
19 2345 2275
www.IJCSI.org 199
25 2380 2290 equations of membership expressions. These fuzzy sets

37.5 2410 2350 will be shown in Table 5 .Membership functions of this
50 2445 2345 field will be shown in Fig.1.
75 2490 2405
150 2530 2435
Table 5: Classification OF Slump

4. Methods INPUT RANGE FUZZY
Inspired by human's remarkable capability to perform a FIELD SETS
wide variety of physical and mental task without any < 80 Low=L
measurement and computations and dissatisfied with 60 - 140 Medium=M
classical logic as a tool for modeling human reasoning in Slump
120> High =H
an imprecise environment, Lotfi A.Zadeh developed the
theory and foundation of fuzzy logic with his 1965 paper
"Fuzzy Sets" [5].
The most important application of fuzzy system (fuzzy
logic) is in uncertain issues .When a problem has dynamic
behavior, fuzzy logic is a suitable tool that deals with this
problem [2].
The term "uncertainty" refers to a set of questions that
human experts ask themselves almost daily. Since these
(and related questions) represent issues which every
human decision maker must constantly face, they are also
issues that an automated expert system should be able to
handle.
In the first part of this section, we will show fuzzy expert Fig. 1 Membership functions of Slump
system designing, membership functions, fuzzy rule base,
fuzzification and defuzzification and in second part, the
ANFIS model will be introduced completely.
4.1 Fuzzy expert system design
First step of FIS designing is determination of input and
output variables .There are four inputs and four outputs.
After that, membership functions designing of all variables
will be started.
At first, input variables of FIS with their membership
functions will be described .In second step, output
variables of FIS with its membership functions will be
shown.
Input variables of FIS are:
Slump: A measure of consistency of freshly-mixed
concrete obtained by placing the concrete in a truncated
cone of standard dimensions, removing the cone, and
Maximum Size of Aggregate (Dmax): According to
measuring the subsidence of the concrete to the nearest 6
ASTM definition, in specifications for aggregates, the
mm (1/4 in.) [14] following the ASTM C 143-90 or EN
smallest sieve opening through which the entire amount of
12350-2 test standards. With increasing of slump value,
aggregate is required to pass is called the maximum size
measures of water and cement increase and value of fine
[14]. There is a direct relationship between Dmax and C.A
aggregate decreases and vice versa.
and a reverse relationship between Dmax and water, cement
This field accepts values in [20, 200] millimeter. The
and F.A. In the other word, with increasing of Dmax, the
interval conations three fuzzy sets such as: "Low",
values of water, cement and fine aggregation decrease, but
"Medium" and "High". Membership functions of "Low"
value of coarse aggregate increases and vice versa.
and "High" sets are trapezoidal and membership function
This input field accepts values in [9, 160] millimeter
of "Medium" set is triangular. Eq.(1) shows mathematical
unit. The interval has been divided to five fuzzy sets.
www.IJCSI.org 200
These sets are "Very Low", "Low", "Medium", "High" and [9][10]. So there is a direct relationship between CCS and
"Very High". Membership functions of "Very Low" and cement and a reverse relationship between CCS and F.A.
"Very High" sets are trapezoidal and membership This input field takes values in [10, 50] boundary. CCS
functions of “Low”, “Medium” and "High" sets are input field has six fuzzy sets such as: "Very Low", "Low",
triangular. Mathematical equations of Membership "Medium", "High", "Very High" and "Best". Membership
functions of Dmax field have been shown in Eq.(2). Fuzzy functions of “Very Low” and “Best” sets are trapezoidal
sets will be shown in Table 6 .Membership functions of and membership functions of "Low", "Medium", "high"
this field will be shown in Fig.2. and "Very High" sets are triangular. These membership
functions will be shown in Fig.3. Table 7 shows these
Table 6: classification of Dmax fuzzy sets with their ranges. Eq.(3) shows mathematical
INPUT FIELD RANGE FUZZY SETS equations of membership functions.
< 27 Very Low=VL
Table 7: classification of CCS
16 - 51 Low=L
Maximum Size OUTPUT RANGE FUZZY SETS
35-75 Medium=M
of Aggregate FIELD
60-105 High =H
90> Very High=VH < 20 Very Low=VL
15-25 Low=L
20-30 Medium=M
CCS
25-35 High =H
30-40 Very High=VH
35> Best= B
Fig. 2 Membership functions of Maximum Size of Aggregate
Fig. 3 Membership functions of CCS
Concrete Compressive Strength (CCS): The field refers

to the measure of concrete compressive strength in Mpa
unit. Compressive strength is a measure of the ability of
the concrete to withstand crushing loads [12]. The CCS
field effects on the cement and the F.A fields. In the other
Fineness Modulus (FM): Using the sieve analysis results,
word, with increasing of CCS value, the measure of
a numerical index called the fineness modulus (FM) is
cement increases and the measure of F.A decreases
www.IJCSI.org 201
often computed .The FM is the sum of the total sets are triangular. Eq.(5) introduces mathematical
percentages coarser than each of a specified series of equations of membership functions. These fuzzy sets will
sieves, divided by 100 [14]. With increasing in quantity of be shown in Table 9. Membership functions of water field
FM, the value of F.A increases, but the value of C.A will be shown in Fig.5.
decreases.
The field accepts values from [2.3, 3.2] range. The FM Table 9: classification of water
field has four fuzzy sets such as: "Very Low", "Low", INPUT RANGE FUZZY SETS
"Medium" and "High". Membership functions of “Very FIELD
Low” and “High” fuzzy sets are trapezoidal and <143 Very Low=VL
membership functions of “Low” and "Medium" sets are
130-173 Low=L
triangular that have been shown in Fig .4. These fuzzy sets
Water 157-200 Medium=M
have been shown in Table 8 with their ranges.
Mathematical equations of membership functions will be 183 -226 High =H
analyzed in Eq.(4). 207> Very High=VH
Table 8: classification of FM
INPUT FIELD RANGE FUZZY SETS
<2.5 Very Low=VL
2.4-2.8 Low=L
FM 2.6-3 Medium=M
2.85> High =H
Fig. 5 Membership functions of water
Fig. 4 Membership functions of FM
Cement: The role of cement in concrete mix design is to

pasting aggregates. In the other word, after mixing with
Output fields of FIS are: water, changes to cement paste and causes to pasting
Water: Water field is a very important factor in aggregates. If there is not enough fine aggregate to fill the
concrete mix design. This output field takes quantities voids between coarse aggregate particles, the space must
from [100, 250] kg/m3. This field has been divided to five be filled with cement paste.
fuzzy sets such as: "Very Low", "Low", "Medium", This output field accepts values just from [100, 650]
"High" and "Very High". Membership functions of "Very interval in kg/m3 unit. This field has been divided to five
Low" and "Very High" sets are trapezoidal and fuzzy sets such as: "Very Low", "Low", "Medium",
membership functions of "Low", "Medium" and "High" "High" and "Very High". Membership functions of "Very
www.IJCSI.org 202
Low" and "Very High" sets are trapezoidal and "Very High". Membership functions of "Very Low" and
membership functions of "Low", "Medium" and "High" "Very High" sets are trapezoidal and membership
sets are triangular. Mathematical equations of membership functions of "Low", "Medium" and "High" sets are
functions of water field have been shown in Eq.(6). These triangular. Mathematical equations of membership
fuzzy sets will be shown in Table 10 .Membership function of coarse aggregate field will be illustrated in
functions of water field will be shown in Fig.6. Eq.( 7) . Table 11 will show fuzzy sets with their values.
Fig .7 shows the membership function of coarse aggregate.
Table 10: classification of cement
INPUT RANGE FUZZY SETS Table 11classification of C.A
FIELD INPUT RANGE FUZZY SETS
<250 Very Low=VL FIELD
200-350 Low=L < 877.8 Very Low=VL
Cement 300-450 Medium=M 766.7-1044 Low=L
Coarse
400 -550 High =H 944.4-1222 Medium=M
Aggregate
500> Very High=VH 1137-1411 High =H
1322> Very High=VH
Fig. 6 Membership functions of cement

Fig. 7 Membership functions of C.A
Coarse Aggregate (C.A): This type of Aggregate Fine Aggregate (F.A): Aggregate passing the 9.5 mm
predominantly retained on the 4.75 mm sieve [14]. Coarse (3/8 in.) sieve and almost entirely passing the 4.75 mm
aggregate may be available in several different size sieve and predominantly retained on the 75 μm sieve [14].
groups, such as 19 to 4.75 mm or 37.5 to 19 mm [14]. One of the most important characteristics of the fine
"ASTM C 33" contains standard specification for concrete aggregate grading is the amount of material passing the
aggregates [14].This field takes input values from [600, 300 and 150 μm sieves. Inadequate amounts of materials
1600] in form of kg/m3. The interval has five fuzzy sets in these size ranges can cause excessive bleeding,
such as: "Very Low", "Low", "Medium", "High" and
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difficulties in pumping concrete, and difficulties in 4.2 Fuzzy rule base

obtaining smooth troweled surfaces [14].
For input values of fine aggregate, we have defined [500, Rule base is the main part of FIS and quality of results in
1300] interval that takes values in kg/m3 unit. This interval fuzzy system depends on the fuzzy rules [5] . A reasoning
has been divided to five fuzzy sets such as: "Very Low", procedure known as the compositional rule of inference,
"Low", "Medium", "High" and "Very High". Membership enables conclusions to be drawn by generalization from
functions of "Very Low" and "Very High" sets are the qualitative information stored in the knowledge base
trapezoidal and membership functions of "Low", [13]. The fuzzy rules can express him with the natural
"Medium" and "High" sets are triangular that will be language in the following way :if x is small and y is
shown in Fig .8. Eq.(8) shows mathematical equations of middle, then z is great.The variables x, y and z are type
membership functions. In Table 12, these fuzzy sets have linguistic [5].This system includes 131 rules .Results with
been defined. 131 rules tend to the expert’s idea and laboratory results .
4.3 Fuzzification and Defuzzification
Table 12 classification of F.A
INPUT RANGE FUZZY SETS
Designed system uses inference mechanism Mamdoni
approach . The FIS system uses AND logical combination
FIELD
of inputs in the rules. The FIS system has following
< 730 Very Low=VL properties:
Fine 615-845 Low=L And method: Min
Aggregat 730-1000 Medium=M Or method: Max
e 900-1150 High =H Implication: Min
1070> Very High=VH Aggregation: Probor
Defuzzification: Centroid
The surface viewer of all output fields with some input
fields have been shown as follow.
Fig. 8 Membership functions of F.A
Fig. 9 Surface Viewer Water, Slump and Dmax
4.4 System Testing

The designed system had been tested that will be shown in
Table 14. The obtained results had been compared with
the experimental methods and had been found that the
average error for Water, Cement, Coarse Aggregate and
Fine Aggregate are 9.5%, 27.6%, 96.5 and 49%,
respectively.
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designs. These 552 mix designs have been collected from

Tables 1, 2, 3 and 4 that have been based on ACI rules.
4.5.1 ANFIS model 1 Designing

This ANFIS model (model 1) has been used for water
value estimation that needs input values of Slump and
Dmax.For ANFIS designing, model should be passed 4
steps: 1) Load date, 2) Generate FIS, 3) Train FIS, and 4)
Test FIS.
There are three different data types for loading to model.
These dataset includes Training data, checking data and
Fig. 10 Rule Viewer of FIS model Testing for Second Sample testing data. At first, usage dataset contains three columns
(Dmax, Slump and water) and 552 rows. After that, this set
was further broken down into three sets: training set,
checking set and testing set. The Checking and testing sets
Table 13 Results of FIS Testing known as validation set .The validation set monitors the
fuzzy system's ability to generalize during training (the
same principle as cross validation training in neural
networks terminology). Fig.11 shows the loaded dataset
into ANFIS.
4.5 Adaptive Neural - Fuz zy Inference System

Fig. 11 Loaded dataset into The ANFIS model 1
(ANFIS) DESIGNING
ANFIS is a multi-layer adaptive network-based fuzzy
inference system proposed by Jang. An ANFIS consists of 4.5.1.1 Generate FIS
totally five layers to implement different node functions to For FIS generation, model has three selections, which are
learn and tune parameters in a FIS using a hybrid learning designed FIS, Grid Partition and Subtractive Clustering.
mode . Grid partition divides the data space into rectangular sub-
In ANFIS model, system computes the measures of water, spaces using axis-paralleled partition based on pre-defined
cement, F.A and C.A, separately. There is important number of membership functions and their types in each
problem that ANFIS model has just one output. Because dimension [18].
of that, we should design four different ANFIS models. The wider application of grid partition in FL and FIS is
First ANFIS takes input values of Slump and Maximum blocked by the curse of dimensions, which means that the
size of Aggregate (Dmax) and then measures the value of number of fuzzy rules increases exponentially when the
Water. Second ANFIS takes input values of Concrete number of input variables increases .For example, if there
Compressive Strength (CCS) and Water (it has been are averagely m MF for every input variable and a total of
computed in past ANFIS model) and then measures the n input variables for the problem, the total number of
value of Cement. For computing the value of Coarse fuzzy rules is mn .It is obvious that the wide application of
Aggregate (C.A), third ANFIS model takes input values of grid partition is threatened by the large number of rules .
Dmax and Fineness Modulus (FM). For measuring the According to [18], grid partition is only suitable for cases
value of Fine Aggregate (F.A), final ANFIS model needs with small number of input variables (e.g .less than 6).
the values of Water, Cement, C.A (they have been The subtractive clustering method clusters data
computed in past ANFIS models and the value of first points in an unsupervised way by measuring the potential
estimate of concrete density. For training of each ANFIS of data points in the feature space .When there is not a
model, we used a dataset which contains 552 concrete mix clear idea how many clusters there should be used for a
given data set, it can be used for estimating the number of
www.IJCSI.org 205
clusters and the cluster centers [18] .Subtractive clustering

assumes that each data point is a potential cluster center
and calculates the potential for each data point based on
the density of surrounding data points .Then data point
with highest potential is selected as the first cluster center,
and the potential of data points near the first cluster center
)within the influential radius (is destroyed .Then data
points with the highest remaining potential as the next
cluster center and the potential of data points near the new
cluster [18].
This ANFIS model (model 1) uses Grid Partition
method for FIS generation. Generated FIS includes two
inputs and one output. Input variables are: Maximum Size
of Aggregate (Dmax) and Slump. The number and type of
membership functions for each input variable is four and
triangular. Output field is the water measure estimation. Fig. 14 Structure of the ANFIS model 1 and 2
Membership function type of output variable is linear.
Input ranges of Dmax and Slump are [9.5, 150] and [37.5,
162.5], respectively. FIG.12 and FIG.13 show tuned 4.5.1.2 Train FIS
membership functions of each input in the ANFIS model The optimization methods train membership function
1. parameters to emulate the training data.In this step, there
are two optimization methods: Hybrid method and Back
propagation. The hybrid optimization method is a
combination of least-squares and back propagation
gradient descent method. In hybrid method, model tunes
with to pass: forward pass and backward pass. In the
forward pass, with fixed premise parameters, the least
squared error estimate approach is employed to update the
consequent parameters and to pass the errors to the
backward pass .In the backward pass, the consequent
parameters are fixed and the gradient descent method is
Fig. 12 Tuned membership functions of Dmax in the ANFIS model 1 applied to update the premise parameters .Premise and
consequent parameters will be identified for MF and FIS
by repeating the forward and backward passes. The
ANFIS model 1 uses hybrid optimization method. For this
ANFIS model, the number of training epochs is 50 and
training error tolerance sets to zero. The training process
stops whenever the maximum epoch number is reached or
the training error goal is achieved.
4.5.1.3 Test FIS

After FIS training, validate the model using a testing or
checking data that differs from the one you used to train
Fig. 13 Tuned membership functions of Slump in the ANFIS model 1 the FIS. Average testing error of training and testing data
in the ANFIS model 1 are 0.86 and 0.8, respectively that
The structure (rules) of tuned FIS has been shown in have been shown in FIG.15 and FIG.16, respectively.
FIG.14 and contains 16 rules with AND logical connector
for all rules.
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4.5.2.1 Generate FIS

This ANFIS model (model 2) uses Grid Partition method
for FIS generation. Generated FIS has two inputs and one
output. Input variables are: Water and CCS. The number
and type of membership function for each input variable
are four and triangular. Output is the cement value
estimation. Membership function type of output variable is
linear. Input range of water is [113, 243] and CCS is [15,
40].
4.5.2.2 Train and Test FIS

Fig. 15 Result of the ANFIS model 1 testing with Training Data For this step, the ANFIS model 2 uses hybrid optimization
method. In this ANFIS model, the number of training
epochs is 50 and training error tolerance sets to zero (same
as previous model).
In the ANFIS model 2, the average testing error of training
and testing data are 0.21 and 0.22, respectively, although
they have been shown in FIG.20 and FIG.21, respectively.
Fig. 16 Result of the ANFIS model 1testing with Testing Data
4.5.2 ANFIS model 2 Designing Fig. 18 Result of the ANFIS model 2 testing with Training Data
This ANFIS model (model 2) has been used for cement
value estimation and needs input values of Concrete
Compressive Strength (CCS) and water (it is computed in
the past ANFIS model (model 1)). For ANFIS designing,
model will pass four steps: 1) Load date, 2) Generate FIS,
3) Train FIS, and 4) Test FIS. The usage dataset for this
model includes 3 columns (Water, CCS and Cement) and
552 rows. This set was further broken down into three
sets: training set, checking set and testing set. FIG.17
shows loaded dataset into the ANFIS model 2.
Fig. 19 Result of the ANFIS model 2 testing with Testing Data

This ANFIS model (model 3) has been used for
Fig. 17 Loaded dataset into the ANFIS model 2 determining of Coarse Aggregate (C.A) measure although
it needs input values of maximum size of aggregate (Dmax)
and Fineness Modulus (FM).in ANFIS designing step,
model will pass four steps: 1) Load date, 2) Generate FIS,
3) Train FIS, and 4) Test FIS.
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In this model, the usage dataset contains three columns

(Dmax, FM and C.A) and 552 rows. This set was further
broken down into three sets :a training set, a checking set
and testing sets. FIG.22 shows loaded dataset into the
ANFIS model 3.
Fig. 22 Tuned membership functions of FM in the ANFIS model 3
The structure (rules) of tuned FIS of the ANFIS model 3

has been shown in FIG.25 although it has 31 rules with
Fig. 20 Loaded dataset into the ANFIS model 3
AND logical connector for all rules.

For first time, this ANFIS model (model 3) used Grid
Partition method for FIS generation. Generated FIS had
two inputs and one output. Input variables were: Dmax and
FM. The number and type of membership functions for
each input variable were four and triangular. Output field
was the measure of C.A. Membership function type of
output variable was linear. This model had two problems:
high average testing and training errors on testing data
which are 9.88 and 278.07. Because of that, in second
time, the ANFIS model 3 has been developed to
Subtractive Clustering method with following options:
Range of Influence, 0.1, Squash Factor, 1.25, Accept
Ratio, 0.5 and Reject Ratio, 0.15. The model contains 31 Fig. 22 Structure of the ANFIS model 3
membership functions for each input. The type of
membership functions of input fields is Gaussian. The
second designed version of the ANFIS model 3 shows 4.5.3.2 Train and Test FIS
better result than first model 3. The result will be The ANFIS model 3 uses the hybrid optimization method.
introduced in Test FIS section. Input ranges of Dmax and In this ANFIS model, the number of training epochs is 50
FM are [9.5, 150] and is [2.4, 3], respectively. The FIG.23 and training error tolerance sets to zero (same as previous
and FIG.24 show tuned membership functions of each models). With FIS testing, average testing error of training
input in the ANFIS model 3. The figures are non-clear and checking data in the ANFIS model 3 are 0.0001 and
because some membership functions put over the other 0.0004, respectively. They have been shown in FIG.26
membership functions. and FIG.27.
Fig. 21 Tuned membership functions of Dmax in the ANFIS model 3

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Fig. 23 Result of the ANFIS model 3 testing with Training Data the measure of Fine Aggregate (F.A). Membership
function type of output is linear. Input range of concrete
density, water, cement and C.A are [2280, 2530], [113,
243], [143, 578] and [748, 1479], respectively. The tuned
Membership functions of each input will be shown in
FIG.29, FIG.30, FIG.31 and FIG.32. The figures are non-
clear because some membership functions put over the
other membership functions.
Fig. 23 Result of the ANFIS model 2 testing with Checking Data

This ANFIS model (model 4) takes input values of water,
cement, C.A (they have been computed in previous
models) and also the value of first estimate of concrete Fig. 25 Tuned Membership functions of Concrete Density in the ANFIS
model 4
density. After that, it measures the value of Fine
Aggregate. In ANFIS designing section, model will pass
The structure (rules) of tuned FIS of the ANFIS model 4
four steps: 1) Load date, 2) Generate FIS, 3) Train FIS,
has been shown in FIG.33 and contains seven rules with
and 4) Test FIS.In this model, the usage dataset contains
AND logical connector for all rules (same as the ANFIS
four columns (Concrete density, Water, Cement and C.A)
model 1).
and 552 rows. This set has been divided into three sets:
training set, checking set and testing set. The FIG.28
shows loaded dataset into the ANFIS model 4.
Fig. 24 Loaded dataset into the ANFIS model 4

Fig. 26 Tuned Membership functions of Water in the ANFIS model 4

In this ANFIS model (model 4), FIS had been generated
with Grid Partition method and result of system showed
high average testing error for testing and checking
datasets. In second time, the ANFIS model (model 4) had
been developed to Subtractive Clustering with following
options: Range of Influence, 0.5, Squash Factor, 1.25,
Accept Ratio, 0.5 and Reject Ratio, 0.1. The Generated
FIS includes four inputs and one output. Input variables
are: Concrete Density, Water, Cement and C.A. The
number and type of membership functions for each input
variable are Seven and Gaussian. Output field produces
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Fig. 27 Tuned Membership functions of Cement in the ANFIS model 4 Fig. 30 Result of the ANFIS model 2 testing with Training Data
Fig. 31 Result of the ANFIS model 2 testing with Testing Data

Fig. 28 Tuned Membership functions of C.A in the ANFIS model 4
4.5.4.2 Train and Test FIS 4. Conclusions

In this step, the hybrid optimization method has been used
for the ANFIS model 4. In this ANFIS model, the number In civil engineering, offering a good mix design is
of training epochs is 50 and training error tolerance sets to nonlinear completely and based on experiments. So fuzzy
zero (same as previous models). logic based model is suitable for estimation of concrete
The average testing error of training and testing datasets in mix design.
the ANFIS model 4 are 0.0049 and 0.0063, respectively In this comparative study, two fuzzy logic based models
that have been shown in FIG.34 and FIG.35. has been developed to offering good and reasonable mix
design for 28-day concrete: Fuzzy Expert System and
Adaptive Neural-Fuzzy Inference System (ANFIS). Rules,
input/output variables, membership functions and ranges
of them based on the ACI standards. The ANFIS model
contains four models that each model has been used for a
task: the ANFIS model 1 for estimating of water measure,
the ANFIS model 2 for measuring of cement value, the
ANFIS model 3 for computation of C.A value and the
ANFIS model 4 for computation of F.A measure. The
usage dataset for training the FIS systems has been
collected from ACI concrete mix design.
After systems designing and testing, comparison between
two systems (FIS and ANFIS) results showed that results
of ANFIS model are better than Fuzzy Expert System
results. In ANFIS model, for Water output field, training
Fig. 29 Membership functions of C.A in the ANFIS model 4 and average testing errors are 0.86 and 0.8, respectively,
for cement field, training error and average testing error
are 0.21 and 0.22, respectively, training and average
testing error of C.A are 0.0001 and 0.0004, respectively
and training and average testing errors of F.A are 0.0049
and 0.0063, respectively. Results of Fuzzy Expert System
in comparison to ACI results have following average
testing errors: average error of Water, Cement, C.A and
F.A are 9.5%, 27.6%, 96.5% and 49% respectively.
References
[1] S.Rajasekaran and G.A vijayalakshmi Pai, Neural networks
and Fuzzy Logic and Genetic Algorithms Synthesis and
Application,New Del hi: Prentice-Hall, 2003.
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[2]M. L. Nehdi , M. T. Bassuoni, “Fuzzy logic approach for injection profiles using ANFIS”, ELSEVIER, INFORMATION
estimating durability of concrete”, Proceedings of the ICE - SCIENCES JOURNAL, 2007.
Construction Materials, Volume 162, Issue 2, pages 81–92 ,
ISSN: 1747- 650X, E-ISSN: 1747-6518, 2009. Mehdi Neshat was born in 1980.He received the B.Sc. degree in
[3] Harun Tanyildizi, “Fuzzy logic model for the prediction of computer engineering from Azad University, Maybod, Iran, in
bond strength of high-strength lightweight concrete”, Elsevier 2006, the M.Sc. degree in Artificial Intelligence from the University
of mashhad, in 2008 and is a member of the IEEE and the IEEE
Science Ltd, Volume 40 , Issue 3, Pages: 161-169, March 2009.
Computer Society
[4] Mustafa Sarıdemir, “Prediction of compressive strength of He is with Islamic Azad University, Shirvan Branch, Faculty of
concretes containing metakaolin and silica fume by artificial Engineering, and computer Engineering Dept., Shirvan /Iran since
neural networks”, Elsevier Science Ltd, Volume 40, Issue 5, and 2007. His research interests are fuzzy logic, fuzzy systems, and
Pages: 350-355, May 2009. fuzzy neural networks, particle swarm optimization, genetic
algorithms, ant colony optimization, and other evolutionary
[5] Mahmut Bilgehan, “A comparative study for the concrete computation techniques. He has publications and submissions in
compressive strength estimation using neural network and neuro- international conferences like applied soft computing, Applied
fuzzy modeling approaches”, Nondestructive Testing and Mathematical Modeling, Expert Systems with Applications, Fuzzy
Evaluation, 27 April 2010. Sets & Systems, Computers in Industry Information Sciences,
[6] Harun Tanyildizi and Ahmet Qoskun, “fuzzy logic model for Mathematical & Computer Modeling.
prediction of compressive strength of lightweight concrete made
with scoria aggregate and fly ash”, INTERNATIONAL Ali Adeli was born in 1986.He received the B.Sc. degree in
computer engineering from Azad University, Shirvan, Iran, in 2009,
EARTHQUAKE SYMPOSIUM KOCAELI, 2007.
the M.Sc. student in computer engineering from the University of
[7] Song-Sen Yang and Jing Xu and Guang-Zhu Yao, “Concrete shiraz, in 2009.
strength evaluation based on fuzzy neural networks”, IEEE
Xplore, Volume 6, pages:3344-3347, 24 January 2005. Azra Masoumi was born in 1981.He received the B.Sc. degree in
[8] David M. Suchorski(chair),AGGREGATES FOR computer engineering from Azad University, shirvan, Iran, in 2008.
CONCRETE, ACI Education Bulletin E1-07,ACI committee E- Mehdi sargolzae was born in 1978.He received the B.Sc. degree
701, Materials for Concrete Construction, ISBN 978-0-87031- in computer engineering from Ferdowsi University, mashhad, Iran,
248-9, August 2007. in 2005, the M.Sc. degree in computer engineering from the
[9] Charles K. Nmai (chair), CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS Amirkabir University of Tehran, in 2007 and Dr student in
FOR CONCRETE, ACI Education Bulletin E3-01, ACI computer engineering from the Amsterdam University.
committee E-701, 2001.
[10] M.C.Nataraja ,M.A.Jayaram ,C.N.Ravikumar, “A Fuzzy-
Neuro Model for Normal Concrete Mix Design”, Engineering
Letters, 13:2, EL_13_2_8, 4 August 2006.
[11] Tayfun Uyunoglu, Osman Unal, “A new approach to
determination of compressive strength of fly ash concrete using
fuzzy logic”, Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research, vol.
65, pp.894-899, November 2006.
[12] Charles K.Nmai (Chairman) , David M.Suchorski,
“REINFORCEMENT FOR CONCRETE MATERIALSAND
APPLICATIONS”, ACI Education Bulletin E2-00, Committee
E-701, Materials for Concrete Construction, reproved 2006.
[13] Diego Andina,Duc Truong Pham, “Computational
Intelligence for Engineering and Manufacturing”, Springer,
2007.
[14] Prof.I-Cheng Yeh, Department of Information Management,
http://www.archive.ics.uci.edu/ml/datasets/Concrete+Compressi
ve+Strength.
[15]Lawrence J. Kaetzel , James R. Clifton, “Expert/Knowledge-
Based Systems for Cement and Concrete: State-of-the-Art
Report”, National Academy of Sciences, December 1993.
[16] ] M. Abdullahi , H. M. A. Al-Mattarneh , A. H. Hassan ,
M. H. Abu Hassan , B.S. Mohammed, “A Review on Expert
Systems for Concrete Mix Design”, ICCBT 2008 - A - (21) –
pp231-238.
[17] S. Tesfamariam and H. Najjaran, “Adaptive Network-Fuzzy
Inferencing to Estimate Concrete Strength Using Mix Design”,
Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, v. 19, no. 7, pp.550-
560 doi: 10.1061/(ASCE)0899-1561(2007).
[18] Mingzhen Wei , Baojun Bai , Andrew H .Sung ,
Qingzhong Liu , Jiachun Wang , Martha E .Cather, “Predicting
www.IJCSI.org 211
A Business Intelligence Model to Predict Bankruptcy using

Financial Domain Ontology with Association Rule Mining
Algorithm
A.Martin 1, M.Manjula 2 and Dr.Prasanna Venkatesan 3
1
Research Scholar, Dept.of Banking Technology,
Pondicherry University,
Puducherry.
2
PG Student, Dept.of Computer Science and Engg,
Sri Manakula Vinayagar Engg College,Madagadipet,
Puducherry.
3
Associate Professor, Dept.of Banking Technology,
Pondicherry University,
Puducherry.
Abstract methods used in predicting the potential bankruptcy of a

Today in every organization financial analysis provides the basis company that consists of a combination of five financial
for understanding and evaluating the results of business ratios. In this paper we propose a Data Mining algorithm -
operations and delivering how well a business is doing. This Association Rule Mining Algorithm to extract the new
means that the organizations can control the operational activities knowledge from the relevant data obtained through
primarily related to corporate finance. One way that doing this is
by analysis of bankruptcy prediction. This paper develops an
financial ontology tree, to come up with the necessary
ontological model from financial information of an organization decisions.
by analyzing the Semantics of the financial statement of a The rest of this paper is structured as follows. Section 2
business. One of the best bankruptcy prediction models is describes the Prior Research on Ontology. Section 3
Altman Z-score model. Altman Z-score method uses financial explains the Ontology Model. Section 4 explains the Data
rations to predict bankruptcy. From the financial ontological Mining Techniques. Section 5, the Bankruptcy Prediction
model the relation between financial data is discovered by using Model .Section 6 describes the Business Intelligence
data mining algorithm. By combining financial domain Model. Section 7 discusses our Approach, followed by
ontological model with association rule mining algorithm and Z- conclusions in Section 8.
score model a new business intelligence model is developed to
predict the bankruptcy.
Keywords: Bankruptcy, Financial domain Ontology, Data
Mining, Z-Score Model.
2. Prior Research on Ontology
Query interfaces provided by the Deep Web are clues to
1. Introduction disclose the hidden schemas. But the complicated semantic
relationships in the query interfaces lead to the lower
The Bankruptcy Prediction is very important for any generality and ability of local-as-view (LAV) method in
organization. For predicting the bankruptcy the financial the traditional information fusion system. To address the
statement is used. The financial analysis is used for the problem, an Ontology extended semantic related group
analysis of the financial statement. In general the financial algorithm is presented. The algorithm is to extract
statement has both balance sheet and income statement. attributes using Ontology technique, and the semantic
Based on the financial statement, a bankruptcy prediction distance between any pairs of candidate attributes is
model is proposed to predict the bankruptcy. Ontology evaluated by Word Net. A semantic matrix is generated
models address a standard to provide more insightful and a reverse backtracking algorithm is used to find
semantics and sharper level of representation for financial semantic related groups of attributes. A matching
analysis .Altman Z-score method is one of the best mechanism is constructed on the semantic related groups,
www.IJCSI.org 212
by which the expression ability of LAV is extended. The

validation and effectiveness were tested based on 3.1 Relations between Ontology Models
experiments [1]. There are four kinds of Ontologies are available.The
relations between these Ontology model is depicted in
Information integration and interoperability among figure 1[4].
information sources are related problems that have  Top-level ontologies: describe very general
received significant attention since early days of computer concepts like space, time, event, which are
information processing. The objective of Web information independent of a particular domain. It seems
integration system is to promote Web information reasonable to have unified top-level ontologies
collection, sharing and retrieval in distributed and for large communities of users.
heterogeneous environment. This paper puts forward an  Domain ontologies: describe the vocabulary
ontology-based approach to Web information integration, related to a generic domain by specializing the
which promises better access to relevant information by concepts introduced in the top-level ontology.
producing a global domain ontology that is used for  Task ontologies: describe the vocabulary related
establishing semantic connections among the local to a generic task or activity by specializing the
autonomous information sources as well as for retrieving top-level ontologies.
those sources. In this approach, an up-bottom information  Application ontologies: describe the most
integration method with a semantic transformation adapter specific ones. Concepts in application ontologies
framework is proposed to solve both the semantic often correspond to roles played by domain
heterogeneities and the query answering problems [2]. entities.
3. Ontology Top-level Ontology
Ontology is a formal, explicit specification of a shared

conceptualization. Conceptualization refers to an abstract
model of some phenomenon in the world by identifying
the relevant concepts of that phenomenon. Explicit
Specification means that the type of concepts used and the
constraints on their use are explicitly defined. Formal Domain ontology Task Ontology
refers to the fact that the ontology should be machine-
readable. Shared reflects the notion that an ontology
captures consensual knowledge that is not private to some
individual, but accepted by a group[3].
Ontology comprises of classes of entities, relations Application ontology

between entities and the axioms, which apply to the
entities of that domain. It is made up of the following
parts:
Fig. 1 Relations Between Ontology Models
 Classes and instances: describe the sets,

collections, concepts, types of objects, or kinds of This paper address about domain Ontology. Using domain
things, for example, an ontology model financial Ontology the financial Ontological tree is Constructed.
domain structure may contain classes such as
3.2 Domain Ontologies
“firm’s category”.
 Properties: They establish relationships between Domain ontologies define domain specific
the concepts of ontology. conceptualizations and impose descriptions on the domain
 Rules: They model logical sentences that are knowledge structure and content. They refer to the
always true. Rules provide us with high detailed structuring of a context of analysis with respect to
expressiveness and they make for more complex the sub-domains, which it is composed of grant sub-
reasoning with the ontology, which can give rise domains [3].
to scalability issues. An effective ontological domain analysis clarifies the
terminology, which enables the ontology to work for
coherent and cohesive reasoning purposes. Shared
www.IJCSI.org 213
ontologies can form the basis for domain-specific  Land -Land is considered a fixed asset but, unlike
knowledge representation languages. other fixed assets, is not depreciated, because
land is considered an asset that never wears out.
3.2 Example of Domain Ontologies
 Buildings- Buildings are categorized as fixed
A financial statement that summarizes a company's assets, assets and are depreciated over time.
liabilities and shareholders' equity at a specific point
in time. A balance sheet is a snapshot of a business’  Office equipment -This includes office
financial condition at a specific moment in time, usually at equipment such as copiers, fax machines,
the close of an accounting period. A balance sheet printers, and computers used in your business.
comprises assets, liabilities, and owners’ or stockholders’
equity. Assets and liabilities are divided into short- and  Machinery -This figure represents machines and
long-term obligations including cash accounts such as equipment used in your plant to produce your
checking, money market, or government securities. At any product. Examples of machinery might include
given time, assets must equal liabilities plus owners’ lathes, conveyor belts, or a printing press.
equity. An asset is anything the business owns that has
monetary value. Liabilities are the claims of creditors  Vehicles -This would include any vehicles used in
against the assets of the business. your business.
 Total fixed assets -This is the total dollar value of

The balance sheet must follow the following formula: all fixed assets in your business, less any
accumulated depreciation.
Assets=Liabilities + Shareholders Equity Total assets- The total dollar value of both the short-term
and long-term assets of your business.
Liabilities and owners’ equity -This includes all debts and

Assets- Assets are subdivided into current and long-term obligations owed by the business to outside creditors,
assets to reflect the ease of liquidating each asset. Cash, vendors, or banks that are payable within one year, plus
for obvious reasons, is considered the most liquid of all the owners’ equity. Often, this side of the balance sheet is
assets. Long-term assets, such as real estate or machinery, simply referred to as “Liabilities.”
are less likely to sell overnight or have the capability of
being quickly converted into a current asset such as cash.  Accounts payable- This is comprised of all short-
term obligations owed by your business to
Current Assets-Current assets are any assets that can be creditors, suppliers, and other vendors. Accounts
easily converted into cash within one calendar year. payable can include supplies and materials
Examples of current assets would be checking or money acquired on credit.
market accounts, accounts receivable, and notes are
 Notes payable -This represents money owed on a
 Cash -Money available immediately, such as in short-term collection cycle of one year or less. It
checking accounts, is the most liquid of all short- may include bank notes, mortgage obligations, or
term assets. vehicle payments.
 Accounts receivables -This is money owed to the Accrued payroll and withholding- This includes any
business for purchases made by customers, earned wages or withholdings that are owed to or for
suppliers, and other vendors. employees but have not yet been paid
 Notes receivables-Notes receivables that are due  Total current liabilities- This is the sum total of
within one year are current assets. Notes that all current liabilities owed to creditors that must
cannot be collected on within one year should be be paid within a one-year time frame.
considered long-term assets.
 Long-term liabilities- These are any debts or
obligations owed by the business that are due
Fixed assets -Fixed assets include land, buildings,
more than one year out from the current date.
machinery, and vehicles that are used in connection with
the business.
www.IJCSI.org 214
 Mortgage note payable- This is the balance of a

mortgage that extends out beyond the current
year. For example, you may have paid off three
years of a fifteen-year mortgage note, of which
the remaining eleven years, not counting the
current year, are considered long-term.
 Owners’ equity- Sometimes this is referred to as

stockholders’ equity. Owners’ equity is made up
of the initial investment in the business as well as
any retained earnings that are reinvested in the
business.
 Common stock -This is stock issued as part of the

initial or later-stage investment in the business.
 Retained earnings -These are earnings reinvested

in the business after the deduction of any
distributions to shareholders, such as dividend
payments.
Total liabilities and owners’ equity -This comprises all

debts and monies that are owed to outside creditors,
vendors, or banks and the remaining monies that are owed
to shareholders, including retained earnings reinvested in
the business.
Table 1: Balance sheet
For this system a balance sheet is given as input. Any form The Financial Domain Ontology is constructed for a given
of balance sheet or income statement can be given as input financial statement (i.e.) which may be a balance sheet or
to this system. A sample balance sheet is given in table 1. income statement. The Example of the balance sheet
ontology might be depicted in Protégé tool as shown in
figure 2 [5].
Figure 2: Financial Ontological tree
Financial ontology is made of Classes, Instances, Slots and

Facets. Classes represent the knowledge concept in
financial domain, the instances are the instances of
concept, slots describe the relations between concepts and
may be referenced by classes and instances, facets is the
constraints of slots and is applied to define the functions
of slots [6]. For example, every financial ratio is a class,
www.IJCSI.org 215
and includes two attributes (slots) which stand for two 4.1 Data Mining Techniques
accounting items in financial statement.
Clustering analysis: Clustering Analysis segments a large
The following XML coding document is a snippet of set of data into subsets or clusters. Each cluster is a
Finance ontology represented by OWL [4]. collection of data objects that are similar to one another
within the same cluster but dissimilar to objects in other
<?xml version="1.0"?> clusters. In other words, objects are clustered based on the
<rdf:RDF principle of maximizing the intra-class similarity while
xmlns:protege="http://protege.stanford.edu/plugins/owl/pr minimizing the inter-class similarity. For example,
ote clustering techniques can be used to identify stable
<owl:Ontology rdf:about=""> dependencies for risk management and investment
<owl:imports management.
rdf:resource="http://protege.stanford.edu/plugins/owl/prot
ege"/> Association rule mining: Association rule mining uncovers
</owl:Ontology> interesting correlation patterns among a large set of data
<owl:Class rdf:ID="Asset"> items by showing attribute- value conditions that occur
<rdfs:comment xml:lang="en"> valuable items that is together frequently. A typical example is market basket
</rdfs:comment> analysis, which analyzes purchasing habits of customers
</owl:Class> by finding associations between different items in
<owl:Class rdf:ID="Loan"> customers’ “shopping baskets.”
<rdfs:subClassOf>
<owl:Class rdf:about="#MortgageLoan"/> There are several algorithms are available for supporting
</rdfs:subClassOf> Association rules, some of the algorithms are:
</owl:Class> 1. A priori algorithm
<owl:Class rdf:ID="ProductRateApplicationVariable"> 2. Partition algorithm
<owl:disjointWith> 3. Pincer – search algorithm
<owl:Class rdf:about="#ProductRateApplicationFixed"/> 4. FP- Tree Growth algorithm
</owl:disjointWith>
<rdfs:subClassOf> 1. A priori Algorithm
<owl:Class rdf:about="#ProductRateApplication"/> A priori is the best-known algorithm to mine association
</rdfs:subClassOf> rules. It uses a breadth-first search strategy to counting the
</owl:Class> support of item sets and uses a candidate generation
<owl:Class rdf:ID="Customer"> function which exploits the downward closure property of
<rdfs:comment xml:lang="en">enterprise client, who support.
usuall
contractual relationship with the 2. Partition algorithm
enterprise</rdfs:comment> The partition algorithm is based on the observation that
<rdfs:subClassOf rdf:resource="#User"/> the frequent sets are normally very few number compared
</rdf:RDF> to the sets of all item sets.
3. Pincer – search algorithm

4. Data Mining Pincer Search combines the following two approaches:
Bottom-up: Generate subsets and go on to generating
Data mining, the extraction of the hidden predictive
parent-set candidate sets using frequent subsets.
information from large databases, is a powerful new
Top-Down: Generating parent set and then generating
technology with great potential to hidden Knowledge in
subsets.
the data warehouse. Here Data Mining Algorithm is
It also uses two special properties:
applied to ontological tree to mine the hidden relations. In
Downward Closure Property: If an itemset is frequent,
this paper to discover the new knowledge data mining is
then all its must be frequent.
applied in two steps. First cluster analysis is performed to
Upward Closure Property: If an itemset is infrequent, all
group the given balance sheet into respective cluster. Once
its supersets must be infrequent.
cluster is developed association rule mining algorithm is
4. FP- Tree Growth algorithm
applied to discover the new knowledge for decision
FP-growth (frequent pattern growth) uses an extended
making.
prefix-tree (FP-tree) structure to store the database in a
www.IJCSI.org 216
compressed form. FP-growth adopts a divide-and-conquer the candidate item sets Ck, using the a priori-gen()
approach to decompose both the mining tasks and the function. This function first joins Lk-1 with Lk-1, the
databases. joining condition being that the lexicographically ordered
In this project, the A priori Algorithm is applied because first k-2 items are the same. Next, it deletes all those item
the A priori Algorithm is the best algorithm for finding sets from the join result that have some (k-1)-subset that is
Frequent itemsets in the database. Frequent itemsets are not in Lk-1 yielding Ck. The algorithm now scans the
generated by finding the relationships among the data. database. For each transaction, it determines which of the
candidates in Ck are contained in the transaction using a
A Priori Algorithm: hash-tree data structure and increments the count of those
candidates. At the end of the pass, Ck is examined to
An association rule mining algorithm (A priori) has been determine which of the candidates are frequent, yielding
developed for rule mining in large transaction databases Lk. The algorithm terminates when Lk becomes empty
[7]. An item set is a non-empty set of items. [7].
They have decomposed the problem of mining association

rules into two parts. 5. Bankruptcy
 Find all combinations of items that have A person or a business unable to repay its outstanding
transaction support above minimum support. Call debts [9] is called bankruptcy. To assess the economic
those combinations frequent item sets. health of the company bankruptcy is very much useful.
 Use the frequent item sets to generate the desired
rules. The general idea is that if, say, ABCD and 5.1 Bankruptcy Prediction Model
AB are frequent item sets, then we can determine
if the rule AB CD holds by computing the ratio r Bankruptcy predicting models, derived from these
= support(ABCD)/support(AB). The rule holds financial statement ratios, assist shareholders,
only if r >= minimum confidence. Note that the stakeholders, company managers, and other directly and
rule will have minimum support because ABCD indirectly related entities such as suppliers, customers, and
is frequent. The algorithm is highly scalable [8]. competitors in predicting financial problems of a
company. This helps the companies to plan their strategies
A priori algorithm used in Quest for finding all frequent and to know the strengths and weakness of related
item sets is given below. companies and act accordingly. This is crucial for the
company success. However, there are three main problems
procedure A prioriAlg() that old bankruptcy predication models may not be
accurate predictors on services and information
begin technology companies [9].
L1 := {frequent 1-itemsets};
for ( k := 2; Lk-1 0; k++ ) do {  First, the bankruptcy prediction models such as
Ck= apriori-gen(Lk-1) ; // new candidates Altman were developed when manufacturing
for all transactions t in the dataset do { companies were dominant in the market, which is
for all candidates c Ck contained in t do not true at present.
c:count++  Second, the service and information technology
} companies are characterized by a different set of
Lk = { c Ck | c:count >= min-support} financial norms than the manufacturing
} companies.
Answer: = k Lk  The third problem is the effect of rapid changes
end in the services and information technology
companies that makes bankruptcy prediction
It makes multiple passes over the database. In the first more difficult and complicated.
pass, the algorithm simply counts item occurrences to
determine the frequent 1-itemsets (item sets with 1 item). Therefore, there is a need to investigate whether these
A subsequent pass, say pass k, consists of two phases. Altman models are still applicable in order to assist
financial institutions, banks, and other organizations to
First, the frequent item sets Lk-1 (the set of all frequent (k- predict failure accurately in the service and information
1)-item sets) found in the (k-1)th pass are used to generate technology companies.
www.IJCSI.org 217
domain ontology tree is generated. By combining the Data

5.2 Altman’s Z-score Model Mining algorithm and Bankruptcy Prediction model the
Business intelligence (BI) is generated. The BI is used to
Edward Altman has developed a model using financial report whether or not the business is going to be bankrupt.
statement ratios and multiple discriminate analyses to
predict bankruptcy for publicly traded manufacturing
firms. The resultant model is of the form [10].
The final discriminate function is as follows:
Z = 0.012X1 + 0.014X2 + 0.033X3 + 0.006X4 +0.999X5

Where
X1 = working capital/total assets,
X2 = retained earnings/total assets,
X3 = earnings before interest and taxes/total assets,
X4 = market value equity/book value of total liabilities,
X5 = sales/total assets, and
Z = overall index.
A score of Z less than 2.675 indicates that a firm has a 95

percent chance of becoming bankrupt within one year.
However, Altman’s results show that in practice scores
between 1.81 and 2.99 should be thought of as a gray area.
In actual use, bankruptcy would be predicted. if Z < = 1.81
and non-bankruptcy if Z >=2.99. Altman shows that
bankrupt firms and non-bankrupt firms have very different
financial profiles one year before bankruptcy [11].
Figure 3: A BI model for Bankruptcy prediction
The resultant Business Intelligence model integrates
ontology model, data mining model to find the knowledge Companies now have massive databases, which are
of success and failure of an organization and classifying growing, but only a limited amount of the data is used in
the organization as bankrupt or not bankrupt. The the decision-making process. Businesses require data
architecture of business intelligence model is depicted in systems that can handle the large volume of data and
the following section. transform it into valuable information that can be used by
business users. There are various structures that are
6. Architecture of BI Model for Bankruptcy applied in the architecture of business intelligence. These
include operational data store, data warehouse and data
Prediction mart.
Business Intelligence (BI) is a terminology representing a With the operational data store, users get a consistent view
collection of processes, tools and technologies helpful in of the data that is currently stored in the database. This
achieving more profit by considerably improving the structure is controlled using a transcription processing
productivity, sales and service of an enterprise. With the system. When data is changed in the source systems, you
help of BI methods, the corporate data can be organized, get a copy of the data that has been changed in the
analyzed in a better way and then converted into a useful operational data store. The data that exists in the
knowledge of information needed to initiate a profitable operational data store changes to reflect the data that is
business action. Thus it’s about turning a raw, collected currently found in your source system. In most cases, the
data into intelligent information by analyzing and re- storage process is in real time and can be applied in the
arranging the data according to the relationships between various operations carried out to run a business.
the data items by knowing what data to collect and
manage and in what context. 7. Conclusion
The financial data from various business financial The use of ontologically clustered data mining Bankruptcy
statements (i.e.) Balance sheet, income statement are prediction BI Model has an advantage over the existing Bi
collected. Based on the financial data the financial
www.IJCSI.org 218
models since the semantics based decisions yield better [15] K. Shin, T. Lee, and H. Kim, “An application of support
results to syntactic based models. The Association Rule vector machines in bankruptcy prediction model”, Expert
mining Algorithm augments the efficiency of the proposed Systems with Applications, Vol. 28 (2005), pp. 127-135.
method by providing relevant results based on the
First Author Mr.A.Martin Assistant Professor in the
association between the businesses’ financial statements. Department of Information Technology inSri Manakula Vinayagar
By integrating ontological model with data mining Engineering College. Pondicherry University,Pudhucherry, India.
Algorithm and Bankruptcy prediction model a new He holds a M.E and pursuing his Ph.D in Banking Technology from
business intelligence model can be used to effectively. Pondicherry University, India.
Second Author Ms.M.Manjula II year M.tech student in the

References project phase in the Department of computer Science and
[1] Jian Chen Hao Liang Yunge Mao Engineering in Sri Manakula Vinayagar Engineering College.
Network Inf. Center.”Mapping Mechanism Based on Ontology Pondicherry University, Pudhucherry.
Extended Semantic Related Groups” Web Information Systems
and Mining, 2009. WISM 2009. International Conference. Third Author Dr.V.Prasanna Venkatesan, Associate Professor,
Dept. of Banking Technology, Pondicherry University, Pondicherry.
[2]Lin Zhang “An Ontology-Based Approach to Web He has more than 20 years Teaching and Research experience in
Information Integration”,2009 the field of Computer Science and Engineering; He has developed
a compiler for multilingual languages.
[3] J. Hendler, “Agents and the Semantic Web”, IEEE Intelligent
Systems, Vol. 16, No 2, pp. 30-37, 2008.
[4] A Declarative Approach to Ontology Translation With

Knowledge Preservation
[5] A. B. Coates. The Role of XML in Finance.XML Conference

& Exposition,Orlando, Florida, 2009.12.
[6] P. CastellsB. Foncillas, and R. Lara. Semantic web

technologies for economic and financial information
management. In ESWS 2008, Heraklion, Greece.
[7] R. Agrawal and R. Srikant , "Fast Algorithms for Mining

Association Rules in Large Database.
[8] M.J. Zaki , "Scalable Algorithms for Association

Mining,"IEEE Trans. Knowledge and Data Eng.,vol.12 no. 2,
2009,pp. 372-390.
[9] Altman, E.I. (1968). Financial ratios, discriminant analysis

and the prediction of corporate bankruptcy. The Journal of
Finance, 23(4): 589-609.
[10] Altman, E.I.. “A Reply”. Journal of Finance, 25(3): 1166-

1172.
[11] Altman, E.I. (1983). Corporate financial distress: A

complete guide to predicting, avoiding, and dealing with
bankruptcy. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
[12] Bankruptcy Action.com. Bankruptcy prediction

models.[available on the web]
http://www.bankruptcyaction.com/insolart1.htm.
[13] Bankruptcy prediction [available on the web]

http://www.solvency.com/bankpred.
[14] Calandro, J. (2007). Considering the utility of Altman's Z-

score as strategic assessment and performance management tool.
Strategic & Leadership, 35(5), 37-43.
www.IJCSI.org 219
SPC for Software Reliability: Imperfect Software Debugging

Model
Dr. Satya Prasad Ravi1, N.Supriya2 and G.Krishna Mohan3
1
Associate Professor, Dept. of Computer Science & Engg., Acharya Nagrjuna University
Nagarjuna Nagar, Guntur, Andhrapradesh, India
2
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Computer Science, Adikavi Nannaya university
Rajahmedndry-533105, Andhrapradesh,India
3
Reader, Dept. of Computer Science, P.B.Siddhartha college
Vijayawada, Andhrapradesh, India
Abstract
Software reliability process can be monitored efficiently by The most popular technique for maintaining process
using Statistical Process Control (SPC). It assists the software control is control charting. The control chart is one of the
development team to identify failures and actions to be taken seven tools for quality control. Software process control is
during software failure process and hence, assures better used to secure the quality of the final product which will
software reliability. In this paper, we consider a software
reliability growth model of Non-Homogenous Poisson Process
conform to predefined standards. In any process,
(NHPP) based, that incorporates imperfect debugging problem. regardless of how carefully it is maintained, a certain
The proposed model utilizes the failure data collected from amount of natural variability will always exist. A process
software development projects to analyze the software reliability. is said to be statistically “in-control” when it operates with
The maximum likelihood approach is derived to estimate the only chance causes of variation. On the other hand, when
unknown point estimators of the model. We investigate the assignable causes are present, then we say that the process
model and demonstrate its applicability in the software reliability is statistically “out-of-control.”
engineering field. The control charts can be classified into several categories,
Keywords: Statistical Process Control, Software reliability, as per several distinct criteria. Depending on the number
mean value function, imperfect debugging, Probability limits, of quality characteristics under investigation, charts can be
Control Charts.
divided into univariate control charts and multivariate
control charts. Furthermore, the quality characteristic of
1. Introduction interest may be a continuous random variable or
alternatively a discrete attribute. Control charts should be
Software reliability assessment is important to evaluate capable to create an alarm when a shift in the level of one
and predict the reliability and performance of software or more parameters of the underlying distribution or a
system, since it is the main attribute of software. To non-random behavior occurs. Normally, such a situation
identify and eliminate human errors in software will be reflected in the control chart by points plotted
development process and also to improve software outside the control limits or by the presence of specific
reliability, the Statistical Process Control concepts and patterns. The most common non-random patterns are
methods are the best choice. SPC concepts and methods cycles, trends, mixtures and stratification [7]. For a
are used to monitor the performance of a software process process to be in control the control chart should not have
over time in order to verify that the process remains in the any trend or nonrandom pattern.
state of statistical control. It helps in finding assignable SPC is a powerful tool to optimize the amount of
causes, long term improvements in the software process. information needed for use in making management
Software quality and reliability can be achieved by decisions. SPC provides real time analysis to establish
eliminating the causes or improving the software process controllable process baselines; learn, set, and dynamically
or its operating procedures [6]. improves process capabilities; and focus business areas
www.IJCSI.org 220
which need improvement. The early detection of software failure intensity function  (t ) in case of the finite failure
failures will improve the software reliability. The selection NHPP models is given by:  ( t )  aF ' ( t ) .
of proper SPC charts is essential to effective statistical
process control implementation and use. The SPC chart 2.1 NHPP model
selection is based on data, situation and need [4].
The control limits can then be utilized to monitor the The Non-Homogenous Poisson Process (NHPP) based
failure times of components. After each failure, the time software reliability growth models (SRGMs) are proved
can be plotted on the chart. If the plotted point falls quite successful in practical software reliability
between the calculated control limits, it indicates that the engineering [3]. The main issue in the NHPP model is to
process is in the state of statistical control and no action is determine an appropriate mean value function to denote
warranted. If the point falls above the UCL, it indicates the expected number of failures experienced up to a
that the process average, or the failure occurrence rate, certain time point. Model parameters can be estimated by
may have decreased which results in an increase in the using Maximum Likelihood Estimate (MLE).
time between failures. This is an important indication of Various NHPP SRGMs have been built upon various
possible process improvement. If this happens, the assumptions. Many of the SRGMs assume that each time a
management should look for possible causes for this failure occurs, the fault that caused it can be immediately
improvement and if the causes are discovered then action removed and no new faults are introduced. Which is
should be taken to maintain them. If the plotted point falls usually called perfect debugging. Imperfect debugging
below the LCL, It indicates that the process average, or the models have proposed a relaxation of the above
failure occurrence rate, may have increased which results assumption [8].
in a decrease in the failure time. This means that process Let N t , t  0  be the cumulative number of software
may have deteriorated and thus actions should be taken to
failures by time ‘t’. m(t) is the mean value function,
identify and causes may be removed. It can be noted here
representing the expected number of software failures by
that the parameter a, b should normally be estimated with
the data from the failure process. time ‘t’.  t  is the failure intensity function, which is
The control limits for the chart are defined in such a proportional to the residual fault content. Thus
manner that the process is considered to be out of control m t   a (1  e  bt ) and  t   dm ( t )  b ( a  m ( t )) .
when the time to observe exactly one failure is less than dt
LCL or greater than UCL. Our aim is to monitor the Where ‘a’ denotes the initial number of faults contained in
failure process and detect any change of the intensity a program and ‘b’ represents the fault detection rate. In
parameter. When the process is normal, there is a chance software reliability, the initial number of faults and the
for this to happen and it is commonly known as false fault detection rate are always unknown. The maximum
alarm. The traditional false alarm probability is to set to be likelihood technique can be used to evaluate the unknown
0.27% although any other false alarm probability can be parameters. In NHPP SRGM  t  can be expressed in a
used. The actual acceptable false alarm probability should more general way as  t   dm ( t )  b t a t   m t  .
in fact depend on the actual product or process [9]. dt
Where a t  is the time-dependent fault content function
which includes the initial and introduced faults in the
2. Literature Survey
program and b t  is the time-dependent fault detection
This section presents the theory that underlies a rate. A constant a t  implies the perfect debugging
distribution and maximum likelihood estimation for assumption, i.e no new faults are introduced during the
complete data. If ‘t’ is a continuous random variable with debugging process. If we assume that, when the detected
pdf: f ( t ;  1 ,  2 ,  ,  k ) . where  1 ,  2 ,  ,  k are k faults are removed, then there is a possibility to introduce
unknown constant parameters which need to be estimated, new faults with a constant rate ‘  ’. Then the mean value
and cdf: F t  . Where, The mathematical relationship

function is [2] given as m ( t )  a 1  e  1   bt . 
between the pdf and cdf is given by: f ( t )  d F t  . Let 1 
dt
‘a’ denote the expected number of faults that would be 2.2 ML (Maximum Likelihood) Parameter
detected given infinite testing time in case of finite failure Estimation
NHPP models. Then, the mean value function of the finite
failure NHPP models can be written as: m ( t )  aF ( t ) ,
The idea behind maximum likelihood parameter
where F(t) is a cumulative distribution function. The estimation is to determine the parameters that maximize
www.IJCSI.org 221
the probability (likelihood) of the sample data. The Take the natural logarithm on both sides, The Log
method of maximum likelihood is considered to be more Likelihood function is given as:
robust (with some exceptions) and yields estimators with n
  (t ) ] = log[  abe
n
Log L = log[  1   bt
good statistical properties. In other words, MLE methods i ]
i 1 i 1
are versatile and apply to many models and to different
types of data. Although the methodology for maximum
 
n
a
likelihood estimation is simple, the implementation is
mathematically intense. Using today's computer power,
=  log( abe
i 1
 1  bt
)
1 
1  e  1  bt
however, mathematical complexity is not a big obstacle. If Taking the Partial derivative w.r.t ‘a’ and equating to ‘0’.
we conduct an experiment and obtain N independent n 1   
(i.e  log L  0 ) a 
observations, t1 , t2 , , t N . Then the likelihood function is a 1  e  1  bt n  
given by[1] the following product:
Taking the Partial derivative w.r.t ‘b’ and equating to ‘0’.
(i.e g ( b )   log L  0 )
N
L t1 , t 2 ,  , t N |  1 ,  2 ,  ,  k   L   f (t i ;  1 ,  2 ,  ,  k )
i 1
b
 n 1   t n  n
g b    1   
n
  1   bt n ti  0
Likely hood function by using λ(t) is: b e  1  i 1
n
Taking the partial derivative again w.r.t ‘b’ and equating
L=
  (t i )
to ‘0’. (i.e g ' ( b )   log L  0
i 1 2
)
The logarithmic likelihood function is given by: 2
b
n 1    t n e 2 1   bt n
N

2
  ln L  ln f ( t i ;  1 ,  2 ,  ,  k )
g ' b  
n
 0
e 
i 1
1  bt n 2
b2
n 1
Log L = log (
  (t i ) )
i 1 The parameter ‘b’ is estimated by iterative Newton
n
 log  ( t )   m ( t
which can be written as Raphson Method using b g ( b n ) . which is
i n ) n 1  b n 
i 1 g ' (b n )
substituted in finding ‘a’.
The maximum likelihood estimators (MLE) of
 1 ,  2 ,  ,  k are obtained by maximizing L or  , 3.2 Distribution of Time between failures
where  is ln L . By maximizing , which is much easier Based on the inter failure data given in Table 1, we
to work with than L, the maximum likelihood estimators compute the software failures process through Mean
(MLE) of  1 ,  2 ,  ,  k are the simultaneous solutions of Value Control chart. We used cumulative time between
k equations such that:     0 , j=1,2,…,k failures data for software reliability monitoring using
 j Exponential distribution.
Table:1 Time between failures of a software

The parameters ‘a’ and ‘b’ are estimated using iterative
Failure Time between Failure Time between
Newton Raphson Method, which is given as
Number failure(h) Number failure(h)
g (xn )
x n 1  x n  1 30.02 16 15.53
g '(xn ) 2 1.44 17 25.72
3 22.47 18 2.79
4 1.36 19 1.92
5 3.43 20 4.13
3. Illustrating the MLE Method 6 13.2 21 70.47
7 5.15 22 17.07
8 3.83 23 3.99
3.1 parameter estimation
9 21 24 176.06
10 12.97 25 81.07
To estimate ‘a’ and ‘b’ , for a sample of n units, first 11 0.47 26 2.27
obtain the likelihood function: assuming   0 . 05 . 12 6.23 27 15.63
N 13 3.39 28 120.78
L   abe  1   bt
14 9.11 29 30.81
i 1 15 2.18 30 34.19
www.IJCSI.org 222
Assuming an acceptable probability of false alarm of These limits are converted to m ( t U ) , m ( t C ) and m ( t L )
0.27%, the control limits can be obtained as [5]: form. They are used to find weather the software process
TU 
1
1 
 
1  e  1   bt  0 . 99865 is in control or not by placing the points in Mean value
chart shown in Figure 1. A point below the control limit
TC 
1
1 
 
1  e  1   bt  0 . 5 m ( t L ) indicates an alarming signal. A point above the
control limit m ( t U ) indicates better quality. If the points
TL 
1
1 

1  e  1   bt
 0 . 00135 are falling within the control limits it indicates the
  software process is in stable condition [6]. The values of
‘ a ’ and ‘ b ’ are Maximum Likely hood control limits are as follows.
Estimates (MLEs) of parameters and the values can be m(tU )  31.69529
computed using iterative method for the given cumulative
time between failures data shown in table 1. Using ‘a’ and m(t C )  15.86907
‘b’ values we can compute m(t ) . m(t L )  0.042846
Table:2 successive differences of cumulative mean values
Cum Successive Cum Successive

No m(t) No m(t)
Failures differences failures differences
1 30.02 2.9599655 0.135198384 16 151.78 12.5083594 1.596922361
2 31.46 3.09516389 2.033545566 17 177.5 14.1052818 0.165718931
3 53.93 5.12870945 0.118607302 18 180.29 14.2710007 0.113215983
4 55.29 5.24731676 0.296929927 19 182.21 14.3842167 0.241267574
5 58.72 5.54424668 1.113786929 20 186.34 14.6254843 3.675758395
6 71.92 6.65803361 0.422372776 21 256.81 18.3012427 0.776290028
7 77.07 7.08040639 0.309784217 22 273.88 19.0775327 0.175623745
8 80.9 7.3901906 1.634899415 23 277.87 19.2531564 5.940013828
9 101.9 9.02509002 0.958006905 24 453.93 25.1931703 1.820658724
10 114.87 9.98309692 0.033999962 25 535 27.013829 0.044702692
11 115.34 10.0170969 0.446045517 26 537.27 27.0585317 0.299430566
12 121.57 10.4631424 0.239128039 27 552.9 27.3579622 1.884814636
13 124.96 10.7022704 0.630337689 28 673.68 29.2427769 0.378342482
14 134.07 11.3326081 0.148225045 29 704.49 29.6211194 0.379762003
15 136.25 11.4808332 1.027526243 30 738.68 30.0008814
Figure 1 is obtained by placing the differences between detection of failures using Mean Value Chart. The
cumulative failure data shown in Table 2 on y axis, failure software quality is determined by detecting failures at an
number on x axis and the values of control limits are early stage. The remaining failure data are shown in
placed on Mean Value chart. The Mean Value chart shows Figure 1 are in stable. No failure data fall outside the
that the 10th failure data has fallen below m ( t L ) which m ( t U ) . It does not indicate any alarm signal.
indicates the failure process. It is significantly early
www.IJCSI.org 223
Mean Value Chart
40.96000 UCL 31.695289517
successive differences
CL 15.869068007
10.24000
2.56000
0.64000
0.16000
0.04000 LCL 0.042846470
0.01000
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29
Date/Time/Period
Figure: 1 Mean Value Chart
4. Conclusion
The given 30 inter failure times are plotted through the [3] J.D. Musa., A. Iannino., K. Okumoto., 1987. “Software
estimated mean value function against the failure serial Reliability: Measurement Prediction Application”. McGraw-
order. The parameter estimation is carried out by Newton Hill, New York.
Raphson Iterative method for Exponential model. The [4] J. F. MacGregor and T. Kourti “Statistical process control of
multivariate processes”.
graphs have shown out of control signals i.e below the [5] M Xie, T.N Goh, P.Ranjan “Some effective control chart
LCL. Hence we conclude that our method of estimation procedures for reliability monitoring” -Reliability
and the control chart are giving a +ve recommendation for engineering and System Safety 77 143 -150¸ 2002.
their use in finding out preferable control process or [6] M. Kimura, S. Yamada, S. Osaki.”Statistical Software
desirable out of control signal. By observing the Mean reliability prediction and its applicability based on mean time
value Control chart we identified that the failure situation between failures”.
is detected at 10th point of Table-2 for the corresponding [7] M.V.Koutras, S.Bersimis, P.E.Maravelakis “Statistical
process control using shewart control charts with
m ( t ) , which is below m ( t ) . It indicates that the failure
L
supplementary Runs rules” Springer Science + Business
process is detected at an early stage compared with Xie et media 9:207-224, 2007.
a1, (2002) control chart [5], which detects the failure at [8] M.Ohba “Software Reliability Analysis Models” IBM
23rd point for the inter failure data above the UCL. Hence Journal Research Development Vol.29,No. 4, pp. 428-442,
our proposed Mean Value Chart detects out of control July 1984.
situation at an earlier instant than the situation in time [9] Swapna S. Gokhale and Kishore S.Trivedi, 1998. “Log-
control chart. The early detection of software failure will Logistic Software Reliability Growth Model”. The 3rd IEEE
improve the software Reliability. When the time between International Symposium on High-Assurance Systems
failures is less than LCL, it is likely that there are Engineering. IEEE Computer Society.
assignable causes leading to significant process
Author’s profile:
deterioration and it should be investigated. On the other
hand, when the time between failures has exceeded the First Author
UCL, there are probably reasons that have lead to Dr. R. Satya Prasad received Ph.D. degree in Computer Science
significant improvement. in the faculty of Engineering in 2007 from Acharya Nagarjuna
University, Andhra Pradesh. He received gold medal from Acharya
Nagarjuna University for his out standing performance in Masters
References Degree. He is currently working as Associate
[1] Hoang Pham, “Handbook Of Reliability Engineering”, Professor and H.O.D, in the Department of
Computer Science & Engineering, Acharya
Springer: Apr 2003, edition1.
Nagarjuna University. His current research is
[2] Huan-Jyh Shyur “A stochastic software reliability model with focused on Software Engineering. He has
imperfect-debugging and change-point”- The journal of published several papers in National &
systems and software 66 (2003) 135-141. International Journals.
www.IJCSI.org 224
Third Author
Second Author Mr. G. Krishna Mohan is working as a Reader in
Mrs. N.Supriya Working as Assistant professor in the department the Department of Computer Science,
of Computer Science, Adikavi Nannaya university, Rajahmedndry. P.B.Siddhartha College, Vijayawada. He
She is at present pursuing Ph.D at Acharya Nagarjuna University. obtained his M.C.A degree from Acharya
Her research interests lies in Softwrare Engineering and Data Nagarjuna University in 2000, M.Tech from
Mining. JNTU, Kakinada, M.Phil from Madurai Kamaraj
University and pursuing Ph.D at Acharya
Nagarjuna University. His research interests lies
in Data Mining and Software Engineering.
www.IJCSI.org 225
Performance improvement of the software development project

using the Value Management approach
Amel Ben Hadj Salem-Mhamdia1, Bahia Bejar Ghadhab2
1
Industrial Engineering Department, National Engineering University of Tunis, Tunis El Manar, 1059, Tunisia
2
Industrial Engineering Department, National Engineering University of Tunis, Tunis El Manar, 1059, Tunisia
growth areas in the information and communication

Abstract technologies sector [3]. Furthermore, many software
Improving performance and delivering value for companies are dealing with significant drops in revenue,
customers have become a central theme in business. The and have been forced to reduce labors and decrease
software industry has become an increasingly important research and development investments. So, business
sector for the economy growth in Tunisia. This study aims managers need to know how various investments,
to show how using Value Management in the Tunisian including product value improvement, branding strategies
software industry for project analysis gives new insight and relationship marketing strategies, relate to
about true project value and performance. This new organization value increase [4], [5]. So, this paper offers
approach is considered as an appropriate tool for guiding to managers tools based on Value Management approach
the process of making decisions. It offers tools in order to in order to increase value and performance of the
analyze the service value from the customer and organization [6]. This study investigates the performance
organization perspectives. The results showed that the VM improvement that is associated with the use of value
allows to have better performance in the software management tools, and the conditions under which such
development project by linking customer satisfaction and improvement is achieved. The results of the
cost analysis. The present case shows to service managers implementation include the identification of the function
how they can benchmark project function to reduce their and the activities, which are properly analyzed and
costs and improve resource allocation taking into evaluated. They show that there is indeed a positive
consideration what customers consider important during relationship between Value Management and
their overall service experience. It can identify best improvement performance. Via the discussion of the
professional practices, orient decisions to improve service actual implementation, we illustrate first the performance
value metrics inherent to the value management approach and
Keywords: Value Management (VM), Software development second how this approach contributes to the performance
project, Performance improvement. evaluation of the software development project. In this
paper, a general overview of the value management and
the project performance is presented. Then, the paper
1. Introduction presents a Tunisian software development company case
study to illustrate how the Value Management approach
The need of performance measurement at different levels can improve business decisions in order to improve the
of decision-making in the service context is undoubtedly performance of the organization.
not something new [1]. The service industry is the fastest
growing industry in the 21st century [2], including
software industry [3]. The software industry is a very
demanding and challenging sector characterized by
vigorous competition, extensive dependence on
intellectual capital and the need for continuous training in
new technologies. Tunisian software development
companies (SDC) is considered nowadays a strategic
business unit (SBU). It grew steadily making its important
www.IJCSI.org 226
2. Literature review finding optimum solution, streamlining selection through

indicators, a blend of skills with teamwork, cross-
communication, development of people and groups. Value
2.1 Software development and Performance Management is also concerned with improving and
sustaining a desirable balance between the needs of
There is an established literature on methods to stakeholders and the resources needed to satisfy them.
determine the performance of software development Stakeholder value judgments vary, and VM reconciles
projects. Organizations are able to improve their software differing priorities to deliver best value for all stakeholders.
development methods by identifying high-performing Value management requires the best practice and
projects and capitalizing on the best practices associated innovative thinking at all levels in the organizations [16]
with these projects. A common method of benchmarking valuable core competences [17], mission, strategy and
and examining the relative performance of software systems [18] a supportive corporate culture that focuses on
projects is through the use of the tools of value customers’ expressed and latent needs [17], [19], [20], [21]
management. In the software management literature, and [22]. In fact, the VM allows achieving the goals of the
project performance is seen as an achievement of the organization. The functional analysis [24], [15] and the
project management (PM) success, project success and function analysis system technique (FAST) [23], [25] are
product success and are aligned to the performance criteria the core of the VM approach. The functional analysis
of the individual stakeholders [7], [8], [9]. Project allows the identification of the attributes expected by the
management (PM) success considers the achievement of customer [26], [27], [24] as well as the organization
the PM related objectives, inclusive of the traditional performing these attributes. It is a semantic clarification in
measures, i.e. time, cost and quality [10]. Project success the service context of the definition of each service. The
considers the objectives of the project stakeholders [9], ‘Function Analysis System Technique’ is an important
[11]. Product success considers the final product or analysis tool. It is used to clarify the relationship between
outcome of the project and stakeholders’ product the functionalities expected by the customer and the
satisfaction [11] such as the acceptance of a developed activities and tasks developed by the organization it serves
application by the client. Taking into consideration all [23], [25]. It describes the item or system under study and
these dimensions can facilitate the analysis and the permits the team to think through the functions that the
improvement of the performance of software development item or system performs. FAST is a creative stimulus to
projects. The focus is shifted from a single dimension to explore innovative avenues for performing functions. The
multiple dimensions suitable for multiple settings. FAST diagram allows managers also to focus on essential
In this study, the customer satisfaction measure and functions to fulfill product requirements and to identify
the internal cost are used as the measure of the project high cost functions to explore improvements. It can also
performance in an exploratory study of software be used to develop criteria in order to maintain high
development projects. service quality levels and what can be done to improve the
service. These criteria allow to measure the customer
2.2 Value Management Approach satisfaction.
In this study, we will use the internal and external
VM was founded during the 1940s when, due to functional analysis and the FAST diagram to identify the
fewer available resources for non-war efforts, General SDC activity in order to determine the performance of the
Electric designed a concept where lowering costing inputs, project.
through creative thinking, could result in a product with In value management, we distinguish two types of
the same functionality [12]. Today, VM deals with both function: the external and internal functions. The
increased benefit and decreased cost, and is defined as a terminology “external functions” designate the “front
formalized open structure that focuses on function to office” and refers to activities that the customer can see
remove causes of unnecessary cost, thereby delivering the and where he can participate in the process and the
best possible solution, as well as potentially exposing delivery of the service act. The “internal functions” are
unforeseen solutions [13]. The value management (VM) also called “back office”, it does not necessarily involve
is a structured, systematic and analytical process that seeks the customer in the production and delivery of the service
to achieve all the necessary functions at the lowest total but it can directly or indirectly influence perceptions if
cost consistent with required levels of quality and eventually it is linked to the service experience [28]. The
performance [14] The VM aims to maximize the overall link between “external” and “internal” functions or “back
performance of the organization [15]. It is also considered and front” offices refers also to the service blueprint in the
as an effective way for company to manage their services. service marketing literature and serves as a way to identify
The VM is based on fundamental principles that are: (the indicators) the critical path of the customer experience.
management by objectives (the concept of function),
www.IJCSI.org 227
The identification of these critical paths provides key of what has happened (benefits and sacrifices). This
strategic knowledge for the service provider’s decision to implies that value is a process of interpretation of what the
enhance the customer experience which in turn creates customer feels concerning the product or service
higher level of satisfaction and future positive behaviors consumed, relative to the sacrifices (generally price or
[28], [29]. time). Reference [39] point out that customer value in the
In this study, we identify the company’s functions marketing literature is generally defined from the
using the external functional analysis as a semantic consumer’s perspective. From the managerial perspective
clarification in the service context of the definition of each customer value has to be planned for, resources deployed
service. For this purpose, all customers’ steps (from design to achieve the desired level and personnel put in place to
to product delivery) are considered and for each step, implement the plan.
service functions are identified as a reference for the In the software industry value is delivered through a
customer satisfaction level. To serve the customer, the number of vehicles including quality of product, quality of
company implements a set of different activities and tasks the documentation, quality of the communication, time,
that we identify by applying the “internal functional speed of response, etc. Thus, value is a bundle of tangibles
analysis [25]. and intangibles and differs in configuration across
To establish the relation between functions, activities individuals
and tasks, we used the Functional Analysis System In the present software development company case
Technique (FAST) diagram [30]. This diagram starts with analysis, the service value management relies on the
the more global functions of the total system and then relationship between the satisfaction of many differing
extends to specific functions of individual components. needs and resources used in doing so. The fewer resources
Hence, every external function is achieved thanks to or the greater the satisfaction would lead to greater value
activities developed within the enterprise. The for the customer and the management. Internal and
identification of function, activities and products external stakeholders may all hold differing views of what
guarantees communication between all stakeholders [31]. represents value. The aim of Value Management is to
reconcile these differences and enable an organisation to
2.3 The service value achieve the greatest progress towards its stated goals with
the use of minimum resources [46]. Customer value in
The term “value” is used in many different cultures and SDC services means that the whole system is a value-
contexts and it can have different meaning depending if producing entity [22].
the concept comes from the firm or the customer
perspective [32]. To provide superior customer value is a
difficult task but it can lead to long-term business success 3. Methodology
for all stakeholders not just to the stockholders [32], [33],
[34], [35], [36], [37]. Customers who are satisfied are In this research, case study methodology is adopted to
more likely to repurchase the product/services [35], [38], show whether using Value Management for project
[39] and spread positive word of mouth [40], [41] analysis gives new insights about true project performance
Organizations that are successful in maintaining delivery and value. Reference [47] stressed that a case study is an
of superior value build customer loyalty and customer empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary
retention and enhance the quality of the relational phenomenon within its real-life context; when the
exchange between the service providers, the contact boundaries between phenomenon and its context are not
person and the customer [43]. clearly evident; and in which multiple sources of evidence
Customer value is created when the customer perceives are used. This case study is conducted, in December 2010,
that the benefit of consuming products/services exceeds in the Tunisian Software development company which
the sacrifices [44] Benefit is identified as quality, while employed 10 persons and has five projects. The
sacrifice is represented as a price. Reference [45] defines application and analyze of the value management tools is
customer value as ‘‘an interactive relativistic preference done only on the three projects which information is
experience’’. Reference [46] identifies four diverse available. Our data collection relied on direct observations
meanings of value: (1) ‘‘value is low price, (2) value is of SDC activities, on document analysis in order to
whatever one wants in a product, (3) value is the quality calculate the costs of the different activities of the project
that the consumer receives for the price paid, and (4) value and on the questionnaires in order to measure the customer
is what the consumer gets for what they give’’. In a satisfaction.
parallel vein, Reference [42] suggests that value can be For the analyze and interpretation of the results, a
classified as values, desired values, and value judgments. management group, composed of different disciplines
The notion of value judgment is the customer’s assessment which are project director, project team (developer, quality
responsible, etc) and the SDC manager, are constituted.
www.IJCSI.org 228
4. Results Costs (%)

Function Project 1 Project 2 Project 3
Activities
A16 5,4 7,2 5,4
4.1 Function and activity cost analysis A17 3,9 2,5 2,7
A18 6,7 2,7 9,6
We conducted interviews with professionals to define Administration 4,80 9,10 5,50
activities undertaken into a SDC. Then, we constructed the A19 0,8 1,2 1,3
organizational diagram showing the relation between the A20 1,1 2,4 1,6
A21 0,8 1,5 0,2
customer point of view and the Organization structure 1 2 0
axes (FAST: "Functional Analysis System Diagram") [30], A22
[48] (Appendix). This makes clear connection between A23 1,1 2 2,4
axes and cost allocation. Hence the cost for each function
(FCi) is evaluated by summing the costs of the connected 4.2 Customer satisfaction analysis
activities (designated "A1" to "A23").
This research study considered only the personnel Functions and criteria identified by the functional
costs of the employee operating in the SDC as indicator analysis were used to develop a questionnaire and measure
for the cost activity since the objective was to do an customer satisfaction using a four-point Likert-type scale,
organizational benchmarking. Direct and indirect service ranging from 1 ("Non satisfied") to 4 ("very satisfied").
personnel are considered. Those direct service personnel The developed measurement scale for customer
are essentially development and test engineer and project satisfaction was finally valid, through a pre-test phase, and
directors. The indirect ones are typically managers, reliable with eight functions “dimensions” and 20 criteria
accountants, and others who do not usually work directly “items” (table 1).
with customers.
Table 1 shows the costs of the different SDC Table 2: Functions and related criteria
Function criteria
activities. Marketing and Commercial Consulting, communication,
In our case the function cost is evaluated by the availability, reactivity.
equation 1. Project management Service quality, Timeliness,
CFi   j 1 Ca j
nai availability, reactivity.
(1) Development Clarity of documentation,
availability of product
documentation, need and
requirement satisfaction.
nai: number of activities associated to the function i. Validation Quality of product, response
Caj: the Cost of the activity j speed.
Delivery Quality service, availability of the
Table 1: Activities and functions costs of the 3 projects team, competence, training
Costs (%) effectiveness, timeless.
Function Project 1 Project 2 Project 3 Administration Availability, simplicity of the
Activities administrative procedure de
Marketing and 2,13 2,10 1,70
commercial
The questionnaire contains 3 parts. The first one is
A1 2,1 1,5 2,7
A2 0,9 1,3 0,7 about general information of the respondent: project,
A3 3,4 2,5 2 phase of the project, respondent function, etc. The second
A4 2,1 3,1 1,4 one measures the satisfaction level with regard to the
Project attributes expected by the customer (20 items). The third
management 24,90 13,30 26,60
A5 5,7 2,3 5,9 part contains questions allowing customer to indicate their
A6 1,5 0,9 2,8 overall satisfaction.
A7 2,6 2,4 2,2 The questionnaire was administered by personal
A8 3,8 3,1 4,7 interviews to a sample of the nine customers of the
A9 5,4 2,1 4,6
A10 5,9 2,5 6,4 projects during 1 month (3 customers from each project).
Development 43,40 51,70 40,80
A11 12,8 15,6 11,6 Table 3: Customer satisfaction results
A12 16,9 22,5 18,6 Satisfaction (%)
A13 13,7 13,6 10,6 Function
Validation 2,40 5,10 2,60 Project 1 Project 2 Project 3
A14 1,2 3,5 1,9
A15 1,2 1,6 0,7 F1 Marketing and commercial 83 89 90
Delivery 16,00 12,40 17,70
www.IJCSI.org 229
Satisfaction (%) “Administration” for the three projects and “Project

Function management” for the project 2).
Project 1 Project 2 Project 3
Innovation zone contains functions that are not
F2 Project management 98 87 87 satisfying the customers and costly. Managers should
implement innovation action in order to reduce the costs
F3 Development 56 67 72 and improve the customer satisfaction. So, they should
F4 Validation 56 65 70 understand the attributes that drive guest’s choices. The
F5 Delivery 54 65 58 open innovation approach can be a useful to involve all
stakeholders in order to create a continuous improvement
F6 Administration 85 83 81
and to innovate. For our case, the “development function”
must be concerned by innovation action.
4.3 Value and performance analysis Improvement and or innovation decision concern two
zones of the diagram CS/C: the first zone contains the
Using only the costs results, manager could make function characterized by the low cost and the high
error if they decide to reduce the costs without the customer satisfaction. The second zone regroups the
consideration of customer point of view. In order to functions which have a high cost and low customer
improve the decision making and to avoid this risk, we satisfaction. In our study, the function “Project
suggest that manager must consider simultaneously the management”, “validation” and “delivery” should be
customer point of view and the function costs. For this improved.
purpose, we developed a visual tool (diagram CS/C: figure The function “project management” (for project 1and
1) presenting these both points of view. In collaboration 3) is costly and appreciated by the customers. So managers
with the SDC manager, we fixed 80% as a target for have to analyze the cost structure and find the costly
customer satisfaction. For costs, the managers fixed 20% activities to make the best decisions. The benchmarking
as extreme limit. Theses tow limits divided the diagram in applied (project 2) gives alternatives to adopt for these
four zones associated to three types of decisions (1- functions.
Benchmark 2-Improvement and/or innovation and 3 For the function “Validation” and “delivery” (for the
Innovation). project 1, 2 and 3), the cost is low and customer
satisfaction is low. Using the questionnaire, we found that
60 customers are not satisfied with the product quality and
Innovation zone F3 Improvement the training effectiveness. So, managers must do further
50
zone analysis for the hole process, from design to the delivery
F3
40 process, to find solutions. The best practices founded for
F3
C osts (% )
30
the benchmark products can be helpful in this case.
F2 The VM approach permits managers to identify what
F2
20
F5 F5 is being done with resources under their control. When the
F2
F5 cost is high and the customer satisfaction is low, the
10 F4 F6
F4 F6 F6 activities related to the product become target for cost
F4 F1 F1
0
F1 reduction and improvement. SDC management can use the
50 Improvement
60 zone 70 80 90 Benchmark
100
result of VM to evaluate which function to retain and
Satisfaction (%) zone
which activities to improve, according to market
conditions and customer demand.
Projet 1 Projet 2 Projet3 customer satisfaction limit cost limit This study demonstrated that Value management
produces distinctly different results that a traditional
project cost analysis. The simultaneously consideration of
Fig. 1 Diagram CS/C the customer point of view and the cost allows us to
determine that only two functions are efficient and four
“Benchmark zone” groups project functions which functions cause problems of the projects for the two point
have a high customer satisfaction and low cost. For this of view: customer point of view and manger point of view.
function, it is useful to apply a benchmarking taking into Although, using only the cost results, we have found that
consideration the customer feed back and the production only two functions (development and project management)
system details to extract the best practices. So, manager showed the dissatisfaction of the management. So, basing
could standardize theses practices in the other project. In on these findings, we note that decisions are different and
this study case three functions can be considered as more appropriate.
‘Benchmark’ (“Marketing and commercial” and
www.IJCSI.org 230
The results of this study suggest that analyzing Using VM methods, a manager of a SDC can now
simultaneously the customer satisfaction and the cost have analyze the true underlying profitability and customer
significant benefits for project management. So, we can in satisfaction of a project, taking into consideration the
the same time satisfy the manager and customer by the entire project’s cost structure and the customer point of
implementation of the improvement action and project. view. This is not only true for a software development
Furthermore, costs can provide operators with the project, as was demonstrated in this study, but also for
information that they need in order to determine whether other types of projects. Armed with this knowledge,
they can afford to adjust their prices, according to managers can take the necessary steps to alter their
competitive project or product offerings. operation and reconfigure their project to improve the
The proposed diagram (CS/C) helps manager to customer value and their facility’s bottom line profitability.
make decision and to orient and prioritize the
improvement project. It allows managers to identify easily
the costly activities and to implement action to analyze 6. Conclusions
their cost structure. We can easily take decision to
improve both customer satisfaction and the cost of the In this study, we showed that a value management
products taking into consideration the customer needs and approach was successfully adapted to a software
the activity cost structure analysis. All the information development project in Tunisia. The proposed model
gained from a VM study should be shared with the allowed to determine the costs and to analyze the customer
employees of the establishment to conduct activities in a satisfaction for each project function. This process
more efficient manner. Once employees and management resulted in the establishment of the costs of the different
comprehend the potential opportunities of a value activities for all projects. Therefore, the study was able to
management system, they can manage the project and provide value for the project function by calculating a cost
execute tasks in more profitable ways while delivering real and the customer satisfaction for the different projects.
value to the customer. Thus, all functions that are The results of this study suggest that adopting a VM
unprofitable should be improved. Taking such steps will approach may have significant benefits for software
help managers fully to realize the potential benefits of project management. This combined approach allows to
using a value management approach to invigorate the enhance the quality of decision making process. Although,
profit potential of their project. it was applied to software development project, its
The proposed study which uses a value management implications can be broadly extended to virtually all types
tools helps also to determine which products or services of projects.
are profitable, which customers are the most valuable, Among the principal limitations of this study were
whether processes are value added or not, and where the exploratory nature, the number of samples used (only a
efforts toward improvement should be made. It can be single SDC in Tunisia) and the period of the
considered as a qualitative approach to identify the basics implementation of the value management tools (only one
of a service orientation and how both parties perceive the month). Management should also calculate costs for the
service experience in a specific cultural context as well as other projects, in order to determine all the reasons for the
delimitating subtle differences with customers. overall high cost and low customer satisfaction.
Nevertheless, despite these limitations, the study
demonstrated that VM can develop effective function
5. Discussions and managerial implications /project and orient managers by measuring value. It has
been suggested as an appropriate tool for guiding and
The results of this study show that value management directing the process of making decision.
approach in a software development project is a feasible
way to gain detailed insight about the project’s value. The
use of VM tools allows managers to extract the best value
combination taking into consideration both customer
satisfaction and cost of the product. That improves the
decision making process and orients managers to the prior
improvement project for the best profit. Appendix : FAST DIAGRAM
www.IJCSI.org 231
A1 – Find opportunity
Manage the A2 – Contact customer

Marketing and
commercial function
A3 – Elaborate contract
A4 – Prepare proposal
A5 – Kick off
A6 – Manage team
A7 – plan the project

Manage project
A8 – control and monitor the
A9 – Manage risks
A10 – Manage the configuration
A11 – Analyze requirement
Satisfy the Develop solution

customer A12 – Design solution
A13 – Develop requirements
A14 – Check and revue the

Validate the product
A15 – Validate the product
A16 – Install the product
Deliver the product

A17 – Train users
A18 – Manage the maintenance
A19 – Manage the payment
A20 – manage the human

Manage the
administrative work A21– Manage the project
administrative monitoring
A22 – Contact suppliers
A23 – Manage the infrastructure

www.IJCSI.org 232
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www.IJCSI.org 234
Using Evolutionary Strategies Algorithm in the

Evolutionary Design of Sequential Logic Circuits
Parisa Soleimani 1, Reza Sabbaghi-Nadooshan 2 , Sattar Mirzakuchaki3
, and Mahdi Bagheri 4
1
Member of Scientific Association of Electrical and Electronic Engineering,
Islamic Azad University, Central Tehran branch
Punak, Tehran, Iran
2
Department of electronic engineering
Islamic Azad University, Central Tehran branch
Punak, Tehran, Iran
3
Iran University of Science and Technology
Narmak, Tehran, 16846-13114, Iran
4
Iran University of Science and Technology
Narmak, Tehran, 16846-13114, Iran
of complexity also causes problems in the design

Abstract procedure, and in the management and functioning of such
Evolvable hardware (EHW) is a set of techniques that are based systems.
on the idea of combining reconfiguration hardware systems with Simpler structure of combinational logic circuits in
evolutionary algorithms. In other word, EHW has two sections; compare with sequential logic circuits and the lack of
the reconfigurable hardware and evolutionary algorithm where feedback in this circuits is caused more researches have
the configurations are under the control of an evolutionary
been done in this field. Different evolutionary algorithms
algorithm. This paper, suggests a method to design and optimize
the synchronous sequential circuits. Evolutionary Strategies have been used to evolve combinational logic circuits, for
algorithm (ES) was applied as evolutionary algorithm. In this example Vasicek used Cartesian genetic programming [1],
approach, for building input combinational logic circuit of each Stomeo employed evolutionary strategy [2], and Jackson
DFF, and also output combinational logic circuit, the cell arrays used genetic programming [3].
have been used. The obtained results show that our method can On the other hand, relatively few efforts have been done to
reduce the average number of generations by limitation the evolve the sequential logic circuits [4]. For example,
search space. Higuchi used GA to search for circuits that represent the
Keywords: Combinational logic circuit, Evolutionary desired state transition function [5]. Manovit synthesized
algorithms, Evolvable hardware, Evolutionary Strategies
frequency detector, odd parity detector, module-5 counter,
algorithm, sequential logic circuit.
serial adder [6]. Aporntewan evolved serial adder, 0101
detector, module-5 counter, Reversible 8-counter with
1. Introduction genetic algorithm [7]. Solimon designed 3-bit up-counter
The complexity of electronic and computer systems is [8], and Shanthi evolved module-6 counter, ‘lion’ circuit
increasing at a rapid rate. This increase of complexity [9].
enables the designers to come up with effectively In this paper, we have proposed a method for designing and
engineered systems such as airplanes, modern vehicles, optimizing the synchronous sequential logic circuits with
mobile phones, and intelligent homes. However, this level 100% functionality and minimal number of logic gates. In
www.IJCSI.org 235
the rest of this paper, sections 2 consider the main idea of

the proposed method. Section 3 describes ES algorithm.
Section 4 describes details of process to define structure of
chromosomes. Section 5 explains fitness evaluation process
to evaluate the performance of evolved circuits. Simulation
environment has been described in section 6. Section 7
summarizes the experiment of proposed method on two
sequential circuits and shows the simulation results for
target circuits. Finally, in section 8 the conclusion of this
paper is presented.
2. The Proposed Method
The structure of sequential logic circuits comprises a

set of two sections of the combinational logic circuit and
D flip-flops [10]. In this approach, for designing
combinational parts, we present a constant structure of two
dimensional rectangular arrays of logic gates. We put this
array to input of each DFF for building their next states,
and before the primary outputs to build the outputs of the
target circuit as Fig. 1. With evaluation of each array
separately, speed of evolution is increased and the
evolution time is decreased.
Figure 1. Block diagram of the proposed method for sequential logic
The described array for building combinational logic circuit with two DFFs
parts is shown in Fig. 2. This array has R rows and C
columns, and their logic gates are chosen from AND, OR, 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
NAND and NOT gates. Except NOT gate, the other gates 3 3 3 3
have two inputs and one output. Each gate input can be 2 2
2 1 1 1 2 1
obtained from primary inputs, present states of DFFs or 3 3
outputs of each left neighbor gates. 2 2 2
One Multiplexer is added to the inputs of gates in each 3

1 2 1
3
1
3
1
array, the input of DFFs and before the primary outputs. 2 2 2

We change connection between gates and DFFs by 3
1
3
1 2 1
3
1
varying the selection bits of multiplexers. Hence, by

2 2 2 2
determining the proposed structure of chromosome 3
1
3
1
3
1
3
1
encoding (section IV) and by using the evolutionary

strategies algorithm, we have evaluated the different states 2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
1 2 1
of logic gate connections to achieve a correct

functionality and minimum number of logic gates.
. Figure 2. Schematic of the rectangular array structure for building
combinational logic parts.
3. Evolutionary strategies Algorithm

Evolutionary strategies (ES) is one of the evolutionary
algorithm that so called (1+) algorithm.  is the size of
population. At first stage, all of the chromosomes have
been produced, randomly. At the second stage, the fitness
value of any chromosome has been computed. At the third
stage, the best chromosome has been selected based on the
www.IJCSI.org 236
best fitness value. At the fourth stage, the chromosome

that has been selected in the previous stage is evaluated for
evolution stop condition. If the stop condition has been not
achieved, the new population is produced by  iteration
mutation of the best chromosome.
Hence, the number of member of new generation is +1.
The steps 2-4 have been repeated until to reach to the
evolution stop condition.
4. Chromosome Encoding
The basic concept behind the combination of
reconfigurable hardware systems and evolutionary
algorithm (similar to ESs in EHW) is to regard the
configuration bits for the reconfigurable hardware devices
as chromosomes for the evolutionary strategies algorithm.
If the fitness function is correctly designed for a task, then Figure 4. Structure of Multiplexer has been used in “Fig.3”
the evolutionary strategies algorithm can autonomously
find the best hardware configuration in terms of the
chromosomes (i.e. configuration bits).
The chromosome defines the construction of the logic
circuit and the connectivity between logic gates. In this
approach, we have put a multiplexer to input of each gate, 4 8
A1 Output
DFFs, and before the primary outputs. Fig. 3 shows block 5
6
7
A2
A3
A4
diagram of cell array after adding multiplexer to it. 12
11
10
A5
A6 2
A7
We changed connection between gates and DFFs by 9
A8 3
1
1
changing the selection bits of multiplexers. Inputs of 16
15
Sel0
Sel1
Sel2
multiplexers of logic gates are taken from primary inputs, 4 8
5 A1 Output
present states of DFFs, outputs of all gates that is the 6
7
A2
A3
A4
neighbor left column, and constant values that set equal 12
11
10
A5
A6
A7
‘0’ and ‘1’. Also inputs of multiplexers of DFFs and 9
1
A8
Sel0
primary outputs are obtained from primary inputs and 16
15 Sel1
Sel2
outputs of all logic gates that are on the all left columns.
Fig. 4 depicts the structure of multiplexer that is used.
Changing selection bits of multiplexers leads to different Figure 5. Structure of chromosome encoding.
connectivity between logic gates of circuit. We have used
the selection bits of multiplexer as chromosome genes as
5. Fitness Evaluation Process
Fig. 5.
A fitness function in ES measures goodness of every
individual in population with respect to the problem under
consideration. We used finite state machine (FSM) for
evaluation of sequential circuits. In this method, first the
desired state is set in the circuit flip flops and then we
changed the value in primary inputs and compared the
output of circuit with the desired ones. If these two values
are equal, then the fitness value is increased.
In proposed method, we measured fitness function by two
main criteria: design and optimization. In the first criteria,
functionality of the circuit is evaluated. Our first objective
indicator is evolving a circuit that has 100% functionality.
Then in the second criteria, optimization has been
performed by reducing the numbers of logic gates that are
used in the target circuit. Fitness optimization is activated
once design fitness value reaches 100% functionality.
Figure 3. Block diagrom of cell array after adding multiplexer to it.

www.IJCSI.org 237
The design criterion of any individual is evaluated as these

steps:
1. The initial value for design fitness has been
considered to zero.
2. The primary inputs and present state of DFFs have
been set externally. Then the value of next state of DFFs
and primary output of the circuit is measured after sending
a clock signal to DFF.
3. The corresponding output with desired output has
been compared. We can use this equation to measure
fitness: Figure 6. Structure of chromosome encoding[11].
FDesign=FDesign+ number of equal output bits. (1)
4. The steps 2-3 have been repeated for the remaining 7. Experiments and Results
states of FSM and functionality of circuit has been In this section, the proposed method is experimented on
evaluated.
two types of the sequential circuits.
The optimization criterion has been calculated as follow
steps: a) 1010 Sequential detector
1. The initial value for optimization criterion has been The first circuit is a 1010 sequential detector. The target
considered as: sequence detector circuit has one input, one output, and
FOptimization = R*C (2) four internal states. State transition graph of this circuit has
been shown in Fig. 7. In this method, we designed the
2. For each individual, total number of logic gates have target detector based on the symbolic transition table
been calculated. So, we can use this equation to find shown in Fig. 8. In this figure, step1 shows the symbolic
optimization fitness: state table of FSM and state assignment to each state. In
FOptimization = (R*C) - number of logic gates that is used step2, STT of the target circuit is shown. In step3, STT of
in new circuit. (3) the circuit is divided into input combinational logic sub
circuit A and B and output combinational logic sub circuit
Now, the final fitness of individual could be calculated by
C [10]. This circuit has four states that use two DFFs. As
using this equation:
we explained in previous sections, we evaluated each sub
FFinal = FDesign+ FOptimization (4) circuit A, B, and C separately. Finally, the sequential
circuit is assembled. The evolved circuit is shown in Fig.
Both of the procedures described above are applied for
9.
evaluation of combinational parts of sequential logic
circuit.
6. Simulation Environment
In this method, we used Modelsim as VHDL hardware
programming language simulator and MATLAB software
for implement ES. In addition we used simulator link TM
MQ toolbox in this software. It can access to Modelsim,
open HDL code, run it for different inputs that are
determined in MATLAB code and save outputs in the
variables of MATLAB codes. Hence this toolbox is as a
link between Modelsim and MATLAB. Fig. 6 shows block
diagram of this process.
Figure 7. 1010 Detector (a) state transition graph, (b) state transition
table, (c) state assignment[10].
This circuit includes two gates in sub circuit A and three

gates in sub circuit C and there is not any gate in sub circuit
B. The results that have been achieved by proposed method
www.IJCSI.org 238
in compare with [12] have been shown in Table 1. In this Proposed approach Almaini [12]
circuit, maximum number of the generations for evaluation DA =XB’+A DA=X’A’B+X’AB’+XAB
of sub circuit A was 4230 generations, for sub circuit B DB=X DB=A’B+AB’+XB’
was 1300 generations and for sub circuit C was 5200 Z=X’A’B Z=X’AB’
generations. We attained above results after 20 runs. In
Sub circuits of A,B=2 Sub circuits of A,B=12
comparison with the method was presented in [12], our
method uses the less gates, less generations, and the less Sub circuit C=3 Sub circuit C=2
times of evaluation to get 100% functionality. Also
optimization decreases search space for ES by evolution of b) Sequential detector with 6 states
combinational parts of sequential circuit separately. We experiment another sequential detector in this section.
This circuit has six states and uses three DFFs. State
transition graph of this circuit has been shown in Fig. 10.
We evolved this circuit similar to previous experiment. Fig.
11 depicts evolved circuit. In this circuit, sub circuit A has
one gate, sub circuit B has five gates, sub circuit C has one
gate and there is not any gate in sub circuit D.
In this experiment, the maximum number of the
generations for evaluation of sub circuit A was 6120
generations, for sub circuit B was 10000 generations, for
sub circuit C was 8310 generations and for sub circuit D
was 8015 generations. We attained these results after 50
runs.
Table 2 compares our method with manual method and
proposed method in [10]. The solution obtained by manual
method, uses almost 2 times more gates than the circuit
created by our method, and the method solution reported in
Figure 8. Process of STT of 1010 sequential circuit where .i [10] uses one gate more than our method. Maximum
input=input+present state bits, .o defined the number of outputs number of generations in [10] is 50000 generations, but in
calculated, outputs of subcircuit A and B =next states of DFFs and output our method is 10000 generations.
of subcircuit C =primary output bits, .p is the number of product terms
Sub circuit A
Sub circuit B Sub circuit C
X
2 2
1 1 2 1
3 3 D Q
3 Q'
CLK
2
1 2 1
2 1 3
D Q
3 Q'
CLK
2 Output
1
3
Figure 9. Evolved optimal circuit solution for 1010 detector.

Figure 10. Sequential Detector (a) state transition graph, b state transition
table, (c) state assignment [10].
TABLE I. SOLUTION OBTAINED FOR 1010 DETECTOR BASED ON

FIG.9
Sub circuit A
www.IJCSI.org Sub circuit B Sub circuit D 239
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1 2
D Q
1 [8] A. T. Soliman, H.M. Abbas, “Synchronous Sequential Circuits Design
3
CLK using Evolutionary Algorithm,” vol.4, pp.2013-2016, 2004.
[9] A. P. Shanthi, L. K. Singaram, “Evolution of Asynchronous
Sequential Circuits,” in Proceeding of the 2005 NASA/DoD Conference
Figure 11. Evolved optimal circuit solution for sequential detector. Sub circuit
on Evolvable Hardwarex, pp.93-96, 2005.
C
[10] B. Ali, A. Almaini and T. Kalganova, “Evolutionary Algorithms and
Their Use in the Design of Sequential Logic Circuits,” in Genetic
TABLE II. SOLUTION OBTAINED FOR SEQUENTIAL DETECTOR Program, Evolvable Machine, vol.5,pp.11-29, 2004.
[11] http://www.Mathworks.com.
Proposed method T.kalganova[10] Manual method [12] A. E. A. Almaini, Electronic Logic Systems, Prentice-Hall, 3rd
DA=XB DA =XB DA=AC’+AX’+BCX’ ED.1994,UK.
[13] E. Stomeo, T. Kalganova and C. Lambert, “Generalized Disjunction
DB=X’ DB=X’ DB=BX+A’CX Decomposition for Evolvable Hardwar”,vol.36, No.2, pp.1024-1042,
October 2006.
DC=(XAC)’(C+XA) Dc=XAC’+X’C+A’C DC=BX+A’C’X’+A’B’X’+
AC’X
Z=C Z=C Z=A+BC
Parisa Soleimani received B.Sc. in Bioelectric Engineering from
Sub circuits of Sub circuits of A,B,C=8 Sub circuits of the Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
A,B,C=7 A,B,C=17 in 2005. She is M.Sc. candidate in electronic engineering from
Central Tehran Branch of Islamic Azad University. Her research
Sub circuit D=0 Sub circuit D=0 Sub circuit D=2 interest includes Evolvable Hardware and digital signal processing.
Reza Sabbaghi-Nadooshan received the B.Sc. and M.Sc. degree

in electrical engineering from the Iran University of Science and
Technology, Tehran, Iran, in 1991 and 1994 and the Ph.D. degree
8. Conclusions in electrical engineering from the Science and Research Branch,
Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran in 2010. From 1998 he
This paper, has presented a method to design and optimize became faculty member of Department of Electronics in Central
Tehran branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran. His research
the synchronous sequential circuits. In this method, we interests include interconnection networks, Networks-on-Chips,
have separated combinational parts and DFFs of sequential Hardware design and embedded systems.
circuit and evolved them separately. This method decreased
search space in ES and increased the speed of evolution. In
comparison of our method with other methods, our method Sattar Mirzakuchaki received B.Sc. in Electrical Engineering
from the University of Mississippi in 1989, and the M.Sc. and PhD
can design sequential logic circuits better than them and in Electrical Engineering from the University of Missouri-Columbia,
need to less time for evaluating. For future works it can be in 1991 and 1996, respectively. He has been a faculty member of
considered the evolution of the large scale sequential the College of Electrical Engineering at the Iran University of
Science and Technology, Tehran, since 1996. His current research
circuits by using proposed method that is applying more in
interests include characterization of semiconductor devices and
industry. design of VLSI circuits. Dr. Mirzakuchaki is a member of IEEE and
IET (formerly IEE) and a Chartered Engineer.
References Mahdi Bagheri received M.Sc. degree in Electrical Engineering
[1] Z. Vasicek, L. Sekanina, “Hardware Accelerators for Cartesian
Genetic Programming,” in proceeding of the 11th European Conference from the Iran University of Science and Technology, Tehran, in
on Genetic Programming, vol.4971,pp.230-241, 2008. 2011. His research interests are in evolvable hardware,
evolutionary computation, design of digital circuits, and
[2] E. Stomeo, T. Kalganova, C. Lambert, “Generalized Disjunction bioengineering applications. He is currently a member of IEEE
Decomposition for Evolvable Hardware,” IEEE Trans.Part B 36(5), since 2008.
pp.1024-1043,2006.
www.IJCSI.org 240
A Protocol for Re-authentication and Handoff Notification in

Wireless Mesh Networks
Ikbel Daly1, Faouzi Zarai2 and Lotfi Kamoun3
LETI laboratory, University of Sfax

Sfax, Tunisia
Abstract Moreover, Wireless Mesh Network (WMN) is composed

Mesh technology has captured the interest of university research of multiple types of entities which differ according to the
and industry, because of its capacity to meet at the same time the adopted architecture. In spite of this diversity, all these
requirements of Internet service provider and users. But, its nodes are able to be dynamically self-organized and self-
architecture and configuration do not ensure a protection against configured. In addition, another aspect characterizing the
the unauthorized use of the network since the used basic security
measures do not include the concept of mobility. Our endeavor
relations between these nodes is the multi-hop
in this paper is to introduce a re-authentication scheme for secure transmission.
handoff based on an efficient mobility management. First, we This procedure makes it possible to build several paths
have treated the mobility aspect. Indeed, we applied the between various components of network in order to reach
Mobility Notification Message procedure to support an the target. Thereafter, it may help to solve the problem of
environment which manages handoff in effective way. Then, corrupted paths, which is caused by the disconnection or
using this technique, we have defined a new scheme to provide the breakdown of an entity inside the network.
security during handoff. Our study shows that the proposed
protocol can provide more protected network and more effective This type of network may take all its interest only when a
re-authentication scheme in term of minimized handoff latency
standard is associated to it. Indeed, the IEEE (Institute of
as well as reduced blocking and loss rates.
Electrical and Electronics Engineers) formed the 802.11
Keywords: Re-authentication, Handoff, Mesh Network,
Security, Mobility. Task Group "s" (TGs) in 2004 to prepare a standard
amendment for WMN. This future standard (IEEE 802.11s)
defines a whole of terminologies which will be adopted in
1. Introduction the remainder of this study.
The last decades have shown a very significant revolution First of all, any node which supports the Mesh services
for wireless networks, which results by the appearance of such as control, management, and configuration of
several models and techniques. These new technologies, network is a Mesh Point (MP). If the node supports in
which bring new services and improve the used processes, more the access to stations (STAs) or to the nodes which
form the next generation of wireless networks. Mainly, we do not have the Mesh services it is called a Mesh Access
quote two great families for these techniques; Ad hoc Point (MAP). Moreover, a Mesh Portal Point (MPP) is a
networks and Mesh networks. MP which has a connection with Internet and the external
networks.
These technologies are characterized by deployment
flexibility, a facility of use and a wider cover. Indeed, Although we notice the significant advantages of WMN
Mesh solutions support a diversity of advantages which successful deployment in the whole world, some technical
are essentially the minimization of the network installation limitations and problems will remain to be solved and will
cost with a simple maintenance procedure, the robustness probably require more advanced research for the
of offered networks services as well as the extension of deployment of such a network [1]. For example, we quote
the cover without touching with the reliability of the the quality of service, the security, the mobility
network. management and the interference problem.
www.IJCSI.org 241
A principal challenge in WMN is the supply of the Mobility and multi-homing notification and also Geo-
mobility, which constitutes a principal need in wireless mobility and location service in spontaneous WMN.
communications, since network users are increasingly
mobile due to the massive deployment of wireless The stations in SMesh are connected automatically to the
technologies. This new generation of clients, who seek to network by the standard DHCP. SMesh proposes its own
communicate during their displacements without any solution to solve the handoff problem. This suggested
constraint of connectivity, and where the network change approach can be considered effective since it doesn't
needs to be completely transparent, pushed the include the client in the procedure of handoff neither
researchers’ community to propose a whole of solutions changes its device nor introduced additional software. On
and studies to solve these problems. the other hand, the mobile nodes only have localization’s
precision of 2 seconds. Moreover, a heavy signaling
To make it possible to users to carry out an effective and overhead was produced by the diffusion of DHCP requests
reliable handoff (i.e. a change of point of attachment for a by the station at each 2 seconds and also created in case
client while being in communication) as well as a secure where several MAP have good connectivity with certain
access to the offered services in Mesh network, a study of client, the data packets of this client will be duplicated.
security aspect should be carried out during the moving of
mobile nodes from an MAP to another and through A second vision to solve the problem of mobility
various domains. Indeed, mobility mechanism cannot management in Mesh network is presented in this work [4].
prove its effectiveness only if it is associated to well This study proposes a new model of location service based
defined and studied security mechanism in order to on a whole of principles. First of all, this approach
provide access to Mesh network only to authorized nodes. separates between the allotted addresses, which change
This aspect becomes increasingly critical toward the according to the geographical location of the node, and
growth of various attacks which can be carried out in an their persistent identifiers, which remain unchangeable in
open medium environment and with a variable topology. spite of these movements. Then, this separation requires
the presence of mapping service for these last parameters
The goal of this study is to design a re-authentication and to each station to be located whenever its site. This
scheme for secure handoff in the wireless Mesh network idea is carried out by the installation of "Distributed
based an efficient mobility management. First, we begin Location Service" mechanism which is central additional
our study with the treatment of mobility problem. Indeed, equipment in the network.
we applied the Mobility notification Message (MNM)
procedure to support an environment which manages This approach requires a long handoff latency since each
handoff in effective way. Based on this technique, we transmission must have recourse to this service to apply
define a new scheme to provide the security network the correspondence identity/address and also each
during the node handoff. displacement must be announced in this new equipment.
Consequently, this procedure requires too much signaling
The remainder of this work is organized as follows. In overhead and very considerable handoff latency.
Section 2, we give some related works. In Section 3, we Concerning the security aspect, the suggested model
describe the details of our re-authentication protocol. In supposes the existence of confidence relations between
Section 4, we analyze and evaluate the performance of our various components inside network, except the clients,
proposed scheme. Finally, we conclude the study in which contradicts the reality of wireless networks. In this
Section 5. same context, this mechanism does not take into account
the risks and the attacks which can proceed inside Mesh
network at the time of handoff.
2. Related Work
The mobility management is a very wide issue of research
WMN brings several advantages such as the facility and and can be treated from various sides. Indeed, the macro
the flexibility of deployment. The prime objective of this mobility is a type of mobility, which is carried out
type of network is to offer a flexible connectivity to the between various domains inside Mesh network. In this
mobile users. Consequently, the special care must be taken context, the study [5] proposes a notification protocol
by handling the mobility. In our study, we are interested in driven by the access points and independently of the used
stations mobility. Due to the importance of this challenge, routing protocol. In this approach, the access points detect
various solutions were proposed in the literature in order the clients’ macro mobility by the change of addresses.
to solve the problem of lack of security during handoff. Following this detection, the MAPs send to source node a
Among which we quote the example of SMesh (Seamless notification message containing the new configuration
Mesh) [2], WMM mechanism [3], Protocol for Macro
www.IJCSI.org 242
parameters. This message will be sent at each 60 seconds facilitating their inter-operability. The proposed
for each client, which may cause a heavy additional authentication scheme is based on using EAP-TTLS
signaling overhead within Mesh network. As the previous (Extensible Authentication Protocol-Tunneled Transport
study, this approach is studied independently of the Layer Security) over PANA (Protocol for carrying
security aspect. The innovation brought by WMM is the Authentication Network Access). The EAP-TTLS extends
use of the options field in the header of an IP packet to EAP-TLS to exchange additional information between
store the station location information in each MP. But client and server by using secure tunnel established by
when there is no handoff, these additional bytes aren’t TLS negotiation.
necessary. Thus, the proposed method requires a heavy
implementation and many procedures. Especially, the In spite of the diversity of the benefit brought by this
query procedure involves flooding signaling messages to approach such as a level of security of the stations similar
the WMN, which results in signaling overhead to the to that proven for EAP-TLS but with very simple
system. WMM as others studies, which treats only implementation and also flexibility by employing any
mobility, their medium remains open and the traffic can be authentication protocol, it remains some anomalies to be
easily listened or modified. rectified. First, the discovery and handshake phase,
executed before the establishment of the secure tunnel, is
In this context, security becomes a principal necessity. The prone to spoofing attacks and the threat of man in the
issue of insecurity becomes increasingly vulnerable and middle by a malicious node as data are sent in clear.
critical during handoff that requires the application of an Second, this study did not take into account the notion of
effective policy and well defined security. We mention in mobility and handoff in WMN. Finally, this approach
the remainder of this section some solutions suggested presents a long procedure of authentication that may result
recently solving the security problem. The mechanism [6] in a heavy signaling overhead.
is based on the use of a "token" of authentication which is
dynamically produced during a handoff by the moving With an aim of solving the problem of lack of security
station. In this solution, the structure of the "token" is not following mobility phase, the study [9] seeks to design a
defined as well as the manner of the generation of this pre-authentication model for fast handoff with mobile
parameter which will be present at the level of the station Access points (APs). This approach improved existing
and the authentication server at the same time methods, particularly Mishra et Al technique [10], to be
(synchronization between the stations and the server). applicable inside WMN environment. Besides, the
Furthermore, with each handoff, the server intervenes in suggested model avoids the chained relation between the
the re-authentication phase between a given station and his whole of PMKs (Pairwise Master Keys) in neighbors
new MAP what carries out to overload the server then to graph with an aim of solving the problem of the pre-
increase the handoff latency and degrade the quality of authentication. Moreover, the authors applied Du et al.
network. We notice also the "token" duplication risk or the method [11] for PMKs generation and for keys pre-
generation of the same "token" on another station. distribution procedure. The principle of this last technique
is based on Blom model [12] which uses a set of matrices
In addition, the authors of [7] introduce a Two-Factor in order to manage the secret keys.
localized authentication model for a handoff inter-
domain (i.e. the station moves between MAPs which Although the suggested solution presents a secure
belong to the same Mesh). Although this solution proves mechanism for handoff as well as an effective
its effectiveness in several cases of attack and lack of management of keys, it still suffers from a whole of limits.
security, the proposed model use a removable support to First of all, the procedure of matrices diffusion used in this
store confidential information which amplifies the risk of scheme requires the transmission of a great number of
attack, theft and even the loss of this device. This scheme values for all Mesh network components. Consequently,
uses a central entity which carries out several tasks so the this can cause a heavy signaling overhead.
architecture becomes centralized, that may multiplies the
risks of attack and disturbs the correct functioning of Second, this model requires a huge amount of calculation
network. This model uses several parameters that require to be carried out and treated in order to extract the
so much memory capacity to store this information in matrices. Then, to extend the Mesh cover, we proceed
different devices. simply by the addition of access points. As a result of this
network extension, the authentication server must change
Moreover, [8] introduces a secure authentication technique the matrices which are used for client authentication and
that can be conveniently implemented for the ad-hoc re-authentication procedure because these various matrices
nodes forming clients of an integrated WMN, thus depend on network size (i.e. the number of present MAPs).
www.IJCSI.org 243
3. Proposed Scheme clients' hopes, it is necessary to hold in account the

mobility of MAPs. This architecture is used with an aim of
In this section, we describe the principle of our proposed facilitating the implementation of mobility and re-
re-authentication protocol, which is applicable in Wireless authentication protocol explained in the next subsections.
Mesh Network. First of all, we define the adopted
architecture of our study environment to facilitate the
implementation of our suggested solution. Our studied
issue can be divided into two great phases. The first aspect
is the mobility since we will be interested in the nodes
mobility management, which is known as handoff. The
major problem which is derived from mobility is security.
Indeed, this second aspect makes it possible to eliminate
risks, attacks and vulnerable actions in Mesh network.
3.1 Network Architecture

In order to be able to apply our re-authentication protocol, Fig. 1 The adopted Mesh network Architecture for the proposed solution.
we need to specify the architecture of the adapted
environment. In our study, we have slightly modified the 3.2 Handoff: Mobility Management
terminology used in the draft D2.0 of IEEE 802.11s
(described in the introduction section) [13]. Moreover, we After having fixed the architecture of our study on which
selected the hierarchical architecture because it presents we will implement our re-authentication protocol, we will
the most adapted approach for mobility and security be interested in the first aspect, which is mobility.
treatment as well as it has the most powerful platform, Moreover, we cannot solve the lack of security problem
which is compatible with Mesh network requirements and during handoff without initially ensuring an effective
challenges. This choice is based on a comparative study mobility protocol. Indeed, this aspect facilitates the
made between three types of architecture; centralized, integration of the re-authentication protocol and the
distributed and hierarchical. preparation of a suitable platform. The purpose of such
mobility protocol is to supervise and follow the location
Indeed, the work [14] presents a study on the information change of the various nodes inside the
authentication behavior for mobile nodes in Wireless network.
Mesh Network. This study evaluated the latency and the
resources consumption of authentication inside this same The prime objective of Wireless Mesh Network is to offer
type of network and by considering the nodes mobility. a supple connectivity to mobile users. However, the ease
Following this comparison, the results showed that of communication should not make forget the new risks
hierarchical architecture provided the fastest handoff introduced by these techniques. Indeed, in Mesh network
behavior since in case of re-authentication the data and the the clients (mobile by definition) are likely to move from a
authentication latency will be more reduced as well as the cell (Mesh node cover) to another. Moreover, the
elimination of the congestion on the level of a unique protocols, intended to manage mobility in wired networks,
authentication entity. give bad results on this new technology. So the installation
of a mobility mechanism (roaming) will be a crucial issue
In our hierarchical architecture and as shown in Fig. 1, the for services continuity and consequently the special care
network is divided into groups called "Clusters". For each must be taken by handling these subjects.
group or cluster, we select a Mesh Access Point as a head
of group called "Cluster Head", noted CH. This selected In Mesh network, there are various mobility types; users’
MAP will drive the different operations proceeding inside mobility and network devices mobility. Besides, this
each domain such as; load balancing between MAPs, aspect has several levels: intra-cluster and inter-cluster
access control, decision of handoff authorization, etc.In mobility. For the first type, the displacements of clients are
addition, MAPs nodes in IEEE 802.11s draft are by limited to the cover of only one cluster. On the other hand,
definition stationary to provide more stable and invariable the various network components are likely to roam from a
architecture. But this condition does not meet the needs cluster to another. In our work, we are interested in these
and requirements wished of Mesh network deployment various aspects of mobility. Thus, we refer to the mobility
where mobility is the first aspect to be respected. Then to of the users simply by the term handoff.
ensure a closer architecture reality and more adjusted with
Components Identification: To be identified in a unique
www.IJCSI.org 244
way inside Mesh network, we allot to each client an to that of intra-cluster mobility, is sent from CHnew
identity. This parameter is obtained since the connection towards the client.
establishment and following a success authentication of a
new client. This procedure allows to provide a secure and 3.3 Security: Re-authentication Protocol
robust network which can be protected against the various
attacks and to avoid the anonymity problem. The Although there are many significant advantages and
identities attribution phase does not relate only to clients benefits of the Mesh networks successful deployment in
but rather all the other Mesh network components. Indeed, the whole world, some technical limitations and problems
each MAP and each CH has a preset identity since the will remain to be solved and will probably require more
connection of the considered node. These additional advanced research for the exploitation of such a network.
parameters will be used to prove the device validity using We quote some of these weaknesses; the mobility and the
some other information. Concerning the allotted identities security. However, in spite of the study of mobility aspect
to a client, who is already disconnected from the network, in previous sub-section, the medium remains open and the
they will be added, by the Mesh Access Point (MAP) traffic can be easily listened or modified. In this context,
associated with this client, to the list of revoked identities. security becomes a principal concern. Indeed, mobility
Thereafter, this list will be updated in the corresponding mechanism cannot prove its effectiveness alone but only
Cluster Head in Mesh network so that identities list cannot when it will be associated to a well defined and studied
be re-used by another client. security mechanism.
Mobility Notification Message (MNM): In this part, we Some Possible Attacks: Attacks in WMN are very
are interested in the study of inter-cluster and intra-cluster diverse, some are inherited from previous wireless
mobility of clients inside the Mesh network. In order to technologies and others appear with the new WMN
achieve this purpose, we need to supervise the location challenges. These threats differ on the level of the used
information of each component and to follow their techniques, the exploited faults and the desired intentions.
displacements in the network. The idea is based on the use Denial of services (DoS) represents the major attack
of the notification message notion. Then, following the aiming at rendering unavailable during an unspecified
displacement of one of the component, a notification times the services and resources of a network for the
message will be sent with an aim of informing the other authorized users. Generally, attackers look for faults in the
entities by the movement. This study differs according to different protocols of such a network to be incorporate in
the carried out mobility type. any system illegally:
 Routing protocol attacks: WMN can be prone to
 Intra-cluster Mobility
many types of attacks especially DoS because of
Mobility is carried out within the same cluster. In this multi-hop environment which may cause the
case, we are interested primarily in the displacement of routing overheads on the level of WMR. Here are
clients between different MAPs. Indeed, Cluster Head some of these threats: Black-hole, Grey-hole,
(CH) has to communicate a notification message to mobile Worm-hole, Route error injection, etc.
client with an aim of assigning its new credentials and also  MAC protocol attacks: Due to the manipulation
proving to this node the validity and the legitimacy of its of an open and shared medium in WMN, the
associated CH. This procedure aims at updating the MAC channel may suffer from a several kinds of
location information of each station inside Mesh network attacks such as: Passive Eavesdropping, Link
following the displacements of these components. Layer Jamming Attack, MAC Spoofing Attack,
Replay Attack, etc.
 Inter-cluster Mobility
 Physical protocol attacks: The physical layer can
In In this type of displacement, a component (client or be affected by using radio jamming devices and
MAP) crosses the cover zone of another neighbor cluster. the outdoor deployment which may meddle in the
Consequently, the new CH (CHnew) should inform the old physical channels and disturb the network
CH (CHold) by this location change through sending a availability.
notification message. This operation makes it possible to The diversity of attacks and the high degree of
ensure two main functionalities. First one is to notify vulnerabilities pushed the community of the researchers to
CHold by the displacement of certain entity and thereafter propose a whole of solutions to solve these problems of
the cancellation of this later from its base. The second lack of security. In this context, we have proposed a new
functionality consists on ensuring the legitimacy of these re-authentication, which will be described in the next
two CHs using a mutual authentication procedure. In this subsection.
same mobility type, a second notification message, similar Re-authentication Protocol: The authentication is one of
www.IJCSI.org 245
the significant measurements to protect the Wireless Mesh Because these data present the evidence of MAPnew
Network from different attacks, allowing only the legitimacy, they should not be transmitted as
authorized users to obtain connections and preventing the understandable and legible information but rather
adversaries from being integrated in the network and enciphered by the public key of CH (4). After the
disturbing its services and its operations. Moreover, to reception of all these parameters, CH starts with the check
make it possible to the users to carry out effective and identity phase of IDCH to know if it corresponds to its
reliable handoff as well as a secure access to Mesh one. If it is not the case, we have an inter-cluster handoff.
network services, a re-authentication method should be But, if the two identities are identical, CH continues the
carried out during the crossing of mobile nodes through identities checking procedure in order to make sure of the
different MAPs and also various clusters. membership of STA and MAPnew with their same cluster.
Then, it calculates the result (ResCH) of the nonce value
In this subsection, we detail our proposed re-
authentication protocol in order to guarantee a safe access (NMAP) application on the whole of the common
during the handoff phase. Since the majority of attacks algorithms between CH and MAPnew.
origin remains unknown and unexpected, we should not
suppose any confidence relations between all network Then, CH compares the obtained result (ResCH) with that
equipments. Indeed, the source of risk can be a client or a sent by MAPnew (ResMAP) to ensure the validity of this
Mesh Access Point or even a malevolent Cluster Head. In access point. Finally, Cluster Head extracts a new key ( K'
our study, we treated the case of clients' mobility in the ) for this new session according to previous session key
same cluster (intra-cluster) and between different clusters preceding ( K ) and an authentication parameter named
(inter-cluster). (Auth) which will be later transmitted to the client. At this
 Intra-cluster Mobility stage, CH entity is conscious of STA and MAPnew
legitimacies and it remains to prove its validity for these
In case of intra-cluster handoff, the displacement of station
two last components. To fulfill this, CH sends an ID
is carried out from a MAP to another but while remaining
Response message (5), enciphered by the MAPnew public
in the same cluster. Fig. 2 shows the exchanged messages
flow between the various components during intra-cluster key and containing a new nonce value (NCH), its response
mobility. First of all, the entities intervening in this (RespCH) and the new session key ( K' ).
exchange are:
After the reception of these parameters, MAPnew applies
 Station (STA) : the mobile client which is in
communication, the received nonce value (NRCH) with the preset
 MAPnew : the new Mesh Access Point of the algorithms to obtain a result (RespMAP). Then, it
mobile station, compares its obtained result with that sent by CH
 CH : Cluster Head of the cluster which contains (RespCH). If they are identical, the re-authentication
STA and MAPnew. phase is continued. If not, we stop at this stage and we
cancel all the procedure. Thereafter, MAPnew records the
Station STA starts the re-authentication procedure by key ( K' ) to make use of it essentially for the extraction of
sending an access message request (1). Then, MAPnew a temporary key between STA and its associated MAP.
answers with an EAP-Request/identity request (2) which With an aim of informing STA by its new connection
requires the client's identity. Following the reception of parameters and of proving its legitimacy, CH sends a
this last message, the station dispatches the identity of its message called Mobility Notification Message (MNM)
corresponding CH (IDCH), its own identity (IDSTA) (6). The MNM contains the value (Auth), which is used
ciphered by the session key (K) shared between the station for the extraction of the new key ( K' ), a challenge value
and its associated CH for the preceding session (3). and a sequence number (SN) to avoid the risk of the replay
attack. More additional information will be sent but in
Before the retransmission of the last received message, enciphered ways, which are the MAPnew identity
MAPnew node adds some more information to carry out (IDMAP) and the response of the challenge application
the mutual authentication with the CH entity. This (RspCH).
information is composed by its own identity (IDMAP), a
nonce value generated randomly (NMAP) and ResMAP Following the arrival of this last message, the station
value which represents the result of the application of the calculates the new key ( K' ) by using the parameter
nonce value on a whole of the preset algorithms between (Auth) and it applies a hash function, which is preset
MAPs and their CHs since their integration in network. between CH and STA, to obtain the resulting value
www.IJCSI.org 246
(RspSTA). Finally, STA compares its result with that

received from CH (RspCH) to ensure the legitimacy of the
concerned Cluster Head CH.
 Inter-cluster Mobility
In case of inter-cluster handoff, the client, which is in
communication, changes its point of attachment and also
its current cluster. The various intervening components in
this type of mobility are:
 STA: the station carrying out the displacement
towards MAPnew,
 MAPnew : the new point of attachment,
 CHold : cluster head of the STA home cluster,
 CHnew : cluster head of the new cluster containing
MAPnew.
Our proposed re-authentication protocol is shown in Fig. 3
by the exchanged messages flow between the different
components, quoted previously. The first four messages
are identical to those indicated in the case of intra-cluster
handoff. During this phase, we ensure the identities
transmission of both STA and MAPnew towards CHnew.
Then, this last entity checks the cluster membership of
STA by testing the (IDCH) parameter. If this identity is
identical to the current CH identity, then we treat the case
of intra-cluster handoff, detailed in previous subsection. If
not (i.e. (IDCHold) and (IDCHnew) are different), CHold Fig. 2 Re-authentication procedure for intra-cluster handoff.
seeks the CH having the given identity and then a Mobility

Notification Message (5) will be send to the concerned After the legitimacy checking of CHnew, CHold sends
entity. This message contains the (MICCHnew) (Message another value (challenge2) and its answer (RepCHold) in
Integrity Code) parameter, ensuring the integrity of data order to prove its validity. This information as well as the
coming from the CHnew node as well as other enciphered new session key ( K' ) and the authentication parameter
(Auth) are sent in an enciphered way using the key Kch.
parameters using a key (Kch) divided between different
In addition, to ensure the message integrity, CHold
CHs from the same Mesh network. (Kch) is generated
transmits a code MICCHold (6).
periodically to minimize the risks of possible attacks.
The transmitted information are identity (IDSTA) The CHnew node checks, first of all, the code of integrity.
Then, it calculates its answer (RepCHnew) and compares
enciphered by the session key ( K ), which is shared
between CHold and STA, a (challenge1) value making it the obtained value with that received. If they are not
identical, the re-authentication procedure will be cancelled
possible to check the CHold validity and a response
because one of the components seems to be malevolent. If
(RespCHnew). Following the reception of these data, not, we check the validity of the access point by testing its
CHold checks the integrity of the message then the STA identity and by comparing the obtained results for the
identity (IDSTA). If this value exists in its base, CHold nonce value.
continues this re-authentication procedure by calculating
the value (RespCHold) which constitutes the result of the The remainder of the re-authentication procedure is similar
application of the challenge1 value with the preset to that announced in the case intra-cluster (stages 5-6). In
algorithms between the whole of CHs existed in the same which, we carry out mutual authentication between
Mesh. Then, CHold compares the obtained result and the MAPnew - CHnew, STA-CHnew and STA-MAPnew.
received one (RespCHnew). And if they are identical, the
re-authentication procedure will be continued.
STA MAPnew STA MAPnew CHnew CHold
CH
1. Access Request
2. EAP-Request/identity
3. EAP-Response/identity
( IDCH , [IDSTA]K ) 4. EAP-Response/identity
( IDCH, [IDSTA]K, [IDMAP,
www.IJCSI.org 247
4. Performances Evaluation
1.Access Request
This section is devoted to the evaluation of our protocol
2.EAP-Request/identity performances. First we have developed a network
simulator to implement our architecture of Mesh network.
This simulator specifies various parameters of this type of
network and to simulate its features to study the effect of
4.EAP-Response/identity security during the handoff of the mobile stations. The
(IDCH, [IDSTA]K, [IDMAP, selected network covers 300m×300m comprising 9 MAPs
NMAP, ResMAP]KCHnew) and a variable number of clients. To evaluate the
performances of our solution, we will consider two types
Verify IDCH of traffic: voice and Web communication. While referring
on these types of communications as well as the
5. Mobility Notification Message parameters of simulation, we evaluate the simulation’s
([[IDSTA]K, challenge1, results according three criteria:
RespCHnew]Kch,MICCHnew)  Handoff latency: the time passed between the change
of point of attachment request and the association with
Verify IDSTA, the new MAP,
and MICCHnew  Blocking rate: represents the number of blocked
Compute RespCHold stations at handoff for the total number of stations that
Compare
RespCHold/ RespCHnew require the execution of handoff,
 Loss rate: represents the number of lost packets for the
6. [Auth, K’, challenge2, total number of the emitted packets.
RepCHold]Kch, MICCHold
4.1 Handoff Latency
Verify MICCHold
In this part, we have tested the influence of the increase of
Compute RepCHnew
Compare network population on the value of the handoff latency,
RepCHold/ RepCHnew primary in intra-cluster mobility and then inter-cluster.
Verify IDMAP The speed of the nodes is taken randomly between 0 and
Compute ResCHnew
20 m/s. Fig. 4 represents the result of this simulation.
Compare
ResCHnew / ResMAP Initially, we notice an increase in handoff latency
following the increase in mobile stations number
throughout the simulation. This augmentation can be
7. ID Response
justified by the intensification of packets’ number and
([K’,NCHold,RespCHold]KMAP)
thereafter the treatment time. Besides, we almost observe
linearity on these two paces starting from the value 350
Compute RespMAP mobile stations and with 2,73 105µs of handoff latency for
Compare
ResCHnew/ResMAP
intra-cluster mobility and 2,84 105µs for inter-cluster.
Store K’
By comparing the two curves, we note that the increase of
handoff latency value in intra-cluster case is lighter than
8. Mobility Notification Message
that with inter-cluster mobility. This difference is due to
(Auth, Challenge, [IDMAP, RspCH]K’, SN)
the additional time taken by any station which moves from
a cluster to another. Thereafter the difference between the
Compute K’
and RspSTA
realization times of these procedures. Indeed, according to
Compare Fig. 2 and Fig. 3, we notice that inter-cluster mobility has
RspCH / RspSTA more exchanged messages with more components. So, we
need more time to execute the handoff and to ensure the
Fig. 3 Re-authentication procedure for inter-cluster handoff.
mutual authentication between different entities (STA,
MAPnew, CHnew and CHold). This variance can reach
the order of 0,13 105µs which enables to save a
considerable treatment time and to support a better quality
of service.
www.IJCSI.org 248
Fig. 5 Blocking rate vs. number of mobile stations.
4.3 Loss Rate

In order to control the feature of such network, we can
establish multiple communications between stations and
while referring to the quantity of lost packets, we can
determine the nature and the quality of connection. Thus, a
packet is supposed lost if it goes beyond a delay. Fig. 6
shows the result of the loss rate according to the mobile
stations number. As in blocking rate case, the two curves
start with zero values. That is due to the small quantity of
mobile stations and thereafter the few packets number
circulating in network. However, for inter-cluster handoff
and starting from the value of 40 stations the packets begin
to be lost and this loss becomes more and more bulky with
Fig. 4 Handoff latency vs. number of mobile stations. population increase. On the other hand, for intra-cluster
handoff, this growth starts from the value of 80 stations.
4.2 Blocking Rate This increase in both curves is due to the overloading in
packets queues.
A station is considered blocked when exceeding a handoff
latency interval of threshold. Consequently, this rate
depends mainly on handoff latency value. Fig. 5 represents
the simulation’s result of blocking rate according to the
mobile stations number. For the first values of clients’
number, the blocking rate remains null but with the
increase in network population, the blocking values
increases more and more. For inter-cluster mobility,
starting from the value of 50 stations, the blocking rate
surpasses zero. However in intra-cluster mobility, that is
happen starting from 80 stations. This result is justified by
the dependency between blocking rate and handoff latency
value. Thereafter, this dependency and increase in rate
value can degrade the network quality of services, in
particular at the time of handoff. Moreover, the
comparison between the two paces clarifies a little
difference which can reach the value of 2%.
Fig. 6 Loss rate vs. number of mobile stations.
Moreover, as long as the loss rate value < 1%, we benefit

from an acceptable quality of service. On the other hand, if
this rate exceeds this value, the quality of service in this
network is degraded more and more. By comparing the
two paces, we note that the carrying out of intra-cluster
handoff gives a light increase in loss rate compared to the
second handoff type.
According to tests carried out on the two handoff types;

intra-cluster and inter-cluster, while basing on the criteria
of handoff latency, blocking and loss rate as well as the
interpretation of the fulfilled curves in several scenarios,
we can conclude that our protocol represents satisfactory
and optimal value of handoff latency with minimum of
www.IJCSI.org 249
blocked station number during handoff and also few lost required more signal transmission. In the future, we plan
packets quantity in Mesh network. to expand our study by fulfilling some testbed with a real
environment of Wireless Mesh Network. This will allow
Thereafter, we could highlight and justify the difference exploring the performance of our proposed re-
between intra-cluster and inter-cluster handoff results by authentication protocol for multiple scenarios. Finally, we
the time held for each station in order to cross the hope to ameliorate the proposed solution to solve the
coverage of a cluster towards another cluster. Indeed, the problem of security while handoff, which is carried out
necessary time to carry out the re-authentication procedure inside a changeable architecture (i.e. with mobile MPs).
becomes increasingly high because we must ensure the
mutual authentication between the various intervening References
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authentication and handoff notification protocol provides Wireless Mesh Networks”. SIGCOMM Computer
numerous advantages over the existing techniques. Major Communication Review (CCR), Oct. 2006.
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 this protocol treats two aspects in the same time ; and N. Rivera,“Fast Handoff for Seamless Wireless
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by defining a new protocol for handoff identification and authentication for Fast handoff in Wireless mesh networks
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[10] A. Mishra, M. Shin, N.Petroni , T. Clancy and W. Arbaugh,
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www.IJCSI.org 250
Automatic Road Extraction based on Level Set,Normalized

Cuts and Mean Shift Methods
M. Rajeswari1, K.S.Gurumurthy2, L. Pratap Reddy3, S.N. Omkar4, J. Senthilnath4
1
Department of Telecommunication Engineering, Bangalore Institute of Technology
Bangalore, 560 004, KA, India
2
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering, University College of Engineering
Bangalore, 560 001 KA, India
3
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering, JNTU College of Engineering, Kukatpally
Hyderabad-500 085 AP, India
4
Department of Aerospace Engineering, Indian Institute of Science
Bangalore, 560 012, KA, India
Abstract considered as noise. For example, cars, shadows, trees, etc

The Urban population is growing so fast in India that planning hinder the discrimination of roads.
officials are racing to keep up with urban development .Use of Much effort is devoted to search for solutions to these
geographic information like satellite imagery helps urban problems. In the Literature there are papers based on Level
planners manage the ever-changing urban environment Set [1], Normalized Cuts [2] and Mean Shift [3]
accurately and efficiently. Roads are one of the most important
features to be extracted from Satellite imagery for urban
algorithms.
planning. Manual extraction of roads is operator dependent and
time-consuming task. Hence Automatic extraction of roads from Level set method is a search algorithm that determines
high resolution satellite images has grown in importance in the evolving curve’s boundary pixels the level set propagates
last decade. An approach for automatic road extraction from high as long as the speed function is greater than zero. For the
resolution based on Level set, Normalized Cuts and Mean Shift road extraction problem speed function has to be greater
algorithms is developed. Initially the image is preprocessed to than zero at the edges of the true road boundary. Therefore
improve the tolerance by reducing the noises (buildings etc.,) Level set is an efficient technique for extracting road. In
then roads are extracted based on the three methods. Finally the the literature on level set algorithm Trish et al., [4] provide
comparison of accuracy of automatic road extraction of three
an initial seed point on the road of interest, then evolving
methods is quantitatively assessed with manually extracted
reference data. the region using level set method. Fast marching level set
Keywords- Road extraction; Level Set; Mean Shift method; method machine learning for parameter tuning and
Normalized cuts; Performance evaluation; information fusion for refinement of object delineation has
been used by Cai et al., [5]. Ravanbaksh et al., [6] provide
junction outline to focus the attention on a specific area
1. Introduction later constraints are introduced to distinguish road
junctions level set method. Bibo et al., [7] have applied
Today satellite remote sensing systems provide large Level set for the segmentation of the image. Then second
volumes of data that are invaluable in monitoring Earth order moment is calculated and the road networks are
resources and the effects of human activities. Road feature extracted using prior information about geometric shape.
extraction from remotely sensed images has been a long- Rajeswari et al., [8] and Senthilnath et al., [9] have used
term topic of research and because of its complexity is still pre-processing for removing noise in the image and then
a challenging topic. Urban road mapping from high spatial Level Set Evolution without Re-initialization (LSER) with
resolution images are an asset because they allow the the initial seed point provided by the user.
discrimination of urban features, but they also bring new
problems because, a lot of the urban features can be
www.IJCSI.org 251
Normalized Cuts is a graph-based method taking both 2. Methodology

local and global characteristics of the image. The
combination of local and global aspects ignores noise, The proposed road extraction methodology has been
small surface changes and weak edges and producing broadly divided into three steps: the pre-processing which
extraction with most segments covering only a road area. extracts the elongated road regions, the road extraction
This makes normalized cuts suitable for automatic road using three methods and the image overlaying.
extraction. Normalized cuts is used for initial
segmentation step by Qihui Zhu; Mordohai, P. [10] also 2.1 Pre-processing
requires priori information like depth and intensity
measurements from the range sensor for LIDAR data and A series of pre-processing steps are applied to improve the
then extracts roads using hypothesis testing. A.Groth et al. image quality and to generate the elongated road network
[11, 12] have applied Normalized Cuts algorithm for for further processing.
dividing image into Segments with color and edge criteria.
Then, the initial segments are grouped to form larger
segments and are then evaluated using shape criteria to 2.1.1 Classification
extract road parts.
The image used is a Quickbird’s panchromatic 0.61m
Mean Shift method is a clustering technique used to resolution satellite image of Commercial Street area of
classify data into different categories and does not require Bangalore city in Karnataka, India. It has dimensions of
information about specific object and extracts road 550x 550 pixels. By setting the threshold value 0.95, the
information exactly by object-oriented method .Zhanfeng high resolution image was grouped into 20 clusters in an
et al., [13] extracted segments from the image based on unsupervised classification, five of which correspond to
different scales, and are analyzed using transcendental road networks. A level one classification was carried out
knowledge. In Sun [14], the user inputs a set of nodes of by dividing the image into two classes: Roads and non-
the road and then the partitioning of the image is done roads.
using Mean Shift Method and roads are extracted between
the nodes using Fast Marching Method. Yao-Yi [15] and 2.1.2Filtering
Simler [16] applied mean shift as a filter to reduce the
number of colors in the input image. Guo [17] applied Median filtering technique is applied to remove the
mean shift to determine average saturation to classify the clutter (Buildings etc). In Median filtering the value of an
object. Saturation image is noisy and the road boundary is output pixel is determined by the median of the
not recognizable. Hence post processing is used to extract neighborhood pixels, rather than the mean. The median is
roads. much less sensitive than the mean to extreme values
(called outliers). Median filtering is therefore better able
We propose an approach for road network extraction in to remove these outliers without reducing the sharpness
urban areas without the priori information about road or of the image.
DSM. Main goal of the paper is to show the effectiveness
of the approach for Road extraction. Initially image is 2.2 Road Extraction
preprocessed to remove small linear structures appearing
as noise then the Level set, Normalized cuts and Mean
shift methods are used to extract the roads & are fully
2.2.1Level Set Method
automatic. The quality measures evaluated show that this The level set method (LSM) tracks the evolution of a
approach is more accurate compared to the earlier works boundary front which is moving with a speed function
based on these methods. that is normal to the boundary curve. The road
extraction problem is considered as a boundary
In Section 2 description of the road network extraction evolution problem within the level set framework. The
process is presented. Section 3 Experimental results and level set will propagate as long as the speed function is
analysis of qualitative measures are described. greater than zero. For the road extraction problem,
Performance measures are described in Section speed function must be greater than zero, at the edges of
4.concluding remarks are given in Section 5 the true road boundary. For this an external energy is
defined that moves the zero level curve toward the
object boundaries [15].
The edge indicator function g is defined by
www.IJCSI.org 252
realized using only one criterion. The weight, which

(1) is the combination of all similarity measures, has a
value between 0 and 1. The graph representing the
where I is an image, Gσ is the Gaussian kernel with image is then cut into segments aiming at a large
standard deviation σ. dissimilarity between different segments and at the
Then the external energy for a function  (x, y) is same time a large similarity within the segments
(2) Consider an undirected graph G = (V, E), where V is
the set of nodes and E is the set of edges. A pair of
where λ > 0 and ν are constants, and the terms Lg(φ) and nodes p and q is connected by an edge and is
Ag(φ) are defined by weighted by w (p,q). Let X and Y be a partition of
the graph where X  Y = V and X  Y =  .
(3) Therefore cost of cut is defined as the similarity
and between the groups X and Y and it is formulated as:
(4)
(8)
respectively, where δ is the univariate Dirac function, and
H is the Heaviside function. The total energy functional is Minimum cut is the cut of minimum weight, where
(5) weight of cut (X,Y) is given in (8). The limitation of
using minimum cut is described in [16, 17]. However,
The external energy Eg,λ,ν drives the zero level set the minimum cut criterion favors grouping small sets
toward the object boundaries, while the internal energy of isolated nodes in the graph because it cuts with

μP( ) penalizes the deviation of

from a signed
lesser weight than the ideal cut [17]. In other words,
the minimum cut usually yields over clustered results
distance function during its evolution. when it is recursively applied. This induces several
By calculus of variations, the Gateaux derivative (first modified graph partition criteria. One of them is the
variation) of the functional Equation (5) can be written Normalized similarity criterion used to evaluate a
as partition and is known as normalized cut [16].
(6) (9)
where  is the Laplacian operator. Therefore, the where volume(X) is the sum of cost of all edges that
function  that minimizes this function satisfies the touch X and volume(Y) is the sum of cost of all edges
that touch Y i.e.
Euler-Lagrange equation ∂E/ ∂  = 0. The steepest
descent process for minimization of the functional E is
the following gradient flow:
(7)
This gradient flow is the evolution equation of the level

set function The second and the third term in the right where assoc(X, V) is the total connection from nodes
hand side of (7) correspond to the gradient flows of the in X to all the nodes in the graph and assoc(Y, V) is
energy functional λLg(  ) and νAg(  ), respectively, and the total connection from nodes in Y to all the nodes
drive the zero level curve towards the object boundaries. in the graph.
The main advantage of using the normalized cut is
2.2.2 Normalized cuts that minimizing Ncut(X, Y) maximizes a measure of
similarity within the sets X and Y and this results in
In Normalized cut method for extracting road optimal partition.
segments, each individual edge weight is a measure Let W be the cost matrix, i.e. W (i, j) = ci,j; is the
for the similarity between two connected pixels. If the weight between the nodes i and j in the graph and D
road segments that are to be extracted have distinctly
different intensities then intensity should be used as
be the diagonal matrix such that D(i,i) =  W(i, j)
j
similarity measure. Often, several similarity measures is the sum of costs from node i and D(i,j) =0. Based
are combined, because the differentiation cannot be
www.IJCSI.org 253
on this input, Shi and Malik showed that the optimal

partition can be found by computing: (15)
(10)
with bandwidth parameter hi > 0. The kernel K is a
such that spherically symmetric kernel with bounded support
satisfying [20],
If y is allowed to take real values then the minimization
of equation (10) can be done by solving the generalized (16)
eigenvalue system.
(11) where the normalization constant ck,d assures that K(x)

integrates to one. The function k(x) is called the profile of
Therefore, the approximation to the optimal partition can the kernel. Assuming derivative of the kernel profile k(x)
be computed efficiently. exists, using g(x) = -k’(x) as the profile, the kernel G(x) is
To compute the cut, graph is divided into two clusters. defined as G(x) = cg,d g(||x||2). The following property can
To get a good segmentation, the weight on the edges be proven by taking the gradient of Equation 8 as follows,
should represent pixels affinity for being in the same
group. The weights for the pixel pairs are inserted in a
(17)
symmetric similarity matrix (W-matrix) whose row and
column dimensions equal the number of pixels. The
weight between regions i and j is defined as
where mG(x) is called Mean Shift vector. C is a positive
constant and, it shows that, at location x, the Mean Shift
vector computed with kernel G is proportional to the
(12) normalized density gradient estimate obtained with kernel
K. The Mean Shift vector is defined as follows
(18)
(13)
Here, high weight edges for pixels that have similar

intensity are close to each other. The minimum can be The Mean Shift vector thus points toward the direction
found by calculating the eigenvectors of a matrix derived of maximum increase in the density. The Mean Shift
procedure is obtained by successive computation of the
from the W-matrix using equation (12). The
Mean Shift vector and translation of the kernel G(x) by the
“generalized” eigen system in (11) can be transformed
Mean Shift vector. it converges at a nearby point where the
into a “standard” eigen value problem as given below estimate has zero gradient [19]. The Iterative equation is
given by
(14)
(19)
2.2.3 Mean Shift Method

Given n data points xi, i=1,…,n in the d-dimensional
space Rd, the kernel density estimation at the location x The initial position of the kernel (starting point to
can be calculated by calculate y1) can be chosen as one of the data point xi. The
modes (local maxima) of the density are the convergence
points of the iterative procedure.
www.IJCSI.org 254
2.3 Image Overlaying Completeness represents the percentage of reference data

being correctly extracted. Correctness indicates the
In order to illustrate the accuracy, the extracted road percentage of correctly extracted roads. Therefore,
region using is converted into binary image format. This completeness is producer’s accuracy and Correctness is
binary image is overlaid on the original panchromatic users’ accuracy. The quality represents the overall
image leads to display the road topology by avoiding the accuracy Redundancy gives the percentage of correctly
complex noise element. In the overlaid image the thin extracted roads which overlap as they correspond to the
lines indicate the road topology. same ideal road RMSE (Root Mean Square error)
expresses the geometrical accuracy of extracted roads,
the number of gaps per unit length and the mean gap
3. Performance Analysis length, where a gap corresponds to a part of the ideal
road that is not found. To calculate these quality
The automatically extracted roads are compared with measures, buffer zones are generated around the
manually traced reference roads to perform accuracy extracted roads and the reference roads. The chosen
assessment. Since roads have linear features, it is possible buffer width is approximately half of the actual road
to use all the data rather than just sample points to conduct width. The direction difference is derived directly from
the accuracy assessment. In [22] several quality measures the vector representations of both networks. A true
to evaluate the quality of extracted roads is proposed. The positive (TP) is where the derived result coincides with
measures for accuracy assessment of road extraction are: the reference result. A false positive (FP) is where there
 is a road pixel in the derived result that is not in the
reference data. A false negative (FN) is where there is a
(20) road pixel in the reference data that is not present in the
derived result.

(21)
4. Results and discussion
The input is a QuickBird’s panchromatic satellite
image from Commercial Street area of Bangalore city in
(22)
Karnataka, India. Image with 0.61m ground resolution
covering area of a 550 x 550 pixels is considered. The
images were executed on a system with 1.83 GHz and
(23) 2GB RAM using Matlab 7.4.Figure 1 is a 0.61 meter
resolution panchromatic IKONOS image (550 x 550
pixels).. Figure 2 3 and 4 are extracted road images using
level set normalized cut and mean shift methods after
overlaying the original and extracted image. Figure 5 and
(24) Figure 6 show the comparison of road extraction results of
two methods. The pre processed image is given as input to
 level set algorithm. Earlier road extractions using level set
required road seed points and is eliminated in this paper by
setting the radius of pixels circle and signed distance to the
(25) pixel circle for the road extraction. The result obtained by
 the level set method is shown in Figure 2 .It is seen that
level set method extracts road boundaries accurately in the
presence of other objects on the road, surface properties of
the road but the extraction is not fully complete. The
normalized cuts algorithm is applied for the pre processed
image to extract the road segments. Earlier road
extractions used normalized cut for initial segmentation
leading to over segmentation and additional steps are used
(26) to remove non road segments. Figure 3 shows that the
extraction is successful as most segments cover only a
road area and also contains a non road segment in the
www.IJCSI.org 255
bottom right side of the image. The mean shift algorithm is

applied for the pre processed image to extract the road
segments. Earlier road extractions have used mean shift
for initial filtering and additional steps are used to remove
non road segments. The result obtained by mean shift
method is shown in Figure 4.Smaller roads are also
extracted by mean shift along with that few non road
segments are also extracted.
Figure 3. Extracted road network using Normalized cuts Method
Figure 1. Original Image
Figure 4. Extracted road network using Mean Shift Method
To show the effectiveness of the approaches used

more clearly the quantitative analysis of the automatically
extracted road network is done by comparing them with
the manually extracted road regions. The completeness,
correctness, quality, redundancy, RMS and gap statistics
of the road parts are computed according to Weidemann et
al., [19] the results are shown in figure 5 and figure 6.
Figure 2. Extracted road network using Level Set Method They are determined on a per-pixel level and thus refer to
the extracted areas. Figure 5 gives the completeness and
correctness values for the three methods. Completeness of
93.81% and 86.45% were obtained using mean shift and
normalized cut respectively compared to 77.35% using
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level set method which is still better than that obtained in 5. Conclusion
[8]. The correctness is 92.99 %for level set and 93.1%,
98.25% for mean shift and Normalized cuts. The accuracy Road Extraction is of fundamental importance for the
of mean shift is 87.72%, normalized cut is 85.14% urban planners to manage the ever-changing urban
compared to 73.09% in level set. Figure 6 shows that the environment. An integrated approach for automatic road
overall number of gaps is smaller in mean shift and the extraction from high resolution satellite imagery is
mean gap length is more in normalized cuts. RMSE is developed based on Level set, Normalized cuts and Mean
least in Normalized cuts. Overall Mean shift has produced Shift Method. When compared with the literature using
better results compared to other two methods in extracting these methods all three algorithms have performed well in
road network our approach. The main contribution of this paper is using
these methods on the preprocessed data to produce greater
accuracy and is fully automatic. Level set method has to
be refined to extract the unidentified road regions.
Normalized cut need improvement to extract smaller roads
and improve the accuracy of road delineation. Of the three
techniques tested mean shift is most robust all. The
limitation of mean shift is fixed kernel bandwidth. The
change in the road width requires an adjustment of the
kernel bandwidth to consistently track the road. Future
work includes addressing these issues to obtain complete
accuracy in road extraction.
Acknowledgment
This work is supported by the Space Technology

Cell, Indian Institute of Science and Indian Space
Research Organization grant.
References
Figure 5. Comparison of Completeness, Correctness and Quality
measures [1] Chunming Li , Chenyang Xu , Changfeng Gui , and Martin
D. Fox (2005), Level Set Evolution Without Re-
initialization: A New Variational Formulation Proceedings
of the 2005 IEEE Computer Society Conference on
Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR’05) 2005
[2] Shi, J. and Malik,J. (2000) Normalized cuts and image
segmentation. IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and
Machine Intelligence 22(8): 2000 888-905.
[3] COMANICIU D., MEER P.: Mean shift:A robust approach
toward feature space analysis. IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal.
Mach. Intell. 24, 5 (2002), 603–619.
[4] Trish Keaton and Jeffrey Brokish(2002). A level set method
for the extraction of roads from Multispectral Imagery,
Proceedings of the 31st Applied Imagery Pattern
Recognition Workshop (AIPR.02) 0-7695-1863-X/02
$17.00 © 2002 IEEE
[5] X. Cai, A. Sowmya and J. Trinder (2006), A Machine
Learning Approach for Automatic Road Extraction,
Proceedings of the ASPRS 2006 Annual Conference,Reno,
Nevada, USA, May 1-5, 2006.
[6] M. Ravanbakhsh, C. Heipke, K. Pakzad ,Extraction of Road
Junction Islands from High Resolution Aerial Imagery
Using Level Sets , The International Archives of the
Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information
Figure 6. Comparison of Redundancy,RMS (m) and No of Gaps/km
Sciences. Vol. XXXVII. Part B3a. Beijing 2008
measures [7] Bibo Lu, Yongxia Ku, Hui Wang, "Automatic Road
Extraction Method Based on Level Set and Shape
www.IJCSI.org 257
Analysis," icicta, vol. 3, pp.511-514, 2009 Second M.Rajeswari received the B. E. degree in Electronics Engineering
International Conference on Intelligent Computation in 1996 and M.E degree in Digital Communication from Bangalore
Technology and Automation, 2009 University, Karnataka, India in 1999. Since 1999 she is working in
[8] M. Rajeswari S. N. Omkar and Senthilnath J, “Semi the Department of Telecommunication Engineering, Bangalore
Automatic Road Extraction using high resolution satellite Institute of Technology, Bangalore. Currently she is a PhD
imagery in urban areas”, Indian Engineering Congress 2007, candidate in the department of Electronics and Communication
Uadipur ,Rajasthan, , 14-15 December, 2007 Engineering at JNTU, Hyderabad, India. Her areas of interest are
[9] Senthilnath, J.; Rajeshwari, M.; Omkar, S. N. “Automatic Image Processing, Computer Networking and digital
Road Extraction Using High-Resolution Satellite Images communication. She has published 4 research papers. She is a
Based on Level Set Evolution Without Re- member of IEEE, ISTE, IACSIT, and IAENG.
initializationXXVIII INCA International Congress,
Gandhinagar,Gujarat, India. November 4-6, 2008, Dr.K.S.Gurumurthy Obtained Ph.D. from IISc in (1990) and. is
currently working as professor in the Dept. of E&CE UV College of
[10] Qihui Zhu; Mordohai, P.; , "A minimum cover approach for Engg, Bangalore University, Bangalore. He has 33 years of
extracting the road network from airborne LIDAR
teaching experience. He was awarded with gold medal for his
data," Computer Vision Workshops (ICCV Workshops),
performance in ME, and KHOSLA AWARD for the best Technical
2009 IEEE 12th International Conference on , vol., no.,
Paper published in a journal. Member of IMAPS INDIA, ISTE and
pp.1582-1589, Sept. 27 2009-Oct. 4 2009
IEEE. He has published more than 75 research papers. His areas
[11] A.Grote , M. Butenuth, C. Heipke,Road Extraction in of interest are Low power VLSI, Analog and mixed signal VLSI
Suburban Areas Based on Normalized Cuts PIA07 - design, Analog and digital communication and optical fiber
Photogrammetric Image Analysis --- Munich, Germany, sensors.
September 19-21, 2007
[12] Anne Grote, Franz Rottensteiner,Automatic Road Network Dr. L. Pratap Reddy received the B.E. degree from Andhra
Extraction in Suburban Areas from Highresolution Aerial University (INDIA) in Electronics and Communication Engineering
Images: Paparoditis N., Pierrot-Deseilligny M., Mallet C., in 1985, the M.Tech. Degree in Electronic Instrumentation from
Tournaire O. (Eds), IAPRS, Vol. XXXVIII, Part 3A – Saint- Regional Engineering College (WARANGAL) in 1988 and the
Mandé, France, September 1-3, 2010 Ph.D. degree from Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University
[13] Zhanfeng Shen; Jiancheng Luo; Lijing Gao; , "Road (HYDERABAD) in 2001. From 1988 to 1990 he was lecturer in
extraction from high-resolution remotely sensed ECE Department of Bangalore Institute of Technology
panchromatic image in different research scales," (BANGALORE), from 1991 to 2005 he was faculty member in
Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS), JNTU College of Engineering (KAKINADA). Since 2006 he is with
2010 IEEE International , vol., no., pp.453-456, 25-30 July Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering at
2010 JNTU, Hyderabad. His current activity in research and
[14] Sun Xiao-gu Li Man-chun Liu Yong-xue Liu Wei Tan development includes, apart from telecommunication engineering
Lu”A Semi-automation Road Extraction Approach Based subjects, Image Processing, Pattern Recognition and Linguistic
on Fast Marching Method and Mean Shift Algorithm”GCIS processing of Telugu language. He has published more than 50
'09 Proceedings of the 2009 WRI Global Congress on technical papers, articles and reports. He is active member in
Intelligent Systems - Volume 04 IEEE Computer Society professional bodies like ISTE, IE, IETE, and CS
Washington, DC, USA ©2009
[15] Yao-Yi Chiang; Knoblock, C.A.; , "A Method for Dr.S. N. Omkar received the BE degree in Mechanical
Automatically Extracting Road Layers from Raster Maps," Engineering from the Bangalore University, the MSc (Engg) and
Document Analysis and Recognition, 2009. ICDAR '09. the PhD degree in Aerospace Engineering from the Indian Institute
10th International Conference on , vol., no., pp.838-842, 26- of Science, Bangalore. Currently he is working as a principal
29 July 2009 research scientist at the Department of Aerospace Engineering,
[16] C. Simler, C. Beumier, Performance Evaluation of a Road Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore. His research interests
and Building Classifier on VHR Images, Geographic includes nature inspired computational techniques, helicopter
Object-Based Image Analysis (GEOBIA), Ghent, Belgium, dynamics, biomechanics, satellite image processing, fuzzy logic
30Jun-2Jul 2010 and parallel computing
[17] Guo, Dahai Creating geo-specific road databases from aerial
photos for driving simulation Ph.D. Thesis, UNIVERSITY J. Senthilnath received the Bachelor’s Degree and M.Tech from
OF CENTRAL FLORIDA, 2005, 115 pages; 3188114 Visveswaraya Technological University. Currently, he is a research
[18] Luminita A.Vese and Tony F.Chan,( 2001) A multiphase scholar at the Department of Aerospace Engineering, Indian
level set framework for image segmentation using the Institute of Science, Bangalore. His research interests include
Mumford and Shah model, UCLA CAM Report ,( 2001) 01- nature inspired computational techniques, satellite image
25 processing, machine learning, optimization and network
management.
[19] Wiedemann. C, Heipke. C, Mayer. H and Jamet. O(1998).
Empirical evaluation of automatically extracted road axes.
Empirical Evaluation Methods in Computer Vision. IEEE
Computer Society Press. 1998 pp. 172–187
www.IJCSI.org 258
A Study on Fraud Detection Based on Data Mining Using

Decision Tree
1
A.N.Pathak, 2 Manu Sehgal and 3 Divya Christopher
1
Dr.A.N.Pathak, Professor & Head Applied Science, NITTTR
Chandigarh -160019, India
2
Manu Sehgal, Department of Information Technology, GGDSD College.
Chandigarh -160019, India.
3
Divya Christopher Senoir Lecturer, Amity university
Noida, India
from different perspectives and summarizing it into useful

Abstract information - information that can be used to increase
revenue, cuts costs, or both. Data mining software is one
Fraud is a million dollar business and it is increasing every
of a number of analytical tools for analyzing data. It
year. The U.S. identity fraud incidence rate increased in
allows users to analyze data from many different
2008 returning to levels unseen since 2003. Almost 10
dimensions or angles, categorize it, and summarize the
million Americans learned they were victims of identity
relationships identified. Technically, data mining is the
(ID) fraud in 2008 which is up from 8.1 million victims in
process of finding correlations or patterns among dozens
2007. More consumers are becoming identity (ID) fraud
of fields in large relational databases
victims reversing the previous trend in which identity (ID)
fraud had been gradually decreasing. This reverse makes
sense since overall criminal activity tends to increase 2. Decision tree learning , used in Data mining
where there is a recession. and machine learning, uses a decision tree as a
predictive Model which maps observations about
Fraud involves one or more persons who intentionally act an item to conclusions about the item's target
secretly to deprive another of something of value, for their value. More descriptive names for such tree
own benefit. Fraud is as old as humanity itself and can models are classification trees or regression
take an unlimited variety of different forms. However, in trees. In these tree structures, leaves represent
recent years, the development of new technologies has classifications and branches represent conjuctions
also provided further ways in which criminals may of features that lead to those classifications.
commit fraud (Bolton and Hand 2002). In addition to that,
business reengineering, reorganization or downsizing may In decision analysis, a decision tree can be used
weaken or eliminate control, while new information to visually and explicitly represent decisions and
systems may present additional opportunities to commit decsion making. In Datamining, a decision tree
fraud. describes data but not decisions; rather the
resulting classification tree can be an input for
decsion making. This paper deals with decision
Keywords: Data mining, decision tree, gini impurity, trees in data mining.
information gain, leaf, binary decision diagram
Decision tree learning is a common method used
in data mining. The goal is to create a model that
1. Introduction predicts the value of a target variable based on
several input variables. Each interior node
Generally, data mining (sometimes called data or corresponds to one of the input variables; there
knowledge discovery) is the process of analyzing data
www.IJCSI.org 259
are edges to children for each of the possible subset. Used by the CART algorithm Gini
values of that input variable. Each leaf impurity can be computed by summing the
probability of each item being chosen times the
probability of a mistake in categorizing that item.
represents a value of the target variable given the
It reaches its minimum (zero) when all cases in
values of the input variables represented by the
the node fall into a single target category.
path from the root to the leaf.
To compute Gini impurity for a set of items,
A tree can be "learned" by splitting the source set
suppose y takes on values in {1, 2, ..., m}, and let
into subsets based on an attribute value test. This
fi = the fraction of items labelled with value i in
process is repeated on each derived subset in a
the set.
recursive manner called recursive partitioning.
The recursion is completed when the subset at a
node all has the same value of the target variable,
or when splitting no longer adds value to the
predictions.
In dataminig, trees can be described also as the
combination of mathematical and computational
techniques to aid the description, categorisation
and generalisation of a given set of data.
Data comes in records of the form: 3.2 Information gain

Used by the ID3,C4.5 and C5.0 tree generation
algorithms.Information gain is based on the
concept of entropy used in Information theory.
The dependent variable, Y, is the target variable
that we are trying to understand, classify or
generalise. The vector x is composed of the input
variables, x1, x2, x3 etc., that are used for that task
3. Formulae
The algorithms that are used for constructing

decision trees usually work top-down by 3.3 Binary decision Diagram
choosing a variable at each step that is the next
best variable to use in splitting the set of items. A Boolean function can be represented as a
"Best" is defined by how well the variable splits rooted, directed, acyclic graph, which consists of
the set into subsets that have the same value of decision nodes and two terminal nodes called 0-
the target variable. Different algorithms use terminal and 1-terminal. Each decision node is
different formulae for measuring "best". This labeled by a Boolean variable and has two child
section presents a few of the most common nodes called low child and high child. The edge
formulae. These formulae are applied to each from a node to a low (high) child represents an
candidate subset, and the resulting values are assignment of the variable to 0 (1). Such a BDD
combined (e.g., averaged) to provide a measure is called 'ordered' if different variables appear in
of the quality of the split. the same order on all paths from the root. A BDD
is said to be 'reduced' if the following two rules
have been applied to its graph:
3.1 Gini impurity
 Merge any isomorphic subgraphs.
Gini impurity is a measure of how often a
randomly chosen element from the set would be  Eliminate any node whose two children are
incorrectly labelled if it were randomly labelled isomorphic.
according to the distribution of labels in the
www.IJCSI.org 260
In popular usage, the term BDD almost always refers

to Reduced Ordered Binary Decision Diagram
(ROBDD in the literature, used when the ordering
and reduction aspects need to be emphasized). The
advantage of an ROBDD is that it is canonical
(unique) for a particular function and variable order.[1]
This property makes it useful in functional
equivalence checking and other operations like
functional technology mapping.
A path from the root node to the 1-terminal represents

a (possibly partial) variable assignment for which the
represented Boolean function is true. As the path
descends to a low child (high child) from a node, then
that node's variable is assigned to 0 (1).
3.4 Example
The left figure below shows a binary decision tree

(the
reduction rules are not applied), and a truth table, each

representing the function f (x1, x2, x3). In the tree on
the left, the value of the function can be determined
for a given variable assignment by following a path
down the graph to a terminal. In the figures below,
dotted lines represent edges to a low child, while solid
lines represent edges to a high child. Therefore, to
find (x1=0, x2=1, x3=1), begin at x1, traverse down
the dotted line to x2 (since x1 has an assignment to 0),
then down two solid lines (since x2 and x3 each have
an assignment to one). This leads to the terminal 1,
which is the value of f (x1=0, x2=1, x3=1).
The binary decision tree of the left figure can be

transformed into a binary decision diagram by
maximally reducing it according to the two
reduction rules. The resulting BDD is shown in 4. Conclusion
the right figure. This study has given a brief view of different
methods on fraud detection based on decision
trees.we have discussed three methods namely
gini impurity,information gain and binary
decision diagram which is explained with a small
example.
References
1. Breiman, Leo; Friedman, J. H., Olshen, R. A., &

Stone, C. J. (1984). Classification and regression
trees. Monterey, CA: Wadsworth & Brooks/Cole
Advanced Books & Software. ISBN 978-
0412048418
2. Kass, G. V. (1980). "An exploratory technique

for investigating large quantities of categorical
data". Applied Statistics 29 (2): 119–127.
www.IJCSI.org 261
doi:10.2307/2986296. Transactions on Computers, C-35(8):677–

http://jstor.org/stable/2986296. 691, 1986.
3. Friedman, J. H. (1999). Stochastic gradient 15. R. E. Bryant, "Symbolic Boolean Manipulation
boosting. Stanford University. with Ordered Binary Decision Diagrams", ACM
Computing Surveys, Vol. 24, No. 3 (September,
4. Hastie, T., Tibshirani, R., Friedman, J. H. (2001). 1992), pp. 293–318.
The elements of statistical learning : Data
mining, inference, and prediction. New York:
Springer Verlag.
5. Rokach, L.; Maimon, O. (2005). "Top-down Dr A.N.Pathak , Professor and head Applied
induction of decision trees classifiers-a survey". Scinece Department NITTTR,Chandigarh,
IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and member of professional Body : Fellow of
Cybernetics, Part C 35: 476–487. Institution of Engineers India. Life member of
Indian Society of Biotechnology. Gold medalist
6. Hyafil, Laurent; Rivest, RL (1976). "Constructing Institution of Engineers India.
Optimal Binary Decision Trees is NP-complete". Educational Qualification:M.Sc,B.Tech,M.Tech,
Information Processing Letters 5 (1): 15–17. Phd (chem-Engineering IIT Delhi) FIE Post
doi:10.1016/0020-0190(76)90095-8. Doctorate stuttgart University(Germany)
Gold medalist at Birbal Savitree Shahani
7. Murthy S. (1998). Automatic construction of Foundation area of Specilaization :Applied
decision trees from data: A multidisciplinary Chemistry,Biotechnoligy,Nanotechnology,IPR,
survey. Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery Chemical engineering,Fluid Mechanics,
Applied Scineces
8. Papagelis A., Kalles D.(2001). Breeding Decision
Trees Using Evolutionary Techniques,
Proceedings of the Eighteenth International
Manu Sehgal Asssitant professor of Computer
Conference on Machine Learning, p.393-400,
Science in Information Technology Department
June 28-July 01, 2001
of GGDSD College,Chandigarh.She has done her
bachelors in Computer Application and Masters
9. doi:10.1007/978-1-84628-766-4
in Information Technology with distinction from
10. Graph-Based Algorithms for Boolean India. Aera of specialzation : Database
Management.
Function Manipulation, Randal E. Bryant,
1986 Divya Christopher Senoir Lecturer in
department of Biotechnology Management.She
11. C. Y. Lee. "Representation of Switching did her Bachlors in commerce and Masters in
Circuits by Binary-Decision Programs". Bell Management in India. Aera of specialzation:
Systems Technical Journal, 38:985–999, operations
1959.
12. Sheldon B. Akers. Binary Decision

Diagrams, IEEE Transactions on Computers,
C-27(6):509–516, June 1978.
13. Raymond T. Boute, "The Binary Decision

Machine as a programmable controller".
EUROMICRO Newsletter, Vol. 1(2):16–22,
January 1976.
14. Randal E. Bryant. "Graph-Based Algorithms

for Boolean Function Manipulation". IEEE
www.IJCSI.org 262
Design of Arabic Diacritical Marks

Mohamed Hssini1 and Azzeddine Lazrek2
1
Department of Computer Science, Faculty of Sciences, University Cadi Ayyad
Marrakech, Morocco
2
Department of Computer Science, Faculty of Sciences, University Cadi Ayyad
Marrakech, Morocco
Abstract
Diacritical marks play a crucial role in meeting the criteria of Diacritics have common roles between the different languages
usability of typographic text, such as: homogeneity, clarity and of the world, such as:
legibility. To change the diacritic of a letter in a word could
 to provide a reading;
completely change its semantic. The situation is very complicated
with multilingual text. Indeed, the problem of design becomes more  to amend the phonetic value of a letter;
difficult by the presence of diacritics that come from various scripts;  to avoid ambiguity between two homographs.
they are used for different purposes, and are controlled by various However, the Arabic diacritics have an additional role, which
typographic rules. It is quite challenging to adapt rules from one is to fill space. This is a task influenced by different effects
script to another. This paper aims to study the placement and sizing such as: multilevel and justification of Arabic text. These
of diacritical marks in Arabic script, with a comparison with the contextual varieties that control the choice of Arabic diacritics
Latin’s case. The Arabic script is cursive and runs from right-to-left;
its criteria and rules are quite distinct from those of the Latin script.
sizes have been simplified in Arabic printed model.
In the beginning, we compare the difficulty of processing diacritics in The problem, studied in this paper, is how to establish a
both scripts. After, we will study the limits of Latin resolution mechanism for extending the Arabic diacritics to adapt the
strategies when applied to Arabic. At the end, we propose an calligraphic design of marks to the technical constraints of font
approach to resolve the problem for positioning and resizing formats: a question that has not been discussed before.
diacritics. This strategy includes creating an Arabic font, designed in The proposed solution is based on the determination of
OpenType format, along with suitable justification in TEX.
diacritical size, on neighborhood context consisting of the base
Keywords: Arabic calligraphy, Diacritical mark, Justification,
Multilevel ligature, Multilingual, OpenType.
letter and the next letter that follow it in the same word.
To address it in this paper, we will discuss the following
topics: first, we compare the origins, roles, and the Unicode
1. Introduction encoding that governs the computing treatment of diacritics.
Second, we compare design problems of diacritics in the
The typographical choices can make or break the success of a Arabic script which have arisen for Latin script. Third, we
digital document. If the text is difficult to read or does not identify strategies offered by OpenType to solve this problem
look satisfactory, users will question the validity of its content and examine their capability in Arabic. Fourth, we consider our
[1] or simply move to another document that is more user- proposed font and algorithm as a way to solve the positioning
friendly. Digital typography, as an art, has its elements, its and resizing of diacritics, in an Arabic font developed in
principles and attributes [2]; controlled by rules, but also OpenType format. We end with some conclusions and
limited by constraints. It’s, as a technique, based on the perspectives.
concept of digital fonts. A font is a set of graphical
presentations of characters, called glyphs, with some
controlling rules. The rendering engine gathers them to 2. Diacritical Marks
display the words and lines that make up the text. Some of the
constraints facing the typography are technical in nature: the 2.1 History
material resources are limited enough to satisfy an aesthetic
need. In multilingual digital typesetting, the principles and There are some similarities between the history of Arabic
attributes of design are risky because of the conflicting rules diacritical marks and the history of the Latin’s one. However,
and mechanisms that control and affect each script. Diacritical the differences are many and varied, reflecting not only the
marks are not an exception and do not escape this rule. For linguistic and graphic features of each script, but differences
example, the meaning of diacritics varies considerably between the principles on which are based the two civilizations
according to the language. A diacritic is a sign accompanying to which they belong. So, we find that the first Latin diacritic
a group of letters or one letter, as the circumflex accent "^" on appeared among the ancient Greeks and Romans. They were
the "a" producing "â". Diacritics are often placed above the
developed and distributed in various European scripts. The
letter, but they can also be placed below, in, through, before,
diacritical marks generally descend from letters that were
after or around a glyph.
placed above another letter. The addition of diacritics was a
www.IJCSI.org 263
choice among four options to overcome the shortcomings of a
language belonging to the Latin script [3]. The others were: to
add another letter, to combine two or more letters, or to use the
apostrophe. The addition of diacritics in Latin script evolved Fig. 4. Arabic aesthetic diacritics
over time [4]. In periods of colonization, Latin diacritics have  Explanatory diacritics: positioned to distinguish the
been used to expand the Latin alphabet for writing non-Roman Muhmal and Muajam letters. Arabic letters are divided
languages. When a language has more fundamentally different into two categories: Muhmal letters without dots and
sounds – phonemes – than base letters, it can invent new letters Muajam letters, based on Muhmal ones, but containing
or adopt letters from other alphabets. The solution that is so dots.
much more common is to add diacritics on the letters, often
imitating the spellings of other languages [5].
When the holy Quran was documented, the Arabic alphabet
had neither dots nor diacritics. Both of them were added Fig. 5. Arabic explanatory diacritics
successively during later periods. In Arabic writing, the same The features of Latin diacritics affect their positions, and can
base glyph can represent multiple letters and the same word be presented according to their placements on their base letters,
without vowels can represent multiple semantics [6]. The as follow:
reading difficulties caused by confusion between consonants of  Superscript-diacritics:
the same shape and between words of same shape, the lack of
scoring short vowels led to the invention of diacritical signs to
become fixed and facilitate reading. At first, short vowels were
added by placing color dots above or below letters. This usage
Fig. 6. Latin diacritics above
changed and led to the current practice of marking vowels by
 Subscript-diacritics:
small signs. Their shapes origins are from corresponding long
vowels letters. Letters represented by same base glyph are
differentiated by adding a number of dots above or below
glyph.
After, some diacritics are added to the Arabic base alphabet Fig. 7. Latin diacritics below
to form new letters used to write some languages as: Old  Others diacritics: there are other diacritics that are
Turkic, Urdu, and Farsi [7]. positioned through, before, after, or around a letter’s glyph.
2.2 Classification
Fig. 8. Others Latin diacritics
There are three kinds of Arabic diacritics, according to their
Latin diacritics can also be classified according to their
typography [8] (see Fig. 1 to 8):
design or their Unicode encoding [4].
 Language’s diacritics: differentiate the letter’s
consonants, are very important for semantic. They
appear as: 3. Diacritics in Unicode
o Diacritics above: placed above a letter, as Fatha,
Damma, Soukoun, or Shadda. Before Unicode, there were limits the number of characters that
could be encoded. The set of standard ASCII characters is 128
characters, 95 printable characters, including 52 alphabetic
characters (the 26 Latin letters in uppercase and lowercase), but
no accented letters. There are several other character sets,
Fig. 1. Arabic diacritics above
called ASCII extended, which include 256 characters, with the
o Diacritics below: placed below a letter, as Kasra or additional 128 characters used to represent particular vowels
Kasratan. and consonants of the Latin alphabet with diacritics or
occurring in other alphabets [9].
Fig. 2. Arabic diacritics below 3.1 Encoding

o Diacritics through: placed through a letter, as Wasl.
Unicode is a character encoding standard that defines a
consistent way of encoding multilingual texts and facilitates the
exchange of textual data. It could, in theory, encode all
Fig. 3. Jarrat Wasl through Alef characters used by all the written languages of the world (more
 Aesthetic diacritics: often filled space created when than one million characters are reserved for this purpose). All
extending some letters, to improve the aesthetic. characters, regardless of the script in which they are used, are
accessible without escape sequences. The Unicode encoding
www.IJCSI.org 264
treats alphabetic characters, ideographic characters and The size of the combining Arab varies depending on the
symbols in an equivalent manner, with the result that they can context, and depending on how to choose the allographs. This
coexist in any order with equal ease. For each character, the choice reflects relations between the neighboring letters
standard Unicode allocate a unique numeric value and attribute specific to each calligraphic style.
a single block name. As such, it differs little from other
standards. However, Unicode specify other information pivotal 4.1 Calligraphic styles
to guarantee that the encoded text will be clear to read: the case
of the characters (if they have case), their properties, and In Arabic calligraphy, there are various styles of writing.
directionality. Unicode also defines semantic information and The main ones are: Naskh, Riqaa, Thulut, Maghrebi, and
includes correspondence tables of conversions between Diwani. These styles differentiate principally by [13] [14]:
Unicode and other important character sets. In Unicode,  geometric shape of the letters;
diacritics appear as a category of combinatorial signs [10].  presence, shape and number of dots;
 presence, shape and number of diacritics;
3.2 Arabic diacritics in Unicode  use, shape and size of Kashida.
Each writing style has its own strict rules and context
In Unicode, Arabic diacritics are treated in two different ways: (edition, illustration, architectural decoration, etc.). This study
 Diacritics encoded in conjuncture with his basic letter, concerns only Naskh style.
such as: alef with madda.
 Diacritics encoded alone. 4.2 Contextual dependence
The encoding of Arabic diacritic is distributed in the four
following blocks [11] [12]: In most scripts, such as Latin, Hebrew and Chinese, letters
 Arabic (0600–06FF): this range includes the standard are in an imaginary box that can be aligned with the letter "x"
letters and diacritics. [7]. However, in the Arabic script, the heights and forms of
 Arabic Supplement (0750–077F): this range letters vary depending on the context. In general, letters have
incorporates Arabic diacritics in conjuncture with their four forms: initial, medial, final, and isolated forms [8]. In
basic letters used for extending Arabic to writing others calligraphy, some forms also vary according to the neighboring
scripts. letters glyphs [13] (see Fig. 9).
 Arabic Presentation Forms-A (FB50–FDFF): this range
represents Arabic diacritics considered in isolation.
 Arabic Presentation Forms-B (FE70–FEFF): this range
adds spacing forms of Arabic diacritics.
3.3 Synthesis
Diacritics are the main set of combinatorial non-spacing Fig. 9. Variants of Arabic letter Beh in initial and medial forms
marks. They are treated in different manners: sometimes they The spatial properties vary between Latin and Arabic scripts.
are encoded with their base glyphs as “à”, and sometimes they In Arabic, the definition of bold depends on calligraphic style.
are encoded separately as Arabic standard diacritics. Software The reduction in the density of letters is created by layering or
that take part Arabic diacritics in rendering must accomplishes by reducing the letter’s body [7]. Diacritics in the Thulut style,
much more amplified operations than the positioning of Latin
unlike Naskh, are designed by a pen, called a Qalam, with a
diacritics. In Arabic case, software is supposed to analyze the
width and slope different from those used for the body of base
base character, the combining diacritic, the neighboring base
letters. The harmonization of a multilingual document is
glyphs and their diacritics.
In Arabic script, dots are diacritics that play the same role as therefore influenced by the multitude of scripts or styles in the
Latin diacritics. The Unicode failure to encode Arabic same language.
characters with dots, as composite characters, limits the
dynamicity of dots with regard to multilevel and justification. 4.3 Multilevel ligature
Arabic script is cursive, letters are interrelated. In Arabic
4. Design and Multilingualism calligraphy, some letters could be combined forming ligatures.
The contextual ligatures are needed for cursive writing. There
Various fundamental notions underlie the domain of design, are required during the computer processing of handwriting.
such as balance, rhythm, etc. The principles of design clash in There are three kinds of ligatures: contextual, linguistic, and
the case of the mixture of different styles, which may differ aesthetic. The one unique linguistic ligature is LamAlef. An
depending upon each script. A somewhat similar situation aesthetic ligature can be in two, three, or more levels,
occurs in a monolingual Arabic text where there is a change of depending on the number of combined letters vertically. The
calligraphic styles, such as at the beginning of a title or section aesthetic ligatures affect considerably the visibility of
[7]. diacritical words, they are optional. There are chosen
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sometimes for justification in order to contracting the word.  Emphasis: related to the elongation sound of glyph
There are two blocks in Unicode that includes Arabic aesthetic extended.
ligatures. As their number is very large, and they can be
represented in fonts without needing to be separately encoded, 4.5 Justification
Unicode has decided to not add any more. If we observe their
forms of representation, aesthetic ligatures are in all forms. Justification of Latin text:
Arabic writing is characterized by multiple baselines, used to Justification of Latin text causes the white space between
position letters in ligatures vertically, known as multilevel or the words and the letters, to vary, affecting the glyphs, as well
stacking of Arabic writing. Ligatures introduce the multilevel as hyphenation; so that, the text fills the entire length of the
of writing. The aesthetic ligatures were a fairly limited choice line between the margins. The amount of the spacing varies
to represent the multilevel of the Arabic script: the number of between a minimal value and a maximal value when it is not
combinations represented in a multilevel context is large possible to justify the text.
enough that one can guess their representation in a block. This Problems related to the justification of Latin text, especially
property is caused also by letters: Family Jeem (Jeem, Hah, a justification of the kind made by an electronic publishing
and Khah), Meem, and Yeh rajiaa (see Fig. 10, Chawki font). system, without correction by a human operator, are potentially
quite noticeable. The most significant problems raise are:
hyphenation, rivers of white, widows and orphans, and the
hollow lines, which occur across blocks of text [16].
Fig. 10. Multilevel Ligatures Hyphenation: Hyphenation permits division of a word at the
Yeh rajiaa, diverted, occurs at the end of a word which is end of line in order to have a better visual appearance within a
preceded by another letter which its glyph ends with the body text. A typographical rule requires no more than three
of a Noon, or Kaas. consecutive hyphenations. Avoiding too much hyphenation in a
text ensures greater fluidity of reading. There are many tools
4.4 Kashida for word hyphenation, like neural networks and dictionaries,
which are used to find possible hyphenation points in all words
Kashida is the curvilinear elongation occurred for some of a given language [17].
letters, according some situations, following some conditions, Two algorithms are used for optimizing the division of
and stretching in some sizes. It is specific to the Arabic script. lines: Greedy algorithm and Optimum fit.
Unicode has included a character for Kashida (U+640 Arabic Greedy algorithm: This algorithm consists basically of
Tatweel) in order to be inserted to stretch characters. putting as many words on a line can as possible. Then, the
However, in calligraphy, Kashida is rather a processing to system repeats the same on the next line, and so on. The
extend some letters in curvilinear form. The Kashida is process is repeated until there are no more words in the
characterized by the form, how depend on the writing style paragraph. The greedy algorithm is a line-by-line process,
(see Fig. 11, By Mohamed Amzile). where each line is handled individually. This algorithm is very
simple and fast, and puts the list of words to be broken into a
minimum number of lines. It is used by many electronic
publishing systems, such as Open Office and Microsoft Word
[18].
Fig. 11. Kashida of letter Sad Optimum fit algorithm: it was employed for the first time by
Stretching places: Stretching by Kashida occurs in a word D. Knuth in TEX. The paragraph-based algorithm uses a
according to aesthetics and typographic criteria, and in dynamic programming to optimize one function called the
respecting their roles. For example, it is a defect to aesthetic cost function that is defined in follow. This algorithm
superposing tow elongations in the two consecutive lines [15]. is based on a model paragraph by an acyclic graph, where the
Degree of extensibility: The degree of extensibility of first node is the beginning of the paragraph. In the beginning of
stretchable letters depends on some contextual elements [15]: paragraph, the algorithm creates an active node, the second
 nature of the letter to stretch; node shows possible cuts, at a distance acceptable to form a
 position of the letter in the word; line potential. This distance is defined as follows: we define
 position of the word in the line; badness from the width of inter-margins and the sum of the
 level of writing that Kashida must take place; widths of boxes and glues component line. Each candidate line
 writing style. is associated with a value of Demerits, which is the coast in the
Roles: The Kashida is used in the followed circumstances acyclic graph where the arcs are formed with consecutive
[15]: nodes [18].
 Justification: to justify Arabic text. Justification of Arabic text:
 Aesthetics: to achieve a balance and harmony between Unlike Latin justification tools, Arabic tools are:
the blocks of letters in the same word.  Kashida, where letters are stretched, are viewed as tools
 legibility: to create a void for positioning diacritics. to elongate words (see Fig. 12, Chawki font).
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also aesthetic diacritics whose positions depend on other
diacritics. The relationship between interactive diacritics and
Fig. 12. Stretched glyphs the mechanisms of multilevel and justification require resizing
 Ligatures, where letters are superposed on one another, and repositioning of diacritics in an influenced word. Below,
are viewed as tools to contraction words. we present the main issues of design diacritics [4] and the
 Allographs, where one letter’s glyph is substituted by specific problems to Arabic.
another (see Fig. 13).
5.1 Latin case
Asymmetry: Balance is defined as an equanimity resulting
from the review of an image in relation to ideas of the visible
Fig. 13. Allographs of some letters
structure [19]. That is the grouping of entities in a design
 Moving the final letter, in order to contract the last word required on the report of their weight in a configuration of a
in the line (see Fig. 14). visual picture. Balance generally is of two kinds: symmetrical
and asymmetrical. The symmetrical balance, or formal
balance, take place when the weight of a graphic composition
Fig. 14. Moving the final letter
is one and the same divided on every side of an invisible
central axis that can be vertical or horizontal. The
 Reduction of last letter (see Fig. 15).
asymmetrical balance, or informal balance, exists when the
weight of the graphic composition is not spread equally
surrounding a central axis [19]. The size and weight of a Latin
Fig. 15. Reduction of letter diacritic must be balanced with the base glyph [4]. The
 Accumulation of words (see Fig. 16). horizontal alignment of a diacritical glyph should be such that
there is balance between the diacritic and base glyph. To
symmetrically balance, a diacritic simply align the center of
the bounding box of the diacritic with the base glyph [2] [4]. If
Fig. 16. Accumulation of words
either one is asymmetrical other means must be turned to
 Writing in the margin (see Fig. 17).
account.
If the base glyph is symmetrical, Optical alignment is a tool to
adjust the horizontal displacement of a base glyph or diacritic
Fig. 17. Writing in margin to focus on the diacritic glyph and maintain basic balance.
However, In the Arabic script, hyphenation is no longer Among the solutions, one is to align the optical center of the
allowed. glyph with the mathematical center of space [4]. The optical
The optimum fit algorithm has been adapted to Arabic’s center is estimated by the center of the contour (see Fig. 18).
needs by taking into consideration the existence of allographic
variants provided by the jalt table in OpenType format [18].
Synthesis:
In the Arabic script, which is cursive, a word can be
stretched by the Kashida to cover more space, and can be
forced by the use of the ligatures [15]. These mechanisms can Fig. 18. Symmetrical base glyphs
influence the sizing and the positioning of the Arabic diacritics If the base glyph is asymmetrical, the diacritic may connect to
[8]. the following base glyph. The optical alignment is not always
 The justification plays an important role in the used and other solutions are offered by new technologies, such
positioning of diacritics, which is not true in Latin. as OpenType.
 The first adaptation of the optimum fit algorithm to Harmonization: When the diacritics are sufficiently
Arabic was made by ignoring diacritics. harmonized with the corresponding base glyph, there are
sometimes problems with neighboring base glyphs. For
example, the tilde may touch the neighboring base glyph "U"
5. Design of Diacritical Marks (see Fig. 19).
The design of Latin diacritics has three challenges:

 be harmonious with the base glyph; Fig. 19. Conflict of diacritics with other glyphs
 collocation with other diacritics on same base glyph; One solution is to draw the diacritic specific to each base
 respect the baseline and interline. glyph, reducing the size of diacritics. Another solution is to use
In Arabic, the design of diacritics has a supplemental kerning [2] [4].
challenge: it must to be harmonized with the diacritics of
neighboring glyphs and ligatures, and fill the space. There are
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Vertical space: In some fonts, the diacritics are aligned on a
line parallel to the baseline. In other fonts, the distance
between the diacritic and its base glyph is variable.
Multiple diacritics: Multiple diacritics can cause many
problems with the baseline, with other glyphs, or amongst
other diacritics. Different techniques are used to solve this
problem including: drawing a glyph with all the diacritics Fig. 21. Arabic diacritics’ roles
together [4].
5.2 Specific issues to Arabic case 6. Rendering of diacritics

Additionally, Arabic diacritics’ role is to fill space in a word The factors mentioned above must be taken together in
where there are specific diacritics, or they may be added for order to properly render Arabic diacritics. There are tow
aesthetic reasons. The principal mechanisms to create space in category of fonts: dumb fonts and smart fonts. The first
the Arabic word are: to use the Kashida, to adjust the glyph, category is characterized by simple sequential positioning,
and to modify the interconnection between glyphs. The space while the second include the complex positioning data. We
can be filled by following the steps below: will survey the various possibilities offered by the second
(1) Put dots and/or Shadda at the center of space. category and their limitations in trying to represent Arabic
(2) Resize the diacritic Fatha or Fathatan proportionally writing properly.
with space.
(3) Reposition the resized diacritic.
6.1 Diacritics positioning processing
(4) Reposition the other diacritics. The non smart fonts are very limited to positioning properly
(5) Place aesthetic and explanatory diacritics in the space. the diacritics. The diacritics placement processing is designed
Diacritics tend to reflect characteristics common to many to be used with such font format. To place one or more
glyphs, acting according to their function in a language. diacritics, this processing uses a diacritic’s bounding box, the
The concept of symmetry in Arabic design is related to the base glyph's bounding box, and a diacritic data (see Fig. 22).
linear writing where extensions are used to balance the masses When the processing receives the information that the mark is
of other glyphs. to be placed over the base glyph, it looks up the orientation for
Word as m ass: The process of composing characters, above this mark in tables. Based on this information, the processing
the line, affects the aesthetics of Arabic writing. So we have to calls a pair of functions, H and V, for properly positioning the
study the space in words in relation to the sequence of their mark [20].
characters.
Relationship between characters: The relationship between
characters of the word is based on (see Fig.20):
 Identicalness: when many of the glyphs involved in the
forms, or in the forms of their parts are the same.
 Similarity: when letters require manual rules to be
joining.
 Harmony: when most of the characters appear on the
baseline.
 Contrast: when conflict is present between straight
characters, horizontals and rounds characters.
Fig. 20. Relationship between characters Fig. 22. A diacritics positioning processing
Priority to a language ’s diacritics: Diacritics lead to a
repetition of common characteristics among many letters. To extend a processing which operates under the same
They must not come into conflict with the diacritics of architecture to be as Arabic diacritics positioning processing,
neighboring base glyphs. the following issues must be taken into account:
Additional role of aesthetic diacritics: Aesthetic diacritics  Ability to calculate the horizontal and vertical position of
must be positioned to maintain symmetry and harmony in diacritic glyph relative to the base glyph and the
relation to a language’s diacritics (see Fig. 21). neighboring base glyphs.
 Ability to calculate the horizontal and vertical position of
diacritic glyph relative to the diacritics of neighboring base
glyphs.
www.IJCSI.org 268
 Ability to substitute the diacritic variant if a Kashida or a Kashida, ligature, and allograph can be managed by GSUB
ligature takes place. and GPOS. Positioning and resizing diacritics over them can
 Ability to keep the contextual form of the basic glyph. also be created by these tables.
6.2 Rendering processing with smart font 6.3 Diacritics and GPOS
There are many smart fonts, such as: OpenType, Graphite, There are three lookups in GPOS table that threat a diacritical
and AAT, all based on Unicode. We have chosen the positioning. But before exploring them, let’s see the structure
OpenType, as it is the most common. OpenType is a font of each lookup.
format developed jointly by Adobe and Microsoft. It is an Lookups Structure: In OpenType, each lookup contains the
extension of the TrueType font format, adding support for followed elements [21]:
PostScript font data. It is organized by script, language  LookupType: determines the type of lookup.
system, feature, and lookup. The notion of script denotes a  LookupFlag: determines the series of flags.
collection of glyphs used to represent one or more languages  Coverage table: specifies all the glyphs are concerned
in written form. A language system changes the functions or by a substitution or positioning operation.
appearance of glyphs in a script to represent a given language In OpenType, glyphs are divided into four types: base
by defining features which are typographic rules for using glyphs, diacritics; ligatures, and components of ligatures.
glyphs [21]. A feature groups the rules stocked in the font that We can restrict the application of a lookup in some classes
the engine rendering execute in three phase: by Lookupflag.
Substitution phase: corresponds to GSUB table, which have MarkToBase Attachment lookup: is based on the followed
charge to ligatures, contextual forms, vertical rotation, principle: Each mark has an anchor point and associated with
conversion to small caps, Indic glyphs rearrangement, etc. The a class of diacritics. Every base glyph has many attachment
principal substitutions offers are [22]: points as there are classes of diacritical. This lookup contains a
 Single substitution: permits alternating from one glyph subtable MarkBasePos that composed on [21]:
to another.  coverage table for marks;
 Multiple substitutions: permits changing one glyph by a  coverage table for base glyph;
others.  coordinates of the attachment points of marks;
 Alternate substitution: provides having a series of  coordinates of the attachment points of base glyph.
alternates for each glyph. MarkToLigature Attachment Positioning Subtable:
 Ligature substitution: permits alternating a string of prescribes ligatures composed of many components that can
glyphs with another glyph. each define an attachment point for each class of marks. We
 Contextual substitution: assigns substituting a string of find [21]:
glyphs by another string of glyphs.  Coverage table for ligatures;
Position phase: corresponds to GPOS table, which manages  Coverage table for marks;
the positioning of glyphs. We can put any diacritic on any  The attachment points for each component of each
base glyph [22]. Diacritics are distributed into various classes ligature.
in conformity with their behavior. Each base glyph has MarkToMark Attachment Positioning Subtable: has same
attachment points in a diacritic class [21] [22]. The principal structure as the MarkToLigature Attachment Positioning
lookups offers are: Subtable, except that for marks we are tow tables coverage for
 Single adjustment: enables replacing the metrics of a marks and same for coordinates [21].
specific character.
6.4 Synthesis
 Pair adjustment: authorize substituting the metrics of a
specific pair of glyphs. The various issues of diacritics in new technologies can be
 Cursive attachment: permits forcing adjacent glyphs to summarized in the following items:
join at specific dots.  There is no relation of positioning diacritics (one to
 Mark to base: assigns how diacritics are placed over one) during justification;
base glyphs.  Diacritics and ligatures;
 Mark to ligature: allows how diacritics are positioned  Diacritics and diacritics above same base glyph.
over a ligature and may have various places at which the
same type of mark may be positioned.
 Mark to Mark: provides how many diacritics are placed 7. Proposed Solution
over base glyph.
Justification phase: corresponds to JSTF table, which gives There is no composition system which takes into account
the insertion of Kashida or respecting the multilevel with
the composition software means to increase or reduce the
position and size variation of diacritics. There is no algorithm
width of certain words to get the best spaces between words,
or system to approximate space or to fill it. In this section, we
in an attempt to justify a text [21].
www.IJCSI.org 269
present our proposed solution to approximate the void and to the multilevel takes place. We limit the study to case of
fill it by repositioning and resizing diacritical marks. single level.
 Only Fatha and Fathatan can be elongated.
7.1 Positioning diacritics in Arabic fonts We adopt that the size of Fatha and Fathatan, in depend on
mass of base glyph and the mass of neighbors base glyphs.
To illustrate rendering of Arabic diacritics, we present some In cursive forms, the size of the diacritic depends on the size
fonts showing their treatment of positioning diacritics. and height of its base glyph, and on those neighboring base
 Traditional Arabic: glyphs and positions and sizes of their diacritics [23].
Determine diacritics position: To take a usual distance
between diacritics and base glyph requires classification of
base glyphs according to their heights.
 Times new roman: Determine diacritics size: There are three variants, related to
its size, for Fatha and Fathatan: normal, medium and large.
However, there is one for each of the others (see Fig.23).
 Scheherazade:
 Lateef:
Fig. 23. Position and size of diacritics in isolated form
Some classifications must be taken in the preparation of the
font, for that we:
 Classify letters according to their mass, in each form.
Commentary:  Classify letters according to their possible stretch, in
 Most of Arabic fonts are mono-lines. each form.
 Some of them raise a problem during the construction  Determine, in default size, some variant positions for
of ligatures with diacritics. each diacritic, following the mass of each glyph.
 Some of them offer more than one position for  Determine, for Fatha and Fathatan, some variant
diacritics. sizes, following each stretched letter class.
 The different Arabic fonts do not offer a mechanism for  Determine the pairs of glyphs where there resizing
resizing diacritics. Fatha.
 The different Arabic fonts do not offer a mechanism to  Determine the positions of the diacritics of these
fill space by diacritics. pairs and the possible alternatives.
7.2 Font 7.3 Algorithm
In this section, our calligraphic proposals are based on The proposed algorithm aims to provide a mechanism to
Chawki1 samples, amchak [23]. position Arabic diacritics with the proper size to fill space that
In order to determine the factors that influence specifically
is influenced by the effects of the justification and the ligature.
on the position and size of a diacritical mark, we have
In this algorithm, we have adopted two principles: First,
classified the base glyphs according to their heights and
change the positions and dimensions of diacritics, related to the
widths.
We note that: mass of the base glyph, to the mass of the followed glyph, and
 In isolated case, the position of the diacritical mark is to the difference of those heights. Second, consider ligatures as
associated with the width and height of the base glyph, a result of a series of basic glyphs which each has a diacritic of
i.e. these two factors determines the mass of the base its own [24].
glyph and they link with the space which corresponds The algorithm:
to it. And with the white that precede it and/or succeed - In the first phase:
it. The size of diacritic is default if the base glyph is (1) Put the suitable position diacritic, with
the default size, for the first glyph of
none stretched, and vice versa.
word.
 In cursive forms, the position and the size of diacritics - In the phase n, where n ≥ 2 as long as writing the word
depends on the mass of its base glyph, and on those
has not been completed:
neighboring base glyphs and positions of their (1) Put the suitable position diacritic, with
diacritics. The situation becomes more complicated if the default size, for the current glyph.
(2) If the diacritic of the preceding glyph
1
is Fatha or Fathatan, reposition and
Mohamed Chawki (1828-1887), a great calligrapher Turk and famous in resize it and reposition the diacritic of
the history of Arabic calligraphy, was certified in calligraphy at the age of 13
current glyph according to fill space,
years.
www.IJCSI.org 270
else reposition the diacritic according more systematic approach by basing itself on a study
to fill space. concerning the choice of the sizes of diacritical marks and their
- In the final phase: positions. The positioning and resizing of Arabic diacritics is
(1) If the diacritic of the last character is
Fatha or Fathatan, call the alternative related to the effects of writing in cursive, multilevel ligature
diacritic related to its mass. and justification by the Kashida. These factors depend on
The chose of suitable, position and size, diacritic will be a Arabic calligraphic styles; each one is controlled by its own
processing of substitution in tables offered by font. rules. Consequently, the Arabic script must be treated as a set
Following the text graphic context (illustration, handbook, of styles in the electronic publishing systems.
lecture note, book, masterpiece…), the user would choose The text composition systems underspecified the
between activate/deactivate calligraphic treatments (ligature, complicated positioning of diacritics when compared to
Kashida, allograph, etc.). However, the user, or writer, needs to ligation. Diacritics positioning can be lost when diacritics are
be qualified in order to decide the suitable convention. This repositioned over glyphs in cursive attachment. Remember that
chosen convention will influence the strategy adopted in the attachment is a cursive smart font feature that allows the
justification processing. In calligraphy, there is no priority attachment and positioning of glyphs and determines how to
strategy. The publishing system should be able to invoke, or re- find the connecting dot of the neighboring glyphs; it is not just
invoke, the positioning and sizing of diacritics, after running a simple alignment of letters on the baseline. Another level of
the composition and justification processing. complication is when a paragraph is justified. A font cannot
predict the mechanism implemented by the composition engine
7.4 Results to justify the lines, for example. The part of the engine that
handles paragraphs may create elongated glyphs by Kashida,
The algorithm has been applied on an Arabic font, developed cause substitution of alternate glyphs, or permit
in OpenType format, and we have a result example shown in activations/deactivations of ligatures. Each part of the system
Fig. 24. The obtained results indicate that OpenType is limited must contribute in its own way to the final visual rendering,
by: and we must know, above all, the tasks involved in each
 Substitution: The using of the Kashida by substitution component.
glyph, to extend, by an extended variant, must be done
after a good choice of location in where to put it. The
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www.IJCSI.org 271
[18] M. Elyaakoubi, A. Lazrek, “Justify just or just justify”, The Journal of
Electronic Publishing, Volume 12, Number 2, 2009.
[19] Charlott et Peter Fiell, “Graphic design for the 21st century”, Taschen,
Köln, 2003.
[20] M. Breiner, “Diacritics positioning system for digital typography”,
http://www.freshpatents.com/, 2009.
[21] Y. Haralambus, “Fontes et codage”, O’Reilly, Paris, 2004.
[22] Microsoft typography, http://www.microsoft.com/typography/otspec/.
[23] M. Chawki, “Amchak Chawki”, International commission for the
preservation of Islamic culture, Istanbul, 1999.
[24] M. Hssini, A. Lazrek, Mohamed Jamal Eddine Benatia, “Arabic digital
typography design and connect characters issues”, 5th International
Conference on Computer Science Practice in Arabic, pp. 19-31, Rabat,
Morocco, 2009 (in Arabic).
Mohamed Hssini is a Ph.D. student in Department of

Computer Science at Cadi Ayyad University. He is a member
of multilingual scientific e-document processing team. His
current main research interest is multilingual typography,
especially the publishing of Arabic e-documents while
observing the strict rules of Arabic calligraphy.
Azzeddine Lazrek is full Professor in Computer Science at

Cadi Ayyad University in Marrakesh. He holds a PhD degree
in Computer Science from Lorraine Polytechnic National
Institute in France since 1988, in addition to a State Doctorate
Morocco since 2002. Prof. Lazrek works on Communication
multilingual multimedia e-documents in the digital area. His
areas of interest include: multimedia information processing
and its applications, particularly, electronic publishing, digital
typography, Arabic processing and the history of science. He
is in charge of the research team Information Systems and
Communication Networks and the research group Multilingual
scientific e-document processing. He is an Invited Expert at
W3C. He leads a multilingual e-document composition project
with other international organizations.
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, May 2011 272
www.IJCSI.org
Use Pronunciation by Analogy for text to speech system in

Persian Language
Ali Jowharpour1, DR. Masha allah Abbasi dezfuli1, DR. Mohammad Hosein Yektaee1
1
Islamic Azad university Science and research branch-khuzestan Iran
Abstract
The interest in text to speech synthesis increased in the world . of word’s phonetic by similarity of letters in words and
text to speech have been developed for many popular languages explain this method in part 3.
such as English, Spanish and French and many researches and
developments have been applied to those languages. Persian on
the other hand, has been given little attention compared to other 2.Related Works
languages of similar importance and the research in Persian is In PbA, an unknown word is pronounced by matching
still in its infancy. Persian language possess many difficulty and substrings of the input to substrings of known, lexical
exceptions that increase complexity of text to speech systems. words, hypothesizing a partial pronunciation for each
For example: short vowels is absent in written text or existence of matched substring from the phonological knowledge, and
homograph words. in this paper we propose a new method for assembling the partial pronunciations. Here, we use an
persian text to phonetic that base on pronunciations by analogy in
extended and improved version of the system described by
words, semantic relations and grammatical rules for finding
proper phonetic.
Dedina and Nusbaum (1991), which consists of four
Keywords: PbA, text to speech, Persian language, FPbA components: the (uncompressed and previously aligned)
lexical database, the matcher which compares the target
input to all the words in the database, the pronunciation
1.Introduction lattice (a data structure representing possible
Many text-to-speech (TTS) systems use look-up in a large pronunciations), and the decision function, which selects
dictionary as the primary strategy to determine the the 'best' pronunciation among the set of possible ones.
pronunciation of input words. However, it is not possible The lexicon used is Webster's Pocket Dictionary,
to list exhaustively all the words of a language, so that a containing 20,009 words manually aligned by Sejnowski
secondary or 'back-up' strategy is required for words not in and Rosenberg (1987) for training their NETtalk neural
the system dictionary. Pronunciation by analogy (PbA) is a network[7].
data-driven technique for the automatic phonemization of The other work is done by Namnabat and Homayounpour
text, first proposed over a decade ago by Dedina and in Amirkabir University of Technology. They have
Nusbaum [1,2]. Although initially PbA attracted little constructed a system including a rule based section and
attention, several groups around the world are now trying multi layer perceptron (MLP) neural network and the
to develop the approach. There is accumulating evidence ultimate accuracy of their system is 87% (Namnabat and
that PbA easily outperforms linguistic rewrite rules [3, 4, Homayounpour,2006).[8].
5, 6] .In this paper, we extend previous work on PbA in
directions which are intended to improve its usability
within the pronunciation component of a TTS system. We
have studied extended methods both for pattern matching
(between the input word and the dictionary entries) . This
has produced improvements on the best results so far
3. pronunciation of input word
Figure 1 shows a block diagram of the pronunciation
system that will explain in this paper. Prepare the code for
reported in the persian language. but these improvements input word and compare it with sample words in database
have so far been only small. this paper compares different then select matching words and given to next step in
methods for persian TTS. In this paper describe detecting block diagram. recognition network block identify most
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, May 2011
273
www.IJCSI.org
similar sample to input word and added short vowels to 3.4 Recognition Network
input word. subsequently changed input word send to
speech phase. Note that there is no guarantee that there At this stage the most similar word to input word will be
will always be complete phonetic for every input word. found. Fig 2 shows the main form of recognition network
block.
Fig.1. block diagram of the pronunciation system
3.1 Input word coding Fig 2.recognition network.
When word give to system, for simplify replace its letters

by number. These numbers shows in table 1. coding
As can be seen in fig 2. Pi is ascii code of pattern letters
divided words to different groups base on structure
that is considered input for each neuron. Wi is coefficient
similarity.
for all ascii codes that its value is one. bi value is negative
of ascii code for any letters of input word. n is integer for
Table 1. code for letters each letter comparison. If wi=bi then n=0 else n<>0. F is
consonants 7 function that return [e-|n|].
Long vowel “‫“ ”ا‬ă” 1
This function operate similar impulse function. With zero
Long vowel “‫“ ”ﯼ‬i” 2
input, the output is 1 and else the output is zero. Thus for
Long vowel “‫“ ”و‬u” 3
similar letters output is one and else is zero. All ai s make
the vector that number of elements equals to input word
length and the values of their elements are zero or one.
3.2 Pattern matching This vector is considered as network output. It is clear that
output of this network layer is matrix that number of rows
pattern matching process starts with making suitable code are number of selected pattern and number of columns are
for input string. Rules of code making is 7 for consonant length of input word.
and 1,2,3 for long vowels base on table 1. Then made code After creating output matrix create a vector that each
compare with words’ code in DB. Then selected words in element is letter influence proportion in word structure.
DB that have the same input word’s code. Long vowels have the most role in word pronunciation and
consonants less. therefore consonant weight is consider
one and vowel weight is length of the input word. If ωpi
3.3 Pronunciation dictionaries (DB) be i th letter weight and L be length of the input word:
The re-sources include a pronunciation dictionary for 1

ωi=
persian language with about 2000 entries, which were used
in the persian TTS. Advantage of this method, using small
database that contain patterns, word’s code, phonetic and ω=∑ ω is total weight of word
grammatical kind of each entry. Selection entries in for finding most similar pattern to input word by calculate
database based on coverage uttermost input words in same
s=ωp/∑ that ωp is weight of pattern and ωii is ith
length and trait.
letter weight of input word. Result is value between 0 and
1. If result be near 1 mean is pattern is more similar to
input word. When found similarity of all pattern words to
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, May 2011 274
www.IJCSI.org
input word then sort them and select pattern that have
maximum s. if s value of first pattern is equal to s value of Table 2. compare number of pattern in deferent systems
next pattern may there is homograph words. If s value of
second word is one; one of the samples must be selected Text to speech system(title) Number of pattern
according to sentence concept If possible else use word in database
iteration frequency in the persian text. For better Multilayer perceptron nueral 98000
explanation, see the example. network.[8]
Example: assume input word is "‫“( "رﻧﮓ‬r”,”n”,”g”) and Gooya(percian tts) 45000
777 generated for it. Each word with 777 code select Pba.[3] 50000
From DB, such as "‫( "وﻧﮏ‬vanak),"‫( "ﺗﺮﮎ‬tork), "‫"ﺳﻨﮓ‬ Filibuster Swedish[9] 118104
(sang) and "‫( "ﺧﺮس‬xers) give to recognition network. Filibuster Norwegian[9] 132806
Network makes 4*3 matrix that each its row is letter’s
FPBA 2000
weight of one pattern and a 3 element vector that each its
element is weight of "‫ "ر‬,"‫ "ن‬,"‫ "گ‬letters.
Table 3. accuracy percentage of systems to find phonetic.
TTS system name Letter Word Sentence

Letter to sound by mlp neural %88 %61 ------------
Because there is not long vowel in "‫ "رﻧﮓ‬all elements of network.[8]
vector are one. gooya %91 %76 %80
Each element in result vector is ωp for one pattern and
ωi=1+1+1=3. FPBA %94 %84 %69
S values are: S("‫=) "وﻧﮏ‬.333, S("‫=)"ﺗﺮﮎ‬0, S("‫=)"ﺳﻨﮓ‬.666
and S("‫=)"ﺧﺮس‬0 therefore suitable pattern is "‫"ﺳﻨﮓ‬. 5. Conclusion
In this paper we have extended previous works in persian
3.5 phonetic creation language in several directions. Principally, experimented
In previous example selected pattern was "‫ "ﺳﻨﮓ‬with with a range of pattern matching strategies. In the near
“sang” phonetic. At this case use short vowel that is /a/ in future, we intend to use multiple strategies for producing
“sang”, and insert it between “r” and “n” in “r n g” and pronunciations. We will use better techniques and better
complete phonetic (rang). pattern to derive an overall pronunciation. The hope is that,
by using the semantic and more grammatical rule, we can
produce better pronunciations than any single technique.
4. Evaluation
We should work towards a proper probabilistic model. We
The evaluation of the system was performed using two
have also attempted to produce stress patterns for input
different corpuses:
words, Finally, we have analyzed common errors of
The first is a list of word (about 2000 word) that some of
pronunciation.
are root of words that constitute patterns in DB. One of
avantage of method using of little pattern. This property
can use, to apply this method on mobile phone. REFERENCES
The second is accuracy in detecting pronunciation input [1]. Dedina.M.j and H. C. Nusbaum,H.C. PRONOUNCE: a
program for pronunciation by analogy, 1986. Speech
word by little sample in dictionary. Research Laboratory Progress Report No. 12.
In tables 2 and 3 the comparison of several TTS systems [2]. Dedina.M.j and H. C. Nusbaum,H.C . PRONOUNCE: a
are shown, the method of this paper is named FPbA. program for pronunciation By analogy. Computer Speech
Table 3. prepare with persian text contain 500 words that if and Language, 5:55-64, 1991.
change the text maybe percentage is changed. [3]. Damper ,R. I. and Eastmond, J. F. G.. Pronouncing text by
analogy. In Proceedings of 16th International Conference on
Computational Linguistics, volume 2, pages 268- 273,
Copenhagen, Denmark, 1996.
[4]. Damper, R. I. and Eastmond, J. F. G. Pronunciation by
analogy: impact of implementation choices on performance.
Language and Speech, 40(1):1-23, 1997.
[5]. Damper, R. I. and Gustafson, K. Evaluating the

IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, May 2011
275
www.IJCSI.org
pronunciation component of a text-to-speech system. In

Speech and Language Technology (SALT) Club Work- shop
on Evaluation in Speech and Language Technology pages
72-79, Sheffield, UK, 1997.
[6]. Yvon, F. Grapheme-to-phoneme conversion using multiple
unbounded overlapping chunks. In Proceedings of
Conference on New Methods in Natural language
Processing (NeMLaP '96), pages 218-228, Ankara,Turkey,
1996.
[7]. Damper, R. I. and Marchand, Y.Pronunciation by Analogy
in Normal and Impaired Readers Proceedings of CoNLL-
2000 and LLL-2000, pages 13-18, Lisbon, Portugal, 2000.
[8]. Namnabat, M and Homayunpoor, M. M. "Letter-to-Sound in
Persian Language Using Multy Layer Perceptron Neural
Network," Iranian Electrical and Computer Engineering
Journal, 2006 (in Persian).
[9]. Sjölander,K.Tånnander,C.2009.” Adapting the Filibuster
text-to-speech system for Norwegian bokmål “.Dept. of
Linguistics, Stockholm University.
Ali jowharpour received a B.Sc degree of computer hardware

from Shiraz university in 1994 and m.sc degree in software from
Islamic Azad university Science and research branch-khuzestan
Iran in 2011.his research interest is speech technology and signal
processing.
Masha allah Abbasi dezfuli is professor of Islamic Azad
university Science and research branch-khuzestan Iran. his
research interest is signal processing.
Mohammad Hosein Yektaee is professor of Islamic Azad
university Science and research branch-khuzestan Iran. his
research interest is multilingual processing.
www.IJCSI.org 276
Making Ad Hoc Network Stable, Secured and Energy Efficient

Divya Sharma1,Ashwani Kush2
1
Information Technology Department, ITM University ,
Gurgaon, Haryana 122017, India
2
Computer Science Department, University College, Kurukshetra University
Kurukshetra, Haryana 134619, India
Abstract airport terminals for workers to share files etc. Several

routing protocols for ad hoc networks have been proposed
Mobile Ad hoc networking is a challenging task due to the lack as DSR, DDR, TORA, AODV and RDMAR. Major
of resources in the network as well as the frequent changes in the emphasis has been on shortest routes in all these protocols
network topology. Although lots of research has been done on in response whenever break occurs. In this paper a new
supporting QoS in the Internet and other networks, they are not scheme the stable routing with power factor has been
suitable for mobile Ad hoc networks and still QoS support for
such networks remains an open problem. In this paper, a new
suggested which would allow mobile nodes to maintain
scheme has been proposed for achieving QoS in terms of packet routes to destinations with more stable route selection.
delivery, multiple connections, better power management and This scheme responds to link breakages and changes in
stable routes. It offers quick adaptation to distributed processing, network topology in a timely manner.
dynamic linking. It also offers low processing overhead and loop Due to the frequent changes in network topology and the
freedom at all times. The proposed scheme has been incorporated lack of the network resources both in the wireless medium
using AODV protocol and by extensive simulation the and in the mobile nodes, mobile ad hoc networking
performance has been studied, it clearly shows that the proposed becomes a challenging task. Routing in Ad hoc networks
scheme performs very well. experiences more link failures than in other networks.
Hence, a routing protocol that supports QoS for ad hoc
Keywords: Ad hoc network, Routing protocols, AODV, MANET.
networks requires considering the reasons for link failure
to improve its performance. Link failure stems from node
1. Introduction and Motivation mobility and lack of the network resources. Therefore it is
essential to capture the aforesaid characteristics to identify
An ad hoc wireless network is a collection of mobile the quality of links. Furthermore, the routing protocols
devices equipped with interfaces and networking must be adaptive to cope with the time-varying low-
capability. Ad hoc [1] can be mobile, stand alone or capacity resources. For instance, it is possible that a route
networked. Such devices can communicate with another that was earlier found to meet certain QoS requirements
node within their radio range or one that is outside their no longer does so due to the dynamic nature of the
range by multi hop techniques. An Ad hoc network is topology. In such a case, it is important that the network
adaptive in nature and is self organizing. In this wireless intelligently adapts the session to its new and changed
topology may change rapidly and unpredictably. A mobile conditions. According to RFC 2386[18], quality of service
ad hoc network is also called MANET [2]. The main means providing a set of service requirements to the flows
characteristic of MANET strictly depends upon both while routing them through the network. A new scheme
wireless link nature and node mobility features. Basically has been suggested which combines two basic features to
this includes dynamic topology, bandwidth, energy achieve Qos, which are stable routing and concept of
constraints, security limitations and lack of infrastructure. battery power. The scheme uses backbone stable nodes for
MANET is viewed as suitable systems which can support stable routes and uses power factor to determine active
some specific applications as virtual classrooms, military nodes to participate in routing.
communications, emergency search and rescue operations, The rest of the paper is organized as follows: Section 2
data acquisition in hostile environments, communications takes a look at the Routing protocols classification,
set up in Exhibitions, conferences and meetings, in battle Section 3 analyzes new proposed scheme, Section 4
field among soldiers to coordinate defense or attack, at
www.IJCSI.org 277
describes the simulation environment and results and nodes help in reconstruction phase in fast selection of new
Section 4 summarizes the study and the status of the work. routes. Selection of backbone stable nodes is made upon
availability of nodes and battery status. Each route table
has an entry for number of backbone stable nodes attached
2. Routing Protocol Classification to it and their battery status. The protocol is divided into
three phases. Route Request (REQ), Route Repair (REP)
A routing protocol is needed whenever a packet needs to and Error Phase (ERR).
be handed over via several nodes to arrive at its
destination. A routing protocol has to find a route for 2
packet delivery and make the packet delivered to the 1
correct destination. Routing Protocols have been a QOS

based Routing for Ad Hoc Mobile networks 2 active area 11
3 4
of research for many years; many protocols have been 9 10
suggested keeping applications and type of network in 5
6
view. Routing Protocols in Ad Hoc Networks can be 12
classified into two types: 7 8
2.1 Proactive Protocols Stable node Unstable node
In Proactive or Table Driven routing protocols each node

Fig1: An example of routing
maintains one or more tables containing routing
information to every other node in the network. All nodes
keep on updating these tables to maintain latest view of The proposed scheme is explained with the help of an
the network. Some of the famous table driven or proactive example shown in Figure 1. Assume that the node S is the
protocols are: DBF [5], GSR [6], WRP [7], ZRP [8] and source with index 1 while D is the destination node with
STAR [9]. index 4. Note that the route discovered using SBNRP
scheme routing protocol may not necessarily be the
2.2 Reactive Protocols shortest route between a source destination pair. If the
node with index 3 is having power status in critical or
In Reactive or On Demand routing protocols, routes are danger zone, then though the shortest path is 1-2-3-4 but
created as and when required. When a transmission occurs the more stable path is 1-2-5-7-8-10-4 in terms of active
from source to destination, it invokes the route discovery power status is chosen. This may lead to slight delay but
procedure. The route remains valid till destination is improves overall efficiency of the protocol by sending
achieved or until the route is no longer needed. Some more packets without link break than the state when some
famous on demand routing protocols are: DSR [10], DDR node is unable to process route due to inadequate battery
[11], TORA [12], AODV [14], RDMAR [13]. The study power. The process also helps when some intermediate
has been concentrated for Reactive Protocols due to node moves out of the range and link break occurs, in that
dynamic topology of network. Surveys of routing case backbone stable nodes take care of the process and
protocols for ad hoc networks have been discussed in [3, the route is established again without much overhead. In
17]. Figure 1 if the node with index 5 moves out, the new
established route will be 1-2-11-7-8-10-4. Here the node
with index 11 is acting as stable node (SN) for the node
3. Proposed Scheme with index 5 and the node with index 8.
The proposed scheme takes care of on demand routing

along with a new concept of backbone nodes with power 3.1 Route Construction Phase
factor [28]. Many protocols have been discussed using
concept of power in many existing schemes [19- 27]. In all This scheme can be incorporated with reactive routing
the schemes discussed under concept of power routing, no protocols that build routes on demand via a query and
concern has been taken for stable routing or better packet reply procedure. The scheme does not require any
delivery. All emphasis is on concept of battery power or modification to the AODV's RREQ (route request)
energy requirement for routing process. In this paper two propagation process [13]. In this scheme when a source
different concepts have been merged together to make an needs to initiate a data session to a destination but does not
efficient protocol. Major concentration is on the routing have any route information, it searches a route by flooding
problem. In the proposed scheme, the backbone stable a ROUTE REQUEST (REQ) packet. REQ packet has a
www.IJCSI.org 278
unique identifier so that nodes can detect and drop node and Power status is power state of the node at that
duplicate packets. An Intermediate node with an active time. As 0.5* #hops is always less than
route (in terms of power and Backbone Nodes), upon MIN_REPAIR_TTL+SN, so the whole process becomes
receiving a no duplicate REQ, records the previous hop invisible to the originating node. This factor is transmitted
and the source node information in its route table i.e. to all nodes to select best available path with maximum
backward learning. It then broadcasts the packet or sends power.
back a ROUTE REPLY (REP) packet to the source if it
has an active route to the destination. The destination node G1
P
sends a REP via the selected route when it receives the E1 F
first REQ or subsequent REQs that traversed a better E

G
active route. Nodes monitor the link status of next hops in I

J
A C
active routes. When a link break in an active route is S
D
detected, an ERR message is used to notify that the loss of K

L
link has occurred to its one hop neighbor. Here ERR N
I1
message indicates those destinations which are no longer O

I2
N
reachable. Taking advantage of the broadcast nature of M
wireless communications, a node promiscuously overhears

packets that are transmitted by their neighboring nodes.
When a node that is not part of the route overhears a REP Fig 2 Local Repair
packet not directed to itself transmit by a neighbor (on the
primary route), it records that neighbor as the next hop to Figure 2 gives an idea of working of local route repair.
the destination in its alternate route table. From these Initial path from source node ‘Source’ to destination node
packets, a node obtains alternate path information and ‘Destination’ is shown via solid lines. When link breaks at
makes entries of these stable nodes (SN) in its route table. node C, route repair starts, node C starts searching for new
If route breaks occurs it just starts route construction phase paths, buffering packets from S-A in its buffer. Node C
from that node. The protocol updates list of BNs and their invokes Route Request phase for ‘Destination’. Now
power status periodically in the route table. backbone stable nodes are selected and proper selection of
nodes is done based on power factor. Path selected
becomes [C - E – F – G – Destination], instead of [C – I
3.2 Route Error Maintaince – G –Desti nation], since the node I is not in active state.
Even though the route may become longer, but the selected
In this scheme data transmits continuously through the route path is far more stable and delivers more packets.
primary route unless there is a route disconnection. When Stability of route depends upon two major aspects as: Life
a node detects a link break, it performs a one hop data time and Power status. The concept has been explained in
broadcast to its immediate neighbors. The node specifies Table 1. When selection has to be made between nodes I1
in the data header that the link is disconnected and thus the and E at the start of repair phase, selection of node E has
packet is candidate for alternate routing. Upon receiving the advantage over node I1. Similarly in the selection
this packet route maintenance phase starts by selecting between nodes G and G1, node G has higher weight. If any
alternate path and checking power status. SN has not been on active scale, it is rejected and a new
node is searched. In addition to power factor, efforts are
made to keep the path shortest. This local repair attempts
3.2.1 Local Repair (ERR Phase) are often invisible to the originating node.
Node SN Min TTL #hops*.5 Power status Total
When a link break in an active route occurs, the node
E 3 3 1/2 9 15
upstream of that break may choose to repair the link F 4 2 2/2 8.5 14.5
locally if the destination was no farther and there exists G 3 1 3/2 8 12
BNs that are active. The Time to live (TTL) of the REQ I 3 1 2/2 4 8
should initially be set to the following value: J 3 1 3/2 3 7
TTL = max (MIN_REPAIR_TTL + SN, 0.5 * #hops) + I1 1 4 1/2 7 12.5
I2 2 3 2/2 7 12
Power status G1 2 1 4/2 7.5 10.5
Where the MIN_REPAIR_TTL is the last known hop E1 1 3 2/2 8.0 12
count to the destination, #hops is the number of hops to Table 1: Active Life Time Estimation
the sender (originator) of the currently undeliverable
packet. SN is number of stable nodes attached to the said
www.IJCSI.org 279
During local repair data packets will be buffered at local

originator. If, at the end of the discovery period, the
repairing node has not received a reply message REP it
proceeds in by transmitting a route error ERR to the
originating node. On the other hand, if the node receives
one or more route reply REPs during the discovery period,
it first compares the hop count of the new route with the
value in the hop count field of the invalid route table entry
for that destination. Repairing the link locally is likely to
increase the number of data packets that are able to be
delivered to the destinations, since data packets will not be
dropped as the ERR travels to the originating node.
Sending a ERR to the originating node after locally Fig 3: Packet Delivery Ratio at diff pause time.
repairing the link break may allow the originator to find a
fresh route to the destination that is better, based on
current node positions. However, it does not require the
originating node to rebuild the route, as the originator may
be done, or nearly done, with the data session. In AODV,
a route is timed out when it is not used and updated for
certain duration of time. The proposed scheme uses the
same technique for timing out alternate routes.
4. Simulation and Result

Simulation study has been carried out to study the
Performance study of existing different protocols.
Simulation Environment used is NS-2 (network simulator)
version NS-2.34 to carry out the process. The simulator Fig 4: Packet Delivery Ratio at diff speed.
NS-2 has been developed by University of California and
the VINT project [15]. Simulation results have been End-to-End Delay:
compared with AODV, DSR and TORA. Simulation study QOS based Routing for Ad Hoc Mobile networks 5
has been performed for packet delivery ratio, Throughput Average end-to-end delays is the delay experienced by the
and End to End delay evaluations. successfully delivered packets in reaching their
Packet Delivery Ratio : The fraction of successfully destinations. This is a good metric for comparing
received packets, which survive while finding their protocols and denotes how efficient the underlying routing
destination. This performance measure also determines the algorithm is, because delay primarily depends on
completeness and correctness of the routing protocol. If C optimality of path chosen denoted in equation 2.
is total number of flows, f is id, R is packets received from
f and T is transmitted from f, then F can be determined by Average end-to-end Delay=
equation 1.
Fig 5: End to end delay at diff pause time.

www.IJCSI.org 280
Throughput scheme delivery ratio was nearing 98% even at higher

It is defined as rate of successfully transmitted data per speeds 10 to 20 and more. Proposed scheme outperforms
second in the network during the simulation. Throughput all other schemes. This proves SBNRP scheme performs
is calculated such that, it is the sum of successfully better in denser medium, as more backbone stable nodes
delivered payload sizes of data packets within the period, are available for route selection and also more nodes are
which starts when a source opens a communication port to available with better power status.
a remote destination port, and which ends when the End to end delay has been explained in Figure 5. Here it is
simulation stops. Average throughput can be calculated by clear that DSR has more delays than AODV. The protocol
dividing total number of bytes received by the total end- proposed has higher delays. While DSR uses source
to-end delay. routing, it gains so much information by the source that it
will learn routes to many destinations than a distance
vector protocol like AODV or SBNRP. This means while
DSR already has a route for a certain destination, SBNRP
would have to send a specific request for that destination.
The packets would in the mean while stay in the buffer
until a valid route is found. This takes some time and will
therefore increases the average delay. The delay for
SBNRP is more and the reason is that it spends more time
in QOS based Routing for Ad Hoc Mobile networks 6
calculation of stable route. SBNRP does deliver even
those packets, which may have been dropped in AODV as
it has better recovery mechanism and local repair system
Fig 6: Throughput at different speeds. for faster recovery. All this process increases delay but not
at the cost of efficiency. Throughput in bytes per second
In simulation study 100 nodes were taken in a random has been calculated and speed has been varied from 0 to
scenario of size 1000 × 1000. Two parameters have been 3.5 meter per second. Figure 6 shows the graphical
takes as Pause time and speed. The study has been representation. TORA can spare less bandwidth to data
conducted at different pause times. Pause time of 0 means transmission. It has almost steady throughput. DSR,
maximum mobility and 500 is minimum mobility. The AODV and SBNRP have an increase in throughput. The
sources connected are 25-34 using TCP connection. throughput increase can be further explained by TCP
Figure 3 represents the results. TORA is not delivering behavior, such that, when ACK is not received back, TCP
more than 84% in denser mediums. It is unable to perform source retransmits data. With increased mobility, source
better in higher congestion zones. AODV outperforms may distribute several identical packets to different
DSR in congested medium. DSR drops significant packets intermediate nodes, because of route changes at 1.5 m/s
at high speed; the reason can be use of source routing and speed, AODV protocol also shows an increasing behavior
aggressive use of cache. With higher loads the extent of with the increased network speed. This is due to increased
cache is too large to benefit performance. Often stale triggered replies and requests. New scheme performance is
routes are chosen and all this leads to more packet falls. driven using concept of AODV. It shows better
AODV is delivering more packets to DSR in most of the performance after 1.5 m/s speed is because to two factors
cases and has an edge over it. New scheme (SBNRP) is (i) Like AODV it triggers receives more replies and
overall best for 100 nodes. It starts with 86% and with requests and (ii) the routes becomes stable with better
increasing pause time gets stable and delivers more than selection of nodes. It has been observed that the end-to-
95% packets. Figure 4 shows the simulation results with end throughput for all protocols decrease for high network
speed as a function. AODV and DSR have performed speeds above 10 meter per second.
better at all speeds. DSR cache performance has suffered a
bit at higher speed in denser medium. The reason is that
keeping cache for such a large network demand more 5. Conclusion
storage and in turn slows packet delivery rate. DSR is able
to deliver more than 94% packets all the time. AODV A new scheme has been presented that utilizes a mesh
improves in denser mediums as it is able to support more structure and alternate paths. The scheme can be
packets. It overpowers DSR at high speed of 15 to 20 incorporated into any ad hoc on-demand unicast routing
meters per second and trend is true even at higher speeds. protocol to improve reliable packet delivery in the face of
New scheme has been the best in dense mediums, showing node movements and route breaks. Alternate routes are
almost same performance at all speeds. In case of SBNRP utilized only when data packets cannot be delivered
through the primary route. As a case study, the proposed
www.IJCSI.org 281
scheme has been applied to AODV and it was observed [17]E. Crawley, R. Nair, B. Rajagopalan, and H. Sandick, “A
that the performance improved. Simulation results framework for QoS based routing in the internet,” RFC 2386,
indicated that the technique provides robustness to Aug. 1998.
mobility and enhances protocol performance. It was found [18]C.K. Toh, “Ad hoc mobile wireless Networks”, Prentice
Hall, New Jersey, 2002.
that overhead in this protocol was slightly higher than [19] M. Ettus,”System Capacity, Latency, and Power
others, which is due to the reason that it requires more Consumption in Multihop-routed SS-CDMA Wireless QOS
calculation initially for checking backbone stable nodes. based Routing for Ad Hoc Mobile networks”. In Radio and
This also caused a bit more end to end delay. The process Wireless Conference (RAWCON ’98), pages 55–58, Aug.
of checking the protocol scheme is on for more sparse 1998.
mediums and real life scenarios and also for other metrics [20]X. Lin and I. Stojmenovic,” Power-Aware Routing in Ad
like Path optimality, Link layer overhead. Hoc Wireless Networks”. In SITE, University of Ottawa, TR-
98- 11, Dec. 1998.
[21] A. Chockalingam and M. Zorzi, “Energy Consumption
Performance of a Class of Access Protocols for Mobile Data
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algorithm”,available at Instiute
Eurecom,Navid.Nikaein@eurocom.fr. Divya Sharma is B.Tech (Computer Science and Engineering-
[11] V.D. Park, M.S. Corson, “A Highly Adaptive Distributed 2005) with Hons and M.Tech.(Computer Science and Engineering-
Routing Algorithm for Mobile Wireless Networks”, 2007) from Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra, India. Currently,
Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on she is pursuing her Ph.D. in the area of Ad Hoc Networks. From
Computer Communications (INFOCOM), Kobe, Japan, April August 2007 to June 2008, she served at Pyramid IT Consulting
as Software Developer. Since July 2008, she has been working as
1997, pp. 1405-1413. Assistant Professor at ITM University, Gurgaon, India.
[12] G. Aggelou, R. Tafazoli, “Bandwidth efficient routing
protocol for mobile ad hoc networks (RDMAR)”,CCSR ,UK. Dr. Ashwani Kush is employed as Head and Associate Professor
[13] C.E. Perkins, E.M. Royer, “Ad-Hoc On Demand Distance in Department of Computer Science & Applications, University
Vector Routing”, Proceedings of the 2nd IEEE Workshop on College, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra. He has done Ph.D.
Mobile Computing Systems and Applications (WMCSA), in Computer Science in association with Indian Institute of
New Orleans, LA, February 1999, pp. 90-100. Technology, Kanpur, India and Kurukshetra University,
Kurukshetra, India. He is professional Member of ACM, IEEE,
[14] NS notes and documentation www.isi.edu/vint.
SCRA, CSI INDIA and IACSIT Singapore, IAENG Hon Kong. He
[15] CMU/Monarch's code from www.monarch.cs.edu has more than 60 research papers to his credit in various
[16]Josh Broch, David A.Maltz and Jorjeta Jetcheva, “A International/National Journals and Conferences. He has authored
performance Comparison of Multi hop Wireless Adhoc 15 books in computer science for undergraduate and school
Network Routing Protocols”, Mobicomm’98, Texas, October students. His research interests are in Mobile Ad hoc Networks, E-
1998. Governance and Security. Dr. Kush has chaired many sessions in
International Conferences in USA and Singapore. He is member of
Syllabus Committee, Time table and Quiz Contests of Kurukshetra
www.IJCSI.org 282
University, Kurukshetra, India. He is also on the panel of eminent

resource persons in Computer Science for EDUSAT project,
Department of Higher Education, Government of Haryana. His
lectures are also broadcasted through satellite in Haryana, India.
www.IJCSI.org 282
Adaptive Multi-model Biometric Fusion for Digital

Watermarking
P. Jidesh1 and Santhosh George2
1
Department of Mathematical and Computational Sciences, National Institute of Technology,
Karnataka, 575025, India
2
Department of Mathematical and Computational Sciences, National Institute of Technology,
Karnataka, 575025, India
robust stego-data due to its high sustainability towards

Abstract normal attacks. The multi-model biometric data provide a
In this work we propose to embed a fused biometric feature high magnitude of protection for the data by reducing the
vector as a watermark into the sample image in spatial domain risk of attacks. In this work we propose to use a multi-
based on the fusion parameter (for embedding the watermark) model biometric data (fingerprint and face) fused together
which is chosen adaptively by using the structural similarity to form a feature vector and embed in the spatial domain of
measure. Further the watermark is extracted from the subject
image and verified with a considerably good accuracy. The
the input image invisibly, based on the embedding
results are demonstrated with substantial qualitative and parameters chosen adaptively.
quantitative measures to endorse on the effectiveness and
efficiency of the proposed method. This paper is organized into five sections. In section 2 we
Keywords: Steganography, Structural similarity measure (SSIM), explain about the feature-vector (watermark) generation
Adaptive Embedding Function, Spatial Domain Watermarking. and embedding process. Section 3 explains about the
watermark extraction and matching procedure. Section 4
will give an outline on the experimental woks carried-out
1. Introduction to test the methods and the results. Section 5 concludes the
work.
There has been a rapid growth in the area of steganography
and watermarking during past couple of decades [3], [4],
[5]. Various kinds of data are used as a stego-data or as a 2. Watermark Generation Process
watermark for embedding into the image, it varies from
mathematically formulated Gaussian random data to more Generally a watermarking process can be mathematically
general image data like symbols, logos etc. The possibility modeled as:
of using biometric features like fingerprint, face-image, fˆ ( x, y )  f ( x, y )    ( x, y ) (1)
palm prints etc. as watermarks were explored during recent
years. There has been a considerable magnitude of woks where  denotes the kind of operation involved in
that have proceeded in this direction see [6] for details. watermarking, either additive or multiplicative operation is
Spatial as well as frequency characteristics were explored commonly employed due to its invertible nature. Here
for possible embedding of the stego-data see [1], [3]. fˆ : R 2  R 2 denotes the watermarked image,
Further the data was embedded in visible as well as in
invisible forms [4], [8].
 ( x, y ) denotes the watermark,   [0,1] denotes the
strength of the embedded watermark and f : R  R
2 2
Using biometric information as a watermark was relatively is the original image with x, y   where  denotes the
new and captured the recent attention due to its uniqueness
pixels in the watermarking domain. If we have the
and credibility. The biometric data cannot be duplicated
like other common watermarking data. Even the multi- information regarding the watermark , the operation (  )
model (fusing more than one kind of biological features) used for embedding and the strength parameter  , then we
biometric data were used as a watermark in some recent can retrieve the watermark from the affected image with a
works [6]. Multi model biometric data is considerably a considerable amount of accuracy. But in many practical
www.IJCSI.org 283
scenarios these information may not be available, if we are 1 N

to retrieve the data without a prior knowledge of these 
N
 i (2)
information then it is termed as blind-steganalysis. Blind- i 1
steganalysis is widely used in forensic applications. 3. Subtract the average vector from each of the N
In this work we assume that the watermark embedded, input column vectors:
the strength of the watermark and the procedure followed i  i  i  1, 2...N (3)
(operator used) are known in advance to the intended
receiver. Embedding the whole fingerprint or face image as 4. Compute the covariance matrix C:
1 N
nnT  AAT ( N  N matrix) (4)
a watermark into the desired data/image may results in a
visible difference in the watermarked image, which is not
C
N n1
desired. So we generate a feature vector which uniquely
represents the input watermark and embed the same in the where A  [1 2 ... N ] is a N  N matrix.
input image without making any noticeable difference in 5. Compute the eigenvectors ui of AAT , There can
the watermarked image. Since the biometric features are
used as a watermark there is an inherent binding from the be only N eigenvectors. The eigenvectors
source side. In other words the sender cannot deny the corresponding to distinct non-zero eigenvalues
authenticity of the message sent. will be linearly independent. Further note that the
covariance matrix (used for calculating the
In this paper we use a combination of Linear eigenvectors) is symmetric, hence the eigenvalues
Discriminant Analysis (LDA) and Principle Component will be real and positive. If we take only the
Analysis (PCA) to generate the feature vector as in [7]. eigenvectors corresponding to the distinct non-
Then we propose to evaluate the parameters  ,  of the zero eigenvalues then, they can span an eigen-
space (a sub-space spanned by eigenvectors) and
blending function in Eq. (11) and  in Eq. (15) based on
further they can form a basis for the
the Mean Structural SIMilarity Index(MSSIM) [10]. corresponding eigen-space (because these vectors
are linearly independent).
2.1 Feature Vector Generation
6. We take some K dominant eigenvectors from N
We generate the feature vector from face image and eigenvectors such that K N and based on the
fingerprint image using Linear Discriminant Analysis and non-zero distinct eigenvalues of the matrix AA .
T
Principle Component Analysis [2], [7], [9] as the This eigenvectors span an eigen-space with a
fundamental procedure. We assume that there are dimensionality much less than that of the input
K fingerprint and face images in the test set and all are of matrix. The decrease in dimensionality will affect
size N  N pixels. We apply a LDA on the input face and the accuracy of the detection process, so it is
fingerprint images to generate the feature vector; here PCA advisable to set the dimensionality based on the
is applied as a pre-procedure, in order to ensure that the desired accuracy.
scatter matrix in Eq. (7) is non-singular. In addition to this 7. Now project the input vectors (corresponding to
PCA will considerably reduce the dimensionality of the the input image) on to this eigen-space spanned
matrix, which in turn will reduce the complexity of the by the eigenvectors (ui ) ’s. Let B represents a
calculations. Since in PCA we derive a set of eigenvectors matrix formed by set of eigen-vectors of size
corresponding to distinct non-zero eigenvalues, the matrix
formed from these vectors will never be singular. Further
N  K then the output matrix will be of
these vectors form a basis because all the eigenvectors size K  N .
corresponding to distinct non-zero eigenvalues will be O   BT ( x, y ) f ( x, y ) (5)
linearly independent and can span the space. This property
of PCA can be exploited in obtaining an optimal non- Since we have K eigenvectors of size N  1 and
singular scatter matrix. PCA can be summarized in the input image is of size N  N the dimension
following steps: of the output matrix O will be K  N .
1. Let f ( x, y ) denote the input matrix of size 8. Since all the eigenvectors corresponding to
distinct non-zero eigenvalues are ortho-normal
N  N , and further assume  i be a column (the eigenvectors are normalized) the inverse of
th
vector corresponding to the i column of the such matrix is just transpose. So for the eigen-
input matrix with size N  1 . matrix (formed by a set of eigenvectors) the
2. Compute the average Image vector  : inverse will be just its transpose (since the
eigenvalues are real and positive the matrix will
www.IJCSI.org 284
be positive definite). Therefore the data can be argmax |  T Sinter |

reconstructed using the following formula:  (10)
 |  T Sintra |
fˆ   B ( x, y )O( x, y ) (6)
The basis vector  corresponds to first K eigenvectors of
It is obvious from the above steps that when it comes to
1
pattern classification PCA may not perform well, the ( Sintra Sinter ) , hence K dimensional feature vector is
whole training set is assumed to be from the same class in obtained by projecting the input images into the subspace
PCA. In this aspect LDA outperforms PCA in terms of spanned by these K eigenvectors. However, we cannot
pattern classification. Since face images and fingerprints
can be classified based on the certain features, it will be guarantee that the scatter matrix Sintra to be always non-
highly beneficial to use LDA instead of PCA. When PCA singular. Hence it is quite advisable to perform a PCA on
is applied on the input face images the resulting images are this matrix, before proceeding with the LDA. By applying
called Eigen-faces. The steps in LDA can be summarized PCA the vectors will become linearly independent and the
as follows: matrix will be positive definite [9], hence zero will never
1. Let L be a set of training images {Z i }iL1 each of be an eigenvalue and the matrix will be non-singular.
Further the vectors will be ortho-normal, hence the matrix
dimension n  m , each of which represents a is unitary and so the inverse of the matrix will be its
vector of dimension N  1 . In other words transpose. Further one can notice that when LDA is
zi  R N belongs to one of K classes of {Z i }iK1 , applied of a set of test face images, will result in a set of
Fisher-faces. The Eigen-faces and Fisher-faces
where R is a real space of dimension N .
N
corresponding to two test images are shown in Fig 5 in
2. The main objective is to find a transformation Section 4.
 based on optimization of certain class
separability criteria, in order to yield a transform During the watermark embedding stage the fingerprint and
the face image of the concerned authority (which is a
of the form xi   ( zi ) where xi  R M source in this case) will be converted into feature vectors
where M N . The representation xi is such by the LDA procedure explained above. Hence two feature
vectors will be generated by this process, one
that the separability criterion is optimal.
corresponding to the face and another corresponding to
3. Now we define inter and intra class scatter
fingerprint. Let F be the feature vector generated for
matrices Sinter and Sintra respectively.
fingerprint and F  be the vector generated for face image
4. The intra-class scatter matrix is defined as : then the multi-model biometric fusion can be expressed as
Sintra   ( p j  (cov j ) (7) a blending function of the form:
j G  F  F  (11)
Where  and  are the parameters to the blending
th
where p j is the probability of j class and
cov j is the covariance of the j th
class, as function which are determined empirically. The choice of
 and  are done in an adaptive way making use of the
defined in Eq. (9). Similarly inter-class scatter
quality metric MSSIM defined in [10]. This metric will
matrix is defined as :
provide necessary information to choose the blending
Sinter   (  j   K )  (  j   K )T (8) function parameters  and  . Since we have to solve the
j
equation Eq. (11) with two unknowns F and F  at the
where k denotes the mean of all the classes and
receiving end, we will require one more equation. We
j is the mean of the j
th
class. The cov is consider this equation as the sum of the two feature
vectors:
defined as:
G'=F +F' (12)
cov   ( y j   j )  ( y j   j )T (9) From the two equations Eq. (11) and Eq. (12) we can
j
uniquely derive the values F and F', by solving them
where y j is the j th input vector. simultaneously. The watermark embedding procedure is
shown using a flowchart given in Fig. 1.
5. LDA uses Fisherface method in [2], [11] to find a
set of basis vectors, denoted by xi that
maximizes the ratio between Sintra , Sinter :
www.IJCSI.org 285
2.2 Structural SIMilarity Index (SSIM) the set  . The set  is selected based on the selection
procedure explained in Fig. 2 The pixels with minimum
The motivation to use this approach is to find a more direct gradient values ( I ) are selected as candidates for
way to compare the structures of the reference and the
embedding the watermark because these pixels belong to
distorted signals [10] . This new framework for the design
the constant intensity areas and will not make any
of image quality measures was proposed, based on the
noticeable difference even after embedding the watermark.
assumption that the human visual system is highly adapted
Since the selection of pixels is done globally the
to extract structural information from the viewing field, the
watermarking procedure is a global one and the embedded
SSIM is formulated as:
watermark remains un-noticeable to the naked eyes so it is
(2 x  y  C1)  (2 xy  C 2) invisible in nature. Further  is a parameter to decide the
SSIM ( x, y )  (13)
(  x2  y2  C1) strength of watermark to be embedded. If  is a high
where x and y denotes the content of local windows in value, then the strength of watermark embedded is less and
vice-versa.
original and watermarked image respectively. The measure
is applied for non-overlapping windows in both the images.
In this paper we measure mean-SSIM (MSSIM)which is an
index to evaluate the overall image quality. It is defined as:
1 M
MSSIM ( X , Y ) 
M
 SSIM ( x , y )
j 1
j j (14)
where X and Y are the original and watermarked image

th
respectively; x j and y j denotes the content of the j
local window and M is the number of local windows in the
image;  x and  y are the mean of the two windows for
which the measure is applied, C1 and C 2 are constants.
2.3 Selection of Pixels to Embed the Watermark

Selection of pixels plays a crucial role in watermarking
there are many strategies followed for selecting the pixels
see [3], [4] for details.
In this work we choose pixels in such a way that
adding the watermark into those pixels will not effectively
make any noticeable difference in the input image (here we
adopt an invisible watermarking scheme). This noticeable
difference is quantified by the MSSIM. We choose the
parameters  ,  and  based on the MSSIM, such that
the MSSIM is within the desired limit. The flowchart given
in Fig. 2 explains about the selection of pixels for
embedding the watermark. The pixels are selected in such Fig. 1 The watermark embedding process in the Proposed Method.
a way that when the watermark is added into these pixels
the resulting image will not appear distorted or the
embedded data will not be noticeable to the naked eyes.
The watermark is embedded with the following embedding
equation:
I ( x, y )x , y  I ( x, y ) x , y   (1   )G (15)
where G is an in Eq. (11). I ( x, y )x , y denotes the set of
pixels affected by the watermark and I ( x, y ) x , y
denotes the set of pixels selected for watermarking. Now
the watermark is embedded in to the pixels that belong to
www.IJCSI.org 286
will be to find out the pixels affected by the watermark.

From Eq. (15) we have the set (watermarking domain)  ,
which denotes the set of pixels affected by the watermark,
these pixels can be traced with the help of the gradient
image. We have inserted the watermark into the pixels with
minimum gradient values, so the watermarked pixels fall in
the constant intensity areas. Hence we can find the domain
 (set of pixels affected by the watermark) from this
information. Once the set  is formed then the weighted
embedded watermark G can be extracted by the inverse
embedding equation:
I ( x, y )x , y  I ( x, y ) x , y 
G (16)
(1   )
From Eq. (11), Eq. (12) and Eq. (16) , we can find the
feature vectors F ( x, y ) and F ( x, y ) corresponding to
fingerprint and face image, by solving these equations.
Once the feature vector is extracted then the next step

is to search database containing the feature vectors for a
possible match, and extract the sender information. The
matching process is just a match factor calculation and its
comparison with a predefined Threshold. Let F denotes the
feature vector extracted from the watermarked image and
F be one the feature vector stored in the database. The
match factor (MF) is defined as:
MF ‖ F  F‖ (17)
where ‖ .‖ denotes the Euclidean norm of the vector. If
MF  Threshold then a possible match is found. Based
on the MF the feature vector with least MF value is
considered to be more similar. Hence the feature vector
with minimum MF value is selected as the one that
corresponds to the sender. If none of the feature vectors are
Fig. 2 Selection of pixels to embed the watermark.
falling under this criterion then a possible attack or an un-
authorized watermark is alarmed.
3. Watermark Extraction and Comparison 4. Experimental Results

Watermark extraction process is just a reverse of
We used the fingerprint images from FVC-2000 (DB1,
watermark embedding process. Here we assume that the
DB2, DB3, DB4) and Face images are taken from “Yale
receiver is completely aware of the watermark added into
Face Database”. We associated a fingerprint to a face
the image as well as the original image. Further the
image and carried out the testing. There are 11 face images
parameters  ,  and  are known to the receiver. From
of dimension ( 300  300 ) per subject in the database and
these information one can extract the watermark using the five fingerprint images per subject in FVC-2000. We have
procedure explained in the flowchart in Fig. 3. Since the chosen five face images and fingerprint images of size
receiver has the information regarding the original image ( 300  300 ) per subject for our experiments. We have
I ( x, y ) , the parameters viz.  ,  and  used for rescaled this image to ( 150  150 ) for making the feature
embedding the watermark and the watermarked image vector small so that the embedded watermark remains
I ( x, y ) , the primary task in extraction of the watermark
www.IJCSI.org 287
invisible. We have embedded the watermark in the test the MSSIM. If the values of  ,  and  are increased
image “Lena” with dimension 512  512 . then the watermark will be visually distinguishable and if
the values are decremented then the extracted watermark
will not be prominently detected due to the week
contribution of the watermark. Fig. 4 shows the test figure
“Lena” before and after embedding the watermark. Figure
4(D), Fig. 4(E) and Fig. 4(F) shows the figure after
embedding the watermark. The Fig. 4(E) and Fig. 4(F)
show the results of applying the watermark with the
parameter values  ,  and  other than the ones
calculated using the MSSIM. It is clear from the images
that when the parameter values are different from the
calculated values (based on MSSIM) the watermarked
image is visually distinguishable from the original one.
The watermark is constructed from Fig. 4(A) and Fig. 4(B)
by using multi-model biometric fusion with parameter
 and  whose values are calculated based on MSSIM.
Instead of replacing the pixels in the original image with
the watermark components we use a regularization
approach, in which a parameter  determines the strength
of contribution of the watermark component and the
original pixel values. If   0 then there will be
contribution only from the watermark components, the
original image pixel values will not have any role in
watermarked image, whereas if   1 , then no watermark
will be embedded into the input image. So the range of
parameter  is [0,1]. This value is also chosen based on
the MSSIM. Table 1 shows the accuracy of the proposed
method in terms of correctly identifying the embedded
watermark at different Threshold values. It is quite evident
from the table that the method has better accuracy when
the Threshold value is 10. Table 2 shows the performance
of the proposed method for different values of fusion
parameters  ,  and  . It is clear from these values that
the performance of the method is optimal for the values
  0.36,   0.47 and   0.42 .
Table 1: Performance of the proposed method for different Matching
Threshold values.
Fig. 3 The watermark extraction process in the Proposed Method. False Genuine Overall
Threshold Acceptance Rejection Performance
Rate Rate (%)
There are 15 different classes of face and fingerprint 10 1.2 1.5 97.6
images corresponding to different subjects. We have 96.2
15 1.6 1.8
chosen the number of basis vectors as 15, making the
feature vectors of size 15  150 for both face and 20 2.3 3.1 94.7
fingerprint images. Then we apply the blending function
with  ,  and  with values 0.36 , 0.47 and 0.42 Table 2: Performance of the proposed method for different , , 
respectively obtained by applying the MSSIM. The values for Threshold=10.
of  ,  and  are the optimal values selected based on
www.IJCSI.org 288
, ,  MSSIM
Overall
Performance (%)
0.10, 0.30, 0.42 0.70 92.8

0.36, 0.47, 0.42 0.80 97.6
0.50, 0.61, 0.42 0.48 97.0
0.36, 0.47, 0.20 0.82 94.5
0.36, 0.47, 0.60 0.62 95.5
The eigen-faces and fisher-faces obtained after Fig. 5 (A) & (D) The input face images. (B) & (E) The Eigen-faces
applying PCA and LDA respectively on the input face corresponding to input image (A) & (D) respectively. (C) & (F) The
images are shown in Fig. 5. Fisher-faces corresponding to image (A) & (D) respectively.
5. Conclusion
In this paper we have proposed a method which combines
two biometric features (fingerprint, face) to form a single
feature vector and embedded into the image based on
adaptive parameter selection. The fusion parameters
 ,  and  are selected based on the structural
similarity measure (MSSIM) which is close to human
perception. The performance of the proposed method is
quite evident from the results provided.
Acknowledgments
The Authors wish to thank NITK for the financial support

under seed money grant.
References
[1] A.S. Madani, A.I. Hashad and A.E.M.A. Wahdan, “A robust
steganography technique using discrete cosine transform
insertion”, IEEE/ITI 3rd International Conference on
Information and communications Technology, 2005, pp. 255-
264.
[2] Baback Moghaddam, Alex Pentland and Thad Starner,
“View-based and modular eigenspaces for face recognition”,
IEEE Conf. on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition,
1994, pp. 245-250.
[3] R. Anderson and F. Petitcolas, “On the limits of
stehanography”, IEEE Journal of Selected Areas in
Communications, vol. 4, no. 16, 1998, pp. 474-481, 1998.
Fig. 4 Image ''Lena``:(A) Fingerprint Image (Watermark) (B) Face Image
(Watermark) (C) Image to be watermarked (D) Image After
[4] Christian Cachin, “An information-theoretic model for
Watermarking (with parameters α=0.36, β=0.47, =0.42) (E) After Steganography”, SANS Intrusion Detection and Response,
applying watermark with parameters (α=0.36, β=0.47, =0.2) (F) After 1999, pp. 295-305.
applying watermark with parameters (α =0.50, β=0.61, =0.2). [5] Niel F Jhonson, “An introduction to watermark recovery from
images”, In Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 1998, pp.
306-318.
[6] Niel F Jhonson, “Biometric image authentication using
watermarking”, SICE-ICASE: International Joint Conference,
2006, pp. 3950-3953.
www.IJCSI.org 289
[7] K.N. Juwei Lu Plataniotis and VenetsanopoulosA.N.

Biometric image authenticationusing watermarking. IEEE
Transactions on Neural Networks, vo. 14, no. 1, 2003, pp.
195-200.
[8] O.C. Chi-Wang Ho Shu-Kei Yip, Au andHoi-Ming Wong.
Lossless visible watermarking. In IEEE International
Conference on Multimedia and Expo, 2006, pp. 853-856.
[9] M.A. Turk and A.P. Pentland, “Face recognition using
eigenfaces”, IEEE Conf. on Computer Vision and Pattern
Recognition, 1991, pp. 586-591.
[10] Zhou Wang and Alan C Bovik, “Image quality assessment:
From error visibility to structural similarity”, IEEE
Transactions on Image Processing, vol. 13, no. 4, 2004, pp. 1-
14.
[11] Ming H. Yang, “Kernel eigenfaces vs. kernel fisher faces:
Face recognition using kernel methods”, Proceedings of the
Fifth IEEE International Conference on Automatic Face and
Gesture Recognition, 2002, pp. 215-220.
P. Jidesh received his B.Sc degree from University of Calicut in

1998, MCA degree from NIT Calicut 2001 and M.Tech Degree in
Computer Science from University of Kerala in 2005. He worked as
an Asst. Systems Engineer in TCS, Chennai and as a Subject
Expert in AMDOCS DVCI Pune, India. Since 2009 January he is
working as an Asst. Professor in the Department of Mathematical
and Computational Sciences, National Institute of Technology,
Karnataka, India. He has guided many M.Tech dissertation works.
His research interests include PDE’s/Variational methods in Image
processing, Watermarking and Inverse problems in Imaging.
Santhosh George received his M.Sc degree in Mathematics from

University of Calicut and PhD degree in Mathematics from
University of Goa. Since 2008 he is working as an Associate
Professor in the Department of Mathematical and Computational
Sciences, National Institute of Technology, Karnataka. He has
guided many M.Tech thesis works and two students have submitted
their PhD thesis under his guidance. He has many International
journal and conference papers to his credit. His research interests
include Inverse problems in Science and Engineering and
Functional Analysis.
www.IJCSI.org
Performance Analysis of Web Service Model

for Video on Demand
Lavanya Rajendran1, Ramachandran Veilumuthu2
1
Department of Media Sciences, CEG, Anna University,
Chennai, Tamilnadu, 600 035, India.
2
Department of Information Science and Technology,
CEG, Anna University,
Chennai, Tamilnadu, India
Abstract bandwidth [7]. The distributed application development

In today’s world, the demand for video in the Internet has gained using Java and related tools and implementations evolved
high popularity. One of the best and optimal ways to provide the with many approaches, specifications and relevant APIs
video contents on demand to users is through web services. This from SUN, Open standards like OMG, XML-RPC, Oasis,
research aims to develop a generalized web service model for Apache and many open groups and forums [1]. As there
providing video on demand. To fetch the video file requested by
the user, JAX-RPC is been used, which is more flexible and
are multiple standards available, the developers will
loosely coupled. The implementation of the developed web always have a dilemma in selecting the architecture to
service depicts the methodology for providing video contents on work with. The confusion is even higher when compared
demand in real time. The video distributors can adopt this model, to provide multimedia using different JAVA platform.
as it ensures smooth and jitter-free videos, thereby both the users This research paper aims to develop a video on demand
and the distributors will be benefitted. The performance measure, service using JAX-RPC and its performance is analyzed to
Round Trip Time (RTT) is estimated for the developed JAX- throw light to the developers working with video files.
RPC video on demand model by requesting the video files of
various sizes in both local invocation and remote invocation. The This research paper is organized in the following ways:
result shows that the developed model solves the connectivity
The first part of the paper putforth the JAX-RPC model
issues and interoperability which was a major constraint with the
rmi model. The performance was better for smaller video files adopted for the video on demand service. In the second
when compared with the larger files and there was very little part, the pipeline for developing the JAX-RPC model for
variation obtained between the local and remote invocation. video on demand service depicts the methodology for
providing video service in real time. Following which, the
Keywords: Video Service, Web Service model, Video on research paper elaborates on the performance analysis of
Demand, JAX-RPC. the developed JAX-RPC model. In the final part, the
results of the performance analysis of various video file
with different file sizes are reported in two different
1. Introduction scenarios namely local and remote. The significance of
this paper and the scope for the future research is revealed
Today, Internet users expect the on-line video to possess in the conclusion.
best resolution, less round trip time, without jitter, delay
and essentially high throughput. The attempt to display
2. JAX-RPC Model for Video on Demand
media files was started from the mid-20th century. Little
progress was made for several decades, primarily due to
The architecture of the proposed JAX-RPC model for
high cost and limited capabilities of computer hardware
video on demand service model is given in Figure 1. The
and standards. The standard Web1.0 used dial-up
client using the VideoClient Application creates a request
connection and 50K average bandwidth during 1991 to
that contains all the details required by the video
2003 which does not support for Video Service as this
implementation. This request is appended as a SOAP
standard supports only static web pages. The advent of
message context for further processing.
Web 2.0 from 2004 has drastically changed the way in
which people see and use Internet as it supports two way
communications. The Web 2.0 uses an average of 1Mb of
www.IJCSI.org
model is tested under local invocation and remote

invocation. Java based XML-RPC model has been
developed to deploy Video on Demand services in a
distributed environment. It is examined how to use JAX-
RPC system to publish Video on Demand Web Services
and how to use this system on the client to consume VoD
services. The getVideo method accepts the video file name
as its parameter from the user and returns the video.
3.1 Web Service Endpoint Interface for Video

Service
The interface for video on demand service consists of the
Figure 1: JAX – RPC Architectural Model for Video Service declaration for the getVideo method to be invoked from
the remote reference by users. This method invokes the
The JAX-RPC Runtime Environment invokes the Client RemoteException and the VideoInt class by itself extends
Request Handler to process the request, by checking the Remote interface of the rmi package. The following
whether all the required attachments are available and if web service endpoint interface “VideoInt” is shown below:
all the required information is available then it sends to the
video implementation through the SOAP Request Message.
public interface VideoInt extends Remote{
The WSDL file contains all the methods that the generated
public byte[] getVideo(String fname) throws
stubs can invoke. The generated stub in the client side has
RemoteException;
all the required details about the Web Service end point.
}
Thus the client through the VideoClient invokes the
method in the Web Service endpoint. This model solves
the connectivity issues and interoperability.
This VideoInt defines a method “getVideo” that accepts
As the developed JAX-RPC model for video on demand the video file name to be fetched and returns the byte array
service uses the dynamic proxy, therefore the stub of the video.
referring to the specific endpoint is not required. The
dynamic invocation interface dynamically access the 3.2 Implementation for Video Service
service endpoints. At the server side, the JAX-RPC run
time environment, invokes the server request handler to The video on demand service is implemented in a remote
handle the received SOAP message. This checks for the entity. As it is an instance of the VideoInt Interface class,
attachment inside the SOAP message and if available, it it implements the video on demand interface. The
repackages to the SOAP message context and forwards it definition for the getVideo method declared in the
to the service endpoint. The response from the web service interface program is defined here.
end point is sent to the client following the same
procedure. public class VideoImpl implements VideoInt{
The issues that have carefully considered during design byte [] buffer;
and implementation of JAX-RPC architecture includes the public byte[] getVideo(String fname) throws
reliability, performance, and cost of the system. Web RemoteException {
Services are essentially real time processes in which // Accept the Video File and Returns the
performance and availability problems have a high cost. Video Byte Array
The developed JAX-RPC model for video on demand return buffer;
service provides a guaranteed quality of service. } }
This getVideo method is being triggered by the clients

3. Implementation of JAX – RPC through the VideoInt Interface to fetch the required Video.
Model For Video Service
3.3 Configuration for Video on Demand Interface
The video on demand service is adopted to illustrate the
pipeline of JAX-RPC Web Service and the developed
www.IJCSI.org
The mapping file consists of all the data required to All the necessary files are packaged into war file and the
associate the VideoInt Interface to the definition of wsdl same is deployed. After deployment of the service, the
file. This mapping file and “VideoService” wsdl file wsdl file in the server is ready for the remote object to
which is used to generate the client side stubs are access it. The tie class required to communicate with the
generated by defining and compiling the configuration file clients are generated by the server during deployment
for the VideoInt interface. This wsdl file will have all the process. The video service definition language can be
necessary details like the location of the web service, viewed by requesting the following URL:
purpose of the web service and by what approach will the http://192.168.1.2:1078/myvideo/VideoStream?WSDL
method be invoked. In detail, it contains of the datatype of
the messages, the message itself which is sent from one 3.4 Generating the Dynamic Proxy
endpoint to the other, the portnumber at which the service
is operating, the input, the output and the fault details, the The remote reference will trigger the getVideo method
necessary binding information like which protocol will be through the stub. The client side stub is acquainted with
used to carry the message and at the end, the service the service offered by the remote interface. As the stub is
details are generated. available with the client, the wsdl file which contains all
the required details about the service is not required for
The definition of the configuration file includes the name the client. The stub for the video on demand service is
of the service, various NameSpace, the Package Name and generated by defining and compiling the following code:
the details of the video service interface. This generated
“VideoService” wsdl file acts as the tie between the web
service end point and the JAX-RPC Runtime. The <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
following is the configuration file for the VideoInt <configuration xmlns="http://java.sun.com/xml/ns/jax-rpc/ri/config">
interface. <wsdl location="http://192.168.1.2:1078/myvideo/
VideoStream?WSDL" packageName="dynamicstub"/>
<configuration </configuration>
xmlns="http://java.sun.com/xml/ns/jax-
rpc/ri/config"> The configuration file contains the location of the wsdl file
<service name="VideoService" deployed in the above step. On compiling the configuration
targetNamespace="urn:video" program, the dynamic stub is created using the VideoImpl
typeNamespace="urn:video" and other required runtime entities like serializers and type
packageName="video"> value. Now, the client will be able to invoke the getVideo
<interface name="video.VideoInt"/> method using this dynamic stub. During runtime, the client
</service> creates the dynamic proxy stubs using the rpc.Service
interface. This stub has the knowledge of the video service
As the video service implementation (VideoImpl) returns and the WSDL file.
the byte array, the generated wsdl file will return the
datatype as xsd:base64Binary. The xsd represents the
XML schema definition datatype. The JAX-RPC provides 3.5 Fetching the Video
the direct mapping between these datatypes. The following
code shows a portion of the generated wsdl file where it A service end-point interface is created to encapsulate
clearly denotes that the datatype of the input is a string, fetching video service and Real Time Streaming service.
which is the video filename and the output is the bytearray. The Service End-point Interface for the proposed JAX-
RPC based video service model is given below:
….
<message name="VideoInt_getVideo"> Stub stub = (Stub)(new
<part name="String_1" type="xsd:string"/> VideoService_Impl().getVideoIntPort());
</message>
stub._setProperty(javax.xml.rpc.Stub.ENDPOINT_ADDRESS_PROPERTY,
"http://192.168.1.2:1078/myvideo/VideoStream");
<message name="VideoInt_getVideoResponse">
<part name="result" type="xsd:base64Binary"/> VideoInt client = (VideoInt)stub;
</message> resp = client.getVideo(request.getParameter("VideoFileName"));
….
//convert the video file data into byte array - buffer
if (resp) {
client.RTS_Service(buffer);
}
www.IJCSI.org
Figure 3 : Local Invocation Performance of Web Service Model

for Video on Demand
A Service class is created which is effectively a factory for It is very simple and easy to create and maintain the web
calling the object, which in turn encapsulates the service model for video on demand using JAX-RPC. The
mechanisms to call a VoD Service Endpoint. RTT increases as the size of the video file increases. The
below Figure 4 shows the Local Invocation performance
4. Test Cases And Results for web service model for video on demand for different
video sizes starting from 30MB to 75MB .
The developed JAX-RPC model for video service is
implemented in a distributed environment. It works for
different file formats and for different sizes. The following
Figure 2 shows the requested video which is streamed as a
Figure 4 : Local Invocation Performance of Web Service

Model for Video on Demand
The RTT is very high for large video files. From, the
above, it is clear that the web service model for video on
response to the client. demand has better performance for smaller video files than
large files.
Figure 2 : Client Response
5. Performance Analysis 5.2 Remote Invocation Performance
The performance measure, Round Trip Time (RTT) is
The performance measure, Round Trip Time (RTT) is
estimated for the developed JAX-RPC video service
estimated for the developed JAX-RPC video service
model by requesting the Video files of various size from
model by requesting the Video files of various size in local
remote System. Two computers connected in a LAN with
and remote environment. RTT is the time that elapses
100Mbps speed with similar hardware configuration of
between the initiations of a getVideo method invoked by
Dual Core Processor at 2.00 GHZ, and 2 GB RAM was
the video requestor till the specified video is played to
used for testing the remote invocation. The below Figure 5
them. To analyse the performance exactly, the getVideo
shows the Round Trip Time obtained for different sizes of
method was invoked 10 times for each video file, and the
video files starting from 1MB to 30MB invoked locally
average of these were considered for analyzing the final
and remotely.
results.
5.1 Local Invocation Performance

To identify the RTT for fetching video files of different
sizes locally, the server and the client was executed in the
same system. The below Figure 3 shows the average
Round Trip Time in ms obtained for different sizes of
video files starting from 1MB to 30MB.
Figure 5 : Comparison of Performance of Web Service

Model for Video on Demand in both local and remote
scenarios.
When the Video files were invoked remotely, the

connectivity and the interoperability was not an issue as
www.IJCSI.org
the JAX-RPC model uses the XML-based SOAP Demand model, thereby solving the connectivity issues
communication between remote services. It is clear from and interoperability. Thus when the clients request the
the graph that the RTT is very less for smaller video files video to the server, the server fetches the same to the
but still higher than the local performance. The below client. The performance was better for smaller video files
Figure 6 shows the comparison of performance of web when compared with the larger files and there was very
service model for video on demand in both local and little variation obtained between the local and remote
remote scenarios for larger video files. The performance invocation. In the future study, to increase the security
of JAX-RPC model for video on demand is better for issues the SAAJ model for Video Service can be adopted.
video files with small size in both local and remote
invocation. References
[1] D. Jagannadham, V. Ramachandran and H.N. Harish Kumar,
“Java2 Distributed Application development (Socket, RMI,
Servlet, CORBA) approaches, XML-RPC and Web Services
Functional analysis and Performance comparison”,
“International Symposium on Communications and
Information Technologies”, 2007
[2] Developing Web Services for Existing Java Applications,
“Mind Fire Technologies” at
“http://www.mindfiresolutions.com”, 2003.
[3] Hovedoppgave , “E-wallet decentralized credential keepers”,
Figure 6 : Comparison of Performance of Web Service European Research Project CAFÉ,, 2003.
[4] Huang, Cheng, Jin Li, and Keith W. Ross, "Can Internet
Model for Video on Demand in both local and remote
Video-on-Demand Be Profitable?", SIGCOMM, Vol. 2 No.
scenarios. 4, 2007.
[5] Johnson P Thomas, Mathews Thomas, George Ghinea,
When comparing the local performance results of “Modeling of Web Services Flow”, “Proceedings of the
individual approaches with remote invocation strategy, the IEEE International Conference on E-Commerce”, 2003
factor of variation is also calculated and shown below in [6] Jong, Alex De, Karen Hsing, and David Su, "A VoD
Figure 7. Application Implemented in Java", Multimedia Tools and
Applications Vol. 5 No. 2 pp. 161-70, 1997.
[7] Reed Hastings, Retrieved May 26, 2010,
“http://roseindia.net/Technology-revolution/web3.0/history-
of-web-3.shtml”,2006.
Lavanya Rajendran received her Bachelor’s degree in Computer

Applications. She completed her M.Sc. in Electronic Media and
Informatics. She is currently pursuing her research in College of
Engineering, Anna University, Chennai. Her areas of interest
include Cloud Computing, Computer Networks, Web Designing
and Video Production.
Ramachandran Veilumuthu received his Masters degree and

Figure 7 : Factor variation between Local and Remote Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from College of Engineering, Anna
University, Chennai, India. He is currently working as a Professor
invocation of web service model for video on demand.
in the Department of Information Science and Technology, College
of Engineering, Anna University, Chennai. His research interest
The above result shows that very little variation between includes Cloud Computing, Network Security, Soft Computing and
the performance of local invocation and the remote Web Technology.
invocation.
6. Conclusion
Though webservices bring more flexibility in different
sectors, there raises new challenges for the multimedia
files especially video files. Thus, the webservice model is
created using Java and deployed in J2EE deployment tool.
The JAX-RPC was selected to develop the Video on
www.IJCSI.org 295
MODSPIRITE: A Credit Based Solution to Enforce Node

Cooperation in an Ad-hoc Network
Rekha Kaushik1, Jyoti Singhai2
1
Department of Information Technology, MANIT
Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India
2
Department Of ECE, MANIT
Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India
their routes by periodically distributing routing tables

Abstract throughout the network. The main disadvantage of such
In an Ad-hoc network, node cooperation is an important factor for algorithms is slow reaction on restructuring and failures.
successful data transmission among nodes. Most of the routing Reactive (on-demand) routing: This type of protocols such
protocols are based on the assumption that the intermediate node as DSR, AODV[2] finds a route on demand by flooding the
cooperates during data transmission from source node to network with Route Request packets. The main
destination. However, because mobile nodes are constrained by
disadvantages of such algorithms are high latency time in
limited energy, bandwidth and computational resources, a node
sometimes behaves as selfish to conserve its resources like route finding and excessive flooding can lead to network
energy, bandwidth etc. These selfish nodes are unwilling to clogging.
forward others’ packets. This paper gives a review of existing Hybrid routing: This type of protocols combines the
reputation based and credit based systems and proposes a credit advantages of proactive and of reactive routing. The
based solution called MODSPIRIT which is a modification of routing is initially established with some pro actively
SPIRITE system. MODSPIRITE system detects selfish node prospected routes and then serves the demand from
using neighbor monitoring mechanism and enforce cooperation additionally activated nodes through reactive flooding. The
among non cooperative node by providing incentives to choice for one or the other method requires
intermediate nodes. One of the limitations of SPIRITE system is
predetermination for typical cases. The main disadvantages
that sender loses too much credit to forward its data to the
destination and for future sender have very less or no credit to of such algorithms are advantage depends on amount of
forward its data. As compared to SPIRITE, MODSPIRITE nodes activated and reaction to traffic demand depends on
reduces overhead of sender for upto 25%. It also punishes non- gradient of traffic volume.
cooperative nodes so that non cooperative node get discourage.
This paper uses DSR [2] which is a source routing protocol
and this protocol can react to topological changes rapidly.
Keywords: Ad-hoc Network, Node Cooperation, Selfish node,
DSR is a reactive routing protocol. There are two main
Credit based system.
operations in DSR; route discovery and route maintenance.
Each node gathers information about the network topology
1. Introduction by overhearing other nodes’ transmissions. This is known
as promiscuous mode of operation. Each node maintains a
route cache to remember routes that it has learnt about. All
An Ad-hoc network (MANET) is a self configuring and of the routing protocols including DSR assume that all
infrastructure less network of mobile nodes. Each node acts nodes in the network are cooperative and forward others’
as a router and free to move independently in any direction. messages.
In an ad-hoc network communication between two nodes
beyond the transmission range relies on intermediate nodes However, since each node in an Ad-hoc network is
to forward the packet. The communication takes place constrained by limited energy, bandwidth and
using routing protocol [1] which is of three types: Proactive, computational resources, a node may not be willing to
Reactive and Hybrid routing protocol. forward packets that are not directly beneficial to it or node
Pro-active (table-driven) routing: This type of protocols attack on routing protocol to disrupt network performance.
such as DSDV maintains fresh lists of destinations and Such nodes are known as Non-cooperative or misbehaving
www.IJCSI.org 296
nodes, which can be classified as selfish nodes [3] and On comparing the SPRITE system and the MODSPRITE
malicious nodes [3]. system, the MODSPRITE system reduces burden on sender
which loses credit for forwarding its message. As number
A selfish node does not forward any data packets for other
of nodes increases in the network, the sender overhead
nodes except for itself to conserve its resources (energy,
reduces gradually. Punishment on selfish node given by
bandwidth) while Malicious node injects false information
sender encourages nodes to cooperate. Using cluster head
and/or removes packets from the network to sabotage other
instead of CCS reduces the burden of extra hardware and
nodes or even the whole network.
software. It reduces single points of failure. If CCS fails,
Numerous methods have been proposed to deal with the the overall credit scheme fails while if cluster head fails,
problem of selfish and malicious nodes. These methods can operations can simply transfer to other node.
be divided into two categories: Reputation based system
[4][5][6][7][8][9] and credit (Incentive) based The remainder of this paper is organized as follows.
system[10][11][12]. Reputation based system watches Related work is discussed in Section 2, which includes a
others’ behaviour to detect misbehaving nodes. If a node is description of Reputation based mechanism, Credit based
selfish and drops other nodes’ packet, it will earn bad mechanism and Credit cum Reputation based mechanism.
reputation and will be isolated by other nodes. Credit based Section 3 describes overview of SPIRITE protocol.
system rewards a node with certain credit when it forwards Overview of MODSPIRITE is discussed in section 4.
the packet of other node. If a selfish node does not forward Proposed modification is presented in section 5 followed
other nodes’ packet, it loses credit and ultimately it is left by Conclusion and Future work in Section 6.
with insufficient or no credit at all to forward its own data.
One of the earlier work based on credit based system is 2. Related Work
Sprite system [5]. SPRITE (simple, cheat- proof, credit-
based system) for mobile ad-hoc networks with selfish
nodes, uses credit to provide incentive to cooperative nodes. Since enforcing node cooperation for transferring other
When a node receives a message, it keeps a receipt of the nodes’ packets is a major concern in an ad-hoc network.
message. Later, when the node has a fast connection to a Most of the existing solutions are based on following
Credit Clearance Service (CCS), it reports to the CCS the mechanisms: reputation based, credit based system and
messages have been received/forwarded by uploading its Reputation cum Credit based System.
receipts. The CCS then determines the charge and credit to
each node involved in the transmission of a message, 2.1 Reputation based mechanism.
depending on the reported receipts of a message. There are
some limitations of SPRITE system; firstly, there is an In an Ad hoc network, Reputation systems are used to keep
excessive burden on sender which loses credit for track of the quality of behaviour of other node. Basically
forwarding of its message. Secondly no punishment reputation is an opinion formed on the basis of watching
scheme is there for selfish nodes and also there is node behaviour. Reputation can be calculated by direct
ambiguity between the nodes as to which one is selfish observation and/or indirect observation of the nodes,
node. through route or path behaviour, number of retransmission
generated by the node , through acknowledgement message
This paper proposes a credit based solution called and by overhearing node’s transmission by the
MODSPIRIT to enforce cooperation among non neighbouring nodes [4][5][6][7].
cooperative nodes. This system is modification of SPIRITE
system. One of the main goals/reasons for reputation systems to be
used in a network of entities interacting with each other is
The basic scheme of proposed algorithm is that when a to provide information to help assess whether an entity is
node receives a message, it keeps a receipt of the message. trustworthy. This helps in detection of selfish and
It then communicates with the cluster head which is malicious nodes. Another goal is to encourage entities to
responsible for credit and debit of charges to nodes when behave in a trustworthy manner, i.e. to encourage good
they receive/forward messages to other nodes. Usage of behavior and to discourage untrustworthy entities from
cluster head reduces the burden of tamper proof hardware participating during communication.
or CCS. Detection of selfish node is carried out by using Reputation system exchange reputation values which have
neighbor monitoring mechanism as discussed in section 4. to be taken care off as malicious node can attack on such
This mechanism is applied on limited number of messages. Different kinds of attack are as follows:
intermediate nodes; hence reduces the computing overhead  Spurious rating - Node could lie and give spurious rating
as described in earlier reputation based system. information.
www.IJCSI.org 297
 Self-Promoting - Attackers manipulate their own Buchegger and Boudee proposed CONFIDANT[6]
reputation by falsely increasing it. protocol which uses reputation mechanism to identify and
 Whitewashing - Attackers escape the consequence of isolate selfish nodes. The protocol is based on selective
abusing the system by using some system vulnerability to altruism and utilitarianism, thus making misbehavior
repair their reputation. Once they restore their reputation, unattractive. CONFIDANT consists of four important
the attackers can continue the malicious behavior. components - the Monitor, the Reputation System, the Path
 Slandering - Attackers manipulate the reputation of other Manager, and the Trust Manager. They perform the vital
nodes by reporting false data to lower the reputation of the functions of neighborhood watching, node rating, path
victim nodes. rating, and sending and receiving alarm messages,
 Denial of Service - Attackers cause denial of service by respectively. Each node continuously monitors the
preventing the calculation and dissemination of reputation behavior of its first-hop neighbors. If a suspicious event is
values. detected, details of the event are passed to the Reputation
 False rumour: In false rumor misbehavior, a node floods System. Depending on how significant and how frequent
the false and negative information regarding other nodes by the event is, the Reputation System modifies the rating of
claiming that they are misbehaving but actually they are the suspected node. Once the rating of a node becomes
not. intolerable, control is passed to the Path Manager, which
 Collusion: In this attack, two or more nodes collude in accordingly controls the route cache. Warning messages
order to influence the reputation rating. Here a node can are propagated to other nodes in the form of an Alarm
recommend others node as cooperative or can give negative message sent out by the Trust Manager.
information of cooperative node. Self policing MANET [7], combines misbehavior detection
Watchdog/pathrater [4] is basic and most popular method with reputation system. Here each node can make
mechanism for the detection of misbehaving nodes. It uses their own decision on how to react to the behaviour of
the benefits of promiscuous mode of dynamic source other node. Self policing provides a disincentive for
routing protocol [2], in which a node can overhear the cheating by excluding node from network. In this paper,
transmission or communication of its neighbours. author enhances CONFIDANT protocol and maintains two
Watchdog detects the misbehaving node by overhearing the rating to make decision about the node: reputation rating
communication and compares the message with the data and trust rating.
stored in its buffer. If the data doesn’t match, then after a In [8], the mechanism relies on the principle that a node
threshold value the source of the concerned path is autonomously (without communicating with other
informed. Pathrater maintains rating of every used path. neighbouring node) evaluates its neighbor based on the
Nodes select routes with the highest average node rating. completion of request services. On successful delivery,
This method suffers from various problems like: reputation index increases else decreases. This can be done
ambiguous collision problem, receiver collision problem, through TCP acknowledgement. It provide detection,
limited transmission power, collusion of nodes and partial prevention and punishment scheme to misbehaving nodes.
dropping. Also, in this method the misbehaving node gets In this paper, the author does not discuss about the value of
isolated, so this becomes reward for misbehaving node and reputation threshold chooses.
its sole intention of energy saving is accomplished. This COSR [9](Cooperative On Demand Secure Routing
method can only detect the selfish node but unable to do Protocol) , is an extension of DSR protocol that uses
anything to correct it. reputation model to detect malicious and selfish behaviour
of node and make all nodes more cooperative. In COSR Fei
CORE, a collaborative reputation mechanism proposed by Wang measures node reputation and Route reputation using
Michiardi and Molva [5], has a watchdog component. three parameters: contribution of node (how many route as
however it is complemented by a reputation mechanism well as data packet are forwarded between nodes),
that differentiates between subjective reputation capability of forwarding packet of a certain node using
(observations), indirect reputation (positive reports by energy and bandwidth threshold and recommendation
others), and functional reputation (task specific behavior), which represent other’s subjective recommendation.
which are weighted for a combined reputation value that is Advantage of COSR is that it is capable of avoiding hot
used to make decisions about cooperation or gradual points.
isolation of a node. CORE permits only positive second-
hand information, which makes it vulnerable to spurious However, there are limitations of reputation based
positive ratings and misbehaved nodes increasing each mechanism. First, as there is a possibility of collision, a
other’s reputation. packet will naturally drop even in the absence of a selfish
node. This makes it difficult to ascertain whether the packet
www.IJCSI.org 298
drop is due to natural reasons or selfish behaviour of node. protocol (DVCP) for improving message delivery
Second, the selfish nodes isolated from the network using reliability. CVCP protocol check the value of offered and
reputation based scheme cannot be used in data forwarding. stored credits. DVCP is designed for smaller ad hoc
This solution is trivial, but not efficient. Much approach network and uses approximate values such as high (H),
does not punish nodes that do not cooperate since data is medium (M), low (L) to represent the incentive. This paper
forwarded using a different path without complaint. sets credits on the basis of priority of message.
Another limitation of reputation based system is that they
Limitations of this mechanism are, a virtual bank is
often assume that nodes that send reputation information
required to manage credits. Secondly, when a node has
about their peers are themselves trustworthy; and they are
enough credits to send its own data, it can decide not to
subject to collusion among nodes that misreport reputation
cooperate anymore and starts dropping packets. Routing
information
overhead is high when credit based mechanism is used.
2.2 Credit based mechanism. Also, securing messages containing credits is also an
essential requirement so that malicious node could not
Credit based system also known as incentive based system change credit value. They did not pay attention to the
reward nodes for forwarding by giving those credits. fairness issue in routing when some nodes do not get any
Without credit, a node cannot transmit self-generated data reward due to some reason e.g.: location.
packets.
2.3 Reputation cum Credit based System
Buttyán and Hubaux proposed incentives to cooperate by
Secure and Objective Reputation–based Incentive (SORI)
means of so-called nuglets [10] that serve as a per-hop
scheme [13] encourages packet forwarding and disciplines
payment in every packet in a secure module in each node to
selfish behaviour in a non cooperative ad hoc network.
encourage forwarding. The secure module is required to
Reputation of the node is used as an incentive to cooperate
ensure the correct number of nuglets is withdrawn or
among nodes. Authors are able to design a punishment
deposited. They propose two models for the payment of
scheme to penalize selfish nodes.
packet forwarding, the Packet Purse Model and the Packet
Trade Model. In the Packet Purse Model the sender pays ARM [14] selects low mobility nodes as reputation
and thus loads the packet with a number of nuglets. Each management nodes and is responsible for managing
intermediate node takes one nuglet when it forwards the reputation values. ARM uses locality aware Distributed
packet. If there are no nuglets left at an intermediate node, Hash Table for efficient reputation information collection
the packet is dropped. If there are nuglets left in the packet and exchange. Advantage of using ARM is that ARM
once it reaches the destination, the nuglets are lost. In the builds a hierarchical structure to efficiently manage the
Packet Trade Model, the destination pays for the packet. RVs of all nodes, and release the reputation management
Each intermediate node buys a packet from the previous load from individual high mobility nodes. This enables low
hop and sells it to the next for more nuglets. Since charging overhead and fast global reputation information accesses.
the destination and not the sender can lead to an overload Also ARM does not require currency circulated in the
of the network and the destination receiving packets it does system.
not want, mainly the Packet Purse Model is considered.
From above literature survey, following issues will be
This model, however, can lead to the loss of nuglets which
considered to make comparison for different mechanism.
have to be re-introduced into the network by a central
authority. Detection of non-cooperative node: Both reputation based
system and credit based system uses one of the following
Zhong et al [11] propose an incentive based system named
technique for the detection of non cooperative node.
SPRITE, in which selfish nodes are encouraged to
Promiscuous mode is used to overhear the communication
cooperate. In this system, a node reports to the Credit
of their neighboring node as in [4]. In core nodes do not
Clearance Service, the messages that it has
only rely on promiscuous mode, but in addition they can
received/forwarded by uploading its receipts. Intermediate
judge the outcome of a request by rating end to end
node earns credit when they forward message of others’
connection. In [6] monitor mechanism is used and
node. In addition to the availability of central authority,
neighbour watch mechanism is used by [11][13].
sprite assumes source routing, and a public key
Retransmission of message, route reply message[8] and
infrastructure.
history or previous observation are also used by different
In [12] describe a wireless health monitoring system using authors to detect non cooperative nodes.
incentive based router cooperation. This system uses two
Management devices: Both reputation and credit based
cooperation protocol Continuous value (CVCP)
mechanism require devices or nodes for the management of
cooperation protocol and discrete value cooperation
reputation value or credit value. In SPIRITE[11], Credit
www.IJCSI.org 299
Clearance Service (CCS) is there for the credit 3. Overview of Spirite

management, ARM[13] uses low mobility devices for
reputation management. Neighboring nodes are used to Figure 1 shows the overall architecture of SPIRITE
keep reputation as in [8][9]. Reliable clearance service is system which consist of Credit clearance service (CCS) and
used in [14]. Various parameters are used to choose a collection of mobile nodes. Nodes are equipped with
management nodes, for example high energy or battery network interface that allow node to send and receive
unit, locality, reputation table and cost credit unit. Cluster message.
head is used as a credit management node in this paper.
Robustness against non-cooperative node: Systems like
CONFIDANT effectively prevent network from malicious Credit clearance service
node, also it motivate selfish node to cooperate. SORI,
ARM , [8] work well with selfish nodes. COSR works well Internet
with blackhole, wormhole, rushing attack and selfish node
but is unable to handle DOS attack.
Wide area wireless network
Robustness against collusion: SPIRITE, CONFIDANT is
Node 2 Node 4
collusion resistant system. Node 1 Node 3
Node 5
Global / Local Reputation or credit management: From
above references it is carried out that reputation value is Figure 1: The architecture of SPIRITE
kept either globally or locally. Each has advantage as well
as disadvantage. In global Reputations maintaining, each A node reports to the CCS, the messages that it has
node maintains reputation values of every other node, so received/forwarded by uploading its receipts. Intermediate
the size is O(N) while in Local Reputation each node nodes earn credit when they forward message of others’
maintains reputation values of the neighbor node that is node.
located in one-hop. Global reputation/credit management For motivating nodes to forward packet, the CCS
needs an additional computational overhead. Global determines the last node on the path that has ever received
reputation has to decide whether to accept or reject a the message. Then CCS asks the sender to pay β to this
warning message and to update the reputation table. Local node, and α to each of its successors. Here α is considered
reputations are less vulnerable to false accusations than to be one and β is a very small value (for eg: 0.01). Figure
global reputations because it uses direct observation. 2 illustrate the payment system. According to the scenario
Global reputation/credit management are less reliable as as taken in figure 1, the sender pays a total of 2α+ β credits.
message traverse across the network so that it could be
-(2α+β) α α β 0 0
delayed, modified, replayed or accidentally lost during the
transmission. Global reputation has better performance Sender Node 1 Node 2 Node 3 Node 4 Dest
with respect to the mobility issue, because every node
Figure 2: Illustration of the payment system
knows the behaviour of other node in the network so
possibility to cheat is less. According to SPIRITE, charging sender will be more
robust because of two reasons. Charging the destination
Authentication mechanism: Spirite uses cryptographic may allow other nodes to launch DOS attack on the
method and digital signature to prevent data from non destination by sending large amount of traffic to it. On the
cooperative node. The major increased overhead is the use other hand, if only the sender is charged, a node will not
of digital signature for message authentication. On have incentives to send useless message.
comparing RSA with ECNR [11], ECNR uses much
To prevent from colluding nodes, payment scheme should
smaller bandwidth and storage requirement. The
be revised. For this CCS charges the sender an extra
propagation of reputation is computationally and efficiently
amount of credit if the destination does not report the
secured by a one-way-hash-chain-based authentication
receipt of the message. This extra charge goes to CCS
scheme [12]. One-way-hash function is computationally
instead of nodes.
much cheaper than the digital signature. Author in
[14][15] utilize hash chains to reduce number of digital Limitation of SPIRTE:
signature operation.
There are some limitations of SPIRITE system such as
there is too much burden on sender. For example let us
consider that there are n+1 node in the network and nth
node act as selfish node then the burden on sender will be
www.IJCSI.org 300
(n-2)α+β ie, (n-2)α+β credit is lost by sender. If a sender credit to forward its data. Credit is a virtual integer value.
wants to send huge data, then for the next time, the sender This paper considers only selfish node and not malicious
does not have enough credit to forward its own message. nodes. Earning and losing of credit is applied only when
In figure 2, there is dilemma whether it is node 3 or node 4 there is presence of selfish node in the path.
that drops the receipt/message. There is no scheme defined
to solve this stage of ambiguity. Also there is no 5. Proposed modification
punishment for the node that does not forward the message. Consider all nodes initially have sufficient credit to
So this becomes reward for the non cooperative node. facilitate forwarding of messages. If data correctly reaches
The proposed modification called MODSPIRITE detects the destination, no credit is lost or earned by the sender and
selfish node using neighbor monitoring mechanism and intermediate nodes respectively. If the data does not reach
solves the stage of ambiguity. It also overcomes the above the destination, it indicates that one of the intermediate
problems of SPIRITE by reducing overhead of sender by nodes acts as a selfish node and this selfishness is detected
decreasing the incentive given by sender. It also gives by Neighbor Monitoring Mechanism discussed in section
punishment to non cooperative node to encourage 5.2.
cooperative nodes and discourage non cooperative nodes. 5.1. Reducing over burden of sender
In SPIRITE, there is over burden on sender as discussed in
4. Modspirite System section 3. To reduce the overburden of sender node, the
intermediate nodes are assigned credits that follow a
The architecture of MODSPIRITE system contains particular pattern wherein the node following the sender
several nodes and a cluster head. Consider there are m node is allotted a certain credit value α, and the subsequent
numbers of nodes in a network and the sender wants to nodes are given values a fixed amount β less than the
send data to destination through intermediate node 1, node previous ones. Thus the first node has value α, second node
2 and so on as shown in figure 3. A cluster head present in has α- β, third α-2β and so on. The nth node will have the
the network provides service to manage credit exchange credit value α – (n-1) β as shown in figure 4.
mechanism in the network. All other nodes communicate
(n-2)/2[2α-(n-3)β] α α-β α-(n-3)β
with cluster head and give receipt of forwarding data
packet. Cluster head selection criteria can base on ID, Sender Node 1 Node 2 Node n Node n+1 Dest
degree, residual energy, low mobility and association with
other nodes. Figure 4: Illustration of payment scheme of MODSPIRITE
Cluster head Here α is considered to be 1 and β is considered to be

r1 rm
r3
(α/2n). In the proposed scheme minimum credit to be
r2 r m-1 assigned to forward data from source to destination is
Node 1 Node 2 Node 3 Node m-1 Node m [(3/4n)(n-2)(n+1)]. The burden on sender becomes [3/4n((n-
2)(n+1))] as node n+1 drops the packet.
Figure 3: Architecture of MODSPIRITE
On comparing both the SPIRIT and MODSPRITE,
reduction of burden on sender is [(n2 – 4.96n +6)/ (4n(n-
Initially each node has fixed amount of credit which is
1.99) * 100%. Figure 5 shows the reduced overhead on
the essential requirement for the sender to forward its
sender. If there are 10 nodes in a network then the burden
message. When a source node wants to send message to
on sender reduces by 17.6%, if there are 50 nodes in a
another node (destination), it will lose credit. The credit
network then the burden reduces by 23.5% and if there are
will be earned by the intermediate nodes which are
100 nodes a network then the burden reduces by 24.2%.
responsible for forwarding the message. To earn more
credit, a node must forward others’ message.
Nodes report the forwarding of data packet to Cluster
head in the form of small message called receipts which
contain information like forwarding node address,
destination address, and number of bytes sent. For example,
node 1 send r1 receipt node 2 send r2 and so on as shown
in figure 3. This paper assumes that cluster head is
associated with all nodes in the network and always have
sufficient amount of resources. Cluster head serves the
purpose of managing credits. Nodes communicate with the
cluster head after transferring their data. Only sender loses
www.IJCSI.org 301
cooperative else it is selfish node and a punishment of γ is

30
applied to the selfish node.
25
After detecting selfish node using neighbor monitoring
reduced overhead(%)
20 mechanism, the payment scheme will be decided by the

sender through cluster head. This will generate two cases.
15
Case I: Node n +1 is selfish and hence drops the message
10
Figure 6 shows the payment scheme when n+1th node is
5 selfish. In this case sender gives credit of α to next node, α-
β to the next node and so on. Thus the first node has value
0 α, second node has α- β, third α-2β and so on. The nth node
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 will have the credit value α-(n-1)β. Thus sender has to pay
num ber of nodes a total of [n/2(2α-(n-1)β]. Here α is considered to be equal
to 1, β is a very small value. γ credit is lost by node n+1
Figure 5: Reduced overhead (%) of sender which drops packets and acts as a selfish node.
These indicates that the proposed scheme work better for n/2(2α-(n-1)β α α-β α-(n-1)β γ 0
larger network. Sender Node 1 Node 2 Node n Node n+1 Dest
5.2. Stage of Ambiguity Figure 6: Illustration of payment scheme for Case I
Neighbor monitoring mechanism is applied to detect and to

solve the stage of ambiguity as discussed in figure 2 in Case II: Node n is selfish and hence drops the message
section 3. This mechanism is applied to few nodes only Figure 7 shows the payment scheme when nth node is
there is stage of ambiguity. For example in figure 2, selfish. In this case sender gives credit of α to next node, α-
mechanism is applied to node 3 and node 4 only. This will β to the next node and so on. Thus the first node has value
reduce overhead of calculating reputation in the entire α, second node has α- β, third α-2β and so on. The n-1th
network. node will have the credit value α-(n-2)β. Thus sender has to
pay a total of [n/2(2α-(n-2)β]. Here α is considered to be
Neighbor Monitoring Mechanism equal to 1, β is a very small value. γ credit is lost by node n
The neighbor monitoring mechanism is used to collect which drops packets and acts as a selfish node. Punishment
information about the packet-forwarding behavior of the of γ on selfish node is given by sender and is indicated by
neighbors. As the promiscuous mode assumes, a node is the cluster head. This motivates other nodes to forward
capable of overhearing the transmissions of its neighbors. packet correctly.
With this capability, a mobile node n can maintain a n/2(2α-(n-2)β 0
α α-β γ 0
neighbor node list (denoted by NNL) which contains its
entire neighbor nodes information that node n learns about Sender Node 1 Node 2 Node n Node n+1 Dest
by overhearing. In addition, node n keeps track of two
Figure 7: Illustration of payment scheme for Case II
numbers for each of its neighbors (denoted by n+1), as
described below:
• R(n+1): the total numbers of packets that node N has
6. Conclusions
transmitted to n+1 for forwarding.
• H(n+1): the total number of packets that have been Ad Hoc Networks have been an active area of research
forwarded by n+1 and noticed by n. over the past few years. Such a network is highly
The two numbers are updated according to the following dependent on the cooperation of all its nodes to effectively
methods. When node n sends a packet to node n+1 for perform communication between nodes. This makes such a
forwarding, the counter R(n+1) is increased by one. Then n network highly vulnerable to selfish nodes.
listens to the wireless channel and checks whether node This paper discusses on various reputation based and credit
n+1 forwards the packet as expected. If n detects that n+1 based mechanism to solve the problem of non cooperative
has forwarded the packet before a preset time-out expires, nodes. Also, this paper proposes a credit based solution
the counter H(n+1) is increased by one. If the value of both called MODSPIRITE to encourage cooperation among non
R(n+1) and H(n+1) are same then the node is said to be cooperative nodes. This system is an improvement of
www.IJCSI.org 302
SPIRITE protocol. The burden on sender of losing credits for Ad-hoc Networks”, WCNC / IEEE Communications Society,
2004.
is significantly reduced using MODSPRITE system. The
[14] Haiying Shen and Ze Li,” ARM: An Account-based Hierarchical
MODSPRITE system reduces burden upto 24% for Reputation Management System for Wireless Ad Hoc Networks ,The
network that consists of 100 nodes. The neighbor 28th International Conference on Distributed Computing Systems
monitoring mechanism is used to detect selfish nodes and Workshops, IEEE, 2008
applied to limited number of nodes; hence reducing the [15] Hameed Janzadeh, Kaveh Fayazbakhsh, bahador bakshi,” A secure
credit-based cooperation stimulating mechanism for MANETs using
computing overhead. Punishment is given to the nodes that hash chains”, Future Generation Computer Systems -Elsevier
are unwilling to forward others’ data. By penalizing such 2009,pp 926-934
nodes make them motivated to forward others’ node data.
There are certain privacy issues to be taken care of, Rekha Kaushik holds a Master of
Technology from Barkatullah University ,
prominent among them being preventing the security Bhopal , M.P. India and pursuing Ph.d from
breach due to modification of credit value while Maulana Azad National Institute Of
transmission from the cluster head. The decision of which Technology(MANIT), Bhopal, India. She is a
member of ISTE. Her general research
node should become the Cluster head is also a major issue. interests include wireless communication
This issue must be taken care for future work. especially Ad-hoc Networks and Network
security.
References
[1] Elizabeth M. Royer, Chai-Keong Toh, “A Review of Current Routing Dr. Jyoti Singhai is Associate professor in
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Personal Communication, March 1999, pp. 46-55. Technology(MANIT), Bhopal, India. She
[2] D. Johnson, D. Maltz, and J. Broch, “The dynamic source routing holds Ph.D degree from MANIT, India. Her
protocols for mobile ad hoc networks,” Internet Draft, IETF Mobile general research interests include wireless
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[3] Matthias Hollick, Jens Schmitt, Christian Seipl, and Ralf Steinmetz, network security.
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[9] Fei Wang, Yijun Mo, Benxiong Huang,”COSR: Cooperative on
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www.IJCSI.org 303
A Review of Packet Reservation Multiple Access

Varsha Sharma1 and R.C.Jain2
1
School of Information Technology, Rajiv Gandhi Proudyogiki Vishwavidyalaya,
Bhopal (M.P), India
2
Director, Samrat Ashok Technological Institute,
Vidisha (M.P), India
Abstract demands. Given the slow reaction to such demands and the
The rapid technological advances and innovations of the past few high cost of licensing, wireless users are typically forced
decades have pushed wireless communication from concept to to make due with limited bandwidth resources, which have
reality. The popularity of wireless communication systems can be put an emphasis on efficient access mechanisms to the
seen almost everywhere in the form of cellular networks, wireless medium.
WLANs, and WPANs. Packet-switched technology has been
demonstrated as effective in cellular radio systems with short
The wireless medium is a broadcast medium and therefore
propagation delay, not only for data, but also for voice multiple devices can access the medium at the same time.
transmission. In fact, packet voice can efficiently exploit speech Multiple simultaneous transmissions can result in garbled
on–off activity to improve bandwidth utilization over time data, making communication impossible. A medium
division multiple access (TDMA). Such an approach has been access control (MAC) protocol moderates access to the
first suggested in the packet reservation multiple-access (PRMA) shared medium by defining rules that allow these devices
technique, an adaptation of the reservation ALOHA protocol to to communicate with each other in an orderly and efficient
the cellular environment. PRMA can be viewed as a combination manner.
of TDMA and slotted ALOHA protocols. Recently modified
The rest of this paper is organized as follows. This section
versions of the PRMA protocol have been the subject of
extensive research. This paper reviews a number of variations of
is divided into three subsections. An introduction of MAC
PRMA protocol in literature. protocols and their classification is presented in 1.1.
PRMA protocol is explained in 1.2. Model of PRMA is
Keywords: Medium Access Control, PRMA, Slotted Aloha, described in 1.3. Section 2 describes the multimedia
TDMA characteristics of PRMA. Section 3 describes different
variations of PRMA protocol. Finally, some concluding
remarks are given in Section 4.
1. Introduction
The rapid technological advances and innovations of the 1.1 Medium Access Control (MAC) Protocols
past few decades have pushed wireless communication The role of the MAC protocol [1] is to determine when a
from concept to reality. Advances in chip design have node is allowed to transmit its packets. It typically controls
dramatically reduced the size and energy requirements of all access to the medium. Wireless MAC protocols have
wireless devices, increasing their portability and been studied extensively since the 1970s. The initial
convenience. These advances and innovations, combined protocols were developed for data and satellite
with the freedom of movement, are among the driving communications. We are now witnessing a convergence of
forces behind the vast popularity of wireless the telephone, cable and data networks into a single
communication. This situation is unlikely to change, unified network that supports multimedia and real time
especially when one considers the current push toward applications like voice and video in addition to data.
wireless broadband access to the Internet and multimedia The two major objectives of a multiple access protocol are
content. With predictions of near exponential growth in the maximization of the channel capacity utilization and
number of wireless users in the coming decades, pressure minimization of latency between a station deciding to
is mounting on government regulatory agencies to free up transmit and able to transmit. There is an inherent tension
the RF spectrum to satisfy the growing bandwidth in these two desirable goals. Other goals which might be
www.IJCSI.org 304
equally important in some cases could be fairness and into different time slots. The users transmit in rapid
stability. succession, one after the other, each using his own time
The specific functions associated with a MAC protocol slot. This allows multiple stations to share the same
vary according to the system requirements and application. transmission medium (e.g. radio frequency channel) while
Design and complexity as well as performance are also using only a part of its channel capacity. CDMA employs
affected by the network architecture, communication spread-spectrum technology and a special coding scheme
model, and duplexing mechanism employed. (where each transmitter is assigned a code) to allow
Depending on the system requirements and application, multiple users to be multiplexed over the same physical
the MAC protocol should provide the following main channel.
features: These protocols lack the flexibility in allocating resources
 High throughput- A high network throughput, or and thus have problems with configuration changes. This
high efficiency, is achieved when the protocol makes them unsuitable for dynamic and bursty wireless
has low overhead and low collision probability. packet data networks. These types are mostly applicable to
It is also equivalent to low frame delay. infrastructure based wireless network.
 Scalability- The network throughput should be
unaffected by increases in number of nodes. b) The contention based (random assignment) class
Naturally, the per-node throughput decreases as consisting of ALOHA and CSMA is very flexible and is
the number of active nodes increases but ideally, what is predominantly used in wireless ad-hoc and sensor
this should follow a linear decrease. networks. Random access schemes provide each user
 Topology independence- The network throughput station with varying degrees of freedom in gaining access
should be transparent to network topology to the network whenever information is to be sent.
changes. In high mobility scenarios, where the There are systems designed using one or more of these
rate of nodes joining and leaving the network is classes. For instance cellular networks use ALOHA to get
high, as well as node velocity, the protocol the code when entering a cell and CDMA for subsequent
should be able to maintain a high network communication.
throughput.
 Fairness- The protocol should not give priority c) The reservation based protocols- A node has to reserve
to particular nodes over the others. one or more time slots within a frame before the actual
 Quality of Service (QoS) - When multiple traffic packet transmission can take place. Contention occurs
classes are defined, the protocol should be able to during the reservation phase. A certain number of slots
manage the bandwidth resources in order to form a frame and frames are repeated. Stations compete
assign different priorities to real-time and best- for empty slots. Once a station reserves a slot successfully,
effort nodes. this slot is automatically assigned to this station in all
 Energy efficiency- The complexity of the MAC following frames as long as the station has data to send.
protocol should be low to yield low power
consumption. 1.2 Packet Reservation Multiple Access (PRMA)
It is extremely difficult to design a MAC protocol with all
mentioned features. In practice, MAC protocols are Owing to limited radio resources, an efficient MAC
usually tweaked towards only a subset of features protocol is essential in wireless systems, especially in
depending on the architecture and application wireless systems that are expected to provide broadband
requirements. For instance, sensor networks put a high services for mobile users. The MAC protocol employed
emphasis on energy efficiency and less on QoS or should allow for integrated transport of voice, video and
topology independence while densely populated data over the same radio channel. The protocol should aim
broadband networks have stringent QoS and scalability at increasing channel capacity by multiplexing as large a
requirements. number of sources as possible, while still satisfying QoS
There are various MAC schemes in literature which can be constraints.
classified as- The packet reservation multiple access (PRMA) protocol
is a MAC protocol proposed by Goodman et al. [2] for
a) Contention free (fixed assignment) set will have packet voice transmissions. This reservation protocol, a
schemes like TDMA, CDMA and FDMA. The nodes modification of reservation ALOHA (R-ALOHA), is
access the shared medium in a predetermined way. FDMA suitable for speech terminals since conversational speech
gives users an individual allocation of one or several produces multiple packet messages during talk spurt.
frequency bands, or channels. TDMA allows several users Several variations of PRMA were proposed for diverse
to share the same frequency channel by dividing the signal traffic types. In the PRMA protocol, time is divided into
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frames and each frame is further divided into time slots. gradually degrades with increased packet dropping. The
PRMA is a slotted protocol where frame duration, is a system performance measure of main interest is therefore
design variable parameter divided into a set of slots. the packet dropping probability. PRMA capacity is defined
Number of these slots depends on both frame size and in to be the maximum number of terminals that can share a
transmitted packet size. Frame size is related to frame common channel with an average value of packet dropping
duration and channel transmission rate. Packet size is probability consistent with speech quality objectives. The
related to source bit rate. system throughput is also defined as the fraction of system
The basic principle of PRMA is to occupy a time slot only time slots that carry useful information.
during speech talkspurts and release the channel during Even though PRMA was once used for speech traffic, it
silence periods. In each frame, time slots are dynamically can also be used for data users due to its bandwidth
reserved for packets from active voice terminals. As a efficient, random access and reservation nature. The
consequence, the terminals with reservation share the reservation nature
channel in a manner closely resembling time division can provide data users with continuous transmission while
multiple access (TDMA). the random access nature is bandwidth efficient for low to
Each of the uplink slots is recognized as reserved or medium bit rate bursty data traffic. The flexibility of
available. At the beginning of a talk spurt, an MT contends PRMA for accepting different traffic bit rates also makes it
for an available slot using the slotted-ALOHA protocol. If a good candidate for multi-rate data traffic.
the first packet of a talk spurt is transmitted successfully in An advantage of PRMA is that it requires little central
one of the available slots without any collision, the BS control. Since hand-overs require minimal base station
reserves that slot in the following frames for the MT and intervention, an active voice terminal that moves into
send an acknowledgement message to the MT. At the end another cell loses its slot reservations. It therefore needs to
of the talk spurt, the MT releases the slot by leaving it recontend with other terminals to transmit its remaining
empty. If the first packet of a talk spurt is not received voice packets. The terminal also needs to register with the
successfully by the BS, then the MT continues to new base station. The resulting delay, may force the
retransmit the packet with probability q in subsequent terminal to drop voice packets, thereby degrading its
available slots until the packet is successfully received by performance.
the BS. The probability q is referred to as the permission One of the main advantages of the packet multiple access
probability which is a design parameter. Upon successfully protocol is that it could be combined with existing TDMA
contending for channel access, a terminal that generates a or CDMA based systems and can also be integrated with
sequence of packets obtains a reservation for uncontested the next generation WCDMA systems. PRMA based
use of subsequent time slots. The terminals with protocol suits well for multimedia traffic because of its
reservations thus share the channel as in TDMA. flexible and dynamic bandwidth allocation procedure.
A PRMA packet consists of a header and speech or data
information. The header provides the base station the 1.3 The PRMA Model
information it needs to forward the packet to its
destination. If the base station is able to decode a header
correctly, the packet transmission is considered successful.
If in a particular slot, the base station is unable to decode a
header correctly, it announces unsuccessful reception. In a
wireless mobile radio environment, a channel suffers from
noise and fading errors. Therefore these errors in the
packet header have a negative effect on the performance of
PRMA.
In the PRMA protocol, a collision occurs if two or more
MTs contend for the same available slot, that is, two or
Figure 1: PRMA terminal state transition diagram
more MTs transmit packets in the same available slot.
These MTs will retransmit the packets. Retransmissions of We assume a PRMA communication system with N
packets due to collisions will increase the traffic, which homogeneous independent terminals, M slots per frame
will in turn increase the probability of a collision and p is the permission probability which is the probability
especially under heavy load. As the load continues to that a terminal attempts to transmit a packet in an available
increase, the effective channel utilization will decrease slot when a terminal is in state Cont. Any terminal can
because of increased collision probability. have the following three states:
Since conversational speech requires prompt packet Sil the silent state
delivery, packets delayed beyond a certain time limit are Cont the contending state
useless and are dropped by the system. The speech quality Tra the transmission state
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The states can change according to the terminal’s Markov 2.1 Voice Traffic Representation over PRMA
state transition diagram in Fig.1. The state transition
probabilities are described as following: Voice traffic must be delivered as a continuous stream in
ζ one frame period including an uplink subframe and a almost real time. More importantly, the delay must be
downlink subframe nearly constant throughout the duration of each talk spurt.
For each call duration, the talkspurt represents forty
γ the transition probability of a terminal from state Sil to percent only because there are pauses between sentences,
state Cont at the instant just before uplink subframe phrases, and even syllables. Therefore, using a speech
starting: If the terminal has no packet in the buffer when activity detector (SAD), the information from a single
uplink subframe starts, it stays in state Sil; otherwise, it source can be divided into talkspurt and silence periods. In
leaves state Sil and enters state Cont. the talkspurt period, the voice encoder generates voice
packets at a constant rate, while in the silent period
σ the probability of a terminal successfully transiting from detected by the SAD, empty packets are generated which
state Cont to state Tra during one uplink subframe can be deleted at the user network interface.
duration: We assume each terminal only attempts once With PRMA protocol and at the beginning of each
during one uplink subframe. If a terminal successfully talkspurt period, a user contends for an idle slot if his
transmits the first packet, it transits from state Cont to state permission probability is within a predetermined level.
Tra. Permission is granted according to the state of a pseudo
random number generator. If the user succeeded in
μ the transition probability of a terminal from state Tra accessing a free slot, his success is acknowledged in the
back to state Sil at the instant of the next uplink subframe control information relayed in the downstream traffic from
starting: If there is no packet in its buffer when the next the BS to the MS. Thereafter he reserves this slot in all
the uplink subframe starts, the terminal lets the reserved subsequent frames until the end of his talkspurt. The
slot idle and returns state Sil. This is the way how the broadcast acknowledgment in the downstream traffic also
terminal releases channel reservation in the conventional informs other users of the status of the slot. When a slot,
PRMA protocol [14]. received at the BS is empty, the BS recognizes that the
The PRMA data system is modeled as a discrete time user relinquishes his reservation and declares the state of
Markov process with system state space and one-step the slot as available for contention by other users. If the
transition probability matrix P. permission probability of the contending user is within the
X = {Xn = (Sn,Cn, Tn)|n ≥ 0} permissible value but he failed to get a free slot, the user
where, Sn, Cn and Tn denote the number of terminals in will continue the contention process in the next frames. If
state Sil, Cont, Tra at time n, respectively. The state the delay time of the contending packet exceeds the
transition takes place only at the instant of uplink subframe bounded time, it will be lost and the user will continue the
starting. contention process for the next voice packet of the
talkspurt [3].
2. Multimedia Traffic Characteristics in The capacity of PRMA network can be defined as the
Support of PRMA maximum number of terminals that can share the channel
satisfying the required constraints. The important
constraint to look at on dealing with voice traffic is the
The efficiency of radio spectrum usage depends on a dropping probability that affects the speech quality. Voice
number of design parameters; one of them is the accessing permission probability (Pv) has great impact on speech
technique to support a variety of traffic types. The goal of quality, so it has to be defined carefully. In general, if the
multimedia integration is to share network resources permission probability is too low, the terminal waits too
efficiently between different classes of traffic types while long between successive transmissions and eventually
satisfying the individual performance requirements. PRMA drop packets as the waiting time exceeds the system limit.
is implemented on the air interface between mobile station If it is too high, excessive collisions occur, and the
(MS) and base station (BS) as a type of statistical resultant congestion results in high packet dropping
multiplexing, to make full usage of the available probabilities [3].
bandwidth in transmitting different types of traffic as
possible [3]. The channel is divided into time slots and the 2.2 Data Traffic Representation over PRMA
slots are organized into frames. The frame rate coincides
with the arrival rate of a periodic voice packet. Unlike voice and video traffic, data traffic is bursty in
nature. The actual proportion of bandwidth utilized is
typically very small. Real time delivery is not of primary
importance, but strict error control and recovery
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procedures are required. Data packets arrival at each user available free slots. If the number of generated packets is
can be modeled by a Poisson process, and data arrivals at greater than the number of available slots, the un-
different users are independent of each other. With PRMA accommodated packets are kept in the buffer to contend in
protocol, the data user who has packets to transmit, the next frame as long as the maximum delay is not
attempts transmission when he encounters an idle slot and violated [3].
his permission probability is below the specified value. As
data packets can tolerate variable delay but no loss, so data 3. Variants of PRMA
user persists on transmitting the available packets in my
frame at a reasonable time delay[3]. Recently modified versions of the PRMA protocol have
The data rate per user and the average delay are the been the subject of extensive research. Some of them are
important parameters to be defined on dealing with data discussed in this section.
traffic. PRMA can provide a high multiplex gain (support
a large number of users) for bursty data packet traffic. For
3.1 C-PRMA
congested traffic condition, PRMA can also provide high
throughput and fairness with the adoption of maximum
packet transmission limit. The results in [4] imply that C-PRMA (Centralized Packet Reservation Multiple
PRMA is an ideal protocol for data transmission. Access) [5] is a packet-switching multiple-access protocol
especially devised for a microcellular environment. Within
each cell, two separate time-slotted channels are used for
2.3 Video Traffic Representation over PRMA
communication. The uplink channel conveys the
information
A video source is represented by the transmission of a from the MS’s to the BS, while the downlink channel is
number of video frames per second. Each frame consists used to communicate in the opposite direction. The
of a number of pixels. The pixel is defined as the smallest downlink channel is exclusively used by the BS, so that no
unit that can be encoded decoded without any future multiple access problems exist. On the contrary, the
information. transmissions of different MS’s in the uplink channel must
Video services need higher data rate than either voice or be coordinated. For this purpose, the BS transmits slot-by-
ordinary data. Due to the bit rate limitations of the wireless slot commands, which allow managing a random-access
medium, various methods of band compression coding are polling scheme among the MS’s.
used to reduce the transmission rate of video The polling commands, generated by a scheduling
communications. One of these coding techniques is the algorithm specify whether a slot of the uplink channel is
interframe coding method, where the information of the available or reserved and identify the MS enabled to
previous frame is used as the predicted value, and only the transmit. The random access is used for reservation
difference from the previous frame is transmitted. This transmission in available slots, while the polling
difference is small when the scene is the same as the mechanism provides the transmission coordination, in the
previous frame but increases drastically when the scene reserved slots, among the active MS’s. This is a proper
changes. Video codec can generate either variable bit rate approach in the microcellular environment because the
(VBR) or constant bit rate (CBR) streams. small propagation delay allows a very efficient
For video transmission over PRMA protocol, the accessing command/response communication mode, and the BS,
technique is proposed to be as follows: being the interface between the radio channel and fixed
a) If the permission probability of the video user is legal, network, already performs other centralized functions.
he contends for a number of free slots equal to the number The major goal of the scheduling algorithm is to achieve
of packets in its buffer. efficient traffic integration (through a dynamic slot
b) If the free slots in the TDMA frame is equal to the allocation) for services with different bandwidth and delay
number of packets in the buffer, all buffered packets will constraints. Furthermore, the flexibility in the slot
be transmitted, otherwise a number of packets that is equal assignment allows recovering corrupted packets by using
to the number of free slots will be accommodate and the retransmission techniques.
rest will be delayed to the next frame. In order to efficiently operate the scheduling algorithm,
c) If the time spent in the buffer exceeds the bounded each
delay, the delayed packets will be lost [3]. of the MS’s must signal when it enters the active state, i.e.,
On dealing with video traffic, severe requirements are when it is ready to transmit packets. This signaling
imposed on packet loss probability and delay. During the procedure is performed by sending a reservation request in
period of TDMA frame, a number of video packets is an available slot on the uplink channel. Note that all
generated according to the traffic model assumed. The available slots can be used for reservation request
packets generated as a group during the TDMA frame transmissions. The MS remains in the contending state
contends for access. If succeeded, the packets occupy the until its reservation request is successfully received by the
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BS. When this event occurs, the MS starts transmitting The primary difference between CPRMA and DPRMA is
data packets in the reserved slots, assigned by the BS, and the manner in which reservations are made and resources
keeps on transmitting as long as it remains active. are allocated for VBR sources. The slots within a DPRMA
The core functions of C-PRMA are performed by the frame are divided among the users based on the amount of
scheduling algorithm that dynamically assigns reserved bandwidth that each user requires. Users may reserve a
slots number of slots within a frame or even slots in alternating
in the uplink channel to active MS’s. The information frames, as long as that capacity is currently available. In
needed at the BS to enable the operation of the scheduling addition, changes to a user’s allocation request can be
algorithm is provided by the MS’s. The parameters that easily accommodated. The base station in the cellular
specify the service class (i.e., voice, data, packet rate, etc.) environment has the responsibility of dividing the
and service quality (i.e., priority level, maximum tolerable bandwidth up among the active users. In order to
packet delay, etc.) are negotiated between MS’s and the accomplish this task, each mobile must be able to convey
BS at the call-setup phase. Each reservation, in addition to its requirements to the base station. In the DPRMA
a request to transmit, also contains the indication of the scheme this is performed by setting aside several
delay already suffered by the first packet of the burst. The Reservation Request (RR) bits within the header of each
latter information is used by the scheduling algorithm. uplink time slot. It is the user’s responsibility to determine
Furthermore, in addition to the reservation information the appropriate rate reservation required and set its rate
transmitted on the uplink channel, the C-PRMA bits accordingly.
implementation requires the transmission of “commands” When a user has a new burst of information to transmit it
at each slot from the BS to MS’s. To accommodate the must first attempt to obtain a reservation. It sets the
transmission of this additional information, the slots on the appropriate RR bits to indicate its rate request, contends
downlink channel are taken long enough to contain a data for an empty slot, and monitors the downlink channel to
packet and a command. The same slot length is assumed in determine its success or failure status from the base
the uplink channel. In fact, in such a slot, an station. This is indicated via several Reservation
acknowledgment for the data packet correctly received by Acknowledge (RA) bits in the header of the downlink
the MS on the downlink channel must be transmitted in messages. When a successful transmission has occurred,
addition to data packet or reservation information. The the base station immediately attempts to accommodate as
immediate acknowledgment is needed at the BS if a quick much of the rate requested as is possible. If the total
recovery of error packets is necessary to meet a given request cannot be fully accommodated, then a partial
quality of service for real-time traffic. Notice that the allocation is made. The base station keeps a record of any
acknowledgment for an uplink data packet transmission is partial allocations so that the remaining request can be
not needed in the downlink channel, as the BS can account accommodated whenever the bandwidth later becomes
for not correctly received packets by repeating the polling available.
command to request the transmission of the failed packet. If a full allocation is possible, the base station must
determine which of the remaining unclaimed slots will be
3.2 D-PRMA assigned. The base station first identifies which slots are
currently unallocated and determines how many such slots
D-PRMA (Dynamic Packet Reservation Multiple Access) exist. Next, the base station examines each of these slots in
is a medium access control protocol for wireless sequential order to determine if the slot will be assigned to
multimedia applications [6]. It allows the integration of accommodate the new request. Throughout the process,
both constant bit rate (CBR) and variable bit rate (VBR) the base station maintains a record of how many slots, Sn
traffic through a single access control mechanism that the user still needs in order to have its request satisfied.
permits users to specify their bandwidth requirements. Every time a slot is successfully assigned, Sn is
Users are allowed to repeatedly update this information in decremented. In addition, the base station keeps track of
order to reflect any changes in their data rates. A base the number of available slots, Sc, that have not yet been
station analyzes the mobiles’ requests, determines which considered for assignment. Each time a new slot is
can be accommodated, and conveys the resulting considered, Sc, is decremented. As the base station
bandwidth assignments to the users. The ability of a sequentially considers each available slot, it assigns each
mobile to initially reserve a portion of the channel capacity one with probability Pa, where
and to then dynamically alter this reservation is a primary P a = Sn / Sc
feature of the system. In DPRMA, an attempt is made to Once a user has secured a reservation, it must monitor the
match the capacity assigned to the user with the user downlink channel to determine in which slots it is allowed
generation rate. Furthermore, this capacity can be allocated to transmit. This is indicated via several Slot Reservation
using fractional or multiple slot assignments. (SR) bits that are incorporated into the downlink message
header. Any changes to a user's reservation requirements
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are communicated by the user to the base station via the beginning if reserving channel successfully. If no collision
RR bits. An increase in reservation is accommodated if the occurs, the terminal will receive CTS packet after a time
resources are available. interval (SIPS). It means this terminal reserve the channel
When a rate decrease is requested by a user, the base successfully; the terminal will enter into reservation State.
station first determines which slots are currently assigned Then it will send voice packet periodically. From now, the
to that user. The base station then considers each of these channel is divided into frames with a fixed and equal size
slots one at a time in sequential order for deallocation along the time axis.
purposes. The number of slots yet to be released, Sd and A frame is divided into N slots which used to transmit
the number of slots yet to be considered for release, Sr are voice or data packets. The terminal will transmit the voice
constantly updated throughout this process. Each slot is packets periodically. The SID table's content will be
released with probability refreshed when the terminal receive the CTS packet from
P d = Sd / Sr any other terminals.
After the slots have been deallocated, the base station If by inquiring SID table, the terminal find one or more
determines if there are any users waiting for additional slots is reserved, the voice terminal will send RTS packet
slots to be assigned. The backlog of such users is handled to the destination to reserve the slot and it will enter into
in a first-come first-serve basis, and as many users as contending state. In order to reduce the probability that
possible are accommodated. two or more terminals wanting to reserve the same slot in
the frame, the terminal will select the first slot which has
3.3 DD-PRMA not been reserved in probability Pv.
If the sender receives the CTS packet sent by the receiver
Designing an efficient MAC protocol to support the real- successfully, it has got the reservation of this slot and
time services in distributed wireless networks is difficult. transmits its voice packet immediately. Thus the terminal
This is mainly because 1) no fixed central entities like base will enter into reservation state. A successful reservation
terminals can be used by the MAC layer in these networks of a packet must also meet the follow three conditions:
to coordinate communications, the centralized scheme 1) the slot is available
used difficultly; 2) high dynamics of network topology 2) the terminal has the permission to transmit
caused by terminal mobility since any terminal may join 3) no other contending voice terminals
and leave an MANET in an unpredictable manner; 3) real- It will transmit its BF frame and voice packets periodically
time applications often have some requirements on quality in the same slot of every frame until it doesn't have the
of service (QoS) such as time delay bound. voice packets. The recording of time slot reserved of BF
DD-PRMA (Dynamic Distributed PRMA) [7] emphasizes frame is consistent with the SID table. So the new terminal
on voice application in distributed wireless networks which enters into the networks could know which slot has
which combines 802.11 DCF and PRMA's advantage. In been reserved in a time frame timely. If there are more
DDPRMA protocol, the access mechanism of voice and than two terminals are selecting the same slot, reserving
data is different. will failed, the voice terminal will still try to select the
Access Procedure for Voice Packets next first non-reserved slot in frame also in probability Pv.
The medium access procedure for voice terminals can be If the wait time is long than the Dmax which is the
separated into three states. One corresponds to the maximum delay time for voice packets, the terminal will
Contending state, where the terminals contend to access discard the voice packet.
the medium for reservation, and the other corresponds to
the Reservation State, where voice terminals transmit their Access Procedure for Data Packets
packets periodically without any contention. Initially, each When there is no voice packet transmitting in networks,
terminal will stay in the Idle State. The access procedure the basic access method for data packets is based on DCF.
which is modified to apply the distributed wireless A terminal with a data packet waiting for transmitting
networks is based on PRMA protocol. In order to maintain should sense the medium until an idle duration DIFS is
the correct access sequence, each terminal needs a detected. Then the terminal will attempt to transmit after a
sequence ID (SID) table, which record the time slot random delay applied by a backoff counter. The backoff
reserved by the voice terminals. counter decrements one by one after each slot time. And
If a terminal with voice packets intends to access the when the backoff counter reaches zero the terminal
channel at time t, first it will inquire about the SID table to transmits its packet immediately and waits for reception of
find if there is any slot reserved. an acknowledgement (ACK) from the destination after a
If not, the terminal will send RF frame to the destination time interval called short interframe space (SIPS).
terminal to reserve the channel and it will enter into However, if during any slot time the channel is sensed
contending state. The RF frame is a broadcast frame that busy (due to transmission of other terminals) down-
each terminal could receive it. It indicates a time frame is counting is stopped and after sensing the idleness of the
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channel for a period of DIFS the backoff process will be possible to an optimum in terms of maximum throughput.
resumed. This will result in increased throughput and hence
If no ACK is received by the transmitting terminal, due to increased spectral efficiency compared to a random access
assumption of ideal channel conditions, packet collision DSCDMA system. A channel access function, which
has occurred and retransmission is carried out according to relates the number of users in a given slot to the
the binary exponential backoff rules. permission probability in the same slot of the subsequent
As soon as a data terminal has a packet in its buffer, it will frame, controls the access to the channel.
attempt to transmit on the first available unreserved slot Capacity is defined as the supported system load (in terms
which is not contending by other voice terminals in of number of simultaneous conversations) for a given
probability Pd. maximum packet loss ratio. Both packets dropped by the
A successful transmission of a packet must also meet the MAC layer (as in conventional PRMA) and packets
follow three conditions: corrupted on the channel due to Multiple Access
1) The slot is available 2) the terminal has the permission Interference (MAI) will contribute to this packet loss.
to transmit and no other contending voice terminals 3) and Terminals can send three types of information, namely
no other data terminals permission. “periodic”, “random”, and “continuous”. Speech packets
However, a successful transmission does not provide the are always periodic, but data packets can be random
data terminal with an additional reservation. Data (isolated packets), periodic or continuous, depending on
terminals must contend for each packet transmission. the source nature. Each downlink (base to mobile station)
packet is preceded by feedback based on the result of the
3.4 CS-PRMA most recent uplink (mobile to base station) transmission. If
the base is able to decode the header of one or more
Carrier Sense Packet Reservation Multiple Access (CS- arriving packet(s), the feedback identifies the packet
PRMA) [8] protocol is proposed for Wireless Local Area sending terminal(s), indicates which of the corresponding
Networks (WLAN). The protocol can be viewed as a packets were received successfully, and transmits the new
combination of CSMA with adaptive permission permission probability that is valid for the corresponding
probability for contentions and TDMA for reserved slot in the next frame.
transmissions. The key point of the CS-PRMA is to use The transmission time scale is organized in frames, each
very short busy signal in front of a shortened voice packet containing a fixed number of time slots. The frame rate is
to declare that the available slot is now occupied. If a identical to the arrival rate of voice packets. In contrast to
terminal in the contention state has not received the busy conventional PRMA, terminals do not classify slots as
signal at the minislot, it may send busy signal and its either “reserved” or “available”, as the channel access for
shortened packet from the next minislot, with a greater contending terminals is governed by time-varying
permission probability than at the first minislot. The permission probabilities.
successful transmission of the first packet of, a talkspurt A terminal that generates periodic data (e.g. speech data)
will reserve the slot to the terminal for the transmission of switches from contention to reservation mode as soon as a
ordinary packets in the whole talkspurt. As the original successful packet reception is acknowledged by the base
PRMA, the CS-PRMA system has the properties of soft station. It will stay in reservation mode until the last packet
capacity, soft hand-over, and distributed slot assignment of the current spurt is transmitted. The base station counts
and selection. The basic feature that characterizes CS- all the packets sent from periodic terminals in each slot
PRMA with respect to basic PRMA is its very high channel such that it can compute the permission probability for the
efficiency. same slot in the next frame with the channel access
This protocol is suitable for an environment with low function and then transmits it in the feedback.
propagation delay, as in indoor and microcellular systems.
3.6 CDMA/NC-PRMA
3.5 CDMA/PRMA
The joint CDMA/PRMA protocol is essentially an
Joint Code Division Multiple Access Packet Reservation extension of the conventional PRMA protocol operating in
Multiple Access (CDMA/PRMA) [9] protocol was a DS/CDMA environment. During a time-slot period, a
introduced as a candidate for an uplink protocol for third certain group of terminals have their quotas to transmit
generation mobile communication. Whereas in Packet using the direct sequence (DS) spread-spectrum scheme.
CDMA the time axis is unslotted and packets are granted The time axis is divided into slots, which are grouped into
random access to the channel, in Joint CDMA/PRMA the frames, as in PRMA. The frame rate is identical to the
time axis is slotted, with the slots grouped into frames (as packet arrival rate of voice terminals so that a voice
in PRMA) and the access of packets to the channel is terminal may periodically transmit a packet during a frame
controlled such that the channel load is kept as near as interval. On the uplink carrier, a number of information
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channels, separated by different spreading codes, are same time domain in which the contention packet is
dynamically assigned to terminals for information successfully demodulated. Before the base station decides
transmissions. As for downlink transmission, each to assign a slot to the contention success mobile terminal,
downlink packet is preceded by a feedback message in it scans all time slots and picks out the time slot whose
response to the results of the most recent uplink traffic load is smallest among all the time slots in one
transmissions. If the BS is able to decode the header of one frame. The base station will attach this time slot mark just
or more arriving packets, the feedback message identifies after contention success is acknowledged. The
the packet-sending terminals, indicating which of the corresponding mobile terminal shall receive both positive
corresponding packets were received successfully, and acknowledgement and the attached time slot mark. It then
transmits the available permission probability of the buffers the traffic packets and transmits them in the
corresponding slot in the next frame. corresponding assigned time slot. Such a mechanism
In the original PRMA, each contending terminal conducts guarantees the smoothness of the overall traffic load in one
a Bernoulli experiment with a predetermined permission frame, and in return increases the system capacity. Since
probability as the parameter. If the outcome is positive, the the base station specifies explicitly the reserved resources,
terminal is granted to transmit. The essence of the joint this protocol is called explicit CDMA/PRMA.
CDMA/PRMA protocol is the use of the CDMA scheme The simulation results show that the explicit
in connection with the PRMA protocol with a dynamic CDMA/PRMA protocol performs better when the
permission probability in response to the variation of the simultaneous conversations load is low.
number of reservation users. The BS, obtaining
information from the packet headers sent from the 3.8 JPPS
reserving terminals in a current slot, calculates the
available permission probability of the corresponding slot Joint PRMA and packet scheduling (JPPS) [12] treats real-
in the next frame via a channel access function. Thus, the time traffic and non-real-time traffic separately. Once a
contending terminals can contend for a reservation real-time traffic flow (a continuous packet burst) is
according to this permission probability. admitted to the system, its code channel(s) will be
The main idea of NC-PRMA [10] is the use of a time– implicitly reserved until its last packet is transmitted, as in
frequency signaling scheme by which the BS can learn the PRMA. Real-time traffic has delay priority over non-real-
service requests from all dispersed terminals. Thus, the BS time. Packet scheduling techniques are then used to
can have a centralized control over the slot allocation schedule all the real-time and non-real-time packets.
policy. Moreover, the signal strengths of signatures from As in PRMA, once an RT traffic flow (a continuous packet
specific users may indicate the current transmitted power burst) is admitted into the system, the code channel(s)
levels in the corresponding information slots. The NC- which guarantee the QoS requirements of the traffic will
PRMA access scheme is suitable for wireless multimedia be reserved for the terminal until its last packet is
communications. The reasons are summarized twofold: transmitted. Unless a "reserved" terminal is informed by
One is due to its excellent design of the time–frequency the BS of the change of slot allocation, the terminal will
signaling mechanism that offers an easy way for terminals automatically continue to use the previous slot allocation
to inform their bandwidth demand to the BS without scheme. As such, in contrast to the scheduling based MAC
collision and the other is the operation of centralized protocols, the downlink signaling overhead can be
control over a slot allocation policy. Thus, using NC- mitigated. At the end of every frame, the BS examines the
PRMA as the underlying TDMA architecture, joint slot allocation status and reallocates the reserved terminals
CDMA/NC-PRMA protocol is a centralized and frame- if necessary.
based protocol, which enables us to design two slot- Taking the delay-insensitive nature of the NRT traffic into
assignment schemes to further reduce the MAI variation. account, we schedule the NRT terminals to transmit with
lower priority compared to RT traffic flows, in which the
3.7 Explicit CDMA/PRMA packets have to be discarded if exceeding the time-out
value. After allocating all the RT traffic using the packet
An explicit code-division multiple access/ packet- scheduling algorithm, the BS will select an NRT terminal
reservation multiple access (CDMA/PRMA) [11] protocol to transmit if there are still available code channels. No
is proposed in response to the disadvantage of the reservation applies to NRT terminals. This procedure will
conventional CDMA/PRMA protocol, the permission continue until all the free code channels have been filled or
probability of which estimated from the channel access no NRT packets are backlogged.
function limits the access efficiency when the overall Although the NRT terminals need to wait longer when the
system load remains low. traffic load is heavy, the RT terminals benefit, and in turn
In explicit CDMA/PRMA, the slot assigned to a the overall performance of JPPS is considerably improved,
contention success mobile terminal is no longer in the when the traffic load is below a certain threshold.
www.IJCSI.org 312
th
Networks”, 17 National Radio Science Conference, Minufiya
University, Egypt, Feb. 22-24, 2000.
3.9 PRMA with Random contention [4] Ka-Chung Lai and Xi-Ren Cao, “Analysis of Packet Reservation
Multiple Access for Data Transmission”, IEEE 2001, pp. 711-715
PRMA with random contention [13] does not depend on a [5] Giuseppe Bianchi, Flaminio Borgonovo, Luigi Fratta, Luigi
predetermined permission probability as in the original Musumeci, and Michele Zorzi, Member, IEEE, “C-PRMA: A
Centralized Packet Reservation Multiple Access for Local Wireless
PRMA. In this method, terminals select the contention slot Communications”, IEEE Transactions On Vehicular Technology,
uniformly from the pool of remaining free slots in the Vol. 46, No. 2, May 1997, pp. 422-436.
current frame. [6] Deborah A. Dyson and Zygmunt J. Haas, “A Dynamic Packet
Contention scheme in PRMA is based on permission Reservation Multiple Access scheme for Wireless ATM”, IEEE
1997, pp. 687-693.
probability, terminal that has packets to transmit can [7] Zhu Shi-ding, Nie Jing-nan, Yan Ming-sheng, “DDPRMA: A
contend on the slot only if it has a permission to contend, Dynamic Distributed PRMA for Distributed Wireless Networks”,
this type of contention is useful for avoiding collision. For 2010 IEEE, pp. 307-311.
maximum system capacity, permission probability should [8] Youshi Xu, “CS-PRMA/AP: Carrier Sense Packet Reservation
Multiple Access with Adaptive Permission Probability”, 2000
be small because increasing this permission probability IEEE, pp. 892- 899.
leads to excessive number of collisions. Also reducing the [9] Alex E. Brand, A. Hamid Aghvami, “Performance of the Joint
permission probability beyond a certain value leads to a CDMA/PRMA Protocol for Voice Transmission in a Cellular
poor utilization for free slots. Environment”, 1996 IEEE, pp. 621-625.
[10] Jyh-Horng Wen, Member, IEEE, Jenn-Kaie Lain, and Yu-Wen Lai,
PRMA with random contention reduces the number of “Performance Evaluation of a Joint CDMA/NC-PRMA Protocol for
simultaneous contention on a specific available slot. This Wireless Multimedia Communications”, IEEE Journal on selected
random contention scheme is based on the fact that areas in communications, Vol. 19, No.1, January 2001, pp. 95-106.
available slots are known in advance. Therefore, rather [11]Q. Liang, “Explicit CDMA/PRMA in cellular environment,”
Electronics Letters, vol. 36, no. 24, November 2000, pp. 2038-2040
than allowing all ready active stations to contend on the [12] Feng Shu, Taka Sakurai, Moshe Zukerman, Mansoor Shafi, “A
first available slot, we limit this number of simultaneous Joint PRMA and Packet Scheduling MAC Protocol for Multimedia
contention by allowing for each active terminal to select its CDMA Cellular Networks”, IEEE 16th International Symposium on
expected available slot randomly from the pool of Personal, Indoor and Mobile Radio Communications, 2005, pp.
2216-2220.
remaining free slots in the current frame. The new scheme [13] Ahed Al-Shanyour, Ashraf Mahmoud, Tarek Sheltami, and Salman
still has the maximum capacity that is reached by the A. AlQahtani, “Packet Reservation Multiple Access (PRMA) with
permission contention scheme. Random Contention”, 2007 IEEE, pp. 158-164
The main features of this approach are reducing average [14] Qi Zhang, Villy B. Iversen, Frank H.P. Fitzek, “Throughput and
Delay Performance Analysis of Packet Aggregation Scheme for PRMA”,
packet delay at high traffic rates and reducing number of The 18th Annual IEEE International Symposium on Personal, Indoor and
wasted slots for low traffic rates. Mobile Radio Communications, 2007.
4. Conclusion
This paper presents a classification of MAC protocols for
wireless networks. PRMA can be viewed as a combination
of TDMA and slotted ALOHA protocols. PRMA can also
be seen as a kind of statistical multiplexing scheme.
Statistical multiplexing gain comes from the fact that
speech terminals are equipped with speech activity
detectors and thus they transmit packets only during
talkspurts. The characteristics of PRMA for different
traffic types and different variations of PRMA protocol are
also presented in this paper.
References
[1] Sunil Kumar, Vineet S. Raghavan, Jing Deng, “Medium Access
Control protocols for ad hoc wireless networks: A Survey”, Ad Hoc
Networks 4(2006), pp. 326-358.
[2] D. J. Goodman, R. A. Valenzuela, K. T. Gayliard, and B.
Ramamurthi,“Packet reservation multiple access for local wireless
communications,” IEEE Trans. Commun., vol. 37, no. 8, 1989, pp.
885–890.
[3] Nawal A. El-fishawy, “Evaluation of the Packet Reservation Multiple
Access Protocol for supporting Multimedia Services over Wireless
www.IJCSI.org 313
Rule based Word Morphology Generation Framework

Ramchandra P. Bhavsar1, B. V. Pawar1
1
Department of Computer Science, North Maharashtra University
Jalgaon, Maharashtra 425 001, India
computing power these days, hence storing possible forms

Abstract of a given root word is not a bad idea. It additionally helps
Lexical resources are very crucial for any NLP research as well to speed up the overall processing time, as the time
as applications. The richness of a Lexical resource depends not required for morphological analysis can be saved. In the
only on the coverage of words but also on the coverage of their context of web based application, speed matters over
morphological forms. As keying in all word forms(morphology) storage because a web application is constrained by other
for each word can be monotonous and mechanical exercise,
operational parameters like response time etc. Optimized
hence automatic generation of the word morphology should be
important agenda for Lexicon creation tools, in general and more data design as discussed in [09] can be used to avoid
specific for Indian languages, which are morphologically very redundancy in storage. Morphology is an important branch
rich as compared to English. In our ongoing effort of developing of Linguistics, which has attracted special attention of
Hindi to Marathi Machine Translation (MT) system, we have researchers after the evolution of Computational
developed a rule based framework for generating morphology for Linguistics and NLP applications on computers. Word
a given root (stem) word. The framework relies on rules for morphology refers to obtaining different word forms of a
generating morphology. We have devised a generic format of root word due to change in grammatical attributes like
rule, which caters for necessary grammatical information as gnp, case or change in lexical category by attaching
required for generating word morphology for specified language.
affixes to the root word. There are two types/forms of
The framework can generate both inflectional as well as
derivational morphology of a given word s.t. satisfaction of rule morphology viz. inflectional and derivational morphology.
constraints. The rule management, rule selection and choice of In inflectional morphology, new word forms are obtained
selecting correct word forms are some of the important features by inflecting the root words by changing their grammatical
of the framework. features like gender, number, person(gnp) and case. While
Keywords: in derivational morphology new word forms of different
Word morphology, inflectional morphology, derivational lexical category are derived from root word viz.
morphology, morphology generation framework, morphology adjectives from noun, nouns from verb etc. [3]. In nutshell
rule. inflectional or derivational morphology can be obtained by
conjoining prefixes/suffixes to the root word (stem). In
some cases few characters at the beginning or end of the
1. Introduction word, are required to be trimmed before conjoining new
prefixes/suffixes (mostly with inflectional morphology).
The advent of Internet has resurged interests in NLP due
Word ending symbol(s) plays crucial role (for Indian
to which rich lexical resources are in high demand.
languages), for deciding trimming operation. For certain
Lexicon is one of the important resources for NLP
set of words, morphological generation is not possible
research and applications. A lexicon generally contains
through any rule based approach and they are out of scope
possible grammatical information about a given word like
its lexical category, gnp(gender, number, person) features of this paper. E.g. गाय, बैल etc. Description on obtaining
and semantic features etc. Richness of lexicon depends the exact morphological forms for classes of words
not only on coverage of words, but also on the coverage of belonging to various lexical categories can be found in
their morphological forms. Keying in all morphological linguistic literature [5], [6], [7], [8]. From computational
forms of a given word in computer can become monotonic point paradigm based approach has been discussed in
and mechanical very soon. The issue becomes severe for [1],[2] and [4]. After going through linguistic and
languages which are morphologically rich like languages computational aspects as discussed in [5], [6], [7], [8] and
of the Indian language family. Hence automatic generation [1],[2], we came up with an idea of building a rule based
of word forms based on inflectional and derivational generic framework for generating the inflectional and
morphology should be an important agenda for the lexicon derivational morphology. This framework has been built
creation tools. Also as the storage is getting cheaper than as part of lexicon creation tool for creating Lexicon for the
www.IJCSI.org 314
proposed Hindi-Marathi MT system. The following of subtype botanical. This way, subcategories and
sections of the paper discuss the objectives, approach and subtypes for each lexical category have been created.
difficulties, implementation and testing of the framework. Table 1. shows the summary of the same as of today for
Hindi as well as Marathi Lexicon. The design is adaptive
so that new lexical category or subcategory or subtype can
be defined with ease and becomes part of the master data
2. Approach of the framework. Hence the numbers given in following
table should not be treated as final.
Our approach is inspired from the paradigm based
approach as discussed in [1], [2] and [4]. We have tried to Table 1. Source Lexicon summary
extend the paradigm based approach in the sense that it
uses rules coded using rule format as discussed in 3.1. Our Lexical category
approach follows the lexical representation as discussed in Lexical Subcategory Subtype
2.1. In our approach the rule format is used to represent Category
inflectional as well as derivational rules. Implementation Subcategory
idea has been inspired from ERP systems, which are Noun 03 21
highly configurable and have open system architecture, Adjective 03 12
which allows easy integration of different functional Subtype Verb 02 06
modules. The rule format designed here is flexible enough
to include rules for different languages. The objective Pronoun 07 05
behind this framework is to develop a rule driven Fig. 1 Lexical Hierarchy Adverb 04 --
framework in which morphology rules are stored in
database table in the generic format such that rules of
different languages should be accommodated seamlessly.
After rules are created, appropriate rules are applied to 3. Implementation
root(stem) word depending on its’ lexical category, word
After deciding the approach and basic lexical
ending symbol, case and gnp feature. After going through
representation, implementation strategy was worked out.
the linguistic literature on the topic [5], [6], [7], [8], it is
The formal Rule specification, rule application algorithm
found that that a rule described in the literature may or
and output specification are the important aspects of the
may not be applicable to all words in that lexical category
implementation strategy. The framework has been
but is applicable to only subset of words with some
implemented on Microsoft .NET platform 2.0 using
common traits or subclass under that lexical category,
VB.NET & MS SQL server 2005 RDBMS.
catering for this difficulty only lead to further clue for
designing the lexical organization. The following section 3.1 Rule specification
describes the lexical organization adopted for this
framework. Design of rule format caters for different operational as
well grammatical attributes required to generate word
forms. Basically rule specification has two sides viz.
2.1 Lexical representation
source and target, source refers to input word for the rule,
Considering the above issues, three levels deep hierarchy while target refers to new word formed after applying rule
for representing lexical categories (as depicted in fig.1) on source word. Rule includes lexical category of the
has been proposed and implemented. In this hierarchy source word, word ending symbol(s), gnp feature, case,
lexical category is at the root level, while subcategory of tam(tense, aspect, mood) for verbs, semantic features,
the lexical category and subtype are at second and third characters to be trimmed from source word, prefix/suffix
level, respectively. E.g. Noun lexical category can be sub to be conjoined, gnp feature of target word, case,
categorized as Common noun, Proper noun, Abstract noun semantic features, etc. the detailed rule specification is
etc. and each sub category can be further classified into described in Table 2.
subtypes under that sub category; e.g. Common Nouns for Use of wild card (‘*’) notation, reversible application of
instance can be classified as person, location, botanical rule are the prominent features of the rule specification,
entity etc. To specify a lexical category of the word; along which are useful in rule selection and application. With
with its’ subcategory and subtype, a notation of the form this representation of rule, we can generate the various
A.B.C has been devised, where A, B, and C are the lexical forms of word by changing either of the values of gnp,
category, subcategory and subtype respectively. E.g. case or TAM (in case of verbs). Mostly gender, number
Noun.CommonNoun.botanical represents a common noun and case play important role for generating word
www.IJCSI.org 315
morphology for Indian Languages. The case field can also ordering of rules. The example rule(Fig. 2) is used to used
be used to specify vibhakti markers for languages like to create feminine singular direct case form for, ‘आ’
Marathi, in which vibhakti marker is conjoined with noun ending Hindi common nouns used to denote ‘persons’
to form Saamanyarupa. Though some fields like semantic
feature, Person etc. as such don’t play major role in (व्यक्तीवाचक).
forming new word form, still they have been included
because, they are required for full specification of the Illustration For Hindi word लडका(boy) which is
target word form and rule selection. The same rule format masculine, singular, direct case, if we apply example rule
can be used to denote the derivational morphology, in discussed in Fig. 2, we get लडकी which is feminine,
which we can derive word form with different lexical singular, direct case with same semantic feature as source
category than source i.e. deriving adjectives from nouns word counterpart.
and nouns from adjectives etc.
Same way, we can also frame Derivational rules from the
The framework allows rule management by facilitating linguistic literature [5], [6], [7], [8] for deriving various
addition, deletion and updation of rules. Rules can be lexical categories from other categories.
extracted from literature and framed in to above format.
The two count fields are helpful to decide strike rate (% of
success) of given rule and useful in rule selection or
Table 2. Rule specification
Rule Fields Description

Language The Natural Language, which this rule is representing
Morphology Type Whether rule represents Inflectional or Derivational morphology rule? I-Inflectional, D-Derivational
Affix type Type of affix i.e. prefix or suffix
Source Word Lexical category of input word Eg. Noun, Adjective, etc.
category
Target Word Lexical category of new word Eg. Noun, Adjective, etc.
category
Source lexical Category symbol of input word specified in A.B.C notation. Wild card notation,’*’ can be used to represent all
category symbol values for either subcategory or subtype. Eg. Noun.AbstractNoun.feeling, Noun.CommonNoun.*, Noun.*.* etc.
Target lexical Category symbol of new word specified in A.B.C notation. Wild char notation * can be used as described
category symbol above.
Source word ending Word ending symbol(s) for source word
symbol(s)
Target word ending Word ending symbol(s) for target word.
symbol(s)
Source Semantic The semantic features of the input word to be matched while extracting rules.
Features
Target Semantic The proposed semantic features for the target word.
Features
Source word Prefix/suffix to be attached to input word after trimming.
prefix/suffix
Target word Prefix/suffix to be attached to target word after trimming. This is used to obtain the input word and used if given
prefix/suffix rule is to be applied in reverse order i.e. source and target sides of rule are swapped.
GNP, Case attribute of the input word; required to match with input word, if one of the parameter is to be
Source GNP, Case
ignored while matching then wild char expression * can be used.
GNP, Case of the generated new word, the same are used for matching while deriving transitive rules from the
Target GNP, Case current rule and if reverse operation is to be applied. If one of the parameter is to be ignored while matching
then wild card expression * can be used.
Used only for verb stems.TAM features to be matched with verb stems, if one of the parameter is to be ignored
Source TAM while matching then wild card expression * can be used.
TAM features of the generated verb form, same are used for matching while deriving transitive rules from the
Target TAM
current rule and if reverse operation is to be applied on current rule. If one of the parameter is to be ignored
while matching then wild card expression * can be used.
www.IJCSI.org 316
No. of characters to be trimmed from the stem word, before applying the rule(used only during forward i.e.
Source Trimming source to target; application of rule). The characters are trimmed either from front side or rear side of source
characters word depending upon the Affix Type field of rule i.e. prefix or suffix.
-ve → removes no. of character(s) from input word, 0 → do nothing, +ve → add no. of character(s) to input
word
No. of characters to be trimmed from the target word(applicable, only if rule is applied in reverse)
Target Trimming -ve → removes no. of character(s) from the target word, 0 → do nothing, +ve → add no. of character(s) to the
characters target word. The characters are trimmed either from front side or rear side of target word depending upon the
Affix Type field of rule i.e. prefix or suffix
Whether this rule can be applied in reverse manner i.e. target side of rule is treated as source and source as
Reverse Operation
target.
Success count Count representing successful application(s) of rule.
Failure count How many times rule could not generate desired output on application
Affix Morph Lex. Category Semantic Aff T GNPC Rev

Type category Notation Feature C
Inflec – sNoun Nn.CmnNn.p Animate ◌ा -1 MS*D T
Suffix tionl Human
tNoun Nn.CmnNn.p Animate ◌ी -1 FS*D
Human
Aff-Affix, TC- trimming characters, GNPC- Gender, Number, Person, Case, Rev- Reverse operation, sNoun- Source side noun,
tNoun-Target side noun MS*D- Masculine, Singular, any person, Direct case, T-true
Fig.2 Sample Rule
the rule, by matching

3.2 Algorithm above(original) rule’s lexical
The algorithm devised for generating new word form has category, GNP, Case TAM,
primarily four parts: rule selection, rule application order, recursively for each rule
rule application and rule output. The later is described in above. Mark them as
Section 3.3, The formal specification of the algorithm is as ‘transitive’ rule, and order
follows: the rules by, exact match,
wild card match and valid
Input Stem word, lexical category in count.
A.B.C. notation, GNP Case c. Rule sets obtained in a. and
features,semantic Features b. are merged retaining their
(animate-animal,animate-human
order.
,abstract, honorific, locative,
Instrumental), Rule data base. 2. Rule Application
For each rule in rule set
Output Possible word forms based on
qualified rules. i)Form morphed word from the
1. Rule extraction rule specification by
a. Get all rules matching lexical trimming the required
category, GNP,Case, semantic characters from input word
feature, word ending symbol(s) and conjoining the affix to
of input word, mark them as input word.
‘original’, and order the ii) Initialize other features of
rules by, exact match, wild morphed word as specified in
card match and valid count. rule. Add morphed word to
b. Get additional rules by output if not already added
transitivity based upon above by other rule.
fetched rules i.e. find new 3. From the output list, save
set of rules where target side correct word forms with their
features are on source side in full specification. Update the
www.IJCSI.org 317
success and failure count for the from verbs also have been created. Both types of rules
rules depending upon whether the have been successfully applied to sample words. Table 3
word form was saved or not by shows the summary of rules in the database.
user. Facility for editing is
also provided (if required), in
which case success count is not 5. Features and Applications
updated.
The framework has following features/applications:
Stop after all rules are applied. i) It can be integrated with lexicon creation tool to
generate inflectional as well as derivational word
3.3 Output specification morphology. Since the framework automates the
process of word generation and its grammatical
The framework generates number of word forms for the
specification, the time and efforts required, to key-in
matching rules extracted from database, all attributes
possible word forms for given root word , are saved.
related to lexical category, category symbol, gnp feature,
ii) Rule creation process is user friendly and use of wild
case, tam(in case of verb), semantic features for newly
card notation (‘*’) makes the rules flexible and
formed word are specified in the output. In spite of
powerful.
stringent rule specification and application procedures, a
iii) Like in [2], data is stored in Unicode format, hence
rule may not fit for a given input stem word even though it
font related dependencies are completely avoided.
qualifies hence for such exceptions; generated word form
iv) Can be used for creating dictionaries/language
might not be correct. Thus all output words are shown to
tutoring tools.
user in a grid for his perusal, after which he/she can
v) Rules can also be used for morphological analysis.
choose the correct word forms for saving to lexicon for
vi) Framework generates statistical data about usage of
further use. The success or failure count for a rule is
rules, which can be useful to understand language
updated depending on selection of word form generated
phenomenon by the linguists.
by that rule.
6. Conclusions
4. Testing The framework has been successfully tested to generate
So far we have tested the framework for both Hindi & prefix and suffix based inflectional and derivational
Marathi languages for inflectional as well as derivational morphology of declinable words of Hindi and Marathi
Language. The framework uses Unicode to store data,
Table 3. Rule Summary
which makes it easy to use the data on different platforms.
Selection of Morphology rules through transitivity helps to
morphology. Extensive Rules for inflectional morphology generate multiple word forms in one go. The framework
have been created for lexical categories like noun, verb also provides the facilities for rule management. The rule
and adjectives for Hindi as compared to Marathi, where creation process is simple and user friendly. Use of this
we are in initial stage of creating rules. Derivational rules framework can ease in lexicon creation process. Lastly the
rules for English and other Indian languages can also be
framed and tested using this framework as part of future
Morphology Total
Language
Type
Lexical Category
Rules work.
Noun 51
Inflectional Adjective 14
Verb 28 Acknowledgments
Hindi Noun→ Noun 09
Derivational Noun→ Adjective 19 We are thankful to Dr. Hemant Darbari, Executive Director, C-
Adjective→ Noun 05 DAC, Pune for his moral support, valuable inputs for this work.
Verb→Noun 03
Inflectional Noun 76
Adjective 10 References
Marathi Noun→ Noun 15 [1] Akshar Bharati, Vineet Chaitanya and Rajeev Sangal. 1995.
Derivational Noun→ Adjective 05 Natural Language Processing: A Paninian Perspective,
Adjective→ Noun 15 Prentice-Hall of India, New Delhi. ISBN: 81-203-0921-9
Verb→ Noun 04
for deriving adjective from noun and vice-versa, nouns
www.IJCSI.org 318
[2] V. Goyal and G. S. Lehal, " Hindi Morphological Analyzer

and Generator, ICETET Proceedings of the 2008 IEEE
International Conference on Emerging Trends in
Engineering and Technology. IEEE Computer Society
Press, Washington, DC, USA (2008), pp1156-1159.
[3] Hausser, Roland, Foundations of Computational
Linguistics, Human-Computer Communication in Natural
Language. 2nd Edition, part-III, Chap.13, Sprinter, Berlin,
New York , 2001, ISBN: 978-3-540-42417-8.
[4] P.H. Mattews, Foundations of language, Vol. 1, No. 4, pp.
268-289, Nov., 1965, Springer.
[5] Omkar Kaul, Modern Hindi Grammar, Dunwoody Press,
Springfield, USA, 2008 ISBN978-1-931546-06-5.
[6] Rajashree Pandharipande, Marathi, Rutledge New York,
1997, ISBN 0-415-00319-9.
[7] Pandit Kamata Prasad Guru(1920), Hindi Grammar (in
Hindi), NagariPracharani Sabha, 11th edition, Varanasi(UP),
India.
[8] M. K. Damale[1911], Scientific Marathi Grammar (in
Marathi), Damodar Sawalaram and company, Pune(MS),
India (1965 edition).
[9] R. P. Bhavsar , B. V. Pawar, ”Lexical Organization: A
concern for NLP”, in the proceedings of NCAC-2011 at
North Maharahstra University, Jalgaon(MS) 24-25 Feb
2011, ISBN:978-81-910591-2-0, pp.289-292
Ramchandra P. Bhavsar did his Master of Computer

Application(MCA) in 1995 from the Department of Computer
Science, North Maharashtra University, Jalgaon(MS), India. He
started his career with the Department of Computer Science as
Lecturer then he joined the Applied Artificial Intelligence(AAI)
group at the Center for Development of Advance Computing(C-
DAC), Pune, worked with AAI, C-DAC, Pune as MTS(Member
Technical Staff) from 1997-2000, where he worked on English to
Hindi MT system named MANTRA (Machine Assisted
Translation). After that he joined the Computer Centre at North
Maharashtra University, Jalgaon as System Analyst and became
Reader in Computer Science in 2007 in the Department of
Computer Science. The MANTRA project was nominated for
Computer World Smithsonian Award in 1999.He is member of
Linguistic Society of India. His research interests; include Machine
Translation, NL parsing, Morphology and IT systems, Internet
Computing.
B. V. Pawar did his B.E. in Production Engineering from V.J.T.I.

Mumbai in 1986, his M.Sc.in Computer Science from University of
Mumbai in 1988 and his Ph.D. in Computer Science from North
Maharashtra University, Jalgaon in 2000.Currently he is working
and Professor and Head in the Department of Computer Science,
North Maharashtra University, Jalgaon. He has supervised 05 Ph.
D. theses. His research Interests include Natural Language
Processing, Web Technologies, Information Retrieval, Web Mining
etc.
www.IJCSI.org
E-government Frameworks Survey

A.M. Riad 1, Hazem M. El-Bakry 2 and Gamal H. El-Adl3
1
Information Systems Department, Mansoura University,
Mansoura, Egypt
2
Mansoura, Egypt
3
Mansoura, Egypt
Abstract
This article presents survey of different e-government interact and receive services from the federal, state or local
frameworks. After the new technologies that have been happened governments twenty four hours a day, seven days a week
in the last decade therefore all countries move towards updating [7,8].
and developing their government into electronic government (e-
government). E-Government has become a global phenomenon.
There have been some great innovations in e-government over
the last decade. Some governments compete for leadership in E-government involves the use of information and
offering online services. In this paper more than evaluation communication technologies (ICTs) to support
criteria that determine the overall development of its e- government operations and provide government services
government plan. The importance of citizen/end user [5].
satisfaction of the e-government e-services is a new parameter
that affects e-government objectives. It is expected that the In this work, a survey of most common frameworks for
performance of e-government framework is more effective if and different e-government is presented. By discussing e-
only if takes into its consideration. government components. The aim is to utilize its
Keywords: Decision Support Systems (DSS), Frameworks,
components to help developers of e-government to
electronic-government (e-government)
integrate its components within their e-governments.
1. Introduction This paper is organized as follows. Section 2 presents

general e-government definitions. Section 3 summarizes e-
E-government allows the public access for government government: lessons of experience. Section 4 describes
information and services 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, survey of most common e-government frameworks. The
and provides the potential for government to discussion of the survey is given in section 5. Finally the
fundamentally restructure its operation. E-government is
conclusion is presented in section 6.
expected to improve government service delivery; increase
public participation in government; and provide society as
a whole with easier and greater access to government
information and services by providing information to the
2. E-government Definitions
public, allowing the public to report problems on line, and
E-government is defined as: government activities that
providing the public with the ability to purchase, request,
or otherwise obtain government services on line. take place over electronic communications among all
levels of government, citizens, and the business
While definitions of e-government by various sources may community, including: acquiring and providing products
vary widely, there is a common theme. E-government and services; placing and receiving orders; providing and
involves using information technology, and especially the obtaining information; and completing financial
Internet, to improve the delivery of government services to transactions [1]. E-government is the continuous
citizens, businesses, and other government agencies to optimization of service delivery, constituency participation
www.IJCSI.org
and governance by transforming internal and external 4. Comparison of Common E-government

relationships through technology, the Internet and new Frameworks
media. This includes government to citizen, government to
employee, government to business, and government to New Zealand proposed e-government framework was
government. planed eleven years ago. Its framework architecture
composed of two trends; as in fig. 1 the first trend is the
There are numbers of definitions for e-government in the integration between people and business through access
literature. Turban et al. [2] defined e-government as: “The channel layer such as mail, portals, sub-portals, call
use of information technology in general and e-commerce centers and TV,…..etc. The business processes
in particular, to provide citizens and organizations with represented as education, health, business services and
more convenient access to government information and environment, etc. The second trend is used as the common
services, and to provide delivery of public services to foundation at all others layer like application layer,
citizens, business partners and suppliers, and those policies and standards layer, services layer, information
working in the public sector”. David McClure’s [3] technology layer and data/information layer[3].
defined:” Electronic government refers to government’s
use of technology, particularly web-based Internet
applications to enhance the access to the delivery of
government information and services to citizens, business
partners, and employees, other agencies and entities”. Also
Milford considers e-government as any way technology is
used to help simplify and automate transactions between
government and constituents, businesses, or other
governments [4, 5].
3. E-Government: Lessons of Experience

We accessed many different forums for e-governments
frameworks. We summarized the lessons from
professional e-government developers as the following:
1) E-government cannot perform as a substitute for

governance reform
2) E-government must address the rural urban
divide
3) Manage expectations: e-government is not a Fig. 1 New Zealand E-government Framework
magic bullet
4) Translating promises to benefits involves difficult Sri Lanka divided its framework layers into three major
organizational changes. architecture layers as in fig. 2. They are application
5) There is no “one size fits all” strategy: the context architecture, data architecture and network architecture.
needs to be understood Application layer represented government internal
6) Balance top direction and bottom up initiative solutions such as e-pension, e-human resource
7) Avoid large failures; deliver early results management (HRM), e-bills and e-tax filling solutions
8) Identify priority interventions that are capable of [6,7].
exploring a country’s competitive advantage,
delivering cross-cutting positive impacts
9) Promote partnerships between government,
private sector, civil society and donors
10) Avoid technology focus: ensure complementary
investment; skills, organizational innovation and
incentives are crucial for making technology
work
11) Emphasize training and capacity building
www.IJCSI.org
Fig. 4 Australia E-government Framework

Fig. 2 Sri Lanka E-government Framework
Australia developed its e-government frameworks based
on three major layers as shown in fig. 4. Its framework
composed of agencies such as commonwealth and local
government that use interoperability framework. The
interoperability framework contains policies and standards
e.g. security, privacy, authentication, data exchange and
web service integration via delivery channels such as
Internet, call centers and shop fronts. There are many
portals that are used to storing and retrieve data in this
framework such as customer portal, subject portal and
government entry points [9, 10].
5. Discussion
After this study we found that every country can develop
any e-government framework plan depending on its
strategy and user satisfaction parameters. There are
Fig. 3 India E-government Framework intersections between the above frameworks such as the
application layer, data portal and network layer. Now
As shown in fig. 3 India e-government framework was where the evaluation method is? That determines the
designed by dividing its framework based on middleware overall development of its e-government plan. Table I
and integrated services enabled between e-India portals summarize the most important criteria's that evaluate e-
and e-government partnerships such as businesses and government frameworks.
citizens through mobile, home PCs and integrated citizen
service centers [4,6-8].
www.IJCSI.org
TABLE I [3] Abdelkader ADLA "A Cooperative Intelligent Decision

Evaluation Criteria Support System for Contingency Management", Journal of
1 Ease of use Computer Science Vol.2, No.10, pp 758-764, 2006.
2 Reliability [4] Roger L. Hayen, "Investigating decision support system
3 Data query and display frameworks", Issues in Information Systems Journal, Vol. 2,
4 Storage and retrieval No.2, 2006.
5 Documentation [5] Backus, M.,"E-Governance and Developing Countries,
6 Reporting Introduction and examples", Research Report, No.3, 2001
7 Speed [6] Sharma, S. K. and Gupta, J. N. D., "Building Blocks of an E-
8 Support decisions Government – A Framework", Journal of Electronic
9 Pricing
Commerce in Organization, Vol.1, No.4, pp 34-48, 2003.
[7] P.Salhofer, and D.Ferbas, "A pragmatic Approach to the
The importance of citizen/end user satisfaction of the Introduction of E-Government", Proc.8, International
e-government e-services is the tenth criteria parameters. It Government Research Conference, 2007.
is expected that the performance of e-government [8] Zhiyuan Fang, "E-government in Digital Era: Concept,
framework is more effective joined into its consideration. Practice, and Development", International Journal of the
The measurement of performance for e-government Computer, the Internet and Management," Vol.10, No.2, pp
summarize in table II. 1-22, 2002.
[9] Shivakumar Kolachalam, "An Overview of E-
government",International Symposium on learning
TABLE II Management and Technology Development in the
Measuring Performance of E-government
Information and Internet Age, online available at
www.ea2000.com, 2003.
Hierarchy Performance measures
LEVEL 1 Return on investment (ROI)
[10] Shailendra C. Jain Palvia, Sushil S.Sharma ",
LEVEL2 Total costs and revenues E.Government and E-Governance: Definitions/Domain
LEVEL3 IMRPVING in quality of planning and control Framework and Status around the World", 5th International
LEVEL4 Quality of decisions Conference on E-governance (ICEG), 2007.
LEVEL5 Value of information
LEVEL6 System characteristics A. M. Riad is the head of information systems department at
Faculty of Computers and Information Systems in Mansoura
University. He has completed his B.Sc. degree in electrical
engineering from Mansoura University in 1982, his master degree
in 1988 and doctoral degree in 1992 in electrical engineering. Main
research points currently are intelligent information systems and e-
government.
6. Conclusion
We have found that the movement to e-government is very Hazem M. El-Bakry (Mansoura, EGYPT 20-9-1970) received
B.Sc. degree in Electronics Engineering, and M.Sc. in Electrical
important for all government to interact with people and Communication Engineering from the Faculty of Engineering,
business transactions. E-government offers a huge Mansoura University – Egypt, in 1992 and 1995 respectively. Dr.
potential to find innovative way to reach the satisfaction of El-Bakry received Ph. D degree from University of Aizu - Japan in
2007. Currently, he is assistant professor at the Faculty of
people in general. Progress of new technologies allows
Computer Science and Information Systems – Mansoura
electronic services to be applied in e-government. This University – Egypt. His research interests include neural networks,
survey is presented especially to the developers of e- pattern recognition, image processing, biometrics, cooperative
government’s plans. So the above e-government intelligent systems and electronic circuits. In these areas, he has
published more than 55 papers in major international journals and
frameworks are the base for developing and maintaining e- 120 papers in refereed international conferences. Dr. El-Bakry has
government. A new parameter was found to improve the the patent No. 2003E 19442 DE HOL / NUR, Magnetic
delivery of e-services established on user stratification. If Resonance, SIEMENS Company, Erlangen, Germany, 2003.
you need to build the best e-government frameworks you Furthermore, he is associate editor for journal of computer science
and network security (IJCSNS) and journal of convergence in
should utilize the intersection of their layers. information technology (JCIT). Furthermore, he is a referee for
IEEE Transactions on Signal Processing, Journal of Applied Soft
References Computing, the International Journal of Machine Graphics &
Vision, the International Journal of Computer Science and Network
[1] Keen, P. and Scott-Morton, M. "Decision Support Systems: Security, Enformatika Journals, WSEAS Journals and many
an organizational perspective", Addison-Wesley Publishing different international conferences organized by IEEE. In addition,
1978. he has been awarded the Japanese Computer & Communication
[2] Karacapidilis, N.I and Pappis, C " A framework for group prize in April 2006. Moreover, he has been selected in who is who
decision support systems: Combining AI tools and OR in Asia 2007 and BIC 100 educators in Africa 2008.
techniques", European Journal of Operational Research, Vol.
103, pp 373-388, 1997.
www.IJCSI.org
Gamal H. El-Adl is a lecturer assistant at Information Systems

department in the faculty of Computer and Information Sciences in
Mansoura University. He has completed his B.Sc. degree in
Information Systems from Mansoura University in 2004 and his
master degree in 2008 under title “Watermarking of Relational
Databases" and his main research points currently are databases,
e-government, and software development.
www.IJCSI.org 324
Image Segmentation Based on a Finite Generalized New

Symmetric Mixture Model with K – Means

1
M.Seshashayee 2K. Srinivas Rao 3Ch. Satyanarayana 4P. Srinivasa Rao
1
Department of CS, GITAM University, Visakhapatnam-5300045, India
2
Department of Statistics, Andhra University, VIsakhapatnam-530003, India
3
Department of CSE, JNTUK, Kakinada, A.P., India
4
Department of CS&SE, College of Engineering, Andhra Univerity, Visakhapatnam-530003, India
Abstract
In this paper a novel image segmentation and retrieval method

segmentation. A more comprehensive discussion on image
based on finite new symmetric mixture model with K-means segmentation is given by (S.K.Pal and N.R.Pal (1993), Jahne
clustering is developed. Here it is considered that pixel (1995), and Cheng et al (2001)). There does not exist a
intensities in each image region follow a new symmetric single algorithm that works for all applications.
distribution. The new symmetric distribution includes platy-
kurtic and meso-kurtic distributions. This also includes Gaussian Model based image segmentation is more efficient
mixture model as a particular case. The number of components compared to the non-parametric methods of segmentation.
(image regions) is obtained through K-means algorithm. The Recently, much emphasis is given for image analysis
model parameters are estimated by deriving the updated through Finite Gaussian Mixture Model (Yamazaki et al.
equations of the EM algorithm. The segmentation of the image (1998), T.Lie et al.(1993), N.Nasios et al.(2006),
is done by maximizing the component likelihood. The
Z.H.Zhang et al.(2003)). In Finite Gaussian Mixture Model
performance of the proposed algorithm is studied by computing
the segmentation performance metrics like, PRI, VOI, and GCE. each image region is characterized by a Gaussian
The ability of this method for image retrieval is demonstrated by distribution and the entire image is considered to be a
computing the image quality metrics for five images namely mixture of these Gaussian components. Here it is assumed
HORSE, MAN, BIRD, BOAT and TOWER. The experimental that the whole image is characterized by Gaussian mixture
results show that this method outperforms the existing model model in which the pixel intensities of each image region
based image segmentation methods. follow a Gaussian distribution. For gray level images the
pixel intensity is the most suitable feature for segmenting the
Keywords: Image segmentation, EM algorithm, New image (S.K.Pal and N.R.Pal, (1993)).
Symmetric Distribution. Image Quality Metrics
However, in finite Gaussian mixture model the pixel
1. Introduction intensities of the image region are considered to be meso-
kurtic and symmetric. But in some images the pixel
Segmentation is the main consideration for image analysis intensities of the image region may not be distributed as
and image retrieval. With segmentation it is possible to meso – kurtic even though they are symmetric. To have a
identify the regions of interest and objects which are more close approximation to the pixel intensities of each
highly useful. Image segmentation is defined as the image region it is needed to consider that the pixel
process of dividing the image into different image regions intensities of each region follow a more general symmetric
such that each region is homogeneous. Image distribution. Srinivasa Rao, et al., (1997) have introduced a
segmentation can be classified into two categories new symmetric distribution which is capable of portraying
namely, parametric and non-parametric image several platy – kurtic distributions. It also includes Gaussian

www.IJCSI.org 325
as a particular case for a specific value of the index The probability density function of the pixel intensity is
parameter. Hence, in this chapter an image segmentation 1 z  2
algorithm is developed and analyzed with the assumption   z  2  2   
r
that the whole image is characterized by a finite mixture 2r    e

of new symmetric distribution in which the pixel f (Z, ,2, r)      ,
1 r r 1
r j j2 1
intensities of each image region follows a new symmetric (2r) (2)  (2r) 2 ( j  )
r 2
distribution. j1  j  2
 Z ,   ,  0
In mixture models one of the important factors is the (1)
number of components K (regions). Usually the number
of components are assumed to be known as apriori . This For different values of the parameters the various shapes of
will generally effect the segmentation results. If this probability curves associated with new symmetric
number deviates from true value of K then the distribution are shown in Figure 1.
misclassification of pixels in the image is very high. To
have a more accurate analysis of the number of regions in
the whole image, the K value is identified through the K –
Means algorithm (Rose H.Turi, (2001)) along with the
histogram of the pixel intensities.
Using the Expectation Maximization (EM) algorithm the

model parameters are estimated. The segmentation
algorithm is developed through maximizing the
component likelihood. The performance of the
segmentation algorithm is evaluated by obtaining
performance measures like PRI, GCE and VOI by Figure1. Frequency curves of new symmetric distribution
applying them on five images HORSE, MAN, BIRD,
BOAT and TOWER. The performance of this algorithm Each value of the shape parameter ‘s’ (= 0,1,2,3,…,) gives a
is compared with the image segmentation algorithm based bell shaped distribution. For r = 0 the equation reduces to a
on Finite Gaussian Mixture Model with K-Means. The normal probability density function with parameter µ and σ
efficiency of it in image retrievals is also studied through .
obtaining the image quality metrics like, average
difference, maximum distance, image fidelity, mean Its central moments are
square error, signal to noise ratio and image quality index
and comparing it with earlier algorithms.  1 r r   j 1 
 (n  )     r (n  j  )  (2)
2 1 
j 2  n 2n
2n  
j
2. Finite Mixture Of New Symmetric 2 
 1 r r  j 1 
Distribution    2     r ( j  ) 
 j1 j  2 
In low level image analysis the entire image is considered
as a union of several image regions. In each image region And 2 n 1  0
the image data is quantized by pixel intensities. The pixel
intensity z = f(x , y) for a given point ( pixel ) (x , y) is a The kurtosis of the distribution is
random variable, because of the fact that the brightness  1 r r   1 r r 
measured at a point in the image is influenced by various 32    rj ( j  1)( j  3)( j  1)2    rj( j  1)
4 j1 j  2 2 2  j1 j  2
random factors like vision, lighting, moisture, 2    
environmental conditions etc,. To model the pixel 2
 1 
intensities the image region it is assumed that the pixel  2 r  r  j 1
    r ( j  )
intensities of the region follows a new symmetric  2 j1 j  2
distribution given by Srinivasa Rao et al., (1997).  
(3)
The entire image is a collection of regions which are

characterized by new symmetric distribution. Here, it is
assumed that the pixel intensities of the whole image follows

www.IJCSI.org 326
a K – component mixture of new symmetric distribution The updated equation of i th
at ( l +1) iteration is
and its probability density function is of the form
1 N
p ( z )   i fi ( z / i, i2 , ri ) i l 1

 t ( z ,
K
(4)  i s
(l )
)
i 1 N s 1
where, K is number of regions , 0 ≤ i ≤ 1 are weights  

1 N  f ( z , ) 
(l ) (l )
such that ∑  i = 1 and fi ( z ,  ,  , r ) is as given in
2
=  K i i s  (7)
N s 1  (l ) 
 
equation ( 1 ). i is the weight associated with ith region  i fi ( zs ,  )
(l )
i 1

in the whole image.
In general the pixel intensities in the image regions are The updated equation of i at ( l +1)th iteration is
statistically correlated and these correlations can be
reduced by spatial sampling (Lie. T and Sewehand. W (
1992 ) ) or spatial averaging ( Kelly P.A. et al.,( 1998 ) ) .  2r  2(l )  z  l  
After reduction of correlation the pixels are considered to N (l ) N (l )
 z t (z ,  )   t (z ,  )  i i s i 2
 2ri i 2(l )   zs  il  
si s i s
be uncorrelated and independent. The mean pixel s 1 s 1
K (l 1)  
intensity of the whole image is E ( Z )   i i . i 
N (l )
i 1  t (z ,  )
s1
i s
(8)
3. Estimation of the Model Parameter by EM
Algorithm where,
 i(l 1) f i ( zs , i(l ) ,  i2  , ri )

In this section we derive the updated equations of the l
model parameters using Expectation Maximization (EM)
algorithm. The likelihood function of the observations z1, ti ( z s ,  ) (l )
f ( zs , i( l ) ,  i2  , ri )
K
 ( l 1) l
z2, z3,…,zN drawn from an image is i i
i 1
N  K 
L ( )      i f i ( z s ,  i )  ,
s 1  i 1 
 2 
2  i 1 zs i 
r  




i  2ri  
 z s  i
 
  e
 
2  i  
 The updated equation of 2i
at ( l +1)th iteration is
    
N K   i   
L( )      

s 1 i 1 ri
1 r r
i    j1
2    i  (2r ) i 2 2 ( j  1 ) 
r j  

 
(2 ) (2  ) (l )
 i i r
j 1 j  i 2 i  2

2  i s
t ( z ,  )
  r i
N ( l 1) 2 1
)  
i (l )

2  (z  

 
 

s i
s 1
(5)  2 2r 
2( l )
 z 
( l 1)
2

 
i i s i
2( l 1)
i 
2
where,   ( ,  , ri ,  ; i  1, 2,..., K ) is the set of
N (l )
 t (z ,  )
i i i s 1
i s
parameters. (9)
 i(l 1) f i ( zs , i(l 1) ,  i2  , ri )

The expectation of the log likelihood function of the (l )
sample is
where, ti ( z s ,  )
(l )
f ( zs , i( l 1) ,  i2  , ri )
K

(l )
Q  ;  = E log L( ) / z 
(l ) ( l 1)
(l ) i i
 i 1
This implies
Q  ; (l )     ti ( zs ,  (l ) )  log f i ( zs ,  )  log  i   (6)
K N
i 1 s 1

www.IJCSI.org 327
i  z and
  ri   j  
4. Initialization of the Parameters K – Means 1
ri
n 
    ri   j  
j 1  j   2

 2
The efficiency of the EM algorithm in estimating the i 
2
1 S
(n-1)  ri
 r 
j
 1   1 
 2 
parameters is heavily dependent on the number of regions
in the image. The number of mixture components initially  
j 1  j i

  ri  j     j   
i j
 2  2 
taken for K – Means algorithm is by plotting the
histogram of the pixel intensities of the whole image. The where, S2 is the sample variance.
number of peaks in the histogram can be taken as the
initial value of the number of regions K. 5. Segmentation Algorithm
The mixing parameters i and the model parameters In this section, we present the image segmentation
algorithm. After refining the parameters the prime step in
µi,  i , ri are usually considered as known apriori. A
2
image segmentation is allocating the pixels to the segments
commonly used method in initializing parameters is by of the image. This operation is performed by Segmentation
drawing a random sample from the entire image Algorithm. The image segmentation algorithm consists of
(Mclanchan G and Peel D (2000)). This method performs four steps.
well if the sample size is large and its computational time
is heavily increased. When the sample size is small, some Step 1) Plot the histogram of the whole image.
small regions may not be sampled. To overcome this
problem we use a K – Means algorithm to divide the Step 2) Obtain the initial estimates of the model parameters
whole image into various homogeneous regions. using K-Means algorithm and moment estimators as
discussed in section 3.
After determining the final values of K (number of
Step 3) Obtain the refined estimates of the model parameters
regions) , we obtain the initial estimates of i ,  i2 , ri by using the EM algorithm with the updated equations given
and i for the ith region using the segmented region by (7), (8) and (9) respectively.
pixel intensities with the method given by Srinivasa
Step 4) Assign each pixel into the corresponding jth region
Rao etal.,(1997) for new symmetric distribution .The
(segment) according to Maximum likelihood of the jth
1 component (Lj).
initial estimate i is taken as i  , where,
K
That is
i=1,2,...,K. The shape parameter r can be estimated
i
through sample kurtosis by using the following equation,  2 
 1  zs   j  
 2

r
 
  zs   j  2  j  
  2r     e ,

 
   j   
L j  max  
jk 
1 r
r j
1
1
 j (2r )r (2) 2     (2r )r  j 2 2 ( j  ) j 
 j 1  j  2 
 
 
 
  zs  ,    j  ,  j  0
By Rockies theorem there is one and only one real root to
this equation. We can take the nearest integer to this real 6. Experimental Results
root as an estimate to the shape parameter r . Knowing To demonstrate the utility of the image segmentation
i
algorithm developed in this chapter, an experiment is
the shape parameter r we can obtain the estimates of the conducted with five images taken from Berkeley images
i
dataset
parameter i and  i2 by method of moments as (http://www.eecs.berkeley.edu/Research/Projects/CS/Vision/
bsds/BSDS300/html). The images HORSE, MAN , BOAT

www.IJCSI.org 328
and TOWER are considered for image segmentation. The
pixel intensities of the whole image are taken as feature.
The pixel intensities of the image are assumed to follow a
mixture of new symmetric distribution. That is, the image
contains K regions and pixel intensities in each image
region follows a new symmetric distribution with
different parameters. The number of segments in each of
the five images considered for experimentation is
determined by the histogram of pixel intensities. The
histograms of the pixel intensities of the five images are
shown in figure 2.
The initial estimates of the number of the regions K in

each image are obtained and given in Table1.
From Table 1, we observe that the image HORSE has two

segments, images TOWER and BIRD have three
segments each and images MAN and BOAT have four
segments each. The initial values of the model parameters
i ,  i2 , ri and  i for i = 1,2,…,K for each image
region are computed by the method given in section 3.
Using these initial estimates and the updated equations of

the EM Algorithm given in Section 3 the final estimates
of the model parameters for each image are obtained and
presented in tables 2.a, 2.b, 2.c, 2.d and 2.e for different
images. Substituting the final estimates of the model parameters, the
probability density function of pixel intensities of each
image is estimated. Using the estimated probability density
functions and the image segmentation algorithm given in
section 5, the image segmentation is done for each of the
five images under consideration. The original and segmented
images are shown in figure 3

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From table 3 it is observed that the PRI values of the

proposed algorithm for the five images considered for
experimentation are less than that of the values from the
segmentation algorithm based on Finite Gaussian Mixture
7. Performance Evaluation Model with K-means. Similarly GCE and VOI values of the
proposed algorithm are less than that of Finite Gaussian
After conducting the experiment with the image Mixture Model. This reveals that the proposed algorithm
segmentation algorithm developed in this chapter, its outperforms the existing algorithm based on the Finite
performance is studied. The performance evaluation of Gaussian Mixture Model. When the kurtosis parameter of
the segmentation technique is carried by obtaining the each component of the model is zero, the model reduces to
four performance measures namely,(i) Probabilistic Rand Finite Gaussian Mixture Model and even in this case the
Index (PRI), (ii) Variation Of Information (VOI) and (iii) algorithm performs well.
Global Consistence Error (GCE). The Rand index given
by Unnikrishnan et al (2005) counts the fraction of pairs After developing the image segmentation method it is
of pixels whose labeling are consistent between the needed to verify the utility of segmentation in the model
computed segmentation and the ground truth. This building of the image for image retrieval. The performance
quantitative measure is easily extended to the evaluation of the retrieved image can be done by subjective
Probabilistic Rand index (PRI) given by Unnikrishnan image quality testing or by objective image quality testing.
and et al (2007). The variation of information (VOI) The objective image quality testing methods are often used
metric given by Meila (2005) is based on relationship since the numerical results of an objective measure allow a
between a point and its cluster. It uses mutual information consistent comparison of different algorithms. There are
metric and entropy to approximate the distance between several image quality measures available for performance
two clustering across the lattice of possible clustering. It evaluation of the image segmentation method. An extensive
measures the amount of information that is lost or gained survey of quality measures is given by Eskicioglu A.M.and
in changing from one clustering to another. The Global Fisher P.S. (1995). For the performance evaluation of the
Consistency Error (GCE) given by D.Martin and et al developed segmentation algorithm, we consider the image
(2001) measures the extent to which one segmentation quality measures a) Average Difference, b) Maximum
map can be viewed as a refinement of segmentation. For a Distance, c) Image Fidelity, d) Mean Square Error, e)
perfect match, every region in one of the segmentations Signal to Noise Ratio and f) Image Quality Index.
must be identical to, or a refinement (i.e., a subset) of, a
region in the other segmentation. Using the estimated probability density functions of the
images under consideration the retrieved images are
The performance of developed algorithm using finite new obtained and are shown in figure 4.
symmetric distribution mixture model (FNSDMM) is
studied by computing the segmentation performance
measures namely, PRI, GCE and VOI for the five
images under study. The computed values of the
performance measures for the developed algorithm and
the earlier existing Finite Gaussian Mixture Model
(FGMM) with K-Means algorithm are presented in
table 3 for a comparative study.

www.IJCSI.org 330
Gaussian Mixture Model as a particular case when the
kurtosis parameter equals to zero. This includes several
The image quality measures are computed for the five platy-kurtic mixture distributions as particular cases. As a
retrieved images HORSE, MAN, BIRD, BOAT and result of this generic nature this algorithm can handle a wide
TOWER using the proposed model and FGMM with K- variety of images. An EM algorithm is developed and used
means and their values are given in the table 4. for estimating the model parameters. In our experimentation
with five images taken from Berkeley image data set, it is
observed that the developed algorithm performs better with
respect to the image segmentation metrics and the image
quality metrics. The hybridization of model based approach
with K-means has improved the accuracy of retrieval. This
algorithm can be utilized for image analysis and retrieval of
grey and colour images more accurately.
References:
[1] Cheng et al (2001) “Color Image Segmentation:
Advances and Prospects” Pattern Recognition, Vo1.34, pp
2259-2281.
[2] D. Martin, C. Fowlkes,D. Tal, and J.Malik, (2001) “

A database of human Segmented natural images
and its application to evaluating segmentation
algorithms and measuring ecological statistics,” in
proceedings of 8th International Conference on Computer
vision, vol.2, pp.416-423.
[3] Eskicioglu M.A and Fisher P.S (1995) “Image Quality

Measures and their Performance”, IEEE Transactions On
Communications, Vol.43, No.12.
[4] Jahne (1995), “ A Practical Hand Book on Image

segmentation for Scientific Applications, CRC Press.
[5] Jeff A.Bilmes (1997), “ A Gentle Tutorial of the EM

Algorithm and its application to Parameter Estimation for
Gaussian Mixture and Hidden Markov Models”,
From the Table 4, it is observed that all the image quality Technical Report, University of Berkeley, ICSI-TR-97-021.
measures for the five images are meeting the standard
criteria. This implies that using the proposed algorithm [6] Lie. T and Sewehand.W(1992), “ Statistical approach to
the images are retrieved accurately. A comparative of X-ray CT imaging and its applications in image analysis”,
study of proposed algorithm with that of algorithm based IEEE Trans. Med. Imag. Vol.11, No.1, Pg 53-61.
on Finite Gaussian Mixture Model reveals that the MSE
of the proposed model is less than that of the Finite [7] Kelly .P.A et al(1988), “ Adaptive segmentation of
Gaussian Mixture Model. Based on all other quality speckled images using a hierarchical random field
metrics also it is observed that the performance of the model”. IEEE Transactions Acoust. Speech. Signal
proposed model in retrieving the images is better than the Processing, Vol.36, No.10, Pg.1628-1641.
Finite Gaussian Mixture Model.
[8] Mclanchlan G. And Krishnan T(1997)., “ The EM
8. Conclusions Algorithm and Extensions”, John Wiley and Sons, New
York -1997.
In this paper we propose an unsupervised image
segmentation algorithm based on finite new symmetric [9] Mclanchlan G. and Peel.D(2000), “ The EM Algorithm
mixture model with K-means clustering. The finite For Parameter Estimations”, John Wiley and Sons, New
mixture of new symmetric distribution includes Finite York -2000.

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[10] M.Meila, (2005) “ Comparing Clustering – An
axiomatic view,” in proceedings of the 22nd
International Conference on Machine Learning, pp. [17] “The Berkeley segmentation dataset”
577-584. http://www.eecs.berkeley.edu/Research/Projects/
[11] Nasios, N., A.G.Bors,(2006) “ Variational learning CS/vision/bsds/BSDS300/html/dataset/images.html.
for Gaussian Mixtures”, IEEE Transactions on
Systems, Man, and Cybernatics - Part B : Cybernatics, [18] T. Yamazaki (1998), “ Introduction of EM
Vol36(4), pp849-862.
algorithm into color image segmentation,” in
[12] Pal S.K. and Pal N.R(1993), “ A Review On Image
Proceedings of ICIRS’98, pp. 368–371.
Segmentation Techniques”, Pattern Recognition, Vol.26,
N0.9, pp 1277-1294.
[19] T.Lie et al.(1993), “ Performance evaluation of
[13] R.Unnikrishnan, C,Pantofaru, and M.Hernbert
Finite normal mixture model based image
( 2007), “ Toward objective evaluation of image
segmentation algorithms,” IEEE Trans.Pattern Analysis segmentation, IEEE Transactions on Image processing, Vol
and Machine Intelligence . Vol.29, no.6, pp.929-944,
.12(10), pp 1153-1169.
[14] RoseH.Turi.(2001), “ Cluster Based Image
Segmentation”, phd Thesis, Monash University, [20] Z.H.Zhang et al (2003)., “ EM Algorithms for
Australia.
Gaussian Mixtures with Split-and- merge
[15] Srinivas Rao. K,C.V.S.R.Vijay Kumar, J.Lakshmi Operation”, Pattern Recognition, Vol. 36(9),pp1973-1983
Narayana, (1997) ” On a New Symmetrical
Distribution ”, Journal of Indian Society for Agricultural
Statistics, Vol.50(1), pp 95-102.
[16] Srinivas. Y and Srinivas Rao. K (2007),

“Unsupervised image segmentation using finite
doubly truncated Gaussian mixture model and
Hierarchial clustering ”, Journal of Current
Science,Vol.93,No.4, pp.507-514.

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An Insight to Build an E-Commerce Website with
OSCommerce
V.Srikanth1, Dr.R.Dhanapal, Ph.D2.,
1
Assistant Professor / MCA Dept
PES Institute of technology,
Bangalore-560085, India
2
Professor, PG & Research ,Department of Computer Applications
Easwari Engineering College, Ramapuram
Chennai -6000 89, Tamilnadu, India
Abstract products, market their products, distribute them and provide

For many people who use computers in their day to day life to customer support, generating revenue for them along the way.
conduct their business, don’t have time or spend good time to
develop clear idea or to leverage the latest internet applications Customers first have to identify a need for something, whether
or technologies, to promote their products and services to it is a physical product, a service or information. Then they
generate more revenue. must look for information about that product or service, find
places that sell it, and compare the options they have found
We all know Dell, Amazon, eBay and many others are the (Prices, service, reputation, and so on) before they actually
most successful enterprises which have grown worldwide and purchase the product.
conduct their billion dollar businesses successfully now-a-
days. Making a sale might also involve negotiating the price,
quantity, terms of delivery, and may be even some legal
It’s my intention to analyze the critical success factors for issues. And the sales cycle does not end with the delivery of
building an ecommerce website for all business people which the product or service, either. Customer support adds more
is easy to understand and start working on it by creating a steps while working to the benefit of both parties – customers
global presence in WWW. get what they need to keep their products performing well and
suppliers learn more about their market needs. Meanwhile
This paper is all about electronic commerce framework, banks and other financial institutions handle the transfer of
business models, payment systems, security and promoting a funds between buyers and sellers, whether they are individual
web site by using popular open source OSCommerce. consumers or large multi-national corporations.
Keywords: E-Commerce, e-tailing, Electronic commerce,
Online store, retail, e business Once we realize how many tasks and processes are involved in
traditional commerce, you discard the simplistic definition of
1. Introduction commerce as just buying and selling of products. You should
also discard the equally simplistic definition of electronic
Electronic Commerce, too many is defined as buying and commerce as merely the conducting of business transactions
selling of products and services over the internet; however, over electronic networks instead of paper, telephones,
there are many more aspects as we shall see. From its couriers, trucks, planes and other means of moving products
inception, electronic commerce has included the handling of and information.
purchase transactions and fund transfers over computer
networks. It has grown now to include buying and selling of Electronic commerce is a system that includes not only those
commodities such as electronic information. Before we define transactions that center buying and selling goods and services
e-commerce, let us take a look at traditional commerce. to directly generate revenue, but also those transactions that
support revenue generation, such as generating demand for
To meet the needs of the market place, businesses design, those goods and services, offering sales support and customer
procure machineries, raw materials and manufacture new

www.IJCSI.org 333
service, or facilitating communications between business supplying goods to the retailer or wholesaler. E.g.
partners. www.indiaplaza.in is a online store, which sells popular
branded products to consumer, where its supply chain network
1. Ecommerce Business Models is directly linked to the Manufacturer. Hence Business to
business model
3. Consumer to Consumer (C2C) – E-Bay is an excellent

example for this model an auction site where a consumer can
sell their antique or old used items at discounted price to
others, rest of the consumers who are all interested in those
items will bid for that. This auction will happen for a time
period and ends; now the highest bidder will make payment
and buy the product. Here e-bay plays a role of having /
facilitating a platform to make consumer to consumer
transactions.
4. M-Commerce – Now a day’s all business executives were

busy and want to do financial transaction without going
physically to bank. Example: Consumer want to pay their
utility payments viz., Insurance premium, Telephone bills,
Income taxes etc., Transfer money to anybody in this world
via mobile banking (e.g. ICICI Bank iMobile) opens up the
Fig. 1. E-Commerce Business Models new technology of ecommerce as Mobile commerce. Further
the regular online stores were also optimizing their site user
interface design in order to make consumers shop from their
E-Commerce is a huge domain on conducting business over mobile devices viz., iPad, iPhone, Android enabled phones,
internet. When we discuss Internet enabled commercial and Microsoft windows mobile 6.x enabled devices.
transactions between organizations and individuals using latest
web technologies as per the policies of the Organization it There are other types of e-commerce business models too like
takes the form of e-business. Business to Employee (B2E), Government to Business (G2B)
and Government to Citizen (G2C) but in essence they are
Nowadays, 'e' is gaining momentum and most of the things if similar to the above mentioned types. Moreover, it is not
not everything is getting digitally enabled. Thus, it becomes necessary that these models are dedicatedly followed in all the
very important to clearly understand different types of online business types. It may be the case that a business is
commerce or business commonly called as e-Commerce. using all the models or only one of them or some of them as
per its needs.
There are mainly five types of e-commerce models:
Let us take a look at how the traditional business entity is
1. Business to Consumer (B2C) – this model involves formed i.e. a Basic guideline for Business Plan
organizations as business houses and consumers and
customers. This is the most common model in e-commerce. In 2. Traditional Business entities Business Plan
this model, online businesses sell to individual consumers.

When B2C started, it had a small share in the market but after
Let us take a look at how the traditional business entity
1995 its growth was exponential. In this business model the
Business Plan is formulated
business house will have an e-commerce website which will
list all their product categories with detailed information about
A business plan is a report by which an entrepreneur conveys
their products with photographs, flash animation and
his unique product and service ideas by which a business entity
comparing similar products etc., for quick decision making
is started, breaks even financially grows periodically and
over the web. E.g. An online Music portal selling CD’s /
ultimately as an enterprise. This is endless…..
DVD’s and streaming Audio on the web e.g. www.imusti.com
Business Plan Outline: A brief 100 words introduction about
2. Business to Business (B2B) - It is the largest form of e- the business and its plans
commerce involving business of trillions of dollars. In this Table of Contents: Complete business plan TOC
form, the buyers and sellers are both business entities and do
not involve an individual consumer. It is like the manufacturer

www.IJCSI.org 334
Executive Summary: A positive note / key note by the user will be navigating around the site to find information
management team to attract investors or creditors and to order / pay for products and services.
Management Team: Profile listing of all Partners / Directors,
their past employment history or business experience and The plan will also have the revenue generation, payment
highlighting the relevant experience to the new business plan. gateways, shipping and after sales support / service.
1. The Business
A. Description of the Business  Good Domain Name:
B. Product or Service
C. Business Location Is a name easy to remember i.e. a keyword in the domain
D. Operating Procedures name, short; easy to type in browser address, without any
E. Personnel Policy special characters and always first choice is .com as all
F. Market Analysis browsers default to .com
G. Competitors
H. The Marketing Plan When we try to register our domain, usually all organizations
2. Financial Statements want to have their organization name for their website and not a
A. Start-Up Expenses product name, this may be ok for an enterprise. For a startup
B. Operating Expenses ecommerce site it’s always suggested to have a keyword in the
C. Income Projections website name to have better search results e.g. a coffee
D. Cash Flow Projections plantation company can take domain name as
E. Balance Sheet www.coffeetoday.com
3. Supporting Documents
A. Market Studies  Reliable Web Host Server:
B. Tax Returns
C. Personal Financial Statement Once we are ready for the starting our e-commerce website
D. Franchise Documents business, upon deciding the software solution provider, finalize
E. Building Lease or Purchase Agreement the E-Commerce software that we are going to use, we need to
F. Licenses and Permits finalize a web host.
G. Letters of Intent
H. Other Legal Documents Once we decide and when the site is up, we start generating
With the above business plan, the entrepreneur starts his revenue and attract more visitors at this point of time, if you
venture with confidence and March towards his plans and are stuck up because of web host server. You will have a great
targets. When having a vision about plans, one can approach problem in your business. So it’s wise and critical to evaluate
investors or bankers for generating funds required and start the the below parameters to select your web host
business.
There are different web host models available in the industry
3. E-Commerce business Plan
Now we know how a traditional business plan is created and Our Own Web Host: This option is for big companies who
used, similarly it’s very significant to create a business plan are having good IT infrastructure and very good
for e-commerce web site initiative. The organization which communication back bone. For this model the Hardware and
has a plan will know how to make their ecommerce initiative software cost will be high and will be invested by the company
into a successful model. itself. By having a static IP for the server, a Network admin
can very well make a server as a web server with required
 A Business Plan: security and fulfill all requirements.
Is the product or services we are going to sell is rare and Co-Location Servers: Are placed in a third party data center
unique? if we have a unique idea and lead the business it will where it’s equipped with all necessary advanced infrastructure
be an ultimate success, or if we plan to sell the products which for communications, security and Fault tolerance etc.,
are available online, we need to think twice before starting a
ecommerce site based upon that. Dedicated Hosting: is a server dedicated to a company in
which, the company may host one or more websites or sub
This is what the business plan will talk about, and on how the domain websites e.g. http://career.wbcsoftwarelab.com
products and services is going to be promoted in the
ecommerce website i.e. a brief outline on how the website will Wikipedia Definition: A dedicated hosting service, dedicated
be designed, how the products and services will be listed, how server, or managed hosting service is a type of Internet hosting
in which the client leases an entire server not shared with

www.IJCSI.org 335
anyone. This is more flexible than shared hosting, as Operating system: Linux / Windows
organizations have full control over the server(s), including
choice of operating system, hardware, etc. Server Uptime of a web server: almost all web host servers claim
administration can usually be provided by the hosting company 99% uptime, and announce server maintenance well in
as an add-on service. advance, if for any mess-up they also offer additional freebies
for the same.
In some cases a dedicated server can offer less overhead and a
larger return on investment. Dedicated servers are most often Bandwidth: How much data can in / out flow from the web
housed in data centers, similar to co-location facilities, host server network, how much traffic it can handle, does it has
providing redundant power sources and HVAC systems. In load balancing facility….
contrast to co-location, the server hardware is owned by the
provider and in some cases they will provide support for your Disk space: How much space they will offer, what happens if
operating system or applications. we exceed the space, is there any good plans for expansion
etc., normally several dedicated and share webhosting viz.,
Share Hosting: A single web server with a Unique IP address from IXWEB and Host monster offers unlimited disk space.
will be used by all the websites i.e. a single server they will
have more than one website hosted. All resources will be used Open source Installation services: Few web host service
by all the websites. providers will be having scripts installed and made available to
us via control panel by which we can install popular Content
Further as per Wikipedia definition: A shared web hosting management systems, E-Commerce applications, Customer
service or virtual hosting service or derive host refers to a web relationship management modules and many others. We can
hosting service where many websites reside on one web server install these scripts in single click and in few minutes without
connected to the Internet. Each site "sits" on its own partition, any difficulties.
or section/place on the server, to keep it separate from other
sites. This is generally the most economical option for hosting,
Traffic Statistics: The web hosting service provider will give
as many people share the overall cost of server maintenance.
us a web analytics software service to us, from which we can
check how many visitors hit our site, which page they have
Based on the above options, an organization based on its
visited, from which browser they viewed our site and many
business scope and budget can choose appropriate hosting
more… This information is very critical for the business
server. Upon choosing a hosting server below are the basic
development and internet marketing team to generate more
guidelines to engage with in their services.
visitors in order to increase online sales.

www.IJCSI.org 336
Figure 2 Google Analytics, web site traffic Analysis
Web server Security: We need to check and ensure how the hosting companies around and check their features offered and
web server we are going to host our website is secured, does it finally decide upon it.
has a fire wall, what antivirus applications they are using, Are
they updating security patches regularly, Are they monitoring Support for popular programming languages: Should
our server 24x7 for uptime, do they have backup systems support, CGI, Perl, Python, PHP, .Net latest frameworks.
configured, do they have standard security policies being
applied, Unlimited Email Accounts: should allow us to create required
email accounts without any restrictions or additional costs
Support Popular Databases: The web host should give us being incurred.
SQL Server, MySQL, Postgres SQL and many others as choice
to use. Control Panel: Whenever we book a web host, they will give
us an exclusive control panel, to host our website, secure it,
Customer Support: 24x7x365 via telephone, email and online manage files, create email accounts, create FTP accounts to
chat upload files, images, create databases, and to take regular
backups and many more administrative tasks.
Good word of mouth: we should research through web and
known friends and service providers about the best Web

www.IJCSI.org 337
Figure 3 Shared Web hosting Control Panel Sample View of Host Monster
Search engine optimization is in short SEO, which is all
Pricing: Attractive / economical pricing and affordable for about optimizing a web page and entire pages readable by
further upgrades. search engines and indexed in appropriate categories.
It’s always better we design our website SEO compatible
Future Scalability / upg rading possibility: It’s very right from the beginning of development, several open
important that whenever the technologies rapidly change; source CMS and e-commerce sites has built in capability to
the web host service provider also should support / upgrade support the SEO activities.
and adapt the technology.
 Domain name
 E-Commerce Web Site Security:  Web page Title
Often we hear whenever a website is being hacked; it may  Meta Tags viz., description, keywords etc.,
be a government website or a e-commerce website. Once  Page content headings h1, h2 tags
we start our website, we can’t tolerate these situations  Hyperlinks
which will create a huge loss for our online business. In  Images
order to avoid it we need to take certain precautions and
work along with the web server administrator, and take  Unique content relevant to keywords
their guidelines.  Site map
 Inbound / Outbound link management
To start with we should have a standard check list for
securing our website and our software partner should  Good Marketing Plan:
ensure that review should be done at regular intervals
Apart from SEO activities in the business there are several
A most commonly used web server security vulnerabilities other activities to be adapted for promoting a web site.
scanner named NIKTO is available. It works on Unix /
Linux and windows servers. Nikto is an open source Web Print the e-commerce website address in all visiting cards,
server scanner that performs comprehensive tests against brochures, documents, communication letter heads, and
Web servers for multiple items, including over 3,200 emails and in all media advertisements.
potentially dangerous files/CGIs, versions on over 625
servers and version-specific problems on over 230 servers. Further place a signup option in the website to collect
visitors email address, for which at regular intervals, we
This can be downloaded from http://www.cirt.net/nikto2, can send promotional new letters on various products and
when we install and run this software it will check the web services and discounts to attract more visitors.
server and give us a detailed report on any security threats
to be fixed and with few suggestions. Write articles in blogs in Type pad or blogger
Publish your press release in PR Web
Other Common Threats to protect ourselves Search for your keyword; update your web site URL in all
Forums and directories in appropriate categories.
Protect our web site application directories by giving Read / Join a web ring – www.webring.com
Write permission List your site in Froogle is Google's free comparison
Any data submitted to our website should be validated via shopping search engine www.froogle.google.com
secured connections Viral marketing / bookmarking in 1000’s of social
Often change all User names and passwords (Strong networking for all the products / services of our website
passwords are recommended)
Protection from SQL Injection
Protecting confidential data and files by encryption
 Competitor Awareness:
strategies
When planning and gathering information for a e-
Protection from Java script Injection
Commerce site, search for your competitors regionally,
Protection from placing a new file in our website and
nationally and across the globe.
redirecting users
Usually some of you may know when they are in
neighborhood, or by press, but you can see the complete list
 Knowledge of SEO: only when you Google search it.

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On finding the competitor web site list, visit all websites of page results in a higher percentage of abandoned
find what is unique with all of them and for common shopping carts.
features compare with yours. Further we also need to find  E-Commerce application platform requirements
their page ranking and keywords being used.
 Marketing and CRM facilities available in the e-
commerce application.
Based on which we need to plan for good quality SEO and
Keywords by which our site can gain good page ranking.  SEO relation Questions.
 Merchant administration tool details
We also need to make sure that we build our site to be  Database / Inventory questions
made Unique which is different from others with very easy  Payment gateway questions
user interface and navigation facilities. I.e. the visitor
should feel easy to find and order products from our site.  E-Commerce application future support
 Reliable Software Solution and Service Partner  Third party Payment Gateway / Merchant
When choosing a software solution provider, we need to There are several third party payment gateway solutions
contact them. Have an introductory discussion about their found in different countries. In Singapore e NETS is the
existence, products and services, expertise in building and most popular, In India ICICI, CC Avenue are few of them.
maintaining e-commerce sites, their client lists. We can also
call their clients and get to know their experience about the Apart from this internationally PayPal is a well renowned
service provider. and easy to start without setup fees and lowest transaction
fees and they also offer services in INDIA.
Then we inform about our business plans and ask for their
solution and cost. Similar to this we may get it from 2 or Google Checkout is becoming popular and its open only in
more service providers, after careful scrutiny we decide USA as of now.
upon the service provider. Below are the few frequently
asked questions to service providers. Evaluating a third party payment gateway can be based
upon the below parameters
Do they provide tech support, by telephone, email, online
chat, and direct visit if required 24/7. How secured is the payment gateway and their privacy
From data collection, design website, populating products / policy.
services in e-commerce site, upload it in a test server, and How easy for it to integrate our application.
then finally launch the web site. How do they manage their How competitive is their setup / transaction fees.
project processes. Is there an easy interface provided to add our credit card /
Who will be the single point of contact with us? bank accounts with proper verification.
How long they will take to transfer the funds, once we
complete a delivery / transaction to our customer.
 Choosing Suitable Technology How superior is their technology and integration with other
 Choosing a suitable technology and ecommerce payment modes which are internationally available.
application is a very big challenge. Below are the
few questions in choosing the technology and In our review, we have chosen osCommerce Online
application Merchant v2.3.1 as a e-Commerce application which is
 Site building Questions- getting updated constantly and customer will give us the
 What other important tools are included? Web latest version to cater the latest technology trends, the
analytics. Hosting. Accounting package. available Milestone releases are considered to be stable
with the following features:
 Does the platform help with cross-selling and up-
selling
General Functionality
 Does the platform have built-in site search? If so,
 Compatible with all PHP 4 versions
what kind of tools will I have to enable me to
influence search results  All features are enabled by default for a complete
out-of-the-box solution
 From the page the shopper chooses an item on,
what is the total amount of pages they must click  Object oriented backend (3.0)
through to complete the purchase? A higher number  Completely multilingual with English, German, and
Spanish and are provided by default

www.IJCSI.org 339
Setup / Installation  Number of products in each category can be shown
 Automatic web-browser based installation and or hidden
upgrade procedure  Global and per-category bestseller lists
 Design / Layout  Display what other customers have ordered with the
 Template structure implementation to: current product shown
 allow layout changes to be adaptive, easy, and  Breadcrumb trail for easy site navigation
quickly to be made (3.0)  Product Functionality
 allow easy integration into an existing site (3.0)  Dynamic product attributes relationship
 Support for dynamic images  HTML based product descriptions
 Administration / Backend Functionality  Automated display of specials
 Supports unlimited products and categories  Control if out of stock products can still be shown
 Products-to-categories structure and are available for purchase
 Categories-to-categories structure  Customers can subscribe to products to receive
 Add/Edit/Remove categories, products, related emails/newsletters
manufacturers, customers, and reviews  Payment Functionality
 Support for physical (shippable) and virtual  Accept numerous offline payment processing
(downloadable) products (cheque, money orders, offline credit card
 Administration area secured with a username and processing..)
password defined during installation  Accept numerous online payment processing
 Contact customers directly via email or newsletters (PayPal, 2CheckOut, Authorize.net, iPayment, ..)
 Easily backup and restore facilities for the database  Disable certain payment services based on a zone
basis
 Print invoices and packaging lists from the order
screen  Shipping Functionality
 Statistics for products and customers  Weight, price, and destination based shipping
modules
 Multilingual support
 Multicurrency support  Real-time quotes available (UPS, USPS, FedEx, ..)
 Automatically update currency exchange rates  Free shipping based on amount and destination
 Select what to display, and in what order, in the  Disable certain shipping services based on a zone
basis
product listing page
 Support for static and dynamic banners with full  Tax Functionality
statistics  Flexible tax implementation on a state and country
basis
 Customer / Frontend Functionality
 All orders stored in the database for fast and  Set different tax rates for different products
efficient retrieval  Charge tax on shipping on a per shipping service
basis
 Customers can view their order history and order
statuses
 Customers can maintain their accounts  Reliable Product Source
 Address book for multiple shipping and billing If our e-commerce site is about selling physical products,
addresses we should take necessary care to have enough stocks on
 Temporary shopping cart for guests and permanent hand, and also have plans to procure raw materials on time
shopping cart for customers required for production.
 Fast and friendly quick search and advanced search
features Timely delivery with quality as per specifications will
 Product reviews for an interactive shopping spread a good word of mouth for our website
experience
Hence it’s critical to have a very good production plan and
 Foreseen checkout procedure inventory management in order to succeed.
 Secure transactions with SSL

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 Logistics Plan Usually there will be a web analytics software provided by
the web hosting provider, we can use this statistics
How we are going to ship / deliver our products to information and improvise our content, SEO activities and
customers. change marketing plans.
We need to find out the various ways to ship our products Via Alexa tool we will be able to know our site ranking
on Rail, Road, Air, Water and combination of any of these. based on the traffic received. The highly recommended
Based up on the location we need to have good logistics analytics application is Google Analytics which is free.
operators who are best in timely delivery and who offer the
best / competitive price. We need to register a account in email and use that email
For a best logistics plan, It’s always advisable to collect id, need to register in Google Analytics. Once registered,
shipping rates for all locations from different vendors and Google will give out a HTML code snippet; which we need
workout the overall product cost including shipping cost or to copy / paste in all the static pages of the website.
work out shipping cost separately and publish in the
website. For dynamic pages we should ensure that there is provision
for updating the code snippet.
 Accounting
The Google Analytics dashboard is more attractive to
quickly see the traffic information for our website. We can
Right from the day one accounting is one of the critical
also compare the traffic with the last month.
parts for a successful business to know about the current
financial position of a company.
 Leadership Skills
Hence from the day one it’s better to buy popular
accounting software as a part of business investment and For starting a new business, the business owner should have
start entering all day to day transactions. Viz., Purchase, enough courage to take risks and possess required technical
Sales, returns, Payments, Receipts, Banking entries, Contra, knowledge to run the business and in General management
and Journal entries knowledge is required to manage a team of people in
various departments.
Daily cash / stock checking is recommended. And also need
to review accounting entries i.e. day book, Trial Balance, The only motive to drive him to earn more profits for the
Trading account, Profit & Loss and Balance sheet every company is by his effective decisions; another important
week. characteristic is the business owner and its teams
operational efficiency, by which we can achieve high
customer satisfaction which results in business growth.
 Implementing a Web Analytics Software
Figure 4 Google Analytics software Visitors traffic Dashboard.

www.IJCSI.org 341
4. Installing and setting up OSCommerce website If no such facility is available in the web server hosting
provider, we can download the latest version oscommerce
from http://www.oscommerce.com/solutions, the file name
is oscommerce-2.3.1.zip of 5 Mega byte size. Extract the
downloaded file in a temp folder
Figure 5 osCommerce file extraction
If you have your web host account with Host monster /

iXWeb hosting, they have simple scripts modules in Figure 7 Installation file checking log
software / services section, by which they list all popular
CMS, including OSCommerce.

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Figure 6 Host Monster Control panel showing OsCommerce, single click installation
Use any of the FTP software to upload all the files 5. Maintenance and support of a e-Commerce
extracted to the web server, by using the connection website
information
The e-Commerce site maintenance is very much important.
Once all files are uploaded open your browser and access Here 3 teams has to be working seamlessly i.e. back office
your website with the following URL team, SEO / Internet marketing team and the software
http://www.yourdomainname.com/install. partner.
This will complete the installation. Now the e-Commerce All of them are collectively responsible for the below tasks.
site shopping cart with product listing with the default
template will be loaded.
 Daily update product catalog for new items
For our own unique web site design, we can buy templates  Check Orders vs. stock
which are attractive or we can develop our own template by  Banner Ad Management
our software partner and make the site more colorful and  Sending Newsletter for product promotion
attractive.
 Daily reports (Pages viewed, Products purchased and
Now it’s time to protect all web site folders and files, use Customer Orders Total)
the FTP software to set attributes as required. And for the  Take database backup at regular intervals
file in “includes/configure.php” and  Check orders received
“admin/includes/configure.php” we need to remove the  Watch which product is getting more visitors
write and full access control. This file should be a read only
file.
 Security review at regular intervals
 Review on Internet marketing and SEO activities
Ensure the Catalog and admin tools are installed properly.
And also the databases 6. Conclusion and Future work
Now it’s the time to take a backup of all files and database OSCommerce has a stable version now and lot of plug-in /
with the configured information for safety. add-in modules are available in the industry. We can
choose the same based on our needs
Visit http://www.autho-rity.info/2008/08/22/step-by-step-
installation-guide-for-oscommerce/ for step by step  Product Attributes Implementation
installation of osCommerce in case of any doubts.  Dynamic Table Listings (Administration Tool)
 Live Search (Administration Tool)
Now it’s time to populate data into our e-commerce site.  Administration Tool sections now self-contained
Applications
1. Store / our Shopping cart Name and address
 Error Logging; both PHP and MySQL errors and
information setting
warnings now logged (forced runtime usage of PHP
2. PayPal account creation and update our local bank
E_ALL and MySQL STRICT_ALL_TABLES)
information
 Stabilized Framework
3. Create Product categories
4. Customize product features  Usage of JSON for RPC calls
5. Create products, upload images and update feats.  Inclusion of jQuery v1.3.2 and jQuery UI v1.6rc6
6. Now browse the site and check how the buying of
products is working by setting PayPal to sandbox The above list will be understood only when we know more
mode. about osCommerce.
7. Once if everything is fine, then we are ready to launch
the site. To put it simple, the osCommerce has to develop modules
which will work on mobile devices based upon the request
Now it’s the responsibility of marketing guys to take over received it should automatically render content.
and osCommerce back office team will be ready to serve
the customers who are all shopping. When a order is received, the shopping cart back office and
related team should receive SMS or FAX as necessary in
order to facilitate shoppers a delightful experience.

www.IJCSI.org 343
[11]Starting An Online Store: The Essential Checklist - Part
My next work on this review would be on exploring the I http://www.ecommerce-
details of populating data in the cart and configuring guide.com/solutions/building/article.php/3599411
payment gateway, and on how to handle the government
rules and regulations. [12] http://www.ecommerce-
guide.com/article.php/3599741/Starting-An-Online-Store-
References The-Essential-Checklist---Part-II.htm
[1] V.Srikanth, Dr.R.Dhanapal. “A Business Review of E- [13] www.ecommerce-guide.com//article.php/3549761 -

Retailing in India” International Journal of Business starting your own e-business: Part 1
Research and Management (IJBRM),Vol 1,Issue 3 pp. 105- the Plan
121,2011. [14] http://www.ecommerce-
guide.com/article.php/3551461/Starting-Your-Own-E-
Business-Pt-2-Choosing-a-Platform.htm
[2] Gayathri Subramnian, Dr.R.Dhanapal. “E-Business
Operating Trust and Security”.IFRSA’s International [15] Starting an Online OSCommerce Documentation -
Journal of Computing Vol1,Issue 1, pp. 59-66,2011. http://www.oscommerce.info/confluence/display/OSCDOC
/Installation+and+Upgrades
[3] Frog CMS and Socialtext in CMS Report's Top 30 List
http://cmsreport.com/category/oscommerce [16] OSCommerce Installation -
http://freeoscommerce.com/installation/installing-
[4] http://www.enets.com/about.php - Singapore Third oscommerce/
party payment gateway
[17]How to build my site with OSCOmmerce -
[5] http://www.ccavenue.com/ccavenue_index.jsp - Indian http://www.siteground.com/tutorials/getting_started/oscom
Third party payment gateway merce.htm
[6] What to consider when deciding where to host your site [18]Why We Need a Website by Tim W. Knox
- http://www.entrepreneur.com/ebusiness/gettingstarted/articl
http://www.techsoup.org/learningcenter/webbuilding/page5 e65204.html
671.cfm
[19]50 Reasons on Why you need a Website -
[7] How to find a good web host - http://www.u-cwebs.com/50-reasons-why-you-need-a-
http://www.dirjournal.com/guides/how-to-find-a-good- website.php - Nardo Kuitert is a Website Optimizer with
web-host/ - from DirJournal.com Website Development and Optimization firm U-C WEBS
(Fergus Ontario).
[8] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dedicated_hosting
[20] Web server control panel sample -
[9]http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shared_web_hosting_servic www.hostmonster.com
e
[21] Dedicated server security checklist from -
[10]Step By Step Installation Guide For osCommerce http://www.wsworkshop.com/server/server-security-
http://www.autho-rity.info/2008/08/22/step-by-step- checklist.html.
installation-guide-for-oscommerce/
[22] http://www.cirt.net/nikto2 - Nikto web server security
vulnerabilities.

www.IJCSI.org 344
Channel Estimation using Adaptive Filtering for

LTE-Advanced
Saqib Saleem1, Qamar-ul-Islam
Department of Communication System Engineering
Institute of Space Technology
Islamabad, Pakistan
Abstract adaptive equalization has been proposed in [4]. For these

For demand of high data rates, enhanced system capacity and adaptive techniques, used in 4G wireless communication
coverage, ITU made proposal for the standardization of next systems, iterative receivers employing joint detection and
generation wireless communication systems, known as IMT- decoding are proposed in [5]. The channel can also
Advanced. To achieve these targets, a priori knowledge of the
estimated by using adaptive filtering techniques such as
channel is required at the transmitter side. In this paper, three
adaptive channel estimation techniques: Least Mean Square
RLS, LMS [6]. We can make use of second order channel
(LMS), Recursive Least Square (RLS) and Kalman-Filtering and noise statistics for these algorithms. The state of the art
Based, are compared in terms of performance and complexity. channel estimation techniques such as LSE and LMMSE
For performance, Mean Square Error (MSE) and Symbol Error are optimized in [7] and [8]. While in [9] and [10], the
Rate (SER) while for complexity, computational time is measured transform based channel estimation techniques such as
for variable channel impulse response (CIR) lengths and channel DFT-based, DCT-based and Windowed DFT-based are
taps. MATLAB Monte-Carlo Simulations are used to evaluate discussed. In this paper the performance and complexity
these techniques. evaluation of RLS, LMS and well-known Kalman-Filtering
Keywords: LTE-A, Kalman Filtering, LMS, LSE, RLS, channel estimation algorithms are carried out based on the
LMMSE, DFT-based, DCT-Based, Windowed DFT-Based different channel length and multipath channel taps, while
depending on the second order channel and noise statistics
1. Introduction In Section II, system description according to Rel-
10 of LTE-A is given and proposed channel estimation
algorithms are explained in Section III with their
3GPP’s proposed LTE-A system is aimed at fulfilling the
simulation results discussed in Section IV and conclusions
requirements of IMT-Advanced [1]. To meet the
are drawn in Section V.
specification made by IMT-A, the following enhancements
are proposed for LTE-A, in Release-10: Support for wider
bandwidth, Co-ordinated multi-point transmission and 2. System Description
reception (CoMP), relaying, support for Self-Organizing
Networks (SON) and mobility enhancements of Home
2.1 Frame Structure for LTE-A
enhanced-Node-B (HeNB) etc [2].
In LTE-A, according to Rel-10, Generic radio
A hybrid form of OFDMA and SC-FDMA is used for
frame is used for TDD and FDD while alternative radio
OFDM system implementation at radio bearer of LTE-
frame is transmitted only for TDD mode. First one contains
Advanced. The minimum proposed sector throughput in
20 sub-frames, each of length 15360 and
Release-10 is 1.2 for UL and 2.4 for DL and maximum
cell-edge throughput is 0.07 for 1 2 , 2 4 UL and 0.12 second radio frame can be divided into 2 sub-frames, each
of same length as for the first one sub-frame. The number
for 2 2 , 4 2 and 4 4 DL .The peak data rate
of sub-carriers used for OFDM for each sub-frame are
requirement of 1Gbps, as proposed in IMT-Advanced, can
be achieved in LTE-A using 4 4 MIMO and wider 72 2048 [1]. The number of OFDM symbols
transmission bandwidth of 70 MHz which can be achieved per sub-frame can be 6 or 7 for Generic frame and for
through carrier aggregation [3].The peak spectral alternative frame can be 8 or 9.
efficiency of 30 bps/Hz for DL and 15 bps/Hz for UL can For channel estimation, the 2-Dimensional transmitted DL
be achieved by using beam-forming and Multi-User reference signals from each antenna are given by the
MIMO techniques. The channel can be made known at the following relation [2]
transmitter by either sounding reference signals, user
specific demodulation reference signals (DM-RS) or cell- , , , 1
specific reference signals. For reliable communication in
attenuated time-dispersive multi-path fading channels Where , shows 2-dimensional orthogonal sequence and
adaptive modulation and coding (AMC) technique with , shows 2-dimensional pseudo-random sequence. The
www.IJCSI.org 345
mapping of DL reference signals for generic frame

structure is shown in Figure 1.
Where . is the OFDM Symbol

time and is the cyclic prefix length for sub-carrier,
which can be 144,160 or 512 for Generic frame and 224 or
512 for alternative radio frame.
The necessary steps carried out in an OFDM
system are shown in Figure.2.In OFDM, a signal of wider
bandwidth is divided in smaller bandwidth signals to
have flat fading effect to avoid Inter-Symbol Interference
(ISI). Then IFFT is applied to these sub-carriers and CP is
added to each sub-carrier to avoid ICI. After receiving the
signal, before applying FFT operation, first CP is removed
and then we have the following received symbols over
sub-carrier [11]
Fig. 1 Mapping of Reference Signals for Generic Frame Structure [2] Where is ICI component occurring between different
sub-carriers, occurring in high mobility situations, and is
According to Rel-9, these reference signals can be used given by [11]
either for PDSCH demodulation or for channel estimation,
for which these reference signals can be made cell-specific
and can be transmitted as the data sequence.
2.2 System Model

For a wireless channel having multipaths.
The transmitting OFDM signal over the Rayleigh fading shows zero mean AWGN noise with variance for
channel can be generated by sub-carrier.
Fig. 2 OFDM System Model [4]

www.IJCSI.org 346
The channel impulse response (CIR) of the wireless

channel is given by [11] 10
2- Adaptation gain becomes

, 5
11
where is the multipath gain having Rayleigh
3- The value of a priori error is
Distribution and is given by [10]
12
| | 6
4- The conversion factor at iteration
denotes the corresponding multipath delay and is the
power delay constant. 13
Channel Frequency Response (CFR) for Eq.5 can be
written as [11]
5- The updated value of co-efficients becomes
∆
, 7
14
∆ is the sub-carrier’s spacing to avoid ICI. The estimated channel after iteration becomes
3. Channel Estimation 15
3.1 RLS Channel Estimation

Where is RLS filter length.
At each iteration, the transmitted data sequence and the The value of gain vector at iteration is given by
desired output sequence is required to make LSE as
adaptive channel estimation technique, which is not
16
possible to get in real-time processing. In RLS algorithm,
we need only new data values at each iteration and it is And
based on initially LSE estimated co-efficients 1 at
iteration 1 [6]. 17
At iteration , we require to minimize the
following function At start of RLS algorithm, the initialization parameters are
taken as
, 8
. 18
where
Where 0 , 1 is the weighting factor, having the
following exponential form . 19
, 9
Where is the initially estimated channel given by
Where should be close to 1. simple LSE algorithm and is the regularization
In RLS channel estimation following steps are carried out parameter. Uniform value of forgetting factor and the
following parameters: 0.9 and 0.1, are normally
1- The up-dation of correlation matrix is given used in conventional RLS algorithms.
by
www.IJCSI.org 347
3.2 LMS Channel Estimation Where denotes doppler spread of channel tap, P is
total number of reference signals used in radio frame and
For less complex LSE and LMMSE [7] requiring no matrix is the operating SNR value.
inversion, LMS algorithm is proposed for the solution of
Wiener-Holf equation, for which statistical information of For slow co-efficient updating with better performance
the channel and data may be required for better 0 is used but for less computational time 1 is
performance. The necessary steps carried out in LMS used, giving 1 12 .
channel estimation are given below
3.3 Leaky-LMS Channel Estimation
1- Initially the channel is estimated by using LSE
technique, giving . In order to avoid the unstabilization of the LMS algorithm
2- After finding the co-efficients, the estimation of under no convergence conditions, a leakage co-efficient is
the channel becomes used in conventional LMS which gives the following co-
efficient up-dation relation [13]
20
28
Where
Where .
…
21 3.4 Normalized LMS Channel Estimation
Where is LMS filter length. For minimum disturbance and fast convergence, NLMS
3- Error at iteration is given by technique is proposed [13]
22 29
4- Co-efficient are updated according to

Where is a small-value constant. This algorithm is
23 equivalent to time-varying step-size LMS algorithms,
showing fast convergence rate than conventional LMS.
Where is the adjustable step-size parameter.
5- Error given by weight vector is 3.5 LMS Channel Estimation
24 function can also be used in LMS to make
hardware implementation less costly and is given by [13]
Mean Square Error (MSE) given by the LMS algorithm is
defined as
25 30
Where
. shows the expectation operator. 3.6 Linearly Constrained LMS Channel Estimation
For real-time wireless communication, the value of the For better performance, some channel constraints can be
step-size parameter is taken very small. In order to make taken into account, resulting in the following adaptation
LMS algorithm more stable, the optimal value of rule [13]
adaptation constant is given by
′
31
, 26
Where
Where ′
32
27
is a constant vector.
www.IJCSI.org 348
3.7 Self-Correcting LMS Channel Estimation 4. Simulation Results
In this approach the estimated channel is compared with Monte-Carlo Simulations for QPSK modulation for a
the ideal channel to make channel estimation. At generic radio frame having CAZAC sequence as reference
iteration , the estimation is channel is given by[13] signals are performed for a bandwidth of 70 MHz and
carrier frequency of 2 GHz. FFT size is 2048 and Jake’s
33 model over 64-tap Rayleigh fading channel described by
EVA power delay profile, is simulated.
Table 1: Comparison of LS, LMS and RLS

5000 Simulations 1 OFDM 1 Bit
3.8 Kalman-Filtering based Channel Estimation (mSec) Symbol (nSec)
(nSec)
LS 0.34 5.24 2.62
According to [14], the channel estimation problem can be
LMS 1.9 29.68 14.84
formulated by the following state space vector RLS 1.8 28.12 14.06
34
For LMS technique, initially the channel can be estimated
Where … , is by LS or LMMSE approach. The performance comparison
channel matrix showing the state transition of and of these two approaches is shown in Figure 3. There is a
is the complex white Gaussian noise. difference in performance at low SNR values and
The received signal is represented by [15] LMMSE-LMS is preferred but it results in more
complexity as it depends on the channel statistics. But as
35 we go increasing the SNR value, both techniques show
same performance behavior. So for high SNR conditions
Considering the noise and the channel statistics, the LSE-LMS is proposed as it has less complexity than
following recursive Kalman-Filtering equations are LMMSE-LMS. The computational time of LMS and RLS
performed for channel estimation [16]. as compared to simple LSE is given in Table 1. LMS has
almost 6% more complexity than RLS and both LMS and
/ / 36 RLS have approximate 400 % more computation time than
LSE. The complexity of different variants of LMS is given
/ / 37 in Table 2.
-105
Plot of MSE v/s SNR for LS-LMS and LMMSE-LMS Estimator
10
LS-LMS
, 38
-110
LMMSE-LMS
10
/
39
/
-115
10
/ / / (40)
MSE
-120
10
/ /
41
-125
10
The parameters at initialization are
-130
/ 42 10
5 10 15 20 25
/ 43 SNR (dB)
Fig. 3 MSE v/s SNR for LS-LMS and LMMSE-LMS Estimators
is the Kalman filter gain.
is the covariance matrix of the noise .
/ / /
(44)
www.IJCSI.org 349
Plot of SER vs SNR of LMS Estimator for different mu

Table 2: Computational Time for different LMS Algorithms
=0.1 =0.5 =0.9
0.52
(mSec) (mSec) (mSec)
LMS 9.8 9.7 9.6 mu=0.5
Leaky-LMS 10.5 9.8 9.6 0.51 mu=0.1
-LMS 10.5 9.8 9.8 mu=0.9
NLMS 19.1 19.2 19.2
S y m bol E rror Rate

Norm-sign-LMS 19 19 19.1 0.5
Constrained-LMS 13.2 13.2 13.2
Self-correcting LMS 11.3 10.2 10.1 0.49
0.48
Normalized-LMS and Norm-sign-LMS have more
complexity than all others approaches. The effect of
varying the step-size parameter is more prominent for 0.47
Leaky-LMS, where for 400% increment of step-size results
only in 7% reduction in complexity. The step-size value 0.46
5 10 15 20 25 30
does not change the complexity in case of Norm-sign-LMS SNR (dB)
and constrained-LMS. Fig. 5 SER v/s SNR for LMS for different Step-Size values
The effect of step-size values on MSE for LMS channel
MSE v/s SNR for different Channel Taps for LMS Estimator
estimation is given in Figure 4. For any value of step-size, 10
-110
LMS performs better than LSE. By increasing step-size Channel Taps=4

from 0.1 to 0.5, the performance degrades significalty but -120 Channel Taps=10
furhter increment of step-size does not have soo much 10
Channel Taps=20
impact on performance. The performance of LMS for
-130
different values of step-sizes in terms of Symbol Error 10
Rate (SER) is shown in Figure 5. Here again performance
is better for small values of step-size and increment in
M SE
-140
10
value of step-size degrades the performance for all SNR
values. -150
10
0
Plot of SNR v/s MSE for LMS Estimator
10 -160
10
-170
10
5 10 15 20 25
-50
10
SNR (dB)
Fig. 6 MSE v/s SNR for LMS for different Channel Taps
LS
MSE
LMS mu=0.5 The performance for different channel taps for LMS is
LMS mu=0.1
-100 given in Figure 6. By decreasing the channel taps from 20
10 LMS mu=0.9
to 10, there is a significant effect on performance but
further reduction on number of channel taps does not
degrade the performance too much, especially at low SNR
the performance remains same and advantage comes in
-150
10 form of reduced complexity.
5 10 15 20 25
SNR (dB) The performance for different Leakage Co-efficients for
Fig. 4 MSE v/s SNR for LMS for different Step-Size Values Leaky-LMS is demonstrated in Figure 7. We come to
know that by increasing the leakage co-efficient values, the
performance degrades, especially at low SNR values but
this change in value of leakage co-efficient does not effect
performance at high SNR values.
www.IJCSI.org 350
Plot of MSE vs SNR of Leaky-LMS Estimator for different Leakage Co-efficient MSE v/s CIR Samples for RLS Estimator
0.02
SNR =5 dB
Leakge Coefficient=0.1 0.018
SNR =10 dB
Leakge Coefficient=0.9
0.016 SNR =15 dB
Leakge Coefficient=0.5 SNR =20 dB
115 0.014
10 SNR =25 dB
0.012
MSE
0.01
MSE
0.008
110 0.006
10
0.004
0.002
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
105 CIR Samples
10 Fig. 9 MSE v/s CIR Samples for RLS
10 1216 14
18 20 22 24
SNR (dB)
Fig. 7 MSE v/s SNR for Leaky-LMS for different Leakage Co-efficients
The performance for different Channel impulse response
samples for RLS is shown Figure 9 for different SNR
The performance of NLMS improves by increasing the operating conditions.CIR samples more than 5 or 6 does
value of from 0.15 to 1. This improvement is seen only not improve performance and only results in increased
at low SNR values as shown in Figure 8. But by increasing complexity. But for CIR samples less than 5, the
this value further to 2 the performance degrades for all performance goes on improving as SNR value is increased.
SNR values so this constant term is normally preferred The effect of channel taps on performance of RLS is also
less than 1. given in Figure 10. Here we observe that for all SNR
values we have same performance. Performance improves
Plot of MSE vs SNR of NLMS for different Constant Term Values
up-to 10 channel taps after that only complexity increases
and there is no effect on performance.
Constant Term=1
Constant Term=0.5
MSE v/s Channel Taps for RLS Estimator
Constant Term=0.15
0.08
Constant Term=2 SNR =5 dB
0.07 SNR =10 dB
SNR =15 dB
MSE
SNR =20 dB
0.06
SNR =25 dB
-5 0.05
10
MSE
0.04
0.03
6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
SNR (dB) 0.02
Fig. 8 MSE v/s SNR for NLMS for different values of
0.01
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Channel Taps
Fig. 10 MSE v/s Channel Taps for RLS Estimator
www.IJCSI.org 351
-1
PLOT OF SNR V/S MSE
10
Kalman Filtering
LMS
RLS
-2
10
MSE
-3
10
-4
10
5 10 15 20 25
SNR (dB)
Fig. 11 MSE vs SNR for LMS, RLS and Kalman-Based CE

Fig. 13 MSE vs SNR vs Channel Taps for Kalman Filtering
A comparison of Kalman-Based channel estimation with MSE v/s CIR Samples for Kalman-based CE
0.07
RLS and LMS is shown in Figure 11. Kalman Filtering
SNR =5 dB
shows better performance than both RLS and LMS at all SNR =10 dB
0.06
SNR values. Its performance is significantly better than SNR =15 dB
LMS as compared to RLS. The MSE vs Channel Taps is 0.05
SNR =20 dB
SNR =25 dB
given in Figure 12. For all channel taps, high value of SNR
is preferred. And we also observe that for a specific SNR 0.04
value, there is no effect of changing the number of channel
M SE
taps on the performance and we have to only pay for more 0.03
complexity. That is why for Kalman channel estimation,
less number of channel taps are preferred. The combined 0.02
effect of channel taps and SNR on performance is given in
Figure 13. 0.01
The performance of Kalman-Based channel estimation

technique for different values of CIR samples is shown in 0
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Figure 14. The performance remains same for CIR samples CIR Samples
more than 4 but at the cost of more complexity. For high Fig. 14 MSE vs CIR Samples for Kalman Filtering
SNR values, different values of CIR samples does not
affect the performance so for high SNR operating
conditions we prefer less number of CIR samples to be
considered. The effect of CIR Samples and SNR on MSE
for Kalman Filtering is given in Figure 15.
-4
x 10 MSE v/s Channel Taps for Kalman Estimator
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
SNR =5 dB
0.6
SNR =10 dB
MSE
0.5 SNR =15 dB

SNR =20 dB
0.4 SNR =25 dB
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Channel Taps Fig. 15 MSE vs SNR vs CIR Samples for Kalman Filtering
Fig. 12 MSE vs Channel Taps for Kalman Filtering
www.IJCSI.org 352
Advanced”, Journal of Computing Vol. 3

5. Conclusion Issue.04, pp-164-169, April 2011
In this paper, three adaptive channel estimation algorithms, [11] Yongming Liang, Hanwen Luo, Jianguo
RLS, LMS and Kalman-Filtering based, are compared in Huan,”Adaptive RLS Channel Estimation in
terms of performance, MSE and SER, and complexity. The MIMO OFDM Systems”, 0-7803-9538, IEEE
performance is measured for different filter lengths and 2005
multipath channel taps. Leaky-LMS shows better [12] Soeg Geun Kang, Min Ha and Eon Kyeong Joo,
performance among all LMS techniques with less “A comparative Investigation on Channel
computation time. Kalman-Filtering shows better Estimation Algorithms for OFDM in Mobile
performance as compared to both LMS and RLS. For Communication”, IEEE Transactions on
optimized channel estimator employing Kalman Filtering Broadcasting, Vol. 49, No. 2, June 2003.
in wireless communication system, 4-5 CIR samples and [13] Alexandar D.Poularikas, “Adaptive Filtering
any number of channel taps can be used. But for less Primer with MATLAB” Taylor & Francis.
complexity, channel taps should be less than 10. [14] Valery Ramon, Cedric Herzet, Xavier Wautelet
and Luc vandendrope,”Soft Estimation of time-
varying frequency selective channels using
Kalman smoothing”, IEEE ,1-4244-0353-7
References [15] Hala mahmoud, Allam Mousa, Rashid Saleem, “
[1] 3GPP TS 36.211 v.8.5.0, “Physical Channels and Kalman Filter Channel Estimation Based on
Modulation”, 2008 Comb-Type Pilots for OFDM System in Time and
[2] 3GPP TS 36.814 v.9.0.0, “Further Advancements Frequency-Selective Fading Environments”, IEEE
for E-UTRA Physical Layer Aspects”, 2009 MIC-CCA 2008
[3] 3GPP Release 10 v.0.0.6, “Overview of Release [16] Seongwook Song, Andrew C.Singer and Koeng-
10”, 2010 Mo Sung,”Soft Input Channel Estimation for
[4] Lars Lindbom,”Simplified Kalman Estimation of Turbo Equalization”, IEEE Transaction on Signal
Fading Mobile Radio Channels: High Processing, Vol.52, No.10,October 2004
Performance at LMS Computational Load”, 0-
7803-0946-4, IEEE 1993
[5] Jongsoo Choi, Martin Bouchard and Ter Hin
Yeap,”Adaptive Filtering-Based Iterative Channel
Estimation for MIMO Wireless Communication”,
0-7803-8834-8, IEEE 2005
[6] Saqib Saleem, Qamar-ul-Islam, ” LMS and RLS
Channel Estimation Algorithms for LTE-
Advanced”, Journal of Computing Vol. 3
Issue.04, pp-155-163, April 2011
[7] Saqib Saleem, Qamar-ul-Islam, ” Optimization of
LSE and LMMSE Channel Estimation Algorithms
based on CIR Samples and Channel Taps”, IJCSI
International Journal of Computer Science Issues
Vol. 8 Issue.01,pp-437-443,January 2011
[8] Saqib Saleem, Qamar-ul-Islam, ” Performance
and Complexity Comparison of Channel
Estimation Algorithms for OFDM System”,
IJECS International Journal of Electrical and
Computer Sciences , Vol. 11, No.02,pp-6-12,April
2011
[9] Saqib Saleem, Qamar-ul-Islam, ” On Comparison
of DFT-based and DCT-based Channel
Estimation for OFDM System ”, Accepted for
publication in IJCSI International Journal of
Computer Science Issues Vol. 8 Issue.03,May
2011
[10] Saqib Saleem, Qamar-ul-Islam, ” Transform-
Based Channel Estimation Techniques for LTE-
www.IJCSI.org 353
On Comparison of DFT-Based and DCT-Based Channel

Estimation for OFDM System
Saqib Saleem1, Qamar-ul-Islam
Department of Communication System Engineering
Institute of Space Technology
Islamabad, Pakistan
Abstract estimation or non-blind estimation. In practical

For high data rate communication with the required Quality wireless systems non-blind channel estimation is
of Service (QoS) in 3G and 4G systems, Orthogonal preferred due to its dependence on the transmitted
Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) is proposed, data and the previous channel states. For estimation
which is capable to resist the channel impairments caused
of all sub-channels, training sequences can be added
by high mobility conditions, by dividing the frequency-
selective fading channel into narrowband flat fading
in two modes: Block mode and Comb mode. Later
channels. In this paper two time-domain channel estimation one is preferred due to the presence of Doppler
techniques, Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) and Discrete Spread Effect [2].
Cosine Transform (DCT), are compared based on the time- In frequency domain, channel can be estimated by
domain channel impulse response (CIR) energy either Least Square Error (LSE) approach or Linear
characteristics and they have less complexity and efficient Minimum Mean Square Error (LMMSE) approach.
performance than Linear Minimum Mean Square Error LSE has less complexity because it does not require
(LMMSE) and Least Square Error (LSE). The effect of channel statistics but the performance is degraded
power limitation in terms of SNR and the number of
which can be improved by using LMMSE, having
multipaths for a wireless channel is determined to compare
these transform approaches. Two well known performance
more complexity as it utilizes the autocorrelation
criteria: Mean Square Error (MSE) and Symbol Error Rate matrix and the noise variance of the channel. This
(SER) are used for comparison by using Monte Carlo high computation required by LMMSE can be
Simulations for Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) reduced by many approaches as discussed in [3]. The
modulation. performance of the low complex LSE can be
Keywords: DFT, DCT, LSE, LMMSE, OFDM, Most improved by using a channel filter of more CIR
Significant Taps (MST), CFR, CIR samples or by increasing the multi-path channel taps,
as proposed in [3].
1. Introduction Instead of frequency domain, channel can be
estimated in time-domain by DFT-based approach,
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing whose performance is better and complexity is less
(OFDM), which allows the overlapping of the than LSE and LMMSE. The performance can be
subcarriers but keeps them orthogonal to avoid inter- improved further by making a suitable selection of
carrier interference (ICI) and inter-symbol CIR samples and channel taps by using the Most
interference (ISI) [1], has been adopted for mobile Significant Taps (MST) method. In this method, the
communication standards due to its ability to combat estimated channel in frequency-domain is converted
with the frequency-selective multipath fading channel to time-domain by using IDFT. Then this estimated
effects and has high spectral efficiency. CIR is passed through MST to suppress the noise by
For next generation wireless systems which are discarding certain CIR. The remaining significant
specially designed for audio and video processing, CIR is transformed back to frequency domain by
the fundamental demand is of the high throughput DFT, thus improving the performance than LMMSE
while maintaining the reliable communication, which and reduced complexity due to the presence of fast
can be made possible by the integration of the error- algorithms FFT and IFFT.
correcting codes, space-time coding (STC) and The performance of DFT-based approach degrades in
transmit diversity techniques [2]. For all these case of non-integer spaced multipath delays due to
operations channel state information (CSI) is the presence of the dispersed CIR. To avoid this
required, for which we have two options: Blind

www.IJCSI.org 354
problem, new approach has been proposed, named as
DCT/EIDCT. In this method, DCT is applied to get
the channel response in transform domain, instead of Suppose the quasi-stationary channel and perfect
DFT. synchronization then the received signal at the nth
The rest of the paper is organized such that in section subcarrier of the ith OFDM symbol is given by
2, OFDM system model is described, in section 3
channel estimation algorithms are given along with , , . , . , (5)
their simulations in section 4. Conclusions are drawn
in last section of the paper. Where and are the frequency responses
of the transmitter and the receiver’s pulse shaping
2. System Model filters, respectively, which are generally assumed to
be one within a flat fading channel.
Suppose an OFDM system is transmitting data over
N subcarriers, where only ND + 1 subcarriers are
carrying useful information while others are used for 3. Channel Estimation
guard band. On each subcarrier, data , is being First in this section two state of the art channel
transmitted, where is the OFDM symbol number estimation algorithms, LMMSE and LSE, are
and is the subcarrier number. The transmitted described and then DFT-based and DCT-based
signal can be represented as [4] channel estimation techniques are explained.
3.1 LMMSE Channel Estimation

∞
, , 1 LMMSE estimation of the channel vector is given

∞ by [6]
Where is channel impulse response and , (6)

is the pulse shaping filter used for subcarriers, Where
described by [4] (7)
∆ (8)
, (2)
0
where is the auto-covariance matrix of the
∆ is length of guard interval (GI) and 1/ is the received data and is the cross co-variance
subcarrier’s spacing so ∆ is the OFDM matrix between channel vector and the received
symbol duration. signal . denotes variance of noise.
OFDM data is passed through a wireless channel The estimated channel frequency response (CFR),
described by the following impulse response [5] , is described as
(9)
, 3
Where DFT-matrix is used to convert the time-
domain estimated channel vector i.e. CIR, to the
Where are multipath complex gains, which are frequency domain i.e. CFR. The matrix is given
wide-sense stationary (WSS) complex Gaussian by [6]
Processes, limited to Doppler Frequency and
are multipath delays, which are uncorrelated to each
other and is the number of multipaths. (10)
In wireless channel , the pulse shaping, is
normally described by having a square-root raised
cosine filter’s spectrum. After passing through the
3.2 LSE Channel Estimation
channel, the received signal in time domain will be
In real-time processing, it is not possible to have
(4) prior channel statistics information, which is the
fundamental requirement of LMMSE estimation. The

www.IJCSI.org 355
only available information is about the transmitted Windowing functions can also be applied for this
data [7]. In LSE estimation, no probabilistic statistics frequency leakage compensation [11]. After IDFT
operation we increase samples by padding zeros
of the channel are required and we have to only make 0 1

use of the transmitting signal model. , 0
LSE estimation of channel is given by 1
(16)
(11)
So CIR samples beyond L samples will contain only
where noise that is why this part will be discarded. We will
(12) consider only first L samples for DFT-based channel
estimation.
can also be written as [6]
, 0 1 (17)
(13)
This method can be used to improve the channel
The performance and complexity comparison of estimation accuracy without increasing the
LMMSE and LSE with their different variants, based complexity because the IDFT/DFT operations can be
on CIR samples and channel taps, is described in [3] implemented with the fast algorithms IFFT/FFT.
and [8]. DFT-CE can be used to improve the performance of
LMMSE channel estimation as proposed in [12],
3.3 DFT-based Channel Estimation because from this method both the channel
autocorrelation matrix and noise variance can be
Since the energy of the channel is concentrated in estimated.
time-domain, so DFT-based method is used to
suppress the noise in time-domain to achieve good 3.4 DCT-based Channel Estimation
performance at low SNR [9]. The advantage of this
method is that it is less complex than LSE since the When the multipath delays are not integer multiples,
complexity of N-point DFT operation is O(NlogN). then DFT-CE is not suitable due to frequency leakage
If number of pilot subcarriers is larger than the which causes aliasing. Under this condition the
number of channel taps and all pilot sub-carriers are performance can be improved by employing a
equi-distanced, then the performance of DFT-based window-based DFT method [11], but at the cost of
estimation is also good than LSE estimation [10]. For more bandwidth utilization. The real time signal has
DFT-based channel estimation, first we perform the smaller high-frequency components but the DFT
LSE channel estimation that is given by approach results in high frequency component. This
high frequency component can be reduced by DCT,
which is extensively used for voice and picture
processing, because DCT employs mirror extension
By using the N-point inverse-DFT we can obtain the of N-point data sequence to 2N-point data sequence,
channel impulse response (CIR) from this channel which removes the discontinuous edge.
frequency response (CFR), . First, the channel frequency response on the pilot
subcarriers is obtained by using LSE estimation.
(14) After that we perform the DCT operation as [13]
In multipath wireless channels, many samples of CIR (18)

have little energy so we take only first L samples
having relatively more energy than noise [3], so we ∑
= 0, … , 1
get
0 1 Where
(15)
0 h 1 , 0 ; 2 , 0
√

www.IJCSI.org 356
In next step zeros are inserted in the DCT domain. methods. It is clear from Figure.1 that LMMSE
But different from DFT-based, zeros must be inserted demonstrates better performance than DFT-CE and
at the end of . DCT-CE but this approach results in more
computational time. The complexity can be reduced
by using DFT-CE and DCT-CE methods and the
performance degradation is not so prominent.
1 (19) Figure.1 also shows that DCT approach outperforms

,
0 DFT approach at all SNR values.
In DFT-based CE method, the effect of discarding
IDCT can’t be directly applied to get CFR because certain CIR samples by using MST processor is
DCT cause a shift in time-domain data. To remove demonstrated in Figure.2. It is clear from Figure.2
this shift effect extendible IDCT is employed, that is that as we go on increasing the number of discarded
given by [14] CIR samples, the performance also degrades which is
not prominent at low SNR but at high SNR values,
1 the performance degradation is severe.
, cos , 20
2
0, … , 1
Plot of MSE V/S SNR for DFT Estimator for different CIR
-1
10
By exchanging the DCT and IDCT processes, the

time-shift problem can be avoided but the
performance degradation will occur at the spectrum
edge [14]. Performance can be further improved by
MSE
-2
10
using adaptive filters as proposed in [15].
CIR=10
CIR=20
4. Simulation Results CIR=30
CIR=40
In this section, the performance comparison of DFT- -3
10
based and DCT-based approaches with LMMSE and 5 10 15 20 25
LSE channel estimation approaches is evaluated by

SNR (dB)
Fig.2 MSE v/s SNR for DFT‐CE for different CIR Samples
using MATLAB Monte-Carlo Simulations in terms
of Mean Square Error (MSE) and Symbol Error Rate 0
10
Plot Of MSE V/S SNR DCT Estimator different CIR
(SER). A Rayleigh fading channel having 64 multi-

path channel taps, employing Jake’s models, is
simulated on an OFDM system using QPSK -1
10
modulation technique and 64-point FFT.
MSE
Plot Of MSE V/S SNR for LMMSE,LSE,DFT and DCT Estimators -2

10
0 10 CIR-10
CIR-20
CIR-30
CIR-40
-1
10 -3
10
5 10 15 20 25
SNR (dB)
Fig.3 MSE v/s SNR for DCT‐CE for different CIR Samples
MSE
-2
10
-3
DCT The same performance behavior is also observed for
10 DFT
MMSE
DCT-CE approach, as shown in Figure.3. When CIR
LS samples are reduced from 20 to 10, the performance
10
-4
5 10 15 20 25
degrades significantly. Under low SNR operating
SNR (dB) conditions, less CIR samples can be considered for
Fig. 1 MSE v/s SNR for Channel Estimators less complexity but for high SNR we have to take
more CIR samples having significant energy,
4.1 MSE Comparison otherwise the performance will degrade.
There are two options for DCT-CE, either apply DCT
Figure.1 shows the performance comparison of DCT- first and then IDCT or exchange these operations.
CE and DFT-CE approach with LMMSE and LSE The comparison between these two approaches is

www.IJCSI.org 357
shown in Figure.4. The performance of DCT/IDCT is Comparison between DFT and DCT in terms of
better than IDCT/DCT, especially for high SNR Symbol Error Rate (SER) is shown in Figure.7. Here
values. But both these methods outperform the DFT- again the performance of DCT is better than DFT. By
CE. As we go on increasing the SNR, the increasing SNR, the performance of DCT improves
performance of DCT/IDCT also improves than DFT while that of DFT remains constant, so there is no
and IDCT/DCT. advantage of increasing SNR while using DFT-CE.
The comparison between DFT and DCT for different

number of CIR samples is shown in Figure.5. For The effect of CIR samples on SER for DFT-CE is
DCT, the CIR samples greater than 10 have no effect shown in Figure.8. For large values of CIR samples,
on performance and only complexity increases. But performance improves for high SNR values, while
for DFT, after 20 CIR samples, the performance for less CIR samples SNR value has no significant
behavior remains constant. So for DFT we have to effect on performance. The same behavior is
consider more CIR samples than DCT approach, to observed for DCT case as shown in Figure.9.
have same performance.
MSE vs Channel Taps for DFT and DCT Estimators
0.1
Plot Of MSE V/S SNR for DCT/IDCT and IDCT/DCT Algorithms DFT
-1
10
DCT/IDCT
DCT/IDCT 0.08 IDCT/DCT
IDCT/DCT
DFT
0.06
MSE
MSE
-2
10 0.04
0.02
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
-3
10
5 10 15 20 25
Channel Taps
SNR (dB) Fig.6 MSE v/s Channel Taps for DFT‐CE and DCT‐CE
Figure.4 MSE v/s SNR for DCT/IDCT and IDCT/DCT
10
0
Plot oF SNR V/S SER for DFT and DCT Estimator
-4 MSE v/s CIR Samples for DCT and DFT Estimators
x 10 DCT
10 DFT
IDCT/DCT
DFT
Symbol Error Rate
DCT/IDCT
8
-1
10
6
MSE
2 -2
10
5 10 15 20 25 30
SNR (dB)
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
CIR Samples Fig.7 Comparison of SER of DFT‐CE and DCT‐CE
Fig.5 MSE v/s CIR Samples for DCT‐CE and DFT‐CE

Plot Of SER vs SNR for DFT Estimators for different CIR
The effect of number of multipaths channel taps on 14
DFT , CIR 40
the performance of DFT and DCT is shown in 12
DFT , CIR 10
Figure.6. In Figure.6, it is demonstrated that for DFT
channel taps more than 10, the performance also 10
remains same and further improvement can be

SER
8
achieved by increasing multipaths channel taps to a
value greater than 60. So for less complexity and 6
better performance, approximate 10 to 15 multipaths 4

can be taken, while more multipaths will result only
in high complexity. 2
5 10 15 20 25
SNR (dB)
Fig.8 SER vs SNR of DFT‐CE for different CIR Samples
4.2 SER Comparison

www.IJCSI.org 358
5. Conclusion based MMSE Channel estimation”, IEEE Transactions
In this paper, the comparison of DFT-CE and DCT- on Communications, Vol.49, No.11, November 2001.
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[7] Dimitris G. Manolakis, Vinay K. Ingle. Statistical and
For power-limited communication systems, less
Adaptive Signal Processing,Spectral Estimation,
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and DFT but under high power operating conditions, Processing,Artech House, Boston London
less CIR samples are discarded for better [8] Saqib Saleem, Qamar-ul-Islam, “Performance and
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www.IJCSI.org 359
A Survey on the “Performance Evaluation of Various

Meta Search Engines”
K.Srinivas1, P.V.S.Srinivas2 and A.Govardhan3
1
Associate Professor, Department of IT, Geethanjali College of Engineering and Technology, Cheeryal (V), Keesara (M),
R.R.Dist, A.P- 501 301, India.
2
Professor, Department of CSE, Geethanjali College of Engineering and Technology, Cheeryal (V), Keesara (M),
R.R.Dist, A.P- 501 301, India.
3
Professor of CSE and Principal, JNTU College of Engineering and Technology, Jagityal, Karimnagar (D),A.P, India.
Abstract
Though a Search Engine (SE) helps in the process of retrieving Engine[5].This paper proposes a comprehensive
the information required to the user, a Meta Search Engine survey on various Meta Search Engines and their
(MSEs) on the other hand uses new methodologies or fusion
performance in the process of information retrieval
schemes for the information retrieval from the Web, and helps
from the Web.
the user to collect more, relevant documents from the Web.
This paper proposes a survey on various Meta Search Engines
and the various parameters on which the efficiency of a MSE Section 2 explains about various types of Search
lies. Engines which are under use, Section 3 discusses the
challenges posed by Search Engines, Sections 4, 5 and
Keywords: Web, Search Engine (SE), Meta Search Engine 6 briefly explains about different types of Meta
(MSE) and Information retrieval. search Engines, their properties and architecture.
Finally Section 7 gives the conclusions.
1. Introduction
2. Different types of Search Engines
Search engines play a pivotal role in the process of
retrieving information from the Web. When the user Ask is a Search Engine, which is also known as Ask
gives a Query, as a response, a Search engine returns a Jeeves. It is basically designed to answer the user’s
list of relevant results ranked in order. As a human, it is queries in the mode of Q&A and is proved to be a
the tendency of the user to use top-down approach of the focused search engine. Ask was developed in 1996 by
list displayed by the Search Engine and examines one Garrett Gruener and David Warthen in Berkeley,
result at a time, until the required information is found. California. Originally, the software was developed and
However, while search engines are definitely good for implemented by Gray Chevsky [13]. Easier
certain search tasks like finding the home page of an AskJeevs.com was built on core engine by Warthen,
organization. They may be less effective for satisfying Chevsky, and Justin Grant.Three venture capital firms,
broad or ambiguous queries. The results on different Highland Capital Partners, Institutional Venture
subtopics or meanings of a query will be mixed together Partners, and the RODA Group were early investors of
in the list, thus implying that the user may have to sift Ask.com, and it is currently owned by Inter Active
through a large number of irrelevant items to locate Corp under the NASDAQ symbol IACI. In late 2010,
those of interest. On the other hand, there is no way to facing insurmountable competition from Google, the
exactly figure out what is relevant to the user given that company outsourced its web search technology to an
the queries are usually very short and their interpretation unspecified third party and returned to its roots as a
is inherently ambiguous in the absence of a context. question and answer site [10].
An Effective and alternate approach to the information
retrieval on the Web in recent years is by using the Meta
Bing is a Search Engine, which was formerly known
Search Engine (MSE), instead of simply a Search
as Live Search, Windows Live Search, and MSN
www.IJCSI.org 360
Search. It is a web search engine (advertised as a actual web crawling and storage/retrieval of data was
"decision engine") that was owned by Microsoft [7]. done by Yahoo! itself. In 2001 the searchable index
Bing was unveiled by Microsoft CEO Steve Ballmer was powered by Inktomi and later was powered by
on May 28, 2009 at the All Things Digital conference Google until 2004, when Yahoo! Search became
in San Diego. It went fully online on June 3, 2009, independent. On July 29, 2009, Microsoft and Yahoo!
with a preview version released on June 1, 2009. announced a deal in which Bing would power Yahoo!
Notable changes include the listing of search Search. All Yahoo! Search global customers and
suggestions as queries are entered and a list of related partners are expected to be transitioned by early
searches (called "Explorer pane") based on semantic 2012[13].
technology from Powerset that Microsoft purchased in
2008. On July 29, 2009, Microsoft and Yahoo! 3. Challenges Posed by Search Engines
announced a deal in which Bing would power Yahoo!
Search. All Yahoo! Search global customers and (SEs)
partners are expected to be transitioned by early 2012.
Using a Search Engine (SE), an index is searched
rather than the entire Web. An index is created and
Google Search or Google Web Search is a web maintained by automated web searching by programs
search engine owned by Google Inc. and is the most- commonly known as spiders. Plain search engines
used search engine on the Web. Google receives prove to be very effective for certain types of search
several hundred million queries each day through its tasks, such as retrieving of a particular URL and
various services. The main purpose of Google Search transactional queries (where the user is interested in
is to hunt for text in webpages, as opposed to other some Web-mediated activity).
data, such as with Google Image Search. Google However, Search Engines can’t address informational
search was originally developed by Larry Page and queries, where the user has information that needs to
Sergey Brin in 1997. Google Search provides at least be satisfied.
22 special features beyond the original word-search
capability. These include synonyms, weather forecasts, A Meta Search Engine overcomes the above by
time zones, stock quotes, maps, earthquake data, virtue of sending the user’s query to a set of search
movie show times, airports, home listings, and sports engines, collects the data from them displays only the
scores[9]. There are special features for numbers, relevant records by using clustering algorithm.
including ranges, prices, temperatures, money/unit
conversions, calculations, package tracking, patents, 4. Metasearch engines
area codes, and language translation of displayed
pages. The order of search results (ghits for Google
Meta Search engine combines the strength of multiple
hits) on Google's search-results pages is based, in part,
search engines, but it is worth pausing to consider in
on a priority rank called a "PageRank". Google Search
more detail how exactly we expect Meta search to
provides many options for customized search, using
improve the performance of search engines, and in
Boolean operators such as: exclusion ("-xx"),
each case how we test how well it works.
inclusion ("+xx"), alternatives ("xx OR yy"), and
wildcard ("x * x").
A metasearch engine is a search tool that sends user
requests to several other search engines and/or
Yahoo! Search is a web search engine, owned by
databases and aggregates the results into a single list
Yahoo! Inc. till December 2009, the 2nd largest search
or displays them according to their source. Metasearch
engine on the web by query volume, at 6.42%, after its
engines enable users to enter search criteria once and
competitor Google at 85.35% and before Baidu at
access several search engines simultaneously.
3.67%, according to Net Applications. Originally,
Metasearch engines operate on the premise that the
Yahoo! Search started as a web directory of other
Web is too large for any one search engine to index it
websites, organized in a hierarchy, as opposed to a
all and that more comprehensive search results can be
searchable index of pages. In the late 1990s, Yahoo!
obtained by combining the results from several search
evolved into a full-fledged portal with a search
engines. This also may save the user from having to
interface and, by 2007, a limited version of selection-
use multiple search engines separately.
based search. Yahoo! Search, originally referred to as
Yahoo! provided Search interface, would send queries
to a searchable index of pages supplemented with its
directory of sites. The results were presented to the
user under the Yahoo! brand. Originally, none of the
www.IJCSI.org 361
The term "metasearch" is not only being used but also b. Improved recall: Recall is defined as the ratio
to describe the paradigm of searching multiple data of retrieved relevant documents to the total
sources in real time. The National Information relevant documents. Intrinsically a Meta
Standards Organization (NISO) uses the terms Search engine uses data fusion scheme, it
Federated Search and Metasearch interchangeably to provides a better and improved recall. Indeed
describe this web search paradigm. it is observed that different systems retrieve
different documents [17]. In one data set each
Benefits of Meta Search Engines of 61 search engines retrieved 1000
documents for each of 50 queues. An average
intersection between pairs of systems on each
As we are aware, a metasearch engine represents the query is only 238 documents, that different
combination of multiple search engines where in it systems are returning many a documents. But
exhibits a better performance than any search engine it is found out that to achieve higher recall via
The advantages of metasearch engines are that the fusion, it is necessary that the input systems
results can be sorted by different attributes such as retrieve not just different documents, but they
host, keyword, date, etc; which can be more provide different relevant documents [7].
informative than the output of a single search engine
[16]. Therefore browsing the results should be simpler.
On the other hand, the result is not necessarily all the
web pages matching the query, as the number of c. Improved Precision: Precision is clearly
results per search engine retrieved by the metasearch understood as the ratio of retrieved relevant
engines are limited. None the less, pages returned by documents to retrieved documents [3]. It was
more than one search engine should be more apt. proved that the odds of a document being
relevant, increases monotonically with the
We observe the following benefits from a metasearch number of search engines that retrieve it[18].
engine. There is also another argument that an
“Unequal Overlap Property” holds in ranked
a. Large data base: As a metasearch engine list fusion. Different retrieval algorithms
represents fusion to which more search retrieve many of the same relevant
engines with overlapping data bases are documents, but different irrelevant
added, user can retrieve more amount of documents, and if it is true any fusion
information. Depending on the fusion scheme technique that more heavily weighs common
a document appearing in only one data base documents should improve precision, but it
may not be as likely to be retrieved by the may likely harms recall as rear relevant
metasearch engine as a document appearing documents are de-emphasized.
in all of the data bases [21]. Using a
metasearch to obtain a large data base is very
important on the web where it is shown that
major search engines cover only relatively a
d. More consistent in Performance: Reliable
small portion of the entire index able web. It
behavior is considered to be another
is also observed that the amount of the web
important and desirable quality of a search
that is been covered by search engine data
engine. It was proved that the same search
bases is Using a metasearch to obtain a large
engine often response to the same query very
data base is very important on the web where
differently over time, which may be due to
it is shown that major search engines cover
the evolution of the data base [15]. Even with
only relatively a small portion of the entire
a fixed data base it is observed that each
index able web. It is also observed that the
search engine will have its strengths and
amount of the web that is been covered by
weakness, performing well on some queries
search engine data bases is actually shrinking
and poorly on others.
[8]. A search engine’s performance is
normally measured with precision and recall.
www.IJCSI.org 362
e. Modular Architected: While designing a WebCrawler was originally a separate search engine
search engine, one is faced with many with its own database, and displayed advertising
different sources of information about each results in separate areas of the page[12]. More recently
document. Word frequencies, Phrase it has been repositioned as a metasearch engine,
frequencies, textual structure within a providing a composite of separately identified
document, hyper link structure between sponsored and non-sponsored search results from most
documents etc. Meta search engine is the of the popular search engines.
answer that provides all of these information
that can be incorporated sensibly in such a Metacrawler is a metasearch engine that blends the
way that it takes the advantage of each. The top web search results from Google, Yahoo!, Bing
architecture of a search engine is modular and (formerly Live Search), Ask.com, About.com, MIVA,
a highly specialized sub engine module can LookSmart and other popular search engines.
be developed and fine tuned for each MetaCrawler also provides users the option to search
information source. Each sub engine can for images, video, news, yellow pages and white
alone be used as a search engine, but it may pages. It used to provide the option to search for audio.
exhibit relatively pure performance. On the MetaCrawler is a registered trademark of InfoSpace,
other hand queried in parallel and combined Inc. MetaCrawler was originally developed in 1994 at
by a Meta search core results into a high the University of Washington by then graduate student
performance search engine. Erik Selberg and Professor Oren Etzioni as Selberg's
Ph.D. Qualifying Exam project[6]. Originally, it was
created in order to provide a reliable abstraction layer
to early Web search engines such as WebCrawler,
f. Focused Ranking Algorithms: Effective Meta Lycos, and InfoSeek in order to study semantic
search engines may yield unexpected benefits structure on the Web. However, it became clear that it
and this may lead towards designing of was a useful service in its own right, and had a number
focused algorithms for ranking documents of research challenges.
that can take advantage of novel, highly
specific information sources with in Dogpile is a metasearch engine that fetches results
document. These focused ranking algorithms from Google, Yahoo!, Bing, Ask.com,[9] About.com
are not expected to function well in isolation, and several other popular search engines, including
but they can improve the search engine’s those from audio and video content providers. It is a
performance when combined with other registered trademark of InfoSpace, Inc.
ranking algorithms [4].
Brainboost is a metasearch engine designed to
5. Different types of Meta Search Engines provide specific answers to questions asked in natural
language. Currently it only supports English. The
Brainboost engine uses machine learning and natural
WebCrawler is a metasearch engine that blends the language processing AI techniques to answer the
top search results from Google, Yahoo!, Bing Search questions [19]. Traditional engines return the links to
(formerly MSN Search and Live Search), Ask.com, the pages that appear most relevant. Additionally the
About.com, MIVA, LookSmart and other popular results page may include a summary of the page. The
search engines. WebCrawler also provides users the user then needs to download the pages and read them
option to search for images, audio, video, news, to see if the answer to this question exists. Brainboost
yellow pages and white pages [2]. WebCrawler is a however, generates a number of different queries that
registered trademark of InfoSpace, Inc. it submits to traditional search engines, downloads
several hundred pages returned by the search engines,
reads the pages and isolates the answers in the text of
WebCrawler was the first Web search engine to
these pages, and ranks the different answers based on
provide full text search [1]. It went live on April 20,
its AnswerRank algorithm [20]. The engine is highly
1994 and was created by Brian Pinkerton at the
suited to relatively common questions that might have
University of Washington. It was bought by America
been already dealt somewhere on the Web in one form
Online on June 1, 1995 and sold to Excite on April 1,
or another. In December 2005, Brainboost was
1997. WebCrawler was acquired by InfoSpace in 2001
acquired by Answers Corporation.
after Excite, (which was then called Excite@Home),
went bankrupt. InfoSpace also owns and operates the
metasearch engines Dogpile, MetaCrawler and Excite.
www.IJCSI.org 363
Clusty is a metasearch engine which is developed by

Vivisimo offered clusters of results. Vivísimo is a
company built on Web search technology developed
by Carnegie Mellon University researchers. Parameters
Interestingly Lycos, a search engine that was popular a Search No. of Response Ranking
decade ago, developed at the same university. Clusty Engine Search Time Algorithm
adds new features and a new interface to the previous Engines
Vivisimo clustering web metasearch [11]. Different Used
tabs also offer metasearches for news, jobs (in Brain boost 16 Less Clustering
partnership with Indeed.com), U.S. government info Algorithm
and blogs. Customized tabs allow users to select Dogpile 14 More Display
sources for their own metasearch to create the results
personalized tabs. Clusty had free toolbars for Internet provided
Explorer and Mozilla Firefox, as well as a Mycroft by
Project search plugin for Mozilla and Firefox. On May different
14 2010, Clusty was acquired by Yippy, Inc., an search
Internet startup based in Fort Myers, Florida. engines
Metacrawler 5 Less Eliminates
duplicates
Chunklt (Yolink) is a powerful search technology Chunkit 9 Average Use Star
developed by Tiger Logic that mines links and rating
documents to retrieve keyword-rich blocks of system
information. Based on years of research & Clusty 8 Average Clustering
development, yolink employs semantic and propriety Algorithm
technology, built in house, to uncover information
hidden inside links and documents that is important to
you. With an expertise in XML and large-scale,
multidimensional databases, yolink technology 7. Conclusions
effortlessly reveals websites hidden information and
presents it in a logical fashion [14]. In a phrase, we’re This paper presented a comprehensive survey and
proficient at producing highly structured data in a understanding of various Meta Search Engines. It is
highly unstructured environment. understood that Meta Search Engine exhibits superior
performance than any Search Engine and its
6. Architecture of a Meta Search Engine performance also depends on various factors like
recall and precision.
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www.IJCSI.org 370
ECC over RSA for Asymmetric Encryption: A Review

Kamlesh Gupta1, Sanjay Silakari2
1
JUET, Guna, Gwalior, MP, India
2
UIT, RGPV, Bhopal, MP, India
ABSTRACT properties of elliptic curves in their public key

Cryptography is used to transmit the data securely in open systems. The elliptic curves provide ways of
network. This paper gives the survey of Elliptic Curve constructing groups of elements and specific rules of
Cryptosystem (ECC) used in many applications. ECC is a how the elements within these groups combine. The
when compared to RSA and discrete logarithm systems, is a properties between the groups are used to build
better option for the future. For this reason ECC is such an cryptographic algorithms.
excellent choice for doing asymmetric cryptography in
portable devices right now. The smaller ECC keys it turn 2. Elliptic Curve Cryptography
makes the cryptographic operations that must be performed Elliptic curve has a rich and beautiful history and
by the communicating devices to be embedded into mathematicians have studied them for many years.
considerably smaller hardware, so that software They have been used to solve a various types of
applications may complete cryptographic operations with problems. The first use of elliptic curve in
fewer processor cycles, and operations can be performed cryptography parlance was Lenstra’s elliptic curve
much faster, while still retaining equivalent security. This factorization algorithm. Inspired by this sudden
means, in turn, reduced power consumption, less space unexpected application of elliptic curves in integer
consumed on the printed circuit board, and software factorization, Neal Koblitz and Victor Miller
applications that run more rapidly make lower memory proposed, in the mid 1980s, the elliptic curve public-
demands. In brief, for communication using smaller devices
key cryptographic systems. Since then an abundance
of research has been published on the security and
and asymmetric cryptosystem we need ECC.
efficient implementation of elliptic curve
Key words— Encryption, RSA and ECC.
cryptography. In the late 1990s, elliptic curve
systems started receiving commercial acceptance
1. Introduction when accredited standard organizations specified
Elliptic curves were proposed for use as the basis for elliptic curve protocols, and private companies
discrete logarithm-based cryptosystems almost 20 included these protocols in their security products.
years ago, independently by Victor Miller of IBM and We consider an elliptic curve over a finite field
Neal Koblitz of the University of Washington . At that associated with a prime number p > 3 whose
time, elliptic curves were already being used in equation is
various cryptographic contexts. y2 (mod p) = (x3+ax+b) mod p……. (1)
Elliptic curves are rich mathematical structures that
Where a, b are two integers which satisfy 4a3 +27b2≠0
have shown usefulness in many different types of
applications. ECC, like RSA has the role in digital (mod p).Then the elliptic group, Ep (a, b), is the set of
signatures, secure key distribution, and encryption. pairs (x, y), where 0 ≤ x, y < p, satisfying the equation
ECC has the upper hand in the efficiency of algorithm. (1) with the point at infinity denoted as O. The binary
Some devices have limited processing capacity, operation × defined on the group Ep (a, b) is as follows.
storage, power supply, and bandwidth like the newer Let X = (x1, y1) and Y = (x2, y2) be in Ep (a, b),
wireless devices and cellular telephones. When used, then A × B = (x3, y3) is defined as
efficiency of the resource use is very important in
x3 ≡ λ2 − x1 − x2 (mod p)
these devices. ECC provides encryption functionality
requiring a smaller percentage of the resources y3 ≡ λ(x1 − x3) − y1 (mod p)
required by RSA and other algorithms, so it is used in Where
these types of devices. In most cases, the longer the y2 -y1/x2-x1 if X ≠ Y
key length, the more protection that is provided, but λ= ………… (2)
ECC can provide the same level of protection with a 3x12+a/2y1 if X = Y
smaller key size than RSA. Since smaller keys as in
ECC require fewer resources of the device to perform
the mathematical tasks. ECC cryptosystems use the

www.IJCSI.org 371
3. Security Test by Certicon Pvt. Ltd 3.1 ECC for portable devices and its application
Much like the RSA challenge, the Certicom ECC When the ECC was first introduced in 1985, there was
challenge offers prize money for finding various key a lot of skepticism about its security. But, ECC has
sizes of the ECDLP. The current record was set in come a long way since then. After nearly a decade of
November 2002 where a 109-bit encryption key was serious study and scrutiny, ECC has yielded highly
broken with 10,000 computers running 24 hours a day efficient and secure. Presently, many product vendors
for 549 days. The Certicom ECC challenge website have incorporated ECC in their products, and this
reports that breaking a 163-bit key, which is the number has only been on the rise. Uncertainty still
standard applied to most commercial ECC exists among some proponents of traditional
applications that Certicom uses, would be a hundred cryptographic systems, but they are starting to become
million times harder than breaking the 109-bit key. It more accepting of this promising new technology.
is worthy to note that a 160-bit ECC key has about the RSA Security Inc., for example, has long voiced
same level of security as a 1024-bit RSA key. concern regarding the security of ECC since its
The most important difference between ECC and other introduction. In recent years, however, RSA Security
conventional cryptosystems is that for a well-chosen has researched on efficient ECC algorithms, and even
curve, the best method currently known for solving the acquired a patent on a storage-efficient basis
ECDLP is fully exponential, while sub-exponential conversion algorithm. Moreover, it has also integrated
algorithms exist for conventional cryptosystems. This ECC into some of its products, acknowledging the fact
difference largely contributes to the 8 huge disparities
that ECC has begun to establish itself as both secure
in their respective running times. It also means that
ECC keys have much fewer bits than Integer and efficient.
Factorization Problem (IFP) and Discrete Logarithms An important factor for this emerging trend is the
Problem (DLP) based applications. The contrast in key incorporation of ECDSA in several government and
lengths of RSA, DSA and ECC are shown in the graph major research institution security standards, including
(Fig1) below. Clearly, ECC keys take much more IEEE P1363, ANSI X9.62, ISO 11770-3 and ANSI
effort to break compared to RSA and DSA keys. Due X9.63. Another factor is the strong promotion of the
to this, many people believe that ECDLP is use of ECC through a Canadian-based Certicom
intrinsically harder than the other two problems. While Corporation. Certicom is a company that specializes in
this deduction might be true, we have no way of information security solutions in a mobile computing
proving it. We do not know if a fast and efficient environment through providing software and services
elliptic curve Discrete logarithms algorithm that runs to its clients. Over the years, Certicom has published
in sub-exponential time will be discovered, say, in the numerous papers in support of ECC and has also
next ten years, or if another class of weak curves will implemented ECC in all of its commercial products.
be identified that could compromise the security of Its success prompted many other companies to look
elliptic curve cryptosystems. But it can be deduced for more closely at the benefits and security of ECC.
sure that after years of intensive study, there is Now, ECC is becoming the mainstream cryptographic
currently no faster way to attack the ECDLP other scheme in all mobile and wireless devices. Below is a
than fully exponential algorithms. short survey of ECC applications found in the market
at present. Results of the survey can be broadly
divided into four categories: the Internet, smart cards,
PDAs and PCs. Internet.
● In September of 2002, SUN Microsystems
contributed to the implementation of an ECC
cryptographic library and also a common hardware
architecture for accelerating ECC (as well as RSA) to
be used in open SSL. Open SSL is a developmental
toolkit for the implementation of SSL (Secure Sockets
Layer) and TLS (Transport Layer Security) protocols,
which are commonly used today in over-the-web
transactions and secure document transfers. SUN
Fig1. comparative study of ECC and RSA/DSA hopes to promote ECC standardization with SSL,
which is the dominant security protocol used on the
web today.

www.IJCSI.org 372
● In late 1998, the Treasury Department’s Bureau of ● The Top Secret Messenger software was developed
Engraving and Printing completed a four-month e- by Encryption Software Inc. It encrypts the messages
commerce pilot program involving the use of smart of some of the most popular instant messaging
cards and ECC with SET (Secure Electronic programs today, like ICQ and MSN. It can also be
Transaction) specifications. SET is a standard that used with e-mail clients such as Microsoft Outlook
enables secure credit card transactions over the and Outlook Express to encrypt e-mail messages. This
Internet. The pilot program tested the use of smart product uses both private and public key
cards, embedded with ECC technology, in making cryptosystems, including a 307-bit key for its
online purchases. This program involved a total of implementation of the ECC.
nine companies, including MasterCard, Certicom (who ● Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) [2] is emerging
supplied the ECC algorithms), Digital Signature Trust as an attractive public-key cryptosystem for
Co. (who supplied the MasterCard smart cards) and mobile/wireless environments. ECC proposes
GlobeSet (a SET vendor), just to name a few. The equivalent security with smaller key sizes, compared
previous version of SET, version 1.0, supports only to conventional cryptosystems like RSA, which results
RSA Data Security encryption algorithms, but in faster computations; reduced power consumption,
MasterCard hopes to add ECC to the upcoming as well as savings in memory space and bandwidth.
version of SET. Smart Cards are one of the most Since mobile devices have limited CPU, power and
popular devices for the use of ECC. Many network connectivity ECC is especially useful.
manufacturing companies are producing smart cards However, to evaluate any public-key cryptosystem it is
that make use of elliptic curve digital signature needed to analyze its impact in the context of a
algorithms. These manufacturing companies include security protocol. This paper presents a analysis of the
Phillips, Fujitsu, MIPS Technologies and DataKey, performance enhancements that can be expected in
while vendors that sell these smart cards include SSL (Secure Socket Layer), the dominant security
Funge Wireless and Entrust Technologies. Smart cards protocol on the Web at present, by adding ECC
are very flexible tools and can be used in many support.
situations. For example, smart cards are being used as The authentication protocol using ECC in resource
bank (credit/debit) cards, electronic tickets and constrained mobile devices with reasonable
personal identification (or registration) cards etc. performance compared to RSA has been proposed in
● PDAs are considered to be a very popular choice for [8]. The protocols based on this ECC asymmetric
implementing public key cryptosystems because they cryptography can be directly used in mobile devices.
have more computing power compared to most of the This is addressed to the design of a protocol based on
other mobile devices, like cell phones or pagers. ECC asymmetric cryptography. Moreover an
However, they still suffer from limited bandwidth and implementation for J2ME Wireless Tool Kit 2.5.1 is
this makes them an ideal choice for using ECC. In the also described. This work to be a big contribution to
January of 1998, 3Com4 Corporation teamed up with the development and widespread acceptance of m-
Certicom to implement ECC in future versions of its commerce.
PalmPilot organizer series and Palm Computing CPDLC is an Aeronautical Telecommunication
platform. This new feature will provide protection of Network (ATN) air/ground application that allows a
confidential information on the hand-held organizers, direct exchange of text-based messages between Air
user authentication in wireless communications and e- Traffic Service (ATS) ground system and the aircraft.
commerce transactions, and also ensure data integrity For the ground system to provide data link services to
and proof of transactions. an aircraft, the first step in the connection management
● Constrained devices have been considered to be the chain is the logon. It takes one logon from the aircraft
most suitable platforms for implementing the ECC. to allow a ground system to connect with CPDLC
Recently, several companies have created software application. The logon serves a number of purposes:
products that can be used on PCs to secure data, providing an ATS unit with the type of applications
encrypt e-mail messages and even instant messages supported by the avionics (CPDLC, ADS, etc.); and
with the use of ECC. PC Guardian Technologies is etc. For those reasons, data link security problem
one such company that created the Encryption Plus consists of two applications, the Context Management
Hard-Disk and Encryption Plus Email software (CM) and the CPDLC. The CM-logon service allows
products. The former makes use of both RSA and the CM-air-user to initiate data link service and
ECDH while the latter makes use of a strong 233- bit provides information on each data link application for
ECC key to encrypt its private AES keys. Since the which it desires a data link service. The CM-ground-
July 2000, Palm Inc. has separated from 3Com4, and user responds indicating whether or not the CM-logon
is now a fully independent company. was successful, and if successful, includes information
on each data link application it can support. Once a

www.IJCSI.org 373
dialogue is established, CPDLC allows for the direct systems have over systems based on the multiplicative
exchange of text-base message between a controller group of a finite field (and also over systems based on
and a pilot. Thus, in the proposed elliptic curve based the intractability of integer factorization) is the
authentication protocol, the CM application is used to
absence of a sub exponential-time algorithm (such as
manage mutual authentication during initial contact,
and subsequent CPDLC application messages are those of “index-calculus” type) that could find discrete
authenticated using ATN keyed message logs in these groups. Consequently, we can use an
authentication code scheme. The protocol depends on elliptic curve group which is smaller in size while
the security of the elliptic curve primitives (e.g. retaining the same level of security. Also in RSA
generation and verification of key and verification of cryptosystem, the security increases sub exponentially
signature). These operations utilize the arithmetic of whereas in elliptic curve cryptosystem, the security
points which are element of the set of solutions of an
increases directly exponentially. The consequence is
elliptic curve defined over a finite field. The use of
elliptic curve cryptographic techniques provides smaller key sizes, bandwidth savings, and faster
greater security using fewer bits, resulting in a implementations features which are especially
protocol which satisfies the primary considerations attractive for security applications where
(namely bandwidth and computation constraints) for computational power and integrated circuit space is
the aeronautical information security. The limited, such as smart cards, PC (personal computer)
methodology presented in this paper would be of great cards, and wireless devices.
value to ATN data link security protocol designer
● In paper [3], the author made an effort to Survey
verifier and implementer for other ATN air/ground
applications. well known security issues in WSNs and study the
● 3G-WLAN interworking [9] Firstly, the behavior of WSN nodes that perform public key
authentication entities which do not rely on the cryptographic public key operation. We evaluate time
concrete heterogeneous network are abstracted by and power consumption of cryptography algorithm for
analyzing 3G-WLAN multi-kind he heterogeneous signature and key management by simulation.
network model. And then a general authentication
● In [4] One of the most secure classical ciphers is the
model is established and a new access authentication
and key agreement method combined elliptic curve One Time Pad (OTP). But the drawback of this cipher
cryptographic techniques with public key method is is the inconvenient key to be used and to be
proposed. In this scheme, encryption data uses the maintained by the receiving party in order to recover
smaller key length ECC with the similar security the transmitted message. Also, the fact that the key-
coefficient, and authentication information is marked. size is equal or of the same order as the message size,
Further, the encryption/decryption and signature puts a limit on the size of the message to be
algorithm are carefully selected and enhanced. Hence
transmitted. This limits the capability of OTP by
mobile device computation overhead is reduced.
Finally, the analysis of security shows that the forcing this scheme to be used only for transmitting
proposed scheme satisfies the security characteristics extremely short messages like passwords. Because of
such as joint authentication, key control, key the extremely good cryptographic security provided to
confirmation, confidentiality of the critical data, non- the messages, it is desirable to extend OTP to large
repudiation, data integrity, resistance to replay attack. messages as well. This paper discusses a technique
And the analysis of performance also shows that the where public key and the private key are generated
proposed scheme is efficient in regard to computation
with help of a Lychrel number and an Elliptic curve
and communication overheads.
3.2 ECC for wireless devices and its applications algorithm over a finite field. The Algorithm has the
Although the discrete logarithm problem was first nature of OTP and also supports the encryption of
deployed by Diffie and Hellman was defined precisely longer messages.
as the problem of finding logarithms with respect to a This work explains a cost effective Public-Key
Cryptography (PKC) based solution for security
generator in the multiplicative group of the integers
services like key-distribution and authentication which
modulo a prime, this method can be enhanced to are required for wireless sensor networks. The author
arbitrary groups and, specially, to elliptic curve proposes a custom hardware assisted approach to
groups. The elliptic curve public-key systems provide implement Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) in
relatively small block size, high speed, and high order to obtain stronger cryptography as well as to
security. The primary advantage that elliptic curve minimize the power. Their compact and low-power
ECC processor contains a Modular Arithmetic Logic

www.IJCSI.org 374
Unit (MALU) for ECC field arithmetic. The best J2SE 1.2 (1998) Java SE 6 (2006)
solution has 6718 gates for the MALU and control unit J2SE 1.3 (2000)
(data memory not included) in 0.13 μm CMOS In the Java architecture, the Security API (built around
technology over the field F2131 , which provides a the java .security package) is one of the most
reasonable level of security for the time being.
Here the consumed power is less than 30 μW when important interfaces of the language. The first version
operating frequency is 500 kHz. In this paper In [5] of the Security API for JDK (Java Development Kit)
we investigate the possibility for PK services for 1.1 introduced the Java Cryptography Architecture
pervasive computing. We show that ECC processors (JCA), which allows the management of digital
can be designed in such a way to qualify for signatures and message digests.
lightweight applications suitable for wireless sensor
networks. Here, the term lightweight assumes low die 4. Conclude and future work
size and low power consumption. Therefore, we ECC is a very encouraging and new field to work in
propose a hardware processor supporting ECC that order to find a more cost efficient method to perform
features very low footprint and low-power. encryption for portable devices and to secure image
● By using Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC), it has transmission over internet.
been lately shown that Public-Key Cryptography Elliptic curves are believed to provide good security
(PKC) is feasible on resource-constrained nodes. This with smaller key sizes, something that is very useful in
feasibility, however, does not essentially mean many applications. Smaller key sizes may result in
attractiveness, as the obtained results are still not faster execution timings for the schemes, which is
satisfactory enough. In this paper [6], the author beneficial to systems where real time performance is a
present results on implementing ECC, as well as the critical factor.
associated emerging field of Pairing-Based We have estimates of parameter sizes providing
Cryptography (PBC), on two most popular sensor equivalent levels of security for RSA and ECC
nodes. By doing that, he show that PKC is not only systems. These comparisons illustrate the appeal of
viable, but in fact attractive for WSNs. As far as elliptic curve cryptography especially for applications
pairing computations presented in this paper are the that have high security.
most efficient results on the MICA2 (8-bit/7.3828- The market for Personal Digital Assistants (PDA) is
MHz ATmega128L) and Tmote Sky(16-bit/8.192- growing sharply and PDAs are becoming increasingly
attractive for commercial transactions. One
MHz MSP-430) nodes.
requirement for further growing of E-commerce with
3.3 ECC Library mobile devices is the provision of security. We can
An extensive review of the most important ECC implement elliptic curves over binary fields on a Palm
implementations in Java is presented [8]. The Java OS device.
language has experienced a constant growth regarding
the number of programmers and commercial References
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corporate applications. As a result of its continuous “The State of Elliptic Curve Cryptography”, in Designs,
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SE) for desktop computers, Java Platform Enterprise Performance Analysis of Elliptic Curve Cryptography
Edition (Java EE) for advanced servers, Java Platform for SSL”, in WiSe’02, September 28, 2002, Atlanta,
Micro Edition (Java ME) for mobile handsets and Georgia, USA.Copyright 2002 ACM
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[3]. F. Amin, A. H. Jahangir, and H. Rasifard,” Analysis of
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proper version: 2070-3740.
JDK 1.0 (1996) J2SE 1.4 (2002) [4]. Karuna Kamath K. and Shankar B.R., “One Time Pad
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Mathematics ISSN 1819-4966 Volume 5 Number 2
(2010), pp. 157–161.
[5]. Lejla Batina, Nele Mentens, Kazuo Sakiyama, Bart
Preneel, and Ingrid Verbauwhede,”Low-Cost Elliptic
Curve Cryptography for Wireless Sensor Networks”, in
ESAS 2006, LNCS 4357, pp. 6–17, 2006. Springer-
Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2006.
[6].Piotr Szczechowiak, Leonardo B. Oliveira, Michael
Scott,Martin Collier,and Ricardo Dahab ,” NanoECC:
Testing the Limits of Elliptic Curve Cryptography in
Sensor Networks”, in CAPES (Brazilian Ministry of
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[7]. Mrs. S. Prasanna Ganesan, “An Efficient Protocol For
Resource Constrained Platforms Using ECC”,
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www.IJCSI.org 376
A Novel Elliptic curve cryptography Processor using NoC

design
Hamid Javashi1 and Reza Sabbaghi-Nadooshan2
1
Electronic Engineering Department, Islamic Azad University Central Tehran Branch,
Tehran, Iran
2
Electronic Engineering Department, Islamic Azad University Central Tehran Branch,
Tehran, Iran
number of software [9,10] and hardware [11,14]

Abstract implementations have been proposed. ECC is widely
In this paper, we propose an elliptic curve key generation deployed in many applications such as wireless device
processor over GF(2m) and GF(P) with Network-on-Chip (NoC) [15], digital signal processing [16], RFID tag [17], and
design scheme based on binary scalar multiplication algorithm. smart cart [18].
Over the Two last decades, Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) For implementations of ECC, finite fields GF(p) and
has gained increasing acceptance in the industry and the
GF(2m) have been used, where p is a prime and m is a
academic community. This interest is mainly caused by the same
level of security with relatively small keys provided by ECC positive integer greater than one. In particular GF(2m),
comparing to large key size in Rivest Shamir Adleman (RSA). which is an m-dimensional extension field of GF(p), is
Parallelism can be utilized in different hierarchy levels as shown suitable for hardware implementations because there is no
in many publications. By using NoC, a new method with the carry propagation in arithmetic operations.
reduced latency of point multiplication (with parallel field A relatively large amount of research has been performed
arithmetic) is introduced in this paper. on hardware implementations of ECC over GF(2m),
including those given in [19-20]. This is because GF(2m)
Keywords: ECC, ECPM, NoC, parallelism. implementations are generally faster and more compact
than their GF(p) equivalents. However, conventional
hardware implementations of ECC over GF(2m) are not
1. Introduction very flexible, as the field parameters used are often fixed.
In practice, ECC has many different operational modes
Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) has been proposed by
and primitives and therefore architectures need to be
Miller [1] and Koblitz [2] in the mid 1980s.
flexible. Thus, GF(2m) may not be the ideal choice if
A flexible architecture for Elliptic Curve Point
flexibility is an important requirement. Moreover, RSA,
Multiplication (ECPM) with the help of Network on Chip
the most widely used public-key cryptosystem uses
(NoC) over GF(p) and GF(2m) is presented in this paper.
arithmetic over GF(P).
ECPM is the basic operation of any elliptic curve
Therefore, it is attractive to create hardware architectures
cryptosystem and it is essential that it is implemented
suitable for ECC over GF(P), which have the capability of
efficiently. Several implementations of ECPM have been
supporting RSA as well as ECC cryptography.
introduced e.g. in [3,5] and one implementation with NoC
The sequential nature of the point multiplication makes
design is suggested in [6].
efficient use of parallelization challenging, however
Elliptic curve cryptography (ECC) is a public key
although the point multiplication itself is hard to
cryptography system which attractive primarily because of
parallelize, it is possible to efficiently use parallelism in
its shorter wordlengths compared to RSA implementations
point operations.
with the same level of security [7]. 2048-bit RSA, for
The rest of the paper is organized as follows: the
example, can be replaced by an ECC system of equivalent
theoretical background, including ECC arithmetic is
security while reducing the key wordlength by a factor of
described in section 2; section 3 presents the design of
eight [8]. Some benefits of having smaller key sizes
ECC general processor, NoC properties which are needed
include reductions in processing power, storage space, and
in ECC is presented in section 4. In section 5 we introduce
bandwidth Due to these many advantages of ECC, a
www.IJCSI.org 377
new design of ECC processor on NoC, and the 6th section if P  Q

includes the conclusion. y  y1
 2
 
2. ECC arithmetic
2
x ( ) x x

3 1 2
x 2 x1
y  y1
The Weierstraß equation of an elliptic curve E defined y  ( 2
)( x  x )  y

3 1 3 1
x 2 x1
over K using affine coordinates is: if P  Q
3 x 2
 a
E : y 2  a1 xy  a 3 y  x 3  a 2 x 2  a 4 x  a 6 Eq (1)   2 x
1 2
x 3 ( ) 1
2 y 1
where a 1 , a 2 , a 3 , a 4 , a 5 , a 6  K . An elliptic 3 x 2
 a
y  ( 1
)  ( x  x )  y
curve E is then defined as the set of solutions of this 3
2 y 1
1 3 1
equation in the affine plane, together with the point at

infinity  . Where the addition, subtraction, multiplication and the
For a non-supersingular curve equation of characteristic 2 inverse are the arithmetic operations over GF(p).
(defined over a field GF(2m)), the reduced Weierstraß
equation has the form :
y 2  xy  x 3  a x 2  b E q (2) if P  Q
y 2  y1
 (  
With a , b  G F ( 2 ) , b  0 and the set of point
m 2
x ) x x
x 2 
3 1 2
x1
which satisfy Eq. (2). y  y1
For a non-singular curve equation defined over a field y  ( 2
)( x  x )  y  c

3 1 3 1
x x1
GF(P) and of characteristic k  2,3 the reduced 2
if P  Q
Weierstraß equation has the form:
x 2
 a
x 3  ( 1
) 2
c
y 2
 x 3
 a x  b (m o d p ) E q (3 )
x 2
 a
y 3  ( 1
) 2
 ( x 1  x 3 )  y 1
Where a , b  G F ( P ) and
c
Where the addition, subtraction, multiplication and the

4 a 3
 27b 2
 0 m od P , inverse are the arithmetic operations over GF(2m) [21].
( x , y )  G F ( P )  G F ( P ) which satisfy
2-2 Scalar multiplication algorithms
Eq. (3) [21]. ECPM is described on E as follow as:
Q  k .P  P  P    P E q (4)
2-1 Group law
Where Q and P are distinct points on E and k is a large
While using elliptic curve, the fundamental operations are integer ECPM in Eq. (4) is computed with successively
the point addition and doubling. performed operations called point addition and point
If there are two points on curve namely, P (x1, y1), doubling. The hierarchy of arithmetics for EC point
Q (x2, y2) and their sum given by point, R(x3, y3) the multiplication is shown in Fig. 1.
algebraic formulas for point addition and point doubling A point addition is an operation P3 = P1 + P2, where P, are
are given by following equations: distinct points on an elliptic curve, and a point doubling is
an operation P3 = 2P1. Several efficient methods to
compute ECPM in Eq. (4) have been suggested. The basic
method for computing kP is the addition-subtraction
method described in draft standard IEEE P1363 [22]. This
method is an improved version over the well known
double and add (or binary) method, which requires no
precomputations. Several proposed generalizations of the
binary method (for exponentiation in a multiplicative
group), such as the k-ary method, the signed window
www.IJCSI.org 378
method, can be expanded to compute elliptic scalar use projective coordinates. In standard projective
multiplications over a finite field [23-24]. coordinates the points on the elliptic curve are represented
A different way for computing kP was introduced by as a triple ( X , Y , Z ) in such a way that x  X / Z
Montgomery [25]. This approach is based on the binary and y  Y / Z . By using projective coordinates only
method. one finite field inversion is required at the end of a scalar
multiplication in order to transform the projective
coordinates back to affine coordinates. Several types of
projective coordinates have been proposed.
For GF(p) includes, Standard projective coordinates,
Jacobian projective coordinates and Chudnovsky
coordinates, and for GF(2m) includes Standard projective
coordinates, Jacobian projective coordinates and finally
López-Dahab (LD) projective coordinates [21].
We use Jacobian projective coordinates and and López-
Dahab (LD) projective coordinates for arithmetic over
GF(P) and GF(2m), respectively.
The number of multiplication and addition in scalar
multiplication is shown in Table 1.
According to binary method algorithm with projective
coordinate, the scalar multiplication is performed over
Fig. 1. EC arithmetic hierarchy three steps; (i) initialization operations, (ii) iteration of the
point addition and point doubling; and (iii) the conversion
In this paper we use binary method for both GF(p) and to affine coordinates.
GF(2m), Binary method (or double-and-add method) is
probably the most common way to compute Q=k.P .
In the binary method, k is represented with binary
expansion as K  ( 1 , k l  1 , . . . , k 1 , k 0 )2 and a point
Table 1: Number of arithmetic computation in binary method
doubling is performed for each bit ki and a point addition
if ki=1. Thus, because l  m , m point doublings and
m / 2 point additions are required on average.
B in a r y m e th o d :
In p u t : P  E , K  ( 1 , k l  1 , ..., k 1 , k 0 )2
O u tp u t : Q = k. P
Q  P
fo r i fr o m l  2 d o w n to 0 d o
Q  2Q
if k i  1
th e n Q  Q  P
3. ECC Processor design
This algorithm that mentioned above is same for GF(P)
and GF(2m), but there is different in finite field arithmetic As mentioned above, we will study the scalar
computation between two fields GF(P) and GF(2m). multiplication method based on binary method Algorithm.
A block diagram of the elliptic curve processor is show in
2-3 Projective coordinate Fig. 2. It consists of an arithmetic logic unit, register bank
and controller unit.
Ordinarily, point addition and point doubling also require Register bank consists of several registers which is stored
a field inversion when using affine coordinates ( x , y ) . the information in each stage of binary method. The
Since inversion is a very expensive operation compared to control module consists of a finite state machine. It
multiplication, addition and squaring in finite fields, we generates the control signals for the initialization
www.IJCSI.org 379
operations of finite field, the point addition and point special properties which are different from the traditional
doubling operations and the conversion to affine networks. Compared to traditional networks, power
coordinates operations. Finally the arithmetic and logical consumption is the first-order constraint in NoC design
unit (ALU) allow parallel execution of finite field addition, [27]. As a result, not only should the designer optimize the
inversion, squaring and multiplications, which are NoC for delay (for traditional networks), but also for
controlled by the control unit. power consumption.
The choice of network topology is an important issue in
designing a NoC. Different NoC topologies can
dramatically affect the network characteristics, such as
average inter-IP distance, total wire length, and
communication flow distributions. These characteristics in
turn, determine the power consumption and average
packet latency of NoC architectures.
In general, the topologies proposed for NoCs can be
classified into two major classes, namely regular tile-based
and application-specific. Compared to regular tile-based
topologies, application-specific topologies are customized
to give a higher performance for a specific application.
Moreover, if the sizes of the IP cores of a NoC vary
significantly, regular tile-based topologies may impose a
high area overhead. On the other hand, this area overhead
can be compensated by some advantages of regular tile-
based architectures. Regular NoC architectures provide
standard structured interconnects which ensures well-
controlled electrical parameters. Moreover, usual physical
design problems like crosstalk, timing closure, and wire
Figure 2: block diagram of the elliptic curve processor
routing and architectural problems such as routing and
switching strategies and network protocols can be
designed and optimized for a regular NoC and be reused
4. Network on Chips in several SoCs.
The advances in the semiconductor technology and the The mesh topology is the simplest and most dominant
shrinking feature size in the deep submicron era, have led topology for today’s regular tile-based NoCs. It is well
to an effective increase in the number of transistors known that mesh topology is very simple. It has low cost
available on a single chip. This huge number of transistors and consumes low power [28], so we use this topology for
enables us to integrate complex system-on-chip (SoC) ECC.
designs containing a large number of processing cores
together with large amounts of embedded memory and
5. ECC with NoCs
high-bandwidth I/O on a single chip. On the other hand,
Parallelism in point operations is also an efficient way to
the applications are becoming more and more
reduce latency of point multiplication as shown in [29].
complicated. The large amount of computational resources
Parallelism can be utilized in binary methods. The
together with complicated communication patterns due to
information exchange rate can be raised when each section
complex applications requires higher degrees of support
in the processor (elliptic curve) is a core on NoC
from communication resources. Moreover, as technology
(According to the NoC features). By Placing the core in
advances, the delay and power consumption of global
the right place (Figure 3) in NoC performance is improved
interconnect structures (due to a large number of drivers)
and power consumption is reduced. It is noteworthy that
will be a major bottleneck for SoC design.
the design alongside the ideal processor will have
Network-on-Chip (NoC) is a promising communication
significant impact on the speed and power consumption.
paradigm for multiprocessor system-on-chips. This
In this paper for implementation of elliptic curve we
communication paradigm has been inspired from the
needed to 12 cores, so we used 4×3 two-dimensional mesh
packet-based communication networks and aims at
NoC. Cores such as MUL(multiplying) that use more than
overcoming the performance and scalability problems of
others, place on the middle. Cores that use less, place on
the shared buses in multi-core SoCs (System on Chips)
the corners.
[26].
Although the concepts of NoC are inspired from the
traditional interconnection networks, they have some
www.IJCSI.org 380
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Embedded Systems (CHES), LNCS 1965, 2000, pp. 57–70. [24] G.N. Purohit, A.S. Rawat, "Fast Scalar Multiplicatiom in
[6] T. English, E. Popovici, M. Keller, W.P. Marnane, “Network- ECC using the Multi Base Number System," IJCSI
on-Chip interconnect for pairing-based cryptographic IP International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol.8,
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Integration, the VLSI J., Vol. 34, 2003, pp. 1–64.
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[26] L. Benini, G. De Micheli, “Networks on Chip: A New

Paradigm for Systems on Chip Design”, In Proc. Design,
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Hamid Javashi is MS candidate in electronic engineering from

Central Tehran Branch of Islamic Azad University.
Reza Sabbaghi-Nadooshan received the B.S. and M.S. degree in

electrical engineering from the Iran University of Science and
Technology, Tehran, Iran, in 1991 and 1994 and the Ph.D. degree
in electrical engineering from the Science and Research Branch,
Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran in 2010. From 1998 he
became faculty member of Department of Electronics in Central
Tehran branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran. His research
interests include interconnection networks, Networks-on-Chips,
Hardware design and embedded systems.
www.IJCSI.org 382
Electrocardiogram based methodology for

computing of Coronary Sinus Pressure
Loay Alzubaidi1, Ammar El Hassan2, Jaafar Al Ghazo3
1
Department of Computer Science, Prince Muhammad bin Fahd University
AL-Khobar, Saudi Arabia
2
Department of Information Technology, Prince Muhammad bin Fahd University
3
Department of Computer Engineering, Prince Muhammad bin Fahd University
Abstract
70 in fla tio n d e fla tio n
In this paper, a method based on pattern recognition and ECG 60

technology is introduced as a means of calculating the
optimum occlusion and release points within Pressure 50
controlled intermittent coronary sinus occlusion (PICSO)

CSP in mmHg
40
cycles. There are favorable results that show PICSO can 30

substantially salvage ischemic myocardium during medical
surgery. These results are confirmed after studying groups of
20
animals. The new method is a continuation of previous work 10
on two other techniques using estimation and derivative 0
calculations. 434 436 438 440 442 444 446 448 450
Keywords: coronary sinus pressure (CSP), pressure t im e in s e c
controlled intermittent coronary sinus occlusion (PICSO),

electrocardiogram (ECG).
Figure 1 One PICSO with Inflation and Deflation time of 10/6
seconds respectively
1. Introduction
Two techniques have been devised by the researchers to
Pressure Controlled Intermittent Coronary Sinus
compute the Coronary Sinus Pressure (CSP) parameters
Occlusion (PICSO) is implemented by means of a block
(Systolic plateau, Diastolic plateau & the rise/release
which is applied via a catheter that intermittently
time) using a mathematical model which describes the
obstructs the outflow from the cardiac veins in the right
increment and decrement of CSP in one PICSO cycle.
atrium, Figure 1 shows a single PICSO cycle of approx
The model consists of two parts that use 3-parameter
16-seconds. The technique leads to an increase of
double-exponential functions. This was fitted using the
Coronary Sinus Pressure CSP (systolic as well as
non-linear least square algorithms, as shown in Eq. 1
diastolic) in the course of a few heart beats; controlled
below:
pressure increase can result in better distribution of the
blood flow through the ischemic area. In order to
maximize the effect of the PICSO procedure, it is
 A*exp{B*[1 exp(  C*t)]1} when 0  t  T1
imperative that accurate Occlusion (Inflation) and 
Pcsp(t)  F (1)
Release (Deflation) points are identified within the D*exp{E*[1 exp(  t )] 1} when T1 t  T2
PICSO cycle.
Where Pcsp (t) = Coronary sinus pressure, and A, D, B,
E, C, F are fitting parameters.
The first part of the equation (1a) describes the rise of
the CSP during the inflation (occlusion) period.
www.IJCSI.org 383
Pcsp (t)  A* exp{B*[1  exp(  C*t)]  1} (1a) serve as diagnostic parameters for a quantitative
assessment of physiological condition and as predictors
The second part (1b) describes the release of the CSP for an optimal adjustment of coronary sinus cycles.
during the deflation (release) period.
The results of this technique were shown to bear a close
F resemblance to the clinical effect of coronary sinus
Pcsp (t)  D* exp {E*[1  exp (  )]  1 } ( 1b) occlusion. Fig. 3 illustrates comparison of the systolic
t
plateaus of T90 and time-derivative methods
The systolic peaks increase with the time during the
inflation period. These peaks were fitted with the 80
nonlinear least-square algorithms.

Systolic Plateau (T90) Systolic Plateau (dp/dt)
70
60
50
CSPin mmHg
a) T90 Method 40
The T90 method, developed by Schriner and Alzubaidi 30
[2], is the first technique for calculating the CSP 20
parameters during a PISCO cycle; this method yielded

10
CSP fitted curve
dp/dt fitted curve
0
an approximate calculation by taking 90% of the 5 10 15
Time in sec
20 25 30
predicted height of the systolic plateau. PCSP(t) reaches

Figure 3 Systolic plateaus of CSP using the T90 and
the maximum value when t ∞ in (Eq. 1a) as shown
dp/dt methods
below
Pcsp(t   )  A* exp( B  1) (2)
c) Weaknesses
Because, in mathematical terms, a plateau is never There is room for improvement in both techniques
actually reached, it is meaningful to consider the time above, as follows:
taken to reach 90% of the predicted height of the
plateau. Figure 2 shows the systolic plateau and its rise The T90 technique is fairly straight-forward, but the
time (RT). results are ultimately not as accurate as can be, this is
due to the fact that the calculations are approximate.
Systolic Plateau
60 Although the second (dp/dt) method is more accurate, it

is also more complex and time-consuming. This is due
50
to the extra overhead required for computing the slop of
CSP in mmHg
40 the CSP parameters using this approach.
30
What is needed, therefore, is an improvement in both
20
accuracy and efficiency of the two algorithms above.
10
3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 ECG Determines CSP Parameters

Time in Sec
In this paper, we introduce a new technique to compute
Figure 2 Systolic Plateau of CSP during the inflation period using T90 the rise and release of the CSP during the PICSO cycle.
method
This technique can potentially yield more accurate
figures using an ECG based calculation algorithm. The
b) Time-Derivative Method
new technique is a pattern recognition technique that
A new technique to describe the change of CSP
recognizes the heart beat with lowest differential
parameters using the time-derivative method (dp/dt)
between the QRST interval and PQ interval during
was introduced by Alzubaidi L [1]. The new method is
PICSO cycle.
a more accurate means of calculating the systolic and
diastolic plateau and the rise time of the PICSO cycle
by determining the slope of CSP. The derived quantities
www.IJCSI.org 384
Electrocardiogram (ECG)  QRS-complex: the largest-amplitude portion of the

The Electrocardiogram (ECG) is a biological signal. It ECG, caused by currents generated when the ventricles
is a quasi-periodical, rhythmically repeating signal, depolarize prior to their contraction. Although atria
synchronized by the function of the heart, which acts as repolarization occurs before ventricular depolarization,
the generator of bioelectrical events. ECG is recorded the latter waveform (i.e. the QRS-complex) is of much
by attaching a set of electrodes on the body surface such greater amplitude and atria re-polarization is therefore
as chest, neck, arms, and legs. not seen on the ECG.
ECG is an accurate, electrical manifestation of the  QRST-interval: the time between the onset of
contractile activity of the heart. By graphically tracing ventricular depolarization and the end of ventricular
the direction and magnitude of the electrical activity repolarization.
that is generated by depolarization and repolarization of
the atria and ventricles, the ECG chart provides  ST-interval: the time between the end of S-wave and
information about the heart rate, rhythm, and the beginning of T-wave. Significantly elevated or
morphology. depressed amplitudes away from the baseline are often
associated with cardiac illness.
Each heartbeat can be observed as a series of
deflections away from the baseline on the ECG. These  T-wave: ventricular repolarization, whereby the
deflections represent the time evolution of electrical cardiac muscle is prepared for the next cycle of the ECG.
activity in the heart which initiates muscle contraction.
A single sinus (normal) cycle of the ECG,
corresponding to one heart beat, is labelled with the 2. Methodology
letters P, Q, R, S and T on each of its switching/turning
points as in Figure 4. The technique, which is based on pattern recognition
concepts, was used to calculate the systolic plateau and
the rise time (RT) of CSP by identifying a significant
heartbeat (the heartbeat with lowest QRST & PQ
interval variation). The rise time (RT) is the time
between the start of the PICSO cycle and our significant
heartbeat; now that RT is identified, it can be used in
Eq1 (above) as a parameter to calculate the systolic
plateau.
The physiological implication of this relationship is

illustrated in Figure 5 and Table 1 below. All values,
apart from the RT time, are in milliseconds.
Figure 4 Morphology of PQRST for a single heartbeat
PQ + QRST = Heart Beat Interval
The ECG may be divided into the following sections:
The minimum difference between QRST & PQ is 76.66
 P-wave: a small low-voltage deflection away from ms
the baseline caused by the depolarization of the atria
prior to atrial contraction as the activation RT = 10.48 - 4.04 = 6.44 sec
(depolarization) wave-front propagates through the
atria. Hence, the systolic plateau can be calculated by
substituting this RT value for the (t) parameter in Eq1
 PQ-interval: the time between the start of atria above.
depolarization and the start of ventricular
depolarization.
www.IJCSI.org 385
At each step of the experiment the animals were

400 PQ time
QRST time
monitored online to avoid any unnecessary suffering
and to ensure anesthesia was still effective. The
Interval
300
200 experiment was terminated during complete anesthesia

with a high dosage of potassium chloride injection. All
Heart beat
measurements were recorded on a computerised data

systolic plateau (T90) Heart beat
interval
systolic plateau (dpdt) acquisition system (monitoring and long time storage)
60
for biological signals.
40
CSP mmHg
20
The results comprise a preliminary investigation of the
0
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 spread of the derived quantities observed during PICSO
Time in sec
cycles. The systolic plateau and its rise time were
calculated for 10 PICSO cycles of approximately 14-
Figure 5 Relationship between CSP, ECG and the PQ & QRST
intervals seconds each (10 inflation + 4 deflations).
The systolic plateau and its rise time were used to

Heartbeat QRST– RT compare the calculations from T90 method and pattern
Interval PQ QRST PQ (secs) recognition method. Figure 6 shows the results of both
533.33 196.66 336.66 140 4.04 calculations; it is clear that the systolic plateau of
506.66 203.33 303.33 100 4.58 pattern recognition method is higher than its T90
556.66 193.33 363.33 170 5.08 counterpart.
536.66 206.66 330 123.33 5.64
526.66 200 326.66 126.66 6.18
550 206.66 343.33 136.66 6.70
56
540 210 330 120 7.25 Systolic Plateau (pattern recognition method)
540 216.66 323.33 106.66 7.79
54
500 210 290 80 8.33 52

CSP in mmHg
580 226.66 353.33 126.66 8.83 50

Systolic Plateau (T90)
523.33 210 313.33 103.33 9.41 48
540 216.66 323.33 106.66 9.94 46
516.66 220 296.66 76.66 10.48

44
563.33 236.66 326.66 90 10.99 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
543.33 210 333.33 123.33 11.56 Time in sec
540 203.33 336.66 133.33 12.10

513.33 196.66 316.66 120 12.64 Figure 6 Comparison of Systolic Plateaus for 10 PICSO cycles using
T90 and pattern recognition methods
556.66 216.66 340 123.33 13.15
The new technique can identify accurate occlusion and
Table 1 Heartbeat interval, PQ time, QRST time and the
CSP rise time RT for a 9-second inflation cycle release points within PICSO cycles, thus helping to
achieve an increase of Coronary Sinus Pressure CSP to
yield higher blood pressure values resulting in better
3. Results distribution of the blood flow through the ischemic
All results were obtained by studying 3 groups of area.
animals, namely sheep, pigs and dogs. The group size
was 5, 5 and 3 respectively. All animals were pre-
medicated with two ampoules atropine intramuscular and
4. References
anesthetized before the catheters were placed into the [1] Alzubaidi L. Accurate methods of calculating the
right ear artery for arterial pressure monitoring and/or the Coronary Sinus Pressure plateau. J IJCSI 2011; Vol. 8,
right ear vein for intravenous infusions. Issue 1,pp.138-140;
[2] Alzubaidi L, Mohl W, Rattay F. Automatic
Computation for Pressure Controlled Intermittent
www.IJCSI.org 386
Coronary Sinus. J IJCSI 2010; Vol. 7, Issue 6,pp.285-

289;
[3] Mohl W, Gueggi M, Haberzeth K, Losert U,
Pachinger O, Schabart A. Effects of intermittent
coronary sinus occlusion (ICSO) on tissue parameters
after ligation of LAD. Bibliotheca Anatomica 1980; 20:
517-521.
[4] Glogar D, Mohl W, Mayr H, Losert U, Sochor H,
Wolner E. Pressure-controlled intermitent coronary
sinus occlusion reduces myocardial necrosis (Abstract).
Am J Cardiol 1982; 49: 1017.
[5] Schreiner W, Neumann F, Schuster J, Froehlich KC,
Mohl W. Computation of derived diagnostic quantities
during intermittent coronary sinus occlusion in dogs.
Cardiovasc Res 1988; 22(4): 265-276.
[6] Schreiner W, Mohl W, Neumann F, Schuster J.
Model of the haemodynamic reactions to intermittent
coronary sinus occlusion. J Biomed Eng 1987; 9(2):
141-147.
[7] Kenner T, Moser M, Mohl W, Tied N. Inflow,
outflow and pressures in the coronary microcirculation.
In: CSI - A New Approach to Interventional
Cardiology. Mohl W, Faxon D, Wolner E (editors).
Darmstadt: Steinkopff; 1986; 15.
[8] Neumann F, Mohl W, Schreiner W. Coronary sinus
pressure and arterial flow during intermittent coronary
sinus occlusion. Am J Physiol 1989; 256(3 Pt 2): H906-
915.
[9] Moser M, Mohl W, Gallasch E, Kenner T.
Optimization of pressure controlled intermittent
coronary sinus occlusion intervals by density
measurement. In: The Coronary Sinus, Vol. 1. Mohl W,
Glogar D, Wolner E (editors). Darmstadt: Steinkopf;
1984; pp.529-536.
[10] Mohl W, Glogar D, Kenner T, Klepetko W,
Moritz A, Moser M. Enhancement of washout induced
by pressure controlled intermittent coronary sinus
occlusion (PICSO) in the canine and human heart. In:
The Coronary Sinus, Vol. 1 Mohl W, Glogar D, Wolner
E (editors). Darmstadt: Steinkopf; 1984; pp.537-548.
www.IJCSI.org 387
Energy Efficient Clear Channel Assessment for

LR-WPAN
Praveen Kaushik1 , Nilesh kumar R. Patel2, Jyoti Singhai3
1
Department of CSE, MANIT
Bhopal, M.P., India
2
Department of CSE, MANIT
Bhopal, M.P., India
3
Department of EC, MANIT
Bhopal, M.P., India
Abstract
IEEE 802.15.4 LR-WPAN is a specification for low-cost, low- and propagates on the same channel, it obliterates each
powered and low data rate transmission. This standard uses other’s signal. This kind of contention is avoided by using
CSMA/CA protocol for contention resolution. One of the tasks a medium access mechanism called Carrier Sense Multiple
performed by CSMA/CA algorithm is Clear Channel Assessment Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA) [1, 5, 6,
(CCA), used to find the status (IDLE or BUSY) of the channel.
There are three operating modes to perform CCA. As per the
10]. CSMA/CA senses the in-channel power before
standard CCA mode 2 and 3 are based on carrier sensing where as transmission and if the channel appears idle the
CCA mode 1 is based on Energy Detection Threshold transmission can begins, while it is sensed busy, the device
(EDThreshold). CCA in most of the WPAN is based on carrier waits for a suitable backoff period and then retries.
sense. EDThreshold dependent CCA mode 1 is more CSMA/CA cannot assure any real-time communication
advantageous in case of energy constraint networks, as minimum because there is no upper bound for the transmission time.
energy is consumed in channel allocation using EDThreshold. Nevertheless, CSMA/CA based systems increase the
This property of EDThreshold is utilized in CCA for LR- WPAN effectiveness of the channel access by sharing the band
and is implemented in NS2. Simulation results of EDThreshold
with other users and leading to a theoretically reliable
based mode 1 CCA indicate that number of packets dropped
decreases, network as well as node throughput increases and
communication. Several methods can be followed to
energy consumption is also less when compared to Carrier Sense perform this medium access algorithm, and in every
Threshold (CSThreshold) based mode 1 CCA, It is also observed standard a different version of CSMA/CA is introduced.
from the results that MAC_PACKET_ERROR is also acceptable For instance, IEEE 802.15.4 exploits three clear channel
(i.e < 1% ). assessment (CCA) methods, based on: detection of in-
Keywords: CCA, Carrier sensing, EDThreshold, LR-WPAN. channel energy above a given threshold referred to mode 1,
detection of an IEEE 802.15.4 compliant signal referred to
1. Introduction mode 2 and combination of mode 1 and 2 referred to mode
3 [1]. In the literature review [7, 8], the network
In the past few years, many new wireless standards performance was found to be improved such as network
exploiting non-licensed frequency bands, such as 2.4 GHz lifetime, packet delivery ratio by means of various routing
ISM (Industrial, Scientific and Medical), have been protocol [12] and other methods for improvements are
developed. The advantages of wireless networks compliant CSMA/CA based. Several proposals offered, based on a
with these standards, like IEEE 802.15.4 are in terms of CCA threshold choice [9] or mode selection with different
transmission capability and reduced costs [1,2]. IEEE criteria. Such works provide interesting information but
802.15.4 supports total 27 channels in three different imply heavy modification to the IEEE 802.15.4 standard.
bands. In these there are 16 channels supported by 2.4GHz LR-WPAN operates at very low power; therefore energy
band. This shared band is used to transfer data from one consumption plays a key role in performance of lifetime of
IEEE 802.15.4 compliant entity to other. But when more network [12]. Carrier Sense based mode 2 or mode 3
than one entity tries to access the medium at the same time channel assessment technique consumes more power
www.IJCSI.org 388
because Carrier Sense continuously senses the channel. channels supported by 2.4 GHz band with data rate of 250
Therefore, for low power networks EDthreshold based Kbps, 10 channels of 915 MHz band with data rate of 40
mode 1 CCA is more suitable. EDThreshold dependent Kbps and 1 Channel of 868MHz with data rate of 20 Kbps.
CCA is more advantageous in case of energy constraint The 2.4GHz is license free Industrial Scientific and
networks as minimum energy is consumed in channel Medical (ISM) band. That’s why 2.4 GHz band is under
allocation using EDThreshold This property of consideration throughout this paper. This paper can as well
EDThreshold is utilized in CCA for LR- WPAN and is as applicable on 915MHz and 868 MHZ bands too.
implemented in NS2. As listed above, one of the tasks performed by PHY layer
is to perform Clear Channel Assessment (CCA). CCA is
The rest of the paper is organized as follows in section II necessary ingredient of the most important protocol
overview of LR-WPAN is described, section III describes CSMA/CA that is implemented in MAC layer. MAC layer
the EDThreshold based mode 1 CCA method, section IV and CSMA/CA are discussed in following subsection.
discusses the performance evaluation and conclusion is
given in section V. In IEEE 802.15.4 standard, three different modes to
implement CCA are allowed:
2. 802.15.4 Overview
 CCA mode 1: Energy above threshold. Medium is
2.1 Introduction busy if the measured power level is higher than an
Energy Detection threshold denoted as EDThreshold.
IEEE 802.15.4 defines the standard for the devices to
transfer information over short distances. It doesn’t involve  CCA mode 2: Carrier sense only. Medium is busy if at
any infrastructure. Due to this it provides simple, small, least one signal with the modulation and spreading
power-efficient and inexpensive solutions with limited characteristics of IEEE 802.15.4 is detected.
throughput to be implemented for a wide range of devices.
The main objectives of an LR-WPAN are ease of  CCA mode 3: Carrier sense with energy above
installation, reliable data transfer, short-range operation, threshold. Medium is busy if at least one signal
extremely low cost, and a reasonable battery life, while with the modulation and spreading characteristics of
maintaining a simple and flexible protocol. IEEE 802.15.4 and with power above a Energy
Detection threshold is detected.
IEEE 802.15.4 defines the physical layer (PHY) and
medium access control (MAC) sub layer specifications for 2.3 MAC layer
devices typically operating in the personal operating space
(POS) of 10 m. MAC and PHY are discussed in following Tasks performed by IEEE 802.15.4 MAC layer:
subsections. 1. Generating network beacons if the device is a
coordinator
2.2 PHY layer 2. Synchronizing to network beacons
3. Supporting PAN association and disassociation
The PHY layer acts as the interface between the MAC sub- 4. Supporting device security
layer and the physical medium. 5. Employing the CSMA-CA mechanism for channel
access
Tasks performed by IEEE 802.15.4 PHY layer: 6. Handling and maintaining the GTS mechanism
 Activation and deactivation of the radio transceiver 7. Providing a reliable link between two peer MAC
 Energy detection (ED) within the current channel entities
 Link quality indicator (LQI) for received packets
The MAC layer supports both star and peer-to-peer
 Clear channel assessment (CCA) for carrier sense
topologies, and also to access the medium, it exploits the
multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA-CA)
CSMA/CA protocol, which may be performed in two
 Channel frequency selection
modes: beacon and beaconless. In the former, a
 Data transmission and reception deterministic time slot subdivision of the channel resource
is applied, while in the latter the channel is not a-priori
One of the primary reasons for the failure of several assigned to a given terminal for a given time interval. In
proprietary technologies is the inability to adapt. However, beaconless mode, each station wishing to transmit:
IEEE 802.15.4 has been designed to be applied worldwide
supporting three different operating frequency bands, with
a 27 numbers of supporting channels. In these there are 16
www.IJCSI.org 389
1. Waits for a random back-off period uniformly

distributed in the interval (0, 2BE − 1), where BE is a As shown in Fig. 1, MAC Layer Management Entity
term called Back-off Exponent. (MLME) generates a request and sends it to local PHY
2. Senses the status of the channel (IDLE or BUSY) layer Management Entity (PLME) to perform energy
through a Clear Channel Assessment (CCA) measurement or received signal power using PLME-
procedure. ED.request () in current channel.
3. If the channel is IDLE, transmits.
4. Else, if the channel is busy, then increments BE by PHY layer receives this request and checks that:
one, up to a maximum BE level.
5. If the retransmission number overpasses a pre-assigned If TX is ON or TRX is OFF, then it perform no action and
maximum threshold, signals failure, else restarts from sends status as TX_ON or TRX_OFF to MAC layer.
the beginning.
Else if RX is ON, it performs energy measurement on
A relevant feature of CSMA/CA protocol is that it can use current channel. Send EnergyLevel with SUCCESS status
any of the CCA modes from three supported modes for to MAC layer. This current channel is indicated by
sensing the status (IDLE or BUSY) of the channel. Both phyCurrentChannel attribute. This attribute value is stored
Carrier Sense (CS) and Energy Detection (ED) are in PHY PAN Information Base (PIB). To scan a particular
mechanisms for CCA in LR-WPANs; there are significant channel set this attribute to the desired value.
differences between the two in terms of performance and PHY layer performs this energy measurement for a
complexity. Due to such differences, the choice of the CCA duration of at least 8 symbol periods or 128 μs. Range of
method has considerable impact on MAC performance this measured EnergyLevel value is linearly distributed in
metrics such as throughput and energy efficiency. Often, the range of 0x00 to 0xff.
the throughput and energy efficiency objectives are
conflicting. It greatly depends on the CCA method used. Now second step to perform CCA is to assess the channel
using EDThreshold, if LR-WPAN is using CCA mode 1.
In the proposed work, the particular case of a wireless As per the IEEE 802.15.4 standard, this decision is taken
personal area network using IEEE 802.15.4 is used and by comparing measured EnergyLevel in current channel
thoroughly describes the effect of the PHY CCA on MAC and EDThreshold in mode 1 CCA.Value of the
performance. EDThreshold is very important, it should follow the
standard and it depends on Receiver sensitivity.
3. ED Threshold Based Mode 1 CCA .
MAC layer MLME
IEEE 802.15.4 standard is uniquely designed for low data generates PLME-ED.request
rate wireless personal area networks (LR-WPANs). As per
the IEEE 802.15.4 standard, WPAN operates in any of the
three CCA modes, and CCA mode 1 of IEEE 802.15.4
performs channel assessment based on the EDThrehold, as PLME-ED.request ()
discussed above in section II. EDThreshold based mode 1 received by PHY layer
CCA is more advantageous in case of energy constraint
network as minimum energy is consumed in channel
allocation using EDThreshold, for instance battery powered
devices for industrial and medical sensors should last from Yes Do nothing and send
several months to many years. In energy constraint Is TX ON
status to MAC layer using
network, EDThreshold based mode 1 CCA consume or
PLME-ED.Confirm
minimum energy as compared to other methods. In the TRX
proposed work, method for CCA is given based on
EDThreshold.
No
To perform CCA in mode 1, first step is to measure Perform energy
EnergyLevel in current channel; this is measured as Yes measurement on current
If
depicted in the flow chart shown in Fig. 1. Now second channel and send PLME-
step is to compare this measured EnergyLevel with RX
ED.Confirm
EDThreshold to assess the status (BUSY or IDLE) of the
channel.
www.IJCSI.org 390
4 Performance Evaluation
Simulation of CCA mode 1 for IEEE 802.15.4 is done
Fig. 1: Flow chart for energy measurement using NS-2. In order to evaluate the performance of
proposed EDThreshold based mode 1 CCA is compared
Receiver sensitivity definitions: with Carrier Sense Based mode 1 CCA, following
simulation parameters have been used
 Receiver sensitivity: It is the minimum signal strength
required to receive the data successfully. It can be also 4.1 Simulation parameters
defined as the Threshold input signal power that
results in a specified Packet Error Rate (PER) limit.
Simulation is done by using 80 X 80 m2 area and 101 nodes
for the duration of 100 sec with simulation setup time of 20
Necessary conditions for the receiver sensitivity are:
sec. At different times specific pair of nodes generates
traffic. We have used mix traffic i.e. CBR and Poisson.
o Length of the data unit (PSDU) is 20 bytes.
Size of packet is 80 and 70 bytes for CBR and Poisson
o Packet error rate must be less than 1 percent
traffic respectively. Propagation model used is Two Ray
(PER < 1%)
Ground; Queue length is 50 packets with Drop tail and
transmission range is 9 meters with Omni directional
 Packet error rate (PER): Percentage of packets are in
error at the receiver side. antenna.
o Measured over random PSDU data 4.2 Performance results

Now we have the base to calculate the value of This sub section evaluates the efficiency of EDThreshold
EDThreshold. As per the standard value of EDThreshold based mode 1 CCA by comparing results in terms of packet
depends on receiver sensitivity and it should be at most drop due to LQI, IFQ and packets drop due to all reasons.
10dB above receiver sensitivity. Node and network throughput is also calculated.
Simulation results of EDThreshold based mode 1 CCA
EDThreshold = RxSensitivity + 10dB indicate that number of packet dropped (due to LQI, IFQ
and packets drops by all reasons) decreases; Network as
Where, RxSensitivity is receiver sensitivity value in dBm. well as node throughput increases and energy consumption
is also less while compared to CSThreshold based mode 1
The EDThreshold value so obtained is used for CCA mode CCA. It is also observed from the results that
1 in NS2. The value of EDThreshold is used by PHY layer MAC_PACKET_ERROR is also acceptable as per the
to perform CCA as described in code given below. standard using EDThreshold based mode 1 CCA in
comparison to CSThreshold based mode 1 CCA. To do
If EnergyLevel > EDThreshold this, simulation script (.tcl) with above mentioned
parameters have been created.
Then
Remaining subsection discusses results generated while
Channel BUSY
running simulation for EDThreshold based mode1 CCA
and CSThreshold based mode 1 CCA. Here consideration
Else
is given to three important performance metrics
Channel IDLE
(1) Number of Packet dropped
In the above code EnergyLevel indicates the measured
(2) Network throughput and node throughput
signal power in current channel given by
phyCurrentChannel as described above and EDThreshold
(3) Remaining node energy of nodes
is also calculated as above.
If the given phyCurrentChannel is BUSY then PHY layer
1) Number of Packet dropped: There are many reasons for
set another channel as current channel and perform CCA
packet drop. Number of packets dropped, while using
on that channel and so on until it doesn’t find IDLE
EDThreshold based mode 1 CCA and CSThreshold based
channel.
mode 1 CCA are compared.
www.IJCSI.org 391
 Link Quality Indication (LQI): A packet drop 2) Node and network throughput:
caused by LQI indicates that the link quality of
packets arriving at the MAC layer is not within  Node throughput: It is a measure of the total
the acceptable threshold. number of data packets successfully received at
the node, having the total number of bits
computed over the simulation runtime. Node
throughput is Refer to “(1)” and Throughput of
each node during simulation has been calculated
using below equation and values of all nodes’
throughput are used to calculate Network
throughput.

TBR
NT = (1)
ST
Where,
NT is Node throughput of CBR

transmission,
TBR is Total bits received by nodes,
ST is simulation time
Fig. 2: Number of packet dropped vs. simulation time due to LQI

 Network throughput: It determines the amount of
Graph for the same has been plotted in Fig. 2. The graph data that is transmitted from a source to a
indicates that after the network is setup more packets are destination node per unit time (bits per second).
dropped in CSThreshold based mode 1 CCA in comparison While ignoring the overheads in the network, only
to EDThreshold based mode1 CCA. the data of the CBR packets are considered. The
network throughput that is Refer to “(2),” is then
derived from the average throughput of all nodes
 Error (ERR): DROP_MAC_PACKET_ERROR: involved in the CBR packet transmission.
A packet drop caused by ERR indicates that if Network throughput is given by following
there is any error in packet while received by equation and that for EDThreshold based mode 1
MAC layer. Number of packet dropped due to CCA and CSThreshold based mode 1 CCA is
ERR is 0 during simulation. So it is acceptable as listed below in Table III. The values in table
per the standard (<1%). indicate that EDThreshold based mode 1 CCA
resulted is better.
 IFQ: A packet drop caused by IFQ indicates that
queue is full and all subsequent received packets
will be dropped. Graph for the same has been Network throughput =
 NT (2)
plotted in Fig. 3, indicating that the performance # Nodes
of EDThreshold based mode 1 CCA work is better
than packets dropped due to CSThreshold based Where,
mode 1 CCA
No. of Nodes is total number of nodes
 Consideration is also given here to number of
dropped packets due to all drop reasons. While Table 1: Network Throughput
Method Network Throughput
using CSThreshold based mode 1 CCA in
comparison to EDThreshold based mode 1 CCA, CSThreshold based mode 1 CCA 7.60%
this comparison graphs is illustrated in Fig. 4.
EDThreshold based mode1 CCA 16.16%
www.IJCSI.org 392
3) Remaining node energy: The remaining node energy of

nodes those are part of paths for CBR and Poisson traffic at
the end of simulation has been plotted in Fig. 5.
The graph shows that most of the nodes having more

remaining energy while uses proposed EDThreshold
based CCA instead of Carrier Sense based CCA.
Fig. 5: Remaining node energy of nodes, which are part of path.
5. Conclusion
Fig. 3: Number of packet dropped vs. simulation time due to
IFQ
In this paper, a method is proposed to perform Clear
Channel Assessment (CCA) with mode 1 in accordance
with the standard specification using Energy Detection
Threshold (EDThreshold) and compare the result with
Carrier Sense based CCA. The proposed method is
implemented using NS-2 and uses EDThreshold for
assessing the channel. CCA is an ingredient of CSMA/CA,
which is important part of MAC layer. So by improving
CCA we have improved the performance of CSMA/CA
and in turn we have improved the performance of MAC
layer. The proposed method achieves network throughput
which is 200% more as compared to existing method,
number of packets dropped while using proposed CCA
mode 1 is also less compared Carrier Sense based CCA,
and higher remaining energy per node is obtained while
using proposed CCA.
References
[1] IEEE Computer Society, ”Part 15.4: Wireless Medium Access
Control and Physical Layer Specifications for Low Rate
Wireless Personal Area Networks (LR-WPAN)”, 8 Sep. 2006.
[2] IEEE Computer Society, ”Part 15.4: Wireless Medium Access
Control and Physical Layer Specifications for Low Rate
Wireless Personal Area Networks (LR-WPAN)”, 1 Oct. 2003.
[3] M. Bertocco, G. Gamba, A. Sona, ”Experimental optimization
Fig. 4: Number of packet dropped vs. simulation time due to all drop
of CCA threshold in wireless sensor networks in the presence
reasons
www.IJCSI.org 393
of interference ” , IEEE Workshop on Electromagnetic

Compatibility Conference proceedings EMC Europe, June
2007.
[4] Iyappan Ramachandran and Sumit Roy, “On the Impact of
Clear Channel Assessment on MAC Performance”, IEEE
Global Telecommunication Conference, 2006, Nov 2006
[5] I.Howitt, “WLAN and WPAN Coexistence In UL band,”
IEEE Transaction on Vehicular Technology, vol. 50, No.4,
Jul. 2001, pp. 1114—1124.
[6 I.Howitt, J. A. Gutierrez, “IEEE 802.15.4 low rate- wireless
personal area network coexistence issues,” Wireless
Communications and Networking, vol.3 , March 2003, pp.
1481 – 1486.
[7] P.Papadimitratos, A. Mishra and D. Rosenburgh, “A cross-
layer approach to enhance 802.15.4,” , MILCOM 2005, vol.3,
Oct. 2005 pp. 1719-1726.
[8] J. Polastre, “Sensor network media access design,” internal
paper, University of Berkeley.
[9] J. Polastre, J. Hill and D. Culler, “Versatile low power media
access for wireless sensor networks,” SenSys’04, November
3-5, 2004 ,pp. 95-102.
[10] A.Koubaa, M. Alves and E. Tovar, “A comprehensive
simulation study of slotted CSMA/CA for IEEE 802.15.4
wireless sensor network,” IEEE International Workshop on
Factory Communication Systems, June 27 2006, pp.183 –
192.
[11] L.Kleinrock and F. A. Tobagi, “Packet switching in radio
channels: Part I-carrier sense multiple-access modes and their
throughput-delay characteristics,” IEEE Trans.
Communication, vol. 23, Dec. 1975 pp. 1400–1416.
[12] Ashutosh Bhatia and Praveen Kaushik, “A Cluster Based
Minimu Battery Cost AODV Routing Using Multipath Route
for Zigbee.” IEEE, ICON December 2008.
Praveen Kaushik Mr. Praveen Kaushik is Assistant

Professor in Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology
(MANIT) Bhopal, India. He is pursing PhD in WSN. His
general research interests include WSNs, Ad hoc Network
and Wireless Communication
Nilesh kumar R. Patel 2 is Assistant Professor in Jaypee

University of Engineering and Technology College
Guna, He holds MTech (CSE) degree from MANIT, India.
His general research interests include wireless
communication, image processing, WSN and network security.
Jyoti Singhai Dr. Jyoti Singhai is Associate professor in

Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology(MANIT),
Bhopal, India. She holds Ph.D. degree from MANIT, India. Her
general research interests include wireless communication,
image processing, WSN and network security.
www.IJCSI.org 394
Enhanced Chain Based Data Collection Sensor Network

Technique
Shilpa Mahajan1, Dr. Jyoteesh Malhotra2
1
Computer Science, ITM University
Gurgaon , Haryana, India
2
Electronics Department, GNDU
Jalandher, Punjab, India
Abstract
1. Introduction
Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) have
received tremendous attention in recent years A typical WSN contains a large number of
because of the development of sensor devices, sensor nodes, which send collected data via radio
as well as wireless communication transmitter to a sink.
technologies. WSNs make it easier to monitor The decrease in both the size and the cost due to
and control physical environments from the development of MEMS has led to smart
remote locations and present many significant disposable micro sensors, which can be
advantages over wired sensor netw orks for a networked through wireless connections to the
variety of civilian and military applications Internet. Fig. 1 shows architecture of
[1,2] .A WSN is usually randomly deployed in communications in a WSN.
inaccessible terrains, disaster areas, or Sensor nodes are capable of organizing
polluted environments, where battery themselves, and collect information about the
replacement or recharge is difficult or even phenomenon and route data via neighboring
impossible to be performed. For this reason, sensors to the sink. The gateway in Fig. 1 could
network lifetime is of crucial importance to a be a fixed or mobile node with an ability of
WSN. To prolong network lifetime, efficient connecting sensor networks to the outer existing
utilization of energy is considered with communication infrastructure, such as Internet,
highest priority. In this paper, we propose an cellular and satellite networks.
Enhanced chain based data collection sensor
network, which ensures ma ximum utilization
of network energy .Also, enhances the
reliability of the network. This method gives a
good compromise between energy efficiency
and latency.
Keywords: chain, Energy Consumption, Wireless,
Sensors, Efficiency.
Internet and Sink B

Satellite (Gateway) D
C
A
The unique
features of
Sensor Field
Task Manager Node
User Sensor Nodes
www.IJCSI.org 395
the WSNs pose challenging requirements to the can be collected as compared to just one sensor.
design of the underlying algorithms and Even deploying a sensor with great line of sight,
protocols. Several ongoing research projects in it could still have obstructions. Thus, distributed
academia as well as in industry aim at designing sensing provides robustness to environmental
protocols that satisfy these requirements for obstacles. Because there are many sensor nodes
sensor networks [4, 5, 6]. densely deployed, neighbor nodes may be very
close to each other. Hence, multi hop
Some of the important challenges are presented communication in WSNs is expected to consume
as less power than the traditional single hop
broadcast communication because the
• Sensor nodes are limited in energy, transmission power levels can be kept low.
computational capacities and memory: Additionally, multi hop communication can also
effectively overcome some of the signal
Sensor nodes are small-scale devices with propagation effects experienced in long-distance
volumes approaching a cubic millimeter in the wireless communication.
near future. Such small volumetric devices are
very limited in the amount of energy that the • Network and communication topology of a
storage element such as batteries can store. WSN changes frequently:
Hence the batteries with finite energy supply
must be optimally used for both processing and When the sensor nodes are deployed, the
communication tasks. The communication task position of sensor nodes is not predetermined.
tends to dominate over the processing task in This means that the sensor nodes must be able to
terms of energy consumption. Thus, in order to configure themselves after deployment. They
make optimal use of energy, the amount of must possess some means to identify their
communication task should be minimized as location either globally or with respect to some
much as possible. In practical real-life locally determined position. Once the network is
applications, the wireless sensor nodes are set up, it is required that the WSN be adaptable
usually deployed in hostile or unreachable to the changing connectivity (for e.g., due to
terrains, they cannot be easily retrieved for the addition of more nodes, failure of nodes, etc.) as
purpose of replacing or recharging the batteries, well as the changing environmental conditions.
therefore the lifetime of the network is usually Unlike traditional networks, where the focus is
limited. There must be some kind of compromise on maximizing channel throughput or
between the communication and processing tasks minimizing node deployment, the major
in order to balance the duration of the WSN consideration in a sensor network is to extend
lifetime and the energy density of the storage the system lifetime as well as the system
element. robustness. The functionalities of the WSN are
highly dependent on the amount of energy that is
• Sensor nodes in the WSN are ad hoc deployed available to be expended by each of the sensor
and distributed for processing and sensing: node in the network. Other issues that can be
taken care of include scalability, fault tolerance,
Sensor nodes are either placed one by one in the self –organization, node deployment, latency etc.
vicinity of the phenomenon or deployed in an ad
hoc fashion by air or by some other means. Once Here, we propose a chain formation method that
the sensor nodes are deployed, the WSNs would aims to provide efficient, more stable and long
not have any human intervention to interrupt lasting paths from source to destination his
their operations. The sensor nodes must be able methods forms one higher level chain and
to configure themselves to form connections to number of lower level chains. In this we have
set up the network to meet the application used a MAC layer concept for energy
requirement. In case of any changes in the conservation. In every chain one sensor node is
operating conditions or environmental stress on selected as a leader based on some proposed
the sensor nodes that causes them to fail leading criteria for an optimal number of rounds. All
to connectivity changes, this requires nodes in the lower level chain send data to lower
reconfiguration of the network and re- level leader and all lower level leader than send
computation of routing paths. Another point to information to higher level leader .the higher
take note is that using a WSN, many more data level leader is the node that transmit the
www.IJCSI.org 396
information to the base station. Due to multiple large, the delay might be intolerable. Also, as the
chain structure , this protocol require less time nodes in the chain cannot be relocated, the inter-
and energy as compared to other protocols. node distance gets larger as the network size
grows, which causes increased energy
2. Related Work consumption.
Considerable amount of research has been done
A number of routing protocols have been on chain based protocols and number of schemes
proposed which try to maximize the lifetime of have been devised .Like [10] diamond shaped
sensor network of constrained resources. We pegasis is proposed which increase reliability of
review some of the most relevant designs [7-9]. data packets for securing data transmission .In
In LEACH [7], sensor nodes are organized into [11] concentric clustering scheme which
clusters with one node in each cluster working as consider the location of the base station to
cluster-head. The cluster-head receives data from enhance its performance and to prolong the life
all other sensors in the cluster, aggregates the time of the network. In this clusters are formed
data, and then transmits the aggregated data to by dividing the sensor field in the form of
the BS. LEACH rotates the cluster-head in order concentric circles, considering base station
to evenly distribute the energy consumption. The outside the wireless sensor network.
operation of LEACH is organized into rounds. CRBCC [12] gives a good compromise between
Each round begins with a set-up phase followed energy consumption and delay. Chains are
by a steady-state phase. During the set-up phase, formed based on simulated annealing (SA)
each node decides whether it becomes a cluster- algorithm. Clusters are formed based on y co-
head or not according to a predefined criterion. ordinate and chain leaders are formed on x co-
After that, the rest sensor nodes decide the ordinates.
cluster-head they will belong to for that round. A new routing and data gathering approach [13]
The cluster-head then creates a TDMA schedule in which , clusters are formed and cluster head is
for all the number nodes in its cluster. During the selected using LEACH approach and then in
steady-state phase, each member node transmits clusters, chains are formed using shortest path
data to the cluster-head within its assigned time first. Clusters and chain construction occurs only
slot. LEACH has some drawbacks. Firstly, the once and the cluster head rotates locally inside
cluster set-up and TDMA scheduling overhead the clusters without re clustering.
in every round is significant. Secondly, the
distance between the cluster-head and member 3. Proposed Plan
node can be long causing large transmission
delay and energy consumption. Proxy-Enable The protocol operates in two phases: Chain
Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy for wireless formation phase and data transmission phase.
sensor network (PEACH) [8] improved LEACH
by selecting a proxy node which can assume the In chain formation phase node of different levels
role of the current cluster-head of weak power are formed and in data transmission phase
during one round of communication. It is based information is transmitted along with the
on the consensus of healthy nodes for the designated paths. In chain formation phase: one
detection and manipulation of failure of any chain of higher energy level and other of low
cluster-head. It allows considerable improvement energy level chains are formed. In each chain
in the network lifetime by reducing the overhead one node is selected as a leader based on some
of re-clustering. criteria .Lower level leaders are responsible to
PEGASIS [9] forms a chain covering all nodes collect data from lower level chains and send
in the network using a greedy algorithm so that data to higher level leader who is responsible to
each node communicates with only the send data to base station.
neighboring nodes. In each round of
communication, a randomly selected node in the Chain formation phase:
chain takes turn to transmit the aggregated
information to the BS to save the energy. Also, We assume that a position from a base station to
the elimination of cluster set-up phase allows every node is known based on the received radio
considerable energy saving. However, the signal strength. This protocol form several lower
communication delay can be large due to long level chains. A chain formation algorithm is
single chain. When the network size is relatively
www.IJCSI.org 397
discussed below in figure 2. All chains are of be selected as higher level leader .It is the
fixed length say L.A source node can broadcast a responsibility of the higher level node to pass
route request message containing threshold aggregated data onto the base station.
energy level.
Since in this, we have selected only those nodes
Node selection procedure that have their energy level greater than
threshold. The chain formation will take place
A source node S broadcast a route request when 30% of the nodes die away. As the result
message containing threshold energy value th. the leader formation will also be delayed. The
benefits of using a slight larger duration between
At neighbor node N leader selections rather than selecting leaders in
every round are 1) less communication overhead
If En>Eth, A node will take part in chain 2) reduction in time in selection of leaders.
formation
Else if En < Eth a node will not take part in this Data transmission phase:
process where, En is the energy level of the
node, Eth is a pre-defined threshold,. After the formation of the chain and selection of
leader, the data transmission phase starts. We
At the source node S all received ACTIVE_REP assume that sensors always have data to send to
messages are scanned. The neighbour with the BS so data is aggregated at each level before
shortest active route is selected for forwarding transmission .The same token passing
the data. mechanism will be followed as in PEGASIS.
As discussed in figure 2 , after receiving these
Chain formation procedure: data, the neighbor node aggregates them with
their own data and transmits these data to its
For an N Node network where each chain neighbor node. In this, node c2 is the leader, and
contain L nodes .The number of chains formed it will pass the token along the chain to node co.
are N/L.A node in a chain selects the nearest Node co will pass its data towards node c2. After
node that is not already selected based on the node c2 receives data from node cl, it will pass
criteria discussed above. This way chain the token to node c4, and node c4 will pass its
formation continues until all the active nodes are data towards node c2.
grouped into chains. After fixing the chain the
next target is to find out the leader node in a (leader)
chain. This protocol will choose leader based on co c1 c2 c3 c4
the remaining energy levels in each sensor of the
chain. Once the leaders are selected, a higher
level leader is selected based on the criteria that
a node having highest residual energy and BS
shortest distance (metrics energy*distance) will
www.IJCSI.org 398
Start with the furthest node.

Initially CID=0, chain=0
Broadcast Route Request message
Is
E(N)>Eth Node won’t take part
No
Yes
Search for a node based on criteria defined i.e.

smaller (Energy*Distance)
Found? No
Yes
CID=CID+1
No IS
CID<L
Yes
Chain=chain+1
CID=0
End of Chain Formation
Fig 2: Chain Formation Algorithm

www.IJCSI.org 399
4. Conclusion [9] S. Lindsey, C. Raghavendra, and K. Sivalingam, “Data

gathering algorithms in sensor networks using energy metrics,”
In this paper we have proposed a protocol for information IEEE Transactions on Parallel and Distributed Systems, Vol.
collection based on some energy level criteria. In this chains 13, 2002, pp. 924-935.
are formed to reduce latency. To improve further chains are
re constructed only when 30-40% of node dies away. This [10] Jung-Eun Lee Keecheon Kim, “Diamond shaped Routing
process even reduces energy consumption as leaders gets method For Reliable Data Transmission in WSN”,ISPA,IEEE-
elected after optimal number of rounds .Considering all these 2008,pp.799-801
factors ,the protocol shows a remarkable improvement over
existing protocols. In future work ,We will be implementing [11]Min Jung,Young-Ju Han, “ The Concentric clustering
this proposed work and can extend this to multiple layer scheme for efficient energy consumption in PEGASIS”,ICACT
hierarchical chain based protocol. This can be enhanced further Feb 12-14,2007 Pp.260-265.
by including issues of MAC layers.
[12] Zheng ,Hu-Zhengbing, “ Chain Routing based on Co-
5. References ordinates- oriented strategy in WSN” ,IEEE 2009
[1] Ritu Sharma, Yogesh Chaba ,” Analysis of Security [13] Jae Duck,Kyung, “An Efficient Chain –Based Clustering
Protocols in Wireless Sensor Network”, Int. J. Advanced Routing Protocol for WSNs”, International conference on
Networking and Applications Volume: 02, Issue: 03, Pages: advanced Information and application Workshops,IEE-2009.
707-713 (2010). Shilpa Mahajan is B.Tech. (Computer Science and Engineering-2004)
with Hons from Punjab Technical University, India and
[2] Carlos F. García-Hernández, Pablo H. Ibargüengoytia- M.Tech.(Computer Science and Engineering-2006) with Hons from
Punjab Engineering College PEC),Chandigarh, India.. Currently, she is
González ,” Wireless Sensor Networks and Applications: a pursuing her Ph.D. in the area of Wireless Sensor Networks. Since
Survey”, IJCSNS ,VOL.7 No.3, March 2007. January 2007, she has been working as Assistant Professor at ITM
University, Gurgaon, India.She has published more than 10 research
papers in national/international conferences and journals. She is a life
[3] Chong C. & Kumar S.P. (2003). Sensor Networks: member of the Indian Society of Technical Education (I.S.T.E.), New
Evolution, Opportunities, and Challenges, Proceeding of the Delhi. She is specialized in Networks,Graphics,Datastructure and DBMS.
IEEE, Sensor Networks and Applications, vol.91, no.8,
pp.1247-1256, 2003 Jyoteesh Malhotra received the B.Eng. with Distinction in Electronics
and Telecommunication from the PRM Institute of Technology and
nd st
Research (2 rank in Institute), India, 1994; M.Tech. with Distinction ( 1
[4] M. Kuorilehto, M. Hannikainen & T.D. Hamalainen rank in University) in Electronics & Communication from Panjab
(2005). A survey of application in wireless sensor networks, Technical University, India, 2001; PhD in Electronics and Communication
Engineering in the year 2010. His PhD thesis was on “Performance
EURASIP Journal on Wireless Communications and Evaluation and Simulation of Wireless Communication Systems in the
Networking, vol.2005, no.5, pp.774-788, 2005. presence of Fading”. From 1994 to 2006 he worked with MCP College,
DAV Institute of Engineering and Technology, Jalandhar, and Panjab
University, Chandigarh as lecturer. Currently, he is working as Assistant
[5] M. Tubaishat & S. Madria (2003). Sensor networks: an Professor in ECE dept. at Guru Nanak Dev University Regional Campus,
overview, IEEE Potentials, vol.22, pp.20-23, 2003. Jalandhar. His major areas of interest is in Wireless communication and
Networks which includes statistical modeling & simulation of wireless
fading channels, diversity techniques, MIMO, OFDM, and wireless
[6] I.F. Akyildiz, W.L. Su, S. Yogesh & C. Erdal (2002). A sensor networks.
Survey on Sensor Networks,IEEE communications Magazine,
vol.40, no.8, pp.102-114, 2002.
[7] W.R.Heinzelman, A.Chandrakasan, and H. Balakrishnan,

“Energy-Efficient communication Protocol for Wireless
Micro-sensor Networks,” In Proceedings of the Hawaii
International Conference on System Science, Maui, Hawaii,
2000.
[8] K.T. Kim and H.Y. Youn, “PEACH: Proxy-Enable

Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy for Wireless Sensor network,”
Proceeding of the 2005 International Conference on Wireless
Network, June 2005, pp. 52-57.
www.IJCSI.org 400
Network Selection Using TOPSIS in

Vertical Handover Decision Schemes for
Heterogeneous Wireless Networks
K.Savitha1, DR.C.Chandrasekar2
1
Research Scholar, Periyar University
Salem, Tamil Nadu, India.
Associate Professor, Department of Computer Science, Periyar University

2
Salem, Tamil Nadu, India.
Abstract mainly used to select the suitable network to connect after

the handover execution with minimum processing delay. In
“Handover” is one of the techniques used to achieve the Fig. 1 Handover (HO) mechanism is illustrated
service continuity in Fourth generation wireless networks
(FGWNs). Seamless continuity is the main goal in fourth
generation Wireless networks (FGWNs), when a mobile terminal
(MT) is in overlapping area for service continuity Handover
mechanism are mainly used While moving in the heterogeneous
wireless networks continual connection is the main challenge.
Vertical handover is used as a technique to minimize the
processing delay in heterogeneous wireless networks this paper,
Vertical handover decision schemes are compared and Technique
of order preference by similarity to ideal solution (TOPSIS) in a
distributed manner. TOPSIS is used to choose the best network
from the available Visitor networks (VTs) for the continuous
connection by the mobile terminal. In our work we mainly
concentrated to the handover decision Phase and to reduce the
processing delay in the period of handover
Keywords: Handover, Vertical handover, Heterogeneous Fig. 1 Handover mechanism
wireless networks, Vertical handoff decision schemes, MADM,
TOPSIS.
In handover there are two types, one is Horizontal
Handover (HHO) and another is Vertical Handover (VHO)
1. Introduction as in Fig. 2. Horizontal handover is the process when the
mobile user switching between the network with the same
One of the main goal and most challenged area in
technology and same networks like Wifi to WiFi.
fourth generation wireless network (FGWN) was service
continuity, i.e., when a mobile node is moving in an Vertical handover is the process when the mobile users
overlapping area continuous service need so the handover switching among the networks with different technologies
technique is used. While a mobile terminal (MT) is moving like WiFI to WiMax. So in heterogeneous networks VHO is
from one network to another network is called mainly used.
heterogeneous network which has different air interfaces
techniques there a handover techniques is used called
Vertical Handover (VHO) .VHO is mainly used to support
between different air interfaces techniques during inter-
network movements.
“HANDOVER” is used to redirect the mobile user

service from current network to a new network; handover is

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In this paper, two vertical handover decision schemes

(VHDS) , Distributed handover decision scheme (DVHD)
and Trusted Distributed vertical handover decision schemes
(T-DVHD)are used. DVHD is advanced than the
centralised vertical handover decision scheme and T-
DVHD is the extended work of DVHD. Here we compare
the distributed and trusted vertical handover decision
schemes as distributed decision tasks among networks to
decrease the processing delay caused by exchanging
information messages between mobile terminal and
neighbour networks. To distribute the decision task, vertical
handover decision is formulated as MADM problem.
Fig. 2 Horizontal vs Vertiacl Handover The scope of our work is mainly in handover decision
phase, as mentioned in the decision phase; decision makers
Handover mechanisms have a four different phases: must choose the best network from available networks. In
Handover Initiation, System discovery, Handover decision, this paper, the decision maker Technique for order
Handover execution. preference by similarity to ideal solution to take the
decision and to select the best target visitor network (TVN)
 Han doff Initiation phase: The handover process was from several visitors’ networks.
modified by some criteria value like signal strength,
link quality etc., The proposed decision making method use
TOPSIS in a distributed manner. The bandwidth, delay,
 System discovery phase: It is used to decide which jitter and cost are the parameters took by the MT as the
mobile user discovers its neighbour network and decision parameters for handover.
exchanges information about Quality of Service (QOS)
offered by these networks. 2. Related Work
 Handover Decision phase: This phase compares the Many of the handover decision algorithms are
neighbour network QOS and the mobile users QOS proposed in the literature In [1] a comparison done among
with this QOS decision maker makes the decision to SAW, Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to
which network the mobile user has to direct the Ideal Solution (TOPSIS), Grey Relational Analysis (GRA)
connection. and Multiplicative Exponent Weighting (MEW) for vertical
handover decision. In [3] author discuss that the vertical
 Handover Execution phase: This phase is responsible handover decision algorithm for heterogeneous wireless
for establishing the connection and release the network, here the problem is formulated as Markov
connections and as well as the invocation of security decision process. In [5] the vertical handover decision is
service. formulated as fuzzy multiple attribute decision making
(MADM).
In our work HO decision phase is mainly focused for
decision maker to choose a best network from a set of In [8] their goal is to reduce the overload and the
available visited network (VN). Multiple attribute decision processing delay in the mobile terminal so they proposed
making (MADM) - TOPSIS is used as decision maker to novel vertical handover decision scheme to avoid the
choose the best network and redirects the connection to the processing delay and power consumption. In [7] a vertical
MT. handover decision scheme DVHD uses the MADM method
to avoid the processing delay. In [10] the paper is mainly
MADM is mainly concentrates on predetermined set
used to decrease the processing delay and to make a trust
of alternatives, i.e. the selection of an alternative from a
handover decision in a heterogeneous wireless environment
discrete decision space and the methods are used when
using T-DVHD.
finite number of alternatives with associated information on
regarded criteria is given. MADM have several cardinal In [11] a novel distributed vertical handover decision
information methods like simple additive weighting scheme using the SAW method with a distributed manner
(SAW), weighted product method, Analytic Hierarchy to avoid the drawbacks. In [14] the paper provides the four
Process (AHP), TOPSIS etc., steps integrated strategy for MADM based network
selection to solve the problem. All these proposals works

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mainly focused on the handover decision and calculate the Based on the user service profile, handover decision
handover decision criteria on the mobile terminal side and parameters have assigns different “Weights” to determine
the discussed scheme are used to reduce the processing the level of importance of each parameter. In equation (2),
delay by the calculation process using MADM in a the sum of these weights must be equal to one.
distributed manner. In our work we also did the MADM in
D-VHD and T-DVHD schemes. (2)
3. Vertical Handover Decision Schemes Distributed Decision scheme:
Centralized vertical handover decision (C-VHD), The D-VHD is explained in the Fig. 3
Distributed vertical handover decision (D-VHD), Trusted
Distributed vertical handover decision (T-DVHD) are the
schemes used to reduce the processing delay between the
mobile node and neighbour network while exchanging the
information during the handover. In this paper, D-VHD and
T-DVHD schemes are compared. MADM have several
methods in literature [16]. TOPSIS is used in distributed
manner for network selection.
3.1 Centralized vertical handover decision Schemes

In C-VHD, a Mobile Node (MN) exchanging the
information message to the Neighbour networks mean
processing delay was increased by distributing in
centralized manner. When processing delay had increased
overall handover delay increases. This is one of main
disadvantage in C-DHD, so Distributed Vertical handover
decision (D-VHD) schemes was proposed in [7][8].
3.2 Distributed vertical handover decision schemes
D-VHD is used to decrease the processing delay than

the C-VHD schemes. This scheme handles the handover
calculation to the Target visitor networks (TVNs). TVN is
the network to which the mobile node may connect after the
handover process was finished. In our work D-VHD takes
into account : jitter, cost, bandwidth, delay as evaluation
metrics to select a suitable VN which applied in TOPSIS
method.
Fig.3 D-VHD Scheme
Network Selection Function (NSF):
The handover decision metrics calculation is performed on
The network selection decision process has denoted as the VNs, each VN applies the Topsis method using “(1)” on
MADM problem, NSF have used to evaluate from set of the required (Jreq, Dreq, Creq, Breq) and offered (Joff, Doff, Coff,
network using multiple criteria. The above mentioned Breq) parameters
parameters are used to calculate NSF. These parameters
measure the Network Quality Value (NQV) of each TVN. 3.3 Trusted Distributed Vertical Handover
The highest NQV value of TVN will be selected as Visited Decision schemes
Network (VN) by the mobile node. The generic NSF is
defined by using TOPSIS Trusted handover decision and to avoid the
unnecessary handover events are the important factors
(1) while exchanging the trusted information between networks
and mobile node. The extension work of the DVHD scheme
Where, NQVi represents the quality of ith TVN. is is T-DVHD scheme. The scheme is mainly introduced[10]
the closeness to the ideal solution. for decreasing the processing delay than DVHD scheme.

www.IJCSI.org 403
The T-DVHD have the following steps: Step11: Before sending request to connect a new base
station trusted process is initiated
Step1: Mobile terminal sends the handover request to
available visitor networks. Step12: Level Of Trust (LOT) test function is tested to
execute the handover
Step2: Broadcast handover parameters includes the terminal
request and handover matrix with the respective If LoTi >= threshold
weight of the application Connect to the TVNi
Initiate Trust-test function
Step3: The handover decision phase calculation performed else if LoTi < threshold {
by VNs, if (suitable-TVN available)
i=i+1
Step4: VN applies the TOPSIS method to find the NQV, test another network
with a set of parameters jitter, cost, bandwidth, else if (no suitable-TVN)
delay. Handover blocked
Step5: normalized decision matrix was constructed by Step13: The mobile Terminal executes with the proper
TVN.
/ ∑ (3)
Step14: Trusted Test Function is initiated once the mobile
for i=1,…,m; j=1,……,n terminal connects to the TVN
Step6: The weighted normalized decision matrix is if Qoff < Qreq
constructed by LOTi = LOT – delta ;
else
(4) LOTi= LOTi+ delta+ ;
Step7: Positive ideal and negative ideal solutions are Step15: End of the trusted test function and T-DVHD.
determined by
4. Scenario of Vertical Handover
Positive Ideal solution.
In this paper, our scenario was in Fig. 4, it explains that
,………, where (5) a cell coverage the area by WiMax technology and another
cell coverage the area by WiFi and WiMax technology. A
J;  J′ mobile terminal is overlapping with VoIP application
between the cell coverage now mobile terminal intend to
Negative ideal solution. connect the appropriate visited network with the decision
process.
,………, , where (6)
J;  J′
Step8: Separation measures for each alternative is

calculated by
∑ /
i = 1, …, m (7)
∑ /
i = 1, …, m (8)
Step9: Relative closeness to the ideal solution Ci*
/ , 0  Ci*  1 Fig. 4 Scenario of vertical handover
Step10: NSF is calculated for each TVNs by TOPSIS

method and get the ‘best network’

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5. Simulation Result 5.2 Simulation Analysis

In this section, the comparison of vertical handover
decision scheme are compared and we provide the Differentiating available Visitor Networks in
evaluation parameters used to analyze the performance T- T‐DVHD schemes 3 availabe VNs
DVHD schemes as well as the output of simulation. In our 2 available VNS
simulation we consider 7 mobile nodes are moving in an 0.08 4 available VNs
Handover Processing delay (in
area covered by the heterogeneous wireless networks 0.07
managed by 4 Base stations (BSi=1,2,3,4). Mobility area 0.06
covered by BS, supporting two types of technologies: 0.05
WiMax and WiFi. These BS offer different characteristic in
seconds)
terms of coverage and QOS . VoIP is used as application in 0.04
this simulation. Table 1 show the simulation metrics. 0.03
0.02
5.1 Evaluation parameters 0.01
There are different evaluations parameters are 0
used, in order to evaluate our schemes. We have used: 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Simulaiton time( in seconds)
 Processing Delay: It is a process which takes time by
the terminal for making the decision towards which
Fig.5 processing delay between available Visited
network to handover for network to handover
Networks
 Throughput: It is measured by the data are sent by the Fig. 5 shows the Processing delay with available Visitor
mobile node after a set of matching decision during a networks like 2, 3, 4 VNs by this we can analyze the time
defined period. has taken for completing the whole handover process .
 End to End Delay: It refers the time taken for a packet
to be transmitted across a network from source to End‐End delay
destination End‐End delay
0.7
Handover delay (in seconds
 Handover Events: It reflects the number of handover 0.68

0.66
achieved by the mobile terminal 0.64
0.62
TABLE I
0.6
TABLE FOR SIMULATION METRICS 0.58
0.56
0.54
Topography 500*500
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Simulaiton time( in seconds)
Mobile Node 7 nodes
Base Station 4
CBR .1 sec
Fig. 6 End-End delay
Routing Protocol DSDV
Packet Size 1240bytes End -End delay is sum of transmission delay,
propagation delay and processing delay of number of
Simulation time(s) 200 sec links. End to End delay between the node and
Wireless Standards 802.16,802.11 destination access point with required QOS service.

www.IJCSI.org 405
Handover event s (in
Simulation time vs HO events in T‐DVHD
Reference
HO Events [1] E.Steven-Navarro and V.W.S.Wong, “Comparison
0.28
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Heterogeneous Wireless Networks”, IEEE VTC, pp. 947-
0.24 951, May 2006.
0.22
[2] E.Gustafsson and Annika Jonsson, “Always Best
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49-55, Feb 2003.
Simulaiton time (in seconds)
[3] E.Steven-Navarro, V.W.S. Wong and Yuxia Lin, “ A
Vertical Handover Decision Algorithm For Heterogeneous
Fig. 7 Handover events Wireless Networks.”, IEEE WCNC, pp. 3199-3204, Mar
2007.
In fig. 7 Multiple handover events are occurred,
when the mobile node chooses a TVN that provides [4] N.D.Tripathi, J.H.Reed and H.F.VanLandinoham, “
falsified quality value (i.e. NQV). In case, another handover Handover In Cellular Systems”, IEEE Personal
event may be performed as the switched VN doesn’t Communications, Vol. 5, pp.26-37, Dec 1998.
provide the appropriate quality, which adds additional delay
to the handover process it shows with the T-DVHD [5] Wenhui Zhang ,“ Handover Decision Using Fuzzy
schemes. MADM In Heterogeneous Networks”, IEEE WCNC, Vol.2,
pp. 653-658, Mar 2004.
Simulaiton time vs MT throughput
[6] A.Hasswa, N.Nasser and H.Hassanein, “ Generic
MT Throughput
2.7 Vertical Handover Decision Function For Heterogeneous
Throughput(in seconds)
Wireless”, WOCN, second IFIP International conference,

2.65 pp. 239-243, Mar 2005.
2.6
[7] R.Tawil, G.Pujolle and O.Salazar, “ A Vertical
2.55 Handover Decision Schemes In Heterogeneous Wireless
20 60 100 140 180 Systems”, IEEE VTC, pp. 2626-2630, May 2008.
Simulation time (in seconds) [8] R.Tawil, J.Demerjain, G.Pujolle And O.Salazar, “

Processing-Delay Reduction During The Vertical Handover
Decision In Heterogeneous Wireless System”, IEEE
Fig. 8 Mobile Terminal Throughput AICCSA, pp.381-385, April 2008.
Throughput in Fig. 8 shows by the mobile [9] LIU yu, Ye Min-hue and ZHANG Hui-min, “The
terminal. Throughput is measured in bits per second. It Handover Schemes in mobile IP”, IEEE-VTC, pp. 485-489,
calculated by Total Bytes Sent * 8 divide by Time Last Apr 2003
Packet Sent - Time First Packet Sent here time is in seconds
in T-DVHD schemes. [10] R.Tawil, J.Demerjain and G.Pujolle, “ A Trusted
Handover Decision Scheme For The Next Generation
6. Conclusion Wireless Networks”, IJCSNS, Vol.8, pp.174-182, June
2008.
In our work, we have compared the schemes of vertical
handover decision in the heterogeneous wireless networks. [11] R.Tawil, G.Pujolle and O.Salazar, “ Vertical Handover
The main observation of the schemes to reduce the Decision Schemes For The Next Generation Wireless
processing delays and a trust handover decision is done in a Networks”, IEEE-WCNC, pp. 2789-2792, Apr 2008.
heterogeneous wireless networks. In this paper we proposed
TOPSIS for the Vertical decision schemes for decision [12] R.Tawil, G.Pujolle and J.Demerjain, “ Distributed
making to select the best network from the visitor network. Handover Decision Scheme Using MIH Function For The
Our main goal is in the decision phase of the handover Fourth Generation Wireless Networks”, ICTTA, pp. 1-6,
phases to take decision to which VN the mobile terminal to Apr 2008.
connect by different decision algorithms.

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[13] A.Dvir, R.Giladi, I.Kitroser and M.Segal, “Efficient

Decision Handover Mechanism For Heterogeneous
Networks”, IJWMN, Vol.2, Feb 2010.
[14] Lusheng Wang and David Binet, “ MADM- Based

Network Selection In Heterogeneous Wireless Networks: A
Simulation Study”, IEEE VITAE, pp. 559-564, May 2009.
[15] N.Nasser, A.Hasswa and H.Hassanein, “ Handover In

Fourth Generation Heterogeneous Networks”, IEEE
communication Magazine, Vol.44, pp. 96-103, Oct 2006.
[16] Frank Schneider, “Multiple Criteria Decision Making

in Application Layer Networks” pages 139.
[17] Xiaohuan Yan a, Y. Ahmet S_ekercioglu a, Sathya

Narayanan b “A survey of vertical handover decision
algorithms in Fourth Generation heterogeneous wireless
networks” Computer Networks Volume 54, Issue 11, 2
August 2010, pp. 1848‐1863.
[18] M Kassar, B Kervella and G Pujolle , “An overview of

vertical handover decision strategies in heterogeneous
wireless networks” Computer Communications ,Volume
31, Issue 10, 25 June 2008, pp. 2607-2620
First Author Mrs.K.Savitha received the Master of

Science from the Bharathiar University, India in 2006,
M.Phil Degree from periyar university, India in 2007. She
is a Research Scholar in Department of computer science ,
Periyar University, Salem, India. She is pursing her Ph.D in
Mobile computing. Her research area interest includes
Networking, Multimedia.
Second Author Dr. C. Chandrasekar received his Ph.D.

degree from Periyar University, Salem. He has been
working as Associate Professor at Dept. of Computer
Science, Periyar University, Salem – 636 011, Tamil Nadu,
India. His research interest includes Wireless networking,
Mobile computing, Computer Communication and
Networks. He was a Research guide at various universities
in India. He has been published more than 50 technical
papers at various National/ International Conference and
Journals.

www.IJCSI.org 407
Enhancement of QoS in Mobile Network through Channel

Allocation using Software Agents
Nitin Muchhal1, Swapnil Jain2, Yogesh Sharma3
1
Department of Electronics and Communication, Sagar Institute of Science and Technology
Bhopal, India – 462036
2
Department of Electronics and Communication, Sagar Institute of Science and Technology,
Bhopal, India – 462036
3
Department of Computer Science, Sagar Institute of Science and Technology,
Bhopal, India –462036
Abstract transmission. An overall cellular network contains a

In the last two decades the demand for mobile hosts is number of different elements from the base
increasing rapidly. One of the biggest challenges in cellular transceiver station (BTS) itself with its antenna back
systems is to fulfill the mobile user demand under the
through a base station controller (BSC), and a mobile
constraint of the limited spectrum. Some of the most
switching centre (MSC) to the location registers
common methods to increase the channel allocation and
utilization are resource allocation schemes. Various (HLR and VLR) and the link to the public switched
channel allocation schemes have been proposed to provide telephone network (PSTN).
Quality of Service (QoS) and efficient channel utilization in
cellular networks. This paper proposes architecture of Another important aspect of cellular
Multi-agent system consisting of software agents to telephony is unlimited mobility. The user can be
implement distributed dynamic channel allocation strategy. anywhere within the coverage area of the network, in
The strategy is based on the channel reassignment within order to be able to communicate. The cellular
the cell boundary and chained channel borrowing in network interfaces with the PSTN, as well as with
neighboring cell areas. The QoS parameters analyzed are other wireless systems.
Call dropping probability and Call blocking probability.
Keywords: Channel Allocation, QoS, Multi agent system,

FCA, DCA.
1. Introduction
1.1 Architecture of Cellular Network
A cellular network[1],[3] is a radio network

distributed over land areas called cells, each served
by at least one fixed-location transceiver known as a
cell site or base station. When joined together these
cells provide radio coverage over a wide geographic
Fig. 1 Architecture of Cellular Network
area. This enables a large number of portable
transceivers (e.g., mobile phones, pagers, etc.) to 1.2 Cellular concept
communicate with each other and with fixed
transceivers and telephones anywhere in the network, In cellular system [5], each cell is
via base stations, even if some of the transceivers are characterized by one base station which serves
moving through more than one cell during the users within that geographical area. Inter-cell

www.IJCSI.org 408
connections are possible with a fixed network 1.4.1 Fixed Channel Allocation (FCA): With
which connects different base stations. Network FCA, a set of channels is permanently assigned to
is having scarce radio resources and no. of users each cell, according to the allowed reuse distance D.
are increasing every day. The tremendous growth A call can only be served by an available channel
of usage of mobile network has increased the belonging to the poll of channels of the cell. A call
need for better admission control strategies and arriving in a cell, where no channel is available, is
efficient utilization of resources such as blocked and cleared.
bandwidth, to provide a better Quality of Service 1.4.2 Dynamic Channel Allocation (DCA): DCA
(QoS). allows that any system channel can be temporarily
assigned to any cell, provided that the reuse distance
1.3 Handover: constraint is fulfilled. Different DCA techniques can
A handover (or handoff) [2] refers to a
be considered depending on the criterion adopted to
situation where all radio resources of a
connection are handed to another base select a channel to be assigned in a cell among all
station because of cell change. In cellular available resources.
telecommunications, the term handover or
handoff refers to the process of transferring 2. Multi agent system Model
an ongoing call or data session from one
channel connected to the core network to Multi Agent System [6] extends the intelligent agent
another. In satellite communications, it is the paradigm to improve upon the conceptual model of
process of transferring satellite control designing problems through agent interaction. [7]
responsibility from one earth station to
another without loss or interruption of discusses performance Evaluation of Multi Agent
service. Hand over can be either soft Based Call Admission in Cellular Networks. Call
handover and hard handover. admission control (CAC) [10, 11] is a fundamental
mechanism used for quality of service (QoS)
provisioning in a network by limiting the number of
call connections into the networks in order guarantee
Connection level QoS parameters such as new call
blocking probability and handoff blocking
probability, packet level QoS parameters such as
delay, jitter, packet loss for various classes of traffic
and mobility QoS parameters such as velocity,
distance and direction of the movement of mobile
terminal.
Co‐operative
Cell
Layer
Agent
Local Planning
Request
Reply Reactive Layer
Fig 2. Hard Handoff
Environment
1.4 Channel allocation
The process of channel allocation is to Fig. 3. Multi Agent System Model

allocate channels to the various cells so that the
available bandwidth is most effectively used by the The Layered architecture of the above model
various cells to meet the traffic demand in each cell consists of three layers. The functions of these
without interfering with calls in neighboring cells. layers are as follows:
There are two strategies:

www.IJCSI.org 409
Reactive Layer gives fast response to the request Suppose channels 1–5 are occupied in a cell 4 and the
and local allocation; Local Planning Layer work call occupying channel 2 terminates – then the call
for distributed dynamic channel allocation using using channel 5 is reassigned to channel 2. This
channel reassignment and channel borrowing and ensures that the lowest ordered channels are always
Co-operative Layer takes care of global scenario used first and highest ordered channel will be free to
and balance the ratio of hot cell and cold cell. maintain threshold. Threshold is constant value of a
In the design of a cellular mobile parameter in algorithm. Threshold represents
communication system, a region is divided into a minimum. Number of channels reserved to avoid
series of cells, each one covered by a base channel starvation in cell. The degree of dynamism of
station. Each station can also have more than one the algorithm can be varied by changing the value of
transmitter– receiver (also called a transceiver or threshold. Keeping highest ordered channels free for
simply transmitter). Each transmitter works at a crisis, is known as highest order availability (HOA)
certain frequency and the same frequency can be algorithm.
used in different cells (allowing a reduction in
the number of base stations required and in the
overall cost of the installation). However, the
reuse of the same frequency in different cells is
limited by the maximum tolerable interference
between cells. This paper implements distributed
dynamic channel allocation strategy using a
multi-agent system virtually ported at Base
station [8],[9]. The agents here are software
agents, represent network operators that manage
the radio resource of different regions of the
cellular network. The extra dimension in a
wireless network is the allocation of channel to a Fig.4 Hexagonal software Model of Cellular Network
cell to avoid interference and avoid degradation
in QoS. 4. Simulation & Results (Using
3. Algorithm OMNET++)
There have been several Algorithms for our system is In this work, we do not consider users
implemented as follows: mobility and their precedence. OMNET++ is an
object-oriented modular discrete event network
1. Initialization: The Input request will come to simulator. We adopted following parameter values
Base station will be handled by Reactive Layer of for performing simulations:
multi agent system of base station.
2. Execution: For every New Request at the 1. Cluster Size K = 3
initial state, Reactive Layer is allocating a channel 2. 70 channels totally available to the
system
from local set of allocated channel if there is free
3. Call inter arrival time: 10 sec.
channel. If channel is not free, request is transferred 4. Call duration: 3min.
to Local Planning Layer. 5. No. of calls handled per sec by
Consider a call is originated in Cell no. 4, if there is Base Station : 1.5 times no. of
no channel available in Cell 4, request will be given clients
to borrow a channel to Co-channel Cell 10, if Cell 10 6. Negotiation tenure: 5 secs.
is not having free channel, request is further 7. Threshold limit 0.2% of total no.
channels allocated to cell
transferred to Cell 13 and so on. Request is scanned
by all co-channel cells in chain till the free channel is
available. This is chained channel reorganization. 4.1 Enhancement in QoS

www.IJCSI.org 410
We measured the percentage of channel requests that 6. References

are dropped/ denied because the algorithm cannot [1]. A.F.Molisch:Wireless Communications, Wiley
allocate any channel in response to such requests. India Pvt Ltd.
[2]. W.C.Y.Lee:Mobile Communication Engineering-
Theory & Practices,TMH.
[3]. Kamilo Feher:Wireless Digital Communications,
Channel request load is approximation of percentage
PHI Learning
[4]. Fast Algorithms for Resource Allocation in

Percentage of Call dropping Wireless Cellular Networks,Ritesh Madan, Stephen
P. Boyd, Fellow, IEEE, and Sanjay Lall, Senior
DDCA using DDCA using Member, IEEE
spatial Software agent
distribution (chained channel [5]. D. Tse and P. Viswanath, Fundamentals of
reorganization) Wireless Communcation. Cambridge, U.K.:
Cambridge Univ. Press, 2005.
Channel Call Channe Call [6]. Fourth International Conference on Multi-Agent
req. dropping l Req. dropping Systems (ICMAS'00) A Multi-Agent Channel
Load prob. Perc. Load prob. Allocation Scheme for Cellular Mobile Networks
Boston, Massachusetts July 10-July 12
20% 0 20% 0
[7]Nupur Giri, Shrikant Bodhe,”Performance
Evaluation of Multi Agent Based Call Admission in
30% 0 30% 0 Cellular Networks”, International Journal of Recent
Trends in Engineering, Vol 1, No. 1, May 2009
40% 0 40% 0 [8] Jaspreet Singh, Jaspreet Kaur, Sandeep Pal Singh,
“Algorithms for Distributed Dynamic Channel
Allocation”, National Conference on RAFIT 2005
50% 0.5 50% 0
2nd-3rd March, 2005
[9] Parag C. Pendharkar, Penn State Harrisburg, “A
70% 6 70% 4 Multi-Agent Distributed Channel Allocation
Approach for Wireless Networks”, Vehicular
90% 13 90% 10 Technology Conference, 2006. VTC-2006 Fall. 2006
IEEE 64th Volume , Issue , 25-28 Sept. 2006
100% 18 100% 16.5 Page(s):1– 4
[10] M. Naghshineh and M. Schwartz, “Distributed
Call Admission Control in Mobile / Wireless
of channel allocated to a cell.
Networks,”in IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in
Table 1: Call dropping Percentage Communications, vol. 14, no. 4, May 1994, pp. 711-
717.
[11] N. Giri,, S. Bodhe: Analytical Model for Multi
Agent – Call Admission in Wireless Networks”, in
Proceedings of IEEE Comp Society 15th
International Conference on Advanced Computing &
Communication (ADCOM 2007). 403-407
5. Conclusion
A flexible scheme using intelligent agents is N.Muchhal Nitin Muchhal is presently working as an
proposed. The agent architecture adopted is able to Assistant Professor in ECE department of Sagar Institute of
Science and Technology (SISTec), Bhopal India. He has
provide greater autonomy to the base stations and
obtained his B.E.(ECE) from BIT, Mesra and M.Tech
allows co-operation and negotiation among them. (Microwave Electronics) from UDSC, New Delhi. He has 6
The layered architecture will also support parallelism. years of industrial and teaching experience. His research
interests include Patch antenna design, Wireless Sensors,
The simulation demonstrates the improvement in Digital and Mobile communicaiton. He is a member of IEEE,
QoS Parameters. MSI and IE(I). He is also acting as Branch couselor of IEEE
society student branch at SISTec.

www.IJCSI.org 411
S. Jain Swapnil Jain is working as Associate Professor and

HOD of the ECE Department of the Sagar Institute of
Science and Technology, Bhopal. He is presently persuing
his PhD degree from MGCGV, Satna (M.P.) . He did his
M.Tech. in Digital communication with hons. from RGPV,
Bhopal. He has obtained his bachelor of Engineering degree
in Electronics from Nagpur university. He has 13 years of
experience including 10 years of teaching experience. His
research interest includes Data Security,Signal processing,
Advance Communication, Information theory & Coding. He
has published various national and international
journals/conferences. He is member of IEEE and ISTE
society.
Y. Sharma Yogesh Kumar Sharma is working as an

Assistant Professor in Computer Science department of
Sagar Institute of Science and Technology (SISTec), Bhopal
India. He has obtained his B.E.(CSE) from Govt.
Engineering College, Ujjain and M.Tech (CS) from UTD-
DAVV, Indore. His research interest are Algorithm design,
Wireless Sensors, Operating systems.

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Effective Ways of Secure, Private and Trusted Cloud Computing

Pardeep Kumar1, Vivek Kumar Sehgal2 , Durg Singh Chauhan3, P. K. Gupta4 and Manoj Diwakar5
1
CSE & IT, Jaypee University of Information Technology
Waknaghat, Solan, Himachal Pradesh, 173215,India
2
ECE, Jaypee University of Information Technology
Waknaghat, Solan, Himachal Pradesh , 173215,India
3
Uttrakhand Technical University
Dehradun, Uttaranchal, 248007,India
4
CSE & IT, Jaypee University of Information Technology
Waknaghat, Solan, Himachal Pradesh, 173215,India
5
CSE & IT, Mody Institute of Technology & Science
Laxmangarh, Sikar, Rajasthan, 332311,India
Abstract Due to its perceived open nature, Cloud Computing raises

Cloud computing is an Internet-based computing, where shared strong security, privacy and trust concerns, namely:
resources, software and information, are provided to computers  How data safely stored and handled by Cloud
and devices on-demand. It provides people the way to share providers?
distributed resources and services that belong to different
organization. Since cloud computing uses distributed resources
 How data privacy being managed adequately?
in open environment, thus it is important to provide the security  Are Cloud providers adhering to laws and
and trust to share the data for developing cloud computing regulations?
applications. In this paper we assess how can cloud providers  How is business disruption or outage kept to its
earn their customers’ trust and provide the security, privacy and minimum?
reliability, when a third party is processing sensitive data in a
remote machine located in various countries? A concept of utility
 Are Cloud providers sufficiently protected
cloud has been represented to provide the various services to the
against cyber-attacks?
users. Emerging technologies can help address the challenges of Cloud computing share distributed resources via the
Security, Privacy and Trust in cloud computing. network in the open environment, thus it makes
Keywords: Cloud Computing, Utility computing, Risk security problems important for us to develop the
Management, Access Control Model, Quality Assurance. cloud computing application [2].Cloud computing
means different things to different people. cloud
computing is a convenient, on-demand model for
1. Introduction network access to a shared pool of configurable
computing resources (e.g., networks, servers, storage,
Cloud computing is revolutionizing the way companies applications, and services) that can be rapidly
are implementing their information systems. Cloud provisioned and released with minimal management
computing has elevated IT to newer limits by offering the effort or service provider interaction . The cloud
market environment data storage and capacity with element of cloud-computing derives from a metaphor
flexible scalable computing processing power to match used for the Internet, from the way it is often depicted
elastic demand and supply, whilst reducing capital in computer network diagrams. Conceptually it refers
expenditure [1]. As a result, Cloud adoption is spreading to a model of scalable, real-time, internet-based
rapidly and represents a new opportunity that companies information technology services and resources,
should not ignore given its profound impact. satisfying the computing needs of users, without the
users incurring the costs of maintaining the
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underlying infrastructure. Examples in the private Cloud users typically have no control over the Cloud
sector involve providing common business resources used and there is an inherent risk of data
applications online, which are accessed from a web exposure to third parties on the Cloud or the Cloud
browser, with software and data stored on the “cloud” provider itself.
provider’s servers. Some policies are
Cloud computing provides many opportunities for a) Whether there exists an Information security policy,
enterprises by offering a range of computing services. It which is approved by the management, published and
shares massively scalable, elastic resources (e.g., data, communicated as appropriate to all employees.
calculations, and services) transparently among the users
over a massive network [3]. These opportunities, however,
don’t come without challenges. Cloud computing has
opened up a new frontier of challenges by introducing a
different type of trust scenario. Today, the problem of
trusting cloud computing is a paramount concern for most
enterprises. It’s not that the enterprises don’t trust the
cloud providers’ intentions; rather, they question cloud
computing capabilities. Yet the challenges of trusting
cloud computing don’t lie entirely in the technology itself.
The projected benefits of cloud computing are very
compelling both from a cloud consumer as well as a cloud Fig. 1 Security Challenges of Cloud Computing
services provider perspective: ease of deployment of
services; low capital expenses and constant operational b) Whether it states the management commitment and
expenses leading to variable pricing schemes and reduced set out the organizational approach to managing
opportunity costs; leveraging the economies of scale for information security.
both services providers and users of the cloud [4]. c) Whether the Security policy has an owner, who is
Unfortunately, the adoption of cloud computing came responsible for its maintenance and review according
before the appropriate technologies appeared to tackle the to a defined review process.
accompanying challenges of trust. This gap between Whether the process ensures that a review takes place in
adoption and innovation is so wide that cloud computing response to any changes affecting the basis of the original
consumers don’t fully trust this new way of computing. To assessment, example: significant security incidents, new
close this gap, we need to understand the trust issues vulnerabilities or changes to organizational or technical
associated with cloud computing from both a technology infrastructure.
and business perspective. Then we’ll be able to determine
which emerging technologies could best address these
2.2. Information security infrastructure
issues.
The cloud computing architecture requires the adoption of
identity and access management measures. Some issues:
2. Security challenges of Cloud computing a) Whether there is a management forum to ensure there
is a clear direction and visible management support
Cloud computing is not secure by nature. Security in the for security initiatives within the organization.
Cloud is often intangible and less visible, which inevitably b) Whether there is a cross-functional forum of
creates a false sense of security and anxiety about what is management representatives from relevant parts of the
actually secured and controlled. The off-premises organization to coordinate the implementation of
computing paradigm that comes with cloud computing has information security controls.
incurred great concerns on the security of data, especially c) Whether responsibilities for the protection of
the integrity and confidentiality of data, as cloud service individual assets and for carrying out specific security
providers may have complete control on the computing processes were clearly defined.
infrastructure that underpins the services [5]. Accordingly, d) Whether there is a management authorisation process
the various security challenges as shown in Fig-1, related in place for any new information processing
to Cloud computing are worth of a deeper attention and facility. This should include all new facilities such as
can relate to many different aspects. hardware and software.
2.1 Information security policy – e) A specific individual may be identified to co-ordinate

in-house knowledge and experiences to ensure
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consistency, and provide help in security decision precaution must be in place to ensure uninterrupted and
making. full control of the data owner over its data.
f) Whether appropriate contacts with law enforcement
authorities, regulatory bodies, information service 2.6. Secure development lifecycle Security
providers and telecommunication operators were
maintained to ensure that appropriate action can be Although traditional searchable encryption schemes allow
quickly taken and advice obtained, in the event of a users to securely search over encrypted data through
security incident. keywords, these techniques support only Boolean search,
Whether the implementation of security policy is reviewed without capturing any relevance of data files [7]. General
independently on regular basis. This is to provide purpose software, which was initially developed for
assurance that organizational practices properly reflect the internal use, is now being used within the cloud
policy, and that it is feasible and effective. computing environment without addressing all the
fundamental risks associated to this new technology.
2.3. Security of third party access Another consequence of the migration to Cloud computing
is that the secure development lifecycle of the organization
To access the third party some challenges: may need to change to accommodate the Cloud computing
a) Whether risks from third party access are identified risk context.
and appropriate security controls implemented.
b) Whether the types of accesses are identified, classified 2.7. Secure activities on Cloud computing
and reasons for access are justified.
c) Whether security risks with third party contractors As with most technological advances, regulators are
working onsite was identified and appropriate typically in a "catch-up" mode to identify policy,
controls are implemented. governance, and law [8]. Migrating onto a Cloud may
d) Whether there is a formal contract containing, or imply outsourcing some security activities to the Cloud
referring to, all the security requirements to ensure provider. This may cause confusion between Cloud
compliance with the organization’s security policies provider and user regarding individual responsibilities,
and standards. accountability and redress for failure to meet required
e) Whether security requirements are addressed in the standards. Means to clarify those issues can be contracts,
contract with the third party, when the organisation but also the adoption of policies, “service statements” or
has outsourced the management and control of all or “Terms and Conditions” by the Cloud provider, which will
some of its information systems, networks and/ or clearly set forth obligations and responsibilities of all
desktop environments. parties involved.
The contract should address how the legal requirements
are to be met, how the security of the organization’s assets 2.8 Lack of security and quality levels
are maintained and tested, and the right of audit, physical
security issues and how the availability of the services is Currently there is still a lack of generally-admissible
to be maintained in the event of disaster. Cloud computing standards at worldwide level. The
consequence of this is uncertainty regarding the security
2.4. Virtualization and grid technologies and quality levels to be ensured by Cloud providers, but
also vendor dependency for Cloud users given that every
The virtual cloud essentially implements shared and provider uses a proprietary set of access protocols and
coordinated task-spaces, which coordinates the scheduling programming interfaces for their Cloud services.
of jobs submitted by a dynamic set of research groups to
their local job queues [6]. Virtualization and grid
technologies expose cloud infrastructures to emerging and 3. Privacy challenges of Cloud computing
high-impact threats against hypervisors and grid
In the Cloud-computing environment, Cloud providers,
controllers.
being by definition third parties, can host or store
2.5. Identity and access management important data, files and records of Cloud users. While
outsourcing information to a cloud storage controlled by a
The cloud computing architecture requires the adoption cloud service provider relives an information owner of
of identity and access management measures. When data tackling instantaneous oversight and management needs, a
are trusted to a third party especially for handling or significant issue of retaining the control of that
storage within a common user environment, appropriate information to the information owner still needs to be
solved [9]. Given the volume or location of the Cloud
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computing providers, it is difficult for companies and “located” within the European territory can benefit from
private users to keep at all times in control the information the protection of the European privacy rules.
or data they entrust to Cloud suppliers. Privacy is an
important issue for cloud computing, both in terms of legal
compliance and user trust, and needs to be considered at
every phase of design [10]. Some key privacy or data
protection challenges that can be characterized as 3.3 Rights to access data
particular to the Cloud-computing context are, in our view,
as shown in fig-2 and described below: Given that the users of the same Cloud share the
premises of data processing and the data storage facilities,
3.1 Sensitivity of confidential information they are by nature exposed to the risk of information
leakage, accidental or intentional disclosure of
Now, recession-hit companies are increasingly information.
realizing that simply by tapping into the cloud they can
gain fast access to best-of-breed business applications or 3.4 Data transfers conditions
drastically boost their infrastructure resources, all at
negligible cost. But as more and more information on If the data used by, or hosted on, the Cloud may change
individuals and companies is placed in the cloud, concerns location regularly or may reside on multiple locations at
are beginning to grow about just how safe an environment the same time, it becomes complicated to watch over the
[11]. It appears that any type of information can be hosted data flows and, consequently, to determine the conditions
on, or managed by the Cloud. No doubt that all or some of that would legitimize such data transfers. It may become
this information may be business sensitive (i.e. bank complicated to fulfill these arrangements if data locations
account records) or legally sensitive (i.e. health records), are not stable.
highly confidential or extremely valuable as company
3.5 Privacy from third party
asset (e.g. business secrets). Entrusting this information to
a Cloud increases the risk of uncontrolled dissemination of Companies engaging in Cloud computing expect that
that information to competitors (who can probably co- the privacy commitments they have made towards their
share same Cloud platform), individuals concerned by this customers, employees or other third parties will continue
information or to any other third party with an interest in to apply by the Cloud computer provider. This becomes
this information. particularly relevant if the Cloud provider operates in
many jurisdictions in which the exercise of individual
rights may be subject to different conditions. Contractual
rules with privacy implications It is common for a Cloud
provider to offer his facilities to users without individual
contracts. Yet, it can be that certain Cloud providers
suggest negotiating their agreements with clients and,
thus, offering the possibility of tailored contracts.
Whatever the opted contractual model is, certain
Fig. 2 Privacy challenges of cloud computing
contractual clauses can have direct implications in the
privacy and protection of the entrusted information (e.g.
3.2 Applicable law defining who actually “controls” the data and who only
“processes” the data).
Computer forensics is a relatively new discipline born
out of the increasing use of computing and digital storage
devices in criminal acts (both traditional and hi-tech). 4. Trust challenges of Cloud computing
Computer forensic practices have been around for several
decades and early applications of their use can be charted The Security and Privacy challenges discussed above are
back to law enforcement and military investigations some also relevant to the general requirement upon Cloud
30 years ago [12].The relation of certain data to a suppliers to provide trustworthy services. In the cloud
geographic location has never been more blurred than with computing, due to users directly use and operate the
the advent of Cloud computing. As in other jurisdictions, software and OS, and even basic programming
the physical “location” plays a key role for determining environment and network infrastructure which provided
which privacy rules apply. Thus, data collected and by the cloud services providers, so the impact and
destruction for the software and hardware cloud resources
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in cloud computing are worse than the current Internet

users who use it to share resources [13].If Cloud providers
find adequate solutions to address the data privacy and
security specificities of their business model, they will
have met in a certain way the requirement of offering
trusted services. Yet, there are a few other challenges
which, if tackled properly, would enhance user’s
confidence in the application of Cloud computing and
would build market trust in the Cloud service offerings Fig. 3 Trust challenges of cloud computing
fig-3.
4.2 Changes in immature market
4.1 Trust in Infrastructure
Cloud Computing Environments enable business
The main difference between cloud computing and agility and enterprises to exploit/respond quickly to
traditional enterprise internal IT services is that the owner changes in the marketplace, competition, technology and
and the user of cloud IT infrastructures are separated in operational environment [15]. Accordingly, users of the
cloud [14].One key to providing a trusted infrastructure is Cloud must be confident that the services externalized to
by provisioning a protected execution and content the Cloud provider, including any important assets.
environment. Trusted Computing Group (TCG) and
related open specifications and development efforts for 4.3. Several technical capabilities for the trust
servers, clients, and pervasive devices to provide a
hardware “root of trust” that can leverage up the stack. By definition, the Cloud-computing concept cannot
Bindings that support end-to-end trust chains for web guarantee full, continuous and complete control of the
services and grid transactions. Cloud users over their assets. With public audit ability, a
TCG-enabled integrity reporting provides several trusted entity with expertise and capabilities data owners
capabilities for the trust framework to enable trust in do not possess can be delegated as an external audit party
infrastructure, including to assess the risk of outsourced data when needed [16].
a) Authentication of system configuration change Consider immediate investment in research and
origins. development activities to accelerate the maturation of the
b) Assertion of system platform identity and following commercial capabilities.
configuration. a) Development and acceptance of trust policy languages
c) Assertion of origin of execution image. and trust management/negotiation protocols
d) Verification of execution context. b) Development and acceptance of trust inference
e) Secure destruction of execution context. engines, and definition of trust level semantics and
f) IDS signature verification. assurance standards
g) Signed, verifiable audit records. c) Development and acceptance of privacy management
h) Proof that audit logs were not tampered. technology
i) Validation of service provider. d) Development and acceptance of trusted identity
j) Secure content management and distribution. management solutions that support federation (cross-
domain entity resolution, credentialing, and access
TCG support also provides a trust basis to support server management).
cluster provisioning, to cover issues such as: e) Development and acceptance of secure development
a) Do I let this new system into the cluster? environments
b) Does the system meet the trust requirements? f) Development and acceptance of key management/key
c) Does this system have the proper execution exchange systems that can interoperate across trust
environment to interoperate in the cluster? domains and heterogeneous platforms
d) Has the system been tampered?
Is the system running as it was originally set up? 5. Enhanced Security, Privacy and Trust
using cloud
It has the advantage of reducing cost by sharing
computing and storage resources, combined with an on-
demand provisioning mechanism relying on a pay-per-use
business model. These new features have a direct impact
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on the budgeting of IT budgeting but also affect traditional 5.5. Differing availability requirements
security, trust and privacy mechanisms [17]. Besides the
apparent challenges, Cloud computing can also lead to Many manufacturing processes are continuous in
new opportunities in the fields of security, privacy and nature. Unexpected outages of systems that control
trust fig-4, for the Cloud users: manufacturing processes are not acceptable. Exhaustive
Effectively integrating security into a Manufacturing and pre-deployment testing is essential to ensure high
Control System environment requires defining and availability for the Manufacturing and Control System.
executing a comprehensive program that addresses all
aspects of security, ranging from identifying objectives to 5.6. Unintended Consequences
day-to-day operation and ongoing auditing for compliance
and improvement. All security functions integrated into the process
control system must be tested to prove that they do not
introduce unacceptable vulnerabilities. Adding any
physical or logical component to the system may reduce
reliability of the control system, but the resulting
reliability should be kept to acceptable levels.
5.7. Resource constraints

Cloud computing can provide users dynamically
scalable, shared resources over the internet, but users
usually fear about security threats and loss of control of
data and systems [18]. Manufacturing and Control
Systems are resource constrained systems and do not
include typical IT security technologies.
Fig. 4 Enhanced securities, privacy and trust
5.1 Address Configuration Management

6. Designing and Implementing
Vital information and assets must be assessed and
The security program includes developing design models
classified based on the consequences of loss, damage, or
to describe the minimum acceptable recommended
failure. Assign the appropriate levels of security protection
practices to be used in constructing a secure system as
and assess the vulnerability of Manufacturing and Control
shown in fig-5. The suggested models:
System Information loss or compromise.
6.1. Network Segments
5.2. Establish Performance Considerations
The network comprising of a series of logical and
It is essential to review and consider the required
physical layers can be divided into network segments to
performance at an overall systems level to ensure that they
simplify the approach to designing secure network
do not affect the required time-critical or other
architecture. The network segments can be further
performance characteristics of these systems.
classified as follows:
5.3 Differing risk management goals a) Enterprise Network Segment consisting of enterprise
computer systems
Human safety and fault tolerance to prevent loss of life b) Process Information Network Segment consisting of
or endangerment of public health or confidence, loss of Manufacturing Execution System computers
equipment, loss of intellectual property, or lost or c) Control network Segment consisting of controllers
damaged product. and Human Machine Interface devices
d) Field network Segment consisting of sensors and
5.4. Differing architecture security focus actuators
e) Process Segment consisting of pipes, valves, and
In a typical IT system, the primary focus of security is transportation belts.
protecting the information stored on the central server. In
manufacturing systems, the situation is reversed. Edge 6.2. Access Control Model
clients are typically more important than the central server.
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This describes the recommended practices for accessing a) Determine if the strategy focuses on IT Disaster
Manufacturing and Control Systems. This topic can be Recovery Planning, which may be limited to restoring
further sub-divided into the following topics: cloud infrastructure at an alternative location or if it
a) User Access Management has a more holistic business orientation focusing on
b) User responsibilities resuming all critical business operations.
c) Network Access Control b) Gather management's perception of the most critical
d) Operating System Access Control business processes (and why), and management’s
e) Application Access Control formal/ informal assessment of the effectiveness of
f) Monitoring System Access and Use the company's ability to resume business operations in
the event of a disruption. Determine if the business
The potential for security violations by providing greater risks and impacts of unexpected disruptions have been
control over the user's access to information and resources identified and quantified by management.
of multiple devices in a network. RBAC addresses the c) Review the analysis of the organization’s previous
problem of traditional model by basing access on user's business continuity tests. Determine if the tests were
job responsibilities rather than customizing access for successful. If not, why not? Identify recurring issues
each individual. Hierarchical organization of the users to or other potential problem areas and understand the
different levels and assigning group passwords reduces reasons for their existence.
cost of maintenance and possible errors as the users' role. d) Review documentation the organization has
developed regarding business continuity processes,
policies, standards and service level agreements.
Determine if the processes are adequately
documented, maintained and communicated to
appropriate personnel.
e) Determine if a Business Continuity Plan exists and
assess the degree to which it has been defined,
documented, tested, maintained and communicated.
f) Determine the degree to which the organization uses
software tools to facilitate Business Continuity
Management processes.
Fig. 5 Steps for designing and implementing a secure plan
Determine what Service Level Agreements are in place
RBAC tools offer interfaces to authorization mechanisms between the function chartered with Business Continuity
for most current platforms in the information technology Management, its various support organizations and other
area. However manufacturing and control systems are business units. Understand what the agreements include
antiquated systems which do not support the new methods and discuss the criteria for determining SLA achievement.
of RBAC. Also the centralized RBAC introduces
additional points of failure that can impact the availability 6.4. Defining Utility Cloud-
of the systems.
We apply to enable secure businesses through Cloud The concept behind defining the utility cloud fig – 6 is to
computing. Our risk based approach deals with these make such a cloud which is only designed for hosting
challenges: various kinds of public services like video conferencing,
a) How to control user from Cloud resources. accessing various TV channels, e-ticketing, various types
b) How to secure the private data. of reservations etc. this cloud will consist the various
c) How to use new technologies. services where a security and privacy is not required and
d) How to use and control the data. people are free utilize the various cloud services at free of
e) How to provide security for confidential data. cost.
f) How to maintain activities for Security models on
Cloud computing.
Combining a sound integrated Security and Privacy
Management with a clear view on the “to-be” architecture
puts us in a unique position to define and execute a
comprehensive security and privacy strategy. The design
and implementation of security and privacy controls in an
integrated manner cover a wide variety of methods that
enable new business models while controlling the risks: Fig. 6 Utility Cloud
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6.5. Defining privacy and Terms & Conditions- information. By providing approach Quality management
systems, quality assurance and verification of conformity
The regulatory landscape for Cloud computing is under we tackle these challenges:
continuous change and will still continue to evolve over a) Determining the needs and expectations of customers
the coming years. As such, contractual provisioning and and interested parties.
Terms & Conditions are key components to seal trust, b) Establishing the quality policy and quality objectives
privacy and service levels in business relationships. The of the organization.
increasing availability of bandwidth allows new c) Determining the processes and responsibilities
combinations and opens new IT perspectives [19]. Our necessary to attain the quality objectives.
team of world renowned lawyers specialized in Data d) determining and providing the resources
Protection, Privacy, information technology law and e) Establishing methods to measure the effectiveness and
outsourcing agreements develops pragmatic contractual efficiency of each process.
templates that protect the business relationship. f) Applying these measures to determine the
Additionally, we help government agencies and companies effectiveness and efficiency of each process.
in data protection notifications for local data protection g) Determining means of preventing nonconformities
authorities regarding the collection and use of personal and eliminating their causes.
identifiable information. h) Establishing and applying a process for continual
We have extensive experience in dealing with such issues: improvement of the quality management system
a) Sensitivity of entrusted information.
b) Localization of information and applicable law
c) User access rights to information 7. CONCLUSIONS
d) Cross border and third party data transfers
e) Externalization of privacy Cloud providers need to safeguard the privacy and
f) Workable contractual rules with privacy implications security of personal data that they hold on behalf of
organizations and users [1]. Responsible management of
6.6 Managing risks and regulatory compliance- personal data is a central part of creating the trust that
underpins adoption of cloud based services – without trust,
Risk management framework is one of security customers will be reluctant to use cloud-based services.
assessment tool to reduction of threats and vulnerabilities We have analyzed the trusted computing in the cloud
and mitigates security risks [20].The risk management computing environment and the function of trusted
industry spans all other industries. A quick internet search computing platform in cloud computing. The advantages
shows risk management associated with insurance, of our proposed approach are to extend the trusted
banking, financial services, IT, mining, environmental computing technology into the cloud computing
management, human resources, medicine, travel, forestry, environment to achieve the trusted computing
asset management, energy, construction, sports, requirements for the cloud computing and then fulfill the
pharmaceuticals; basically risk management spans all of trusted cloud computing.
society. Despite this wide-spread referencing, the most The importance of trust varies from organization to
common association is between risk and insurance and/or organization, depending on the data’s value. Furthermore,
financial services. Issues like: the less trust an enterprise has in the cloud provider, the
a) Risks are effectively identified and evaluated. more it wants to control its data—even the technology.
b) Risk management processes are both effective and However, it’s crucial that consumers and providers change
efficient. their mindsets. Trusting cloud computing might differ
c) Key risks are appropriately reviewed and reliably from trusting other systems, but the goal remains the
reported to those who need to know same—improve business and remain competitive by
d) While increasing attention is being paid to improving exploiting the benefits of a new technology. Any new
effectiveness, many companies are looking both to technology must gradually build its reputation for good
improve efficiencies and reduce the costs of effective performance and security, earning users’ trust over time.
governance, risk, and compliance activities. We will make more protocol to provide high security for
Security management, Business continuity management,
6.7 Approach for quality assurance and conformity Identity & access management, Privacy & data protection
with requirements- and application Integrity in the future.
Board members and management seek assurance that

their IT investment in Cloud computing does not
jeopardize the confidential nature of critical business
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Security in Cloud Computing: A Notion Towards is working with Jaypee University of Information Technology,
Solan (H.P)-India. He is a member of International Association of
Innovation”, in 2010 IEEE/IFIP 8th International
Engineers(IAENG) and its societies of Data Mining and Computer
Conference on Embedded and Ubiquitous Computing Science. His area of research is related to Knowledge Discovery in
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privacy preserving in Cloud computing”, in 2009 Vivek Kumar Sehgal He has achieved his M.Tech degree from
International Conference on Test and Measurement, NSIT, Delhi and Ph.D degree from Uttrakhand Technical University,
2009,pp. 213-216. Dehradun . Currently he is working with Jaypee University of
[11] Gansen Zhao Chunming Rong Jin Li Feng Zhang Yong Information Technology, Solan, H.P-India. He has a membership of
various technical bodies including IEEE,ACM,IAENG . His areas
Tang, “Trusted Data Sharing over Untrusted Cloud Storage of interest include embedded processor architecture, hardware
Providers” in 2010 IEEE Second International Conference software co-design, smart sensors and soft computing for chip
on Cloud Computing Technology and Science (CloudCom), design.
Nov 30 – Dec 3, 2010, pp. 97-103.
[12] Reilly, D. Wren and C. Berry, “Cloud computing: Forensic Durg Singh Chauhan He did his B.Sc Engg.(1972) in electrical
challenges for law enforcement”, in 2010 International engineering at I.T. B.H.U., M.E. (1978) at R.E.C. Tiruchirapalli (
Madras University ) and Ph.D. (1986) at IIT/Delhi. His brilliant
Conference on Internet Technology and Secured career brought him to teaching profession at Banaras Hindu
Transactions (ICITST), Nov. 2010, pp. 1-7. University where he was Lecturer, Reader and then has been
[13] Li-qin Tian , Chuang Lin and Yang Ni, “Evaluation of user Professor till today. He has been director KNIT sultanpur in 1999-
behavior trust in cloud computing”, in 2010 International 2000 and founder vice Chancellor of U.P.Tech. University (2000-
Conference on Computer Application and System Modeling 2003-2006). Later on, he has served as Vice-Chancellor of Lovely
(ICCASM),Nov 4, 2010, pp. V7-567-V7-562. Profession University (2006-07) and Jaypee University of
Information Technology (2007-2009) Currently he has been serving
[14] Xiao-Yong Li , Li-Tao Zhou ,Yong Shi and Yu Guo, “A as Vice-Chancellor of Uttarakhand Technical University.
trusted computing environment model in cloud
architecture”, in 2010 International Conference on Machine P.K. Gupta graduated in Informatics and Computer Engineering
Learning and Cybernetics (ICMLC), July 2010, Volume 6, from Vladimir State University, Vladimir, Russia, in 1999 and
pp. 2843-2848. received his M.E. degree in Informatics & Computer Engineering in
www.IJCSI.org 421
2001 from the same university. He has been associated with

academics more than ten years in different institutions like BIT
M.Nagar, RKGIT Ghzaiabad. Currently he is working as Senior
Lecturer with the Department of Computer Science and
Engineering, Jaypee University of Information Technology,
Waknaghat, Solan(HP), India. He is also pursuing his Ph.D. from
JUIT Solan. He has supervised a number of
B.Tech/M.Tech/M.Phil. theses from various universities of India.
His research interests include Storage Networks, Green
Computing, Software Testing, and Communication. P.K. Gupta is a
Member of IEEE, Life Member of CSI and Life member of Indian
Science Congress Association.
Manoj Diwakar He did his B.Tech degree from UPTU-

Uttrar Pardesh Technical University and M.Tech from MITS,
Gwalior. Currently he is working with Mody Institute of
Technology & Science, Sikar (Raj.)-India. His areas of
research include mobile and distributed computing.
www.IJCSI.org 421
An Efficient Paging Algorithm for Multi-Carrier CDMA System

Sheikh Shanawaz Mostafa1, Khondker Jahid Reza2 , Gazi Maniur Rashid3, Muhammad Moinuddin4, Md. Ziaul Amin5 and
Abdullah Al Nahid6
1,2,3,4,5,6
Electronics and Communication Engineering Discipline, Khulna University,
Khulna-9208, Bangladesh.
Abstract In CDMA system, an MS accesses the system on a

To cope with the increasing demand of wireless communication particular carrier frequency [10]. A single carrier
services multi-carrier systems are being used. Radio resources frequency occupies 1.25MHz bandwidth contains seven
are very limited and efficient usages of these resources are paging channels. When a carrier reaches its capacity limit,
inevitable to get optimum performance of the system. Paging it is desirable to increase the system capacity. One way of
channel is a low-bandwidth channel and one of the most
important channels on which system performance depends
achieving this is to increase the number of carriers to
significantly. Therefore it is vulnerable to even moderate greater than one. When more than one carrier is used then,
overloads. In this paper, an efficient paging algorithm, the system is referred to as multi-carrier system.
Concurrent Search, is proposed for efficient use of paging
channel in Multi- carrier CDMA system instead of existing In existing multi carrier system, an MS is capable of
sequential searching algorithm. It is shown by the simulation that tuning to only one of the carrier frequencies at any instant
the paging performance in proposed algorithm is far better than of time. Because of this, the MS is only listening to one of
the existing system. the carrier frequency paging channels at a time. In order to
Keywords: Absorbing Markov Chain, Concurrent Search, page an MS, the paging message must be sent on the
Erlang C Formula, Multi-Carrier, Paging. paging channels of all of the carrier frequencies to ensure
that it is sent on the paging channel the MS is listening to.
To do this the paging message must be duplicated for each
1. Introduction of the paging channels on which the message is to be sent
In order to deliver services to a Mobile Station (MS) the [10]. The existing system can’t search more than seven
cellular network must be able to track MS in the network. users simultaneously. This results in an inefficient
The forward-link communication channels are used to utilization of paging channel recourses.
page and transmit system overhead messages to the MS is
called paging channel [1]. In this paper, a concurrent search algorithm is proposed
which can be used to search more than seven users
Efficient utilization of limited resources is required to simultaneously in multiple carriers. The concurrent search
support the growing demands of personal communication algorithm has been used for paging in cells [6]. But the
services. To utilize the paging channel efficiently, many novelty of our paper is the adoption of concurrent search
researchers have been studying different techniques. One algorithm in multiple carrier CDMA system rather then
of the concepts is dividing a location area into paging cells. The system performance has been analyzed by using
zones is described in [8] and [9]. Another research has absorbing Markov chain and Erlang C formula.
proposed to increase paging efficiency-MS will be paged
on the last registered cell and subsequently to other cells in
2. Sequential Search Algorithm
the location area if necessary [4]. A mobility tracking
scheme that combines a movement-based location update This paper focused concurrent search algorithm based on
policy with a selective paging scheme is proposed in [5]. the problem of sequentially locating a number of users.
Suppose there is n number of carriers in the network and k
www.IJCSI.org 422
mobile users to be located. In existing multicarrier CDMA true for proposed carrier concept. From Fig. 1 and Fig. 2,
system a straight forward sequential paging scheme has it is visualized that if the priority is high then the cost
been used to locate user i among k number of users. We (time) is low.
assume that the user must exists in the network so
nj1 P(i, j)  1
 i  {1,2, ...k}. When 1 ≤ c ≤ n where
P(i,j) is the probability of existence of user i in jth carrier.
Whereas F (i,c) is the indicator of finding user and that is
F(i,c)  {0,1} if the ith mobile user has located at the cth
carrier then F(i,c) = 1 elsewhere F(i,c) = 0. To clarify the
existing problem we use simplify algorithm of sequential
search.
Step 0: Initially F(i,c) = 0 where 1 ≤ i ≤ k and 1 ≤ c ≤ n

Step 1: [flood the message]
for all 1 ≤ c ≤ n
Copy and send the paging message for user i
Step:3
If F(i,c) = = 1
exit
Fig. 1 Probability of paging success
This technique requires k*n paging channels by using
concurrent paging scheme it is possible to reduce average
use of paging channels.
Consider an example to demonstrate the effectiveness of

concurrent search scheme. Suppose that there are only two
carriers in the system with same number of users. Among
them two users: X and Y are to be found. Assume that the
system has no previous knowledge about the location of
the users: each user can exist in any of the two carriers
with probability 0.5. Using sequential paging, the system
would page and locate user X to the both carriers in the
first attempt. Then, the system would page and locate user
Y to the both carriers in the second attempt. Thus total of
(2+2) four pages would be required for finding two users.
On the other hand, if the system is to page in the first

attempt user X in carrier 1 and for user Y in carrier 2
Fig. 2 Cost (time) of paging
simultaneously, then there is 50% probability that any of
the two users would be found in the first attempt. If a user
Y is not found at first attempt, the system would page for
It is assumed that the mobile users do not move to other
the user in the “other” carrier in the second attempt. Thus,
carriers during searching. Terms used in probability
(2+1) 3 paging messages are needed for the two users. On
algorithm are P (i,j) be the probability that a mobile user i
the average, 1.5 pages would be required per user, a
is in carrier j. When a call to mobile user i arrives,
saving of 25% over the sequential paging.
generally assumed that P(i,j) > 0  i  {1,2,3.....k}, j 
{1,2,....n}. If the total number of users in jth carrier is Uj
3. Concurrent Search Algorithm then probability P ( i , j ) 
U j
, and nj1 P(i, j)  1
n
The proposed concurrently searching algorithm for  U c
c 1
locating ith user in n carriers is described here. To
minimize the paging cost, a methodology is described in
 i  {1,2, ...k}. When 1 ≤ c ≤ n S(i,c)  {0,1}, if the ith
mobile user has not located at the cth carrier then S(i,c) = 0
[7], it is stated that the higher probability of finding users
elsewhere S(i,c) = 1,where 1 ≤ i ≤ k . And the matrix Bi[c]
must be paged before the lower probability. This is also
www.IJCSI.org 423
stores up to date priority information about carrier for 4. Performance Evaluation

paging. Which can be found from the probabilistic
information P(i,j) by using any sorting algorithm. For analyzing the performance, consider there are two
carriers in the system. So that, for CDMA system there are
The proposed concurrent search algorithm is 14 (2*7) paging channels. Let, carrier 1 has M number of
presented as follows. users and carrier 2 has N number of users so the total
Step 0: Initially, S(i,c) = 0, for all 1 ≤ i ≤ k number of users in the system is M+N. Probability of
Step 1: [Initializing carrier] 
set c = 1 finding a particular user in carrier 1 is  and in
Step 2: [Carrier Choice] 
(a) If B i [c]  0 and B i [c] is free then perform step carrier 2 is  . If the system first paged at carrier 1 for
3 to page mobile user i in the carrier c. the desired user then the state diagram will be like Fig. 3
(b) else if c+1 ≤ n
set c = c+1 and go to step 2
(c) else if c+1 > n and
then go to step1
(d) else go to step 4
Step 3: [Page]
(a) if S(i ,c) = = 1
go to step 4
(b) else set Bi[c] = S(i,c), c = c+1 and go to step 2
Step 4: exit
Here are some remarks related to above algorithm.

Step 0, the initial states, S(i,c) = 0,which represents
no MS has been located yet.
In step 1, the 1st carrier is chosen among the ‘n’
number of the carriers from priority array of Bi[c].
In step 2(a), paging message will be sent (actually
goes to step 3) if and only if c is not paged yet and c is
free. Here it should be noted that, if the user is not found
in that particular carrier is assigned that carrier Bi[c] as 0
to obstruct multiple page on the same carrier. Fig. 3 State Diagram
In step 2(b), if step 2(a) is not satisfied then next
carrier number will be checked if it is less than or equal In Fig. 3, if the user is succeeded in the 1st carrier, then
total number of carrier. Again step 2 will be performed. goes to 1st Abs state with the probability  . But if the

In step 2(c), if the highest number of carrier is
user is not succeeded at 1st Carrier then it goes to 2nd
exceeded and all the carriers are paged then the system
goes to step 2(d). Otherwise step 1 will be performed. Carrier with a probability  . As it is assumed earlier

Step 2(d) will be performed when 2(a) or 2(b) or 2(c) that the desired user must be present in the system, so user
steps are not satisfied. must be succeeded in the 2nd Carrier. Then the probability
of going from 2nd Carrier to 2nd Absorbing state is 1. Here,
In step 3, paging procedure is mainly processed.
1st Abs and 2nd Abs are the absorbing state which mean
In step 3(a), if the desired user is found then S(i,c) is that the paging request no longer in the system. A user
set to 1. request goes to outside of the system through these states.
In step 3(b), if the desired user is not found then So the canonical form of the state diagram is.
S(i,c) is copied to Bi[c]and carrier is increased by 1.
System goes to step 2 again.
In step 4, exit.
www.IJCSI.org 424
5. Simulation
C1 C2 st nd
1 Abs 2 Abs
For two carriers service rate of sequential search is
C1  0 N M 
 0  s   where the service rate of concurrent search
M N M N
P  st
C 2 0 0 0 1 is  c  1.5 .Here  is the service rate of single carrier.
1 Abs  0  The is the blocking probability can be compared by Eq. (2)
0 1 0 (Fig 4) and other performance parameter like average wait
2 nd Abs  0
 0 0 1  time for all users, average wait time for delayed users,
average service time in the system can be analyzed by Eq.
(3) (Fig 6), Eq. (4) (Fig 5) and Eq.(5) (Fig 6) sequentially.
It is assumed that the user spends a unit time in single
carrier. The average paging (service) time that the user
stays in the service can be calculated by using absorbing
Markov chains [2]. That is 1  or 2   from
   
which it is realized that M should be always higher than N
(shown in Fig 2.) for reducing the cost (time). There are
seven paging channels of each carrier. So that, greater than
seven users can’t access the 1st carrier simultaneously as a
result they go to 2nd carrier. And their average time will be
 or 2   . The average time a user spends in
1
   
the service can be found by calculating the expected value
of user time which is 1.5 units. The system can be
imagined with 14 parallel servers having queue [12]. Then
its probability that all servers are busy can be found from
Erlang C formula [3], [11] is,
Ac Fig. 4 Probability Comparison of busy channels for two carriers.
Pr[C channels are busy] = (1)
c  C 1  k
  C!(1  ) 
C k 0 k!
Where A is total offered traffic which is   , where λ
is incoming traffic rate and μ is the service rate. C is the
number of parallel servers comparing with proposed
system it is channels. So the probability that all channels
are busy in proposed system for 14 channels is Po
 14 (2)
0 
 13  k
 14  14!(1  )
14 k 0 k!
Average Wait for All users
0
AWA  (3)
  (14  )
Average Wait for Delayed users
1 (4)
AWD 
  (14  ) Fig. 5 Comparison of average wait for delayed users between proposed
and existing system for two carriers.
Average Time in the System
1
  AWA  (5)

www.IJCSI.org 425
References.
[1] Saleh Faruque, Cellular Mobile System Engineering, Artech
House Publishers, New ed., 2007-2008.
[2] Charles M. Grinstead, J. Laurie Snell, Introduction to
Probability, 2nd ed., American Mathematical Society, 1991.
[3] Theodre S. Rappaport, “Wireless Communications”, 2nd ed.,
Prentice-Hall of India, 2002.
[4] G. L. Lyberpoulos, J.G. Markoulidakis, D.V. Polymeros, D.F.
Tsirkas, and E.D. Sykas, “Intelligent paging strategiesfor 3rd
generation mobile telecommunication systems,” IEEE/ACM
Trans. Veh. Technol., vol 44, pp. 573-553, Aug. 1995.
[5] I.F. Akyildiz, J.S. M. Ho, and Y.-B. Lin, “Movement-based
locationupdate and selective paging for PCS networks,”
IEEE /ACM Trans. Networking, vol. 4, pp. 629-638, Aug.
1996.
[6] Rung-Hung Gue and Zygmunt J. Haas “Concurrent Search of
Mobile Users in Cellular Networks”, IEEE/ACM
Transactions on Networking, vol. 12, no. 1, Feb 2004
Fig. 6 Comparison of average waits for all customers between proposed
and existing system for two carriers [7] C. rose and R. Yates, “Minimizing the average cost of paging
under delay constraints,” ACM /Kluwer Wireless Networks,
vol. 1, no.2, pp. 211-219, 1995.
[8] D. Munoz-Podrguez, “Cluster paging for traveling
subscribers,” in IEEE Vehicular Technology Conf. 1990,
May, 6-9, pp. 748-753.
[9] D. Plassmann, “Location management strategies for mobile
cellular networks of 3rd generation,” IEEE Vehicular
Technology Conf., June 1994, pp. 649-653.
[10]William E. Illidge, “CDMA Multiple Carrier Paging Channel
Optimization”, Patent number: US 6,542,752; Date of Patent
Apr. 1, 2003.
[11]Erlang C queuing model (2010) Erlang Library for Excel.
[Online].
Available:http://abstractmicro.com/erlang/helppages/mod-c.htm
[12]CDMA2000 1X paging Optimization Guide, Huawei
Technologies Co., Ltd., 2004.
Sheikh Shanawaz Mostafa completed B.Sc.

Engineering in Electronics and Communication,
from Khulna University-9208, Khulna,
Bangladesh. His current research interests are:
Fig. 7 Comparison of total average time between proposed and existing Wireless communication, Modulation
system for two carriers. techniques and Biomedical signal processing.
He has seven papers, published in different
local and international recognized journal and proceedings of
conference.
6. Conclusions Khondker Jahid Reza is serving as an

Engineer at Advance Data Networks System
The proposed concurrent search algorithm for paging Ltd. He has completed his B.Sc. in Electronics
and Communication Engineering Discipline in
mobile users in CDMA system based on the probabilistic Khulna University, Khulna, Bangladesh. His
information about the carriers. The reduction of using current research interest is wireless
paging channel due to such a concurrent search can be communication, modulation and sensor
quite extensive; shows on simulation results. In the networks. He has two papers, published in
international recognized journal.
proposed system, traffic handling capability is higher with
a little bit sacrifice in servicing time. But this drawback is
also abolished for higher traffic. So the proposed system
will work better in the peak hour with a large incoming
traffic with same resources.
www.IJCSI.org 426
Gazi Maniur Rashid is serving as an RF

Engineer at Metro global Telecom Service Ltd.
He has completed his B.Sc. in Electronics and
Communication Engineering Discipline in Khulna
University, Khulna, Bangladesh. His current
research interest is wireless communication,
modulation techniques, channel coding and
fading. Previously his paper published in an international
recognized journal.
Muhammad Moinuddin is serving as an

Assistant Network Engineer at Dhakacom Ltd.
He has completed his B.Sc. in Electronics and
Communication Engineering Discipline in Khulna
University, Khulna, Bangladesh. His current
research interests are: wireless communication
and various modulation techniques.
Md. Ziaul Amin is currently working as an

Assistant Professor at the Khulna University,
Khulna, Bangladesh. He obtained his B.Sc. in
Electronics and Communication Engineering
from same university. Previously, he worked as
a System Engineer, planning, at RanksTel
Bangladesh Ltd. since 10.11.07 to 08.09.08.
His current research interests are: Digital Signal
Processing and Radio Network Planning. He has three papers,
published in international recognized journal.
Abdullah Al Nahid is now working as a faculty

member of Electronics and Communication
Engineering (ECE) discipline at Khulna
University, Khulna, Bangladesh. He completed
his B.Sc. in ECE from the same university. He is
working in the field of Digital Signal Processing,
Robotics and Communication. He has more
than ten papers, published in different local and international
recognized journal and proceedings of conference.
www.IJCSI.org 427
Coalesce Model to Prevent Format String Attacks

Jayant Shekhar1, Seema Yadav2, Khaleel Ahmad3,
CSE/IT Dept. S.I.T.E., SVSU,

Meerut-250002, India
Abstract
Format string attacks cause serious security problems in the field of reason of passing arguments in not a safe way. Format string
software security in computer world. Testing and implementation attacks can be used locally or remotely [3][8][12][14][20][22].
against to Format String vulnerabilities can avoid result due to Remote format string attacks are wu-ftpd, BSd ftpd, rpc.stat
working of Format String Bugs. In this paper, we have proposed
and local format string attacks are lpr, LPRng, BSD and fstat
eight novel approaches to prevent format string attacks and
combination of these approaches named as Coalesce Model. With the
[8]. Wu-ftpd attacks one of the most widely used on FTP
help of this model we check our coding in such a manner that no any server in computer network security. All attacks program we
type of format string attacks occurs. We check the system find out from the Internet, overwrite the function pointers or
implementation of any applications with the help of coalesce model return address to execute a remote root shell. Format string is
against corruption of application states, and giving the control to also called ASCIIZ or ASCIZ (used to refer a null-terminated
attacker. Our work addresses Format String vulnerabilities related to ASCII string).
ANSI C library. The result indicates that the proposed model is Code for understand the format string problem
effective to testing of Format String Vulnerability.
Keyword: Format function, Software security, Format string Wrong use of printf function
attacks, Vulnerability. Int func (char *employee)
{
printf (employee);
1. Introduction } // this is the unsafe function
Correct form of printf function
Several types of computer security attacks arise from
int func (char *employee)
software bugs. Format string attacks are most important type
{
of buffer overflow attacks in software security. Format string
printf ("%s", employee);
attacks damage our important information or data first time in
} // this printf function gives the safe function
year 2000 in computer world. Format string attacks are also
If the attacker control the format string arguments of a Format
called Variadic functions. Format string attacks are result of
Function in a victim application, it is very easy for attacker to
flexible features of C language by representation of data or
read or write the application address space.
information and use of pointer. Flexible feature of C language
Format string bugs are very dangerous in computer and
give more choices to programmer for system programming
software security. It gives full control to attacker of the
but C language lacks safety and function arguments checking
application to damage our system security. Format string
in the function. Format string function attacks apply to all
attacks can be used to execute harmful or crashing the
format string functions in the C library [3][8][16][19] such as
program [3][6][14]. Format string attacks arises from the same
given in table1.This is possible to declare functions that take
dark corner as many other security holes, means it comes by
variable number of pointers in C and C++ [3][8][9][12][14].
laziness of programming. In format string function there is no
Format string function are also called conversion function,
any single function in the ANSI C definition
which is used to convert primitive data types into a human
[3[6][8][9][12][14][22], there are some basic format string
understandable form [8][12][18][22]. Format string function
functions (family member) [1][6][8][12][14][22][18]which is
is used in any type of C program to giving output message,
given below in table 1 and format function specifier of the
printing error message etc. Format string bugs arise to the
format function are given in table 2.
Table1. Format String Function

www.IJCSI.org 428
S. Format Output of the Format Function Pass as In this example (figure 1) the format string takes two specifier
N. Function (%x and %s) and two arguments (string and integer) which is
1 fprintf Prints output to a File stream Through
copying corresponds by these specifiers (which is integer and string
2 printf Prints output to the stdout stream Through type). Return address which is given by the function is saved
copying followed by the address of format string and arguments of the
3 sprintf Prints output into a String Through function. There are two pointers used to keep track of format
copying
string and arguments. The first position of argument pointer is
4 snprintf Prints output into a String with length Through
checking copying comes after the address of format string.
5 vfprintf Prints output to a File stream from a Through Function of the format string functions [4][6][8][19][21]
va arg structure pointer
6 vprintf Prints output to the stdout stream from Through •convert simple C data types to a string.
a va arg structure pointer • allow specifying the format of the representation
7 vsprintf Prints output into a String from a va Through • process the resulting (system messaging functions) string
arg structure pointer (output to stderr, stdout, syslog, etc).
8 vsnprintf Prints output into a String with length Through
checking from a va arg structure pointer Working of the format string functions [12][14][19][21]
9 syslog Output to the log file Through • It controls the behavior of the function.
copying • It specifies the type of parameters that should be printed as a
10 vsyslog Output to the log file from a va arg Through
structure pointer
output.
11 err Output as a error Through • Parameters of the function are saved on the stack (pushed).
copying
Table2. Specifier of The Function 2. Literature Survey
Parameter Output Passed as to
function Timothy Tsai and Navjot Singh [3] developed a tool Libsafe
%d decimal (int) value that is a shared library tool and used to prevent Format String
%x hexadecimal (unsigned int) value Attacks during runtime of the function. The library intercepts
%s string ((const) (unsigned) char *) reference format function call and check that function safely executed or
%n number of bytes written so far, (* int) reference
%u unsigned decimal (unsigned int) value
not. If a function call does not overwrite the return address of
%% % character(literal) reference the function with %n specifiers, then it is considered as a safe
execution. Otherwise, a warning message is logged and the
%p External representation of pointer to reference
void process is terminated or aborted. This tool is not effective for
many other types of attack that do not overwrite the return
We take a printf Format Function to explain how the format addresses of the function (e.g., arbitrary reading from stack).
string looks in a stack. See figure 1. Crispin Cowan and Greg Kroah-Hartman [10]
developed a Format Guard tool that is more effective to stop
Top of the Stack the format string bugs and does not impose compatibility
problems to functions. FormatGuard is incorporated into
Local variables,
saved registers Format string WireX’s Immunix distribution in Linux and server products.
S
T pointer (fsptr) FormatGuard tool is used to prevent format string bugs during
A %d %s the compilation and linking stages of the format function. This
C tools counts the number of arguments which is passed during
string
K compile time and matches this count to number of the
Argument pointer specifiers of the format string function during program
integer
G runtime. If there is a mismatch occurred then a warning about
R Format string format string attacks is logged and the format function call is
O aborted.
A Return address of Dekok [17] designed a PScan tool to detect format
T format function
string attacks to printf family functions. They give two
H
principles of detecting Format string attacks which are: (i) a
Bottom of the stack format string is not constant and (ii) it is the last argument of a
Figure 1.Stack of printf((“%d %s,” integer ,string) function call. This tool not works for vsprintf family of format
functions.

www.IJCSI.org 429
Li, W. and Chiueh, T.[18], developed Lisbon tool that is carefully to preventing format string, otherwise we invite the
used to protect applications against Format String attacks to Format String Bugs.
insert a canary word at the end of arguments of the format
function; it can really stop known format string attacks to run 3.5-Avoid to fix the length of format string function
time of the applications. (AFLOFoSF)
Robbins, T [22] developed Lib Format tool that is used Not specify any type of length to function such as h, l or L
to detect Format string bugs during runtime. Libformat tool because it takes one type of data types which is declared in
kill the applications if format strings are in writable memory that function. Detailed is given below
and contain %n specifiers. It can’t prevent other attacks
 h- It interpreted the arguments as a short int or un-
related to reading arbitrary memory (e.g., supplying more
signed short int (only applies to integer specifiers: i,
number of specifiers than the arguments).
d, o, u, x and X).
 l- The argument is interpreted as a long int or
3. Novel Approaches Preventing for Format unsigned long int for integer specifiers (i, d, o, u, x
String Attacks and X), and as a wide character or wide character
string for specifiers c and s.
 L- The argument is interpreted as a long double (only
3.1-checking the size of string before using syslog() functions applies to floating point specifiers: e, E, f, g and G).
(CBOSYF)
3.6-Not use format string function without specifier (NUFWS)
This is our first approach to preventing format string attacks.
The syslog() function writes message to the system message This situation occurs when a programmer writes the programs
logger, the message is then written to the system console, log like this printf (str) as a short-hand for
files, logged-in users because syslog() take string as input, but printf (“%s”, str). It is easier to type;
depending on the implementation it does not check the Unfortunately, it is also vulnerable if the attacker inserts
boundary of string before using it. Because of this reason spurious % directives in the str string. So as to remove this
when we use syslog() function, first check the string which is type of problem first we check that arguments of the function
passed to this function, otherwise we invite the FSB. take specifier or not. If checking is true then execute otherwise
aborted this type of application.
3.2- Fix the boundary to sprint() function (FBTSpF)
When we do not check the boundary of the sprintf function, 3.7-Not use conversion specifier without arguments in format
there is more possibilities to format string attacks. So string functions (NUSWArg)
prevention from format string attacks we first check the To understand this problem we take an example such as
boundary of this function.e.g: printf ("%08x.%08x.%08x\n");
Sprint(buffer,errorcommon:%100”,user) not as a This works, because we instruct the printf function to retrieve
Sprint (output,buffer) three parameters from the stack and display them as 8-digit
padded hexadecimal numbers. So a possible output may look
3.3- Check that the number of argument is equal to specifier like: 40012980.080628c4.bffff7a4.
of function (CArgETS) These values comes from the stack memory by the partial
When we pass arguments to any format function then first dump, starting from the current bottom upward to the top of
check that number of arguments is equal to specifier or not, if the stack assuming that the stack grows towards the low
not then there is more possibility to format string attack. Such addresses. Depending on the size of the format string buffer
as sprintf (“%n%d%n”, a, b, c) not as a sprintf(“%n”, a ,b, c) and the size of the output buffer, we can reconstruct more or
less large parts of the stack memory by using this type of
3.4-use %.nd in the place of %nd (%.nd) technique. In some cases you can also retrieve the entire stack
In this approach we clarify that (.n) is the precision that memory. A stack dump gives most important data or secures
specifies the minimum number of digits to be written after the information about the program flow and local function
decimal point, .n is the precision number treated as .n and %d variables and may be very helpful for finding the correct
in function but %nd treated as %n and %d specifier, so it give offsets for a successful exploitation. So when we use format
two specifier for one arguments, it gives invitation to format function then first check that specifier of the function takes
string attacks. For example when we take %.2d, it means 2 arguments or not. If yes then send application to execution
numbers of digits to be printed after the decimal point. So otherwise reject the application.
because of this we always use ( %.nd in the place of %nd) 3.8-Avoid using of % n features (AU%nFer)

www.IJCSI.org 430
In this approach we clarify that n is the function argument approaches, we suggest that to avoid the use of %n directive
treated as a pointer to an integer (or integer variant such as a in format string functions.
short). The number of output characters is stored in the
addresses pointed by the arguments of the function. So, if we 4 - Coalesce Model
specify %n specifier in the format string, then the number of
output characters is written to the location specified by the
arguments of the function. In Coalesce model we combine all eight novel approaches
The result of spurious %n specifier in printf() format which is given in section III to prevent from Format String
strings is that the attacker can “walk” back up the stack some Attacks in a secure way. This model filters all the attacks
number of words by inserting some number of %d directives, which are related to Format String Attacks that means all the
until they reach a suitable word on the stack and treating that vulnerable applications are rejected or aborted and executed
word such as integer in format string. This directive is the only safe functions. So we can say that this model (see in
most dangerous in format string because it induces printf to figure 2) is better to prevent Format String Attacks.
write data back to the argument list. So in our novel
S
A 1‐CBOSYF Novel Approaches A
T F
T E
A 1-Sprintf (output,buffer)
2‐FBTSPF Rejected functions
C [
F
2-printf ("%08x.%08x.") 1‐ Sprintf
K U
E (output,buffer)
3-Sprintf 3‐CArgETS N
R 2-printf
(buffer,errorcommon:%100 ("%08x.%08x.") C
”,user) 5-sprintf(“%n,”a,b,c) T
I 4‐U%.nd I
N 6-printf(str)
4-sprint(“%n%d%n”, a ,b, O
P N
U c) 5‐AFLOFoSF
Input Output
T Accepted functions E
5- sprintf(“%n”, a ,b, c) [
X
F 6‐NUFWS 3‐ Sprintf
E
U 6- printf(str) (buffer,errorcommon:
C
N %
U
C 7-printf 7‐NUSWArg 100”, user)
T
T (“%08x.%08x.”&a,&b) 4-sprintf
E
I (“%n%d%n,”a,b,c)
8‐AU%nFer D
O 8- printf(“%s”, str) 7-printf
N ("%08x.%08x."&a,&b)
Figure 2- Coalesce Model for Preventing Format String Attacks
5- Comparisons of Coalesce Model with other Tool That Prevent Format String Attacks
TABLE3. COMPARISON OF COALESCE MODEL WITH OTHER PREVENTION TOOLS

www.IJCSI.org 431
Tool/ Work Both Families Prevent to Stack Prevent to Stack Prevent to Check the Check the
covered(Printf and read write Argument Specifier Specifier
vsprintf) retrieve width mismatch
Libsafe[3] tool Yes No Yes No No No
FormatGaurd[10] tool No Yes Yes No No No
PScan tool[17] tool No Yes Yes No No No
Lisbon[18] tool Yes Yes Yes No No No
Libformat [19] tool Yes No Yes No No No

Coalesce model Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
ACM conference on Computer and communication security ACM Press,

November 7–11-2005.
[2] S. Nanda, W. Li, L. chung Lam, and T. cker Chiueh, “Bird: Binary
6 –CONCLUSION interpretation using runtime disassembly,” In Proceedings of the 4th
IEEE/ACM Conference on Code Generation and Optimization (CGO’06),
Format String Bugs depth analyses report and the March 2006.
[3] Tsai, T., and Singh, N., “Libsafe 2.0: Detection of format string vulnerability
corresponding source code of the applications drive the
exploits,” Technical report, Avaya Labs,February 2001. version 3-21-
development of Coalesce Models to depict and reason about 01,PP.1-5.
software security vulnerability of the applications .Format [4] Security Team. Pfinger format string vulnerability http://www .securiteam
string attacks are dangerous and most important security .com/unixfocus/ 6K00N1P3FQ.html.
vulnerabilities that appeared in Year 2000 and continue to be a [5] Security Focus. Proftpd shutdown message format string vulnerability.
http://www.security focus . com/ bid/14381/info.
major cause of software vulnerabilities. This work proposed [6] US-CERT. Format string input validation error in wuftpd site exec()
Coalesce model to testing of Format String Bugs that gives the function. http://www.kb.cert.org vuls/id/29823.
safe function execution. The problem of testing which is [7] Shuo Chen, Zbigniew Kalbarczyk, Jun Xu, Ravishankar and K. Iyer, “ A
observed in the extensive survey of the related work provided Data-Driven Finite State Machine Model for Analyzing Security
Vulnerabilities,” Center for Reliable and High-Performance Computing
in this paper is not come under the Coalesce model. Coalesce Coordinated Science Laboratory University of Illinois at Urbana-
Model is one of the most effective Model for defending Champaign 1308 W. Main Street, Urbana, IL 61801
against format string attacks. By applying our proposed [8] Andreas thuemmel, “Analysis of format string bugs,” a.thuemmel@web.dc-
model, an implementation can be tested for any type of version 1.0, Format String Buggs and SITE EXEC exploit against wu-ftpd
on 15-02-2001.
Format String Bugs. So with the help of this Model the [9] Hossain Shahriar and Mohammad Zulkernine, “ Mutation-based Testing of
coming bugs can be reject or aborted and the loss comes by Format String Bugs,” School of Computing Queen’s University, Kingston,
end user can be prevented. This Model reject the Format Ontario, Canada, In proceeding of the 11th IEEE High Assurance Systems
String Bugs in the source code of the applications which may Engineering Symposium in 2008,page no.229-238.
[10] Crispin Cowan, Matt Barringer, Steve Beattie, and Greg Kroah- Hartman,
lead various types of vulnerability such as arbitrary reading, “FormatGuard: Automatic Protection From printf Format String
writing , application crash and direct parameter access of the Vulnerabilities,” WireX Communications, Inc. published in the preceeding
stack and heap memory. Coalesce Model check both ( printf, Of the USENIX security Symposium in 15-August-2001, Washington Dc.
vprintf) of Format Family Functions. [11] Lap-chung Lam and Tzi-cker Chiueh, “ Automatic Extraction of Accurate
Application Specific Sandboxing Policy,” Networks, Inc. 99 Mark Tree
RD, Suite 301, Centereach NY 11720, USA
7. FUTURE WORK [12] Scut / team teso, “Exploiting Format String Vulnerabilities,” September 1,
2001 version 1.2.Accessed from http:/doc.bughunter.net/Format-
String/exploit-fs.html.
Computer vulnerabilities corrupt our important data or steal [13] Pankaj Kohli and Bezawada Bruhadeshwar, “FormatShield: A Binary
Rewriting Defense against Format String Attacks,” Centre for Security
confidential information such as user ID and Password of the Theory and Algorithmic Research (C-STAR) International Institute of
system user; so we think that our future work is to design and Information Technology Hyderabad,Spinger ACISP 2008,LNCS 5107 page
implement finite state machine to prevent Format String no. 376-390.
attack. With the help of this Finite State Machine we improve [14] Format String Attacks, Tim Newsham, Guardent Digital Infrastructure,
Inc.September 2000.
our security performance and software vulnerability. [15] Fang Yu, Muath Alkhalaf and Tevfik Bultan “Generating Vulnerability
Signatures for String Manipulating Programs Using Automata-based
Forward and Backward Symbolic Analyses,” 2009 IEEE/ACM
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1366/09,PP 605-609.
[16] Shuo Chen, Jun Xu, and Ravishankar K. Iyer “Non-Control-Data Attacks
[1] M. F. Ringenburg and D. Grossman, “Preventing format string attacks via Are Realistic Threats,” Center of Reliable and High Performance
automatic and efficient dynamic checking,” In Proceedings of the 12th

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Computing Cordinated Science Laboratory, University of Illinois at [20] ITS4: Software Security Tool, Accessed from http: //www.
Urbana-Champaign,1308 W. cigital.com/its4/.
[17] DeKok,A., “Pscan (1.2-8) Format string security checker for C files”, [21] Silva, A., “Format Strings,” Gotfault Security Community, Version 2.5,
http://packages.debian.org/ etch/ pscan(Accessed January 2008) Nov 2005, Accessed from http://www.milw0rm.com/papers/5 (April 2008).
[18] Li, W. and Chiueh, T., “Automated Format String Attack Prevention for [22] Robbins, T., Libformat, http://archives.neohapsis.com/ archives
Win32/X86 Binaries”, In proceedings of the 23rd Annual Computer /linux/lsap/2000-q3/0444.html (Accessed January 2008)
Security Applications Conference (ACSAC), Miami, December 2007, pp.
398-409.
[19] The Shellcoder handbook,2nd edition, discovering and exploiting security
holes.

www.IJCSI.org 433
Applying Genetic Algorithm for Prioritization of Test Case

Scenarios Derived from UML Diagrams
Sangeeta Sabharwal, Ritu Sibal and Chayanika Sharma
Department of computer Science and IT
Netaji Subhas Institute of Technology
Delhi, India

Abstract applied in many optimization problems for generating test
Software testing involves identifying the test cases which
plans for functionality testing, feasible test cases and in
discover errors in the program. However, exhaustive testing of many other areas [6], [7]. GA has also been used in model
software is very time consuming. In this paper, a technique is based test case generation [2], [5]. Various techniques
proposed to prioritize test case scenarios by identifying the have been proposed for generating test data/test cases
critical path clusters using genetic algorithm. The test case automatically using GA in structural testing [3], [4]. GA
scenarios are derived from the UML activity diagram and state has also been applied in the regression testing, object
chart diagram. The testing efficiency is optimized by applying oriented unit testing as well as in the black box testing for
the genetic algorithm on the test data. The information flow the automatic generation of the test cases [5], [6], [11].
metric is adopted in this work for calculating the information
flow complexity associated with each node of the activity Unified modelling language (UML) is the de-facto
diagram and state chart diagram. If the software requirements standard for modelling object – oriented software systems.
change, the software needs to be modified and this requires re – UML provides diagrams to represent the static as well as
testing of the software. Hence, to take care of requirements the dynamic behaviour of a system [16]. Class, component
change, a stack based approach for assigning weights to the and deployment diagrams are used to represent the static
nodes of activity diagram and state chart diagram has also been
proposed. In this paper, we have extended our previous work of
behaviour of the system whereas activity, sequence and
generating test case scenarios from activity diagram by also state diagrams are used to represent the dynamic
considering the concurrent activities in nested activity diagram. behaviour. UML Activity diagram shows the activities of
the object, so the operations can be realized in the design
Keywords: software testing, genetic algorithm, activity stage itself [17].
diagram, state chart diagram, CFG, SDG, test case
In this paper, we have proposed a technique for
prioritization of test case scenarios derived from activity
diagram and state chart diagram of UML using the concept
1. INTRODUCTION of basic information flow (IF) metric, stack and GA. The
paper presents the extended work of our previous work
Software testing is one of the major and primary [18]. In this paper, as extension to our previous work we
techniques for achieving high quality software. Software propose a technique for generating test cases from state
testing is done to detect presence of faults, which cause chart diagram and nested activity diagrams wherein
software failure. However, software testing is a time concurrent activities are also occurring. The paper is
consuming and expensive task [1], [3]. It consumes almost divided into 6 sections. Section 2 describes the basic
50% of the software system development resources [2], structure of GA. In section 3, our proposed approach is
[3], [9]. Testing can be done either manually or discussed while section 4 and section 5 describe the test
automatically by use of testing tools. It is found that case scenarios derived from nested activity diagram and
automated software testing is better than manual testing. state chart diagram. Section 6 concludes the paper and
However, very few test data generation tools are gives an overview of our future work.
commercially available today [4].
Evolutionary testing is an emerging methodology for
automatically producing high quality test data [11].
Genetic algorithms (GA) are well known form of the 2. GENETIC ALGORITHM
evolutionary algorithms conceived by John Holland in
United States during late sixties [10], [12]. GA has been In the past, evolutionary algorithms have been applied in
many real life problems. GA is one such evolutionary
algorithm. GA has emerged as a practical, robust

www.IJCSI.org 434
optimization technique and search method. A GA is a 3. PROPOSED APPROACH

search algorithm that is inspired by the way nature evolves
species using natural selection of the fittest individuals. This section illustrates the details of our proposed
approach for test case prioritization using GA. The
The possible solutions to the problem being solved are approach uses nested activity diagram and state chart
represented by a population of chromosomes. A diagram for deriving the test case scenarios. Activity
chromosome is a string of binary digits and each digit that diagram depicts the functional view of the system by
makes up a chromosome is called a gene. This initial modelling the flow of control from one activity to another.
population can be totally random or can be created An activity represents an operation that results in the
manually using processes such as greedy algorithm. The change of the state in the system. In activity diagram, the
pseudo code of a basic algorithm for GA is as follows nodes represent activities. The main constructs used in the
[18]:- activity diagrams are shown in Fig.1.
Initialize (population)
Evaluate (population)
While (stopping condition not satisfied)
{
Selection (population)
Crossover (population)
Mutate (population)
Evaluate (population)
}
Fig. 1 Main Constructs used in Activity Diagram
A GA uses three operators on its population which are
described below:-
 Selection: A selection scheme is applied to determine

how individuals are chosen for mating based on their
fitness. Fitness can be defined as a capability of an
individual to survive and reproduce in an
environment. Selection generates the new population
from the old one, thus starting a new generation. Each
chromosome is evaluated in present generation to
determine its fitness value. This fitness value is used
to select the better chromosomes from the population
for the next generation.
 Crossover or Recombination: After selection, the

crossover operation is applied to the selected
chromosomes. It involves swapping of genes or
sequence of bits in the string between two individuals. Fig. 2 Main Constructs used in State Chart Diagram
This process is repeated with different parent
individuals until the next generation has enough For the purpose of test case generation, the activity
individuals. After crossover, the mutation operator is diagram is converted into a control flow graph (CFG)
applied to a randomly selected subset of the where each node represents an activity and the edges of
population. the flow graph depict the control flow of the activities.
In our work, we have also derived the test cases form the
 Mutation: Mutation alters chromosomes in small state chart diagram. The main constructs used in the state
ways to introduce new good traits. It is applied to chart diagram are shown in Fig.2. The event with guard
bring diversity in the population. condition and action generates a new state. The state chart
diagram is converted into an intermediate graph called as
State Dependency Graph (SDG) for test case generation.

www.IJCSI.org 435
Path testing involves generating a set of paths from CFG increases the cost of modifying the node also
or SDG that will cover every branch in the program and increases.
finding the set of test case scenarios that will traverse
In the Basic IF model [15], information flow metrics
every activity or state in these scenarios. It may be very
are applied to the components of system design. In
tedious, expensive and time consuming to achieve this
our work, the component is taken as a node in the
goal due to various reasons. For example, there can exist
CFG and SDG. The IF is calculated for each node of a
infinite paths when a CFG or SDG have loops. In our
CFG and SDG. For example, the IF of node A i.e. IF
approach we propose to find the critical path that must be
(A) is calculated using equation given below:-
tested first using the concept of IF metric, stack and GA.
While finding the path we are ensuring that every loop is IF ( A)  [ FANIN ( A )  FANOUT ( A )] (1)
traversed at most once.
Where FANIN (A) is the count of the number of other
3.1 Procedure nodes that can call, or pass control to node A and
FANOUT (A) is the number of nodes that are called
If requirements change, the software needs to be by node A. The IF is calculated for each node of a
redesigned to comply with the software specification CFG and SDG. The weighted nodes in the path are
before the implementation phase. During requirement summed together and the complexity of each path is
engineering, addition or deletion of user requirements calculated.
causes changes in the activity diagram as well as state
chart diagram where the action or states are directly Therefore, the sum of the weight of a node by stack
derived from user requirements. If right changes are not based weight assignment approach and IF complexity
taken care during the requirement phase then they are contributes to the total weight of a node of CFG and
carried over to the implementation phase where effort, SDG.
time and resources are unnecessarily wasted in correcting c) Selection: - The decision nodes of the CFG and SDG
the user requirements change. form the chromosome. A chromosome or test data
We take care of the issue of requirements change by will therefore be a binary string where a single bit or
prioritizing the nodes of CFG and SDG using the stack multiple bits in a string will correspond to a decision
based memory allocation approach and IF metrics. In the node of the graph. Number of bits in the chromosome
stack based memory allocation approach, the data or info will depend upon the number of decision nodes and
is pushed or popped only at one end called top of stack. the type of graph being used. For example, in CFG if
The stack uses last in first out (LIFO) approach. Node there are four decision nodes, a four bit binary string
pushed first is removed last from the stack. The top is will form a chromosome or an individual in the
incremented when node is inserted and decremented when population. The fitness value of each chromosome is
node is deleted. calculated by applying the stack based weight
assignment approach and Basic IF model. The
The stack based memory allocation approach is explained chromosomes with high fitness value are selected as
with an illustration in section 4 and section 5 respectively. the parents for the reproduction. The fitness value of
Thus the steps involved in identifying the critical path each chromosome is calculated by using the formula
clusters for an activity and state chart diagram are as given below:-
follows:- n
a) Convert the activity diagram into CFG and state chart F  i 1

wi
(2)
diagram into SDG respectively.
th
Where, wi is weight of i node in a path under
b) Assign the weights to the nodes of CFG or SDG as
consideration and n is number of nodes in a current
the case may be, by using stack based weight
path. Weight of ith node is the sum of IF complexity
assignment approach and the Basic IF Model.
and stack based complexity given by equation given
In the proposed stack based memory allocation below.
technique, for the nodes of the CFG or SDG each
node is assigned a weight, w based on number of wi  IF (i )  STACKBASEDWEIGHT (i ) (3)
operations to access element in the stack. But to d) Crossover: - There are number of techniques of
access or modify the node (data), we have to pop all crossover, but all require swapping of genes or
the data above it. Higher the number of operations sequence of bits in the chromosome. It involves
required to access the node, higher is the weight and swapping between two individuals or test data in our
hence the complexity of the node. If the weight of the case. In our work, we assume the probability of
node or number of operations to access the node crossover is taken as 80% [3]. The random number r
is generated from 0 to 1. Crossover is done if r < 0.8

www.IJCSI.org 436
condition is satisfied. This follows from our

ALGORITHM 1 assumption that crossover probability should be 80%.
e) Mutation:-Mutation is done to introduce new traits or
1. Convert the activity diagram into CFG. bring diversity in the population to avoid the local
optima. In mutation the bits are flipped from 0 to 1
2. Use the decision nodes to generate the test data and vice versa. In our work, we assume the
or chromosome population randomly. probability of mutation as 20%. The random number
is generated from 0 to 1. If r < 0.2 condition is
3. . for each test data i = 1....n , satisfied, then the bits of the test data are mutated
randomly.
a) Traverse the CFG by applying Depth first
search (DFS) as well as Breadth first search The algorithm for our proposed approach to generate test
(BFS) and identify the paths. scenarios for activity diagram and state chart diagram is
shown in Fig.3 and Fig.5 respectively while the weight
(i) Find the neighbour node for the current assignment algorithm is shown in Fig.4.
node having next higher depth di by
applying DFS.
ALGORITHM 2
(ii) For each concurrent node, ci traverse the
next neighbour node having next higher 1. for each activity node ai , i = 1...n ,
breadth value, bi.
(iii) Update the top pointer, size s and k of the a) Push nodes of CFG on the stack using
Stack. DFS and BFS approach.
(iv) Assign weight, w to each node by applying b) Determine the maximum size, smax of
weight assignment algorithm. the stack.
b) Calculate the fitness value of each test
data by using equation (2) and stack based c) for i = 1 to smax , assign w = smax – k
weight assignment approach. to each node of the CFG, where smax is
maximum size of stack and k is
c) For sub activity of each node calculate the number of nodes above current node.
fitness value using 80-20 rule and by using
equation (2). d) for each decision node, di
d) Select initial test data by ranking the
fitness of the chromosomes. (i) Assign the same weight, w to
branching nodes.
e) If initial population is not enough randomly (ii) Insert the next neighbour nodes of
generate them. branching nodes and update top.
(iii) Neglect the branching nodes and
If r < 0.8, perform crossover decision nodes that have been
Else if r < 0.2, perform mutation
inserted previously.
end if
end if end
end
e) Assign same weight, w to concurrent
4. If test data for all the paths have not been nodes .
covered, then repeat the GA process. end
5. Else end system
Fig. 4 Algorithm for the weight assignment
Fig. 3 Proposed Algorithm for generating test scenarios from the

activity diagram

www.IJCSI.org 437
4. TEST CASE SCENARIOS DERIVED

ALGORITHM 3 FROM ACTIVITY DIAGRAM
In this section we will explain our approach by taking the
1. Convert the state chart diagram into SDG. activity diagram of a shipping order system (Fig.6). The
activity diagram is converted into CFG as shown in Fig.7.
2. Use the fork nodes in SDG to generate the In this case study we have taken nested activity diagram
test data or chromosome population that also takes into account concurrency among action
randomly. nodes.
3. for each test data i = 1.... n ,
a) Traverse the SDG by applying Depth

first search (DFS).
(i) Find the neighbour node for the current

node having next higher depth d by
applying DFS.
(ii) Update the top pointer ,size s and k of

the stack, where k is number of nodes
above the current node.
(iii) Assign weight, w to the node by

applying the weight assignment
algorithm.
b) Calculate the fitness value of each test

data by using equation (2) and stack
based weight assignment approach.
c) Select initial test data by ranking the

fitness of the chromosomes.
d) If initial population is not enough

randomly generate them.
If r < 0.8, perform crossover

Else if r < 0.2, perform mutation
end if
end if
end
4. If test data for all the paths have not been

covered, then repeat the GA process.
5. Else end system

Fig. 6 Activity diagram of shipping order system
In Fig.7, the fork node 10 shows concurrency between

Fig. 5 Proposed Algorithm for generating test scenarios from state chart nodes 11 and 12 whereas the fork node 17 shows
diagram concurrency between node 18 and 19 nodes respectively.
The concurrent nodes are shown as rounded rectangles in
Fig.7.

www.IJCSI.org 438
For Fig.7, the stack based weight assignment to all nodes The sum of stack based priority number (A) and the IF
of CFG is shown in Fig.8. The maximum size of stack is complexity of each node (B) is equal to the total
smax = 18. The initial node of CFG i.e. node 1 is pushed complexity of each node.
first hence the weight, w for node 1 is smax – k i.e. 18 – 0=
18 where smax is maximum size of stack and k is number of In this example, we have taken the nested activity for
nodes before the lowest node i.e. number of nodes before modify order. The nested activity diagram includes the
node 1. Similarly the priority for node 2 is 17 and node 3 fork and merges nodes. The Fig.9 shows the nested sub
is 16. The complexity of node 1 is highest i.e. 18. activity diagram of Modify Order shown in Fig.6. The
Therefore, making changes to node 1 will require the Fig.10 has one fork and merge node showing the
highest number of operations to access it. concurrency among the nodes. The corresponding CFG for
Fig.9 is shown in Fig.10.
Top
Nodes K Size, s Weight, w =

smax – k
22 17 18 18-17=1
21 16 17 18-16=2
20 15 16 18-15=3
22 19 14 15 18-14=4
21 18 13 14 18-13=5
13 or 17 12 13 18-12=6
16 11 12 18-11=7
15 10 11 18-10=8
14 9 10 18-9=9
11 22 8 9 18-8=10
12 or 22 21 7 8 18-7=11
10 or 21 9 or 13 6 7 18-6=12
7 8 5 6 18-5=13
5 or 6 4 5 18-4=14
Fig. 7 CFG of Activity diagram of shipping order system
4 3 4 18-3=15
Now as clear from Fig. 7, there are four decision nodes
namely 4, 7, 8 and 16 which will form the chromosome in
3 2 3 18-2=16
our case. Therefore, corresponding to the chromosome
value 0000 the decision nodes i.e. 4, 7, 8 and 16 will 2 1 2 18-1=17
evaluate to false condition. The path to be followed using
this chromosome value is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 13, 21, 22. The IF 1 0 1 18-0=18
complexity of each node is calculated shown in Table I
where, FI is Fan In and FO is Fan Out of the
corresponding node. The fitness value of test data 0000 is Fig. 8 Stack based weight assignments to nodes of CFG for the
18 + 18 + 17 + 17 + 15 + 15 + 19 + 32 +22 = 173. shipping order

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Table 1: Complexity of nodes of the CFG of shipping order
Node Complexity IF= Fan In Total Complexity

based on pop (a) * Fan =
operation, (A) Out (a),
(A+B)
(B)
1 18 0 18
2 17 1 18
3 16 1 17
4 15 2 17
.
5 14 1 15
Fig. 10 CFG of modify order (nested activity)
6 14 1 15
7 13 2 15 Top
8 13 2 15
Nodes K Size, s Weight = smax-k
9 12 1 13
9.8 7 8 8-7=1
10 12 2 14
9.7 6 7 8-6=2
11 10 2 12
9.6 5 6 8-5=3
12 11 1 12
13 12+6 1 19 9.5 4 5 8-4=4
14 9 1 10 9.4 3 4 8-3=5
15 8 2 10 9.3 2 3 8-2=6
16 7 2 9 9.2 1 2 8-1=7
17 6 2 8 9.1 0 1 8-0=8
18 5 1 6
19 4 1 5 Fig. 11 Stack based weight assignment to nodes of nested activity

20 3 2 5 diagram (Fig.10)
21 12+11+5+2 2 32
22 11+10+1 0 22 Table 2: Complexity of CFG (Fig.10)
Node Complexity IF= Fan In (a) Total Complexity =

based on pop * Fan Out (a),
(A+B)
operation, (A)
(B)
9.1 8 0 8
9.2 7 1 8
9.3 6 2 8
9.4 5 1 6
9.5 4 1 5
9.6 3 2 5
9.7 2 1 3
9.8 1 0 1
Fig. 9 Nested Activity diagram of Modify order

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The total complexity for the nested activity of modify Table 5: Iteration 3
order is the summation of the total complexity of each
S. X F R C M F’(X)
node i.e. 8 + 8 + 8 + 6 + 5 + 5 + 3 + 1 = 44. The total
No.
complexity of activity Modify Order i.e. node 9 (Fig.6) = (X)
complexity of node 9 + complexity of nested activity of
1. 1100 240 0.841 1110 1110 240
node 9 i.e. 13 + 44 = 57. Hence, the total complexity of
node 9 is 57. 2. 0101 173 0.415 0001 0001 173
We start the process by randomly generating the initial 3. 0001 173 0.301 0101 0101 173
population as shown in Table 3.
4. 1011 154 0.971 1011 1011 154
Initial Population: - 0011, 0001, 1100 and 1111, where X
is the test data, F(X) is the fitness value, r is random
number generated from 0 to 1. F’(X) is new computed .
fitness value after crossover and mutation operation. C is
crossover and M is mutation operation. In our example, .
GA is run for 12 iterations. The test data 0011 will follow .
the path 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 7, 21, 22 and the corresponding
fitness value for the test data is 18 + 18 + 17 + 17 + 15 + .
15 + 57 + 15 + 32 + 22 = 226. The test data 0001 will Table 6: Iteration 11
follow the path 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 13, 21, 22 and the
corresponding fitness value for the test data is 8 + 18 + 17 S. X F R C M F’(X)
+ 17 + 15 + 15 + 19 + 32 + 22= 173. The test data 1100 No.
(X)
will follow the path 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16,
13, 21, 22 and the corresponding fitness value is 18 + 18 + 1. 0111 317 0.712 0111 0111 317
17 + 17 + 15 + 15 + 14 + 12 + 12 + 10 + 10 + 9 + 19 + 32 2. 0111 317 0.431 0111 0111 317
+ 22 = 240. The test data 1111 will follow the path 1, 2, 3,
4, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22 and 3. 0111 317 0.692 0111 0111 317
the corresponding fitness value for the test data is 18 + 18 4. 1111 245 0.169 1111 0111 317
+ 17 + 17 + 15 + 15 + 14 + 12 + 12 + 10 + 10 + 9 + 8 + 6
+ 5 + 5 + 32 + 22 = 245.
Table 3: Iteration 1 Table 7: Iteration 12
S. X F R C M F’(X) S. X F R C M F’(X)
No. No.
(X) (X)
1. 0011 226 0.327 0111 0111 317 1. 0111 317 0.436 0111 0111 317
2. 0001 173 0.867 0001 0001 173 2. 0111 317 0.946 0111 0111 317
3. 1100 240 0.912 1100 1100 240 3. 0111 317 0.871 0111 0111 317
4. 1111 245 0.490 1011 1011 154 4. 0111 317 0.192 0111 0011 226
Table 4: Iteration 2 After the 12th iteration as shown in table 7, the test data
S. X F R C M F’(X) 0111 have the highest fitness value i.e. 317. So, the path
No. corresponding to this chromosome value i.e. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
(X) 8, 9, 7, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22 should
1. 0111 317 0.372 0101 0101 173 be the one which must be tested first. Next we will discuss
an example illustrating our approach to generate and
2. 1100 240 0.541 1110 1110 240 prioritize test case scenarios from state chart diagram.
3. 0001 173 0.934 0001 0001 173
4. 1011 154 0.860 1011 1011 154

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5. TEST CASE SCENARIOS DERIVED

FROM STATE CHART DIAGRAM
In our next case study we have applied our approach on

the state chart diagram of the student enrolment system as
shown in Fig.12. In student enrolment system, student
enrolled is an event, seat available is a guard condition and
add student is an action. If the guard condition becomes
true then action is performed and open for enrolment state
is generated. The intermediate graph is called as SDG
(Fig.13).
In Fig.13, INIT represents start process, PR represents
proposed state, SC represents scheduled state, OE
represents open for enrolment state, FU represents Full
state and CE represents closed to enrolment state
respectively. The events are shown as e1, e2, e3.......e12
where e1 is scheduled, e2 is registration open ,e3 is
student apply for enrolment, e4 is enrolment closed, e5 is
student apply for waiting list, e6 is close enrolment, e7 is
student dropped, e10 is seat allotment and e8, e9, e11, e12 Fig. 13 SDG of student enrolment system
are cancelled events respectively. As shown in Fig.12,
there are four decision nodes namely 2, 3, 4, and 6
respectively which will form the chromosomes in our case Top
study.
Nodes K Size, s Weight = smax-k
7 5 6 6-5 = 1
5 or 6 or 7 4 5 6-4 = 2
4 3 4 6-3 = 3
3 or 7 2 3 6-2 = 4
2 1 2 6-1 = 5
1 0 1 6-0 = 6
Fig. 14 Stack based weight assignment to nodes of SDG
The events e1, e2, e3, e4, e5, e6, e7, e8, e9, e10, e11 and
e12 represent the edges and the states represent the
corresponding nodes in the SDG. The test data
corresponding to decision nodes 2, 3, 4 and 6 are shown in
Table 8. These test data show the events representing
edges in the SDG and are part of test case scenarios. For
example test data involving events e1, e2, e5 and e7 will
lead to path consisting of nodes 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 7. It is to
Fig. 12 State chart diagram of student enrolment system
be noted that in Table 8 we have considered all the test
data leading to valid as well as invalid paths.

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Table 8: Test cases for SDG 31. e12 e9 e3 e7

Decision Nodes 32. e12 e9 e3 e10
S.No. 2 3 4 6
1. e1 e2 e4 e7 In this example as clear from Fig.13 in a state, maximum
2. e1 e2 e4 e10 four events can take place. Therefore each event in SDG is
represented in two bit format. In our case, the events e1
3. e1 e2 e5 e7 and e12 at node 2 are represented by 00 and 01, events e2
4. e1 e2 e5 e10 and e9 at node 3 are represented by chromosome 00 and
01, events e11, e5, e4 and e3 at node 4 are represented by
5. e1 e2 e11 e7
00, 01, 10 and 11 respectively. Events e7 and e10 at node
6. e1 e2 e11 e10 6 are represented by 00 and 01 respectively. Therefore,
each event in SDG is represented in two bit format. As
7. e1 e9 e4 e7
there are four decision nodes in the SDG, the chromosome
8. e1 e9 e4 e10 here will consist of a binary string of 8 bits. In our
proposed approach, loops are traversed at most once.
9. e1 e9 e5 e7
Therefore, node having self loop is considered only once
10. e1 e9 e5 e10 in a path. For example, the test case scenario involving
11. e1 e9 e11 e7 events e1, e2, e3, e7 will follow the path consisting of
nodes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 7 .The node 4 containing self loop is
12. e1 e9 e11 e10 traversed only once in the path and the next node to be
13. e12 e2 e4 e7 followed after loop is the nearest neighbour having
shortest distance i.e. next node to be followed after node 4
14. e12 e2 e4 e10 is 5 as the distance between node 4 and node 5 is small as
15. e12 e2 e5 e7 compared to node 6 and 7.
16. e12 e2 e5 e10 The sum of stack based priority number (A) and the IF
complexity of each node (B) is equal to the total
17. e12 e2 e11 e7 complexity of each node. The IF complexity of each node
18. e12 e2 e11 e10 of SDG is shown in Table 9 where, FI is Fan In and FO is
Fan Out for the corresponding node. The test data
19. e12 e9 e4 e7 representation involving decision nodes is shown in Fig.15
20. e12 e9 e4 e10 using two bit format for each decision node.
21. e12 e9 e5 e7
e1 e2 e4 e7
22. e12 e9 e5 e10
23. e12 e9 e11 e7 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
Test case 1
24. e12 e9 e11 e10
25. e1 e2 e3 e7
e1 e2 e4 e10
26. e1 e2 e3 e10
27. e1 e9 e3 e7 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
Test case 2
28. e1 e9 e3 e10
29. e12 e2 e3 e7
.
30. e12 e2 e3 e10
.

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.
Table 10: Iteration 1
S. X F(X) R C M F’(X)
No
1. 0001100 26 0.82 00011 00011 26
e12 e9 e3 e7 0 9 000 000
0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 2. 0100100 20 0.87 01001 01001 20

0 6 000 000
Test case 31 3. 0100010 20 0.71 01000 01000 20
e12 e9 e3 e10 1 2 100 100
4. 0000010 40 0.68 00000 00000 54
0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 6 101 101
Test case 32
Fig.15 Test case representation using two bit format

S. X F(X) R C M F’(X)
Table 9: Complexity of nodes of SDG No
1. 0001100 26 0.91 00110 00110 26
Node Complexity based on Fan In(a) * Total
pop operation, (A) Fan Out(a), Complexity =
00 7 000 000
(B) (A+B) 2. 0100100 20 0.12 01001 01000 20
1 6 0 6 0 6 000 100
2 5 2 7 3. 0100010 20 0.81 01000 01000 20
3 4 2 6 0 4 100 100
4 3 6 9 4. 0000010 54 0.56 00000 00000 54
0 2 100 100
5 2 2 4
6 2 3 5
7 4+2+1=7 0 7
S. No. X F(X) R C M F’(X)
1. 00110 26 0.83 00110 00110 26
000 3 000 000
We start the process by randomly generating the initial 2. 01000 20 0.41 01000 01000 20
population as shown in Table 10. 100 5 100 100
Initial Population: - 00011000, 01001000, 01000101, 3. 01000 20 0.12 01000 01001 20
00000100 where X is the test data, F(X) is the fitness 100 4 100 000
value, r is random number generated from 0 to 1. F’(X) is 4. 00000 54 0.61 00000 00000 54
new computed fitness value after crossover and mutation 100 2 100 100
operation. C is crossover and M is mutation operation.
.
The test data 00011000 will traverse the edges e1, e9, e4,
.
e7 and hence will follow the path 1, 2, 3 and 7 and the
corresponding fitness value of test data is 6 + 7 + 6 + 7 = .
26. The test data 01001000 will traverse the edges e12, e2, Table 13: Iteration 8
S.No X F(X) R C M F’(X)
e4 and e7 and hence will follow the path 1, 2 and 7 and the .
corresponding fitness value is 6 + 7 + 7 = 20. The test data 1. 0100010 20 0.84 01000 00100 20
01000101 will follow the edges e12, e2, e5, e10 and will 0 1 100 000
follow the path 1, 2 and 7 and the corresponding fitness 2. 0000010 54 0.91 00000 00000 54
value is 6 + 7 + 7 = 20. Similarly the test data 00000100 1 2 101 000
will follow the edges e1, e2, e5, e7 and hence will follow 3. 0000100 39 0.10 00001 00000 54
the path 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 7 and the fitness value computed 1 4 001 101
is 6 + 7 + 6 + 9 + 5 + 7 = 40. 4. 0000010 54 0.80 00000 00010 54
1 9 101 101

www.IJCSI.org 444
Table 14: Iteration 9 [5] Robert M .Patton, Annie S. Wu, and Gwendolyn H .Walton
S.No. X F(X) R C M F’(X) “A Genetic Algorithm approach to focused software usage
testing”, Annals of software engineering,
1. 01000 20 0.97 01000 01000 20 http://www.cs.ucf.edu/~ecl/papers/03.rmpatton.pdf.
100 1 100 100 [6] Nirmal Kumar Gupta and Dr. Mukesh Kumar Rohil “Using
2. 00000 54 0.50 00000 00000 54 Genetic algorithm for unit testing of object oriented
101 1 101 101 software”, First International conference on Emerging
trends in Engineering and technology, IEEE (2008).
3. 00001 54 0.41 00000 00000 54 [7] Francisca Emanuelle, Ronaldo Menezes, Marcio Braga
001 2 101 101 “Using Genetic algorithms for test plans for functional
testing”, ACM (2006).
4. 00000 54 0.97 00000 00000 54 [8] Maha Alzabidi, Ajay Kumar and A. D. Shaligram
101 2 101 101 “Automatic Software structural testing by using
Evolutionary Algorithms for test data generations” , IJCSNS
International Journal of Computer science and Network
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on other UML diagrams like sequence diagram and using Generation based on UML Activity diagrams”, International
this technique for white box testing and object oriented conference on information technology, pp.209-214, IEEE
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[18] Sangeeta sabharwal, ritu sibal, chayanika Sharma
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www.IJCSI.org 445
Generalized Bandwidth Adaptive System for Multimedia

Transmission in Multi-Cell Wireless Networks
O. Said1 and A.Tolba2
1
Computer Science, Taif University, College of Computers and Information Technology
Taif, 888, KSA
2
Computer Science, King Saud University, Riyadh Community College
Riyadh, 11437, KSA
Abstract
In this paper, a novel system, which adapts a bandwidth by
approaches are showed briefly. In Section 4, our proposed
dynamic extracting the excess bandwidth not only from one cell system is demonstrated. In Section 5, how our system
but also from other cells in the cellular wireless networks, is recovers the bandwidth lack for new and handoff calls in
presented. The proposed system manages the multimedia multi-cell mobile WLANs in addition to system simulation
sessions to redistribute the new QoS parameters values in case of and performance evaluation, are showed. Finally,
notable changes or network starvation. The performance analysis conclusion and future work are stated in Sections 6 and 7.
shows that our proposed system impacts the old trials and
decreases the drop probability of new and handoff calls in multi-
cell wireless networks. 2. Problem Formulation
Keywords: QoS, Multimedia Communication, Wireless
Networks, Multi-Cell Networks. The New Call Blocking Probability (NCBP) and Handoff
Call Dropping Probability (HCDP) [1, 2, 3] can express
about the QoS requirements in WLANS. When a user
1. Introduction requests a new connection, a new call is initiated, and
Low cost and high capacity of the Wireless Local Area when an active user moves from one cell to another
Networks (WLANS) make them more popular. Even neighboring cell, a handoff call occurs. Thus, the NCBP is
though the Quality of Services (QoS) in wireless networks defined by the probability of a new arriving call that is
is a challenging problem due to the limited bandwidth, rejected while the HCDP is defined by the probability that
wireless networks are expected to support multimedia a handoff attempt fails. The multimedia QoS guarantees in
services with guaranteed QoS for diverse traffic types wireless networks is a great challenge due to the
(video, voice, and data). QoS support in wireless networks bandwidth limitation and the huge number of handoff
as well as in wireline has been a key hot area of research events. When a user handoffs to a new cell, there may not
for some time with improvements in the Medium Access be sufficient bandwidth to support his call. Based on the
Control (MAC) protocol as the key way to resolve the nature of the service, there are two possibilities in this
problem. This paper concerns with the multimedia QoS situation. The first possibility is a non-adaptive service
problem at mobile multi-cell WLANs [1, 2, 3]. In this (fixed bandwidth for each call), the call will be dropped.
paper a Generalized Bandwidth Adaptive System (GBAS), The second possibility is a local adaptive QoS; the call
in which the bandwidth is extracted from the lazy cells and may not be dropped but will suffer bandwidth degradation.
borrowed to the starved cells over mobile WLANs, is
proposed. The computation, related to the extraction
3. Related Work
process, is done in real-time without affecting the
multimedia transmission or the system efficiency. There are many research work have been introduced in the
This paper proceeds as follows; in Section 2, the problem topic of adaptive multimedia in cellular WLANS [4, 5].
formulation is introduced. In Section 3, the previous trials The trial at [4] obtained the optimal bandwidth allocation
Both Authors are Assistant Professors, Computer Science

Department, College of Science, Menoufia University,
Menoufia, Egypt
www.IJCSI.org 446
over the entire network under a condition of continuous In this case, a bandwidth for selected number of calls
value of bandwidth. However, this trial is impractical due equal X should be decreased from Bmax to Bnor or from Bnor
to its signaling overload. The trial at [5] proposed an to Bmin. The selection process depends on the call priority.
adaptive multimedia model that guarantees only the upper Hence, the bandwidth of X calls is decreased gradually
bound of cell overload probability. Also, practical and extracted. Consequently, we should test if the
bandwidth values of adaptive multimedia is more likely to extracted bandwidth equals the Bmin of new or handoff
be discrete than continuous at [6]. However, bandwidth calls or not. If yes, the decreasing process is stopped and
limitation is not considered. In addition, the trials are for the new starved call can be served. If no, the decreasing
[7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13] that proposed a bandwidth process is continued till the extracted bandwidth covers
adaptive frameworks to extract the exceeded bandwidth the need of starved calls. If the internal extraction process
from the cell calls. These trials are considered local is finished without covering the need of bandwidth for the
solutions i.e. the operations are done internally at the cell starved calls, the external bandwidth extraction process is
and this makes the adaptation process restricted with a fired and the system starts to test the neighbor cells. Every
limited exceeded bandwidth. The last trial at [14], which time, a new bandwidth for each cell should be extracted
used the tiered schemes idea with expert systems and kept using the second management component, see
techniques, is complex and didn’t consider the processes the next sub section. In case of bandwidth need for a cell,
complexity in its evaluation. the system should borrow an exceeded bandwidth from
another cell till the call(s) is served and the system
reassigned the same borrowed value to the donor cell. The
4. Our proposed system donor cell is a cell that provides the starved cell with the
required bandwidth. The borrowing process is
The infrastructure of our proposed system contains two accomplished using the techniques at [16, 17]. It's
major components. The first one is the system adaptation preferable that the donor cell is one from the recipient cell
component, which adapts the bandwidth to serve new and neighbors. The borrowing process is completed by the
handoff calls. The second one is the system management management cell in the WLAN. This management cell
component, which controls the new additive agents and uses a database file to store the transactions that occurred
redistributes the new QoS parameters in case of notable during our system, see Figs. 1, 2.
changes.
4.2 System management approach
4.1 System adaptation approach
To manage the proposed bandwidth adaptive system, a
Our system considers a wireless network with a multi-cell management sub-system should be introduced. The
infrastructure. The system supports mobile users running proposed management sub-system depends on the
multimedia applications that demand a wide range of intelligent multi-agent system idea. In details, the system
bandwidth. The multimedia call bandwidth can be contains three agents to complete the communication
dynamically adapted not only over one cell but also over between the wireless network cells as regards the
the system cells. There are two types of connections that bandwidth integration. This technology is used in our
share the bandwidth of each cell: new and handoff. We system due to multimedia transmission sensitivity and its
assume that the bandwidth of a call is variable during a capabilities in firing when an important system action is
multimedia session and can be assigned depending on its done as well as an agent dynamic reaction. The main
need using QoS requirements. We assume that the system target of our system is to make the network cells as one
calls have different classes. Each call has three bandwidth cell in the bandwidth resources. Hence, any bandwidth
variables. These variables are Bmin, Bnor, and Bmax. Bmin is a decreasing in one cell should be recovered internally by
minimum required bandwidth value at which the call can the same cell. If the internal recovering process is failed
be accepted. Bnor is the bandwidth value at which the call the external recovering process is fired and the donor cell
can proceed without degradation. Bmax is the maximum is selected (neighbor cell or far cell). For data sensitivity,
value of bandwidth assigned for each cell call. In our the bandwidth recovery operation should be done before
system, we consider video and audio calls. Also, we the cell received new or handoff calls.
assume that the system uses a variable channel allocation In the following subsections, the proposed
i.e. each cell has a total bandwidth that can be determined management system components description and how they
using the technique at [15]. work are demonstrated.
For each system cell, the calls share the bandwidth.
Each call takes the value Bmax if available bandwidth is 4.2.1 The proposed management system components
sufficient otherwise each call takes Bnor. Our considered
Our management system contains three components that
case is not sufficient bandwidth for handoff or new calls.
www.IJCSI.org 447
are called analyzer, detector, and connector. These terms

and the communication between them are used and
defined at [18].
The Analyzer: The analyzer is a software component.
It is used to watch the bandwidth value of each depository
by using the tool at [15]. This depository target is to keep
the exceeded bandwidth. In our system each cell has one
depository. The watching operation means that the
analyzer should be fired when it finds that a cell
depository is empty or about to be empty. Also, the
function of analyzer is to store the history of each cell in
adaptive system. This history contains number of
parameters like the number of internal and external
adaptation process, the number of new and handoff calls.
These collected data are used as a feedback that will be
functioned at a bandwidth redistributed operation. Each
group of cells has one analyzer. The number of cells per
group depends on the efficiency of the analyzer.
The Detector: The detector is a software component. Fig. 2. Example about how the donor cell is selected
It is used to find a starved cell. This is done as follows; the
detector sends a value of a cell depository to the analyzer. 4.2.2 How the proposed management system works
When a cell makes huge number of adaptations to serve its
new and handoff calls, the detector should inform the At the start, the QoS manager of mobile wireless networks
analyzer with the situation to provide this cell with distributes the bandwidth on the system cells.
additional bandwidth. Each cell contains one detector. Consequently, the cell receives and serves the calls (new
or handoff). Each interval time or at a notable transaction,
The Connector: Also, the connector is a software the detector sends to the analyzer the value of each notable
component. It is used to connect the analyzer with the
changed depository. The analyzer keeps these values and
detector when an urgent action, like large number of
extracts the starved or near to starvation cells. Hence; the
dropping new or handoff calls and adaptation processes, is
done. The connector is used to find a suitable donor cell in connector starts the recovery process. The analyzer sends
a real time processing. The connector has a dynamic table the depository values of neighbors to the connector.
that contains the cells which can be used as a donor for Hence, the connector selects a donor cell and a borrow
each system cell. For system simplicity, it's preferable to amount of bandwidth that is sufficient for the call(s)
find a neighbor cell to act as a donor. Most of the service. The sufficient bandwidth can be determined by
connector table is filled using the routing table of wireless the connector using the QoS parameters and requirements.
network and the QoS manager that extracts the bandwidth The connector stores in its memory the addresses of
of each cell. starved and donor cells and a value of borrowed
bandwidth. For system reliability factor, the connector
should provide the starved cell with more than required
bandwidth (if available). The detector continues to provide
and alarm the analyzer with starved cells in the system.
The analyzer saves these data that will be used as a system
feedback, see algorithms 1 and 2.
It's notable that our proposed system has a huge
number of control messages. This can be considered as a
system drawback especially at the bandwidth limitation
state. To recover this drawback, two techniques are used.
The first technique is to borrow a bandwidth from lazy
cells and seize it to the control messages. The cell that
handles low number of calls is considered a lazy cell. The
second technique is to make a cumulative message idea in
case of no lazy cells. We use a mixture of two techniques
to reach the highest efficiency.
Fig. 1. How the proposed system works.
www.IJCSI.org 448
 Algorithm 1 4.3 System statistical analysis

1. Suppose that each cell in the system has a bandwidth
called Btotal The adaptability can be defined with the number of
2. For I = 1 to m adaptation times occurred in the system [12, 13]. This
2.1 Each call in the cell consumes its required variable should be calculated in our system to determine
bandwidth.
2.2 Reps_Value [i] = Btotal – n*Bconsumed.
the effect of extension process. The adaptability value
2.3 If Reps_Value [i] = 0 equals one minus the summation of bandwidth divided by
2.3.1 If there are calls having a bandwidth the total bandwidth for each cell. The above assumption
equals Bmax (Bmin, Bnor, and Bmax) can be used to calculate the total
2.3.1.1 For J = 1 to max[i] (number of consumption bandwidth by the system cells. The total
Bmax calls at cell i) consumption bandwidth for the system is a summation of
2.3.1.1.1 Reps_Value [i] = consumption bandwidth per cell. The consumption
Reps_Value [i] + bandwidth per cell is a summation of number of Bmin
Bmax[J] - Bnor[J] active users multiplied by Bmin bandwidth plus the Bnor
2.3.2 Else If there are calls having a
active users multiplied by Bnor bandwidth plus the Bmax
bandwidth equals Bnor
2.3.2.1 For J = 1 to nor[i] (number of active users multiplied by Bmax bandwidth. Equation 1
Bnor calls at cell i) calculates the total allocated bandwidth.
2.3.1.2.2 Reps_Value [i] =
Reps_Value [i] +
Bnor[J] - Bmin[J]
2.3.3 Else If there are calls having a Equation 1
bandwidth equals Bmin
2.3.3.1 Algorithm 1 is fired.
3. End of the algorithm.
 Algorithm 2 Equation 2
1- For I = 1 to m
1.1 The cell[i] received a new call
1.2 If the nreqb < Reps_value [i]
1.2.1 The call is served
1.2.2 Reps_Value [i] = Reps_Value [i] - nreqb 5. Performance Evaluation
1.3 Else If the nreqb = Reps_value [i]
1.3.1 The call is served The most simulation parameters are used to show the
1.3.2 Reps_Value [i] = 0 effect of the system extension on the bandwidth allocation
1.3.3 The detector alarms the analyzer; hence for new and handoff calls, see table 1. In the following
the analyzer informs the connector subsections the simulation setup and simulation results are
1.3.4 The connector starts to fill the demonstrated.
Reps_value [i] for future calls.
1.4 Else If the nreqb> Reps_Value [i] (Starvation Case)
1.4.1 The internal recovery failed
5.1 Simulation setup
1.4.2 The connector connects to the
neighbors of the starved cell This subsection describes our simulation setup. The
1.4.3 The connector borrows the required cellular network contains 50-cell that is configured with
bandwidth from the donor cell. different traffic conditions. The diameter of each cell is 1
1.4.4 The connector stores the address of the km. The base station resides at the center of each cell. The
starved cell, donor cell and the total capacity of each cell is Ci, i= 1 to number of cells and
borrowed value scaled with Bandwidth Unite (BU). Audio and video
1.4.5 Reps_Value [i] = Reps_Value [i] + streaming service with three adaptive bandwidth levels are
BorrowBandwidth. tested. The call arrival process for new and handoff calls is
1.4.6 The call is served.
assumed to follow a Poisson distribution with rates λnc and
1.4.7 Reps_Value [i] = Reps_Value [i] +
BorrowBandwidth - nreqb λh, respectively. The handoff call arrival rate is
1.4.8 The connector extracts a bandwidth proportional to the new call arrival rate and this is
from the starved cell and provides the determined by λh = 0.75 λnc. The call holding time is
donor with the same borrowed assumed to follow an exponential distribution with mean
bandwidth consequently; the system 1/μ [13]. There are three parameters are considered for the
returns to the previous state. mobility factor, the initial position, the direction, and the
2. End of the algorithm. speed of a mobile. When a new call is initiated, a random
www.IJCSI.org 449
initial position, which derived from a uniform probability R

distribution function over the cell area, is assigned to a th = Equation 4
mobile. For handoff calls, when the handoff event is 2 E[V ]
scheduled, the initial position of a mobile is determined. A Where R is the radius of the cell and V is the average
mobile direction is assigned upon entering a cell. The speed of a mobile in the cell. Therefore, the handoff rate
mobility scenario is modeled in Fig. 3. When a mobile of new calls, hnc equals 1/ tnc and the handoff rate of
enters a cell, a constant randomly selected speed is handoff calls, h, equals 1/ th.
assigned to it. The mobile speed is obtained from a In the performance evaluation, the proposed system
uniform probability distribution function ranging between GBAS, the Bandwidth Adaptive Framework (BAF), and
Vmin and Vmax. Most of these simulation parameters are the QoS_AMS algorithm are compared as regards the
used in [12, 13]. Number of calls (X) that is selected to following parameters; the NCBP, the HCDP and the
decrease its bandwidth from Bmax to Bnor or from Bnor to bandwidth utilization. The bandwidth utilization is defined
Bmin is assumed to follow the exponential distribution. as the ratio of a bandwidth which is used by completely
serviced calls to the total bandwidth capacity.
5.2 Simulation results

5.2.1 NCBP evaluation
Fig. 4 shows a comparison between the QoS_AMS
algorithm, the BAF algorithm, and the GBAS as regards
NCBP (β value is fixed and equals 50%). It's notable that
the generalization process for the AMS algorithm
decreases the number of blocking new calls. This decrease
is due to the dynamic allocation for the exceeded
Fig. 3. The signal distribution likes the rush and the evening hours. bandwidth internally at the cell and externally outside
cells. Also it’s notable that the NCBP at the three models
Table 1: Simulation parameters increase as the arrival rate increases but the GBAS is
lower than two other algorithms, AMS and BAF.
Parameter Value Unite
Total Bandwidth 1024 BU
Cell Diameter 1 Km
Average Bmin 3 BU
Average Bnor 6 BU
Average Bmax 9 BU
Bandwdithrequested Random (5-10) BU
New call arrival rate λnc = λ Call/Sec
μ-1
5000 sec
V
min 10 Km/hr
V Fig. 4. NCBP Evaluation
max 60 Km/hr
T
sim 10000 sec In case of the adaptability ratio of the system has a large
value than a predefined value β, the adaptability ratio
Number of Cells 50 unite
during the bandwidth adaptation procedure is calculated
and activating the ABA algorithm [11, 12, 13] for new
It was stated at [13] that the average residence time for a calls. This step should be done before deciding to reject a
new call, tnc, is given by: new call or accept it.
8 RE[ 1 ]
tnc= V Equation 3 5.2.2 HCDP evaluation
3 Fig. 5 shows a comparison between the QoS_AMS
While the average residence time of a handoff calls, th is algorithm, the BAF algorithm, and the GBAS as regards
given by:
www.IJCSI.org 450
HCDP (β value is fixed and equals 50%). It's notable that 5.2.4 HCDP evaluation with varying β value
the generalization process for the QoS-AMS algorithm
Fig. 7 shows the effect of varying β value on the HCDP.
decreases the number of blocking handoff calls. This
It's notable that the decrease in β value means decrease in
decrease is due to the dynamic allocation for the exceeded
the HCDP. This is due to the increase of adaptation
bandwidth internally at one cell and externally over the
processes when the β value is decreased. Also, the HCDP
system cells. Also, it’s notable that the HCDP percentage
is decreased as the call arrival rate is increased. In a low
is less than the NCBP percentage. This is due to the huge
rate of incoming calls, for instance 0.4, the increase in
number of handoff calls that move through the system
HCDP is small compared to the decrease of NCBP. This
cells with fast speed. The huge number and fast speed
means that the QoS improvements for new calls do not
means more computation to extract a bandwidth and serve
result in a significant decay in the QoS of handoff calls.
handoff calls. Hence, the GBAS model gives more priority
Also, it’s obvious that the HCDP is sudden increases as
for handoff calls in case of limited bandwidth. Also, it’s
the arrival call notably increases and β = 0.15 and 0.25.
obvious that the three algorithms provide a best
This is due to the sudden stop of our model that results a
performance and the GBAS surpasses the two algorithms
zero borrowed bandwidth.
science when the system has a limited bandwidth. This is
because the GBAS model uses the bandwidth of lazy cells.
Fig. 7 Effect of varying β value on the HCDP
5.2.5 Bandwidth utilization

Fig. 5. HCDP Evaluation
Fig. 8 clearly shows the bandwidth utilization versus the
5.2.3 NCBP evaluation with varying β value offered load for QoS-AMS framework and BAF as
opposed to GBAS. Clearly, the bandwidth utilization of
Fig. 6 shows the effect of varying β value on the NCBP. the GBAS framework outperforms that of the QoS-AMS
It's notable that the decrease in β value means decrease in and BAF. This is due to the usage of the GBAS that
the NCBP. This is due to the increase of adaptation utilizes the adaptability ratio measure and allows the
processes when the β value is decreased. Also, the system intelligently adjusting the bandwidth of ongoing
decrease of NCBP gets smaller with higher arrival rate of calls internally and externally which results a near zero
incoming calls. HCDP and a reduced NCBP. Therefore, more calls are
able to successfully complete their connection sessions
which results in better bandwidth utilization.
Fig. 6. Effect of varying β value on the NCBP Fig. 8. Bandwidth Utilization

www.IJCSI.org 451
6. Conclusion [10] Hyukmin S., Sanghoon L., 2006. Bandwidth and region
division for broadband multi-cell networks.IEEE
In this paper, a Generalized Bandwidth Adaptive System Communications Letters, 10(5):360 - 362.
(GBAS) is proposed. The framework consists of two main [11] Nasser, N., Hassanein, H., 2004. Connection-level
Performance Analysis for Adaptive Bandwidth Allocation
components: bandwidth allocation algorithm and system in Multimedia Wireless Cellular Networks. IEEE
management component. The first component is used to International Conference of Performance Computing and
adapt the bandwidth internally over one cell and externally Communications (IPCCC), Arizona, USA, p.61-68.
over the system cells (if required). The second component [12] Nasser, N., 2005. Real-Time Service Adaptability in
is used to manage the new additive software to work in Multimedia Wireless Networks. Q2SWinet’05, Montreal,
Canada, p.144- 149.
harmony with other old components. The framework is [13] Nasser, N., 2009. Service Adaptability in Multimedia
designed for wireless cellular networks that support real- Wireless Networks. IEEE Transactions on Multimedia,
time adaptive multimedia services. Our experiments 11(4): 786-792.
contained audio and video streams. The simulation results [14] Huanga, C., Shena, H., Chuangb, Y., 2010. An adaptive
showed an improvement and reduced values for the bandwidth reservation scheme for 4G cellular networks
using flexible 2-tier cell structure. Elsevier Transaction on
connection-level QoS parameters: HCDP and NCBP Expert Systems with Applications, 37(9): 6414-6420.
comparable with BAF and QoS-AMS. The requirements [15] Mingzhe, C., Kinicki, R., 2008. WBest: A bandwidth
of the mobile users are satisfied. Moreover, the results estimation tool for IEEE 802.11 wireless networks. 33rd
ensure efficient utilization of bandwidth that is highly IEEE Conference on Local Computer Networks, Montreal,
Canada, p374-381.
desirable by service providers.
[16] Jau-Yang, C., Hsing-Lung, C., 2007. Service-Oriented
Bandwidth Borrowing Scheme for Mobile Multimedia
7. Future work Wireless Networks. Auswireless Conference.
http://epress.lib.uts.edu.au/dspace/handle/2100/131
In our experiments, a special type of video (JPEG) is [17] Kuang, L., Hsu-Sheng,T., Yu-Hang S., 2009. Tiered
examined. So, we will run the GBAS on other video types bandwidth reservation scheme for multimedia wireless
such as MPEG. Hence, we will go to the standardization. networks. Transaction in Wireless Communications &
Mobile Computing, 9(7): 1005-1016.
[18] Said, O., Bahgat, S., Ghonemy, S., Elawady, Y., 2009.
References Analysis, Design and Simulation of a New System for
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www.IJCSI.org 452
Hybrid Web Services Ranking Algorithm

R.Manoharan, A. Archana and Siddhika Nitin Cowlagi
Pondicherry Engineering College

Puducherry, India

Puducherry, India

Puducherry, India
UDDI [2] registries. When request for a web services is

Abstract issued the service descriptions are matched with the
Web services are dynamic applications that are published over request description to find the web service with exact
the network to help in data exchange between systems and other functionality. In order to issue the request a SOAP
applications. The selection of these web services is an important protocol is used.
part of Web service composition. As the number of Web services
on the internet increase, the need for finding the exact web
A major application of these web services is web service
service that matches the user’s request also increases. So ranking
of web services is required in order to find the right web service. composition. In many cases when individual web services
Earlier methods of ranking involved using a matrix to rank the are not able to satisfy the complex requirements of an
web services by using their QoS property. But in many cases it application they are combined construct applications
might be tedious to define the QoS values accurately. So a fuzzy which meet the needs of the user. In order to compose
logic was proposed to deal with the improper QoS constraints. such web services, it is very essential to select those which
Many approaches have been proposed both in Quality based and truly meet the criteria. This brings the need of having
fuzzy based ranking. In this paper we take the advantages of both some sort of ranking procedures while searching for
the methods and propose a new ranking method which is a services taking into consideration the actual requirement
hybrid of matrix ranking method and QoS based fuzzy ranking
of the user. Also when a client requests for a service, there
method. We also review the existing works done and summarize
the benefits and conclusions of the presented ideas. may be many web services that provide the same
Keywords: web services, matrix, fuzzy, entropy, Quality of functionality that the client looks for. Ranking the web
Service. services will help a client find out the better web service.
In order to differentiate between the web services that
provide the same functionality we need to examine the
1. Introduction QoS attributes like throughput, availability, response time,
performance, latency etc[3].These non functional
Web services are being widely used throughout the world parameters help to determine the quality aspects of a web
because of the advantages they provide. This is due to the service. Service providers should publish their web
fact that they help in developing distributed applications services by incorporating the QoS parameters and
that can be accessed across the internet. They use the three periodically update them during revisions so that they can
basic platform elements: SOAP, WSDL and UDDI. It is make their service top the list while ranking. Traditional
necessary to discover and select suitable web services ranking approaches employ different methods to rank the
based on client’s requests. As in [1], WSDL standard is web services by evaluating a final score using the QoS
used to describe the web services along with its parameters. Different QoS parameters may have different
functionalities and the services it provides. Along with importance level depending on the client. So QoS
description it provides an end point to invoke the web parameters are difficult to be defined precisely. In order to
service. In order to make web services available to the overcome this, a new approach based on fuzzy logic was
clients, every web service must be published in some proposed. It deals with selecting services by associating a
fuzzy number to each service and selects services based on
the fuzzy range as opposed to the earlier binary approach.
www.IJCSI.org 453
This paper deals with a hybrid algorithm that combines the whose semantic descriptions are available in the UDDI
working of matrix based and fuzzy based ranking registries can be searched. Ontology based retrieval [10] is
methods. possible in some cases where a crawler is designed to
search the ontologies of the web services to retrieve the
require result.
2. Literature Survey
The single value decomposition technique [11] is another
Web services are used in the development of numerous method that uses a matrix to represent the QoS attributes.
web applications in the current scenario. The existing This single matrix is decomposed into three matrices
searching techniques for web services mostly concentrate based on various criteria. The values of these matrices are
on keyword matching. But this method is now being represented in 2D space in the form of a graph and based
replaced by newer methods as keyword matching does not on the proximity of values the ranks are allocated. The
yield effective results according to the user’s disadvantage here is that for complex attributes the size of
requirements. the matrix becomes too large.
A more relevant approach is to provide the users with a In another approach, dominance relationships [12] are
list of web services which would satisfy their needs. There used for ranking. A balance between the number of
are various web services with offer similar functionalities dominating services and the number of dominated services
but might have different non-functional or quality of is obtained and the results are plotted to obtain a rank for
service parameters. the various services. The dominance scores for both cases
are determined using separate algorithms which first
Ranking of web services has been a wide area of research. calculate the paradigm degree of match (PDM) and then
Various methods are being followed for ranking. The most calculate the service degree of match (SDM).
common is the matrix method approach [4]. This method
takes the QoS parameters of various web services as input The exact process and algorithms for this approach are
to a matrix, normalizes it and derives a Web Service presented in [13]. This paper traces the steps involved in
Relevancy Function (WsRF) based on it to provide a rank arriving at the final dominance score which is used as the
for the services. criteria to rank services according to their parameters.
In the context based method [5], the WSDLs are analyzed In the fuzzy approach for ranking [14], the attributes are
semantically to extract a more accurate result to the user’s converted into a fuzzy constraint specification problem
query. The proximity of the context of similar web which is then defuzzified to produce a quantifiable result.
services are determined to give the final rank list. The fuzzy limits are used to determine if a service can be
Selecting specific sites for context extraction is a added to the rank list. Since the approach is fuzzy and not
shortcoming of this method. The quality driven approach binary, the number of web services considered for filtering
[6] makes use of a quality constraint tree (QCT) with is more which an advantage of this method is. The
inputs as functionally similar web services. The traversal problem in this approach is certain QoS criteria cannot be
algorithm performs three actions namely filtering, scaling expressed in fuzzy logic. QoS criteria play a major role in
and ranking to obtain the result. the evaluation of web services for any method. The issues
involved in the selection of proper QoS parameters for a
If we consider the ontology semantics [7], the XML web service are elaborated in [15].
documents of the web services are scanned and the input
constraints and output specifications of similar web In the fuzzy approach, various weights are used for the
services are compared. A function to map these is normalization of the fuzzy values. One such method is the
proposed based on which ranking is done. Another entropy weights [16]. This paper describes the various
method in this approach [8] proposes an ontology OWL- stages in the calculation of entropy weights and also their
Q, for QoS based web service description. This ontology relevance in the fuzzy algorithm is analyzed.
includes descriptions for the various metrics that a web
service provides. It further provides a QoS metric
matching algorithm for comparing similar web services.
A semantic search agent approach [9] is also followed in
case of searching semantic web services. Here a system is
described which uses Ontology Web Language (OWL) to
search web services according to the user’s need. The
disadvantage of this method is that only web services
www.IJCSI.org 454
2.1 Extract of Literature Survey The process begins with searching the WSDL documents
of the related web services as per the user’s query. Each
There are various existing approaches for the ranking of web service registers its WSDL document in the UDDI
an available set of web services. Of these methods the registries from where we obtain them. These WSDL
most preferred ones are the matrix methods for their documents contain the details about the various Quality of
simplicity and the fuzzy methods for their accuracy. The Service parameters offered by them. From these the
above two methods pose various issues in the selection of knowledge about the QoS values is extracted. Most of the
the right web services for an application. The major existing algorithms use a web service crawler engine to
advantage of the matrix method is the effective capturing obtain this knowledge. Once these values are determined a
of the needs of the user and the preference to data given. QoS matrix is constructed with the QoS values of the
This algorithm is used in most of the crawler engines for services as the matrix elements. For each web service the
effective ranking. But it fails to define certain QoS QoS parameters would be in varying units. Also for a
parameters precisely and thus cannot support complex valid ranking method, few criteria need to be maximized
QoS constraints. The fuzzy method on the other hand and few minimized.
stresses on the importance of weights and normalization of
the inputs given by the user. The use of fuzzy logic further Popular ranking methods do not take into account such
allows wide number of web services to be taken into discrepancies while ranking the web services. To
account. Another advantage of this method is the fact that overcome this we have proposed a normalization method
imprecise QoS criteria can be defined in fuzzy. However, which takes into consideration the weight of the QoS
in fuzzy method, we cannot easily specify which QoS parameters and normalizes the QoS matrix accordingly.
parameter will have an effective fuzzy representation. Our Simultaneously we also construct a fuzzy judgement
proposed work aims at clubbing the advantages of both matrix based on the fuzzy limits described for each
these techniques and providing an effective hybrid ranking parameter. An entropy weight is used as a normalization
algorithm. The representation and computation of the QoS criterion for this fuzzy matrix. The output of this entropy
values in the hybrid algorithm considers both the crisp and normalization is then introduced in the matrix method.
fuzzy form. In this step, the variation of each normalized QoS value in
comparison to the entropy weight is determined. This
3. Proposed Work gives a hybrid matrix with the final standardized QoS
attributes. From this matrix we compute the web service
Even though there are various ranking methods for web relevancy score for each service.
services as described above, each of these methods has
disadvantages of its own. In this paper we propose a new The algorithm for computing the relevancy score using
algorithm which is a hybrid of matrix and fuzzy based hybrid ranking is given below:
ranking algorithms. Our basic architecture begins with
searching the WSDL documents for the related web Algorithm:
services and terminates with a ranked list of those
services. Ranking of web services by a hybrid of matrix and fuzzy
based ranking algorithms.
Input:
m candidate web services and n QoS criteria.
Method:
For a set of web services WS = { }

that share the same functionality and set of QoS
parameters P = { , the hybrid algorithm
computes a web service relevancy score based on the
client’s request. By examining the QoS values for each
web service we get a matrix E where each row represents
a web service and each column represents a QoS criteria.
Fig 1: Basic Architecture
www.IJCSI.org 455
E= =
(5)
Now each of the matrix elements need to be compared

with the entropy weight to analyze how the QoS values
Each user might have various QoS requirements as to vary from the entropy weights of each QoS parameter.
which are more relevant to the application. The This is done in order to get a uniform overall score for
preferences of the user are obtained in the form of binary all the candidate web services. The comparison is done
decisions in an array (say preference[j]). This array will based on the following equation:
have a ‘0’ for parameters which need to be low and ‘1’
for parameters which should be high. =
Since these QoS values are difficult to be defined
precisely we introduce fuzzy information which is (6)
represented by triangular fuzzy numbers. Triangular By doing the comparison for every matrix element we
fuzzy numbers are nothing but fuzzy limits for each QoS get a matrix as follows:
parameter represented as [L, M, N] where L, M, N are
the lower, medium and upper values for that QoS
parameter.
With these fuzzy limits we calculate a membership
function for each matrix value defined as =
=
Every QoS parameter varies from the other in terms of
its units and magnitude, so each parameter must be
(1) normalized to get the exact relevancy score. It is an
The actual objective of each criterion is needed to essential step as certain values should be high and
distinguish between various web services which have the certain should be low in order to get best results.
same value for a specific parameter. In order to this we Normalization helps to achieve uniform distribution over
introduce entropy weight calculation in the step. When the QoS parameters. This is done based on which QoS
the entropy value increases the information express criteria needs to be maximized and which needs to be
quality decreases and thus the entropy method serves as minimized. Normalization can be done by using the
an efficient way to achieve an overall assessment of the formula:
information quality.
For every matrix element
For every criterion the entropy weight is defined as
if( == ‘ positive’)
= -e * ln
(2)
where e= and Y=
=
(3) else if ( == ‘ negative’)
The total entropy is given by H =
(4)
Y=
The final entropy weight for the criterion is defined
by 1 - . (7)
Where X is the value of each metric considered and Xmin
The balanced entropy weight for every criterion is and Xmax correspond to the minimum and maximum QoS
www.IJCSI.org 456
values offered by the web services. The positive or Table 1 shows four web services sharing the same
negative criteria can be obtained from the preference functionality of validating an email address. These values
array. are obtained from commercial sites and verified in [4].
This gives the final normalized QoS matrix from which Table 1: Qos Metrics for Various Email Service Providers
the relevancy score for each of the candidate web
services is calculated. The final matrix obtained is
(cents)
IA(%)
(ms)
(%)
AV
RT
C
= Web Service1 1.2 .85 .80 720
Web Service2 5 .81 .92 1100
Web Service3 7 .98 .95 900
Web Service4 7.5 .76 .90 710
Once this matrix is computed a relevancy function is Along with these values, the hybrid algorithm also
derived for each of the web service. This function takes requires the fuzzy limits for each parameter. It is using
into account all the normalization done on the QoS values these limits that the membership criteria for the candidate
offered by each of the candidate services. Finally each web services can be determined. The fuzzy limits for the
web service is assigned a specific rank or score based on above set are given in Table 2.
this relevancy function value. The relevancy score is
calculated as follows: Table 2: Fuzzy Limits
WsRF ( )= QoS Criteria Fuzzy Limits (L,M,U)

Cost ( 1,5,10)
(8)
Availability (0.5,0.8,1)
The ranks for the web services are based on the above Interoperability Analysis (0.70,0.85,1)
function with the web service having the highest WsRF
score being ranked 1st. Response Time (500,700,1200)
4. Experiments and Results Once the input values are obtained as in Table 1, the
matrix in E of the hybrid algorithm is established. The
The inputs given for this hybrid algorithm are actual data values of Table 2 are then utilized to define the
values which are available over the web and hosted on membership criteria for all the candidate web services.
sites like Xmethods.net etc. Since QoS attributes are the The L, M, U values here represent the Least Preferred,
basic criteria for the ranking approach used, we define Most Preferred and Upper Limits of each QoS parameter.
four such parameters below: The various steps involved in the hybrid algorithm are
followed and the resultant rankings of the web services are
Cost(C): It is the cost of each service request determined presented in Table 3.
by the service provider (unit: cents).
Table 3: Web Service Relevancy Score
Availability (AV): It is the measure of the uptime of a .
particular service within a given unit of time (unit: %). Rank Values
Web Service 1 7.716
Interoperability Analysis (IA): It is a measure of how well
a particular web service conforms to a particular set of Web Service 2 4.244
standards (unit: %). Web Service 3 2.592
Response Time (RT): It is the measure of the amount of Web Service 4 6.311
time taken by a particular web service to respond to a
specific request (unit: milliseconds).
The values listed above are based on the ideal case
Taking into consideration the above given QoS
wherein the scenario is taken as cost and response time
parameters, we arrive at a set of input values to be given to
to be the least and availability and interoperability
the hybrid algorithm, which are tabulated below. The
www.IJCSI.org 457
analysis to be the highest. Various other scenarios are should be high. Thus the preference array would be C=0,
also possible which will be dealt in the later part of this AV=1, IA=1 and RT=0.
section. The relevancy score in any scenario is
fundamentally based on the user preference and the
fuzzy limits listed in Table 2.
The hybrid algorithm includes the ranking methods

described in both [4] and [14]. But in neither of the
above mentioned methods user preference is taken into
account. The input values mentioned in Table I were
given separately to the algorithms in [4] and [14] and the
results of all the three methods are compared in Figure 2.
The analysis of the graph shows a clear deviation in the
ranks obtained by the hybrid algorithm. This is due to
the fact that ranking is done based on the most preferred
value in the fuzzy limits and also according to the weight
given by the user to a particular QoS parameter. Again Fig 3: Qos Ranking Based on Ideal Case
Figure 2 describes only one scenario which was
mentioned in the preceding paragraph. In this scenario, web service 1 has the least cost (1.2
cents), less response time (720 ms) and AV and IA very
close to the most preferred fuzzy limits (.85 and .80
respectively) as can been seen from Table I. Thus it
conforms to all the set conditions and hence is ranked
the highest.
Scenario 2: Average case
An average case here would be wherein all parameters

are given equal preference ie no specific user priority is
set. The preference array in this case would be C=1,
AV=1, IA=1 and RT=1.
Fig 2: Comparison of the Three Ranking Methods
The actual scores obtained for each of the candidate

services by the three methods are mentioned in Table 4.
Table 4: Comparison of Scores of the Three Ranking Methods
Matrix Fuzzy Hybrid

Web Service 1 2.523 2.165 7.716
Web Service 2 3.461 2.706 4.244
Web Service 3 3.751 2.234 2.592 Fig 4: Qos Ranking Based on Average Case
Web Service 4 3.368 2.789 6.311
On analysis of Figure 4 we can determine that web
service 4 has a low response time (710 ms) and a
relatively high cost (7.5 cents). But these are balanced as
Scenario 1: Ideal Case the overall variation or differences from the most
preferred fuzzy limits for these parameters are quite
The ideal case would be a scenario in which the ranking acceptable. Also the interoperability (.90) and
is based on the criteria that cost and response time availability are quite close to the fuzzy limits. Based on
should be the least and availability and interoperability
www.IJCSI.org 458
the overall satisfactory values for all the QoS attributes, Discounted Cumulative Gain (nDCG) and f- measure
the web service 4 is given the highest score for this case. (using precision and recall).
Scenario 3: Worst Case Normalized Discounted Cumulative Gain:
The worst case scenario taken here is where cost and nDCG is a measure of the effectiveness of a ranking
response time are given higher precedence ie these two algorithm and its usefulness or gain. It gives a weight to
should have a higher value and availability and the algorithm based on the position of a particular web
interoperability need to be low. The preference array in service in the list and also the score of the rank.
this case would be C=1, AV=0, IA=0 and RT=1. This metric takes the actual ranking order of the web
services based on the ranking algorithm as well as the
scores generated by each algorithm and brings out a
normalized gain value for the algorithm as a whole. The
exact formula for determining the nDCG is as follows:
nDCG = Highest rank score + /
Here i is the order of the rank list and rank score (i) is the
actual score of the i th web service.
Figure 6 shows the comparison of the nDCG values for

the three ranking methods for all the test scenarios
discussed above. From the figure, it is evident that the
hybrid method provides a better rank when compared to
Fig 5: Qos Ranking Based On Worst Case
the other two existing techniques.
In this case, web service 3 has a high cost (7 cents), high
response time ( 900 ms) and greater deviation of
availability and interoperability (.98 and .95 giving a
variation of .18 and . 10 respectively) from the most
preferred fuzzy limits as is seen from Table 1 and 2.
Hence, web service 3 is given the highest rank value.
The various test cases described above give a clear picture

of how the hybrid algorithm functions in various situations.
It can be inferred from the various graphs that the
selection of the best candidate service is more precise.
Various other test cases, similar to the ones described
above can be simulated. Each time the user’s preference
plays an important role in the selection and ranking of the
services. Fig 6: Evaluation Based On nDCG
5. Performance Evaluation f- measure:
The performance of a particular algorithm can be It is a measure of the tradeoff between the precision and
determined using various evaluation metrics. These recall of the particular ranking algorithm. Precision is the
metrics justify the efficiency of a particular algorithm in accuracy of the ranks i.e. how well the algorithm has
comparison to the other techniques. The evaluation criteria ranked the services according to the user preferences.
should be such that it takes into account all the aspects of a Recall is the deviation between the top ranked service and
particular algorithm and then predict the result. the next relevant service in the list. Both these metrics are
used together to arrive at the f-measure which then tests the
The performance evaluation metrics used to estimate the algorithm efficiency.
performance of the hybrid algorithm are Normalized
The formula for f-measure is given as follows:
www.IJCSI.org 459
nDCG f-measure
f-measure =
Case 1
Case 2
Case 3
Case 1
Case 2
Case 3
where
Matrix 10.59 10.59 10.59 0.45 0.45 0.45
Precision = Fuzzy 7.98 7.98 7.98 0.44 0.44 0.44
Hybrid 17.992 16.356 18.867 0.568 0.557 0.97

And
6. Conclusion
Recall =
The concept of a hybrid ranking method which combines
the benefits of two predominant approaches has been
The f-measure too is determined for all the scenarios for presented in this paper. This facilitates the inclusion of
each of the ranking algorithms. The analysis and imprecise QoS constraints and also combines the
comparison of the algorithms based on this evaluation advantage of having user preference. The usage of fuzzy
metric is shown in Figure 7. This metric also proves that sets and entropy normalization provides a ranking that is
the hybrid method offers a better solution to the ranking more effective than the existing ones. Also since the user
of the web services when compared with the earlier preferences are taken into account a more client oriented
methodologies. approach is being followed. The overall effectiveness of
the proposed hybrid algorithm has been justified by
various performance evaluation metrics.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank Amala Sherine. M,

Student, Pondicherry Engineering College and Vimala.
S, Student, Pondicherry Engineering College, for their
valuable contribution to this paper.
References
[1] David Booth and Canyang Kevin Liu, “Web Services
Description Language (WSDL) 2.0”, W3C Recommendation,
26 June 2007.
[2] L.Clement, A.Hately, C. Von Riegen and T. Rogers,
“UDDI Specification and Related Documents Version 3.0.2”.
[3] Algirdas Avizienis, Jean-Claude Laprie, Brian Randell and
Carl Landwehr, “Basic Concepts and Taxonomy of
Fig 7: Evaluation Based On F-Measure Dependable and Secure Computing”, IEEE Transactions on
Dependable and Secure Computing, 2004,Vol.1,No.1,pp.11-
The comparison of the three algorithms using these two 33.
metrics is described in Table 5. It clearly shows the [4] Eyhab Al-Masri, Qusay H. Mahmoud, “QoS-based
difference in the metrics for each of the ranking Discovery and Ranking of Web Services”, IEEE, 2007 pp 529-
techniques and thus establishes the efficiency of the 534.
proposed hybrid algorithm. [5] Aviv Segev and Eran Toch, “Context Based Matching and
Ranking of Web Services for Composition”, IEEE
Table 5: Analysis of Evaluation Metrics Transactions on Services Computing, Vol.2, No.3, pp 210-222,
September 2009.
[6] Demian Antony D’Mello and V.S. Ananthanarayana,
“Quality Driven Web Service Selection and Ranking”, Fifth
International Conference on Information Technology: New
Generations, April 2008,pp 1175-1176.
www.IJCSI.org 460
[7] Hong- En Lu, “Ranking Web Services Based on Ontology

Semantics”, Proceedings of Fourth International Conference on
Machine Learning and Cybernetics, August 2005,pp 2161-2165.
[8] Kyriakos Kritikos and Dimitris Plexousakis, “Semantic QoS
Metric Matching” , Proceedings on Fourth IEEE European
Conference on Web Services (ECOWS'06), December 2006.
[9] Duygu Celik and Atilla Elci, “Discovery and Scoring of
Semantic web Services based on Client Requirement(s) through
a Semantic Search Agent”, Proc. Of 30th Annual International
Computer Software and Applications Conference, September
2006, pp 273-278.
[10] Raman Kumar Goyal, Vikas Gupta, Vipul Sharma and
Pardeep Mittal, “Ontology Based web Retrieval”, pp 1-4.
[11] Hoi Chan, Trieu Chieu and Thomas Kwok, “Autonomic
Ranking and Selection of Web Services by Using Single Value
Decomposition Technique”, 2008 IEEE International Conference
on Web Services , pp 661- 666.
[12] Dimitrios Skoutas, Dimitris Sacharidis, Alkis Simitsis, and
Timos Sellis , “Ranking and Clustering Web Services using
Multi-Criteria Dominance Relationships”, IEEE Transactions on
Service Computing,July-September 2010, pp 163-177.
[13] Dimitrios Skoutas, Dimitris Sacharidis, Alkis Simitsis,
Verena Kantere and Timos Sellis, “Top-k Dominant Web
Services UnderMulti-Criteria Matching”,
[14] Vuong Xuan TRAN and Hidekazu TSUJI, “QoS based
Ranking for Web Services: Fuzzy Approaches”, IEEE ,2008 ,
4th International Conference on Next Generation Web Services
Practices , pp 77-82.
[15] Daniel.A. Menasce, “QoS Issues in Web Services”, IEEE
paper on Internet Computing, November 2002, pp 72-75.
[16] Pengcheng Xiong and Yushun Fan, “QoS-aware Web
Service Selection by a Synthetic Weight”, FSKD Proceedings of
the Fourth International Conference on Fuzzy Systems and
Knowledge Discovery - Volume 03, 2007,pp 632-637.
R.Manoharan is currently working as an Associate Professor in

the Department of Computer Science and Engineering of
Pondicherry Engineering College. His areas of specialization are
Web Technologies and Networks.
Archana.A is currently a B.Tech final year student in the

Department of Computer Science and Engineering of Pondicherry
Engineering College.
Siddhika Nitin Cowlagi is currently a B.Tech final year student in

the Department of Computer Science and Engineering of
Pondicherry Engineering College.
www.IJCSI.org 461
Improvement of QoS of Land Mobile Satellite

Systems Using Diversity Techniques
Sonika Singh1 and R.C.Ramola2 ,
1
Depatment of Electronics & Communication Engineering,
Uttarakhand Technical University,Dehradun-248001,(Uttarakhand), India.
2
Depatment of Electronics & Communication Engineering
ICFAI University,Dehradun-248001,(Uttarakhand), India.
Abstract
In order to enhance the availability and the offered communication quality and system capacity. A
Quality of Service (QoS), Land Mobile Satellite Systems well-known method to combat the effects of
(LMSS) will have the option to use simultaneous multipath fading is to obtain not just one, but
transmission via two or more satellite as diversity. In this several versions of a signal at the receiver. This
paper the performance of a TDMA and CDMA single principle is known as diversity. There are several
user return link employing such a diversity reception is ways of obtaining more than one version of a
investigated by means of computer simulation using a signal at the receiver. In the case of LMS systems
multi state mobile satellite channel model. System the signals from different satellites are uncorrelated
capacity and availability have been theoretically and thus, once several versions of a signal are
evaluated under different operating conditions. The obtained, they could be combined in various ways
obtained results have shown that by using signal to improve the received signal quality. This
combining techniques improvement of the balance technique is especially suited for LEO/MEO LMS
between service availability and system capacity is systems since for the user usually there exist at
feasible. least two visible satellites at any given time instant.
Keywords: LMSS, QoS, Diversity, Capacity Under this assumption the probability of space path
1. Introduction shadowing or blockage to both satellites is
significantly less than the probability of blockage
To enhance services available by the terrestrial to a single satellite. Furthermore, in order for the
Universal Mobile Telecommunication Systems system designer to accurately determine the fade
(UMTS) global Land Mobile Satellite (LMS) margins, reliable information about the channel
Systems for multimedia telecommunication have conditions is required. To achieve this a satellite
been proposed and developed in recent years [1]. diversity scheme that adaptively selects the best
Service availability, Quality of Service (QoS) and line of sight satellite seems promising for
capacity are perhaps the most important LEO/MEO satellites systems. The satellite
characteristics when evaluating the satisfaction of diversity effect assuming that the area is
users employing LMS telecommunication systems. illuminated simultaneously by at least two satellites
The majority of these systems are operated in L moving in LEO for urban and suburban
and S bands with their satellite installed in low and environment [2]. In the past, many studies have
medium earth orbits (LEO/MEO). On the physical been carried out employing LMS system
layer, the performance of LMS systems is strongly propagation channel models suitable for assessing
affected by their channel environment and the the diversity effect in various propagation
elevation angle that governs the fading condition environments [3],[4]. Although results obtained so
due to the shadowing and blockage. Multiple far have given significant insights into system
reflections of the radio signal cause the signal to designing, an LMS system propagation channel
arrive at the mobile station via multiple paths, model sufficient for assessing the satellite diversity
which differ in amplitude, phase and delay time. effect has not yet been established because of
The multipath reception in combination with the complex and diversified LMS system propagation
low link margins and low elevation angles is the environments. With the present paper, the
main cause for signal outages, reduced
www.IJCSI.org 462
performance of a TDMA and a wideband CDMA coverage area.

single-user return link with the diversity reception The average number of active antenna beams per
is investigated using a multi-state mobile satellite satellite, A, is given by [5]:
channel model. The novelty of this paper is to
accurately estimate the capacity and QoS
improvements offered by the reception of signals (2)
from LEO satellites at different elevation angles.
Where Bmax is the number of antennas beams per
satellite, AE is the area of the earth, N is the
number of satellites in the constellation and AS is
2. Diversity scenario and assumptions the satellite coverage area given by the equation:
For satellite systems, quality of service and
service availability depend very much upon the (3)
line-of-sight satellite availability. The satellite
visibility is one of the major factors which
influences satellite link availability, since the Where,
satellite channel behavior is depended on the link
conditions between satellite and land user.
Because of this, the LMS systems are using
satellite constellation in low elevation orbits,
3. Channnel model
which can provide multiple satellite visibility . 
As illustrated in Fig. 1, from the geometry of the In order to determine fade margin or to
satellite constellation in LEO systems, it is well compensate for the fades using modulation and
known that the probability at least two satellites, coding techniques, it is important for the system
one with high and one with low elevation angle, designers to have the most reliable information
to be linked with the land user is very high. The about the statistics of fade duration. Because the
proposed diversity scenario is discerning in the channel characteristics are depended on
following assumptions: propagation effect through the channel, the
 The simultaneous transmission of the proposed channel model is based on the state
data from two satellites,
oriented modeling approach and for the
 The use of multiple beams or scan beam
implementation a multi state Markov chain model
antennas in satellite station, and
has been used. The land mobile satellite channel
 The use of a combining technique in the
model, proposed for analysis is shown in fig. 1.
land receiver as pre-detection diversity
The prediction of the received signal is a function
scheme.
of :
For a LEO satellite system, the minimum beam
 Elevation angle,
width together with the satellite altitude  User velocity, and
determines the number of cells in a satellite  Type of environment the mobile
coverage area. The coverage angle of the satellite traverses.
is necessary in order to determine the number of The three states, which are considered in the
antenna beams of a satellite. Because of the present paper, are given in table 1.
existing symmetry in the geometry of satellite
footprint, if the coverage angle is θ , then θ can
be calculated by [5]:
(1) The statistical signal level characteristics are

Where RE denotes the radius of the earth, h is the considered in terms of the probability density
satellite altitude and φ equals π/2 plus the
function (pdf). Analytically, the state I is
minimum elevation angle. The number obtained
expressed by the Rician model, which is a phasor
in this way is the number of antenna beams that
can fit across the diameter of the satellite sum of constant and Rayleigh phasor. In state II
the receive signal is the sum of a log normally
www.IJCSI.org 463
distributed signal and a Rayleigh distributed 4. Diversity simulation and capacity

signal. The signal in state III shows ully blocked results
condition and can be expressed only by the In order to examine the performance of the
Rayleigh distribution. transmission diversity, is important the
knowledge of the envelopes of the received
signals. Fig.4 shows the corresponding signal
envelopes of the satellite with low and high
elevation angle using the input parameter of the
satellite channel simulator as shown in table 2.
In order to apply transmission diversity it is
necessary for the land mobile user to employ a
signal combining receiver unit. Two most of the
most commonly used combining techniques are
Equal Gain Combining (EGC) and the Maximum
Ratio Combining (MRC). In Fig. 5 the computer
simulation results of the signals received from
two satellites using both of these diversity
techniques are presented. Also in the same figure,
the results of the second order characteristics of
the received signals, i.e. the calculated
Cumulative Fade Distribution (CDF), the Average
Fade Duration (AFD) and the Level Crossing
Rate (LCR) are shown as a function the signal
Fig1.Land Mobile satellite(LMS) channel model.
level.
www.IJCSI.org 464
(4)
Considering a system which uses the BPSK where [No/Eb] is the total noise to bit energy ratio,Bch
modulation format, using the approach suggested is the predetection channel bandwidth, X is the loss of
in [5] the results for the following main detectability due to fading and enhances the required
parameters are calculated: i) Signal-to-Noise bit energy to noise density ratio for normal path
Ratio (SNR); ii) Carrier-to-Noise Ratio (CNR);iii) condition, T is the information bit period, Lfu, Lu ,
Bit Error Rate (BER); iv) Percentage of time for which Ld ,Lfd are the path loss and fading loss of up and
the relation BER< 10-3 is satisfied (TA); v) minimum down link respectively. Furthermore in the same
CNR for which the relation BER< 10-3 is satisfied equation, K is the Boltzamann’s constant, EIRPu is
(CNRmin), and vi) Percentage of time for which the uplink effective isotropic radiated power, Gsr is
the CNR > CNRmin (To). These results, which are the satellite receive antenna gain, Ts is the satellite system
summarized in Table 3, are necessary for noise temperature, α is the voice activation, Bo is the
estimating the communication performance and multicarrier backoff of satellite power amplifier, Te is
the overall system availability and capacity. the earth station system noise temperature, EIRPBd is
The use of narrow satellite beams, not only the satellite edge of coverage EIRP into area B, Gd is
allows the use of satellite power effectively, but the receiving earth station antenna gain, B is the total
also the capability to reuse the frequency band in coverage area, b is the beam area, (N/C)sl is the noise
case of Frequency Division Multiple Access – to carrier ratio due to side lobe interference and
FDMA and to outgrow the self interference limit (N/C)1 is approximately 10 dB for v = 1.4 (traveling
in Code Division Multiple Access – CDMA. wave tube amplifier).
There are two types of satellite beams, the fixed
and the scanning. In order to calculate the
capacity of a system using scanning satellite
beams, it is necessary to determine the satellite The channel capacity for the CDMA return link for
altitude and the antenna beam opening. The fixed beam scheme is given by:
evaluation of the channel capacity for FDMA link
and CDMA link has been analytically studied in
[5], which considers the various system
parameters such as EIRP.The channel capacity for
the FDMA return link is given by:
(4) (5)
www.IJCSI.org 465
.
www.IJCSI.org 466
where the new parameters in Eq. (5) as compared

combination of a combining technique, we can improve
to Eq. (4) are: the W, where W is the spread
the availability to capacity ratio.The results shows that
bandwidth,  is the loss of detectability of PN
the channel capacities are dependent on the elevation
modulated signal in correlation receivers after it
angle under a given satellite EIRP and the number of
has passed a limit, 1/k is the ratio of the reflected
the used antenna beams. A technical method for
downlink power and Asf is a side lobe beam array increasing the system’s capacity, without the increase
factor. The corresponding equation for scanning of available bandwidth, is the use of multiple beam
beam is almost the same, only a few parameters coverage. It is worth noting that the EGC is
(the sidelobe array factor and the satellite antenna recommended for application in LEO LMS systems
gain will be different). For the evaluation of because it introduces less complexity, less cost and
capacity, the previous simulation results have better percentage of time for which the CNR > CNRmin
been assumed, for the required Eb/N0 for which the than the MRC.
BER is 10 . Also the used link parameters are the same
-3
as in [7] except Ricean parameter k and 10 MHz Acknowledgments

bandwidth. Fig.6 illustrates the channel capacity The authors would like to thank Professor Dharmendra
versus SNR and the total coverage to beam size Singh,(Electronics & Computer Science Engineering
ratio for different latitude angle in FDMA link Department, I.I.T Roorkee, India) for his continuous
support and valuable suggestions.
and the channel capacity versus the total coverage
to beam size ratio for different latitude angle in References
CDMA link for scan and fixed beam. These
results shows that the channel capacities are [1]Mohamed Ibnkahla, Q.M.Rahman, A.Sulyaman, “High-
dependent on the elevation angle under a given Speed Satellite Mobile Communications: Technologies and
satellite EIRP and the number of the used antenna Challenges”, Proceeding of the IEEE, vol. 92, No.2,2004.
beams. The results in Fig.6 and Fig.7 were [2]Chini Paolo , Giovanni GiambeneA,y and Sastri Kota,“A
derived for a system using 700 km as satellite survey on mobile satellite systems,”International Journal Of
altitude, 20 degree as antenna beam opening and Satellite Communications Syst.Network 2010; 28:29–57.
[3]Fontan P.F, Castro M.V, ,Gracia P, and Kubista E ,
32 kbps as channel bit rate. Fig. 7 illustrates the “Statistical Modeling of the LMS Channel” IEEE
channel capacity versus elevation angle for total Transactions on Vehicular Technology, vol. 50, No. 6, 2001.
coverage area and single beam coverage area. The [4] F. P. Fontan, A. Mayo, D. Marote, R. Prieto-Cerdeira, P.
capacity increases a lot using multibeam coverage. Marin, F. Machado and N. Riera “Review of generative
models for the narrowband land mobile satellite propagation
Fig.7(b) shows the same conclusion from the channel”,International Journal Of Satellite
curves of the channel capacity versus the noise to Communications,2008; 26:291-316.
bit energy ratio for CDMA return fixed beam link, [5] B. Gavish and J. Kalvenes, “The impact of satellite
return scan beam link and forward scan beam. altitude on the performance of LEOs based communication
systems”, Wireless Networks, No 4,1998, pp. 199-213.
6. Conclusions [6]Y. Karasawa, K. Kimura, K. Minamisono, “Analysis of
availability improvement in LMSS by means of satellite
In this paper the performance of availability and diversity based on three-state propagation channel model”,
the capacity of a LMS system has been presented. IEEE Trans. on Vehicular. Technology., Vol. 46, No 4,1997.
The proposed channel model for the evaluation of [7] K. G. Johannsen, “Code division multiple access versus
the system performance is a multi state Markov chain frequency division multiple access channel capacity in mobile
statistical modeling approach. From the results it is satellite communication”, IEEE Transactions on Vehicular
shown that using the transmission diversity with the Technology., Vol. 39, No 1, pp. 17-26, Feb’90.
www.IJCSI.org 467
[8] W. Zhuang, J.-Y. Chouinard and D. Makrakis,“Dual-space Dr. R.C.Ramola received his MSc degree(Gold Medalist) in
diversity over land mobile satellite channels operating in the Electronics from Garhwal University, India,M.S. Electronics from
L and K frequency bands”, Wireless Personal BITS, Pilani, India and Ph.D in H.F. Communication from University
Communications, Vol.4, pp. 277–298,1997. of Rajasthan, Jaipur, India. He is presently working as Professor &
Dean, ICFAI University, Dehradun, since June’2006.He worked as
Sonika Singh received her B.E. in Electronics and Professor in Electronics & Communication Engg. Deptt.,D.I.T,
Telecommunication Engineering from Mumbai University,India , in Dehadun ,India, from July’2000 – June 2006. He also worked as Astt.
1998, M.B.A (Marketing Management) ,from S.G.R.R.I.T.S,
Dehradun, India in 2001, the M.Tech in Digital Communications Professor, Electronics & Communication Engg. Deptt. ,LNCT
from U.P.Technical University,Lucknow,India,in 2007. She is Bhopal , RGVP University ,India from Jan’98-July’2000.He worked
currently pursuing Ph.D from Uttarakhand Technical as Lecturer, Electronics & Communication Engg. Department,
University,Dehradun, India. She is currently working as Assistant Amrawati SSGMC, Shegon, Amrawati University,India from
Professor in Electronics & Communication Department,Dehradun
March’93- Jan’98.He was Research Fellow at CEERI, Pilani from
Institute of Technology, Dehradun, India since April’2000.She has
authored a book on “Solid State Devices and Circuits” from Krishna April’88- March’93.He is Life Member of ISTE Chapter. He has
Prakashan Pvt. Ltd, Meerut in 2004 and has published more than published more than ten in conference proceedings and international
seven papers in conference proceedings and international journals. journals. His research interests include fading channels, High
She has an overall experience of above twelve years. Her research
frequency wireless communication and optical fibre communication
interests include fading channels, wireless communications and
statistical signal processing.
www.IJCSI.org 468
Survey of propagation Model in wireless Network

1
Hemant kumar sharma, 2sanjeev Sharma, 3Krishna Kumar Pandey
1
School of IT, Rajiv Gandhi Proudyogiki Vishwavidyalaya, Bhopal (M.P.)India
2
School of IT, Rajiv Gandhi Proudyogiki Vishwavidyalaya,
Bhopal (M.P.) 462036, India
2
School of IT, Rajiv Gandhi Proudyogiki Vishwavidyalaya,
Abstract number of geometry information about the city,

To implementation of mobile ad hoc network wave propagation computational effort and more ideal model. A fading
models are necessary to determine propagation characteristic model [14] calculates the effect of changes in
through a medium. Wireless mobile ad hoc networks are self characteristics of the propagation path on the signal
creating and self organizing entity. Propagation study provides an strength, fading models are three types: Rayleigh and
estimation of signal characteristics. Accurate prediction of radio
propagation behaviour for MANET is becoming a difficult task.
ricean fading model.
This paper presents investigation of propagation model. Radio In the next section brief overview of path loss, section
wave propagation mechanisms are absorption, reflection, III discusses propagation mechanism, section IV describe
refraction, diffraction and scattering. This paper discuss free propagation model, section V discuss fading model and
space model, two rays model, and cost 231 hata and its variants last section is conclusion.
and fading model, and summarized the advantages and
disadvantages of these model. This study would be helpful in 2. PATH LOSS
choosing the correct propagation model.
Path loss[7] (PL) is a measure of the average RF
attenuation difference between transmitted signals when it
Keywords: mobile ad hoc network, propagation mechanism,
arrives at the receiver, after traversing a path of several
path loss, propagation model and fading model.
wavelengths. It is defined by [8]
1. INTRODUCTION Pt .G t .G r .  2 P ( dB )  10 log Pt
Pr  ( d ) L
Commercial success of MANET, since its initial ( 4 ) 2 d 2 L Pr(1)
implementation in the early 1972, has lad to an interest where Pt and pr are the transmitted and received power. In
between wireless engineers in understanding and free space, the power reaching the receiving antenna
predicting radio propagation characteristic in different which is separated from the transmitting antenna by a
urban and suburban area, expansive growth of MANET, it distance d is given by the Friis free-space equation:
is very precious to have the capability of determining path
loss. An ad hoc network [2] is a collection of wireless Pt .Gt .Gr . 2
movable nodes (or routers) dynamically forming a Pr  (d )
temporary network without the use of any existing network
( 4 ) 2 d 2 L (2)
infrastructure or centralized administration. The routers are Where Gt and Gr, are gain of transmitting and receiving
free to move randomly and organize themselves arbitrarily; antenna, respectively. L is the system loss factor, not
thus, the network’s wireless topology may change rapidly related to propagation. λ is the wavelength in meters.
and unpredictably. it have potential use in a wide variety of
disparate situations such as responses to storm, tsunami,
volcanic activity, disaster relief, terrorism and military 3. PROPAGATION MECHANISM
operations. This work investigation on behaviour of
There are some propagation mechanisms [12] that effect
different propagation model in MANET, propagation
propagation in mobile ad hoc network. They are explained
models [4][10] are divided into three types of models that
in this section.
are the empirical models, semi-deterministic models and
Absorption
deterministic models. Empirical models are depends on
Absorption is a loss that occurs if the signal passes through
measurement data, statistical properties and few
varying mediums or obstacles in which some of the
parameters. Examples of empirical models are Okumura
transmitted signal is converted into another form of energy,
model and Hata model. Semi-deterministic models are
usually thermal, and some of it continues to propagate.
based on empirical models and deterministic aspects,
Any material or atmospheric condition that is non-
examples being the Cost-231 and Walficsh-Ikegami.
transparent to electromagnetic signals will result in
Deterministic models are site-specific, requires huge
absorption of the transmitted signal. The conversion of
www.IJCSI.org 469
energy occurs at the molecular level, resulting from the 4.1 free space path loss model
interaction of the energy of the radio wave and the material
of the medium or obstacle This is a large scale model. The received power is only
Refraction dependent on the transmitted power, the antenna’s gains
Refraction occurs when a radio wave passes from one and on the distance between the sender and the receiver. It
medium to another with different refractive indices accounts mainly for the fact that a radio wave which
resulting in a change of velocity within an electromagnetic moves away from the sender has to cover a larger area. So
wave that results in a change of direction. the received power decreases with the square of the
Reflection distance. The free space propagation model assumes the
Reflection [8][12] occurs when a propagating ideal propagation condition that there is only one clear
electromagnetic wave impinges upon an object that has line-of-sight path between the transmitter and receiver. H.
very large dimensions compared to the wavelength of the T. Friis presented the following equation to calculate the
propagating wave. Reflection occurs from the surface of received signal power in free space at distance d from the
the ground, from walls, and from furniture. transmitter [5] [13].
Incoming Where PT is the transmitted signal power GT and GR are

RF the antenna gains of the transmitter and the receiver
Reflected respectively.  is the wavelength. It is common to select
RF GT = GR =1.then,
Refracted RF Expressed in dB as:
Fig. 1 reflection and refraction =
One is able to see from the above free space equations that
6 dB of loss is associated with a doubling of the frequency.
Diffraction This same relationship also holds for the distance, if the
Diffraction losses [6] occur when there is an obstacle in the distance is doubled, 6 dB of additional loss will be
path of the radio wave transmission and the radio waves encountered.
either bend around an object or spread as they pass through
an opening. Diffraction can cause great levels of
4.2 Two Ray Ground Model
attenuation at high frequencies. However, at low
frequencies, diffraction actually extends the range of the
radio transmission. One more popular path loss model is the two-ray model or
the two-path model. The free space model described above
assumes that there is only one single path from the
transmitter to the receiver. But in reality the signal reaches
the receiver through multiple paths (because of reflection,
refraction and scattering). The two-path model tries to
capture this phenomenon. The model assumes that the
signal reaches the receiver through two paths, one a line-
of-sight path, and the other the path through which the
reflected wave is received. According to the two-path
Scattering model, the received power is given by [8],
Diffraction
……….. (4)
Fig. 2 Diffraction and scattering
Scattering Where Pt is the transmitted power, Gt and Gr are the
Scattering is a condition that occurs when a radio wave transmitter and receiver antenna gains, respectively, in the
encounters small disturbances of a medium, which can direction from the transmitter and receiver, d is the
alter the direction of the signal. Certain weather distance between the transmitter and receiver, and ht and hr
phenomena such as rain, snow, and hail can cause are the heights of the transmitter and receiver, respectively.
scattering of a transmitted radio wave. Scattering is
difficult to predict because of the random nature of the
medium or objects that cause it. 4.3 okumara Model
4. PROPAGATION MODEL Okumara is the first model to find path loss in urban area.
Okumura’s model [3] [11] is most widely used for signal
www.IJCSI.org 470
predictions in urban and suburban areas operating in the 4.5 Cost 231 Walfisch Ikagami Model
range of 150MHz to 1.92 GHz. The basis of the method is
that the free space path loss between the transmitter and This empirical model is a combination of the models from
receiver is added to the value of Amu(f,d),where Amu is the J. Walfisch and F. Ikegami. It was developed by the COST
median attenuation, relative to free space in an urban area 231 project. It is now called Empirical COST-Walfisch-
with a base station effective antenna height Hte 200 meter Ikegami Model. The frequency ranges from 800MHz to
and mobile station height Hre is 3 meter To determine path 2000 MHz. This model is used primarily in Europe for the
loss using Okumura’s model, the free space path loss GSM1900 system [1] [11]
between the points of interest is first determined, and then Path Loss,
the value of Amu (f, d) is added to it along with correction ………. (7)
factors to account for the type of terrain as expressed in. Where
Lf = free-space loss
– ………..(5) Lrts = rooftop-to-street diffraction and scatter loss
Here, L50(dB) is the 50 percentile value of propagation Lmsd = multi screen loss
path loss, LF is propagation loss of free space, Amu is the Free space loss is given as
median attenuation relative to free space, GHte , GHre , Garea 32.4 20 20
are BTS antenna height gain factor, mobile antenna height The rooftop-to-street diffraction and scatter loss is given as
gain factor and gain due to the type of environment. [13]
Okumara model is empirical in nature means that all 16.9 10 log
parameters all parameters are used to specific range ∆
10 log 20 log
determined by the measured data.if the user finds that one
or more parameters are outside the range then there is no
alternate. Limitation of this model is its slow response to 10 0.354 0 35
quick changes in terrain.
2.5 0.075 35 35 55
4.4 Hata model
4.0 0.114 55 55 90
The The Hata model is an empirical formulation [7] of the With w = width of the roads
graphical path-loss data provided by Okumura’s model. Where Lori = Orientation Loss
The formula for the median path loss in urban areas is φ= incident angle relative to the street
given by The multi screen loss is given as:
69.55 26.16 log 13.82

log
44.9 6.55 .
……..(6) log 9 log
Where fc is the frequency (in MHz), which varies from 150
Where
MHz to 1500MHz hte and hre are the effective heights of
∆
the base station and the mobile antennas (in meters), 18log 1
respectively. d is the distance from the base station to the
mobile antenna, a(hre) is the correction factor for the
effective antenna height of the mobile unit, which is a
function of the size of the area of coverage. For small- to 54
medium-sized cities, the mobile-antenna correction factor ∆
is given by: 54 0.8 0.5
1.1 0.7 1.56 0.8 ∆ /
Path loss in suburban area 54 0.8 r d 0
.5 km
0.5
2 5.4 18
28
∆
The path loss in open rural area as is expressed 18 15
4.78 18.33 40.98
These equation improved performance value of okumara k
model, this technique is good in urban and suburban area f
but in rural areas performance degreases because rural area 0.7 Mhz 1 for medium sized city and suburban
925
prediction is depend on urban area. This model is quite 4
suitable for large-cell mobile systems, but not for personal f
Mhz 1 for mertopolitan centers
1.5
communications systems that cover a circular area of
925
approximately 1 km in radius.
This model is restricted to the following range of
parameter: frequency range of this model is 800 to 2000
MHz and the base station height is 4 to 50 m and mobile
www.IJCSI.org 471
station height is 1 to 3 m, and distance between base It is a stochastic model for radio propagation anomaly
station and mobile station d is 0.02 to 5km. caused by partial cancellation of a radio signal by itself
signal arrives at the receiver by two different paths, and at
5. FADING MODEL least one of the paths is changing. Rician fading occurs
Fading [14] is variation of the attenuation that a carrier- when one of the paths, usually a LOS signal, is much
modulated telecommunication signal experiences above stronger than the others. In Rician fading, the amplitude
certain transmission medium. The fading may vary with gain is characterized by a Rician distribution.
time, environmental location or radio frequency, and is
often modelled as arbitrary process. In wireless systems,
Rayleigh fading is the precise model for stochastic
fading may either be due to multipath propagation, or due fading when there is no LOS signal, and is sometimes
to shadowing from obstacles affecting the wave considered as a special case of the more general concept of
propagation, referred to as shadow fading. The presence of Rician fading. In this fading amplitude gain is
reflectors in the environment surrounding a transmitter and characterized by a Rayleigh distribution. A Ricean
receiver create multiple paths that a transmitted signal can fading channel described by two parameters: K and Ω. K is
traverse. As a result, the receiver sees the superposition of the ratio between the power in the direct path and the
multiple copies of the transmitted signal, each traversing a power in the other, scattered, paths. Ω is the power in the
different path. Each signal copy will experience direct path, and acts as a scaling factor to the distribution.
differences in attenuation, delay and phase shift while The received signal amplitude R is then Rice
travelling from the source to the receiver. distributed with parameters
5.1 RAYLEIGH Fading
And
Rayleigh fading is a geometric model for the effect of
a propagation situation on a radio signal. Rayleigh fading
is described as a realistic model The resulting PDF then is
for tropospheric and ionospheric signal propagation as well
as the effect of heavily built-up metropolitan environments
on radio signals. Rayleigh fading is most applicable when Where
there is no dominant propagation along a line of sight
(LOS) between the transmitter and receiver. If there is a
dominant LOS, Rician fading may be more suitable. is the Zeroth order modified Bessel function of the first
Rayleigh fading is a practical model when there are kind.
various objects in the environment that spread the radio
signal before it comes at the receiver. The central limit 6. CONCLUSIONS
theorem holds that, if there is sufficiently much spread, the This paper study some propagation model and fading
channel impulse response will be well-modelled as model and also describes two main characteristic of
a Gaussian process irrespective of the distribution of the wireless channel path loss and fading. Propagation model
individual components. If there is no dominant component depends on the transmitter height, when transmitter height
to the scatter, then such a process will have zero mean and is high okumara and cost 231 wi model are perform better.
phase evenly distributed between 0 and 2π radians. But when transmitter height is below to roof height
This random variable R, it will have a probability density prediction of these models is poor. The accuracy of every
function model in any given condition will depend on the suitability
among parameter required by the model and available
………… (9) terrain, no single model is generally acceptable as the best.
where Ω = E(R2)
Often, the gain and phase elements of a channel's REFERENCES
distortion are conveniently represented as a complex [1]. R. Mardeni and K. F. Kwan “Optimization of
number. Hata Propagation Prediction Model in Suburban
Area In Malaysia” Progress In Electromagnetics
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[2]. Ayyaswamy Kathirvel, and Rengaramanujam
Srinivasan “Analysis of Propagation Model using
Mobile Ad Hoc Network Routing Protocols”
International Journal of Research and Reviews in
Computer Science (IJRRCS), Vol. 1, No. 1, 2010.
Fig. 3 Rayleigh Fading [3]. Sagar Patel, Ved Vyas Dwivedi and Y.P. Kosta
“A Parametric Characterization and Comparative
5.2 Racian fading Study of Okumura and Hata Propagation-loss
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prediction Models for Wireless Environment” IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine, Vol.
Number 4 (2010). 45, No. 3, June 2003.
[4]. Nagendra sah and Amit Kumar “CSP Algorithm [8]. Thomas kurner “propagation prediction models”
in Predicting and Optimizing the Path Loss of chapter 4 pp115-116, 2002.
Wireless Empirical Propagation Models” [9]. Theodore S. Rappaport,, Wireless
International Journal of Computer and Electrical Communications: Principles and Practice,
Engineering, Vol. 1, No. 4, October, 2009. Prentice Hall PTR,2002.
[5]. Ibrahim Khider Eltahir “The Impact of Different [10]. H.L. Bertoni, “radio propagation for morden
Radio Propagation Models for Mobile Ad hoc wireless systems”, upper saddle river, nj, prentice
Networks (MANET) in Urban Area Environment” Hall PTR, pp 90-92,2000.
The 2nd International Conference on Wireless [11]. J. D. Parsons “The Mobile Radio Propagation
Broadband and Ultra Wideband Communications Channel” Chepter1 & 4 pp 4- 7John wiley and
(Aus Wireless 2007). son’s ltd 2000.
[6]. H. Sizun, P.de Fornel, “Radio Wave Propagation [12]. Ian Poole, “Radio Signal Path Loss,” n.d.
for Telecommunication Applications”, Springer, [13]. James Demetriou and Rebecca MacKenzie
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[7]. Tapan K. Sarkar, Zhong Ji, Kyungjung Kim, [14]. www.wikipadia .com.
Abdellatif Medour “A Survey of Various
Propagation Models for Mobile Communication”
www.IJCSI.org 473
A Recent Survey on Knowledge Discovery in Spatial Data

Mining
Dr.M.Hemalatha1, N. Naga Saranya2
1
Head Dept of Software Systems,
Karpagam University,
Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
2
N.Naga Saranya
Research Scholar,
Karpagam University,
Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
conventional data mining techniques for extracting spatial

Abstract patterns. Spatial analysis can possibly be measured to have
Spatial data mining is the process of discovering, motivating and arisen with in the early hours attempts at cartography and
previously unknown, but potentially helpful patterns from large surveying but many fields have contributed and helped to
spatial datasets. Extracting interesting and useful patterns from its climb in current appearance.
spatial datasets is more tricky than extracting the parallel patterns And the spatial analysis starts with early cartography,
from established numeric and definite data due to the complexity
surveying and geography at the beginning of history,
of spatial data types, spatial relationships, and spatial
autocorrelation. This paper focuses on the sole features that although the techniques of spatial analysis were not
distinguish spatial data mining from traditional data mining. formalized until the later part of the twentieth century.
Major activities and research needs in spatial data mining Recently the spatial analysis focuses on computer based
research are discussed. And it gives the Applications and techniques because of the huge amount of data, the
Techniques, Issues and challenges on spatial data mining. It authority of modern statistical and geographic information
shows that spatial data mining is a promising field with rich science (GIS) software, and the complication of the
research results and many challenging issues. computational modeling. Some of the contributors of the
Keywords: Spatial data mining, Knowledge discovery in spatial analysis includes (i) Biology contributed through
databases, surveys. botanical studies of global and local plant distributions and
locations, ethological studies of animal association,
landscape environmental studies of plants blocks,
1. Introduction ecological studies of spatial population changes, and the
study of biogeography. (ii) Epidemiology contributed with
Owing to the advances in technical and scientific data
early work on disease mapping, notably John Snow's work
collection and data automation we are faced with a huge
mapping an outbreak of cholera, with research on mapping
and endlessly rising amount of data or information which
the spread of disease and with locational studies for health
makes it impossible to interpret all this data yourself.
care delivery. (iii) Statistics has contributed greatly
Therefore, the growth of innovative applications,
through work in spatial statistics. (iv) Economics has
techniques and tools that support the human in
contributed notably through spatial econometrics. (v)
transforming data into useful facts has been the focus of
Remote sensing has contributed extensively in
the comparatively new and interdisciplinary research area
morphometric and clustering analysis. (vi)Computer
“knowledge discovery in databases”. The explosive
science has contributed extensively through the study of
growth of spatial data and extensive use of spatial
algorithms and applications, especially in computational
databases emphasize the need for the computerized
geometry. (vii) Geographic information system is
discovery of spatial knowledge. Spatial data mining
currently a major contributor due to the importance of
[Roddick & Spiliopoulou1999, Shekhar & Chawla2003] is
geographic software in the modern analytic toolbox.
the process of discovering motivating and previously
Scientific modeling provides a useful framework for new
unknown, but potentially useful patterns from spatial
approaches.
databases. The difficulty of spatial data and essential
spatial relationships restricts the convenience of 2. The Foundation Of Spatial Data Mining
www.IJCSI.org 474
2.1 The Systematic Structure of Spatial Data Mining example, a rule associating the price range of the houses
with nearby spatial features, like beaches, is a spatial
The spatial data mining can be used to understand spatial association rule. A spatial discriminant rule is a general
data, discover the relation between space and the non- description of the features discriminating or contrasting a
space data, set up the spatial knowledge base, excel the class of spatial data from other class(es) like the
query, reorganize spatial database and obtain concise total comparison of price ranges of houses in different
characteristic etc.. The system structure of the spatial data geographical regions. A spatial characteristics rules are a
mining can be divided into three layer structures mostly, general description of spatial data. For example, a rule
such as the Figure 1 show .The customer interface layer is describing the general price range of houses in various
mainly used for input and output, the miner layer is mainly geographic regions in a city is a spatial characteristic rule.
used to manage data, select algorithm and storage the
mined knowledge, the data source layer, which mainly Thematic Maps: Thematic Map is a map primarily
includes the spatial database (camalig) and other related designed to show a theme, a single spatial distribution or a
data and knowledge bases, is original data of the spatial pattern, using a specific map type[2]. These maps show
data mining. the distribution of a features over a limited geographic
areas. Each map defines a partitioning of the area into a set
of closed and disjoint regions, each includes all the points
with the same feature value. Thematic maps present the
spatial distribution of a single or a few attributes. This
differs from general or reference maps where the main
objective is to present the position of objective is to
present the position of objects in relation to other spatial
objects. Spatial classification is one of the techniques that
analyzes spatial and non-spatial attributes of the data
objects to partition the data into a set of classes. These
classes generates a map representing groups of related data
objects. To illustrate, data objects can be houses each with
spatial geocoordinate and non-spatial zip code values
(ie.,features) would generates an approximate thematic
map of the zip code areas. Maps have been widely used as
Fig.1 The systematic structure of spatial data mining the main references in the playing field of geography.
They are the most common tools for features such as
2.2 The Method of Spatial Data Mining population are maintained for large areas. The values of
these features has no meaning use when defined for a
The spatial data mining is newly arisen edge course when specific location. For example, zip codes and MSA codes
computer technique, database applied technique and are two different features and different values of each
management decision support technique etc. develop the feature corresponds to different class labels. There are two
certain stage. The spatial data mining gathered productions ways to represent thematic maps: raster and vector. In the
that come from machine learning, pattern recognition, raster image form thematic maps have pixels associated
database, statistics, artificial intelligence and management with the attribute values. For example, a map may have
information system etc. According to different theories, the altitude of the spatial objects coded as the intensity of
put forward the different methods of spatial data mining, the pixel (or the color). In the vector representation , a
such as methods in statistics, proof theories, rule spatial object is represented by its geometry, most
inductive, association rules, cluster analysis, spatial commonly being the boundary representation along with
analysis, fuzzy sets, cloud theories, rough sets, neural the thematic attributes. For example, a park may be
network, decision tree and spatial data mining technique represented by the boundary points and corresponding
based on information entropy etc.. elevation values.
Rules: There are several kinds of rules can be discovered Image Databases: Image databases are special kind of
from databases in general. For example, association rules, spatial databases where data almost entirely consists of
or deviation and evolution rules, characteristic rules, images or pictures. Image databases are used in remote
discriminant rules can be mined. A spatial association rule sensing, medical imaging, etc. They are usually stored in
is a rule which describes the implication of one or a set of the form of grid arrays representing the image intensity in
features by another set of features in spatial databases. For one or more spectral ranges. For example, k is the
www.IJCSI.org 475
automatic discovery. Furthermore, to our knowledge there discussed in the literature recently is R-tree [23] and its
are no solutions “k-automatic discovery” that have been modification R*-tree [6]. Objects stroed in R-trees are
tested in image data sets. Therefore, we limit our approximated by Minimum Bounding Rectangles (MBR).
presentation to one of the least tested approaches of the R-tree in every node stores a set of rectangles. At the
state of the art. The approach discovers k automatically in leaves there are stored pointers to representation of
the context of spatial data mining (Raymond & Jiawei, polygon’s boundaries and polygon’s MBRs. At the
1985). Our domain of approach is the content-based internal nodes each rectangle is associated with a pointer
indexing of large image databases; however, the domain to a child and represents minimum bounding rectangle of
of application of the state of the art approach is spatial all rectangles stored in the child.
data mining. This difference means that there are different Spatial Computations: Spatial Computation (SC), which is
objectives, different data item descriptors, and different based on the transaction of high-level language programs
confidence measures. We particularly emphasize the directly into hardware structures. SC program
confidence measure. The proposed solution that considers implementations are completely spread, with no federal
confidence measures that are more accurate for content- control. SC circuits are optimized for wires at the outlay of
based indexing of large image databases than the approach multiplication units. Spatial join is one of the most
proposed for spatial data mining. The solution is inspired, expensive spatial operations. In order to make spatial
partly, by metrics discussed in Milligan and Cooper(1985) queries efficient spatial join has to be efficient as well.
for hierarchical clustering, extended and tested for image The author Brinkhoff et al. proposed an efficient
databases. multilevel processing of spatial joins using R*-Trees and
various approximation of spatial objects [8]. The first step
2.3 Spatial Data Structures, Computations, and – filter- finds possible of interesting objects using first
Queries their MBRs and later other approximations. In second step
– refinement – detailed geometric procedure is performed
Algorithms for spatial data mining involve the use of to check for intersection. Another important in Geographic
spatial operations like spatial joins, intersections, Information Systems.
aggregates, union, minimum distance, map overlays, .
buffering geometry, ConvexHull, nearest neighbor queries
and others. Therefore, efficient spatial access methods
(SAM) and data structures for such computation is also a
concern in spatial data mining [22]. We will briefly
introduce some of the prominent spatial data structures
and spatial computations.
Spatial Data Structures: Spatial Data Structure consists of

points, line, rectangles, polygons, etc. These are all
involving the thematic map coverage. Much discussion
has been expended in two decades on the appropriate data Fig.2 An R-Tree Example
structures to handle map data-specifically the relationships
between polygons, arcs and nodes on a thematic map Spatial Query Processing: R-Tree [G84, SRF87,
coverage. The layman may be exempt for (1) being BKSS90] are the most popular indexing for Euclidean
confused by the plethora of protagonists of various query processing due to their simplicity and efficiency.
schemes and (2) wondering if they are all that different The R-Tree can be viewed as a multi-dimensional
anyhow. In order to build indices for these data, extension of the B-tree. Figure2 shows an exemplary R-
multidimensional trees have been proposed. The tree for a set of points {a,b,…,j} assuming a capacity of
discussion can be carried on at least two levels. At the three entries per node. Points that are close in space (for
implementation level anxiety may be over word extent, example a,b) are clustered in the same leaf node (E3)
record types and file structures. At the data concept or represented as a minimum bounding rectangle (MBR).
abstraction level we wonder, for example, whether we Nodes are then recursively grouped together following the
should create node records showing or informing us that a same principle until the top level, which consists of a
particular position forms the connection of three edges single root
(arcs) and three polygons, or if preserving the polygon
numbers on each side of an arc will serve just as well. And 3. Algorithms For Knowledge Discovery In
it also include quad trees [46], k-d trees, R-trees, R*-trees,
etc. One of the prominent SAMs which was much Spatial Databases
www.IJCSI.org 476
Spatial data consist of spatial objects and non-spatial existence of background knowledge in the form of
description of these objects. Non spatial attributes are used concept hierarchies. Issues on generalization-based data
to characterize non-spatial features of objects, such as mining in object-oriented databases are investigated in
name, population, and unemployment rate for a city. They three aspects: (1) generalization of complex objects, (2)
are the same as the attributes used in the data inputs f class-based generalization, and (3) extraction of different
classical data mining. Spatial attributes are used to define kinds of rules. An object cube model is proposed for
the spatial location and extent of spatial objects [7]. The class-based generalization, on-Line analytical processing,
spatial attributes of a spatial object most often include and Data Mining.
information related to spatial location, e.g., longitude,
latitude and elevation, as well as shape.
Table 1. Relationships among Non-spatial data and spatial data
Non-Spatial Spatial
Relationship Relationship
(Explicit) (Often Implicit)
Arithmetic Set-oriented: union, intersection,
membership,…
Ordering Topological: meet, within, overlap,…
Is_instance_of Directional: North, NE, left, above,
behind,…
Subclass_of Metric: e.g., distance,area, perimeter,..
Part_of Dynamic: update, create, destroy,… Fig.3 Example of Tourism use concept hierarchy
Membership_o Shape-based and visibility
f In the case of spatial database, there can be two kinds of
concept hierarchies, non-spatial and spatial. Concept
hierarchies can be explicitly given by the experts, or data
The algorithms for spatial data mining include analysis [26]. An example of a concept hierarchy for
generalization-based methods for mining spatial tourism is shown in Figure 3.As we ascend the concept
characteristics and discriminant rules [16, 17, 25], two- tree, information becomes more and more general, but
step spatial computation technique for mining spatial still remains consistent with the lower concept levels. For
association rules [34], aggregate proximity technique for example, in Figure 3 both ridable and car can be
finding characteristics of spatial clusters [33], etc. In the generalized to concept driveable which in turn can be
following sections, we categorize and describe a number generalized to concept rentable, which also includes
of these algorithms. apartment. A similar hierarchy may exist for spatial data.
For example, in generalization process, regions
3.1 Generalization-Based Knowledge Discovery representing countries can be merged to provinces and
Data and items in a database often contain complete provinces can be merged to larger regions. Attribute-
information at a ancient idea level. Generalization based oriented induction is performed by climbing the
mining is the concept of data from more than a few generalization hierarchies and summarizing the general
evidences from a concept level to its higher concept level relationships between spatial and non-spatial data by (a)
and performing knowledge withdrawal on the widespread climbing the concept hierarchy when attribute values in a
data (Mitchell, 1982).It assumes the survival of tuple are changed to the generalized values, (b) removing
background knowledge in the form of concept attributes when further generalization is impossible and
hierarchies, which is either data-driven or assigned clearly (c) merging identical tuples. Lu et al. [35] presented two
by expert-knowledge. The data can be articulated in the generalization based algorithm, spatial-data-dominant
form of a generalized relation or data-cube on which and non-spatial-data-dominant generalizations. Both
many other operations can be performed to change algorithms assume that the rules to be mined are general
generalized data into different forms of knowledge. A few data characteristics and that the discovery pricess is
of the multivariate statistical or arithmetic techniques such initiated by the user who provides a learning request
as principal components analysis, discriminant analysis, (query) explicitly, in a syntax similar to SQL. We will
characteristic analysis, correlation analysis, factor analysis briefly describe both algorithms as follows:
and cluster analysis are used for generalization based Spatial-Data-Dominant Generalization: In the first step
knowledge discovery (Shaw and Wheeler,1994).The all the data described in the query are collected. Given the
generalization-based knowledge discovery requires the spatial data hierarchy, generalization can be performed
www.IJCSI.org 477
first on the spatial data by merging the concept hierarchy.

Generalization of the spatial objects continues until the
spatial generalization threshold is reached. The spatial
generalization threshold is reached when the number of
regions is no greater than the threshold value. After the
spatial-oriented induction process, non-spatial data are
retrieved and analyzed -for each of the spatial objects
using the attribute-oriented induction technique as
described.
Fig.5 Example of a query and the result of the execution of the non-
spatial-data-dominant generalization
The result of the query may be presented in the form of a
map with a small number of regions with high level
descriptions as it is shown in Figure 5. The computational
complexity of this algorithm is also O(NlogN), where N is
the number of spatial objects.
4. Results And Discussion

Fig.4 Example of a query and the result of the execution of the spatial-
data-dominant generalization
As we mentioned earlier, data mining is a young field
An example of a query and the result of the execution of going back no more than the late 1980s. Spatial data
the spatial-data-dominant generalization algorithm is mining is even younger since data mining researchers first
showed in the Figure 4. In this example, temperature in concentrated on data mining in relational databases. Many
the range [20, 27) is generalized to moderate, and spatial data mining methods we analyzed actually assume
temperature in the range [27, ∞) to hot. The answer to the presence of extended relational model for spatial
query is the description of all regions using a disjunction databases. But it is widely believed that spatial data are
of a few predicates which characterize each of the not handled well by relational databases. As advanced
generalized regions. Temperature measured in the east- database systems, like Object-Oriented (OO). Deductive,
central region of British Columbia is in the range [22, and active databases are being developed, methods for
30].The computational complexity of the algorithm is spatial data mining should be studied in these paradigms.
O(NlogN), where N is the number of spatial objects. Mining Under Uncertainty: Uncertainty is the inherent
Non-Spatial-Data-Dominant Generalization: In the property of spatial data and one of significant factors
second step the algorithm performs attribute-oriented upsetting the course of spatial data mining [41]. There are
induction on the non-spatial attributes, generalizing them variety forms for the essentiality and feature of
to a higher (more general) concept level. For example, the uncertainty in the spatial objects of geographic
precipitation value in the range (10 in, 15in) can be information system. Essentiality of uncertainty may
generalized to the concept wet. The generalization consist of the mechanism of randomicity, fuzzy, chaos,
threshold is used to determine whether to continue or stop etc [42]. And finally the characteristic of uncertainty, may
the generalization process. The third and the last step of include error uncertainty, location uncertainty, attribute
the algorithm, neighboring areas with the same uncertainty, topology uncertainty, inconsonance
generalized attributes are merged together based on the uncertainty, immaturity uncertainty and so on.
spatial function adjacent_to. For example, if in one area Alternative Clustering Techniques: Another interesting
the precipitation value was 17 in., and in neighboring area future direction is the clusterings of possibly overlapping
it was 18 in. Both precipitation values are generalized to objects like polygons as opposed to the clustering points.
the concept very wet and both areas are merged. Clustering can be maintained additional information about
each object they contain, which can be the degree of
membership. In this way, fuzzy clustering can be used to
accommodate objects having the same distance from the
medoid.
Using Multiple Thematic Maps: We discussed
generalization-based methods which used a single
thematic map during generalization. Various applications
www.IJCSI.org 478
demand spatial data mining to be conducted using [5] Dasu, T., 2003, Exploratory Data Mining And Data
multiple thematic maps. This would involve not only Cleaning (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.)
clustering but also spatial computations like map overlay, [6] Han, J., 1998, Towards On-Line Analytical mining in
spatial joins, etc. For example, to extract general weather large databases. ACM SIGMOD-Record.
patterns, it may be better to use temperature and [7] Han, J., Kamber, M., 2001, Data Miming: Concepts
precipitation thematic maps and to carry out and Techniques ( San Francisco: Academic Press)
generalization in both. [8] Li D.R., et al., 2001, On Spatial Data Mining And
Spatial Data Mining Query Language: Design of the user Knowledge Discovery (SDMKD), Geomatics and
interface can be one of the key issues in the Information Science of Wuhan University, 26(6):491-499.
popularization of knowledge discovery techniques. One [9] Muggleton, S., 1990, Inductive Acquisition Of Expert
can create a query language which may be used by non- Knowledge (Wokingham, England: Turing Institute Press
database specialists in their work. Such a query interface in association with Addition-Wesley)
can be supported by Graphical User Interface (GUI) [10] Li D.R., Wang S.L., Li D.Y., 2005, Theories and
which can make the process of query creation much Applications of Spatial Data Mining (Beijing: Science
easier. The user interface can be extended by using Press)
pointing devices for the results of a query may give [11] Quinlan, J., 1986, Introduction of Decision trees.
feedback for refinement of the queries and show the Machine Learning, (5), 239-266.
direction of further investigation. The language should be [12] Haiyan Zhou, Jiayao Wang, Sheng Wu, Spatial Data
powerful enough to cover the number of algorithms and Mining Techniques and Applications [J]. Bulletin of
large variety of data types stored in spatial databases. surveying and mapping, 2002, (2). 11-13.
[13] Ladnee R, Petry F E, Cobb M.A. Fuzzy Set
5. Current Status Approaches to Spatial Data Miming of Association Rules
[J]. Transin GIS, 2003, 7(1), 123-138.
We have shown that spatial data mining is a promising [14] Ester M., Kriegel H.P., and Xu X. 1995. A Database
field of research with wide applications in GIS, medical Interface for clustering in Large Spatial Databases. Proc.
imaging, remote sensing, robot motion planning, and so 1st Int. Conf. on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining,
on. Although, the spatial data miming ground is pretty Montreal, Canada, 1995, AAAI Press, 1995.
young, a number of algorithms and techniques have been [15] Gueting R.H. 1994. An Introduction to Spatial
planned and proposed to discover various kinds of Database Systems, The VLDB Journal 3(4): 357-399.
knowledge from spatial data. We surveyed existing [16] Matheus C.J.; Chan P.K.; and Piatetsky-Shapiro
methods for spatial data mining and mentioned their G.1993. Systems for Knowledge Discovery in Databeses,
strengths and weaknesses. This led as to future directions IEEE Transactions on Knowledge and Data Engineering
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[19] Luc Anselin. Local Indicators of Spatial Association:
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[1] R. Agrawal, T. Imielinski, and A. Swami. Mining
[20] J.E Besag. Spatial Interaction and Statistical Analysis
Association Rules Between Sets of Items in Large
of Lattice Systems. Journal of Royal Statistical
Databases. In Proc. 1993 ACM-SIGMOD Int. Conf.
Society: Series B, 36:192-236, 1974.
Management of Data, pp. 207-216, Washington, D.C.,
[21] P.Bolstad. GIS Fundamentals: A First Text on GIS.
May 1993.
Eider Press, 2002.
[2]Chung, Chang-Jo. And Fabbri, A.G. 1993. The
[22] J.Han, M.Kamber, and A.Tung. Spatial Clustering
representation of Geoscience Information for data
Methods in Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery.
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Taylor and Francis, 2001.
Univ, Press.
[23]K.Koperski and J.Han. Discovery of Spatial
[3] Bonhan- Carter, G.F. 1994. Geographic Information
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Systems for Geoscientists. Love Printing Service Ltd.,
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[4] Cressie,N., 1991, Statistics for Spatial Data. (New
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[24] Y.Morimoto. Mining Frequent Neighboring Class [41] S.A. Abdel Sabour; R. Poulin Mine expansion
Sets in Spatial Databases. In Proc. ACM SIGKDD decisions under uncertainty.International Journal of
International Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Mining, Reclamation and Environment, Volume 24, Issue
Data Mining, 2001. 4 December 2010 , pages 340 – 349.
[25] J. Quinlan. C4.5: Programs for Machine Learning. [42] Krzysztof Koperski, Junas Adhikary, Jiawei Han.
Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, 1993. Spatial Data Mining: Progress and Challenges Survey
[26] S.Shekhar and S.Chawla. Spatial Databases: A Tour. Paper. Workshop on Research Issues on Data Mining and
Pretice Hall (ISBN 0-7484-0064-6), 2003. Knowledge Discovery, 1996.
[27] P.Zhang, Y. Huang, S.Shekhar, and V.Kumar.
Exploiting Spatial Autocorrelated to Efficiently Process Authors Profile
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[28] R. Agrawal, T. Imielinski, and A.Swami. (1993) MPhil., PhD in Computer Science
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Databases, Proc. 1993 SIGMOD, pp 207-216. AsstProfessor and Head , Dept of
[29] W.G. Aref and H.Samet. (1991) Optimization Software systems in Karpagam
Strategies for Spatial Query Processing, Proc. 17th VLDB, University. Ten years of
pp. 81-90. Experience in teaching and
[30] T.Brinkhoff and H.-P Kriegel and B. Seeger. (1993) published Twenty seven papers in
Efficient Processing of Spatial Joins Using R-trees, Proc. International Journals and also presented seventy papers in
1993 SIGMOD, pp 237-246. various National conferences and one international
[31] J. Han, Y. Cai and N Cercone. (1992) Knowledge conference. Area of research is Data Mining, Software
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Proc. 18th VLDB, pp. 547-559. reviewer in
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[33] R. Ng and J. Han. (1994) Effective and Efficient
Clustering Methods for Spatial Data Mining, Technical N.Naga Saranya received the first degree in Mathematics
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[34] H. Samet. (1990) The Design and Analysis of Spatial obtained her master degree in Computer Applications from
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[35] M.J. Egenhofer. Reasoning about Binary Topological pursuing her Ph.D. degree Under the guidance of Dr.
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Zurich, Switzerland, August 1991. University, Tamilnadu, India.
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[40] P. Van Oosterom and J. Van den Bos. An Object-
Oriented Approach to the Design of Geographic
Information System. In Proc. 1st Symp. SSD’89, pp. 255-
269, Santa Barbara, CA, July 1989.
www.IJCSI.org 480
A New - Knot Model for Component Based Software

Development
Rajender Singh Chhillar1, Parveen Kajla2
1
Department of Computer Science & Applications, Maharshi Dayanand University,
Rohtak-124001, Haryana, India
2
Department of Computer Science & Applications, Maharshi Dayanand University,
Rohtak-124001, Haryana, India
Abstract for the specific project and then follow it. The basic
activities are included in all life cycle models, though the
Component Based Software Engineering (CBSE) is a process activities may be carried out in different orders in different
that emphasizes the design and construction of computer based life cycle models. The general basic model is shown
systems using reusable software components. The component is below :
a unit, which is almost independent and may be replaced or
changed without effecting the environment. This property
motivates the programmer to design and develop software using Requirements Design
component based software development.
Traditional methods for software development approach to the

functionality of the system and mainly follow the sequential
models like waterfall, which are mostly overridden by the
Iterative and Evolutionary models like increment, prototyping,
Bohem’s Spiral Model.
Testing Implementation
To enhance the reusability feature of the software development
new process models are required and in the light of that, in this
study a new Knot Model is proposed for the Component Based
Software Development (CBSD) which lays emphasis on Fig. 1 Basic Model of Software Development.
reusability, estimation, risk analysis, feedback in every phase to
improve the quality and to reduce the cost. This model
effectively works with large and complex systems within short
period of time.
2. Component Based Software Life Cycle
Keywords: Knot, Component, CBSD, Process model, Risk Process Model
analysis, Feedback
Various process models have been designed by a number
of researchers so far for component based software
1. Introduction development. Most common among them are studied and
described briefly.
A Software Life Cycle Model is an expressive and
diagrammatic representation of the software process. 2.1 Rapid Application Development Model
Software life cycle model describes the phases of the
software cycle. It also depicts the order in which these The RAD (Rapid Application Development) Model
activities are to be commenced. A life cycle model maps achieves rapid development using a component based
the different activities performed on a software product construction approach. But this model has various
from its inception to retirement. To develop a software drawbacks such as efficient RAD teams, proper
product in a systematic and disciplined manner, the modularization is required, inappropriate when technical
development team must identify a suitable life cycle model risks are high.[4]
www.IJCSI.org 481
The X model appears to be the best for large software
development and has main focus on reusability but it does
not depict risk analysis, feedback in various phases which
is one of the reasons for the very success of Boehm’s
Spiral Model. Moreover the X-shape represents
overlapping and increases complexity.
2.3 The Y Model

The Y Software Life Cycle Model (Luiz, 2005) describes
software reusability during CBSD. The Y Shape of the
model considers iteration and overlapping. Although the
main phases may overlap each other and iteration is
allowed, the planned phases are: domain engineering,
frame working, assembly, archiving, system analysis,
design, implementation, testing, deployment and
Fig. 2 RAD Model of Software Development. maintenance.[3]
This model is proposed when requirements and solutions

can be modularized as independent system or software
components, each of which can be developed by different
teams. Then after it smaller components are developed,
they are integrated to produce a large software system.[5]
2.2 The X Model

In this X Model, the processes are started by requirement
engineering and requirement specification. The main
characteristic of this software life cycle model is
reusability in which software is developed by building
reusable components for software development and
software development from reusable and testable
components. In software development, it uses two main
approaches, develop software component for reuse and
software development with or without modification in
reusable component.[2]
Fig. 4 Y Model of Software Development.[3]
The reusability within this life cycle is smoother and more

effective than within the traditional models because it
integrates at its core, the concern for reuse and the
mechanisms to achieve it. There is an upper layer that
shows the component templates and a lower layer that
consists of run-time objects that depicts the behavior of a
particular software system. The development of a
component should therefore be with generality and reuse
in mind placing perhaps less emphasis on satisfying the
specific needs of an application that is being developed.
3. - Knot Model for Component Based

Software Development
Fig. 3 X Model of Software Development.[2]
In this study, a new Component based model is described
in which reusability in the form of component is applied.
www.IJCSI.org 482
The utmost emphasis is given on reusability, modularity, developed that becomes the component/member of the
risk analysis and feedback in each phase, which results in pool. And more over the final product also lies with the
simple, error free and a profound new system with proper pool to enhance the library.
feedback in each phase of software development. For a
new CBSD, it uses all the three: the newer one, the 3.2 Development of New Component
existing component and the modified component to build
up a new development. It consists of four phases. In this phase a new component is developed whenever the
1. Reusable Component Pool existing component in library/reusable component pool
2. Development of New Component does not satisfy the required software analysis,
3. Modification of Existing Component specifications and design. The by-product of this phase
4. Development of New Component Based enhances the warehouse.
Software Development. This phase started with an estimating cost, risk analysis,
and then software analysis and its specifications followed
by design, coding, testing and feedback.
These steps are carried out considering the services of the
required component, portability, in the current system and
as well for the future use. Depending upon the component
design, one can opt for a suitable existing model like
increment, prototyping, and spiral model to carry out this
phase. Modularity is the key concern so that a system is
decomposed before starting of this phase.[6]
3.3 Modification of Existing Component

This phase of Knot Model adopting reusability whenever
the existing components in the reservoir does satisfy the
required software analysis, specifications and design up to
an extent.
This phase plays a significant role in this model as most of

the components are to be modified according to the
specifications and design from the existing pool. The
Fig. 5 A New Knot Model of Software Development. reusability lies as most of the component specifications are
carried with the new system. But it requires a
The major advantages of this software life cycle is to categorized/indexed form of the components so that at the
handle the complex systems using modularity, reusability, beginning, a right component is being selected which
life time process, evaluation & testing in each phase to satisfies most of the specifications in the new system.
reduce the risk.
And moreover the developed CBSD itself is available in 3.4 Development of New Component Based
pool for the newer version of the software. Older versions Software Development
of the software were kept intact in pool for reverting as or
when required during testing and hence reliability of the This is the final phase of this model which again starts
system is enhanced. from the component pool. This phase provides the shape
This model is easy to adopt as it follows the existing to the new system as all the desired components are now
models like increment, prototyping and spiral model assembled by resolving the inter-component risk and the
during various phases. process is carried out till the retirement of the software.
3.1 Reusable Component Pool As this is the actual software development, so by

assembling the components available in the repository, the
This phase of Knot Model in CBSD life cycle acts as a whole system testing and implementation is carried out.
central reservoir of the components. All the other three During this, process techniques like black box or white
phases are directly interact with it. It is considered as a box for testing or other traditional techniques/ tools for
warehouse of the Knot Model. It is helpful in selecting the development are used. The maintenance stage is not meant
desired component which is used for development as per for feedback solutions but it is a life time process till the
design and specifications. Whenever a new component is
www.IJCSI.org 483
retirement of the software. Maintenance includes the reuse, so the component is not based on particular
update of software, addition, modification, scalability or application’s specification but must carry general
any type of improvement on latter stages. specifications. In this model risk is resolved in early stages
of each phase. This results in the reduction of cost and
time and makes the software more reliable and efficient.
Moreover feedback at the end of each phase results in
4. Comparisons of Software Process Models further improvement and revised form of component. It
also reduces the cost and time by better management as it
resolves the conflicts, if any, during that phase.
Table 1: Comparisons of Software Process Models
This model may require further improvement with the
change of technologies in this fast emerging field.
Process
Strengths Weakness
Model
Simple , concise, easy to References
execute, logical ordering, Requirements are [1] Boehm B., “A Spiral Model of Software Development and
For well understood frozen early, user
Waterfall feedback & changes Enhancement”, ACM SIGSOFT Software Engineering Notes,
problems, short not allowed, Linear 1986,Vol. 11, No. 4, pp. 14-24.
duration’s projects. series of actions [2] Gill N. S. and Tomar P., “X Model: A New Component-
Help in requirements Heavy process, Based Model”, MR International Journal of Engineering and
Prototyping elicitation, constructive disallow later Technology, 2008,Vol. 1, No. 1 & 2, pp. 1-9.
feedback, reduce risks, changes
leads to better systems. [3] Luiz Fernando Capretz, " Y: A new Component-Based
Each iteration have Software Life Cycle Model ", Journals of Computer Science1
Quick delivery , reduce planning overhead,
risk, allows user (1) : pp.76-82.
Iterative feedback, when cost increase during
iteration, effective [4] Pressman, R.S., Software Engineering: A Practitioner’s
requirement are not management to Approach, McGraw Hill, 6th ed. ,2005.
known earlier. control iterations [5] Srivastava, Chauhan, Raghuraj, “Square Model- A proposed
Planning and negotiations Requirement not Software Process Model for BPO base software applications”,
Spiral easier, flexibility in clear , needs
development, for larger confirmations and International Journal of Computer Applications, Vol 13, No.
projects high risks 7,2011,pp. 0975-8887.
Reusability, clear Increases [6] Yogesh Singh, K.K. Aggarwal, Software Engineering, New
complexity, no risk
X Model requirements, for large analysis, increases Delhi: New Age International Publisher Limited, 3rd Ed.
systems cost
Reusability, Solving by Iteration and
Y Model analogy, Follows both overlapping during
top down and bottom up process
approach
Reusability, Easy
Planning , requirements
clear , no complexity of Selecting a right
Knot software applications, component is
Model reduces risk and difficult, reservoir
development time, may be huge or
reduces cost, applicable difficult to manage
on larger & complex
systems
5. Conclusion
In this paper a new - Knot Model for Component Based
Software Development Life Cycle is proposed which lays
emphasis on reusability considering risk analysis and
feedback in each and every phase. This model is best
suited for medium or larger complex system’s
development. It is based on three states of the component
1) When a new component is not available in the
repository, then it develops a new component for reuse
and place it in the pool 2) When a component is partially
available, then modifies it for reuse and places it in the
pool. 3) When a component is available in the repository
then reuses it during the new proposed system. An utmost
care should be taken that each component is created for
www.IJCSI.org 484
Dr. Rajender Singh Chhillar is a Professor in the Department of

Computer Science and Applications, Maharshi Dayanand
University (MDU), Rohtak, Haryana, India. He is the former Head
(2003-2006) of Department of Computer
Science and Applications, M. D. University,
Rohtak. Headed the Department of
Engineering and Technology from April, 2006
to August 2007. Worked as Director (2003-
2010) Computer Centre, MDU and member,
monitoring committee of campus wide
Networking, M. D. University, Rohtak. He
obtained his Master’s Degree in Computer
Science from Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra and Doctorate
from Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtak. His research interest
includes Software Engineering focusing on Software Metrics,
Testing, Data Warehousing and Data Mining. He has more than 70
publications in International and National journals. Dr. Singh
authored two books; Software Engineering: Metrics, Testing and
Faults, Excel Books publisher, New Delhi; and Application of
Information Technology to Business, Ramesh Books House,
Jaipur. He is a member of various academic bodies like Academic
Council, MDU and Computer Society of India (CSI).
Mr. Parveen Kajla is a Research Scholar in the

Department of Computer Science and
Applications, Maharshi Dayanand University
(MDU), Rohtak, Haryana, India. He is coordinator
of PG Courses at Vaish Mahila Mahavidyalya,
Rohtak and Lecturer in Department of Computer
Science and Applications, Vaish Mahila
Mahavidyalya, Rohtak. He obtained his Master’s
Degree in Computer Science from Maharshi Dayanand University,
Rohtak and M.Phil(Computer Science) from Chaudhary Devi Lal
University (CDLU), Sirsa. His research interest includes Software
Engineering focusing on Object oriented and component based
metrics.
www.IJCSI.org
Surface Plasmon Waves on noble metals at Optical

Wavelengths
Niladri Pratap Maity1 and Reshmi Maity2
1
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering,
Mizoram University (A Central University),
Aizawl - 796004, Mizoram, India.
2
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering,
Mizoram University (A Central University),
Aizawl - 796004, Mizoram, India.
Abstract
In this paper the variation of the propagation constant, the frequency in the terahertz range. The propagation constant,
attenuation coefficient, penetration depth inside the metal and the the attenuation coefficient and penetration depth of the
dielectric has been evaluated. The propagation characteristics of SPWs and these properties are extensively studied for the
Surface Plasmon Waves (SPWs) which exists on noble metals
three metals and a comparison is made between them.
like gold (Au), silver (Ag) and aluminium (Al) due to the
formation of Surface Plasmon Polaritons (SPPs), have been
Among the different metals studied Au is found to be the
evaluated theoretically and simulated. It has been found that most superior metal as it has the least attenuation constant.
highly conducting metals Au and Ag provide a strong
confinement to the SPWs than Al at optical frequencies. The
comparative study reveals that metal having higher conductivity 2. Single interface analyzation of SEW
can support a more confined SPW, having a lower penetration
depth than metals of lower conductivity at terahertz frequencies A planar interface of a dielectric and metal with relative
when its dielectric constant assumes a negative value. dielectric constants 1= n12 (x > 0) and 2 = n22 (x < 0)
Keywords: Attenuation coefficient, Penetration depth, supporting confined propagation. The two media is
Propagation constant, SPP, SPW assumed to be semi-infinite. The coordinate axes have
been chosen so that the x axis is normal to the interface
with x = 0 corresponding to the interface. The z axis is in
1. Introduction the direction of propagation, and y axis lies in the interface
plane (see Fig. 1). The electric field and the magnetic field
Recently, there has been a growing interest of SPPs which
equations are derived with the help of the coupled mode
are a surface bounded electromagnetic waves coupled to
theory as follow [13]-[17].
electron density oscillations, guided along metal and
dielectric interfaces [1]. SPPs results in the formation of
electromagnetic waves which are completely confined to
the interface with the fields decaying exponentially in the
two media, known as Surface Electromagnetic Waves
(SEW). In the current years several structures of SPPs
have been widely studied [2]-[5]. When the metal is an
ideal one it is known as Fano wave while when it is a real
one, having some attenuation the SEW is better known as
the SPW [6]. In the field of nano-photonics and biosensors
metallic nanostructures, SPWs find wide applications as
Resonance Sensing [7], Raman Spectroscopy [8],
Enhanced Fluorescence and Absorption [9], Nonlinear
Optics [10], Nanolithography [11]. They even find
applications for on-chip switching and sensing with Fig.1 Confined optical propagation at single interface.
confinement below the diffraction limit for metal–
dielectric–metal waveguides [12]. Au, Ag and Al are noble For propagation of Transverse Electric (TE) waves we
metals which show a negative dielectric constant at optical have two electric field components for the two different
www.IJCSI.org
media (q = 1, 2) in the y direction along the plane of Metals exhibit negative dielectric constants in the visible
interface. We have, and infrared wavelength regions having frequencies in the
terahertz region producing structures supporting such kind
(1) of confined propagation with their amplitude decaying
exponentially with increasing distance from the boundary
Where, into the different media. We start with an ideal situation
n1 and n2 are the refractive indices of the two which is physically not realizable of the metal having a
medium, negative real  and later take into consideration of the
Aq and Bq are the field amplitudes, realistic situation where  is of complex value. Such
ω is the radial frequency in radians/sec, confined propagation supports the Fano waves. For the
β is the longitudinal propagation constant in per analysis following, we can assume a structure of with 1 >
μm, 0 and 2 = - |2 |.
From Maxwell’s equations the Fano field components for

,
each region from equations (2) and (4), omitting exp [j(wt-
z)] are:
,
Region 1(x > 0)
. (6)
The fields have to decay exponentially hence the wave

(7)
numbers in the two media kq has to be imaginary, kq = -j|kq|
so, equation (1) becomes,
(8)
= (2)
Region 2 (x < 0)
(9)
The continuity of the tangential field components and Eqy
at x = 0 gives
(10)
(3)
(11)
which cannot be satisfied since k1, k 2 > 0. Therefore, a
single interface structure between that of a metal and
dielectric cannot support TE confined wave propagation. The value of  can now be found analytically,
Similarly, for TM waves we have two magnetic field (12)

components Hqy for the two different media (q = 1, 2) in
the y direction along the plane of interface.
The term penetration depth is the distance the field travels
along the x axis before its amplitude becomes 37% of its
(4) original value. The longer the distance the weaker the
wave will be confined to the surface. The inverted
propagation constant 1/|k1| and 1/|k2| gives the penetration
Then the boundary conditions at x = 0 gives depth inside the dielectric and metal respectively in μm.
Typically the field is 98% in the dielectric and 2% in the
metal. Hence this shows that almost all the power will be
(5)
in the dielectric making these waves suitable for sensing.
Assuming confined propagation, analytic solutions for k1
which can be satisfied only if 1 , 2 have opposite signs and k2 can also be obtained which gives,
since k1, k2 > 0.
www.IJCSI.org
With the help of MATLAB programming the propagation

(13) constant and the attenuation coefficient is found out from
equation (15) and (16) for the metal Au, Ag, Al at the
different wavelengths. The graphical plots for the variation
(14) of the propagation constant and the attenuation coefficient
with the wavelength are shown in Fig. 2, 3 and 4 for Au,
SPWs represent realistic situations with non-ideal metals Ag and Al respectively.
having a complex relative dielectric constant given by 2 =
From the figures we find that the propagation constant and
2R - j2I with 2R = (- |2R |) and 2I > 0. Because 2 is now
the attenuation coefficient of Au are of higher magnitudes
complex, hence the expression for  will be complex of
at higher frequencies and decreases rapidly as the
the form  = R - jI with R, I > 0. The real part R is frequency is decreased. Hence we have confinement of the
called propagation constant and the imaginary I is SPWs at higher frequencies which are found out to be of
attenuation coefficient having their numerical value in the the range of terahertz frequencies. Moreover the
range of per µm. propagation constant is of lower magnitude and the
attenuation coefficient is of much higher value of Al than
(15) of Ag at the same frequency of operation, hence Ag will
support a more confined propagation of than of Al. The
attenuation coefficient increases because of a higher value
(16) of the imaginary part of the dielectric constant of Al at the
terahertz frequencies than of Ag. Therefore Au which has
the highest conductivity can support SPWs more than Ag
with and Al.
Because of the new complex  , the new | k1| and | k2| are
also complex of the form |k1| = |k1R| - j |k1I| and |k2| = |k2R| -j
|k2I| with |k1R|, |k1I|, |k2R|, |k2I| being the corresponding real
and imaginary parts of |k1| and |k2| respectively. Again the
penetration depths of the fields inside the two media are
now evaluated through the real parts of |k1| and |k2|
respectively.
The presence of the attenuation coefficient, represents a

lossy wave that can propagate for a finite distance L along
the z direction until its field intensity exp (-2I z) becomes
e-1. Hence, (a)
(17)
It is clearly shown from equation (16) that for long

wavelengths since the losses of the metal is reduced, hence
I become smaller and the propagation distance having the
value in the range of μm. However, there is a price to be
paid for that and this is that the penetration depth inside
the dielectric increases hence the field spreads more,
resulting to a less intense field.
(b)
3. Results and Discussion Fig. 2 Propagation Constant (a) and Attenuation Coefficient (b) of Au.
3.1 The Propagation Constant and the

Attenuation Coefficient
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3.2 Evaluation of the Penetration Depth

The value of penetration depth in equation (15) and (16) is
evaluated for the different metals at various wavelengths
and the graphical representation of the variation with
wavelength is shown in the Fig. 5, 6 and 7 for Au, Ag and
Al respectively.
From the figures it is found that the penetration depth

inside the dielectric is nearly ten times more than the
penetration depth inside the metal at the same frequency
(a)
for Au. Since the penetration depth inside the metal is of
very low magnitude hence most of the energy is confined
to the surface which is essential for the propagation of the
SPWs. For a three layer hetero-structure of gold–
semiconductor–gold it is found that the optical gain of the
core material can be made very high. The penetration
depth increases with the decrease of frequency and it is
maximum for Al and the least being for Ag. Increase in the
penetration depth results in weak confinement of the
surface plasmon waves at the surface.
(b)
Fig. 3 Propagation Constant (a) and Attenuation Coefficient (b) of Ag.
(a)
(a)
(b)
Fig. 5 Penetration depth inside the dielectric (a) and metal (b) of Au
(b)
Fig. 4 Propagation Constant (a) and Attenuation Coefficient (b) of Al.

www.IJCSI.org
3.3 Evaluation of the Propagation Distance

The value of the propagation distance is evaluated form
equation (17) for the different metals at various
wavelengths and is shown in the Fig. 8 for the metal Au,
Ag and Al respectively.
(a)
(a)
(b)
Fig. 6 Penetration depth inside the dielectric (a) and metal (b) of Ag
(b)
(a)
(c)
Fig. 8 Propagation distance for Au (a), Ag (b) and Al (c)
The propagation distance for Au is 15000 µm, 10000 for

Ag and only 5000 for Al at nearly the same frequency of
operation. Hence much of the power of the SPW dissipates
in the metal before it can travel a long distance.
(b)
Fig. 7 Penetration depth inside the dielectric (a) and metal (b) of Al 4. Conclusions
The study involved the variation of the propagation
constant, the attenuation coefficient, the penetration depth
www.IJCSI.org
inside the dielectric, the penetration depth inside the metal [10] J. A. H. van Nieuwstadt, M. Sandtke, R. H. Harmsen, F. B.
and the variation of the spot size with wavelength. Three Segerink, J. C. Prangsma, S. Enoch, and L. Kuipers,
metals, Au, Ag and Al have been considered. It is found “Strong modification of the nonlinear optical response of
metallic subwavelength hole arrays”, Phys. Review Letter,
that surface plasmon waves are highly localized since they
Vol. 97, No. 14, 2006, Art. no. 146102.
can be excited at a single interface. This high localization [11] N. Fang, H. Lee, C. Sun and X. Zhang, “Sub diffraction
of electric field is possible only at those frequencies when limited optical imaging with a silver super lens”, Science,
the dielectric constant of the metal becomes negative and Vol. 308, No. 5721, 2005, pp. 534-537.
it is found to be at optical frequencies. Among the [12] Stefan A. Maier, Gain-assisted propagation of
different metals studied Au is found to be the most electromagnetic energy in subwavelength surface plasmon
superior metal as it has the least attenuation constant. polariton gap waveguides, Elsevier, vol. 258, No. 2, 2006.
Hence as the conductivity of the metal increases the [13] M. J. adams, An Introduction to Optical Waveguides, John
localization of the surface Plasmon waves increases. This Wiley & Sons, 1981.
[14] Yariv, Optical Electronics in Modern Communications,
high localization results in strong field intensity, the most
Oxford University Press, 1997.
important feature of surface plasmon waves. [15] E. Anemogiannis and E. Glytsis, “Multilayer Waveguides:
Efficient Numerical Analysis of General Structures”,
Journal of Lightwave Technology, Vol. 10. No. 10, 1992,
References pp. 344-351.
[1] M. Ambati, D. Genov, R. Oulton and X. Zhang, “Active [16] E. K. Sharma, M. P. Singh and P. C. Kendall, “Exact
Plasmonics: Surface plasmon Interaction with Optical Multilayer Waveguide Design Including Absorbing on
Emitters”, IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Metal Layers”, Electronics Letters, Vol. 27, No. 5, 1991,
Electronics, Vol. 14, No. 6, 2008, pp. 1395-1403. pp. 408-410.
[2] S. Tripathy, A. kumar, E. Marin and J-P. Meunier, [17] M. R. Ramadas, E. Garmire, A. Ghatak, K. Thyagarajan
“Highly sensitive Miniaturized Refractive Index Sensor and M. R. Shenoy, “Analysis of absorbing and leaky
Based on Au-Ag Surface Gratings on a Planner Optical planar waveguides: a novel method”, Optics Letters, Vol.
Waveguide”, Journal of Lightwave Technology, Vol. 28, 14, 1989, pp.376-378.
No. 17, 2010, pp. 2469-2475.
[3] G. Nemova and R. Kashyap, “Modelling of plasmon- Niladri Pratap Maity received the M. Sc. Degree in Electronics
polariton refractive-index hollow core sensors assisted by from Sambalpur University and M. Tech. degree in Electronics
a fiber bragg grating”, Journal of Lightwave Technology, Design & Technology from Tezpur University (A Central University,
Vol. 24, No. 10, 2006, pp. 3789–3796. Govt. of India), India. He joined the Mizoram University (A Central
[4] G. Nemova and R. Kashyap, “Theoretical model of a University) as an Assistant Professor and Head of the Department
planar integrated refractive index sensor based on surface of Electronics & Communication Engineering in 2007. He has good
industrial experience in the field of VLSI design & Microelectronics.
plasmon-polariton excitation”, Optical Communication, He is currently working with high-k dielectric materials,
Vol. 275, 2007, pp. 76-82. microelectronics and Electronics Materials. He is the author of
[5] S. Tripathy, A. kumar, E. Marin and J-P. Meunier, more than 20 international journal/conference papers with one
“Refractive index sensing characteristics of dual resonance best paper award. He is the Life Member of Semiconductor
long period gratings in bare and metal coated D-shaped Society of India (SSI), Indian Society of Technical Education
fibers”, Applied Optics, Vol. 48, 2009, pp. G53-G58. (ISTE), Photonics Society of India (PSI) and Material Research
[6] J. J. Burke and G. I. Stegeman, “Surface-polariton like Society of India (MRSI). He has got the Visiting Scientist Fellow
waves guided by thin, lossy metal films”, Physical Review Award from Department of Science & Technology (DST), Ministry
of Science & Technology (MIT), Govt. of India in 2010. He has two
B, Vol. 33, 1986, pp. 5186-5201. ongoing major projects from Ministry of Human Resource &
[7] J. Homole, “Surface plasmon resonance sensors for Development (MHRD) and MIT, Govt. of India.
detection of chemical and biological species”, Chemical
Review, Vol. 108, No. 2, 2008, pp. 462-493. Reshmi Maity received the B. Tech. and M. Tech. degree in
[8] R. Gordon, “Surface Plasmon Nanophotonics: A Tutorial”, Radio Physics & Electronics from University of Calcutta, Kolkata,
IEEE Nanotechnol Magazine, Vol. 12, 2008, pp. 12-18. India. She joined the Mizoram University (A Central University) as
[9] D. M. Schaadt, B. Feng and E. Yu, “Enhanced an Assistant Professor in the Department of Electronics &
Semiconductor optical absorption via surface plasmon Communication Engineering in 2008. She has good teaching and
research experience in the field of MEMS and Microelectronics.
excitation in metal nanoparticles”, Applied Physics Letter,
She is the author of more than 15 international journals /
Vol. 86, No. 6, 2005, Art. no. 063106. conferences.
www.IJCSI.org 491
Survey of Latest Wireless Cellular Technologies for

Enhancement of Spectral Density at Reduced Cost
Prof. R. K. Jain1, Sumit katiyar2 and Dr. N. K. Agrawal3
1
Electronics Department, Singhania University, HIET Ghaziabad
Jhunjhunu, Rajasthan 333515, India
2
Electronics Department, Singhania University, HIET Ghaziabad
Jhunjhunu, Rajasthan 333515, India
3
EC Department, UPTU, IPEC
Ghaziabad, UP 201012, India
Abstract
The future of mobile wireless communication networks will
include existing 3rd generation, 4th generation (implemented in
Japan, USA, South Korea etc.), 5th generation (based on cognitive
radio which implies the whole wireless world interconnection &
WISDOM – Wireless innovative System for Dynamic Operating
Megacommunications concept), 6th generation (with very high
data rates Quality of Service (QoS) and service applications) and
7th generation (with space roaming). This paper is focused on the
specifications of future generations and latest technologies to be
used in future wireless mobile communication networks.
However keeping in view the general poor masses of India, some
of the future generation technologies will be embedded with 2G Fig.1 Mobile devices become gateway to ambient intelligence and needed
and 2.5G so that general masses may get the advantage of information
internet, multimedia services and the operators may get proper
revenues with little extra expenditure in the existing mobile Intelligence, sensing, context awareness and increased
communication networks. data-rates require more memory and computing power,
Keywords: Quality of Service (QoS), capacity, adaptive / which together with the size limitations leads to severe
smart antenna, Hierarchical Cellular Structure. challenges in thermal management. All the above
requirements can be addressed satisfactorily with the
application of OFDM, CDMA-2000, WCDMA/UMTS,
1. Introduction TD-SCDMA, Wi-Fi (i.e. Wireless LAN) networks with
fixed internet to support wireless mobile internet as the
Mobile devices together with the intelligence that will be same quality of service as fixed internet, which is an
embedded in human environments - home, office, public evolution not only to move beyond the limitations and
places - will create a new platform that enables ubiquitous problems of 3G, but also to enhance the quality of services,
sensing, computing, storage and communication. Core to increase the bandwidth and to reduce the cost of the
requirements for this kind of ubiquitous ambient resource, 5G based on cognitive radio, 6G (to integrate
intelligence are that the devices are autonomous and robust.
They can be deployed easily and require little maintenance.
satellites for getting global coverage) and
As shown in Fig 1, mobile device will be the gateways to nanotechnology [1].
personally access ambient intelligence and needed 4G mobile systems will mainly be characterized by a
information. Mobile also implies limited size and horizontal communication model, where such different
restrictions on the power consumption. Seamless access technologies as cellular, cordless, wireless LAN
connectivity with other devices and fixed networks is a type systems, short-range wireless connectivity, and wired
crucial enabler for ambient intelligence system - this leads systems will be combined on a common platform to
to requirements for increased data-rates of the wireless complement each other in the best possible way for
links. different service requirements and radio environments [2].
www.IJCSI.org 492
The 5th wireless mobile multimedia internet networks can satellites to get global coverage. The global coverage
be completed wireless communication without limitation, systems have been developed by four courtiers. The global
which bring us perfect real world wireless – World Wide position system (GPS) is developed by USA. The
Wireless Web (WWWW). 5G is based on 4G technologies, COMPASS system is developed by China. The Galileo
which is to be revolution to 5G. During this processing, system is developed by EU, and the GLONASS system is
there are two kind of problems need to be solved. The first developed by Russia [3]. These independent systems are
is wider coverage and the second is freedom of movement difficulty for space roaming. The task of 7th generation
from one technology to another. The 6th generation (6G) (7G) wireless mobile communication networks are going to
wireless mobile communication networks shall integrate unite the four systems to get space roaming.
Fig.2 Evolution towards 7G
Width KHz KHz KHz MHz

2. Review User Per 1 3 8 About
Channel 20
2.1 First Generation (1G)-Analog System Channel Frequ- Frequen- Frequency Frequen-
Separation ency cy And Time cy
The first generation wireless mobile communication system And and
Time Code
is not digital technology, but analog cellular telephone
system which was used for voice service only during the Network IS-41 IS-41 GSM-MAP IS-41
early 1980s [4]. This Advanced Mobile Phone System Architec-
(AMPS) was a frequency modulated analog mobile radio ture
system using Frequency Division Multiple Access
(FDMA) with 30kHz channels occupying the 824MHz − 2.3 Comparison between 2.5G and 3G
894MHz frequency band and a first commercial cellular
system deployed until the early 1990’s [5]. Items 2.5G 3G
Speed Up to 384 Kbps Up to 2Mbps
2.2 Second Generation (2G)-Digital System HLR, VLR, Enhanced HLR, VLR,
Databases EIR, AuC EIR, AuC
AMPS D-AMPS GSM CDMA Core Network Circuit and Wide-area concept
Operating 800 800 & 900 & 1800 800 & packet Circuit and packet
Spectrum MHz 1900 MHz 1900 switching switching
Frequency MHz (Europe) MHz HSCSD WCDM,
800 & 1900 Technologies GPRS CDMA2000,
MHz (US) EDGE TD-SCDMA
Channel 30 30 200 1.25 Applications SMS, Internet Internet, multimedia
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2.4 Comparison between 4G and 5G 3.3 OFDM

Items 4G 5G 3G systems such as high speed packet access (HSPA)
Speed Up to 1 Gbps Up to 1 Gbps on provide up to round 15-20 Mbps downlink and about 5-10
mobile Mbps uplink. 4G systems are being designed to support 5
Global Global to 10 times these rates (i.e. downlink above 100 Mbps and
Services Roaming Roaming uplink above 50 Mbps). OFDMA is based on orthogonal
Smoothly
frequency division multiplexing. At first OFDM was used
Broadband, Enhanced Broadband
Core Network Entirely IP-based Entirely IP-based into fixed access WIMAX 802.16D to provide high speed
packet switching packet switching internet access either as a replacement for other access
OFDM, LAS-CDMA, technologies like ADSL or cable, or to provide service in
MC-CDMA, OFDM, regions where the other access technologies where not
Technologies LAS-CDMA, MC-CDMA, UWB, deployed.
Network-LMPS IPv6 Network-LMDS
The widespread interests of OFDM become clear from a
glance at OFDM characteristics. In 802.11a, OFDM
3. Fourth Generation (4G): Revolutionary provides raw data rates up to 54 Mbits / s in a 20-MHz
Approach channel. In addition to supporting high data capacity and
resisting degradation from various types of radio effects,
OFDM makes highly efficient use of the available
spectrum. The latter characteristic will become crucial in
coming years as wireless networks are built out.
OFDM Simple Architecture Overcomes - Noise, Signal to

Noise Ratio Challenges, Multipath Fading, Adjacent
- Higher bit rates than 3G and full mobility. Channel, Interference, Non-Adjacent Channel Interference
- Higher spectral efficiency and lower cost per bit than 3G OFDM also provides a frequency diversity gain, improving
- Air Interface optimized for IP traffic. the physical layer performance. It is also compatible with
Examples: OFDM, MIMO. other enhancement technologies such as smart antennas
and MIMO. OFDM modulation can also be employed as a
multiple access technology (OFDMA). In this case, each
3.1 Technical Issues OFDM symbol can transmit information to/from several
users using a different set of sub carriers (sub channels).
1. High data rates- OFDM, MC-CDMA, Synchronization This not only provides additional flexibility for resource
& estimation, Distortion (linear, non-linear). allocation (increasing the capacity), but also enables cross-
2. Coding- Iterative decodable codes (Turbo, LDPC) layer optimization of radio link usage.
3. Smart antenna systems
4. MIMO (Multi Input Multi Output) devices The idea of the complementation of IPv6, OFDM, MC-
5. Reconfigurable terminals (SW and HW) CDMA, LAS-CDMA, UWB and Network-LMDS can be
6. Cognitive Radio arranged in different zone size. IPv6 can be designed for
running in the all area because it is basic protocol for
address issue. LAS-CDMA can be designed for the global
area as zone 1, world cell. OFDM and MC-CDMA can be
3.2 Reconfigurable Technology designed for running in the wide area (Zone 3), called
Macro cell. Network-LMDS is in Zone 2, Micro cell, and
Reconfigurable refers to the software re-definition and/or UWB is in Zone 1, Pico cell.
adaptation of every element within each layer of the
communication chain. MC-CDMA stands for Multi-Carrier Code Division
Multiple Access, which is actually OFDM with a CDMA
overlay LAS-CDMA Large Area Synchronized Code
Division Multiple Access is developed by Link Air
Communication, a patented 4G wireless technology. “LAS-
Fig .3 Software Driven Radio
CDMA enables high-speed data and increases voice
capacity and the latest innovative solution.
www.IJCSI.org 494
In 4G technologies, UWB *7 radio can help solve the communication infrastructures—that is the fifth generation
multi-path fading issues by using very short electrical of the mobile communications standards—5G.
pulses to across all frequencies at once.
Both the cognitive radio (CR) and the fifth generation of
The Network-LMDS, Local Multipoint distribution system, cellular wireless standards (5G) are considered to be the
is the broadband wireless technology used to carry voice, future technologies: on one hand, CR offers the possibility
data, Internet and video services in 25GHz and higher to significantly increase the spectrum efficiency, by smart
spectrum. secondary users (CR users) using the free licensed users
spectrum holes; on the other hand, the 5G implies the
3.4 Multiple-Input Multiple-Output whole wireless world interconnection (WISDOM—
Wireless Innovative System for Dynamic Operating Mega
MIMO uses signal multiplexing between multiple communications concept), together with very high data
transmitting antennas (space multiplex) and time or rates Quality of Service (QoS) service applications.
frequency. It is well suited to OFDM, as it is possible to
process independent time symbols as soon as the OFDM Cognitive Radios (CRs) integrate radio technology and
waveform is correctly designed for the channel. This aspect networking technology to provide efficient use of radio
of OFDM greatly simplifies processing. The signal spectrum, a natural resource, and advanced user services.
transmitted by m antennas is received by n antennas.
Processing of the received signals may deliver several The idea of a cognitive radio extends the concepts of a
performance improvements: range, quality of received hardware radio and a software defined radio (SDR) from a
signal and spectrum efficiency. simple, single function device to a radio that senses and
reacts to its operating environment.
3.5 Software Defined Radio
A Cognitive Radio incorporates multiple sources of
Software Defined Radio (SDR) benefits from today’s high information, determines its current operating settings, and
processing power to develop multi-band, multi-standard collaborates with other cognitive radios in a wireless
base stations and terminals. Although in future the network. The promise of cognitive radios is improved use
terminals will adapt the air interface to the available radio of spectrum resources, reduced engineering and planning
access technology, at present this is done by the time, and adaptation to current operating conditions. Some
infrastructure. Several infrastructure gains are expected features of cognitive radios include:
from SDR. For example, to increase network capacity at a
specific time (e.g. during a sports event), an operator will Sensing the current radio frequency spectrum environment:
reconfigure its network adding several modems at a given This includes measuring which frequencies are being used,
Base Transceiver Station (BTS). when they are used, estimating the location of transmitters
SDR makes this reconfiguration easy. In the context of 4G and receivers, and determining signal modulation. Results
systems, SDR will become an enabler for the aggregation from sensing the environment would be used to determine
of multi-standard pico/micro cells. For a manufacturer, this radio settings.
can be a powerful aid to providing multi-standard, multi-
band equipment with reduced development effort and costs Policy and configuration databases: Policies specifying
through simultaneous multi-channel processing. how the radio can be operated and physical limitations of
radio operation can be included in the radio or accessed
over the network. Policies might specify which frequencies
4. 5G Based on Cognitive Radio can be used in which locations. Configuration databases
would describe the operating characteristics of the physical
4.1 5G Concept radio. These databases would normally be used to constrain
the operation of the radio to stay within regulatory or
The twenty-first century is surely the “century of speed”,
physical limits.
and achieves a high evolution in all the possible domains,
especially in communication: a very large variety of
Self-configuration: Radios may be assembled from several
services, software, equipments, possibilities etc. But this
modules. For example, a radio frequency front-end, a
huge and colored offer also brings a complicated lifestyle
digital signal processor, and a control processor. Each
and waste of time for the human beings, and needs to be
module should be self-describing and the radio should
integrated and achievable in a simple manner. Therefore, a
automatically configure itself for operation from the
new technology started to be delineated, that will provide
available modules. Some might call this “plug-and-play.”
all the possible applications, by using only one universal
device, and interconnecting the already existing
www.IJCSI.org 495
Mission-oriented configuration: Software defined radios overcome the inherent disadvantage of an increased no of
can meet a wide set of operational requirements. handoffs, which both cell splitting and small pico cells,
Configuring a SDR to meet a given set of mission bring about. A critical question with respect to hierarchical
requirements is called mission oriented configuration. cellular networks is how to divide the available radio
Typical mission requirements might include operation resources (i.e. frequency, channels) among the macro and
within buildings, substantial capacity, operation over long micro cells layers in a optimal way. Another important
distances, and operation while moving at high speed. aspect is the optimal choice of a threshold velocity above
Mission-oriented configuration involves selecting a set of which users are assigned to the macro cell layer. Most
radio software modules from a library of modules and research in this area so far has dealt with those issues is a
connecting them into an operational radio. static way, assuming fixed traffic and mobility parameters.
First time in the year 2000, two adaptive algorithms are
Adaptive algorithms: During radio operation, the cognitive described, which control the threshold velocity as well as
radio is sensing its environment, adhering to policy and the division of the resources among these layers,
configuration constraints, and negotiating with peers to best dynamically. The performance of those algorithms is
utilize the radio spectrum and meet user demands. evaluated by means of computer simulations [7].
Distributed collaboration: Cognitive radios will exchange 6.1 Macro Cell

current information on their local environment, user
demand, and radio performance between themselves on A conventional base station with 20W power and range is
regular bases. Radios will use their local information and about 20 km to 30 km.
peer information to determine their operating settings.
6.2 Micro Cell
Security: Radios will join and leave wireless networks.
A conventional base station with 5W power and range is
about 1km to 5 km.
5. Benefit of Nanotechnology
6.3 Pico Cell
Mobility also implies limited size and restriction on the
power consumption. Seamless connectivity with other The Pico cells are small versions of base stations, ranging
devices and fixed networks is a crucial enabler for ambient in size from a laptop computer to a suitcase. Besides
intelligence systems- this leads to requirements for plugging coverage holes, Pico cells are frequently used to
increased data rates of the wireless links. Intelligence, add voice and data capacity, something that repeater and
sensing, context awareness, and increased data rates require distributed antenna can not do.
more memory and computing power, which together with
the size limitations leads to severe challenges in thermal Adding capacity in dense area, splitting cells are expensive,
management.[10], [11] time consuming and occasionally impossible in dense
All these requirements combined lead to a situation which urban environment where room for a full size base station
can not be resolved with current technologies. often is expensive or unviable. Compact size Pico cells
Nanotechnology could provide solutions for sensing, makes them a good fit for the places needing enhanced
actuation, radio, embedding intelligence into the capacity, they can get.
environment, power efficient computing, memory, energy
sources, human-machine interaction, materials, mechanics, Picocells are designed to serve very small area such as part
manufacturing, and environmental issues [6]. of a building, a street corner, malls, railway station etc.
These are used to extend coverage to indoor area where
outdoor signals do not reach well or to add network
capacity in areas with very dense uses.
6. Hierarchical System
The vision of the “third generation” cellular system
incorporates micro & picocells for pedestrians use, with 7. Proposed Network
macro cells for roaming mobiles. In order to increase the
growing capacity demands of cellular mobile Based on smart antenna, MC-CDMA and OFDMA
communication systems cell splitting will be applied technologies cellular network has been proposed with
and/or small pico cell will be established .Since both minor amendments in existing 2G and 2.5G systems for
measures can increase spectral efficiency. Hierarchical providing quality service and enhanced spectral density at
cellular networks have been suggested previously to reduced rate.[9], [12], [13], [14], [15], [16] [17].
www.IJCSI.org 496
The modified networks for 2G and 2.5G systems have been

proposed to get the desired results. The addition of smart
antenna in the system alone can increase spectral efficiency
and quality of services manifold.
References
[1]. Al-Shawabkeh, M; Salleh, R; Li, X, (2007) “Bandwidth
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[2]. Lu, Willie W, Open Wireless Architecture and Enhanced
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technologies have been presented & discussed. The optimization control protocol for 4G wireless mobile
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probable 5G, 6G and 7G networks have been proposed.
[9]. Xichun Li, Abudulla Gani, Rosli Salleh, Omar Zakaria, “The
5G obtains the tool technology to interconnect and Future of Mobile Wireless Communication Networks”
integrate all the wireless network types and thus gains the International Conference on Communication Software and
needed network infrastructure (CR network). Networks, 2009.
[10]. R.K.Jain, Risal Singh, “Role of Nanotechnology in future
6G will integrate all wireless mobile networks with wireless and communication systems”, National seminar
satellites to get global coverage. proceeding, Academy of Business & Engineering Sciences,
Ghaziabad, pp-19-28, 16-17th January 2009.
7G wireless mobile networks are going to unite the four [11]. R.K.Jain, H.C.Agarwal, Risal Singh” Applying the
intelligent cell concept in cellular networks and
GPS systems available in space to get space roaming in
communication systems”, National seminar proceeding,
addition to 6G systems. Academy of Business & Engineering Sciences, Ghaziabad,
pp-41-48, 16-17th January, 2009.
However our complete attention is to enhance the quality [12]. Ch. Santhi Rani, Dr. P. V Subbaiah, Dr. K. Chennakeasva
of services, to increase the bandwidth and to reduce the reddy, “Smart Antenna Algorithms for WCDMA Mobile
cost of the resource [8] along with reduction of RF Communication Systems” IJCSNS International Journal of
pollution and power consumption. Computer Science and Network Security, Vol.8 No.7, July
2008.
www.IJCSI.org 497
[13]. Rameshwar Kawitkar, ”Issues in Deploying Smart Antennas Prof. R. K. Jain has received his BE and ME in 1972 & 1974 from
in Mobile Radio Networks” Proceedings of World Academy IIT Roorkie, respectively. He has 32 years industrial experience
of Science, Engineering and Technology Vol 31 Jul 2008, from M/S ITI Ltd. (Top Management) and 5 years teaching
experience as professor. He is currently working as Prof. and
ISSN 2070-3740.
Head of Electronics & Communication Engineering at HIET,
[14]. Martin Cooper, Marc Goldburg, ”Intelligent Antennas: Ghaziabad, UP, India. He is currently pursuing PhD degree course
Spatial Division Multiple Access” Annual Review of from Singhania University as research scholar. His area of
Communications, 1996. research is cellular communication. He has published 6 papers in
[15]. Constantine A. Balanis, “Smart Antennas for Future National / International Conferences.
Reconfigurable Wireless Communication Networks” IEEE,
2003. Sumit Katiyar has received his B.Sc. and M.Sc. in 2001 & 2004
[16]. Cornelia-Ionela Badoi, Neeli Prasad, Victor Croitoru, respectively from CSJMU, Kanpur, UP, India. He has received his
M.Tech. from JIITU, Noida, UP, India. . He is currently pursuing
Ramjee Prasad,”5G Based on Cognitive Radio”, Springer
PhD degree course from Singhania University as research scholar.
Science + Business Media, LLC, 2010. He is currently working as Sr. Lecturer in department of Electronics
[17]. Na Yao, ”A CBR Approach for Radiation Pattern Control in & Communication Engineering at HIET, Ghaziabad, UP, India.
WCDMA Networks ”Department of Electronic Engineering
Queen Mary, University of London January 2007. Dr. N. K. Agrawal is a senior member of IEEE (USA) and life
member of ISTE and ISCEE.
www.IJCSI.org 498
Swarm Intelligence based Soft Computing Techniques for the

Solutions to Multiobjective Optimization Problems
Hifza Afaq1 and Sanjay Saini2
Department of Physics & Computer Science, Dayalbagh Educational Institute
Agra 282005, India
Abstract objective function converts the multi objective

The multi objective optimization problems can be found in optimization problem into a single objective optimization
various fields such as finance, automobile design, aircraft design, problem. When such a composite objective function is
path optimization etc. This paper reviews some of the existing optimized, in most cases it is possible to obtain one
literature on multi objective optimization problems and some of particular trade off solution. This procedure of handling
the existing Swarm Intelligence (SI) based techniques to solve
these problems. The objective of this paper is to provide a
multi objective optimization problems is simple but
starting point to the multi objective optimization problems to the relatively subjective. This procedure is preference based
reader. multi objective optimization [19].
Keywords: Multiobjective optimization problem, Evolutionary
Algorithm, Particle Swarm Optimization, Ant Colony The second approach is to determine an entire set of
Optimization. solutions that are non-dominated with respect to each
other. This set is known as Pareto optimal set. While
moving from one Pareto solution to another, there is
1. Introduction always a certain amount of sacrifice in one or more
objectives to achieve a certain amount of gain in the
Most real life problems are multi objective in nature. other(s). Pareto optimal solution sets are often preferred to
These objectives are conflicting (preventing simultaneous single solutions because they can be practical when
optimization) in general. It means that one objective is considering real-life problems. The size of the Pareto set
optimized at the cost of other objective. The multi usually increases with the increase in the number of
objective optimization problems are difficult but realistic, objectives [55].
because of their broad applicability, optimization
problems have been studied by researchers with various It is important to note that the result obtained by
backgrounds. This gives rise to a variety of strategies for preference-based strategy largely depends on the relative
solving such problems. There exists a vast literature on the preference vector used in forming the composite function.
methods to deal with multi objective optimization A change in this preference vector will result in a
problems. It should be noted that every approach has its (hopefully) different trade-off solution. Preference vector
pros and cons, and no single best option is available to the need not result in a trade-off optimal solution to all
solution seeker in the general case. There are two general problems. Also, it is important to note that it is highly
approaches to multiple objective optimization problems. subjective and not so easy to find a relative preference
(i) Classical Approach (preference-based multi-objective vector. On the other hand, the ideal multi objective
optimization) (ii) Ideal Approach (Pareto optimal optimization procedure is less subjective. The main task in
approach). this approach is to find as much different trade-off
solutions as possible. Once a well distributed set of trade
A simple method to solve a multi objective optimization off solutions is found then higher level information related
problem would be to form a composite objective function to a problem is required to choose one solution from a set
as the weighted sum of the objectives, where a weight for of already obtained set of trade off solutions. Thus, the
an objective is proportional to the preference vector fundamental difference in using the problem information
assigned to that particular objective. This method of in the two approaches is that, relative preference vector
scalarizing an objective vector into a single composite needs to be supplied without any knowledge of the
www.IJCSI.org 499
possible consequences in the classical approach; where in text. PSO has been known to perform well for many static
the ideal approach, the problem information is used to problems. However, many real-world problems are
choose one solution from the obtained set of trade-off dynamic and it has been argued that EAs are potentially
solutions. The ideal approach, in this matter is more well-suited in the dynamic problems [73], [77], [83].
practical and less subjective [19]. However, PSO techniques also hold promises for dynamic
problems [5], [12]. Another approach which is gaining
popularity for multi objective Optimization is Ant Colony
2. Multi Objective Optimization Problems Optimization technique [7], [21], [35]. Various fields
where ACO has been applied and known to be working
The multi-objective optimization problem needs to pay well are classical problems such as assignment problems,
attention to a number of conflicting objectives sequencing [35] and scheduling problems [7], graph
simultaneously. The goal in multi-objective optimization coloring [39], discrete and continuous function
is to obtain a finite number of Pareto optimal solutions, optimization and path optimization problems [3], [23],
instead of a single optimal solution. For example, the [24], [31], [32], [33], [36], [72] etc. More recent
multi objective problem that simultaneously minimizes applications include cell placement problems arising in
(without loss of generality)1 objectives can be described as circuit design, the design of communication networks
follows: [11], [22], problems in bioinformatics [62] etc.
Minimize (f1(x), f2(x), ..., fi(x)), subject to x ‫ א‬S

3. Solution to Multiobjective Optimiz ation
Where, S denotes the feasible solution space. In order to Problems
solve a multi objective problem, some important concerns
must be handled carefully. One of these concerns is how 3.1. Evolutionary Algorithm
to optimize every objective functions at the same time. An
important concept tied to multi objective optimization is Evolutionary algorithms (EA’s) are often well-suited for
domination. Deb, K. [19] defines domination by optimization problems involving several, often conflicting
Definition 1. objectives, i.e., multi objective optimization problems.
EAs have been used in various fields such as an auto pilot
Definition 1: A solution x(1) is said to dominate the other design [8], vehicle routing problem, travelling salesman
solution x(2), if both conditions 1 and 2 are true: problem [30]. Brockhoff reviewed theoretical aspects of
I. The solution x(1) is no worse than x(2) in all evolutionary multiobjective optimization in [9]. Potwin
objectives, or fj(x(1)) fj(x(2)) for all j=1,2,….,M. [71] reviewed the literature on evolutionary algorithm for
II. The solution x(1) is strictly better than x(2) in at vehicle routing problem which is a multi objective
least one objective, or f j ( x ( 1 ) )  f j ( x ( 2 ) ) for at optimization problem. Abraham and Jain state that real
world applications have several multiple conflicting
least one j  {1,2,….,M} [19]. objectives generally. They defined fundamental concepts
of multiobjective optimization emphasizing the motivation
A non-dominated set of solution is defined by Definition and advantages of using evolutionary algorithms in [1].
2.
Start
Definition 2: Among a set of solutions P, the non-
dominated set of solutions P’ are those that are not
dominated by any member of the set P [19].
Initialize population
The set of non-dominated solutions is also known as the

Pareto optimal set of solution. This set has all the possible
Evaluate fitness Apply Genetic Operators
good solutions for the solution seeker.
Multi objective optimization problems has been tackled

through various approaches of which evolutionary Solution No
computation, PSO and ACO are reviewed in the current found?
1
A maximization problem can be changed to a minimization Yes
problem by using duality principle. Stop
Fig. 1 Flow chart for EA.

www.IJCSI.org 500
Fieldsend [29] defined multi objective problems as being and decoding representation. This method has been
typically complex, with both a large number of parameters implemented to five well-known CVRP benchmarks.
to be adjusted and several objectives to be optimized. Prins developed a hybrid GA that is relatively simple but
Multi objective evolutionary algorithms (MOEAs) are a effective to solve the vehicle routing problem.
popular approach to confronting multi objective
optimization problems by using evolutionary search Jin, Okabe and Sendhoff [49] brought an idea that
techniques. The use of EAs as a tool of preference is due systematically changes the weights during evolution that
to such problems. EAs, which can maintain a population leads the population to the Pareto front. They investigated
of solutions, are in addition able to explore several parts two methods; one method is to assign a uniformly
of the Pareto front simultaneously. Flow chart in Fig. 1 distributed random weight to each individual in the
displays basic EA functionality. population in each generation. The other method is to
change the weight periodically with the process of the
Srinivas, N. and Deb, K. applied genetic algorithm in [77] evolution. They found in both cases that the population is
to find the Pareto optimal set. Deb, K. describes the able to approach the Pareto front, although it does not
problem features that may cause a multi-objective genetic keep all the found Pareto solutions in the population.
algorithm difficulty in converging to the true Pareto- Zhang and Rockett [82] compared three evolutionary
optimal front in [18]. He constructed multiobjective test techniques (i) The Strength Pareto Evolutionary
problems having features specific to multiobjective Algorithm (SPEA2), (ii) The Non-dominated Sorting
optimization enabling researchers to test their algorithms Genetic Algorithm (NSGA-II) and (iii) The Pareto
for specific aspects of multi-objective optimization. Deb, Converging Genetic Algorithm (PCGA).
K. and Agrawal, S. [20] investigated the performance of
simple tripartite GAs on a number of simple to complex 3.2. Particle swarm techniques
test problems from a practical standpoint. For solving
simple problems mutation operator plays an important a. Particle Swarm Optimization Algorithm
role, although crossover operator can also be applied to
solve these problems. When these two operators are Heppner and Grenander, in 1990 [38] proposed that the
applied alone they have two different working zones for small birds fly in coordination and display strong
population size. For complex problems involving massive synchronization in turning, initiation of flight, and landing
multimodality and deception, crossover operator is the key without any clear leader. They proposed that the
search operator and performs reliably with an adequate synchronization of movement may be a by product of
population size. Based on this study, they recommended "rules" for movement followed by each bird in the flock.
using of the crossover operator with an adequate Simulation of a bird swarm was used to develop a particle
population size. swarm optimization (PSO) concept [51]. PSO was
basically developed through simulation of bird flocking in
Corne and Knowles [17] introduced Pareto Envelop based two dimensional spaces. Searching procedures by PSO
Selection Algorithm (PESA). Zitzler, Deb and Thiele [84] can be described as follows:
compared four multi objective EA’s quantitatively. Also, i. Each particle evaluates the function to maximize at
they introduced an evolutionary approach to multi-criteria each point it visits in spaces.
optimization, the Strength Pareto EA (SPEA) that ii. Each particle remembers the best value it has found
combines several features of previous multi objective so far (pbest) and its co-ordinates.
EA’s in a unique manner to produce better results. Binh iii. Each particle know the globally best position that one
and Korn [4] presented a Multiobjective evolution member of the flock had found, and its value global
strategy (MOBES) for solving multiobjective optimization best (gbest).
problems subject to linear and non-linear constraints. The
algorithm proposed by them maintains a set of feasible
iv. Using the co-ordinates of pbest and gbest, each
particle calculates its new velocity as in Eq. (1)
Pareto optimal solution in every generation.
Error! Reference source not found. and the position
of each particle is updated by Eq. (2).
Some researchers modified genetic algorithm to get better
results for the problems to be tested. In this series Jian      
[48] employed a proposed genetic particle swarm vi ( t  1 )  vi ( t )  1  ( pi  xi ( t ))   2  ( p g  xi ( t )) (1)
  
optimization method (MGPSO) to solve the capacitated xi ( t  1 )  xi ( t )  vi ( t  1 ) (2)
vehicle routing problems. He incorporated PSO with the Here, 1  c1 R1 and 2  c2 R2 ; 0  R1  1; 0  R2  1.
genetic reproduction mechanisms (crossover and
mutation). This algorithm employs an integer encoding
www.IJCSI.org 501
The basic particle swarm optimization algorithm is as optimization has a number of parameters that determine
follows: its behavior and efficacy in optimizing a given problem.
i. Randomly generate an initial swarm
ii. Repeat for each particle i do Shi and Eberhart [75] in late 90’s pointed out that for
a. If f(xi)> f(pi) then pi  xi different problems, there should be different balances
b. pg= max (pneighbours) between the local search ability (pbest) and global search
ability (gbest). Considering this they introduced a
c. update velocity
parameter called inertia weight (w), in Error! Reference
d. update position source not found. as given in Error! Reference source
e. end for not found. where, Error! Reference source not found.
iii. until termination criteria is met remained unchanged.
     
Kennedy and Eberhart, in a later work [50] introduced the vi (t 1)  w* vi (t)  1  ( pi  xi (t))  2  ( pg  xi (t)) (3)
Discrete Binary version of the PSO algorithm. In this
algorithm the velocity of particle is described by the Inertia weight introduced by [75] could be a positive
Hamming distance between the particle at time t and t+l. constant or even a positive linear or nonlinear function of
they defined vid for discrete space as the probability of bit time. They performed various experiments to test the
xid taking the value 1. So, the Error! Reference source Schaffer’s f6 function, a benchmark function, and
not found. remained unaltered in the discrete version concluded that the PSO with the inertia weight in the
except that now pid and xid belongs to {0, 1} and are range [0.9, 1.2] on average will have a better performance.
discrete. Secondly, Vid, since it is a probability, is They also introduced the concept of time decreasing
constrained to the interval {0.0, 1.0}. The resulting inertia weight to improve the PSO performance. Also, Shi
change in position then is defined by the following rule: and Eberhart [75] introduced the idea to build a fuzzy
system to tune the inertia weight on line. Clerc and
If (rand() < S(vid)) Kennedy [13] pointed out that the traditional versions of
then xid = 1 the algorithm have had some undesirable dynamical
else xid = 0 properties especially the particle's velocities needed to be
limited in order to control their trajectories. In their study
where, the function S(v) is a sigmoid limiting they [13] also analyzed the particle's trajectory as it moves
transformation and rand() is a quasi-random number in discrete time, then progresses to the view of it in
selected from a uniform distribution in [0.0, 1.0]. From continuous time. On the basis of this analysis they
the results obtained they [50] concluded that binary presented a generalized model of the algorithm,
particle swarm implementation is capable of solving containing a set of coefficients to control the system's
various problems very rapidly. Also, they found that the convergence tendencies. They [13] introduced the
discrete version of the algorithm extends the capabilities constriction factor  that causes the convergence of the
of the continuous valued one and is able to optimize any individual trajectory in the search space, and whose value
function, continuous or discrete. Higashi and Iba [40] is typically approximately 0.729.
presented a particle swarm optimization with Gaussian
     
mutation that combines the idea of the particle swarm with vi ( t  1 )   [ vi ( t )  U( 0,1 ) ( pi  xi ( t ))  U( 0,2 ) ( pg  xi ( t ))] (4)
concepts from evolutionary algorithms. They tested and Here,   1   2 . Clerc’s analysis worked out using a
compared this model with the standard PSO and standard
condensed form of the formula given by Eq. (5).
GA. The experiments conducted on unimodal and
multimodal functions gave the better results when PSO    
with Gaussian mutation is used in comparison with v i ( t  1 )   [ vi ( t )   .( pm  xi ( t ))] (5)
standard GA and PSO. Khanesar, Teshnehlab, and
 
Shoorehdeli [53] introduced a novel binary particle swarm  .p  2 .pg
In this model p m  1 i . Mendes, Kennedy and
optimization.
1   2
b. PSO Parameters Neves [59] proposed an alternate form of calculating

p m given by Eq. Error! Reference source not found.).

Many researchers and scientists focused their attention to
  w( k )  p k k
   
different parameters used in PSO to produce better results. pm  k N
 ;  k  u 0 , MAX  k  N (6)
Pederson, M. E. H. explains in Good Parameters for  w( k ) k  N 
Particle Swarm Optimization [69] that particle swarm kN
www.IJCSI.org 502

Where  is the set of neighbors of the particle and p k is recommended von Neumann sociometry that performed
the best position found by individual k [59]. In this model better than the standard ones on a suite of standard test
all the neighbors contribute to the velocity adjustment, the problems. Mendes, R., Kennedy, J. and Neves, J. [60]
authors called it the fully informed PSO. introduced new ways that an individual particle can be
influenced by its neighbors. Different topological
Adriansyah and Amin [2] proposed a variation of PSO structures are shown in
model where inertia weight is sigmoid decreasing; they
called it Sigmoid Decreasing Inertia Weight. Parsopolus
and Vrahatis [67] conducted various experiments on the
benchmark problems to yield useful conclusions regarding
the effect of the parameters on the algorithm’s
performance.
c. Neighborhood topologies
Kennedy and Mendes [52] describes the particle swarm

algorithm as a population of vectors whose trajectories
oscillate around a region which is defined by each
individual’s previous best success and the success of some
other particle. Various methods have been used to identify
“some other particle” to influence the individual. In the Fig. 2.
original PSO algorithm the particle were influenced by its
own position and the position of the particle that has
found best value for the function. They used gbest and
pbest topologies in combination to improve the
performance of basic PSO and tested the algorithm on six
standard benchmark functions keeping two factors in
focus (i) Number of neighbors and (ii) Amount of
clustering. The results suggested that the Von-Neumann
topology (with and without self) did well where star and
gbest (without self) were the worst [52]. Fig. 2 depicts
different topological structures. The traditional particle
swarm topology gbest as described by Mendes, Kennedy
and Neves [59] treats the entire population as the
individual’s neighborhood; all particles are directly
connected to the best solution in the population. Whereas, Fig. 2 Neighborhood Topologies.
the neighborhood of individual in the pbest type
sociometry is comprised of the adjacent members of the Mendes, Kennedy and Neves designed and studied several
population array. It is the slowest and most indirect sociometries [60] i.e., gbest, pbest, four clusters, Von-
communication pattern. According to Kennedy and Neumann and pyramid (See
Mendes [52] it has been thought that the gbest type
converges quickly on problem solutions but has a
weakness for becoming trapped in local optima, while
pbest populations are able to flow around local optima, as
subpopulations explore different regions. They concluded
that when distances between nodes are too short, and
communication passes too quickly, the population
converges very quickly to the best solution found in the
early iterations. In this case the population will fail to
explore outside of locally optimal regions. On the other
hand, inhibiting communication too much results in
inefficient allocation of trials, as individual particles
wander clueless through the search space. Out of the Fig. ). Von-Neumann is a square lattice whose extremities
neighborhood configurations they tested they connect as a torus; pyramid is a three dimensional wire-
www.IJCSI.org 503
frame triangle as described by Mendes, Kennedy and dynamic changes. In another study they introduced an
Neves [60]. They used two measure of performance (a) adaptive PSO [42] which automatically tracks various
Best functional result found after the fixed number of changes in a dynamic system. Blackwell and Branke [6]
iterations. (b) Number of iterations needed for the explored different variants of PSO that works well in the
algorithm to meet the criteria and employed five standard dynamic environments. Their main idea is to split the
test functions. They found that the individual is not only population of particles into a set of interacting swarms.
influenced by the best individual in the neighborhood but These swarms interact locally by an exclusion parameter
also that the best results do not take into consideration the and globally through an anti convergence operator. The
experience of the individual. They concluded that the von- multi-swarm algorithm evaluated on multimodal dynamic
Neumann sociometry is a very good performer but the moving peaks benchmark functions gives the results
reason remained unanswered. Wang and Xiang [78] showing that the multi-swarm optimizer significantly
proposed a dynamically changing ring topology, in which outperforms previous approaches. Janson and Middendorf
particles have unidirectional connection with respect to [46] compared dynamic variants of standard PSO and
their personal best fitness. Meanwhile, two strategies, Hierarchical PSO (H-PSO) on different dynamic
namely the “Learn From Far and Better Ones” strategy benchmark functions. Also, they proposed a hierarchical
and the “Centroid of Mass” strategy are used to enable PSO, called Partitioned H-PSO (PH-PSO). In PH-PSO
certain particle to communicate with its neighbors. algorithm the hierarchy is partitioned into several sub-
Experimental results on six benchmarks functions validate swarms for a limited number of generations after a change
the effectiveness of the proposed algorithm [78]. Ghosh, occurred. The test results show that H-PSO performs
Kundu, Kaushik, Das, Abraham, Panigrahi and Snasel significantly better than PSO on all test functions and that
[34] took first step towards the probabilistic analysis of the PH-PSO algorithms often perform best on multimodal
the pbest PSO with variable random neighborhood functions where changes are not too severe.
topology by addressing issues like inter-particle
interaction and probabilities of selection based on particle In a later study on noisy and dynamic environment Janson
ranks. Hamdan [37] hybridized star, ring and Von- and Middeendorf [47] studied Particle Swarm
Neumann topologies to get better results. According to Optimization method for dynamic and noisy function
this algorithm the particle will compute its velocity optimization. PH-PSO maintains a hierarchy of particles
according to all the topologies separately and will update that is partitioned into several sub-swarms for a limited
its velocity according to the best suited topology. So, the number of generations after a change of the environment
particle will choose the best for itself. According to the occurred. A standard method for metaheuristics to cope
author this algorithm performed better on nine standard with noise is to use function re-evaluations. They
test functions and has faster convergence speed in proposed a method to reduce the number of necessary re-
comparison to other strategies that exists. evaluations which uses the hierarchy to find a subset of
particles for which re-evaluations are particularly
d. Dynamic Environments important. They also presented a method to detect changes
of the optimization function in the presence of noise.
Many real world applications are dynamic that requires an
optimization algorithm to have a property to continuously e. Particle Swarm Optimization Algorithm for
track the changing position of the goal. Carlisle and Multiobjective Optimization Problems
Dozier [10] proposed a method for adapting the particle
swarm optimizer for dynamic environments. The process Particle Swarm Optimization Techniques have
consists of causing each particle to reset its record of its applications in a variety of area such as Clustering
best position as the environment changes, to avoid making Analysis [12], Multiobjective Optimization Problems [14],
direction and velocity decisions on the basis of outdated [43], [44], [45], [63], [65], [81], Neural Network Training
information. Two methods for initiating this process are [58] etc. In this section we will focus our attention to the
examined: (i)Periodic resetting, based on the iteration application of PSO to Multi-objective Optimization
count, and (ii)Triggered resetting, based on the magnitude Problems. Parsopolus and Vrahatis presented first study of
of change in environment. The preliminary results suggest the Particle Swarm Optimization method in
that these two modifications allow PSO to search in both Multiobjective Optimization Problems in [68]. They
static and dynamic environments. Hu and Eberhart [42] studied the ability of PSO to detect Pareto Optimal points
modified PSO to track changes in a dynamic system and capture the shape of the Pareto Front. They
automatically. They tested different environment detection considered Weighted Aggregation technique with fixed or
and response techniques on two benchmark functions. adaptive weights. Also, they adapted critical aspects of the
Also, they introduced re-randomization to respond to the VEGA approach for Multiobjective Optimization using
www.IJCSI.org 504
Genetic Algorithms to the PSO framework in order to chronological ordering. According to Xiao-hua, Hong-yun
develop a multi-swarm PSO that can cope effectively with and Li-cheng [79] it is very important to find a sufficient
multi objective problems. number of uniformly distributed and representative Pareto
optimal solutions for multiobjective optimization
Hu, Eberhart and Shi [43] presented a dynamic problems. They constructed a model for particle swarm
neighborhood particle swarm optimization algorithm for optimization, and proposed an intelligent particle swarm
multiobjective optimization problems. They introduced an optimization (IPSO) for MO problems, on the basis of
extended memory to store global Pareto optimal solutions AER (agent-environment-rules) model, in which
to reduce computation time. Li [57] introduced a modified competition operator and clonal selection operator are
PSO, Non-dominated Sorting Particle Swarm Optimizer designed to provide an appropriate selection pressure to
(NSPSO), for better multiobjective optimization. NSPSO propel the swarm population towards the Pareto-optimal
extends the basic form of PSO by making a better use of front. The quantitative and qualitative comparisons
particle’s personal bests and offspring for more effective indicate that the proposed approach is highly competitive
non-domination comparisons. Instead of a single and that can be considered as a viable alternative to solve
comparison between a particle’s personal best and its multiobjective objective problems. Koppen and Veenhuis
offspring, NSPSO compares all particle’s personal bests [56] introduced a approach to multi-objective particle
and their offspring in the entire population. This proves to swarm optimization. The approach is based on the Fuzzy-
be effective in providing an appropriate selection pressure Pareto-Dominance (FPD) relation. FPD is a generic
to propel the swarm population towards the Pareto- ranking scheme, where ranking values are mapped to
optimal front. By using the non-dominated sorting concept element vectors of a set. These ranking values are directly
and two parameter-free niching methods, results and computed from the element vectors of the set and can be
comparison with NSGA II show that NSPSO is highly used to perform rank operations (e.g. selecting the
competitive with existing evolutionary and PSO "largest") with the vectors within the given set. FPD can
multiobjective algorithms. be seen as a paradigm or metaheuristic to formally expand
single-objective optimization algorithms to multi-
Coello, Pulido and Lechuga [15] introduced the concept objective optimization algorithms, as long as such vector
of Pareto dominance into particle swarm optimization in sets can be defined. This was already shown for the
order to allow it to handle problems with several objective Standard Genetic Algorithm. They applied this concept to
functions. This modified algorithm uses a secondary PSO, where a swarm of particles is maintained. The
repository of particles that is later used by other particles resulting PSO algorithm studied on a fundamental
to guide their own flight. They also incorporated a special optimization problem (Pareto-Box-Problem) is shown to
mutation operator that enriches the exploratory handle the case of a larger number of objectives, and
capabilities of the algorithm. Persopolus, Tasoulis and shows properties similar to single-objective PSO. Kodru,
Vrahatis [65] studied a parallel version of the Vector Das and Welch described a PSO Nelder Mead Simplex
Evaluated Particle Swarm Optimization (VEPSO) method hybrid multiobjective optimization algorithm [54] based
for multiobjective problems and performed experiments on a numerical metric called ε-fuzzy dominance. In this
on well known and widely used test problems. The approach, k-means algorithm is applied to divide the
obtained results yields the superiority of VEPSO when population into smaller sized clusters, while the position
compared with the corresponding results of the Vector and velocity of each particle is updated using PSO, in
Evaluated Genetic Algorithm approach. Hwang, Koo and every iteration. The Nelder Mead simplex algorithm is
Lee [45] proposed a Homogeneous Particle Swarm used separately within each cluster for added local search.
Optimizer (HPSO) for multi-objective optimization The algorithm they proposed is shown to perform better
problems. They proposed one global repository concept than MOPSO on several test problems.
for choosing pBest and gBest, this means that each
particle has lost its own identity and treated simply as a Zhang and Xue [81] proposed a dynamic sub-swarms
member of social group. They tested various kinds of the multi-objective particle swarm optimization algorithm
multiobjective optimization problem that illustrated the (DSMOPSO). Based on solution distribution of multi-
successful result in finding a Pareto optimal set. objective optimization problems, it separates particles into
Parsopolus and Vrahatis [66] described the state of art multi subs warms, each of which adopts an improved
literature on multiobjective PSO algorithms. They clustering archiving technique, and operates PSO in a
distinguished two fundamental categories of algorithms, comparably independent way. Clustering eventually
(a) approaches that exploit each objective function enhances the distribution quality of solutions. The
separately and (b) Pareto-based schemes. The exposition selection of the closest particle to the gbest from archiving
of the methods for each category is based on set and the developed pbest select mechanism increase the
www.IJCSI.org 505
choice pressure. In the meantime, the dynamic set particle compared with other MOEAs, being able to accurately,
inertial weight being relevant to the number of dominating reliably and robustly approximate the true Pareto front in
particles, effectively keeps the balance between the global almost every tested case. Sierra and Coello [76] proposed
search in the early stage and the local search in the later a Multi-Objective Particle Swarm Optimizer, which is
stage. Experiments show that this strategy yields good based on Pareto dominance and the use of a crowding
convergence and strong capacity to conserve the factor to filter out the list of available leaders. They also
distribution of solutions, especially for the problems with proposed the use of different mutation operators which act
non-continuous Pareto-optimal front. Elhossini and Areibi on different subdivisions of the swarm. Also, the approach
[27] proposed an efficient particle swarm optimization incorporates the e-dominance concept to fix the size of the
technique based on the strength Pareto approach to deal set of final solutions produced by the algorithm. The
with multi objective optimization problem. The proposed results indicate that the proposed approach is highly
modified particle swarm algorithm is used to build three competitive, being able to approximate the front even in
hybrid EA-PSO algorithms to solve different multi- cases where all the other PSO-based approaches fail.
objective optimization problems. They tested these
algorithm using seven benchmarks from the literature and f. Hybrid Particle Swarm Algorithm
compared the results to the strength Pareto evolutionary
algorithm (SPEA2) and a competitive multi-objective Researchers and scientists hybridized PSO with various
PSO using several metrics. The proposed algorithm shows different existing evolutionary and fuzzy concepts.
a slower convergence, compared to the other algorithms, Existing literature on these include [41] in which Hongbo,
but requires less CPU time. Combining PSO and Abraham and Zhang states, that for multimodal problems
evolutionary algorithms leads to superior hybrid involving high dimensions, the PSO algorithm tends to
algorithms that outperform SPEA2, the competitive multi- suffer from premature convergence. Analysis of the
objective PSO, and the proposed strength Pareto PSO behavior of the particle swarm model reveals that such
based on different metrics. premature convergence is mainly due to the decrease of
velocity of particles in the search space that leads to a
Minnebo in [61] explored various strategies for handling total implosion and ultimately fitness stagnation of the
boundary constraints and guide selection. Additionally he swarm. They introduced turbulence in the Particle Swarm
explored the method to combine independent runs of the Optimization algorithm to overcome the problem of
algorithm in order to obtain solutions of higher quality. stagnation. The algorithm uses a minimum velocity
Mostaghim and Teich [63] proposed a method using threshold to control the velocity of particles. The
multi-objective particle swarm optimization to cover the parameter, minimum velocity threshold of the particles is
Pareto optimal front. The method works in two phases. In tuned adaptively by a fuzzy logic controller embedded in
phase 1 the goal is to obtain a good approximation of the the TPSO algorithm, which is further called as Fuzzy
Pareto-front. In a second run sub swarms are generated to Adaptive TPSO (FATPSO). The results of the
cover the Pareto front. Omkar, Khandelwal, Ananth, Naik, experiments performed illustrates that the FATPSO could
Narayana and Gopalakrishnan [64] present a generic prevent premature convergence very effectively and it
method for multi-objective design optimization of clearly outperforms SPSO and GA. Premlatha and
laminated composite components using a novel multi- Natarajan [70] presented the hybrid approaches of Particle
objective optimization algorithm developed on the basis Swarm Optimization with Genetic Algorithm (GA). They
of the Quantum behaved Particle Swarm Optimization proposed modification strategies in PSO using GA. The
(QPSO) paradigm. QPSO is a co-variant of the popular experimental results are show that the proposed hybrid
Particle Swarm Optimization and has been developed and models outperform the standard PSO. Settles and Soule in
implemented successfully for the multi-objective design [74] proposed a novel hybrid GA/PSO algorithm,
optimization of composites. The problem is formulated Breeding Swarms, combining the strengths of particle
with multiple objectives of minimizing weight and the swarm optimization with genetic algorithms. The hybrid
total cost of the composite component to achieve a algorithm combines the standard velocity and position
specified strength. Fan and Chang [28] proposed a update rules of Crossover (VPAC), incorporating the PSO
technique to use particle swarm optimization algorithms to velocity vector. The VPAC crossover operator actively
solve multi-objective optimization problems. Their disperses the population preventing premature
algorithm is based on the concept of Pareto dominance, as convergence. The comparison between the hybrid
well as a state-of-the-art ‘parallel’ computing technique algorithm and the standard GA and PSO models show that
that intends to improve algorithmic effectiveness and the hybrid algorithm is highly competitive, often
efficiency simultaneously. The results indicate that the outperforming both GA and PSO.
algorithm proposed is extremely competitive when
www.IJCSI.org 506
3.3. Ant Colony Optimization Techniques and following behavior, illustrating how complex
collective structures in insect colonies may be based on
Ant System (AS) can be applied to the optimization self-organization. Colorni, Dorigo and Meniezzo [16]
problems like traveling salesman problem [23], the explored the implications that the study of ants behavior
quadratic assignment and job-shop scheduling [5]. The can have on problem solving and optimization. They
inspiring source of ACO is the foraging behavior of real introduced a distributed problem solving environment and
ants. When searching for food, ants initially explore the proposed its use to search for a solution to the travelling
area surrounding their nest in a random manner. As soon salesman problem. Later, Dorigo, M. Maniezzo, V. and
as an ant finds a food source, it evaluates the quantity and Colorni, A. proposed ant colony optimization based on
the quality of the food and carries some of it back to the this foraging behavior of the ants in [26]. The main
nest. During the return trip, the ant deposits a chemical characteristics of this model are positive feedback,
pheromone trail on the ground. The quantity of distributed computation, and the use of a constructive
pheromone deposited, which may depend on the quantity greedy heuristic. The basic algorithm introduced by them
and quality of the food, will guide other ants to the food [18] is given by following steps:
source. The main principle behind these interactions is
called stigmergy, or communication through the i. Set parameters, initialize the pheromone trails
environment. An example is pheromone laying on trails ii. while (termination condition not met) do
followed by ants. Pheromone is a potent form of hormone a. Construct ants solutions
that can be sensed by ants as they travel along trails. It
b. Apply local search
attracts ants and therefore ants tend to follow trails that
have high pheromone concentrations. This causes an c. Update pheromones
autocatalytic reaction, i.e., one that is accelerated by itself. iii. end while
Ants attracted by the pheromone will lay more of the same
on the same trail, causing even more ants to be attracted Dorigo and Gambardella in [24] applied ant colony
see Fig. 3. This characteristic makes swarm intelligence optimization to solve travelling salesman problem. They
very attractive for routing networks, robotics and proposed [24] an artificial ant colony capable of solving
optimization. A number of extensions are proposed to the the traveling salesman problem (TSP). Ants of the
original ant algorithm. These algorithms performed better artificial colony are able to generate successively shorter
producing much improved results than the original ant feasible tours by using information accumulated in the
algorithm. Deneubourg, Aron, Goss and Pasteels [21] form of a pheromone trail deposited on the edges of the
explained that the workers of the Argentine ant TSP graph. Computer simulations demonstrate that the
(Iridomyrmex humilis) start to explore a chemically artificial ant colony is capable of generating good
unmarked territory randomly. As the exploratory front solutions to both symmetric and asymmetric instances of
the TSP. The method is an example, like simulated
annealing, neural networks, and evolutionary
computation, of the successful use of a natural metaphor
to design an optimization algorithm. Di Caro and Dorigo
in [22] introduced a distributed algorithm that is applied to
the traveling salesman problem (TSP). In his algorithm, a
set of cooperating agents called ants cooperate to find
good solutions to TSPs. Ants cooperate using an indirect
form of communication mediated by pheromone they
deposit on the edges of the TSP graph while building
solutions. The results show that ACS outperforms other
nature inspired algorithms such as simulated annealing
Fig. 3 Path Optimization by Ants. and evolutionary computation. They concluded comparing
ACS-3-opt, a version of ACS augmented with a local
advances, other explorers are recruited and a trail extends search procedure, to some of the best performing
from it to the nest. Whereas recruitment trails are algorithms for symmetric and asymmetric TSPs. Dorigo,
generally constructed between two points, these Di Caro and Gambardella [25] presented algorithms for
exploratory trails have no fixed destination, and strongly discrete optimization that took inspiration from the
resemble the foraging patterns of army ants. A minimal observation of ant colonies foraging behavior, and
model shows how the exploratory pattern may be introduces the ant colony optimization metaheuristic.
generated by the individual worker’s simple trail laying Guntsch and Middendorf [36] investigated strategies for
pheromone modification of ant algorithms in reaction to
www.IJCSI.org 507
the insertion/deletion of a city of Traveling Salesperson particular types of problems is also established. Thus, we
Problem instances. They proposed three strategies for found that there is no technique that can be categorized
pheromone diversification through equalization of the clearly as the best techniques to solve the MOOPs. Some
pheromone values on the edges. One strategy acts globally techniques are better for one kind of problems while some
without consideration of the position of the others are better for other kind of MOOPs. Also, the
inserted/deleted city. The other strategies perform performance of these algorithms depends on various
pheromone modification only in the neighborhood of the parameters used in the respective algorithms, and the
inserted/deleted city, where neighborhood is defined choice of values of these parameters also depends on the
differently for the two strategies [3]. The Probabilistic problem in hand.
Traveling Salesman Problem (PTSP) is a TSP problem
where each customer has a given probability of requiring Acknowledgement
a visit. The goal is to find an a priori tour of minimal
expected length over all customers, with the strategy of Authors would like to thank the UGC-Special Assistance
visiting a random subset of customers in the same order as Program for the Department of Physics and Computer
they appear in the a priori tour. Science, Dayalbagh Educational Institute, for funding this
research work.
Gottlieb, Puchta and Solnon [35] described and compared
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EVOLUTIONARY COMPUTATION, , 3 (4), 257-271.
[84] Zitzler, E., Deb, K., & Thiele, L. (2000). Comparison of
Multiobjective Evolutionary Algorithms: Empirical Results.
Evolutionary Computation , 8 (2), 173-195.
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The IT Service Management according to the ITIL framework

applied to the enterprise value chain
Abdelaali Himi1, Samir Bahsani2 and Alami Semma3

1
Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, Faculty of Science and Techniques,
Hassan 1 University
Settat, Morocco
2
Hassan 1 University
Settat, Morocco
3
Hassan 1 University
Settat, Morocco
This approach should enable us to bring the power of ITIL

Abstract methodology to improve the business enterprises.
The purpose of this paper is to propose an approach for
implementing best practices repository of ITIL IT service
management on the enterprise value chain in general. 2. ITIL Background
This is to make a projection of the phases and ITIL processes and
their structure on the links in the value chain. To define ITIL, one must position oneself in a context of
continuous improvement of its services and referral
Keywords: Best Practices, ITIL, Process, value chain, strategic requirements regarding both internal & external clients.
alignement.
ITs' concentration of efforts on customer value will
1. Introduction contribute to a strategic alignment of IT services with the
The ITIL skills base has produced good management business enterprise.
practices for IT departments that have contributed to ITIL is defined as a set of best practices structured as
improving the services provided by the computing entities multiple processes communicating with each other. Each
to their clients. of these processes fulfills its role in order to meet the
Based on our experience in implementing these processes criterion of continuous improvement and customer
in industry, and our experience implementing enterprise satisfaction.
resource planning (ERP) and project management, it has Best practice organizations provide a structure approved
proved that there is a chance that these processes can bring by years of experience in large companies, globally
added value, if applied to the enterprise value chain. recognized for their professionalism, to formalize their
Indeed, the definition of 'value chain' is; a set of functions processes and optimize IT service management.
dealing with input materials, transforming them into
products or services to sell on to customers. Thus we were
challenged to make analogies with the proposed ITIL
3. ITIL’s Vocation
phases. Since ITIL acquires more and more ground in the market
This paper proposes an original approach by adopting the for information systems through its effectiveness and
proposed ITIL methodology to manage enterprise value efficiency in service management, the IT policy makers
chain.
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have the evidence to justify their investment in its label that the ISD can display to demonstrate their
implementation. professionalism and adherence to recognized
Indeed, it brings a pragmatic approach to address international standards.
situations which CIOs are faced with, including, inter alia:
 Information technology is receiving more and 4. The Basic Concepts of ITIL

more investment budget. It constitutes a
significant burden for companies, especially those Mainly, ITIL is based on five pillars:
whose core business is not information systems.
 Customer care.
 Information systems are increasingly complex.
As long as computers have been trying to meet  The service life cycle.
the requirements and demands of their individual
 The process concept.
customers, they have found themselves facing an
infrastructure and a large arsenal of applications  Quality of service.
that must be managed and maintained.
 Communication.
 With the advent of new information technologies
and communications (social networks, etc.), users 4.1 Customer care
have become more knowledgeable and aware of
the potential of new computers. Especially since This concept is paramount for managing IT services. It
software publishers have made applications more involves making the customer's needs the primary concern
of the IT service provider. It should not focus on new
available (The advent of open source) and
technologies or power infrastructure. The important thing
increasingly complex telecommunications is to meet the functional needs of the customer with the
infrastructure (mobile phone). most accurate and optimal solution.
Considering the business needs of the customer and
 As long as companies are spending enormous placing them at the heart of the IT service management
sums of money on infrastructure hardware and solution, should be the rationale of computing entities.
software, leaders expect a return on their It is then essential to fully assess the client's need, which
investment and are begining to optimize their means listening to their requirements and establishing a
relationship that supports the client in the expression and
spending. It is a context that has put CIOs in a
monitoring of these needs.
difficult situation.
4.2 The service life-cycle
 Globalization has also played its role. It has
introduced chargeback services practices between Before describing the service life cycle, the concept of
subsidiaries of holding companies. This new service, as the ITIL repository has to be explained first.
situation has opened the eyes of CIOs who want In general, the service can be defined according to the
context.
to bill their services to their internal customers.
In a restaurant one can evaluate the service; smile, mood,
responsiveness, etc
 The role of the CIO is becoming more ambiguous. In a tennis match, serving the ball, triggers the game.
With an operating system based on In an organization, a service is an organizational entity
subcontracting, the user begins to ask questions having a function and an aim, carried out by a group of
about the added value of CIOs, as external people.
vendors support their applications with levels of In the field of information systems, a service is defined as
services that are contracted out. a benefit, aid or assistance that a user can expect from a
supplier.
 For companies specializing in IT, being certified In the daily life of IT projects, and after being put into
production, CIOs find themselves faced with two
and having certified staff improves their situations:
reputation and their clients’ gains confidence that
is either internal or external. This certification is a
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 Whether the operations team was involved in the In this respect, ITIL is seeking to improve services
project since its conception, which can generate a perpetually in a manner based on the philosophy of the
feeling of frustration at having operating tasks Deming Wheel: Plan, Do, Check, Act.
imposed on them, that don't seem to make
4.5 Communication
business sense.
One of the contributions of ITIL is good communication.
 Or the project team, since it has mastered the It harmonizes the language between customers and
problems, continues the project in the operational suppliers. This language removes any ambiguity when
phase, which can generate organizational failures providers talk about ITs SLA, incident, problem, change,
and conflicts of responsibility. etc.
Good communication is an important component of
To avoid this kind of anomaly, ITIL provides a solution quality of service. Business managers must understand the
and advocates considering management services as part of issues of IT, their constraints and their commitments. The
the project study phase. In this way, the overlapping roles communication also facilitates the negotiation of budgets,
of the project team and the operations team can be avoided as projects arise directly from business requirements.
and the operating team is made aware of the stakes of the The communication also reflects the transparent aspect of
project and services and the added value to the business. the ISD. This is to convey a clear picture to users. A
This allows the planning of the resources and skills picture of the negative behavior but also, and especially,
required to operate the system after it has be put into the positive aspects of service management and the efforts
production. This entails taking into consideration the of its resources.
impact of performance, availability and budget from the
very start of the project.
The concept of life cycle provides everything needed for
5. The morphology of ITIL V3
successful projects, considering the customer's needs until The heart of ITIL V3 consists of five main principles:
the start of production of services by the provider.
 Service Strategy;
4.3 The process concept
 Service Design;
The process concept has demonstrated its robustness in
quality within the industry. ITIL has adopted this approach  Service Transition
to structure the philosophy of its practice as multiple
interacting processes.  Service Operations;
The process concept answers questions about the sequence
of activities while undergoing inspections and  Continuous service improvement.
performance indicators to measure program output for
which the process was designed.
Service
The process owner is responsible for the design process design
and ensures that the process meets the need defined.
The process manager is responsible for implementation of
the process, as it has been defined by the process owner.
Continuous Service Service
4.4 The quality of service service
improvement strategy transition
This concept is the rationale for good practice. Quality of

service can be defined as being the opportunity to respond
to the customer needs exactly as required. Service
The client's belief in its supplier is based on their operations
appreciation of their needs, delivered within the time

expected, while respecting the defined specifications.
Fig1: Phases of ITIL methodology
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5.1 The service strategy phase  Application management;
This phase consists of the following processes:  Operations Management.

 Strategy generation;
5.5 The continuous services improvement phase
 Portfolio Management Services;
This phase consists of the improvement process in seven
 Requisition Management; steps.
 Financial Management
6. The enterprise value chain
5.2 The design services phase
6.1 General definition
This phase consists of the following processes:
 Service Catalog Management; "A value chain is the set of procedures to determine the
ability of an organization to gain a competitive advantage.
These steps correspond to the services of the company or
 Service Level Management;
arbitrarily complex collective activities that constitute the
organization”
 Supply Management;
 Capacity Management;
 Availability Management;
Logistic Marketing and Customer

Supply logistic Manufacturing
Business Services Continuity Management; marketing sales service
 Sacurity of Information Management
5.3 The transition services phase

This phase consists of the following processes: Fig2: Value chain
 Change Management;
 Service Asset management and configurations; 6.2 The different segments of a value chain
 Release Management and Deployment. The value chain should be aware of the importance of
coordination in an organization because each link in the
5.4 The operational services phase business optimizes its added value. An analogy is made
between the value chain and a macro-process representing
This phase consists of the following processes: the links between large corporate functions.
 Incident Management; In all the activities within the chain that sells a product to a
consumer, four stages can be identified:
 Problem Management;  The first is the definition of the product, whether
a product or a service. Innovation and research
 Ongoing Queries; are key elements in this first step that contain a
large share of added value to the end product.
 Event Management ;  The second step is good manufacturing. The
standardized part of this step is often outsourced
 Access Management. and seen as having little value. The most
sophisticated part is sometimes the only one
And the following functions: remaining in the company.
 Service center;  The distrbution phase is increasingly integrated
into process: the huge logistics warehouses that
 Technical management; extend to the margins of large urban areas
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together with workshops to finish and upgrade will place the links in the value chain that can benefit from
products in real time. the strength of the ITIL methodology.
 These products are then distrubuted on the market,
responding to the strategies defined by the 7.1 Component strategy analogy
company headquarters: branding, economic and Given that the strategic aspect of the value chain is
financial structure of the business, legal devoted to studying and listening to the customer's needs
protection, etc. A large number of activities are and considering the market competition to define a
concerned with this last step. It conveys a value solution that will be suitable for the customer, ITIL can
as high as the first step in that it enables the provide the necessary processes for this stage of business
product or service produced to be sold. development.
The IT service management can be extrapolated over the
According to Michael Porter, the value chain allows us to management of services in general.
analyze the various activities of a business. It shows how The service in the IT direction is just one example of
each activity contributes to achieving a competitive services that can provide each company or entity vis-à-vis
advantage. It also assesses the costs which affect the their internal and external clients.
different activities.
Nine points can be identified: five core and four support Thus, the process of defining the strategy, as outlined by
activities. Support activities may affect one or more basic ITIL, can undertake the following studies:
activities:
 Core activities  Defining the market
o Logistics Supply: Receiving, stock and
 Develop bids
distribution of commodities.
o Manufacturing: Transforms raw  Develop strategic assets
materials into finished products.
o Marketing Logistics: Collection, stock  Prepare for implementation
and distribute the finished product to the
customer. These steps are exactly as the strategic marketing guide
o Marketing and sales: Allows consumers that can conduct market research (competition and need)
to find and buy the finished product. in order to better meet customer demands.
o Services: comprise all that can increase
and maintain the value of the product This process can reflect the state of mind of marketing
(installation, repair etc.). calls and to see reality through the eyes of the customer.
 Support activities This answers the following questions:
o Firm infrastructure: Includes all
necessary services for a business  Who are our customers?
(administration, finance, quality control,
planning etc.).  What value do they want?
o Human resource management: is found
 Who depends on our services?
in all core activities.
o Research and Development: Useful for  How do they use our services?
all activities as all activities require
technologies (know-how, innovation  Why are our services valid?
etc.).
o Purchases: Allows core activities to Creating value means that the provider produces a
acquire various resources they need. valuable service that can meet the customer's needs and
ensure the availability of the service by the concept of
security.
7. Projection of ITIL methodology in value This application is being processed by a second process,
chain proposed by ITIL, namely demand management. This
management is seen as a macro.
Having described the structure of ITIL and the architecture
of the concept of the value chain, it is clear that there is an The process of demand management is mainly used to:
analogy that is dealt with later in this paper. This analogy
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 Balance supply and demand; The manufacture of a product or service necessarily

involves a design phase. The result of this phase, with
 Avoid the costs associated with excess ITIL is a document package design service:
capacity that has no value;
 Document defining all aspects of a
 Prevent incidents due to insufficient service and its requirements at all stages
capacity or quality of services. of its life cycle (a kind of specifications)
Once the service package is defined and validated by the  Must be produced during the design
leaders, the role of the financial management process phase services for:
begins. This brings the following benefits:
• New services;
 Portfolio management services;
• Major changes to existing
 Financial control and compliance; services
 Operational control; • Deleting a service.
 Collection and value creation;  Produce the blueprint necessary for the
implementation phase.
 Decision support.
According to ITIL, the document service package consists
The financial management process also provides: of :
 Determination of the value of the service;  Requirements
 Identification of the total cost of • Business requirements;
ownership to the customer and predict
the financial implications of future • Applicability of the service;
service demands;
• Service contracts.
 Application of cost structures for
comparative purposes;  Design Service
 Analysis of the costs and constraints of a • Functional requirements of the service;

service to determine whether different
approaches to service provision could • Service level requirements;
reduce costs or improve quality;
• Operational requirements;
 Business forecasting and budget control.
• Topology design and service.
It includes a periodic negotiation cycle
to set future budgets (usually annual)  Assessing Readiness
and the daily monitoring and adjustment
of current budgets; • Business benefits;
 Analysis and understanding of the • Financial evaluation;

variables that impact on the cost of
services and their sensitivity to • Technical evaluation;
variations.
• Assessment resources;
7.2 Component manufacturing analogy • Organizational assessment (skills,
abilities, etc.).
www.IJCSI.org 521
 Lifecycle service plan

 Identify, monitor, record, report, audit and check
• Implementation plan of service; the configuration of services and infrastructure,
including their attributes and relationships;
• Acceptance of the operational service
plan;  Maintain accurate configuration information in
the historical state of planned and existing
• Criteria for acceptance of the service. services / infrastructure;
The production service is charged to the production  Protect the integrity of assets and services
process, which is responsible among other things for
configuration elements in ensuring that only
creating, installing, testing and deploying the package into
production successfully and on time authorized components are deployed.
Service production must be managed according to
international standards in terms of project management. By the notions of process and configuration management
In contrast, during the design phase, ITIL can help to of assets include:
address these aspects by providing this state of the art
service.  Secure premesis:
Processes (see above) offered to provide support to project
management, and allow: • Site where the IT assets are stored
 Service level management negotiates and • Define spare parts requirements

documentates service targets with company
 Secure storage of spare equipment
representatives. This is to ensure that the agreed
level of service for all current services provided.  Components and assemblies of parts
maintained as well as comparative
 Manage subcontractors and the services they
systems
provide to ensure the flawless quality of business
services and optimize resources.  Used in a controlled manner for new
systems or in case of disaster
 Ensure the availability of service levels in all
recovery
services provided to match or exceed the
requirements agreed the current or future business  Définitive media library:
and be economical.
• Contains the final and approved versions of
 Support the whole process of business continuity all media Configuration Items;
management in ensuring that the components and
technical services can be restored within the time • All have passed the quality assurance checks;
required and agreed business.
• This is the foundation of the process of
 Align information security on Business Safety production and deployment;
and ensure that security information is protected
in all management services operations. • All these elements must be referenced.
 Always ensure efficient resource capacity in all 7.4 Component sales analogy
areas of the services provided, adapted to current The sales component is similar to the production process.
and future agreed business needs. This process is the delivery of the product or service. It
does not include prospecting and negotiation.
7.3 Component distribution analogy
The process of asset management and configuration has
The component distribution is similar to the process of
the following objectives:
asset management services and configuration.
This is to record and detail the configuration of the
warehouse. This process aims to:
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 Preparation of complete development plans for philosophy has brought good results in terms of IT
specific production; management and service improvement. The design of this
repository also meets business functional needs as they are
 Customer satisfaction, users and Management structured by the value chain as defined by the authors of
Services staff; management.
This paper proposes an approach that brings together the
 Reduce unintended incidents with services, power and benefits of ITIL methodology and the value
operations and production support; chain.
The proposed approach and the analogies have helped
 That the service meets the new or changed develop the processes specified by ITIL and to apply them
service requirements agreed. to the links in the structure of the value chain.
This paper focused on the major stages of the value chain.
7.5 After sales service
It leaves the field open for researchers to enrich the
The component after sales service is supported by an application of this standard to support functions and
operation services phase and is composed of the following companies' business such as finance, human resources, etc.
processes:
 Incident Management: It allows restorting the References

[[1] ITIL pour un service informatique optimal - Christan du
service or product after the start of any anomaly.
mont - Edition Eyrolles
 Problem Management: It supports the resolution [2]http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cha%C3%AEne_de_valeur
of unknown causes of incidents. [3] www.itsmf.fr
[4] Gervais M., 1995, "Stratégies de l'entreprise", Economica
 Execution of Requests: It allows taking into [5] Méthodes des services IT, basée sur ITIL, dans les entreprises
consideration the requests from the client. québéquoises
[6] Yves B Desfossés, Claude Y. Laporte, Alain April, Nabil
 Events management: It stores and processes all Berrhouma
types of events that occurred regarding the [7] Gestion des services informatiques, une introduction basée
services provided. sur ITIL –ITSMF
[8] ITIL V3 : Exploitation des services –Pascal Delbrayelle
 Access Management: allows managing the
[9] Le concept de la chaîne de valeur – http://chohmann.free.fr
allocation and management of access to services
[10] Réconsilier le management stratégique avec la PME – réalité
output into production.
économique & marketing
7.6 The continuous improvement phase [11] Le modèle processus-
This phase allows implementing an improvement process http://ww1.cnam.fr/depts//te/ote/CB009.htm
into seven stages:
 Define what you have to measure;
 Define what you can to measure;
 Collect data;
 Process data;
 Analyze data;
 Present and use information;
 Implement corrective actions.
8. Conclusion
The ITIL skills have been designed to meet a need for
structuring the IT service management process. Its
www.IJCSI.org 523
Issues, Challenges and Tools of Clustering Algorithms

Parul Agarwal1,M. Afshar Alam2,Ranjit Biswas3
1
Department of Computer Science,Jamia Hamdard,
New Delhi,Delhi-62,India
2
Department of Computer Science,Jamia Hamdard,
New Delhi,Delhi-62,India
3
Manav Rachna International University , Green Fields Colony
Faridabad, Haryana 121001
Section 5 and Tools and Softwares of Clustering

Abstract Algorithms in Section 6 and Conclusion in Section 7.
Clustering is an unsupervised technique of Data Mining. It means 2. Overview
grouping similar objects together and separating the dissimilar
ones. Each object in the data set is assigned a class label in the Though there exist several categories of clustering
clustering process using a distance measure. This paper has algorithms,but in this paper we discuss only the partitional
captured the problems that are faced in real when clustering and hierarchical approaches.
algorithms are implemented .It also considers the most The approach is based upon the clustering method
extensively used tools which are readily available and support chosen for clustering.The clustering methods are broadly
functions which ease the programming. Once algorithms have
divided into Hierarchical and Partitional. Hierarchical
been implemented, they also need to be tested for its validity.
There exist several validation indexes for testing the performance
clustering performs partitioning sequentially. It works on
and accuracy which have also been discussed here. bottom –up and top-down.The bottom up approach known
as agglomerative starts with each object in a separate cluster
and continues combining 2 objects based on the similarity
Keywords: Clustering, Validation Indexes Challenges, measure until they are combined in one big cluster which
Properties, Software consists of all objects. .Wheras the top-down approach also
known as divisive treats all objects in one big cluster and
the large cluster is divided into small clusters until each
1. Introduction cluster consists of just a single object. The general approach
of hierarchical clustering is in using an appropriate metric
Clustering is an active topic of research and interest and
which measures distance between 2 tuples and a linkage
has its applications in various fields like biology,
criteria which specifies the dissimilarity of sets as a function
management, statistics, pattern recognition etc. But, we
of the pairwise distances of observations in the sets The
shall understand its association with data mining. Data
linkage criteria could be of 3 types [21 ]single linkage
mining[3] deals with small as well as large datasets with
,average linkage and complete linkage.
large number of attributes and at times thousands of
In single linkage(also known as nearest neighbour), the
tuples. The major clustering approaches[1,2,4,5] are
distance between 2 clusters is computed as:
Partitional and Hierarchical.The attributes are also broadly
D(Ci,Cj)= min {D(a,b) : where a Є Ci, b Є Cj.
divided into numerical and categorical. In Section 2 we
Thus distance between clusters is defined as the distance
give a brief overview of clustering,In section 3, we discuss
between the closest pair of objects, where only one object
properties of algorithms ,Section 4 has Challenges of
from each cluster is considered.
Clustering Algorithms, followed by Validation indexes in
i.e. the distance between two clusters is given by the
value of the shortest link between the clusters. In average
Linkage method (or farthest neighbour), Distance between
www.IJCSI.org 524
Clusters defined as the distance between the most distant inconsistent with the remaining data.For data analysis
pair of objects, one from each cluster is considered. applications outliers are considered as noise or error and
In the complete linkage method, D(Ci,Cj) is computed need to be removed to produce effective results.Many
as algorithms have been proposed in [9-13] that deal with
D(Ci,Cj) = Max { d(a,b) : a Є Ci,b Є Cj.} outlier detection
the distance between two clusters is given by the value
of the longest link between the clusters. 4. Challenges with cluster analysis
Whereas,in average linkage The potential problems with cluter analysis that we have
D(Ci,Cj) = { d(a,b) / (l1 * l2): a Є Ci,b Є Cj. And l1 is identified in our survey are as follows:
the cardinality of cluster Ci,and l2 is cardinality of Cluster 1. The identification of distance measure :For
Cj. numerical attributes, distance measures that can be used
And d(a,b) is the distance defined. are standard equations like eucledian,manhattan, and
The hierarchical clustering is represented by n-tree or maximum distance measure.All the three are special cases
dendogram.(Gordon 1996). A dendogram depicts how the of Minkowski distance .But identification of measure for
clusters are related. By cutting the dendrogram at a desired categorical attributes is difficult.
level a clustering of the data items into disjoint groups is 2. The number of clusters : Identifying the number of
obtained. clusters is a difficult task if the number of class labels is
not known beforehand.A careful analysis of number of
The partitional clustering on the other hand breaks the clusters is necessary to produce correct results.Else, it is
data into disjoint clusters or k partitions.These partitions found that heterogenous tuples may merge or simialy types
are performed based on certain objective functions like tuples may be broken into many.This could be catastrophic
minimizing square error criteria. etc. if the approach used is hierarchical.B’coz in hierarchical
Data sets can be found at: approach if a tuples gets wrongly merged in a cluster that
www.kdnuggets.com/datasets/index.html action cannot be undone.
www.kdd.ics.uci.edu/ While there is no perfect way to determine the number of
www.datasetgenerator.com Clusters, there are some statistics that can be analyzed to
help in the process [22-23]. These are the Pseudo-F
3. Properties of Clustering algorithms statistic, the Cubic Clustering Criterion(CCC), and the
The clustering algorithms depend on the following Approximate Overall R-Squared.
properties: 3. Lack of class labels: For real datasets (relational in
1.Type of attribute handled by algorithm: the various types nature as they have tuples and attributes) the distribution of
are ratio,interval based or simple numeric values.these fall data has to be done to understand where the class labels
in the category of numeric representations.On the other are?
hand,we have nominal and ordinal. An attribute is 4. Structure of database: Real life Data may not always
nominal if it successfully distinguishes between classes but contain clearly identifiable clusters.Also the order in which
does not have any inherit ranking and cannot be used for the tuples are arranged may affect the results when an
any arithemetic. For eg. If color is an attribute and it has 3 algorithm is executed if the distance measure used is not
values namely red,green,blue then we may assign 1-red,2- perfect.With a structureless data(for eg. Having lots of
green,3-blue.This does not mean that red is given any missing values), even identification of appropriate number
priority or preference.Another type of attribute is ordinal of clusters will not yield good results. For eg. missing
and it implies ranking but cannot be used for any values can exist for variables,tuples and thirdly,randomly
arithematic calculation.eg. if rank is an attribute in a in attributes and tuples.If a record has all values
database,and 1st position say denoted as 1 and second missing,this is removed from dataset.If an attribute has
position denoted as 2 in database. missing values in all tuples then that attribute has to be
2. Complexity: What is the complexity of algorithm in removed described in [6]. A dataset may also have not
terms of space and time? much missing values in which case methods have been
3.Size of database: A few databases may be small but a suggested in [24]. Also, three cluster-based algorithms to
few may have tuples as high as say thousands or more deal with missing values have been proposed based on the
4. Ability to find clusters of irregular shape mean-and-mode method in [24].
5. Dependency of algorithm on ordering of tuples in
5.T ypes of attributes in a database: The databases may not
database:Most of the clustering algorithms are highly
necessarily contain distinctively numerical or categorical
dependent on the ordering of tuples in database
attributes.They may also contain other types like
6. Outlier detection:As defined in [8],outlier detection is a
nominal,ordinal,binary etc.So these attributes have to be
method of finding objects that are extremely dissimilar or
converted to categorical type to make calculations simple.
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6.Choosing the initial clusters : For partitonal approach ,we

find that most of the algorithms mention k initial clusters to 5.3 Jaccard index
be randomly chosen.A careful and comprehensive study of
data is required for the same. Also, if the intial clusters are
not properly chosen, then after a few iterations it is found In this index[19] the level of agreement between a set of
that clusters may even be left empty.Although , a paper in class labels C and a clustering result K is determined by
[7] discusses a farthest heuristic based approach for the number of pairs of points assigned to the same cluster
calculation of centers. in both partitions:
J(C,K)= a /(a+b+c)
5. Validation indexes for Clustering
Algorithms where a denotes the number of pairs of points with the
Cluster validity measures: same label in C and assigned to the same cluster in K, b
These indexes measure how accurate the results are.It also denotes the number of pairs with the same label, but in
determines after a clustering algorithm produces its different clusters and c denotes the number of pairs in the
result,how many tuples have been correctly associated with same cluster, but with different class labels. The index
their class labels accurately and how many belong to a produces avalue that lies between 0 and 1, where a value
class label with which they should not be associated. These of 1.0 indicates that C and K are identical.
indexes can be used to test the performance and accuracy
5.4 Rand index
of various algorithms or accuracy of one algorithm for
various parameter values like threshold value (if any),or This index[20] simply measures the number of pairwise
number of clusters e.t.c agreements between a clustering K and a set of class labels
Several validity indexes have been proposed till date. We C.It is measured as
discuss a few of them:
5.1 Sillhouette : this index was proposed by Peter J. J(C,K)= (a + d)/(a +b + c + d).
Rousseeuw and is available in [13].
where a denotes the number of pairs of points with the
Suppose, the tuples have been clustered into k same label in C and assigned to the same cluster in K, b
clusters.For each tuple I, let a(i) define the average denotes the number of pairs with the same label, but in
dissimilarity of i with other tuples in the same cluster. different clusters, c denotes the number of pairs in the
same cluster, but with different class labels and d denotes
Then find the average dissimilarity of I with data of the number of pairs with a different label in C that were
another cluster.Continue this for every cluster of assigned to a different cluster in K. The index produces a
which I is not a member.The lowst average result between 0 and 1.
dissimilarity of I of any such cluster is represented as
b(i) A value of this index equal to 1 means 100% accuracy and
a large value indicates high agreement between C and K.
Then,s(i)=b(i)-a(i)/(max(a(i),b(i))
If s(i) is close to 1,it means the data has been properly

Many others like the dunn index[15] ,Goodman Kruskal
clustered.
[18], Davies-Bouldin Validity Index [ 16], have also been
proposed .
5.2 C- index:
This index [17] is defined as follows: 6. Tools and Softwares of Clustering

Algorithms
C= S- Smin/S max – S min
a) Weka:
Where, S is the sum of distances over all pairs of patterns Weka[25] is a collection of machine learning algorithms
from the same cluster. Let n be the number of those pairs. for data mining tasks and is capable of developing new
Then Smin is the sum of the n smallest distances if all machine learning schemes.It can be applied to a dataset
pairs of patterns are considered .And S max is the sum of directly or can be initiated from our own java code. Weka
the n largest distance out of all pairs. Hence a small value contains tools for data pre-processing, classification,
of C indicates a good clustering. regression, clustering, association rules, and
www.IJCSI.org 526
visualization.Procedures in Weka are represented as It has parameters like cross validate folds, Hold out
classes and arranged logically in packages. It uses flat text sample percentage, usage of training data which evaluate
files to describe the data. the accuracy of the model for each step. It provides
Weka has pre-processing tools(also known as filters) for standardization and estimation of importance of predictor
performing discretization,normalization,resampling, values We can also select the type of validation which
attribute selection,transforming, and combining attributes DTREG should use to test the model.
etc. h) Cluster3
b) Matlab Statistical Toolbox [26] Cluster3[32] is an open source clustering software
The Statistics Toolbox[26] is a collection of tools built on available here contains clustering routines that can be used
the MATLAB for performing numeric computations. The to analyze gene expression data. Routines for partitional
toolbox supports a wide range of statistical tasks, ranging methods like k means,k-medians as well as hierarchical
from random number generation, to curve fitting, to design (pairwise simple, complete, average, and centroid linkage)
of experiments and statistical process control. The toolbox methods are covered.It also includes 2D self-organizing
provides building-block probability and statistics functions maps .The routines are available in the form of a C
And graphical, interactive tools. clustering library, a module of perl,an extension module to
The first category of function support can be called Python, as well as an enhanced version of Cluster, which
from the command line or from your own applications. We was originally developed by Michael Eisen of Berkeley
can view the MATLAB code for these functions, change Lab. The C clustering library and the associated extension
the way any toolbox function works by copying and module for Python was released under the Python license.
renaming The Perl module was released under the Artistic License.
The M-file, then modifying your copy and even extend the Cluster 3.0 is covered by the original Cluster/TreeView
toolbox by adding our own M-files. license.
Secondly, the toolbox provides a number of interactive i) CLUTO
tools that enables us to access functions through a CLUTO [33] is a software package for clustering low- and
graphical user interface (GUI). high-dimensional datasets and for analyzing the
c)Octave: It is a free software similar to Matlab and has characteristics of the various clusters. CLUTO is well-
details in [27] suited for clustering data sets arising in many diverse
d)SPAETH2[28] application areas including information retrieval, customer
It is a collection of Fortran 90 routines for analysing data purchasing transactions, web, GIS, science, and biology.
by grouping them into clusters CLUTO provides three different classes of clustering
e) C++ code for unix by Tapas Kamingo algorithms that are based on the partitional, agglomerative
It[29] is a collection of C++ code for performing k-means clustering , and graphpartitioning methods. An important
based on local search and LLyod’s Algorithm. feature of most of CLUTO’s clustering algorithms is that
f) XLMiner they treat the clustering problem as an optimization
XLMiner is a toolbelt to help you get quickly started on process which seeks to maximize or minimize a particular
data mining, offering a variety of methods to analyze your clustering criterion function defined either globally or
data. It has extensive coverage of statistical and machine locally over the entire clustering solution space. CLUTO
learning techniques for classification, prediction, affinity has a total of seven different criterion functions that can be
analysis and data exploration and reduction.It has a used to drive both partitional and agglomerative clustering
coverage of both partitional [30]and hierarchical[21] algorithms, that are described and analyzed in [34-35]. The
methods . usage of these criterion functions has produced high
g) DTREG[31] quality clustering results
it is a commercial software for predictive modeling and in high dimensional datasets As far as the agglomerative
forecasting offered ,are based on decision hierarchical clustering is concerned,CLUTO provides
trees,SVM,Neural N/W and Gene Expression some of the more traditional local criteria (e.g., single-link,
programs.For clustering,the property page contains options complete-link, and UPGMA) as discussed in Section 2.
that ask the user for the type of model to be built(eg. K- Furthermore, CLUTO provides graph-partitioning-based
means) The tool can also build model with a varying clustering
number of clusters or fixed number of clusters.we can also algorithms that are well-suited for finding clusters that
specify the minimum number of clusters to be tried. form contiguous regions that span different dimensions of
If the user wishes,then it has options for selecting some the underlying feature space.
restricted number of data rows to be used during the An important aspect of partitional-based criterion-
search process. Once the optimal size is found, the final driven clustering algorithms is the method used to optimize
model will be built using all data rows. this criterion function. CLUTO uses a randomized
www.IJCSI.org 527
incremental optimization algorithm that is greedy in nature, Discovery and Data Mining, pp. 61-93, O. Maimon; L.
has low computational requirements, and has been shown Rokach (Editors), Springer, 2007.
to produce high-quality clustering solutions [35]. CLUTO [5].Gordon,A. Hierarchical classification. In Arabie, P.,
also provides tools for analyzing the discovered clusters to Hubert, L., and Soete, G.,
understand the relations between the objects editors, Clustering and Classification, pages 65–121. River
assigned to each cluster and the relations between the Edge, NJ:World Scientific.
different clusters, and tools for visualizing the discovered [6]. Kaufman, L. and Rousseeuw, P. (1990). Finding
clustering solutions. CLUTO also has capabilities that help Groups in Data—An Introduction to Cluster
us to view the relationships between the clusters,tuples, Analysis. Wiley Series in Probability and Mathematical
and attributes.Its algorithms have been optimized for Statistics. NewYork: JohnWiley & Sons, Inc.
operating on very large datasets both in terms of the [7]. Y. Sun, Q. Zhu, Z. Chen. An iterative initial-points
number of tuples as well as the number of attributes This refinement algorithm for categorical data clustering.
is especially true for CLUTO’s algorithms for partitional Pattern Recognition Letters, 2002, 23(7): 875-884
clustering. These algorithms can quickly cluster datasets [8]. Angiulli, F. (2009) Outlier Detection Techniques for
with several tens of thousands objects and several Data Mining, John Wang (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Data
thousands of dimensions. Warehousing and Mining,Second Edition, Pp. 1483-1488
Moreover, since most high-dimensional datasets are very [9] Ester, M., Kriegel, H., Sander, J., & Xu, X. (1996) A
sparse, CLUTO directly takes into account this sparsity density-based algorithm for discovering
and requires memory that is roughly linear on the input clusters in large spatial databases with noises, Proc. 2nd
size. int. conf. on knowledge discovery and data mining, AAAI
CLUTO’s distribution consists of both stand-alone Press, Portland, Pp. 226–231.
programs (vcluster and scluster) for clustering and [10] Jiang, M., Tseng, S. and Su, C. (2001) Two-phase
analyzing these clusters, as well as, a library via which an Clustering Process for Outlier Detection, Pattern
application program can access directly the various Recognition Letters, Vol. 22, Pp. 691-700.
clustering and analysis algorithms implemented in [11] Jiang, S. and An, Q. (2008) Clustering-Based Outlier
CLUTO. Detection Method, Fifth International Conference on
Its variants are gCLUTO,wCLUTO Fuzzy Systems and Knowledge Discovery, Vol. 2, Pp.429-
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Clustan[34] is an integrated collection of procedures for [12] Karmaker, A. and Rahman, S. (2009) Outlier
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7. Conclusion 1658.
In this paper we have covered the properties of Clustering [13] P.Murugavel(2011) Improved Hybrid Clustering and
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www.IJCSI.org 529
Enhanced of color matching algorithm for image retrieval

Krishna Kumar Pandey1, Nishchol Mishra2,Hemant kumar sharma
1
School of IT, Rajiv Gandhi Prodyogiki Vishwavidyalaya
2
3
vector extending from the origin to that point in the RGB

Abstract coordinate system [1].
Color representation is based on the classical theory of Thomas
Color based image retrieval is an important research area in Young (1802). The study of color is important in the design and
digital image processing and Color is the useful property of the development of color vision systems. Use of color in image
image. The challenging task is to find an efficient and accurate displays is not only more pleasing, but it also enables us to
color images similar value and some limitations between two receive more visual information. While we can perceive only a
different types of image are matching such as compressed color few dozen gray levels, we have the ability to distinguish between
image and RGB color image, RGB image and HSV color image, thousands of colors. The perceptual attributes of color are
color image and 90 degree rotate color image but this matching brightness, hue, and saturation. Brightness represents the
technique remove these problems. This paper Proposed, a new perceived luminance. The hue of a color refers to its “redness”,
matching technique to find the similar value between query color “greenness”, and so on. For monochromatic light sources,
image and database color image using histogram, spatiogram differences in hues are manifested by the differences in
and bins . This method uses RGB and HSV color space. This is a wavelengths. Saturation is that aspect of perception that varies
new matching technique based on histogram and spatiogram, most strongly as more and more while light is added to a
spatiogram is a generalization of histogram. monochromatic light. These definitions are somewhat imprecise
because hue, saturation, and brightness all change when the
wavelength, the intensity, the hue, or the amount of white light in
Keywords: color based image retrieval, color space, histogram,
a color is changed [9].
spatiogram.
Image retrieval is the process of browsing, searching and
retrieving images from a large database of digital images. The
1. Introduction collection of images in the web are growing larger and becoming
more diverse .Retrieving images from such large collections is a
The color image processing techniques applicable to color challenging problem. One of the main problems they highlighted
images, they are far from being exhaustive, color images are was the difficulty of locating a desired image in a large and
handled for a variety of image processing tasks. The color image varied collection. While it is perfectly possible to identify a
processing subdivide into three principal areas: (1) color desired image from a small collection simply by browsing, more
transformations also called color mapping (2) spatial processing effective techniques are needed with collections containing
of individual color planes and (3) color vectors processing. The thousands of items. To search for images, a user may provide
first category deals with processing the pixels of each color plane query terms such as keyword, image file/link, or click on some
based strictly on their values and not on their spatial coordinates. image, and the system will return images "similar" to the query.
This category is analogous to the material in dealing with The similarity used for search criteria could be Meta tags, color
intensity transformations. The second category deals with spatial distribution in images, region/shape attributes, etc.
(neighborhood) filtering of individual color planes and is Unfortunately, image retrieval systems have not kept pace with
analogous to the spatial filtering. The third category deals with the collections they are searching. The shortcomings of these
techniques based on processing all components of a color image systems are due both to the image representations they use and to
simultaneously. Because full-color images have at least three their methods of accessing those representations to find images.
components, color pixels can be treated as vectors. For example, The problems of image retrieval are becoming widely
in the RGB system, each color point can be interpreted as a recognized, and the search for solutions an increasingly active
area for research and development. In recent years, with large
www.IJCSI.org 530
scale storing of images the need to have an efficient method of 2^24 = 16,777,216. But this large number of colors are
image searching and retrieval has increased. It can simplify many practically not usable that why we use only 256 colors. The set
tasks in many application areas such as biomedicine, forensics, of colors that can be used instead of whole colors is called subset
artificial intelligence, military, education, web image searching. of colors. This is also called safe RGB colors.
Most of the image retrieval systems present today are text-based,
in which images are manually annotated by text-based keywords 2.2 HSV color model
and when we query by a keyword, instead of looking into the
contents of the image, this system matches the query to the The HSV stands for the Hue, Saturation, and Value. We treat the
keywords present in the database. This technique has its some hue-saturation-value (HSV) space as a cone: for a given point
disadvantages: (a) Firstly, considering the huge collection of (HSV), h and sv are the angular and radial coordinates of the
images present, it’s not feasible to manually annotate them (b) point on a disk of radius vat height v; all coordinates range from
Secondly; the rich features present in an image cannot be 0 to 1 [2]. HIS model decouples the color and gray levels. It is
described by keywords completely [5]. the method that will provide information about image than is
easily described and interpreted. The HIS color model was
designed having in mind the way graphic designers and artists
Color image Color input
think of colors. Artists use terms like saturation (the pureness of
database image
a color), hue (the color in itself) and intensity (the brightness of
the color). This is exactly what the HSI color model represents.
The color space is strange, since it is not orthogonal, in this color
space, like in the others, a color is a vector. H (hue) is the angle
of the vector over the basic triangle, starting from red (0 degree).
Feature Feature S (saturation) is the proportional size of the module of the
Extraction Extraction projection of the vector over the basic triangle, and I (intensity),
is the distance from the end of the vector to the basic triangle.
There is a conversion from RGB to HIS is quite complicated.
Similarity check 3. Similarity Measures

Finding good similarity measures between images based on some
feature set is a challenging task. On the one hand, the ultimate
goal is to define similarity functions that match with human
perception, but how humans judge the similarity between images
Output is a topic of ongoing research. The Direct Euclidian Distance
Image between an database image D and query image Q can be given as
the equation below [7].Where, a and b be the feature vectors of
database image D and Query image Q respectively with size ‘n’.
Histogram similarity measures namely, Histogram Intersection
Figure 1: Block diagram of color based image matching. (HI), Histogram Euclidean Distance (HED) and Histogram
Quadratic Distance Measures (HQDM) [8].
2.1 RGB color model
4. Proposed work
The RGB color model has three basic primary colors: red, green
and blue. All other colors are obtained by combining them. This Proposed a new matching technique for color based image
model can be thought as a cube, where three non –adjacent and retrieval using histogram, spatiogram and bins firstly, select a
perpendicular corners are R, G and B.As can be seen, RGB is an RGB color space then converted its color space into HSV color
additive color model, since the combination of green, red and space or gray level, in the case of HSV color space the results are
blue gives white. This is the color model that is most commonly more effective and accurate in comparison to the RGB color
used in computer graphics, since it matches the way the color is space, but the gray level similarity matching between two image
stored in video memory. Used for color model and broad class of the results are improve compare to the color space, developed a
color of color models corners, RGB color are at three points at new formula and matching two color images.
corners and at basic scale. Magenta, yellow and cyan are at three
remaining points at corner. Black is situated at origin and white 4.1 Color Histogram
is situated at the farest point. The line joining black and white
shows gray scale. All other colors are inside the cube in the form The color histogram for an image is constructed by counting the
of points and are defined by vectors extending from origin. The number of pixels of each color [6]. In other words color
number of pixels used to represent a pixel is called pixel depth. histogram defines as a distribution of colors in an image. For
In general application, we require 8 bits for presenting a color, digital images, a color histogram represents the number of pixels
for RGB, we needs = 8*3 = 24 bits, so total number of colors = that have colors in each of a fixed list of color ranges. Those
www.IJCSI.org 531
span the image color space the set of all possible colors. A visual (9) Compare their spatiogram, similarity (s1, s2).
representation of the histogram of an image is a simple but useful
C = 2*sqrt(2*pi)
tool because it describes the image in terms of brightness and
contrast. To find the color image histogram
C2 = 1/(2*pi)
S = sum [sum {sum (√h1*√h2)}] q = sigma1+sigma2
Where s is similarity value between two color image histogram,
h1 is the query image histogram and h2 is the database image q = C * (q(1,1,:) .* q (2,2,:)) .^ (1/4)
histogram.
sigmai = 1./(1./(sigma1+(sigma1==0)) +
4.2 Color Spatiogram 1./(sigma2+(sigma2==0)))
Q = C * (sigmai(1,1,:) .* sigmai(2,2,:)) .^ (1/4)

We introduce the concept of a spatiogram, which is a
generalization of a histogram that includes potentially higher
q = permute (q, [1 3 2])
order moments. A histogram is a zeroth-order spatiogram, while
second-order spatiograms contain spatial means and covariance’s
Q = permute(Q, [1 3 2])
for each histogram bin. This spatial information still allows quite
general transformations, as in a histogram, but captures a richer
x = mu1(1,:) - mu2(1,:)
description of the target to increase robustness in tracking. We
y = mu1(2,:) - mu2(2,:)
show how to use spatiogram in kernel-based trackers, deriving a
mean shift procedure in which individual pixels vote not only for
sigmax = 2 * (sigma1+sigma2)
the amount of shift but also for its direction. Experiments show
improved tracking results compared with histograms, using both
isigma = 1./(sigmax+(sigmax==0))
mean shift and exhaustive local search [4].
detsigmax = permute(sigmax(1,1,:) .* sigmax(2,2,:), [1
S = sum {sum (√h1*√h2*dist.)} 3 2])
Algorithm for color matching algorithm isigmaxx = permute(isigma(1,1,:), [1 3 2])
(1) Read the database image d(I) and query image q(I) and isigmayy = permute(isigma(2,2,:), [1 3 2])
both image are RGB color images.
z = C2 ./ sqrt(detsigmax) .* exp(-0.5 * (isigmaxx.*x.^2
Where d(I) and q(I) are variables + isigmayy.*y.^2))
(2) Convert d(I) and q(I) RGB image into HSV image.
Dist = q * Q * z
RGB query images [q(I)] HSV query images
S = sum {sum (√h1*√h2*dist.)}
[q’(I)]
RGB database images [d(I)] HSV database
If result = 0, very low similarity
images [d’(I)]
Result = 0.9, good similarity
(3) Extract a color histogram from each image h1 and h2.
Result = 1, perfect similarity.
Bins = {4, 8, 12, 32 …}
(4) Compare their histogram, similarity (h1, h2).
S = sum [sum {sum (√h1*√h2)}]
If result = 0, very low similarity

Result = 0.9, good similarity
Result = 1, perfect similarity.
( (a) (b) (c)
(5) Start the process of re-matching.

(8) Extract a color Spatiogram from each image s1 and s2.
Bins = {4, 8, 12, 32 …}
www.IJCSI.org 532
5. Conclusions
This paper have presented color image matching methods,
which can be used to find the similar value between query image
and database image based on histogram and spatiogram, The
accuracy of any particular method in any given situation will
(d)
depend on the histogram bin and segmentation methods. The
Figure 2: Images
main aim of this research is to find a similarity between two
color images using histogram database. In this paper three
condition are apply to find color similarity between two color
The proposed method images, first if results are 1, images color are perfect match,
second, result are less than 1 and greater than 0.5 then color
similarity are good and the third condition, results are less than
Query color Database color
0.5 then color similarity are poor. This technique also finds the
image Image similarity between compressed color image, 90 degree rotate
color image and RGB and HSV color image. The future work of
this method is finding the similarity value between different
format color images such as .jpeg, .png, .tif. This proposed
Bins = (4, 8, method has simulated in MATLAB 7.5.…
12, 32 …)
References
[1] Rafael C. Gonzalez and Richard E. Woods “Digital image
processing Using MATLAB”, 2010.
Histogram Histogram [2] Weisheng Li “New Color Cluster Algorithm For Image
Retrieval” 2009.
[3] Jun Tang, “A Color Image Segmentation algorithm Based on
Matching Region Growing” 2010.
[4] Yoichi MIYAKE and Kimiyoshi MIYATA “Color Image
Processing Based on Spectral Information and Its Application”
1999.
Spatiogram Spatiogram
Results [5] V.S.V.S. Murthy, E.Vamsidhar, J.N.V.R. Swarup Kumar
“Content Based Image Retrieval using Hierarchical and K-Means
Clustering Techniques “ 2010.
[6] Sangoh Jeong, “Histogram-Based Color Image
Matching Retrieval”, 2001.
[7] N. K. Kamila “Image retrieval using equalized histogram
image bins moments”, 2010.
[8].V. Vijaya Kumar “Integrated Histogram Bin Matching For
Results Similarity Measures of Color Image Retrieval” 2009.
[9] A. K. Jain “Fundamentals of Digital Image Processing”2006.
image Hbin Sbin histogram Spatiogram
(d,a) 4 4 0.869045 0.791551

(d,a) 8 8 0.796508 0.675316
(d,a) 16 16 0.701256 0.532764
(d,a) 32 32 0.623712 0.421750
(d,b) 4 4 0.593771 0.514547
(d,b) 8 8 0.418037 0.290486
(d,b) 16 16 0.266407 0.145882
(d,b) 32 32 0.180057 0.067183
(d,c) 4 4 0.662087 0.602848
(d,c) 8 8 0.599680 0.525683
(d,c) 16 16 0.559177 0.465471
(d,c) 32 32 0.518520 0.410768
Table 1: Results of matching using histogram and spatiogram

www.IJCSI.org 533
A New Design for Array Multiplier with Trade off in Power

and Area.
Nirlakalla Ravi1, Anchula Satish2, Dr.Talari Jayachandra Prasad3 and Dr.Thota Subba Rao4
1
Research Scholar(SVU), Department of Physics,
2, 3
Department of ECE,
1, 2, 3
RGMCET (Autonomous), JNT University-Anantapur, Nandyal, AP-518501, India.
4
Department of Physics, S.K.University,
Anantapur, AP-515003, India.
Abstract
In this paper a low power and low area array multiplier with carry A basic multiplier can be divided into three parts i)
save adder is proposed. The proposed adder eliminates the final partial product generation ii) partial product addition and
addition stage of the multiplier than the conventional parallel iii) final addition. In this paper we present a low power
array multiplier. The conventional and proposed multiplier both design methodology for parallel array multiplier using
are synthesized with 16-T full adder. Among Transmission Gate, Carry Save Adder (CSA). The rest of this paper is
Transmission Function Adder, 14-T, 16-T full adder shows organized as follows. Section-II presents the total power
energy efficiency. In the proposed 4x4 multiplier to add carry bits consumption in CMOS circuits with mathematical
with out using Ripple Carry Adder (RCA) in the final stage, the expression. Section-III explains the basic structure of an
carries given to the input of the next left column input. Due to array multiplier with mathematical expression. The
this the proposed multiplier shows 56 less transistor count, then methodology of the proposed multiplier with conventional
cause trade off in power and area. The proposed multiplier has array multiplier is presented in Section-IV. Results of total
shown 13.91% less power, 34.09% more speed and 59.91% less power, worse case delay and EDP with different
energy consumption for TSMC 0.18nm technology at a supply technologies is discussed in Section-V. Section-VI is the
voltage 2.0V than the conventional multiplier.
conclusion of the work.
Keywords: Array Multiplier, CSA, Full Adder, Power, Delay,
Area and Energy Delay Product. 2. Power Consumption in CMOS VLSI
Circuits
1. Introduction There are three main components of power
consumption in digital CMOS VLSI circuits.
Multiplication is an essential arithmetic operation for
common Digital Signal Processing (DSP) applications, 2.1 Switching Power: consumed in charging and
such as filtering and fast Fourier transform (FFT). To discharging of the circuit capacitances during transistor
achieve high execution speed, parallel array multipliers are switching.
widely used. But these multipliers consume more power.
Power consumption has become a critical concern in 2.2 Short-Circuit Power: consumed due to short-circuit
today’s VLSI system design. Hence the designers are current flowing from power supply to ground during
needed to concentrate power efficient multipliers for the transistor switching. This power more dominates in Deep
design of low-power DSP systems. Sub Micron (DSM) technology.
In recent years, several power reduction techniques
have been proposed for low-power digital design, 2.3 Static Power: consumed due to static and leakage
including the reduction of supply voltage, multi threshold currents flowing while the circuit is in a stable state. The
logic and clock speed, the use of signed magnitude first two components are referred to as dynamic power,
arithmetic and differential data encoding, the since power is consumed dynamically while the circuit is
parallelization or pipelining of operations, and the tuning changing states. Dynamic power accounts for the majority
of input bit-patterns to reduce switching activity [1]. of the total power consumption in digital CMOS VLSI
circuits at micron technology [2], [3].
www.IJCSI.org 534
P   iVDDVswing Cload fPi  VDD I isc  VDD I l In the given example, we have 4-bit multiplier
i and 4-bit multiplicand. By using the above equation (2) we
-------- (1) can generate 4-rows of partial products as shown in the
Where “Figure (1)”.The hardware required for the generation of
VDD – power supply voltage; these partial products is AND gates. Using any adder like
Vswing - voltage swing of the output which is ideally equal Carry Save Adder (CSA), Carry Propagate Adder (CPA)
to VDD; we can add the partial products. In this method we are
Cload – load capacitance at node i; following Carry Save Addition to add the products.
f – system clock frequency;
X3 X2 X1 X0
Pi – switching activity at node I;
Y3 Y2 Y1 Y0
Iisc - short-circuit current at node;
Il – leakage current.
X0Y3 X0Y2 X0Y1 X 0Y 0
As designing a low power CMOS 1-bit full adder, the
X1Y3 X1Y2 X1Y1 X1Y0
emphasis will be on these areas
X2Y3 X2Y2 X2Y1 X2Y0
i) to reduce the total number of transistors and the
X3Y3 X3Y2 X3Y1 X3Y0
total number of parasitic capacitances in internal nodes to
reduce the load capacitance.
P7 -P6 P5 P4 P3 P2 P1 P0
ii) to lower the switching activity to save the dynamic
power consumption.
Fig.1. Multiplier Architecture.
iii) to remove some direct paths from power supply to
ground to save the short-circuit power dissipation.
iv) to balance each path in the full adder to avoid the 4. Methodology
appearance of glitches since glitches not only cause a
unnecessary power dissipation hut may even lead to a fault In the Carry Save Addition method, the first row
circuit operation due to spurious transitions, especially in a will be either Half-Adders or Full-Adders. If the first row
low voltage operation system. of the partial products is implemented with Full-Adders,
v) in order to build a low-voltage full adder, all the Cin will be considered ‘0’. Then the carries of each Full-
nodes in the circuit must possess full voltage swing. Adder can be diagonally forwarded to the next row of the
vi) to build the low-voltage full adder design because adder. The resulting multiplier is said to be Carry Save
the power supply voltage is the crucial factor in reducing Multiplier, because the carry bits are not immediately
power dissipation. added, but rather are saved for the next stage. In the design
In Nanometer scale leakage power dominates the if the full adders have two input data the third input is
dynamic power and static power due to hot electrons. So considered as zero. In the final stage, carries and sums are
the concentration is on to trade off power in parallel merged in a fast carry-propagate (e.g. ripple carry or carry-
multipliers. look ahead) adder stage [5]. This is the conventional array
multiplier with CSA as shown in “Figure (2)”.
3. Parallel Multiplier
In the proposed method, we implement all the
Consider the multiplication of two unsigned n-bit partial product rows of the multiplier as same as that of the
numbers, where X = xn-1, xn-2, … x0 is the multiplicand and conventional adder (explained above).The final adder
Y = yn-1,yn-2, ……,y0 is the multiplier. The product of these which is used to add carries and sums of the multiplier is
two bits can be written as [4] removed in this method. Then the carries of the multiplier
n 1 n 1 at the final stage is carefully added to the inputs of the
P X Y 2
(i  j )
----------- (2) multiplier as shown in the “Figure (3)”. The carry of the
i j
i 1 j 1 fourth column of the multiplier is given to the input of the
n 1 fifth column instead of zero. Then the carry of the fifth
X  X 2
i column is forwarded to the input of the sixth column so on.
i ----- Multiplicand In this multiplier the carry of the seventh column of the
i 1
adder is not neglected, it is considered as Most Significant
n 1
Y 2
Bit (MSB) of the multiplier. Due to elimination of four full
Y 
j
j
------ Multiplier adders in the final stage power and area can be trade off in
j 1 the proposed design than that of the conventional array
multiplier.
www.IJCSI.org 535
Y3 0 Y2 0 Y1 0 Y0 0
F X0 F X0 F X0 F X0
0
F F F F
0 X1Y3 X1Y2 X1Y1 X1Y0
F X3Y3 F X2Y2 F X2Y1 F X2Y0

0
aF
3b2 X3Y3 F X3Y2 a3F X3Y1 F X3Y0
0
F F F F 0
P7 P6 P5 P4 P3 P2 P1 P0
Fig. 2. Conventional Array Multiplier with CSA.
Y0 0 Y0 0 Y0 0 Y0 0
F X0 F X0 F X0 F X0
F F F F
X1Y3 X1Y2 X1Y1 X1Y0
F F F F
X2Y3 X2Y2 X 2Y 1 X2Y0
F F F F
X3Y3 X3Y2 X3Y1 X3Y0
P7 P6 P5 P4 P3 P2 P1 P0
Fig .3. Proposed Array Multiplier with CSA.
5. Results and Discussions

www.IJCSI.org 536
To show the proposed design very good

TotalPower
performance, the design is synthesized with 16-Transistor 0 2 4 6 8 10
10
0.0004
Full Adder design. Among the Transmission Gate CMOS,
Transmission Function Full Adder (TFA), 14-T adders this Conventional
8
shows good efficiency in terms of power and delay [6]. 0.0003
The results of the 16-T full adder are as shown in the Proposed
TotalPower (Watts)
“Table. (1)”. 6
0.0002
4
Table.1. Power, Delay and Energy Delay Product of the 16-T Adder.
Technology 16-T 16-T Full- EDP (JS) 0.0001

2
at (250C) Full-Total Prop-Delay
Power
0.18um 8.88E-06 5.08E-10 2.29161E-24 0.0000
0.18um 0.18um 90nm 90nm 65nm
0
65nm
90nm 1.36E-05 5.07E-10 3.49587E-24
Technology
65nm 6.15E-06 5.06E-10 1.57462E-24
Power, Propagation delays and Energy consumptions Fig. 4. Total Power Comparison.
are calculated for the conventional array and the proposed
multiplier with different technologies using H-Spice to
PropDelay
study the performance of the both multipliers shown in 0 2 4 6 8 10
10
“Table (2)”.
Conventional
8
5.1 Total Power: The total power of these two
1.20E-009
multipliers is calculated at a simulation temperature of Proposed
PropDelay (Sec)
6
250C as shown in “Figure 4”. The proposed multiplier
has shown the power improvement than the 4
conventional for 180nm - 13.91 %, 90nm – 13.71% 6.00E-010
and 65nm – 18.59%. In the DSM technology the 2

proposed multiplier show good performance due to
less transistor count to avoid more leakage current. 0.00E+000 0
0.18um 0.18um 90nm 90nm 65nm 65nm
Technology
5.2 Propagation Delay: In the propagation delays of the
two multipliers, the proposed has shown more
efficient than the convention shown in “Figure 5”. The Fig. 5. Delay Graph.
propagation delay is calculated for all inputs and
outputs to find the worst case delay. 0 2 4 6 8
EDP
10
10
Conventional
5.3 Energy Delay Product: The proposed multiplier
6.00E-022
shows more efficiency in Energy Delay Product is as 8
shown in “Figure 6”. It has shown for 180nm –

6
59.91%, 90nm – 9.35% and 65nm – 29.21%
EDP (J-S)
4.00E-022
improvement in the energy.

Proposed 4
5.4 Transistor count: The proposed multiplier has 56 2.00E-022

2
less transistors than that of the conventional
multiplier. These less count can trade off power
0.00E+000 0
consumption and area. 0.18um 0.18um 90nm 90nm 65nm 65nm
Technology
Fig. 6. EDP Graph.

www.IJCSI.org 537
Table. 2. Power, Delay and Energy Delay Product of the Conventional and Proposed Multiplier.
Technology Array Total Power Total Prop-Delay Prop- Energy EDP No.of Transistors
Multiplier type (Watts) Power (Sec) Delay Delay Percentage
Percentage Percentage Product (%)
(%) (%) (EDP) JS
Conventional 2.4628E-04 1.6490E-09 6.6968E-22 376
0.18um 13.91 34.09 59.91
Proposed 2.1200E-04 1.0867E-09 2.6841E-22 (Conventioal)
Conventional 3.8089E-04 8.3947E-10 2.5002E-22
90nm 13.71 1.12 9.35
Proposed 3.2864E-04 8.3000E-10 2.2664E-22 320
Conventional 2.0514E-04 1.1040E-09 2.8451E-22 (Proposed)
65nm 18.59 0.52 29.21
Proposed 1.6699E-04 1.0982E-09 2.0139E-22
6. Conclusion
N.Ravi holds B.Sc degree in electronics at Osmania Degree
College-Kurnool, S.K. University, Anantapur, Andhra Pradesh-
In this paper we have proposed a new design for India in 1998. He obtained Masters Degree in Physics (Solid State
low power, high performance and low area based array Physics) at S.K.University, Anantapur, AP- India in 2001. He is
multiplier with out RCA. It shows the same functionality pursuing Ph.D in VLSI Design from Sri Venkateswara University,
than the conventional adder. For higher bit multiplication it Tirupati, AP. He is presently working at Rajeev Gandhi memorial
College of Engg & Technology, Nandyal, Andhra Pradesh-India as
shows better power and area saving. For example, in the
proposed 4x4 multiplier it saves 56 MOS transistors. For
TSMC 0.18um it saves 13.91% of total power, 34.09% of An Assistant professor & Head in the department of Physics. His
more speed and 59.91% less energy consumption. To area of interest includes VLSI, Solid State Physics and
study the performance of the multiplier, it is synthesized Nanotechnology.
with different technologies. Dr.T.Jayachandra Prasad is a Principal and Professor of ECE at
Rajeev Gandhi Memorial College of Engg & Technology, Nandyal,
Andhra Padesh-India
References Dr.T.Subba Rao is a Professor in the department of Physics, Sri

[1] A. P. ChandrakashanandR. Brodcrsen, “Low Power Digital Krishnadevaraya University, Anantapur, Andhra Pradesh-India.
CMOS Design”, Kluwer. Academic Publisher, 1996.
[2] S. Devadas, S. Malik, “A survey of optimization techniques
targeting low power VLSI circuits,” in Proc. 32nd
ACM/IEEE Design Automation Conf., 1995, pp. 242–247.
[3] A. P. Chandrakasan, S. Sheng, R. W. Bordersen, “Low-
power CMOS digital design,” IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits,
vol. 27, pp. 473–484, Apr. 1992.
[4] Jan M. Rabaey, Anantha Chandrakasan and Borivoje
Nikolic, Digital Integrated Circuits- Adesign Perspective
,second edition,PHI-2004
[5] M.-C. Wen, S.-J. Wang and Y.-N. Lin, Low-power parallel
multiplier with column bypassing, Electronics Letters 12th
May 2005 Vol. 41 No. 10.
[6] Jin-Fa Lin, Yin-Tsung Hwang, Member, IEEE, Ming-Hwa
Sheu, Member, IEEE, and Cheng-Che Ho, A Novel High-
Speed and Energy Efficient 10-Transistor Full Adder
Design, IEEE Tran on Circuits and Systems—I: Regular
Papers, Vol. 54, no. 5, May 2007, pp. 1050-1059.
www.IJCSI.org 538
Data Encryption in the Hostile Environment for Wireless Sensor

Network Using Virtual Energy and Trigger Time Response
Protocol
Krishan Kant Lavania1, Saumitra Mani Tiwari2 and Sahil Batra3
1
Head, Department of Information Technology, Arya Institute of Engineering & Technology
Jaipur, India
2
Student, Department of Information Technology, Arya Institute of Engineering & Technology
Jaipur, India
3
Student, Department of Information Technology, Arya Institute of Engineering & Technology
Jaipur, India
part of our daily life, doing more work than only capturing a
Abstract data for alerting.
The future of communication is the intelligent sensors capable
enough to manage the decision making process by making
communication among themselves. Although to do that they need Here as the field of application for the sensor will increase,
a secure communication to take place which is continuous and for there will be increase in the need of accuracy and
that we need energy sources which is continuous and always authenticity of the data they would provide, so that the
flowing in. This is a major problem as making any communication
monitoring of the critical section can be used on an
safe today is a complex process as the intruders today are very
much advanced and nothing less than implementing a proper immediate basis to carry out the actions (e.g. deployment
Encryption algorithm to secure the data, it is not safe and to that and control of man-less planes like drones). And also the
we need to keep energy flowing to keep encryption engines security of the signals exchanged has to be maintained
running. The Whole concept is the need for Future Technology under a resilient protocol to prevent malicious code
and Virtual Energy Based Encryption (VEBEK) is the answer for producing false data, which can result in serious
that. VEBEK is a secure communication framework in which consequences of heavy data and money loss.
permutated key generated by RC4 encryption mechanism is used
for encryption. The Key to RC4encryption changes dynamically in The Security of sensor network is a dire task as these
accordance to the residual energy packets of the Sensor. Thus wireless devices are small in size and are deployed in large
every data packet has a different dynamically generated key numbers, usually in a hostile environment and have the limit
coming in succession. And keying messages send to different ends in which they can carry the resource (e.g. power source to
are also not needed for checking the authenticity as the nodes keep sensors running, computational capacity and memory
present in between the path of network of sensors does that, to store it). For Example a typical sensor operates at a
making the communication authenticated and integrated. frequency of 2.4 GHz, has a data rate of 250 Kbps, 128 KB
of program memory 512 KB of memory of measurement
transmit power of 1mW, and communication range of 30m
1. Introduction to 100m. Thus the resource usage on field has to be most
efficient.
Wireless Sensor Technology has become the technology
that can be applied in more and more fields of applications. This paper focuses on the keying mechanism based on two
Apart from the typical Areas like Environmental, Military fundamental schemes for WSN which are Static and
and Commercial Enterprise. Where we can see them in Dynamic. In static the key Management functions (key
surveillance, Oceanographic data collection, pollution generation and distribution) are carried prior to or shortly
monitoring, navigation assistance etc. Further after network deployment, keeping the number of keys to be
Improvements in the sensors can evolve the sensors to be a loaded fixed. While in dynamic keying key is changed at
the time of communication. Dynamic keys are more attack
www.IJCSI.org 539
resilient as the whole message is difficult to get decoded would be discussed in later part of the paper, however we
due to each packet having different key unlike in static, keep a note that in VEBEK-I there is no rekeying of
however their power consumption is also very high, as more messages in a dynamic system though there is some initial
amount of message are to be passed in case of exchanging information exchange in the neighborhood, while In
the keys every time. So for that we keep a note to minimize VEBEK-II there is no exchange of message before, though
the overhead associated with the refreshing key to maintain we have a dynamic system having no keying of messages.
the efficiency of the sensor. As the communication cost is The Figure given on right hand side shows the analysis of
among the most dominant factor to check in sensor
technology, the keying of message has to be checked to the result from the expressions given above, and we can see
ensure the energy utilization is optimum. Apart from that in that for both VEBEK modes the cost of Energy components
applications like Military Surveillance, spying etc. we would be fixed, although for VEBEK-I we also include cost
prefer the number of messages to be passed to be minimum of messages sent before the transmission showing its energy
in count making them even harder to get detected while lower than VEBEK-II. Here we can see that large amount
being present in enemy lines. of energy is consumed in rekeying of messages, and how
This paper throws light on VEBEK (Virtual Energy Based VEBEK provides us with an efficient encryption but on a
Encryption and Keying). Its framework provides a lower energy consumption benefit. Also here the energy is
technique to verify data in line and get rid of packets mainly consumed in generating random keys for the packets
containing malicious codes thus dynamically updating keys
in dynamic environment making the VEBEK resilient to
without any key exchange of messages. We can see that this
type of encryption provides us with all the necessary attacks like Brute Force Attacks, Replay Attacks and
features needed from an efficient way for sensor networks. Masquerade attacks.
2. Background of Keying 3. Structure of VEBEK Frameworks

Efficient Key management schemes is needed to be done to
make keys available to communicating nodes (Source and The VEBEK framework comprises of three modules:
Sink) for maintaining aspect of confidentiality. The Virtual Energy Based Keying, Crypto and Forwarding. In
Providence of Keys to the sensors has to be done before this the Virtual Energy Based Keying process involves the
deployment of network or at the time of triggering when the work to create Dynamic Keys without sending extra
keys can be redistributed. The key given before the network message to establish keys. The Key here is calculated based
deployment is called the static key while the later is known on the Virtual Energy of the sensor; the key is then fed to
as dynamic key. The VEBEK only makes use of dynamic crypto module to do the encoding part.
keying as by this it saves the energy that would have been
wasted in sending the messages to the sink and source to
keep a list of keys used for Encryption.
Fig 2: Modules of Vebek Framework
The Crypto part of the Framework does the simple encoding

process, which is actually a process of permutation of bits
present in a packet, in accordance to the dynamically
Fig1: Energy consumption for Keying in Dynamic Energy based generated code with help of RC4. The encoding here is told
schemes (VEBEK-I and VEBEK-II) as simple, however there can be stronger encryption
The Keying in VEBEK is done in two operational modes mechanism used in the flexible VEBEK framework for
(VEBEK-I and VEBEK-II), The detail about both of them
www.IJCSI.org 540
better security. Here the sending and receiving of forward To be precise the instantaneous value of the virtual energy,
module is handled by the forwarding module. EV is computed by decrementing the total of the predefined
value Evc, from the previous virtual energy value. However
if the sensor node is just a forwarder ( only a intermediate
3.1 Virtual Energy Based Keying Module receiver between two nodes) the successful decoding and
The Virtual Energy Based Keying Module is the authentication the receiving node keep track of the energy
method used for handling the keying process. It produces a of the sending node to keep derive the key for decoding. In
dynamic key to be fed in the crypto module, which are VEBEK the process of tracking the virtual energy of
based on the value of virtual energy present in a particular sending node is called watching, and the energy value
sensor node at that moment. The Ratio of difference associated with it is called Virtual Perceived Energy (Ep).
between the adjacent batteries can vary in this process and
can result in dropping of some packet; VEBEK keeps a
check on this problem too. Now the Sensor nodes after
getting active traverse various functional states, like packet
reception, transmission, encoding, decoding and node-stay-
alive. As each of these states occurs the virtual energy of Fig 4: RC4 encryption mechanism in VEBEK
the sensor gets timid. The Current value of the virtual
energy given by EVC is used for generating the key by 3.2 Crypto Module
generation function F. During the initial phase all nodes Due to the constraint to make use of less amount of energy
have same energy level Eini, thus the key K1 is the function the encoding algorithm in Wireless Sensor Networks has to
of initial virtual energy value and the initial vector IV which be kept bvetry simple but also effective. Here in VEBEK
are pre distributed to the sensors. Subsequently key Kj is we generally make use of RC4 encryption mechanism. It
the function of the current value Evc and the previous key works on the base of creating a permutation of the bits in
Kj-1. Thus in this way VEBEK ensures that each packet has the packet with the dynamic key provided by the previous
a dynamic key generated with the help of its current value node by energy based keying module. The process is kept
of Virtual Energy and the Key present on its previous node simple as to save energy of the battery being used although
and passing it as the key to Crypto Module doing encoding if needed complex algorithm can also be used in it to
safe from different types of attacks. provide enhanced security as VEBEK provides us with the
flexibility to do that. The packets in the VEBEK consists of
ID (i bits),Type (t bits) and data bit fields. Each Node sends
these to next hop, however the sensors ID type and the
sensed data is send in pseudo random type in accordance to
the result of RC4.More Specifically the RC4 algorithm
takes the data byte by byte as input and produces result as
Table 1: Notations Used in VEBEK permutated code. The concatenation of every 8 bits of
output becomes a permutation code. Due to the constraint to
Each Sensor Node Computes its key with the help of the make use of less amount of energy the encoding algorithm
value of the virtual energy present at any instant , and there in Wireless Sensor Networks has to be kept bvetry simple
are also number of values of energy consumed in different but also effective. Here in VEBEK we generally make use
processes like Energy for Packet reception (Erx) , Packet of RC4 encryption mechanism. It works on the base of
Transmission(Etx), Encoding(Enc), (Edec) for decoding so creating a permutation of the bits in the packet with the
all types of energies are mentioned in the table given above. dynamic key provided by the previous node by energy
based keying module. The process is kept simple as to save
energy of the battery being used although if needed
complex algorithm can also be used in it to provide
enhanced security as VEBEK provides us with the
flexibility to do that. The packets in the VEBEK consists of
ID (i bits),Type (t bits) and data bit fields. Each Node sends
these to next hop, however the sensors ID type and the
sensed data is send in pseudo random type in accordance to
the result of RC4.More Specifically the RC4 algorithm
takes the data byte by byte as input and produces result as
Fig3. The Process of Watching and Forwarding
permutated code. The concatenation of every 8 bits of
output becomes a permutation code.
www.IJCSI.org 541
4.2 VEBEK-II
4. Working Modes of VEBEK In the VEBEK-II nodes are configured to watch only some
Authentication, non repudiation and Integrity are some nodes in the network. Each Packet Picks up a random node
among the Security Services provided by the VEBEK to monitor and stores its state before leaving. As the packet
protocol. The Base of these services is the Watching moves from different nodes where it is watched on the basis
mechanism discussed earlier. And the data retrieved by it to of randomization .VEBEK-II follows statistical filtering
be stored in the memory to be further used in services. But procedure in which the current node is not watching the
there is cost involved in storing data, communication and node which has generated then the packet is forwarded.
computation like purposes, and these can vary according to And IF the Packet sending the packet is being watched then
the requirement of the purpose involved, for example the the packet is decoded into decoded ID and is compared with
cost of surveillance for military has to be more than plain text ID, if the watcher and forwarder node can’t find
determining the temperature of a national park that comes in the key with success, they will try as many keys as the value
a civilian work. The VEBEK framework keeps note of the of Virtual key search threshold before declaring the packet
requirement and provides flexibility according to needs thus as malicious. If the packet is Authentic and this hop is not
supporting two modes of working VEBEK-I and VEBEK- the Final Destination, the Original Packet Is forwarded else
II, The detail About Both Are given below. the node is bridging the VEBEK network. In case of
Bridging original packet is encoded again with virtual
bridge energy and forwarded. Both virtual and perceived
4.1 VEBEK-I energy from it are decremented as per reflected. And If the
Packet is illegal according to rules made by the energy
IN VEBEK-I all operational nodes watch their neighbors,
values within the virtual key search threshold window, it
whenever a packet is received from their neighbor they
would be discarded. This continuous till the packet reaches
decode it and verifies its authenticity, Only tested packets
the sink. VEBEK-II has more operations in it, as there stand
are forwarded towards the sink cutting short all the packets
a possibility of malicious code escaping from watcher and
infected by malicious codes by any means. In this mode we
reaching sink, however unlike VEBEK-I the number of
assume existence of a window of time at initial deployment
processing steps in VEBEK-II are less as less re-encoding is
that an adversary is not able to compromise the network, as
performed and decoding is not done at every end. Note that
it will take time for an attacker to capture the keys that
here the malicious packet may travel several hope before
would be needed to decode the packet. During this time
getting dropped, and that re-encoding is only done when the
route initialization information is used by other nodes to
forwarding nod is bridging the network.
make decision which node to watch and after every watch a
record a is stored for the watch list of each of its neighbors.
Now to obtain the initial value of any of the neighbor a
master key can be used to transmit this value during the 5. Conclusion
time of sharing it as it is always the same for every node. As Communication is the Process that requires high level of
the time passes the function F determines the key based security, integrity and authenticity of data and especially
upon the different types of Energies involved in the process when this is talking place in WSN in really becomes
of depleting the value virtual energy. expensive and difficult to implement. To keep these things
When the Packet reaches next hop node the key of the in check we presented a secure communication framework
seeding node is extracted by forwarding node from its called VEBEK for Wireless Sensor Networks.
records and the value of virtual energy of the packet is used IIN comparison to Other Key Management VEBEK has the
to decode it to obtain the value. After decoding the plain Following Benefits: 1) It is less Chatty so it saves energy
text ID is compared with the decoyed ID. This process is and is harder to detect by attackers. 2) It uses Dynamic Way
done several times decreasing the value of virtual energy to To generate key thus making it more efficient against
find out the decoded ID, and if there is a fault found the various attacks (eg. Replay attacks, brute force attacks and
malicious code is detected and so the packet is discarded. masquerade attacks) and 3) It Provides A flexible
The number of check perform to determine the malicious Architecture to vary the level of security from high to low
code vary in accordance. But is governed by the value of as per the requirement of the task. 4) The energy and the
virtual key threshold, and if the Packet is Authentic it is cost saving by the VEBEK also Decrease by around 60 to
forwarded towards the sink. 90 percent improvement. We have seen that VEBEK (I and
II) are very efficient network of communication for WSN
www.IJCSI.org 542
and if the wireless sensors are the technology of the Future

then VEBEK is the way to bring it to reality.
6. References
[1]. C. Vu, R. Beyah, and Y. Li, “A Composite Event Detection in
Wireless Sensor Networks,” Proc. IEEE Int’l Performance,
Computing, and Comm. Conf. (IPCCC ’07), Apr. 2007.
[2]. Analysis of Public-Key Cryptography for

Wireless Sensor Networks Security F. Amin, A. H. Jahangir, and
H. Rasifard.
IJCSI Internaational Journal o
of Computer Scie
ence Issues, Vol.. 8, Issue 3, No. 22, May 2011
ISSN (Onlinee): 1694‐0814
www.IJCSI.o org 543

Fix
xed Adv
vance Prriority based
b Baandwidtth Utilizzation in
n
TDMM EPON N
Muh hammad Bilal
Dep mputer Science,, NFC Institute of Engineeringg & Fertilizer R
partment of Com Research, Faisallabad Pakistan
(Affiliated
d with UET Lahore), Faisalab bad, 38000, Pakiistan
Ab
bstract
PON techn nology can be used to avoid the placementt sourcce to destinattion. The elem
ments used inn such
of electronnics in the fieeld by using passive
p opticall netw
works are passsive combinners, couplerss, and
filters (sp
plitters) to distribute optical circuits to o splittters.
individual customers. They reduced the t amount off
fiber and local
l exchangee and field equuipment. With h PONN technology iss receiving moore and more innterest
the develoopment of serv vices offered by
b the Internet,, by thhe telecommunnication industrry as the “last Mile”
the “last mile”
m bottleneck
k problems perrsist to increasee soluttion. The “Laast Mile” soluution is also called
step by step
p. “Firsst Mile” soluution. Last MMile solution means
proviides the leg cconnectivity fr
from communiication
Many algo orithms were developed
d for making TDM M proviider to customeer sites.
EPON effficient similaar to Schedu uling, Priority
y
swapping etc. These alll algorithms have
h problemss EPON N are emerginng access technnology that provides
like starvaation, QoS, laatency and channel under-- the loow cost methood to deployinng the optical access
utilization. We focused d the efficieent bandwidth h line bbetween Centraal Office and C
Customer Site’s.
utilization in TDM EPO ON by manag ging time slotss
within ON NUs and reduccing latency and
a increasing
g 1.1 E
EPON Featu
ures
quality of service.
s 1.2
1. EP
PON is inexpennsive, flexible,, and efficient.
Our Fixed Advance Priority baseed Bandwidth h 2. 8802.3ah draft standard does not manddate a
Algorithm is an intra-ONU bandwiidth allocation n schedduling algorithhm. [8]
algorithm, which is useed to enhancee the network k
performancce by evaluating the paarameters likee 1.2 P
PON Compoonents
channel underutilization
u n, delay and d Quality off
Service. The issues whicch are lacking in the already
y Therre are two typess of PON compponents.
made alg gorithms are being resolv ved with ourr
proposed solution. Thee main probleem time slotss 11. Active Netw
work Elements
managemeent issue solved
d in FAPB algo orithm.
22. Passive Netw
work Elementss
Keywords:: Last Mile Solution, QoS S (Quality off 1.2.11 Active Netwoork Elements
Services), FAPB (Fixeed Advance Priority
P based
d
Bandwidth h) Algorithm, Delay,
D Rahul Tiger
T Venddors of the Neetwork elemennts mainly foccus on
activve network elemments for instaance CO chasssis and
1. Introd
duction ONU U, because thesse elements caan reduce the ccost of
layinng network. Thhe CO chassis is located at sservice
Passive Optical
O Netwoorks (PON’s) are point-to-- proviider‘s CO, heaad end. [1]
multipoint optical netwworks. There are no activee Opticcal Line Terminaal (OLT):
elements (ssuch as amplifi
fiers) in the sign
nals path from
This network elem ment is placeed in CO (C Central
Officce). Its functiional units aare dependent upon
whicch type of muultiplexing useed TDM, WD DM or
hybriid, but main fuunctional unit is transponder. [1]

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www.IJCSI.o org 544
1.2.22 Passive Netw
work Element
Optical Neetwork Unit (O
ONU): Thesse elements aree placed betweeen OLT and ON
NUs.
1. Opptical Coupler//Splitter.
The ONU provides interrface between the t customer‘ss
o and telephony networks an
data, video nd the PON. Itss Opticcal Coupler:
primary fuunction is to recceive traffic in optical formatt An optical coupller consists oof two fiber fused
and then convert it to o the user desired
d formatt togetther. Simply, combine opptical signals from
(Ethernet, IP multicast ettc.). [1] multiiple fibers intoo one.
plitter:
Optical Sp
Optical Splitter is that wiith only one inp

put referred to
as splitter.
Combinerr:
A coupler with only one output referred
d to as combineer.
1.3 PON Topologies:
B Topology [1]
Fig. 1 Bus
T Topologyy [1]
Fig. 2 Tree
Fig. 3 Ring
R Topologyy [1]
PON
N Topologies
Ring Topo
ology is better than
t others butt mostly Tree

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www.IJCSI.o org 545
Topology used.
1.4 Transsmission in EPON:-

E 11. Downstreaam(Broadcast from OLT
T to
ONU’s)
There are two types off transmission in EPON aree 22. Upstream (Joint from ONU’s to OLT)
used:-
F 4 Downstrream Traffic inn EPON [4]

Fig.
EPON [4]
Fig. 5 Upstream Traffic in E
2. Accesssible Solutio
ons:-
In Schedu uling algorithm m (No class) except delayss can avoid it by implementing scheduling, at the
there is also one an nother part for the load d ONUUs. [7]
managemeent and bandwiidth utilization n by the ONUs,,
as we have to broadcastt the packets on o the basis off In S Scheduling algorithm (Witth Class) Wee will
the timesloot, if the size of the packet is greater than
n impleement the schheduling in thhe way that aassume
the timesslot being offered by th he OLT, forr theree are five packkets in the bufffer, if the size of the
transmissioon then that trrace has to waait for the nextt first tthree and fifthh one is up to tthat is offered by the
time slot, this
t may cause channel underrutilization, wee timesslot, then we w will not wait ffor the fourth ppacket

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www.IJCSI.o org 546
that is not fitting in the timeslot, we will
w allow fifth h Our FAPB (Fiixed Advancce Priority based
one to mov ve first in the timeslot,
t by do
oing so channell Banddwidth) Algoriithm is an inntra-ONU banddwidth
will not bee underutilized d, and less tim
meslots will bee alloccation algorithmm focusing to hhandle in betteer way
required fo
or packet transm mission. [7] param meters, like chhannel underuttilization, starvvation,
delayy and Quality oof Service.
In schedulling algorithm used. We can n use differentt We have comparred our soluttion with “ppriority
algorithmss to fit packets in buffer queu
ue such as firstt swappping” and siimple “scheduuling” algorithhm in
fit, best fit,, prediction etcc. [7] whicch no classes w were implantedd for the purpose of
qualiity of service.
In Priority Swapping if th
he number of bytes
b 50% or  As ppriority swappiing contains thhree classes E EF, AF
>= 0.5 thenn assign to P1 is EF and p2 is
i assign to AF F and BBE.
and p3 is assign
a to BE. Iff the number of bytes 30% orr EF, AF and BE are IEEE claasses. In our FAPB
 >= 0.3 then
t 5 then asssign to P1 is AF and p2 iss algorrithm EF class bandwidth is fixed. EF banddwidth
assign to EF
E and p3 is asssign to BE. I the number off fixedd as 60 %. Sim mply, it means 0nly 60 % daata can
bytes is 200% or  >= 0.22 then 5 then assign
a to P1 iss be seent at a time iin EF class (Inn T1). If the ddata is
BE and p2 is assign to EFF and p3 is assign to AF. [5] moree than 60 % thaan second timee slot T2 sent. Every
time slot starts wiith EF data iff exits. AF annd BE
Three Major Problems in
n existing Soluttions are:- banddwidth is not fi fixed but prioryy phenomenonn used.
Simpply if the AF < BE then AF aassign the priorrity p2
Quality
Q of Serviice and B BE act as p3 aand if BE < AF F then BE assiign the
Delays
D priorrity p2 and AF act as p3.
3. Materrial and Metthods

Network Traffic
T Schem
mes
Scheme Class EF
F Class A
AF Classs BE
400 / 40% 200 / 20% 500 / 50%
200 / 20% 600 / 60% 300 / 30%
100 / 10% 400 / 40% 500 / 50%
Table 1
3.1 Relattive Analysis through Ga

antt Charts
Network Traffic
T Schemes for schedulin
ng (no class)
Priority Sw
wapping and FA
APB:-
Delays exp perienced by thhe priority queeues are on thee EF 1 st and AF andd BE base ow wn priority whhich is
basis of thheir turn, wheen any class has 2nd or 3rdd movee 2nd.
priority it has to wait foor the previouus class to endd In FAAPB delays aree less than otheers.
transmissioon. In N
No class solutioon, I entered thhe sequence N
No. for
In no classs solution no queue
q is implem mented so bitss arrivaal of data in suuch a way:-
have to move on the baasis of their arrrival, while in n Sequuence No. 1 E
AF > EF > BE
priority sw
wapping data off that queue haas to move thatt Sequuence No. 2 AF > BE > EF
F
is given hiighest priority, in FAPB alg gorithm alwayss Sequuence No. 3 EF > AF > BE
E

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www.IJCSI.o org 547
Sequence No.
N 4 EF > BE > AF Sequuence No. 6 BE > EF > AF
F
Sequence No.
N 5 BE > AF > EF
For No
o Class Solutioon
Sequeence No. 1 enteer
1 2 3 4 5 6 77 8 9 10
AF EF BE

T1
1 2 3 4 5 6 77 8 9 10

BE AF EF BE
T2
1 2 3 4 5 6 77 8 9 10
BE AF EF BE

T3
1 2
BE

T4
EF Delays
D = 15 µss
AF Delays
D = 3 µs
BE D
Delays = 21 µss
Flo
ow Chart 1
Summ
mary of Delayys
In
nstances EF (µs) AF (µs) BE (µs)
1st 2 0 6
2nd 7 1 9
3rd 6 2 6
Table 2

of Computer Scie
www.IJCSI.o org 548

For Prriority Swappiing
1 2 3 4 5 6 77 8 9 10
BE EF F AF

T1
1 2 3 4 5 6 77 8 9 10
AF E
EF BE
E
T2
1 2 3 4 5 6 77 8 9 10
AF F EF BE

T3
EF Delays
D = 16 µss
AF Delays
D = 9 µs
BE D
Delays = 14 µss
Flo
ow Chart 2
Summ
mary of Delayys
In
1st 5 9 0
2nd 7 0 9
3rd 4 0 5
Table 3

of Computer Scie
www.IJCSI.o org 549
For FA
APB Algorith m
1 2 3 4 5 6 77 8 9 10
EFF AF BE

T1
1 2 3 4 5 6 77 8 9 10
EF BE AF
T2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
EF AF BE

T3
EF Delays
D = 0 µs
AF Delays
D = 10 µss
BE D
Delays = 13 µss
Flo
ow Chart 3
Summ
mary of Delayys
In
1st 0 4 6
2nd 0 5 2
3rd 0 1 5
Table 4

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www.IJCSI.o org 550
25
20
15
No Class SSolution
Priority Swapping
10
FAPB
0
EF AF BE
Delay(µss) De
elay(µs) Delay(µs)
Graph 1

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www.IJCSI.o org 551
4. Resultts and Argu

ument these three soluutions are com
All th mpared in a sccenario
in lasst page, for sam
me traffic.
It is observable from the t graphs thaat in No classs Delayy of EF was high for ““no class soluution”,
Solution, data
d that arrivess first, occupiees the timeslot. becauuse in this sollution no prioority is given tto any
So at rush h hours our im mportant data may get very y classs, delay for “prriority swappinng” is lesser beecause
high delayys and our com mmunication is disturbed very y in soome cases EF has priority; inn “FAPB” dellay for
much, su uch as in case c of voice and video o EF iss zero becausee data of EF m moves always oon first
conferencing in daily lifee. turn ((Bandwidth fixxed).
Priority sw
wapping elimin nates the case of high delayss But AAF and BE bassed own prioritty phenomenonn.
that are forrced on our urg gent transfer, however
h on thee Whicch priority is lesser than oother move firrst (In
basis of priiority there is a high chance ofo starvation att both)).
rush hourss, also total delay
d that is experienced
e by
y
data is hiigher than no classes, and there is also o 4.1 T
Total Delay Taable & Graph
h:
chance of starvation
s (75 % chance).
FAPB Algo orithm is betterr than No Classs Solution and d
Priority sw wapping becaause FAPB eliminatese thee
drawbackss such as Lateency and QoS S is eliminated d
allocating more
m bandwidth to the urgen nt data class.
Totaal Delay
Algorithm
ms EF F Delays(µs)
AF BE Delays((µs) Avverage
Delaays(µs) Dellays(µs)
No Class Solution 15 3 21 13
Priority Swap
pping 16 9 14 13
FAPB 0 10 13 77.667
Table 5
Average Delays (µs) G

Graph
40
35
30
25
20 FAPB
B
15 Priority Swapping
10 No C
Class Solution
5
0
Average Delay(µs)
Graph 2

of Computer Scie
www.IJCSI.o org 552
6. Conclusion
It is accom
mplished that, TDMT EPON transmission
t in
n Author
point to multi
m point netw
works is the gainful
g methodd
because all components are passive. Itt will be betterr
if it is ch hanged accord ding to FAPB B because thee I Muham mmad
parameterss which are afffecting its QoS are handled inn Bilal wass born
much bettter way in our o solution. Hence, it iss on Noveember
accomplish hed that TDM M EPON is bettter technology y 14, 1987 at
till now iff it is used witth a better scheduler such ass
FAPB. Dellay less than otther compariso on algorithms.
Faisalabad,
Pakistan. I
7. Future Directionss belong tto a
family of
In future, other person ns work on starvation to o educatioonists,
improve thhe better quality
y of services.
Network Traffic
T scheme can also be diivided in moree
who are
than three classes (mention IEEE classes) according g offering the best of their servicees for
ment so as to improve quality
to requirem y of service off the last four decadees. I recentlyy did
our desired
d data. my B.Scc in Compuuter Science from
UET, Laahore Pakisttan. My research
Referencces interest is in Computer Networrks. I
[1] Glen Kramer,
K Biswaanath Mukherjje & Gerry have alrready one reesearch papeer on
Pesavento my crediit. I want to pay tribute tto my
“Interleaveed Polling with
h Adaptive Cyccle Time parents who alwaays encourraged,
(IPACT): A Dynamic Baandwidth Distriibution motivateed me and are a connstant
Scheme in an Optical Acccess Network”” Ipact.pdf
source oof inspirationn throughouut my
[2] Glen Kramer
K and Biiswanath Mukhherje,
“Ethernet Passive
P Opticaal Network (EP
PON)”, academics. Apart from all aabove
gk_wiley.p pdf playing aand watchinng cricket booosted
[3] http://w
www.c- up my mmorale high uup till sky.
cor.com.au u/Why_PON_T Technology.htmml
[4] Sudhir Dixit, Yinghu

ua Ye and Ryaan Hirth
“Supportinng differentiateed classes of seervice in

Ethernet paassive optical networks.
n cos_ _jon.pdf”
[5] Raheeeb Muzaffar, Usman
U Younis, S. M. H.
Zaidi, M. Y.
Y A. Raja, “Prriority Swappin ng Intra-ONU
Bandwidth h Allocation Allgorithm Suppo orting
Differentiaated Service”, NUST
N Institutee of
Information Technology,, Pakistan
[6] The International

I En
ngineering Con
nsortium, Web
b
Pro Forum
m Tutorials,
w.iec.org
http://www
[7] Glen Kramer, Bisw wanath Mukheerjee & Gerry y

Pesavento,, “Ethernet PON
P (ePON):: Design and d
Analysis of
o an Optical Access
A Networrk, Design and
d
analysis off Epon.pdf
[8] glenkramer.com/uccdavis/paperss/cnft03.pdf
[9] www.ijcsi.org/pape ers/IJCSI‐8‐2‐6
634‐643.pdf

www.IJCSI.org 553
Performance Comparison of Adaptive Algorithms for

Adaptive line Enhancer
Sanjeev Kumar Dhull* Sandeep K. Arya* and O.P.Sahu#
*Guru Jambheshwar University of Science and Technology, Hisar, #National Institute of Technology, Kurukshetra
Abstract error output, e, the line enhancer will be a filter

We have designed and simulated an adaptive line enhancer optimized (the Wiener solution) or tuned to the
system for conferencing. This system is based upon a least- sinusoidal component Operation of the adaptive line
mean-square (LMS) and recursive adaptive algorithm (RLS) enhancer can be understood intuitively as follows. The
Performance of ALE is compared for LMS&RLS algorithms.
delay causes de-correlation between the noise
Keywords:LMS,RLS,ALE components of the input data in the two channels while
1. INTRODUCTION introducing a simple phase difference between the
sinusoidal components. The adaptive filter responds by
Among the noise cancelling applications of the adaptive
forming a transfer function equivalent to that of a
filters are the adaptive noise canceller and adaptive line
narrow-band filter centered at the frequency of the
enhancer. While the adaptive noise canceller uses a
sinusoidal components. The noise component of the
contaminated input, as well as a reference input
delayed input is rejected, while the phase difference of
correlated with the buried signal, the adaptive Line
the sinusoidal components is readjusted so that they
enhancer uses a single input signal. A delayed version
cancel each other at the summing junction, producing a
of the single input signal is used to decorrelate the
minimum error signal composed of the noise
noise component and remove it from the device output.
component of the instantaneous input data alone.
There are a number of circumstances where a periodic
signal is corrupted by broad-band noise, i.e. the Noise Signal , is available which is contaminated by noise.
with components over a wide range of frequencies. This In such a case, the signal , provides its own reference
case utilizes an Adaptive Line Enhancer, for detection signal ∆ , which is taken to be a delayed replica
and tracking of the periodic components buried in broad of , that is ∆ .The adaptive filter will respond
band noise. In ALE, a fixed delay is inserted in a by canceling any components of the main signal that
reference input drawn directly from the input signal, so are in any way correlated with the secondary
as to cancel the interference. The delay chosen must be signal ∆ . Suppose the signal consists of two
of sufficient length to cause the broad-band signal parts: a narrowband component that has long-range
components in the reference input to become de- correlations such as a sinusoid, and a broadband
correlated from those in the primary input. component which will tend to have short-range
correlations [13]. One of these could represent the
1.1.Different Issues of Adaptive Line Enhancer desired signal and the other an undesired interfering
An ALE consists of a delay element .The input xn noise. Pictorially the autocorrelations of the two
consists of signal sn plus noise nn. The estimated output components could look as follows. Where kNB and kBB
is subtracted from the input signal xn to produce the are effectively the self-correlation lengths of the
estimation error en. This estimation error is in turn used narrowband and broadband components, respectively;
to adaptively control the filter. The filter input xn-∆ beyond these lags, the respective correlations die out
which is the input signal delayed with ∆ samples [16]. quickly. Suppose the delay Δ is selected so that
The delay has to be chosen such that the noise in the ∆
original input signal xn and in the delayed filter input xn- Since Δ is longer than the effective correlation length of
∆ is uncorrelated, so that it can be suppressed by the the BB component, the delayed replica BB (t − Δ) will
filter. This filter is an adaptive filter whose tap weights be entirely uncorrelated with the BB part of the main
are controlled by an adaptive algorithm. The filter signal. The adaptive filter will not be able to respond to
operates by iteratively minimizing the quadratic index this component. On the other hand, since Δ is shorter
using an instantaneous estimate of the gradient of the than the correlation length of the NB component, the
quadratic performance surface to update the filter delayed replica NB (t−Δ) that appears in the secondary
coefficients. Thus ALE refers to the case where a noisy input will still be correlated with the NB part of the
signal, , consisting of a sinusoidal component, , is main signal, and the filter will respond to cancel it [13].
available and the requirement is to remove the noise This paper is organized in four sections. Section II
part of the signal, .It consists of a de-correlation describes algorithms which are to be compared. Further,
stage, symbolized by delay, ∆. The de-correlation stage section III Discuss the results. In the end section IV
attempts to remove any correlation that may exist conclude the paper.
between the samples of noise, by shifting the samples ∆
apart. As a result, the predictor can only make a 2. ADAPTIVE ALGORITHMS
prediction about the sinusoidal component of , and Adaptive algorithms can be divided into various
when adapted to minimize the instantaneous squared categories. Two among them is explained as following

www.IJCSI.org 554
2.1. Least Mean Square (LMS) Algorithm Substituting this into the steepest descent algorithm of
The Least Mean Square (LMS) algorithm was first equation 2, we arrive at the recursion for the LMS
developed by Widrow and Hoff in 1959. Since then it algorithm 1 2µ 5
has become one of the most widely used algorithms in
adaptive filtering. The LMS algorithm is a type of 2.2. Implementation of the LMS algorithm:
adaptive filter known as stochastic gradient-based Each iteration of the LMS algorithm requires the
algorithms as it utilizes the gradient vector of the filter following distinct steps in the given order:
tap weights to converge on the optimal wiener solution.
It is well known and widely used due to its 1. The output of the filter, y(n) is calculated using
computational simplicity. It is this simplicity that has the equation (6):
made it the benchmark, against which all other adaptive
filtering algorithms are judged [7], with each iteration, ∑ 6
the filter tap weights of the adaptive filter are updated
according to the following formula 2. The value of the error estimation is calculated
1 2µ (1) using equation (7)
Here x(n) is the input vector of time delayed input
values, x(n) = [x(n) x(n-1) x(n-2) .. x (n-N+1)]T. The 7
vector w(n) = [w0(n) w1(n) w2(n) .. wN-1(n)] T 3. The tap weights of the FIR vector are updated
represents the coefficients of the adaptive FIR filter tap in preparation for the next iteration by the
weight vector at time n [11]. The parameter μ is known equation (8)
as the step size parameter and is a small positive 1 2µ
constant. This step size parameter controls the influence (8)
of the updating factor. Selection of a suitable value for
μ is imperative to the performance of the LMS The main reason for the LMS algorithms popularity in
algorithm, if the value is too small the time the adaptive adaptive filtering is its computational simplicity,
filter takes to converge on the optimal solution will be making it easier to implement than all other commonly
too long; if μ is too large the adaptive filter becomes used adaptive algorithms. For each iteration the LMS
unstable and its output diverges. The derivation of the algorithm requires 2N additions and 2N+1
LMS algorithm builds upon the theory of the wiener multiplications (N for calculating the output, y(n), one
solution for the optimal filter tap weights, wo. It also for 2μe(n) and an additional N for the scalar by vector
depends on the steepest-descent algorithm [11]. This is multiplication).
a formula which updates the filter coefficients using the
current tap weight vector and the current gradient of the 2.3. Recursive Least Squares (RLS) Algorithm
cost function with respect to the filter tap weight
The other class of adaptive filtering techniques is
coefficient vector, ξ(n).
known as Recursive Least Squares (RLS) algorithms.
1 µ (2)
They may be used in place of the LMS algorithm in any
Where =E [e2 (n)]
adaptive filtering application. [13].The filter weights are
As the negative gradient vector points in the direction
optimal at each time instant n. Their main disadvantage
of steepest descent for the N dimensional quadratic cost
is that they require a fair amount of computation. These
function, each recursion shifts the value of the filter
algorithms attempt to minimize the cost function .. With
coefficients closer toward their optimum value, which
values of λ<1 more importance [11] is given to the most
corresponds to the minimum achievable value of the
recent error estimates and thus the more recent input
cost function, ξ(n).The LMS algorithm is a random
samples, this results in a scheme that places more
process implementation of the steepest descent
emphasis on recent samples of observed data and tends
algorithm, from equation 2. Here the expectation for the
to forget the past .
error signal is not known so the instantaneous value is
∑
used as an estimate. The steepest descent algorithm then
(9)
becomes equation 3.
Unlike the LMS algorithm and its derivatives, the RLS
1 µ (3)
algorithm directly considers the values of previous error
Where
estimations. RLS algorithms are known for excellent
The gradient of the cost function, ξ(n), can
performance when working in time varying
alternatively be expressed in the following form:
environments. These advantages come with the cost of
an increased computational complexity and some
stability problems. The RLS cost function of equation
=2 (9) shows that at a time n, all previous values of the
estimation error since the commencement of the RLS
= 2 algorithm are required. Clearly as time progresses the
= 2 (4) amount of data required to process this algorithm

www.IJCSI.org 555
increases. The fact that memory and computation inverse for this matrix, which is required to calculate
capabilities are limited makes the RLS algorithm a the tap weight vector update. The vector k(n) is known
practical impossibility in its purest form. However, the as the gain vector and is included in order to simplify
derivation still assumes that all data values are the calculation.
processed. In practice only a finite number of previous
values are considered, this number corresponds to the 1
order of the RLS FIR filter, First we define yn(k) as the
1
output of the FIR filter, at n, using the current tap
weight vector, and the input vector of a previous time k. 1 1
The estimation error value en(k) is the difference 1 1
between the desired output value at time k, and the
1 1
corresponding value of yn(k). These and other
appropriate definitions are expressed in equation 2, for 1
k=1, 2, 3,., n. 1 1
(13)
T The vector θλ(n) can also be expressed in a recursive
1 , 2 ….
T form. Using this we can finally arrive at the filter
1 , 2 …
T weight update vector for the RLS algorithm, as in
1 , 2 ….
equation (14).
(10)
If we define the X(n) as the matrix consisting of the n
1
previous input column vector up to the present time
then y(n) can also be expressed as equation (3)
1 1
1 , 2 ,…… 1 1
(11)
The cost function of equation (1) can then be expressed 1 1
in matrix vector form using Λ (n), a diagonal matrix 1 1
consisting of the weighting factors. 1
1 14
2.4. Implementation of the RLS algorithm:

0 0 … 0
The memory of the RLS algorithm is confined to a
0 0 … 0
finite number of values, corresponding to the order of
Where 0 0 … 0
the filter tap weight vector. Firstly, two factors of the
… … … … … RLS implementation should be noted: the first is that
0 0 0 … 1 although matrix inversion is essential to the derivation
(4)
Substituting values from equations (2) and (3), the cost of the RLS algorithm, no matrix inversion calculations
function can be expanded then reduced as in equation are required for the implementation, thus greatly
(5) (Temporarily dropping (n) notation for clarity). reducing the amount of computational complexity of
the algorithm. Secondly, unlike the LMS based
algorithms, current variables are updated within the
iteration they are to be used, using values from the
=
previous iteration. To implement the RLS algorithm,
the following steps are executed in the following order.
1. The filter output is calculated using the filter
2 tap weights from the previous iteration and
Where , and the current input vector.
2 (12) 1
We then derive the gradient of the above expression for
the cost function with respect to the filter tap weights. 2. The intermediate gain vector is calculated
By forcing this to zero we then find the coefficients for using equation
the filter, w(n) which minimizes the cost function.
1
2
The matrix Ψ(n) in the above equation can be expanded
and then rearranged in a recursive form, [11] The 3. The estimation error value is calculated using
matrix Ψ(n) in the above equation can be expanded and equation
then rearranged in a recursive form, we can then use the
special form of the matrix inversion lemma to find an

www.IJCSI.org 556
4. The gain vector calculated in equation shown in the figure 1.3, along with the signal when
1 contaminated by Gaussian noise. The convergence
parameter used in the LMS algorithm is 0.002.
Each iteration of the RLS algorithm requires 4N2
multiplication operations and 3N2 additions [7].This
makes its very costly to implement, thus LMS based
algorithms, while they do not perform as well, are more
favorable in practical situations.
3. SIMULATIONS RESULTS OF THE ALE
The comparative analysis of different algorithms is

done by comparing the simulation results of different
models which are fed with same input signals but are
based on adaptive filters with different algorithms.
Here, we describe the simulation modeling used for the
generating the analysis. Each of the adaptive filtering
algorithms outlined in last section were implemented
using the simulink models designed. Figure 1.3 Clean input signal and signal corrupted
with noise
For the simulation, we have taken consecutive five
values of delay parameter, viz. (∆=1, 2…5). The
obtained outputs with five different delays for both the
LMS and RLS ALE for the given signal are plotted in
the figure 1.4 to 1.8.
Figure 1.1 Clean input speech signal
We have designed different models using these two

adaptive filters, and simulated. The input speech signal Figure 1.4 Comparison of the filtered signal with the
is shown in the figure 1.1.For the simulation we have
LMS and RLS ALE for ∆= 1
taken the Gaussian noise signal, with zero mean and
unit variance and the sampling time 1/8000. The noise
is plotted in the in the figure 1.2.
Figure 1.5 Comparison of the filtered signal with the

Figure 1.2 The Gaussian noise signal with zero LMS and RLS ALE for ∆=2
mean and unit variance. .
The figures from 1.4 to 1.7 shows the filtered signals
obtained as the outputs from the LMS ALE and RLS
ALE models, with filter length 40 for all the models.
The signal used for this simulation is a speech signal as

www.IJCSI.org 557

LMS and RLS ALE for ∆=3
Figure 1.9 SNR plot for LMS ALE

LMS and RLS ALE for ∆=4
Figure 1.10 SNR plot for RLS ALE

When the delay is taken as one, for the LMS ALE, the
obtained SNR is -10.870dB . The SNR in RLS ALE is
approx. -8.4564 dB. Thus the SNR is inferior in case of
LMS ALE when compared to RLS ALE.
4. CONCLUSION.
The performance of LMS ALE and RLS ALE are

compared on the basis of the value of SNR of output
signal. The simulations illustrated that the LMS ALE
performance is inferior to that of the RLS ALE. The
RLS ALE showed higher SNR value as in comparison
to that of the LMS ALE. But in real time we prefer the
LMS ALE over the RLS ALE, since because of its
Figure 1.8 Comparison of the filtered signal with the simplicity i.e. low computational cost, ease of
implementation of the LMS algorithm and since it is
LMS and RLS ALE for ∆=5 robust and reliable, usually we go for LMS ALE. The
From the above simulations we obtained the signals RLS algorithm offer advantages over LMS algorithm
filtered with LMS and RLS filters with different values such as faster convergence, however the RLS algorithm
of delay. In these simulated results, we observe that the has the disadvantage of higher complexity which makes
output signal obtained with the LMS ALE is somewhat the implementation and analysis arduous.
inferior to the signal obtained with the RLS ALE. We
then plotted the graph between the SNR’s of the filtered REFERENCES
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1692-1716, December 1975.
1.10 respectively. The delay is taken along the x-
coordinate and the SNR along the y-coordinate.

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Enhancer for Fast Tracking of Sinusoidal Inputs,” ieee statistics of the adaptive line enhancer," IEEE Trans.
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8. GUO Yemi and ZHAO Junwei ,“Combined Kurtosis Technology ,Hisar.His area of interest is Adaptive signal
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2004 8th International Conference on Control,
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Automation, Robotics and Vision Kunming. China, 6-9th
department of Guru Jambheshwar University of Science and
December 2004.
Technology ,Hisar. His area of interest is Adaptive signal processing
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Kensaku Fujiit and Sumio Tsuiki ,“A Study on Pitch research paper in his field.
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(ISPACS2006). Processing. Digital electronics. He had published more than 50
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“Optimized lattice-form Adaptive Line Enhance for a
sinusoidal signal in Broad band noise,”1981,ieee
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adaptive line enhancer," ieee Trans. Acoust., Speech,
Signal Processing, Vol. ASSP-27, No. 1, pp. 53-63,
February 1979.

www.IJCSI.org 559
Contrast of Watermarking Techniques in

different domains
Mansi Hasija1 ,Alka Jindal2
1
PEC , University of Technology
Chandigarh, India
2
PEC , University of Technology
Chandigarh, India
Abstract
Digital watermarking has gained a lot of 2. Digital Watermarking
importance for digital media recently. It deals with
hiding secret bits of information with a digital
content as a cover. This is very useful for many
Digital Watermarking is a technology of
applications like copyright control, authenticity of embedding watermark with intellectual
documents, captioning, broadcast monitoring etc. property rights into images, videos, audios and
Various techniques for watermarking have been other multimedia data by a certain algorithm.
proposed in the recent past. The brief discussion of This kind of watermark contains the author
some techniques with their results are presented in and user’s information, which could be the
this paper which forms the basis of comparison owner’s logo, serial number or control
between these techniques. information[1]. Watermarking has found use
Keywords: Watermarking, DCT,DWT in many application fields: copyright
protection, content indexing, data monitoring
1.Introduction and tracking, and data authentication. In next
subsections we discuss the watermark
Digital data can be stored efficiently and with embedding and extraction procedure, different
a very high quality, and it can be manipulated domains for watermark embedding and
very easily using computers. Furthermore, parameters to evaluate the performance of a
digital data can be transmitted in a fast and watermarking technique.
inexpensive way through data communication
networks without losing quality. With digital 2.1 Watermark Embedding and Extraction
multimedia distribution over World Wide
Web, Intellectual Property Right (IPR) are A watermarking algorithm embeds a visible or
more threatened than ever due to the invisible watermark in a given multimedia
possibility of unlimited copying. One solution object. The embedding process is guided by
would be to restrict access to the data using use of a secret key which decided the locations
some encryption technique .However within the multimedia object (image) where
encryption does not provide overall protection. the watermark would be embedded.
The above problem can be solved by hiding
some ownership data into the multimedia data,
which can be extracted later to prove the Key Watermark
ownership. The same “watermarking” concept
may be used in multimedia digital contents for
checking the authenticity of the original
content. This technology embeds a data, an
unperceivable digital code, namely the Original
Image Embedding
watermark, carrying information about the
copyright status of the work to be protected. Algorithm
Continuous efforts are being made to device a
good watermarking scheme.The following
paper is divided into Sections. Section 2 Watermark Image
describes Digital Watermarking technology.
Section 3 the various watermarking
techniques .Section 4 watermarking techniques Figure1: Watermark Embedding
are compared. Section 5 conclusion is
described.
www.IJCSI.org 560
bands, making it much easier to embed

watermarking information into the middle
frequency bands of an image. The middle
frequency bands are chosen such that they
key have minimize they avoid the most visual
important parts of the image (low frequencies)
without over-exposing themselves to removal
Waterm- through compression and noise attacks (high
arked
Image Extraction frequencies)
Algorithm One such technique utilizes the comparison of
middle-band DCT coefficients to encode a
single bit into a DCT block. To begin, we
define the middle-band frequencies (FM) of an
Watermark 8x8 DCT block as shown in figure 3 .
Figure 2: Watermark Extraction

FL FL FL FM FM FM FM FH
For watermark extraction we use the key
and watermarked image to extract the FL FL FM FM FM FM FH FH
watermark.
FL FM FM FM FM FH FH FH
2.2 Watermarking Domains FM FM FM FM FH FH FH FH
Based on their embedding domain, FM FM FM FH FH FH FH FH

watermarking schemes can be classified either
FM FM FH FH FH FH FH FH
as Spatial Domain (The watermarking system
directly alters the main data elements, like FM FH FH FH FH FH FH FH
pixels in an image, to hide the watermark data)
or Transformed Domain (the watermarking FH FH FH FH FH FH FH FH
system alters the frequency transforms of data
elements to hide the watermark data). The Figure 3: DCT block
latter has proved to be more robust than the
spatial domain watermarking. FL is used to denote the lowest frequency
components of the block, while FH is used to
Some spatial domain watermarking techniques denote the higher frequency components. FM
like LSB are generated a watermark using an is chosen as the embedding region as to
m-sequence generator. The watermark was provide additional resistance to lossy
embedded to the LSB of the original image. compression techniques, while avoiding
The watermark, however, was not robust to significant modification of the cover image.
additive noise.
Described the patch work algorithm, it chooses
randomly n pair of image point (ai,bi) and The DWT (Discrete Wavelet Transform)
increased the ai by one, while decreased the bi separates an image into a lower resolution
by one. The watermark was detected by approximation image (LL) as well as
comparing the sum of the difference of ai and horizontal (HL), vertical (LH) and diagonal
bi of the n pairs of the points with 2n provided, (HH) detail components. The process can then
certain statistical propriety like image intensity be repeated to computes multiple “scale”
are uniformly distributed. The scheme is wavelet decomposition, as in the 2 scale
extremely sensitive to geometric wavelet transform shown below in figure 4
transformation
LL2 HL2
To transform an image to its frequency HL1
LH2 HH2
representation, one can use several reversible
transforms like Discrete Cosine Transform LH1 HH1
(DCT), Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT),
or Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) . Each of
these transforms has its own characteristics Figure 4 : 2 Scale 2 Dimensional DWT
and represents the image in different ways.
Watermarks can be embedded within images The Fourier Transform DFT is an important
by modifying these values, i.e. the transform image processing tool which is used to
domain coefficients. The DCT allows an decompose an image into its sine and cosine
image to be broken up into different frequency components. DFT of a real image is generally
complex valued, which results in the phase and
www.IJCSI.org 561
magnitude representation of an image. The compare extracted watermark and original

strongest components of the DFT are the watermark. The algorithm was found to be
central components which contain the low robust against many attacks.
frequencies. DFT is rotation, scaling and In [2] a new watermarking technique for color
translation (RST) invariant. Hence it can be images based on embedding four identical
used to recover from geometric distortions, watermarks into blue component of host
whereas the spatial domain, DCT and the image. Blue component is decomposed into
DWT are not RST invariant and hence it is 128*128 regions; each region is divided into a
difficult to overcome from geometric non-overlapping blocks of 8*8. The
distortions. watermark embedding algorithm can be
described as follows:
2.3 Paramaters for Evaluation of a
watermarking technique If W* 1
x* (i, j) x(i, j) i,j <=8
The peak signal to noise ratio (PSNR) is used else
to evaluate the image quality by calculating the x* (i, j) x(i, j)  i,j <=8
mean square error (MSE) between the images
to compare. Where W* represents an encrypted watermark
MSE= 1 ∑ ( X p - Y p ) bit, x*(i, j) and x(i, j) represent the
2
N watermarked intensity pixel and the original

Where p is the unity of the N pixels in the intensity pixel at location (i, j) , respectively,
image. x and y are the grayscale of the images  is the embedding strength.. In the extraction
to compare. process, the original image is available and
With above information we calculate PSNR by five watermarks can be extracted from
equation where X max is max luminance (i.e. different regions of the watermarked image
for 8-bit image, X max = 255 ). and only one watermark is detected or
constructed from the five watermarks
PSNR = 10 log10 (X max)2 according to the highest value of normalized
MSE cross correlation (NCC).
In [3] a watermarking technique in transform
We calculate PSNR between original domain was proposed by taking DWT of a
watermark and watermark that is extracted image and adding PN sequences to H1 and V1
from host image after attack. The higher the components of the image. The DWT (Discrete
PSNR shows the better quality of extracted Wavelet Transform) separates an image into a
watermark. So, if we have bigger PSNR, it lower resolution approximation image (LL) as
shows least difference between original and well as horizontal (HL), vertical (LH) and
extracted watermark and more robustness diagonal (HH) detail components One of the
against attack. many advantages over the wavelet transform is
The accuracy rate AR is defined as that it is believed to more accurately model
AR=CP aspects of the HVS as compared to the FFT or
NP DCT. This allows us to use higher energy
Where NP is the number of pixels of the watermarks in regions that the HVS is known
watermark image and CP is the number of to be less sensitive to, such as the high
correct pixels in the watermark image that is resolution detail bands {LH, HL, HH).
retrieved from the attacked image Embedding watermarks in these regions allow
us to increase the robustness of our watermark,
3. WATERMARKING at little to no additional impact on image
TECHNIQUES quality. The process can then be repeated to
computes multiple “scale” wavelet
decomposition, as in the 2 scale wavelet
In [1] a spatial watermarking technique for transform The proposed method was
gray scale images .The algorithm is implemented in MATLAB and technique is
implemented via pixel by pixel comparison proved to be resistant to JPEG compression,
between host image and watermark. For the cropping.
each pixel of host image, if its correspond In [4] a collusion attack resistant watermarking
value equal to compared pixel in watermark, scheme for Colored images using DCT. It
we save its position as key. First two positions improved on the classical middle band
of key vector are the dimensions of watermark. coefficient Exchange watermarking scheme by
For watermark extraction, First, we create averaging of middle frequency coefficients of
m×n(size of watermark) matrix. Then we fill the image. In this scheme we choose any 4
this matrix with values from host image that coefficients from the FM region of its DCT
their positions are saved in key .After block Calculate the average of 18 middle band
implementation of extraction algorithm we coefficients ,hide 0 for all 4 chosen
www.IJCSI.org 562
coefficients assign the value of coefficients

which is less than the average, if the average is
greater than the coefficients value hide 1. N-1 N-1
In [5] lossless watermarking scheme was X (k,l) = ∑ ∑ s(i,j) cos[ Π (2k+1) (i+n)]
suggested which applied fuzzy integral to find i=0 j=0 N
similarity between DCT coefficients of
original image and watermark. For each block cos[ Π (2l+1) (j+n)]
N
in watermark image, the best match block in
the original image is selected by applying where , n= 1 ( N + 1)
fuzzy integral and the corresponding block 2 2
number is kept as secret key. The watermark For watermark embedding we embed a binary
extraction of the proposed method uses secret image as watermark into the higher frequency
key to extract watermark and it does not components in Modified DCT using a random
require the original image. key. Then a inverse transformation is applied
In [6] a new watermarking scheme was to obtain the final watermarked image.
proposed for JPEG images using modified
DCT. The advantage is that it minimizes 4. COMPARISION OF
blocking artifacts which are common JPEG WATERMARKING
images, thus improving the visual quality. It is
TECHNIQUES
robust against many attacks.
The Modified DCT for a two dimensional
In the given table 1 below the watermarking
array is defined as:
techniques are compared.
Name of Domain Resistance against Host Advantages of Disadvantages

Technique Attacks Image Using this technique of using
this technique
Spatial domain Algorithm Spatial Gaussian noise, Gray Simple and easy to Cannot be used for
for compression, Scale implement algorithm colored images, less
Gray Scale Images Weiner filtering robust against
Watermarking[2] Gaussian noise
attack
Novel Multiple Spatial Spatial Median filtering, Color Can be used for Complex algorithm
Watermarking Technique in compression, Image Color images. Robust
Color Images[3] Image cropping, against a variety of
scaling, rotation attacks
A DWT Domain Visible DWT Compression Gray Using DWT it is Not robust against
Watermarking Techniques Scale more accurately model various attacks
for Digital Images[4] aspects of HVS as
compared to FFT and
DCT
Color Specially designed for Finding suitable

Collusion Attack Resistant DCT Collusion attack Image collusion attack color channel for
Watermarking Scheme for watermark
Colored Images using embedding is not
DCT[5] easy
A new Lossless DCT Compression, Gray A blind watermarking Usage of fuzzy

Watermarking Scheme Gaussian noise, Scale technique which find integral adds to
Based on Fuzzy integral and Median filtering usage in real applications more computation
DCT[6] overhead
www.IJCSI.org 563
An improved digital DCT Rotation, Scaling, Gray Eliminates blocking MDCT is complex
watermarking technique for filtering Scale artifacts thus improving than DCT
protecting JPEG[7] the visual quality
Table 1 : Various Watermarking techniques
4. CONCLUSION International Conference on Computer

and Communication Engineering 2008
May 13-15, 2008 Kuala Lumpur,
In this paper, we described the digital Malaysia
watermarking technique. Then we presented [3] Ibrahim Nasir, Ying Weng, Jianmin Jiang
some digital watermarking techniques “Novel Multiple Spatial Watermarking
implemented in different domains and Technique In Color Images”Fifth
compared these techniques. These techniques International Conference on Information
were found to be robust against many attacks. Technology: New Generations
Spatial domain watermarking technique for [4] Munesh Chandra “A DWT Domain
Visible Watermarking Techniques for
gray scale images[2] is very simple and easy to Digital Images”2010 International
implement can find usage in copyright Conference on Electronics and
protection. Collusion attack resistant Information Engineering (ICEIE2010)
watermarking scheme [5] can find usage in [5] Vikas Saxena, J.P Gupta “Collusion
source tracking (different recipients get Attack Resistant Watermarking Scheme
differently watermarked content) for Colored Images using DCT” IAENG
Future work can be done to study more International
watermarking techniques and find a new JournalofComputerScience,34:2,IJCS_34
watermarking technique which is robust _2_02
[6] Reza Mortezaei, Mohsen Ebrahimi
against attacks “A new lossless watermarking Scheme
based on fuzzy integral and DCT
domain”2010 International Conference on
REFERENCES Electronics and
[1] YanqunZhang“Digital Watermarking InformationEngineering(ICEIE 2010)
Technology: A Review” 2009 ETP [7] Afzel Noore “An Improved Digital
International Conference on Future Watermarking Technique for Protecting
Computer and Communication JPEG images” WPM P2.08
[2] Houtan Haddad Larijani and Gholamali 0-7803-7721-4/ 03  2003 IEEE
Rezai Rad “A New Spatial Domain
Algorithm for gray scale images
watermarking” Proceedings of the
www.IJCSI.org 564
Attaining High Learning Performers in Social Groups using Web-Based

Cooperative Learning Environment
L. Venkateswara Reddy1, Lakshmi Paidimarri 2, Vendoti Monica Reddy3,
Rufus Chakravarthy Sharma4 ,B.Sujatha5 ,I. Sheeba6
1
Professor, CSE Department, Sree Vidyanikethan engg. college,tirupati, AP
2,3,4,5
Master’s student, CSE Department, Sree Vidyanikethan engg. college,tirupati, AP
6
Assistant Professor, CSE Department, Sree Vidyanikethan Engg. College, Tirupati, AP
Abstract
Social groups are considered as a Because of this, it can lead to poor

group of people, an organization or interaction information and achievement
social individuals which are connected but also lose the meaning of corporation
by social relations such as friendships, learning. Finally, we improve the
cooperative relations or informative learners learning interaction and
exchange In web based cooperative learning performance in cooperative
environment, peer to peer inter action learning environment.
often suffers from difficulty due to lack of
Key Words -- Web-based cooperative
exploring useful social interaction
learning environment, cooperative
information, so that peers cannot find
problem-based learning environment,
appropriate learning between learners.
social networking.
Introduction communicate such as chat, messaging,

email, audio, video etc. in these days
Most social network services are
more people paid attention or interest to
primarily web-based and provide a
social network analysis. Because these
collection of various ways for users to
facilitates the social functionalities to

www.IJCSI.org 565
benefit the learning interactions between social networks to explore active

learners. Such type of interaction degrees and interactive relationships
information encourage a large number between learners in cooperative
of users to cooperatively participate in problem based learning environment.
web learning activities. Mainly, these This information used to enhance the
social groups lie on the analyzing learning interaction and performance in
relationships among people. cooperative learning environment by
giving social ranking of individual
In previous studies, they have
learners.
actually examined the “studies” or
“outcomes” of social networks in actual Proposed System
computer-supported collaborative
In these social groups, mainly we
learning (CSCL) settings. It have
define three types of interactive
significant impact on learning
relationships between learners in the
performance in these CSCL setting.
employed cooperative problem-based
Because these learning activities in
learning environment. This system is
such a collaborative environment are
used to improve the learner’s learning
predominantly based on communication,
interaction and to improve the sharing of
social interaction and coordination
information between learners. Those
among learners involved in these
three types of interaction relationships
environment.
are in-degree interaction, out-degree
In these cooperative learning interaction and linked interaction
environment, learners grouped together between learners in cooperative
for learning activities, they often could learning environment.
not find appropriate learning partners to
(1) In-degree interaction value: The
each other for conducting effective
number of learners who actively
learning due to lack of complete social
interact with a certain learner in the
interaction information or they are
cooperative problem-based learning
assigned in appropriate learning
environment. The in-degree
partners by instructors. It explains
mining useful information of cooperative

www.IJCSI.org 566
interaction value can be formulated popular and initiative degrees of a

as learner in the cooperative problem-
based learning environment,
respectively. Based on the in-degree
Where RIn(n) stands for the in-degree and out-degree interaction values, this
interaction value of the nth learner, study further divides learners into four
Cm,n is set to 1 if the mth learner interactive types in the cooperative
actively interacted with the nth learner; problem-based learning environment:
otherwise, Cm,n is set to 0, and t is the Hub, Source, Sink and Island [2]. As
total number of learners excluding the shown in below figure.
nth learner in the cooperative problem- (3) Linked interaction value：The
based learning environment.
number of learners who have
(2) Out-degree interaction value: The
bidirectional interaction with a certain
number of learners who accept
learner in the cooperative problem-
interactive request from a certain learner
based learning environment. The linked
in the cooperative problem-based
interaction value can be formulated as
learning environment. The out-degree
interaction value can be formulated as
where RIv(m.n) is the linked interaction

Where ROut(n) is the out-degree value of the nth learner with the mth
interaction value of the nth learner, learner, Cm,n Cn,m is equal to 1 if the
Cm,n is set to 1 if the mth learner bidirectional interaction exists between
accepts interactive request from the nth the nth learner with the mth learner;
learner; otherwise, Cm,n is set to 0, and otherwise, Cm,n is equal to 0, and t is
t is the total number of learners the total number of learners excluding
excluding the nth learner in the the nth learner in the cooperative
cooperative problem-based learning problem-based learning environment.
environment. The in-degree and out- (4) Interactive score: The interactive
degree interaction values represent score is viewed as a weight score of

www.IJCSI.org 567
interactive level between a learner with value can be viewed as the Hub
the other learning peers in the interactive type.
cooperative problem-based learning (5) Social score：The social score
environment. According to quarter
represents the social position of a leaner
method of the statistics, this study
in the cooperative problem-based
divides all learners into four interactive
learning environment. Suppose the nth
intervals and assigns various weight
learner interacts with the mth learner.
scores for different interactive levels
The social score is formulated as
based on the linked interaction values of
all learners. The Interactive score can
be formulated as
where Sn is the social score of the nth

learner in the cooperative problem-
based learning environment, Cm,n
×Cn,m is equal to 1 if the bidirectional
interaction exists between the nth
learner with the mth learner; otherwise,
Cm,n ×Cn,m is equal to 0, Im is the
where I n is the interactive score of the interactive score of the mth learner, and
nth learner, ( top 25% high) R is the t is the total number of learners
interactive interval whose learners’ excluding the nth learner in the
linked interaction values are the top cooperative problem-based learning
25% high.The learners categorized in environment.
the interactive intervals with high linked Based on Eq. (5), when the nth learner
interaction value are easier to interact interacts with the mth learner, the nth
with peers than the learner categorized learner can get the interactive score of
in the interactive intervals with low the mth learner, and the mth learner can
linked interaction value. Basically, these also get the interactive score of the nth
learners with high linked interaction learner in the cooperative problem-
based learning environment. Here, we

www.IJCSI.org 568
further illustrate an example to explain

how to compute social scores for
individual learners in the employed
cooperative problem-based learning
environment.
Suppose that there are four
learners A, B, C and D in the employed
cooperative learning environment to
perform problem-based learning. Figure Figure 3. An example for illustrating how
3 shows the interactive relationship to compute social score in cooperative
graph of these four learners. Meanwhile, problem-based learning environment
suppose the interactive scores of We can find that a learner may get lower
learners A, B, C and D are 3,2,4 and 1, social score than the others even he/she
respectively. interacted with much more peers if
According to Eq. (5), the social he/she often interacted with peers who
score of the learn A is 2 because the only have low interactive score. On the
learner A only exits the bidirectional other hand, a learner may get higher
interaction with the learner B. The social interactive score than the others if
score of the learner B is 7 because the he/she often interacted with peers who
learner B simultaneously exists the have high interactive score.
bidirectional interactions with both the Cooperative Learning Partner
learners A and C. Similarly, the social Recommending Scheme in the
scores of the learners C and D are 3 Employed Cooperative Problem-based
and 4, respectively. Learning Environment:
As a result, the ranking order of Furthermore, the learners who
the social positions in this social network get a high social score are appropriate
is B, D, C, and A. to be recommended to a certain learner

as learning partners because they
obtain high identification from most
learners or they may be pleased or have
excellent abilities to help the other peers

www.IJCSI.org 569
to solve problems. The recommendation recommending appropriate learning

score for exploring appropriate learning partners for individual learners provides
partners can be formulated as likely benefit in terms of promoting the
learning performance of individual
learners in cooperative problem-based
learning environments.
where Cn,m represents the
recommendation score of the mth References
learner recommended to the nth learner [1] “Mining Interactive Social Network for
who would like to find appropriate Recommending Appropriate Learning
learning partners in the coopera tive Partners in a Web-based Cooperative

Learning Environment” ,Chih-Ming ,Hong
problem-based learning environment,
Chia-Cheng Chang, Graduate Institute of
Sm is the social score of the mth
Library, Information and Archival Studies,
learner, Smax is the maximal social
National Chengchi University,
score among all learners, RIv(m.n) is Taipei116,2008..
the linked interaction value between the [2] Jamali M. and Abolhassan H., “
nth learner and the mth learner, Different aspects of social network
RIv(max) is the maximal linked analysis,” IEEE/WIC/ ACM International
interaction score among the learners Conference on Web Intelligence 2006.

[3] Wasserman S. Social network
who interacted with the nth learner, and
analysis: Methods and applications.
w is a adjustable linear combination
Cambridge University Press, 1994.
weight.
[4] Freeman L., Graphic techniques for
exploring social network data. New York:
Conclusion Cambridge University Press, 2005.
The preliminary experimental [5] Social Network in Education, web

available at http://socialnet work sined
results show that exploring social
.wikispaces.com/
positions of individual learners in the
[6] Cho Hichang, Gay Geri, , “Social
employed cooperative problem-based
networks, communication styles, and
learning environment has high potential learning performance in a CSCL
to encourage learners to interact with community,” Computers & Education, vol.
peers more actively. Moreover, 49, issue: 2, pp. 309-329, 2007

www.IJCSI.org 570
Minimization of Handoff Latency by Vector Analysis

Method
Debabrata Sarddar1, Shubhajeet chatterjee2, Ramesh Jana1, Hari Narayan Khan, Shaik Sahil Babu1, Utpal Biswas3, M.K.
Naskar1.
1. Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engg, Jadavpur University, Kolkata – 700032.
2. Department of Electronics and Communication Engg, Institute of Engg. & Managment college, saltlake, Kolkata-700091.
3. Department of Computer Science and Engg, University of Kalyani, Nadia, West Bengal, Pin- 741235.
Abstract
Due to rapid growth in IEEE 802.11 based Wireless Local Area
Networks(WLAN), handoff has become a burning issue. A
mobile station (MS) requires handoff when it travels out of the
coverage area of its current access point (AP) and tries to
associate with another AP. But handoff delays provide a serious
barrier for such services to be made available to mobile platforms.
Throughout the last few years there has been plenty of research
aimed towards reducing the handoff delay incurred in the various
levels of wireless communication. In this paper we propose a
method using the GPS(Global Positioning System) to determine
Figure 1. Handoff process
the positions of the MS at different instants of time and then by
applying vector analysis method on the trajectory of MS path to
determine the potential AP(s) where the MS has maximum For successful implementation of seamless Voice over IP
probability of travelling in the future. This will result in a communications, the handoff latency should not exceed
reduction of number of APs to be scanned as well as handoff 50ms.It has been observed that in practical situations
latency will be reduced to a great extent. handoff takes approximately 200-300 ms to which
scanning delay contributes almost 90%.This is not
Keywords: IEEE 802.11, Handoff latency, GPS (Global acceptable and thus the handoff latency should be
Positioning System), Vector resolution, Neighbor APs. minimized.
Three strategies have been proposed to detect the need for
hand off[1]:
1. Introduction 1)mobile-controlled-handoff (MCHO):The mobile
station(MS) continuously monitors the signals of the
IEEE 802.11 based wireless local area network (WLAN)
surrounding base stations(BS)and initiates the hand off
are widely used in domestic and official purpose due to its
flexibility of wireless access. However, WLANs are process when some handoff criteria are met.
restricted in their diameters to campus, buildings or even a 2)network-controlled-handoff (NCHO):The surrounding
single room. Due to the limited coverage areas of different BSs measure the signal from the MS and the network
APs a MS has to experience handoff from one AP to initiates the handoff process when some handoff criteria are
another frequently. met.
3)mobile-assisted-handoff (MAHO):The network asks
1.1 Handoff the MS to measure the signal from the surrounding BSs.the
network make the handoff decision based on reports from
When a MS moves out of reach of its current AP it must be the MS.
reconnected to a new AP to continue its operation. The
search for a new AP and subsequent registration under it Handoff can be of many types:
constitute the handoff process which takes enough time Hard Handoff: In this process radio link with old AP is
(called handoff latency) to interfere with proper broken before connection with new AP. This in turn results
functioning of many applications.
www.IJCSI.org 571
in prolonged handoff latency which is known as link 1.2 Handoff Mechanism
switching delay.
Soft Handoff: This mechanism is employed nowadays. The handoff process is composed of the following three
Here connection with old AP is maintained until radio link stages:
with new AP is established. This results in reduced handoff Scanning: The scanning process constitutes the bulk
(almost 90%) of the total handoff time [4]. As the MS starts
time in comparison to hard handoff as shown in figure 2.
moving away from the AP the Signal-to-Noise-Ratio
(SNR) start decreasing and this phenomenon triggers the
initiation of handoff. The MS has to establish a radio link
with a potential AP before the connectivity with the current
AP is detached. This is accomplished by means of a
MAC(Medium Access Control) layer function called
scanning.
Authentication: After scanning, The MS sends

authentication frames to inform the AP (selected by the
scanning process) of its identity. The AP then responds by
Figure 2. Hard & soft handoff sending an authentication response frame indicating
approval or rejection
In NGWS(next generation wireless system),two
types of handoff scenarios arise: horizontal handoff, Re-association: It is the process by which association
vertical handoff[2][3]. transfer takes place from one AP to another. This process
 Horizontal Handoff: When the handoff occurs follows the authentication process depending on the
between two BSs of the same system it is termed authentication response sent by the AP.
as horizontal handoff. It can be further classified
into two:
 Link layer handoff : Horizontal handoff
between two BSs that are under the same foreign
agent(FA). STA APs
Probe Request
 Intra system handoff : Horizontal handoff
between two BSs that belong to two different FAs
and both FAs belong to the same gateway foreign Probe Response
agent (GFA) and hence to the same system.
 Vertical Handoff : When the handoff occurs

between two BSs that belong to two different
Authentication Request
GFAs and hence to two different systems it is
termed as vertical handoff as shown in figure 3.
Authentication Response
Re-association Request
Re-association Response
Figure 4. The handoff process
1.3 Global Positioning System

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space based
Figure 3. Horizontal & vertical handoff global navigation satellite system which is used in map
making, land surveying, navigation, geocaching and in
other fields. A GPS receiver is able to calculate its position
www.IJCSI.org 572
by precisely timing the signals sent by the GPS satellites. of all neighboring APs and do not consider the position or
The receiver uses the received messages from the satellites velocity of MS to select potential APs. Hence these
to determine the transit time of each message and methods are more power consuming and are less effective
calculates the distance to each satellite. These distances are for reducing handoff.
then utilized to compute the position of the receiver. For
normal operation a minimum of four satellites are
necessary. Using the messages received from the satellites 3. Proposed Works
the receiver is able to calculate the times sent and the
satellite positions corresponding to these points. 3.1 Hexagonal cell concept
Each MS is equipped with a GPS receiver which is used to
determine the positions of the MS at different instants of Due to fading of signal strength (fast fading due to
time. This will provide knowledge about the MS’s scattering from interfering objects & slow fading due to
movement within 1 to 2 meter precision. long term spatial and variations, inversely proportional to
the square of the distance) we consider that each base
station services a circular area (depending on the height of
the antenna and power of its signal) beyond which signal
strength becomes lower than usable levels. In an idealized
model we approximate the overlapping circular cell areas
by hexagonal cells that cover the entire service region
through frequency reuse concept where every cell marked
similarly can use the same frequencies being out of range
from each others’ signal strength. To find the threshold
point (after this point the handoff is required) we will
Figure5. Components of GPS consider another small hexagon in the hexagonal cell as
shown in figure 6.
In section II we take you through the various works that
have already been done to achieve successful handoff and
in section III we introduce a new method using the
statistical regression over the movement of MS by which
we intend to reduce the handoff delay to the range of a few
milliseconds. This is followed by performance evaluation
of our proposed technique using simulations in section IV
after which in section V we propose a few areas in which
further improvement can be made.
2. Related works
A number of different schemes have been proposed to
reduce handoff latency in IEEE 802.11 wireless LANs.
Authors of [8] aimed at reducing the authentication process
which contributes very little to the handoff time.
In [5] authors present a useful method using a neighbor
graph and a non overlap graph. This concept was used to
reduce total number of channels to be scanned and the
waiting time on each channel. However the complexity of
implementation of the algorithm was a major setback. In
[6] a channel mask scheme was introduced where a
selective scanning algorithm was proposed along with a
caching mechanism. In [7] authors propose selective
scanning algorithm using neighbor graphs. This method
Figure 6. hexagonal cell structure
requires changes in the network infrastructure and use of
IAPP. Moreover, these processes involve channel scanning
www.IJCSI.org 573
We assume the entire area of a cell to be a two dimensional
plane. Thus we define two mutually perpendicular
coordinate axes namely the X and Y axes with the AP as
the origin. The position namely the X and Y coordinates of
a MS can be obtained via a GPS. Let us say the neighbor
APs by means of (any arbitrary value as the exact
coordinate is not required).
Table.1 AP coordinates
AP coordinate
AP1 (0,b)
AP2 (α, β)
AP3 (-α, β)
AP4 (0, -b)
AP5 (-α, -β) Figure 7. Trajectory Path of MS
AP6 (α, -β)
Let us say the white region as region 1 and the grey region If we consider the trajectory path of MS as a vector then
as region 2. Now within the incircle of the cell we do not it can be resolute as r cosθ and r sinθ in horizontal
consider any handoff while the circumcircle defines the and vertical direction, respectively as shown in figure 7.
reach of the individual APs. The region within them covers
a distance R*(1-0.5√3) which is sufficient to complete the
handoff for normal cell size R and MS velocity.
3.2 Handoff initiation

Let us consider the current AP as the origin of the co-
ordinate system. As long as the MS is travelling in region 1
we note the (x, y) coordinates of the MS via the GPS. Let
us suppose this scanning of MS’s position by GPS starts at
time t=to sec and let the initial position of the MS be
denoted by (xo , yo) with respect to the origin. This process
is repeated after a fixed time interval of T sec. At each
initial position we have to check either it requires handoff Figure 8. Vector Analysis
or not. Our knowledge of co-ordinate system provides that
the distance from the current AP(origin) is, Case 1:
If rcosθ ≥ rsinθ then the AP in horizontal direction is the
D= √ { (x0-0)2+(y0-0)2} best choice. Let us find out the most potential AP in
= √ ( x02+y02 ) horizontal direction by the help of coordinate system. We
will calculate the nearest AP along Y axis or vertical
If D<r it does not require handoff i.e. MS is in region or direction by calculating the difference between ordinate of
white region. MS and the neighbour APs. Thus we will find two nearest
APs in vertical direction.
If D>r it requires handoff i.e. MS is in region 2 or green If the angle θ ≥ 90o we will reject the AP with positive
region. abscissa.
If the angle θ < 90o we will reject the AP with negative
3.3 Vector Analysis method abscissa.
Thus we can find out the best AP where the handoff will
The initial position is(x0,y0) and after a small time interval t be performed.
the next position is(xt,yt). The distance between final
position(xt,yt) and initial position (x0,y0 ) is constant, say Case 2:
R.our Cartesian co-ordinate knowledge provides us, If rcosθ ≤ rsinθ then the AP in vertical direction is the
Slope = tan θ = (yt-y0)/(xt-x0) best choice. Let us find out the most potential AP in
θ =tan-1{(yt-y0)/(xt-x0)} 0o< θ <180o vertical direction by the help of coordinate system. We
will calculate the nearest AP along X axis or horizontal
www.IJCSI.org 574
direction by calculating the difference between abscissa of
MS and the neighbour APs. Thus we will find two nearest Yes
APs in horizontal direction.
Φ = tan-1{(xt-x0)/ {(yt-y0)} 0o< Φ <180o MS in
o region 1 No handoff
If the angle Φ >90 we will reject the AP with positive (D > r) ?
ordinate.
If the angle Φ <90o we will reject the AP with negative
ordinate. No
The above process is applicable for linear movement of
Initiate Handoff
MS. As we consider a very short time period, it can be said
that movement of MS is linear. Although, if it is nonlinear
then also we can find out the best AP through this process.
We know, when a particle is moving on a non linear path, No Case 2(handoff in
at any instant the direction of its movement is along the rcosθ ≥ rsinθ
vertical direction)
tangent at that point of the curve. we can find out the
equation of MS trajectory by curve fitting method[11]. Yes
So the equation of MS trajectory can be expressed as,
y= f(x) Case 1(handoff in
now, if the slope of the tangent of the curve at point (xt,yt)is horizontal direction)
tanΨ ( where the angle between tangent and horizontal
positive X axis is Ψ),
Φ >90o No AP with positive
ordinate rejected
tanΨ =
Now we will consider any vector along the tangent with Yes
arbitrary magnitude(r). It can be resolute as rcosΨ and AP with negative
rsinΨ in horizontal and vertical direction, respectively and ordinate rejected
we can follow the previous process.
As we have seen from algorithm, scanning is only required No AP with negative
if the best AP cannot be connected due to some reasons θ ≥ 90o
abscissa rejected
(e.g. cellular traffic). In general, the time is taken to
connect to the new AP through this method, is about 5ms. Yes
A miss tends to induce a back off delay (of up to 15ms)
plus some scanning time of about 30-40ms. To prevent
this, we can use a WLAN router at the handoff region. In Yes
AP with positive
this way a miss would not significantly affect the handoff abscissa rejected
delay. Note here that we do not consider the time to
calculate the angle between the mobile trajectory and
horizontal direction because it is very small compared to
the other time values involved.
To further hasten the process we can look to pre-
authenticate with the best option so that we now effectively
Success?
reduce the handoff time to little over the re-association No
time.
Thus we can find out the best AP where the handoff will be Yes
performed. It may be noted here that while Cartesian Good scanning
coordinate system have already been utilized in some areas, Handoff complete technique
Yes
such methods consists of large calculations and predictions
which may lead to handoff failure. Whereas here we are
able to get the required data through simple computation Figure9.Handoff algorithm
which obviously takes much less time and also reduces the
possibility of errors. Now let us simulate the proposed
model and see if it actually works out.
www.IJCSI.org 575
4. Simulation Results
We simulate of our proposed method using the flowchart in
the subsection of the proposed work. For justifying the
practicability of our method in real models we made an
artificial environment considering a seven cell cluster, that
is seven APs at the centre of seven closely packed cells
whose hexagonal structure provides an approximation of its
signal sweeping region, and we implemented the vector
analysis method in it.
We consider the motion of the MS arbitrarily as shown in
Figure.10.
Figure.12
From the flowchart it is clear that the AP2 is the most
effective AP among the all. From that above two pictures
we can also see that the most effective AP is (0,177.2)
which indicates that the most effective AP is AP2. Thus we
can say our proposed method can be applied successfully.
The success of our simulation clearly depicts the
applicability of our proposed method.
5. Conclusion
Our proposed method aims at reducing handoff time by
Figure.10
The green line shows the motion of the MS. Now, reducing the number of APs to be scanned which is
according to our proposed method we measure the angle of accomplished through vector analysis of MS trajectory.
the trajectory path with the horizontal. This in turn reduces the number of channels to be scanned
So, we can find that it follows the case 2 of our proposed which brilliantly reduces the handoff delay as is clear from
method. Now as the angle is less than 90o it will reject the the simulation presented in the above section.
AP with negative ordinate and choose the best one for it. However the proposed algorithm may prove erroneous if
the motion of the MS is too much random to be used for
prediction purposes. Future works in this field may include
research on more refined algorithms regarding vector
analysis. It is worth mentioning here that although the
proposed work has been presented considering honeycomb
structures yet our algorithm would work in a similar
manner for other cell structures and neighbor AP locations.
Minor changes would be introduced depending on the
network topology.
References
[1] Yi-Bing Lin Imrich Chalmatc, “Wireless and Mobile Network
Architectures,” pp. 17.
[2] AKYILDIZ, I. F., XIE, J., and MOHANTY, S., "A survey on
Figure.11
mobility management in next generation all-IP based wireless
systems," IEEE Wireless Communications, vol. 11, no. 4, pp.
16-28, 2004.
[3] STEMM, M. and KATZ, R. H., "Vertical handoffs in wireless
overlay networks," ACM/Springer Journal of Mobile
Networks and Applications(MONET), vol. 3, no. 4, pp. 335-
350, 1998.
www.IJCSI.org 576
[4] J. Pesola and S. Pokanen, “Location-aided Handover in SHAIK SAHIL BABU
Heterogeneous Wireless Networks,” in Proceedings of Mobile is pursuing Ph.D in the Department of Electronics
and Telecommunication Engineering under the
Location Workshop, May 2003. supervision of Prof. M.K. NASKAR at Jadavpur
[5] M. Shin, A. Mishra, and W. Arbaugh, “Improving the Latency University, KOLKATA. He did his Bachelor of
of 802.11 Hand-offs using Neighbor Graphs,” in Proc. ACM Engineering in Electronics and
Telecommunication Engineering from Muffa Kham
MobiSys 2004,pp 70-83, June 2004. Jah College of Engineering and Technology,
[6] S. Shin, A. Forte, A. Rawat, and H. Schulzrinne, “Reducing Osmania University, Hyderabad, and Master of Engineering in
MAC Layer Handoff Latency in IEEE 802.11 Wireless Computer Science and Engineering from Thapar Institute of
Engineering and Technology, Patiala, in Collaboration with National
LANs,” in Proc. ACM MobiWac 2004, pp 19-26, October Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training and Research, Chandigarh.
2004.
[7] H.-S. K. et. al. Selecive channel scanning for fast handoff in Utpal Biswas received his B.E, M.E and PhD
degrees in Computer Science and Engineering
wireless LAN using neighbor graph”, International Technical from Jadavpur University, India in 1993, 2001 and
Conference on Circuits/Systems, Computer and 2008 respectively. He served as a faculty member
Communications. LNCS Springer, Vol 3260, pp 194-203, in NIT, Durgapur, India in the department of
Computer Science and Engineering from 1994 to
2004. 2001. Currently, he is working as an associate
[8] S. Park and Y. Choi. Fast inter-ap handoff using predictive- professor in the department of Computer Science
authentication scheme in a public wireless lan. Networks2002 and Engineering, University of Kalyani, West Bengal, India. He is a
co-author of about 35 research articles in different journals, book
(Joint ICN 2002 and ICWLHN 2002), August 2002. chapters and conferences. His research interests include optical
[9] Chien-Chao Tseng, K-H Chi, M-D Hsieh and H-H Chang,” communication, ad-hoc and mobile communication, semantic web
Location-based Fast Handoff for 802.11 Networks”,IEEE services, E- governance etc.
Communication Letters, Vol-9, No 4,pp 304-306, April 2005.
[10] Yogesh Ashok Powar and Varsha Apte, “Improving the IEEE Mrinal Kanti Naskar received his B.Tech. (Hons)
802.11 MAC Layer Handoff Latency to Support Multimedia and M.Tech degrees from E&ECE Department, IIT
Kharagpur, India in 1987 and 1989 respectively
Traffic”, Wireless Communications and Networking and Ph.D. from Jadavpur University, India in 2006..
Conference, 2009. WCNC 2009. IEEE Xplore, pp 1-6, April He served as a faculty member in NIT,
2009 Jamshedpur and NIT, Durgapur during 1991-1996
and 1996-1999 respectively. Currently, he is a professor in the
Department of Electronics and Tele-Communication Engineering,
Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India where he is in charge of the
Advanced Digital and Embedded Systems Lab. His research
Debabrata Sarddar is currently pursuing his PhD interests include ad-hoc networks, optical networks, wireless
at Jadavpur University. He completed his M.Tech in sensor networks, wireless and mobile networks and embedded
Computer Science & Engineering from DAVV, systems. He is an author/co-author of the several
Indore in 2006, and his B.Tech in Computer published/accepted articles in WDM optical networking field that
Science & Engineering from Regional Engineering include “Adaptive Dynamic Wavelength Routing for WDM Optical
College, Durgapur in 2001. His research interest Networks” [WOCN,2006], “A Heuristic Solution to SADM
includes wireless and mobile system. minimization for Static Traffic Grooming in WDM uni-directional
Ring Networks” [Photonic Network Communication, 2006], ”Genetic
Shubhajeet Chatterjeee is presently pursuing Evolutionary Approach for Static Traffic Grooming to SONET over
B.Tech Degree in Electronics and Communication WDM Optical Networks” [Computer Communication, Elsevier,
Engg. at Institute of Engg. & Managment 2007], and “Genetic Evolutionary Algorithm for Optimal Allocation of
College, under West Bengal University Wavelength Converters in WDM Optical Networks” [Photonic
Technology. His research interest includes Network Communications,2008].
wireless sensor networks and wireless
communication systems.
Ramesh Jana is presently pursuing M.Tech (2nd

year) in Electronics and Telecommunication
Engg. at Jadavpur University. His research
interest includes wireless sensor networks, fuzzy
logic and wireless communication systems
Hari Narayan Khan is presently pursuing M.Tech

(Final year) in Computer Technology at Jadavpur
University. He completed his B.Tech in Electronics
& Communication Engineering in 2006 from
Institute of Technology & Marine Engineering under
West Bengal University of Technology. His research interest
includes wireless and mobile system
www.IJCSI.org 577
Minimization of Handoff Failure by Introducing a New

Cell Coverage Area in the Handoff Region
Debabrata Sarddar1, Shubhajeet chatterjee2, Ramesh Jana1, Shaik Sahil Babu1, Prabir Kr Naskar1, Utpal Biswas3 and
M.K. Naskar1.
1
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engg, Jadavpur University,
Kolkata – 700032, India
2
Department of Electronics and Communication Engg, Institute of Engg. & Managment college,
Saltlake, Kolkata-700091, India
3
Department of Computer Science and Engg, University of Kalyani,
Nadia, West Bengal, Pin- 741235, India
 networks (e.g., IEEE 802.16,WiBro), wireless local area

Abstract
Presently, IEEE 802.11 based wireless local area networks
(WLAN) have been widely deployed for business and personal networks WLANs (e.g., IEEE 802.11a/b/g, Hiper-LAN),
applications. The main issue regarding wireless network and personal area networks (e.g. Bluetooth). All these
technology is handoff or hand over management, especially in wireless networks are heterogeneous in sense of different
urban areas, due to the limited coverage of access points (APs) or
base stations (BS). When a mobile station (MS) moves outside the
radio access technologies, the communication protocols
range of its current access point (AP) it needs to perform a link that they use and the different administrative domains that
layer handover. This causes data loss and interruption in they belong to [1]. The actual trend is to integrate
communication. Many people have applied efficient location complementary wireless technologies with overlapping
management techniques in the literature of next generation coverage so as to provide the expected ubiquitous coverage
wireless system (NGWS). However, seamless handover and to achieve the Always Best Connected (ABC) concept
management still remains an open matter of research. Here we [2].
propose a method to minimize the handoff failure probability by IEEE 802.11b standards have become increasingly
effectively placing a wireless local area network (WLAN) AP in popular and are experiencing a very fast growth upsurge as
the handoff region between two neighboring cells. The WLAN
coverage, on one hand, provides an additional coverage in the low
it is cheap, and allow anytime or anywhere access to
signal strength region, and on the other hand, relieves the network data. However, they suffer from limited coverage
congestion in the cellular network. Moreover, we perform the area problem [3] and it is necessary to use this technology
channel scanning (required for horizontal handover between the in the most prudent manner.
two base stations) within the WLAN coverage area, thus
minimizing the handoff failure due to scanning delay. 1.1 WLAN
A Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) links two or
more devices using some wireless distribution method
Keywords—WLAN, IEEE 802.11, Handoff, Handoff latency, MS
(typically spread-spectrum), and usually provides a
(mobile station).
connection through an access point to the wider internet.
This gives users the mobility to move around within a local
1. Introduction coverage area and still be connected to the network [4]. In
mobile network WLAN is used to transmits and receives
In recent years, different wireless technologies have been radio signals between mobile station (MS) and access
implemented starting from 2G and 3G cellular system (e.g. point(AP) which can be either a main, relay or remote base
GSM/GPRS, UMTS, CDMA 2000), metropolitan area station. A main base station is typically connected to the
wired Ethernet. A relay base station relays data between
remote base stations, wireless clients or other relay stations
www.IJCSI.org 578
to either a main or another relay base station. A remote base

station accepts connections from wireless clients and passes
them to relay or main stations. Connections between
"clients" are made using MAC addresses [4].
1.2 Channel distribution
IEEE802.11b and IEEE802.11g operates in the 2.4GHz
ISM band and use 11 of the maximum 14 channels
available and are hence compatible due to use of same
frequency channels. The channels (numbered 1to14) are
spaced by 5MHz with a bandwidth of 22MHz, 11MHz Figure 2.hard handoff & soft handoff
above and below the centre of the channel. In addition there
is a guard band of 1MHz at the base to accommodate In NGWS(next generation wireless system),two types of
out-of-band emissions below 2.4GHz. Thus a transmitter handoff scenarios arise: horizontal handoff, vertical
set at channel one transmits signal from 2.401GHz to handoff[5][6].
2.423GHz and so on to give the standard channel frequency 1.Horizontal Handoff: When the handoff occurs between
distribution as shown in [Figure 1]. two BSs of the same system it is termed as horizontal
handoff. It can be further classified into two:
 Link layer handoff : Horizontal handoff
between two BSs that are under the same foreign
agent(FA).
 Intra system handoff : Horizontal handoff

between two BSs that belong to two different FAs
and both FAs belong to the same gateway foreign
agent (GFA) and hence to the same system.
2.Vertical Handoff : When the handoff occurs between two

BSs that belong to two different GFAs and hence to two
Figure 1.Channel allocation different systems it is termed as vertical handoff as shown
in figure 4. A vertical handover (VHO) is the mechanism
It should be noted that due to overlapping of frequencies by which an ongoing connection is transferred from one BS
there can be significant interference between adjacent APs. to an AP and vice versa [8]. VHO can be classified in two
Thus, in a well configured network, most of the APs will categories namely upward-downward handover techniques
operate on the non-overlapping channels numbered 1, 6 and and imperative-alternative handover techniques.
11. An upward VHO occurs from a network with small
coverage and high data rate to a network with wider
1.3 Handoff coverage and lower date rate. On the other hand, a
When a MS moves out of reach of its current AP it must be downward VHO occurs in the opposite direction. As an
reconnected to a new AP to continue its operation. The example for this classification let’s consider the case of two
search for a new AP and subsequent registration under it of the most important current wireless technologies: 3G
constitute the handoff process which takes enough time cellular networks and WLANs. The WLAN system can be
(called handoff latency) to interfere with proper functioning considered as the small coverage network with high data
of many applications. rate while the 3G cellular system is the one with wider
Handoff can be of many types: coverage and lower data rate.
Hard & soft handoff: Originally hard handoff was used An imperative VHO occurs due to low signal from the BS
where a station must break connection with the old AP or AP. In other words, it can be considered as an HHO. The
before joining the new AP thus resulting in large handoff execution of an imperative VHO has to be fast in order to
delays. However, in soft handoff the old connection is keep on-going connections. On the other hand, a VHO
maintained until a new one is established thus significantly initiated to provide the4 user with better data-rate is called
reducing packet loss as shown in figure[3]: the alternative VHO.
The handoff procedure consists of three logical phases

where all communication between the mobile station
www.IJCSI.org 579
undergoing handoff and the APs concerned is controlled by

the use of IEEE802.11 management frames as shown below
in [fig5].
1.3.1 Scanning STA APs

When a mobile station is moving away from its current Probe Request
AP, it initiates the handoff process when the received signal
strength and the signal-to-noise-ratio have decreased
significantly. The mobile station (MS) scans the channels
which the new base station (BS) uses. The STA now begins Probe Response
MAC (Medium access control) layer scanning to find new
APs. It can either opt for a passive scan (where it listens for
beacon frames periodically sent out by APs) or chose a
faster active scanning mechanism wherein it regularly
sends out probe request frames and waits for responses for Authentication Request
TMIN (min Channel Time) and continues scanning until
TMAX (max Channel Time) if at least one response has been
heard within TMIN. Thus, n*TMIN ≤ time to scan n channels Authentication Response
≤ n*TMAX. The information gathered is then processed so
that the STA can decide which AP to join next. According Re-association Request
to [7], 90% of the handoff delay comes from channel
scanning.
1.3.2 Authentication
Authentication is necessary to associate the link with the
new AP. Authentication must either immediately proceed Re-association Response
to association or must immediately follow a channel scan
figure 5. Handoff process
cycle. In pre-authentication schemes, the MS authenticates
with the new AP immediately after the scan cycle finishes. One of the most important reasons of handoff failure is the
IEEE 802.11 defines two subtypes of authentication handoff latency caused by channel scanning and excess
service: ‘Open System’ which is a null authentication wireless traffic. Many methods have been proposed in order
algorithm and ‘Shared Key’ which is a four-way to minimize handoff failure, but handoff failure is still an
authentication mechanism. If Inter Access Point Protocol issue unsolved in the cellular world. Here we propose to
(IAPP) is used, only null authentication frames need to be minimize the handoff failure probability by effectively
exchanged in the re-authentication phase. Exchanging null placing a WLAN AP in the handoff region between two
authentication frames takes about 1-2 ms. neighboring cells. We also perform the channel scanning
(required for horizontal handover between the two base
stations) within the WLAN coverage area, thus minimizing
1.3.3 Re-Association
the handoff failure due to scanning delay.
Re-association is a process for transferring associations
In section II we take you through the various works that
from old AP to new one. Once the STA has been
have already been done to achieve this and in section III we
authenticated with the new AP, re-association can be
introduce a new method using the WLAN router by which
started. Previous works has shown re-association delay to
we intend to reduce the handoff failure probability. This is
be around 1-2 ms. The range of scanning delay is given by:-
followed by performance evaluation of our proposed
N × Tmin _ Tscan _ N × Tmax
technique using simulations in section IV after which in
Where N is the total number of channels according to the
section V we propose a few areas in which further
spectrum released by a country, Tmin is Min Channel
improvement can be made. Finally, we provide an
Time,Tscan is the total measured scanning delay, and Tmax
extensive list of references that has helped us tremendously
is Max Channel Time. Here we focus on reducing the
in our work. But first, let us take a brief look at the structure
scanning delay by minimizing the total number of scans
of IEEE802.11x WLANs and the handoff process.
performed.
2. RELATED WORKS
In recent times, a large amount of research is done in
improving the handoff technologies of cellular as well as
IEEE 802.11 based networks. In the past few years, many
www.IJCSI.org 580
methods based on neighbor graph [9] and geo-location on Here L is constant power loss, is the path loss exponent
APs [4] has been proposed, where the authors have with values between 2 to 4, d represents the distance
proposed selective channel mechanisms. In [10] Li Jun between the mobile station and WLAN AP and S represents
Zhang et a. proposes a method to send probe requests to the shadow fading which follows Gaussian distribution. The
APs one after the other and perform handoff immediately Received Signal Strength (RSS) for WLAN (RSSWLAN) in
after any AP sends the response. This allows us to scan dBm is:
fewer channels. All these processes involve scanning of RSSWLAN =PT-PL…………………… (1)
APs, it may be selective or all APs may be scanned. These Here PT is the power transmitted.
methods are therefore time consuming as well as have a Received signal strength (RSS) for IEEE 802.11 b
certain probability of handoff failure. In [11] and [12], standard incorporating the path loss from equation no. (1) is
authors use GPS based access point maps for handoff tabulated in Table 1 as follows:
management. Handoff using received signal strength (RSS)
of BS has been proposed previously. Using dynamic Table1. The RSS values for various position of MS for WLAN AP
threshold value of RSS for handoff management for MSs of
different velocities has been described in [13].
Range Received signal strength
3. PROPOSED WORK 50 -59.67
Here, we propose to reduce the handoff failure probability 100 -68.70

by placing a WLAN router in effective handoff region. A 150 -73.98
high traffic density increases the probability of handoff 200 -77.73
failure. Thus by integrating a WLAN with cellular
networks, the traffic density of the cellular network (CN) is Now we draw a circle with the distance of the threshold
partially reduced, thereby minimizing the handoff failure signal strength as the radius and the WLAN AP as its
probability to a great extent. center. When the MS enters in this circular region as shown
In an idealized model we approximate the overlapping in Figure 4 (which depicts the coverage area of the WLAN),
circular cell areas by hexagonal cells that cover the entire it sends a request for vertical handover. So, the mobile
service region through frequency reuse concept where station scans for available channel and occupies one if
every cell marked similarly can use the same frequencies available. This frees a channel in the cellular network,
being out of range from each others’ signal strength. Now hence decreasing the traffic.
let us consider two adjacent hexagonal cells. We define
threshold signal strength of a cell as the signal strength after 3.2 Change of Base Station in Cellular Network
which the handoff is initiated. We place a WLAN router Now the mobile station is under WLAN network coverage
between the threshold signals of either cell i.e. with the in the handoff region between the two cells. As it is in the
router being at the midpoint of the line of the two AP’s as WLAN coverage area, it is still connected and the mobile
shown in Figure 3. station user can enjoy seamless connectivity.
When the mobile station is to move into a particular base
station, it starts the scanning process for the channels in the
new base station, being under the coverage area of WLAN.
The channel scanning process mostly contributes to handoff
latency. Here, we minimize the handoff latency by reducing
OBS WLA NBS
the number of base stations to be scanned to 1.Hence the
Nregio number of channels to be scanned obviously becomes very
n low.
This scanning process occurs under the network coverage
of WLAN. Hence, there is minimum handoff failure
probability, which occurs mainly due to scanning delay
Figure6. The position of the WLAN in the handoff region during a handoff process.
As the scanning process terminates, the mobile station
3.1 Received Signal Strength (RSS) Measurement of sends authentication requests and then the re-association
WLAN requests which involves only two signals to be sent.
IEEE 802.11b WLAN provides a bit rate of 11 Mbit/s and
3.3 Difference between Normal Handoff and
operates on 11 out of 14 distinct frequency channels. Path
loss for a WLAN (PL) is given by:
Proposed Method
PL=L+10 x Y x log(d) + s The proposed method for handoff is advantageous against
normal handoff because of the fact that in this case, the
www.IJCSI.org 581
mobile station is always connected to the network directly 1. While base station connectivity not changed
to the CN AP or to WLAN AP. The mobile station after a 2. If r < (R-DWLAN),
specific threshold is under WLAN connection (if the traffic 2.1 The MS does not take any action of vertical handover
density permits) and even if it leaves the handoff region
3. Else
before establishing a connection with the new BS, it will be
/* We define = rate of change of r and mathematically
connected to WLAN until it gets connected with the new ∆
BS and hence there is minimum handoff failure in this case. */
∆
In normal handoff, if the scanning process is time /* Now increases or decreases only if r changes */
consuming due to high traffic density, the mobile station /* We define T as the time taken to make a connection with
leaves the handoff region before establishing connection WLAN AP */
with new BS, resulting in handoff failure. 3.1. If r 2T < R-r
Here, we conduct the scanning process inside the WLAN 3.1.1. Then mobile node will not be able to avail the WLAN
coverage area, such that the scanning delay is completely service and wait till the next iteration comes
eliminated from the handoff scheme as it no longer affects 3.2. Else
the handoff failure probability. Thus: 3.2.1. The mobile node tries to make a connection with the
Effective Handoff delay= Authentication Delay + WLAN AP.
Re-association Delay 3.2.2. The mobile nodes will be preferentially allocated
channels by the WLAN AP in order of there r 2T value.
3.4 Reduction of traffic due to introduction of 3.3. End
WLAN 4. End
This handoff scheme allows a number of users to free the 5. End
channels of the cellular network and avail for the WLAN This algorithm provides a filter to the number of users
coverage. This decreases traffic density of the existing APs. availing the WLAN service to avoid unnecessary vertical
If E = λh = total traffic, Pb is the probability of blocking, m handover.
is the number of resources such as servers or circuits in a
group
4. Simulation Results
We made simulation of our proposed method using the
Here we divide the average arrival rate λ into λCN and λWLAN algorithm in the subsection of the proposed work. For
where justifying the practicability of our method in real models we
made an artificial environment considering a seven cell
cluster, that is seven APs at the centre of seven closely
packed cells whose hexagonal structure provides an
Thus, with this paper we endeavour to reduce the traffic approximation of its signal sweeping region, and we
density and call blocking probability in the handoff region implemented Poison’s Distribution Function for
in a cellular network by introducing a WLAN AP inside the incorporation of memory less property in the generation of
handoff region. calls in the environment.
3.5 Assignment of WLAN Channel to Specific Users Depending upon the level of traffic impediments we noted
down the corresponding call blocking probability, that is
We design an algorithm on filtering the number of users
the number of calls that terminates during handoff to the
who are given the option of availability of WLAN service. total number of handoffs in that traffic condition. The
We locate the position of the old base station (OBS) and traffic of the network is taken relative to the maximum
mobile-station (MS) by GPS technology. traffic. The plot of network traffic verses the call blocking
We assume (X,Y) are the co-ordinates of the present BS probability is shown in the Figure 7. We have also shown
and (xm,ym) are the co-ordinates of the MS and r is the radial the handoff call blocking probability, that is the number of
distance of the mobile station from the old BS. calls that terminates during handoff to the total number of
handoffs in that traffic condition, in the same base
Then we have the radial distance r of the MS from its
parameter in Figure 8.
present BS is given by the equation,
* We define R as signal range of the directional antenna

used by the OBS */
/* We define DWLAN as diametric range of WLAN coverage
area */
www.IJCSI.org 582
incorporating the WLAN AP in the CN thus can be enlisted

as follows.
 This facility will relieve congestion on the GSM or
UMTS spectrum by removing common types of
calls and routing them to the operator via the
relatively low cost Internet.
 This scheme allows carriers to add coverage using
low cost 802.11 access points. Subscribers enjoy
seamless coverage.
 This handoff procedure cuts out the scanning
delay from the handoff latency components by
scanning the channels while in the WLAN
coverage.
 The handoff failure probability tends to zero
However, future works can be done on improving the

Figure7. Plot of network traffic verses the call blocking probability traffic distribution between the CN and WLAN, so that
handoff failure can be eliminated completely.
References
[1] Akyildiz, I., Xie, J. and Mohanty, S.: "A Survey of Mobility
Management in Next-Generation All-IP-Based Wireless
Systems", IEEE Wireless Communications, vol.11, pp.
16-28, (2004).
[2] Gustaffson, E. and Jonsson, A.:" Always Best Connected",
IEEE Wireless Communications, vol. 10, pp. 49-55, (2003).
[3] D. Sarddar et all, " Minimization of Handoff Latency by

Angular Displacement Method Using GPS Based Map ",
IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol.
7, Issue 3, No 7, May 2010.
[4] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_LAN_Wikipedia,free
encyclopedia.
[5] AKYILDIZ, I. F., XIE, J., and MOHANTY, S., "A survey on
mobility management in next generation all-IP based
Figure8. Plot of network traffic verses the handoff call blocking
probability wireless systems," IEEE Wireless Communications, vol. 11,
no. 4, pp. 16-28, 2004.
[6] STEMM, M. and KATZ, R. H., "Vertical handoffs in
From Figure 5 it can be seen that the call blocking wireless overlay networks," ACM/Springer Journal of
probability is below 0.1 for cases up to where seventy Mobile Networks and Applications(MONET), vol. 3, no. 4,
percent of the network is congested with a gradual increase, pp. 335-350, 1998
which is obvious for high congestion in the network. Figure [7] J. Pesola and S. Pokanen, “Location-aided Handover in
6 shows that handoff call blocking probability increases in Heterogeneous Wireless Networks” in Proceedings of
an exponential manner with network traffic but we are able Mobile Location Workshop, May 2003.
to restrict it to 25% of the maximum value which is an [8] Enrique Stevens-Navarro, Ulises Pineda-Rico and Jesus
significant improve over the previous results. Thus our Acosta-Elias," Vertical Handover in beyond Third
Generation (B3G) Wireless Networks ", International Journal
method effectively reduces the traffic blocking probability
of Future Generation Communication and Networking,
and also handoff call blocking probability. pp.51-58.
[9] Hye-Soo Kim et. al. “Selective Channel Scanning for Fast
Handoff in Wireless-LAN Using Neighbor-graph” Japan,
5. Conclusion July2004, International Technical Conference on
Circuits/Systems Computers and Communication.
Thus by our proposed method, we can reduce handoff [10] Li Jun ZHANG and Samuel Pierre : " Optimizing the
failure as well as handoff latency quite a remarkable Performance of Handoff Management in Wireless LANs "
amount as we can reduce the traffic in the cellular network IJCSNS,Vol .8 No.7,July 2008
by introducing a WLAN AP. The various advantages of
www.IJCSI.org 583
[11] Ashutosh Dutta, S Madhani, Wai Chen, "GPS-IP based fast Currently, he is working as an associate professor in the department
Handoff for Mobiles”. of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Kalyani, West
[12] Chien-Chao Tseng, K-H Chi, M-D Hsieh and H-H Chang," Bengal, India. He is a co-author of about 35 research articles in
different journals, book chapters and conferences. His research
Location-based Fast Handoff for 802.11 Networks”,IEEE interests include optical communication, ad-hoc and mobile
COMMUNICATIONS LETTERS,VOL 9, NO 4 April 2005. communication, semantic web services, E- governance etc.
[13] Shantidev Mohanty and I.F.Akylidiz “A Cross Layer (Layer
2+3) Handoff Management Protocol for Next-Generation
Wireless Systems”, IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MOBILE Mrinal Kanti Naskar received his B.Tech. (Hons)
COMPUTING, Vol-5, No-10 OCT 2006. and M.Tech degrees from E&ECE Department, IIT
Kharagpur, India in 1987 and 1989 respectively
[14] K.Ayyapan and P.Dananjayan : " RSS Measurement for
and Ph.D. from Jadavpur University, India in 2006..
Vertical Handoff in Hetereogeneous He served as a faculty member in NIT, Jamshedpur
Network",JATIT,pp-989-994. and NIT, Durgapur during 1991-1996 and
1996-1999 respectively. Currently, he is a
professor in the Department of Electronics and Tele-Communication
Engineering, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India where he is in
charge of the Advanced Digital and Embedded Systems Lab. His
Debabrata Sarddar is currently pursuing his PhD research interests include ad-hoc networks, optical networks,
at Jadavpur University. He completed his M.Tech in wireless sensor networks, wireless and mobile networks and
Computer Science & Engineering from DAVV, embedded systems. He is an author/co-author of the several
Indore in 2006, and his B.Tech in Computer Science published/accepted articles in WDM optical networking field that
& Engineering from Regional Engineering College, include “Adaptive Dynamic Wavelength Routing for WDM Optical
Durgapur in 2001. His research interest includes Networks” [WOCN,2006], “A Heuristic Solution to SADM
wireless and mobile system. minimization for Static Traffic Grooming in WDM uni-directional
Ring Networks” [Photonic Network Communication, 2006], ”Genetic
Shubhajeet Chatterjeee is presently pursuing Evolutionary Approach for Static Traffic Grooming to SONET over
B.Tech Degree in Electronics and WDM Optical Networks” [Computer Communication, Elsevier,
Communication Engg. at Institute of Engg. & 2007], and “Genetic Evolutionary Algorithm for Optimal Allocation of
Managment College, under West Bengal Wavelength Converters in WDM Optical Networks” [Photonic
University Technology. His research interest Network Communications,2008].
includes wireless sensor networks and wireless
Ramesh Jana is presently pursuing M.Tech (2nd

year) in Electronics and Telecommunication
Engg. at Jadavpur University. His research
interest includes wireless sensor networks, fuzzy
logic and wireless communication systems
Prabir kr Naskar is currently pursuing his Master of

Engineering in Computer Technology from Jadavpur
University. He completed his B.Tech in Computer
Science and Engineering, from College of
Engineering & Leather Technology affiliated to West
Bengal University of Technology in 2006. His fields of
interest include wireless sensor networks and
computer networking.
SHAIK SAHIL BABU

is pursuing Ph.D in the Department of Electronics
and Telecommunication Engineering under the
supervision of Prof. M.K. NASKAR at Jadavpur
University, KOLKATA. He did his Bachelor of
Engineering in Electronics and
Telecommunication Engineering from Muffa
Kham Jah College of Engineering and
Technology, Osmania University, Hyderabad, and Master of
Engineering in Computer Science and Engineering from Thapar
Institute of Engineering and Technology, Patiala, in Collaboration
with National Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training and
Research, Chandigarh.
Utpal Biswas received his B.E, M.E and PhD

degrees in Computer Science and Engineering from
Jadavpur University, India in 1993, 2001 and 2008
respectively. He served as a faculty member in NIT,
Durgapur, India in the department of Computer
Science and Engineering from 1994 to 2001.
www.IJCSI.org 584
User Experience (UX) and the Web Accessibility Standards

Osama Sohaib1, Walayat Hussain2, M. Khalid Badini3
1, 3
Department of Computer Science & IT, University of Baluchistan
Quetta, Pakistan
2
Department of Computer Science, Balochistan University of I.T. Engineering and Management Science
Quetta, Pakistan
Abstract technologies, which allow people and organizations to

The success of web-based applications depends on how well it is communicate and share information digitally [2].
perceive by the end-users. The various web accessibility Companies invest in new web sites/applications because
guidelines have promoted to help improve accessing, the web is now the platform for doing business efficiently
understanding the content of web pages. Designing for the total and quickly. Customer and end users is one of the key
User Experience (UX) is an evolving discipline of the World
Wide Web mainstream that focuses on how the end users will
factors, to satisfy them, a web site must fulfill some
work to achieve their target goals. To satisfy end-users, web- common needs: availability, responsiveness and clarity
based applications must fulfill some common needs like clarity, [11]. The role of user experience (UX) is to make the
accessibility and availability. The aim of this study is to evaluate products user responsive and design in such a way to
how the User Experience characteristics of web-based satisfy users during their use in an effective and efficient
application are related to web accessibility guidelines (WCAG manner, web accessibility has a similar concept.
2.0, ISO 9241:151 and Section 508). Therefore, web design should consider both aspects of
. user experience and web accessibility.
Keywords: User Experience (UX), Usability, User-Centered This paper attempts to explore the Rubinoff characteristics
Design (UCD), Web Accessibility of web applications in web accessibility guidelines by
addressing the following research question.
RQ: How the uses of web accessibility guidelines
1. Introduction facilitate total user experience design?
Information and Communication Technology (ICT), is an The rest of the paper is organized as follows: Section 2
umbrella term that includes all technologies for the discusses characteristics of web application and provides
communication of information. Over the past two decades some insight on the three web accessibility standards
ICT has been an engine of growth and a major thrust in (WCAG 2.0, ISO 9241:151 and Section 508). Section 3
long periods of low-inflation and economic expansion. presents some related work and in Section 4 the approach
Not only in the educational and business sectors, are ICT is discussed. In section 5, the role of user experience
applications also considered to be a tool for flexile design within these three web accessibility standards is
everyday life [1]. From getting the course schedules and evaluated. Finally, the study is concluded and leaves an
registered through mobile application in your handset, open issue.
transferred the money using E-Banking services on your
PCs in your bedroom, to downloading songs and watching
2. Background
video clips via your iPhone. ICT applications offer
opportunities to realize more flexibility in time and space In this section, we use the literature to present some
in both working life and private life. As ICT applications background on UX and web accessibility.
covers any product that will store, retrieve, manipulate,
transmit or receive information electronically in a digital 2.1 User Experience (UX) in context of web
form. In business, ICT application is often categorized into applications
two broad types of products. One is the products based on
traditional computer-based technologies such an The fast-growing digital world force us to move further,
application run on personal computers, another is the human needs obviously more and more; or even beyond
products that based on digital communication the existing PCs standalone application can handle. That is
www.IJCSI.org 585
why many ICT applications shifted from PCs standalone the user experience, for example readiness and
application to web-based applications. The basic benefits comprehensibility.
that most of developers and users consider on going online According to the Garrett [13] the element of user
as the web-based application is, browser applications experience can be view from two aspects. One is task-
typically require little or no disk space, upgrade oriented or viewing the web application as software
automatically with new features, and integrate easily into interface. And yet another is information-oriented which
other web procedures, such as email and searching. also means web application as the hypertext system.
Today’s modern web pages allow personalized dynamic
content to be pulled down by users according to individual 2.2 Web Accessibility standards
needs, preferences and settings. Many kind of scripting
languages, either server-side or client-side, which change According to W3C [4], “Web accessibility means that
regular internet browser to more or less an user interface, people with disabilities can use the web”. The web
enhance the usability, flexibility, and performance of the accessibility for disabled people has been a growing
web. In short, we can say Web Application is operating concern worldwide. According to ISO [2008],
system independent. As the number of businesses accessibility is defined as the “usability of a product,
embracing the benefits of doing business over the web service, environment or facility by people with the widest
increases, so will the use of Web Applications and other range of capabilities”. There are varieties of guidelines
related technologies continue to grow. and tools to allow web accessibility but the most relevant
However, among excessive websites available out there, ones are W3C, ISO and Section 508.
only few are success, it is a matter of satisfaction of end-
user. Usability in the context of web application does not WCAG 2.0 (Web Content Accessibility Guideline)
covered only user interface rather includes the content or The purpose of WCAG 2.0 is to facilitate the disabilities,
the information, and functionalities that application could to help access, retrieve, understand, and operate the
perform. According to the Spool [3] – a usability guru, information, content, and media presented within web
there are five major usability challenges that every webpages According to the four principles the web content
based application developer must face. That is Scalability, should be [5].
Visual Design, Comprehensibility, and Fluidity of  Perceivable
interactivity and Change Management. Those five • Operable
challenges are just first few challenges that everyone could • Understandable
possibly face, however an excessive list of best practices • Robust
in implementing, developing, and designing the web
application are also available and widely known. The main ISO 9241-151:2008, Ergonomics of Human-System
concept of usability is still the same as it focuses on user Interaction: Guidance on World Wide Web user
experience, How to satisfy customer, and what customer interfaces
would perceive from the product. According to Rubinoff The usability aspect of ISO 9241:2008 falls into the part
[12], the characteristics of Use Experience can be viewed of 151 – Guidance on World Wide Web user interface,
as a formation of four factors. Those are branding, which talks about on the usability of web application’s
usability, functionality, and content. The concept of UX s user interface. ISO 9241-151 focuses on the design
factors by Rubinoff is focusing on the end-user as the aspects, and provides design guidance and
focal point of design and development. recommendations in four major areas which are [6] [14].
 Branding covers all design and visual-related items • Purpose and strategy
within the web pages. This also involves desired • Content and functionality
organizational image that developer wishes for as well • Navigation and interaction
as the message, purposes, and strategies. • Media design and presentation
 Usability is generally ease of use that end-user would
experience from the application. This entails Section 508
accessibility and navigation. Section 508 of the Rehabilitation Act applies to the federal
 Functionality involves technological aspect of the agencies [7], which require that e-government web sites to
product or application, underlies the interface that be accessible to people with disabilities. Our interest is in
end-user operate with. Functionality factors cover §1194.22 (Web-based intranet and internet information
both public and administrative functions. and applications), standards for the implementation and
 Content is the actual content of the site, the message, web site design. The criteria for web based information is
information, multimedia, or images beneath pleasant based on web accessibility initiative (WAI) developed by
interface. The structure of information also reflects World Wide Web Consortium (W3C).
www.IJCSI.org 586
3. Related work Characteristic 1 - Branding:

WCAG 2.0 generally focuses more on the technical
Web usability has become one of the key success factors
TABLE 1. SUMMARY OF THE EVALUATION
due to the rapid growth of web application worldwide. It is
very difficult to create web standards to represent usability Rubinoff UX WCAG ISO 9241- Section 508-
practice. The quality of web sites is often inadequate, and characteristic 2.0 151: 2008 1192.22
web designers hardly consider basic web principles, such s
as accessibility. [8][9][10][11]. Branding   
Quesenbery [8] analyzed three well-known usability Usability   
standards ISO 13407 – Human-centered design process for Functionality   
interactive systems, ANSI 354. The goal of all the C t t   
implementation of content and media presentations. Only
usability standards is to increase the level of usability of
few criterions discuss the significant aspect of branding.
the web application but these standards are limited in
The criteria which involve the image and branding of the
scope.
organization or developers is section 2.4, under the
Signore [9] also proposed a quality model to fix errors
navigable guideline, as it recommends the developer to
through re-engineering. The five dimensions considered
have the page title, heading, labels. Hence this makes
by the quality model are correctness, presentation, content,
looks and feels of the web pages professional. Image and
navigation and interaction.
brand of the application are also affected from this. On the
Jaeger [10] discussed the multi method user-centered
other hands, ISO 9241-151 also emphasis the importance
study of the accessibility and the result shows that the
of branding as it covers “Purpose and Strategy”. In
further improvement is needed between e-government
addition, Section 508- §1192.22 (paragraph i) focuses that
Web sites and user’s channel of communication.
frames shall be titled with text that facilitates frame
Sohaib and Hussain [11] identified the gap between
identification and navigation.
usability and three web accessibility standards (WCAG
2.0, ISO 9241:151 and Section 508). The authors
Characteristic 2 - Usability:
evaluated that how Spool [3] usability challenges of web-
Regarding ease of use, this is covered by WCAG 2.0
based application are related to web accessibility
under its purpose of accessibility and usability by
guidelines.
everyone including the disabilities and those who have
difficulties in perceiving or operating the content and
4. The Approach information. Every principle in WCAG 2.0 aimed toward
ease of use. This can be seen from the benefits that the
The aim of this work is to evaluate, whether the web end-users would have if the website conforms to success
quality standards meet the Rubinoff usability criterion suggested. However, ISO 9241-151 does not
characteristics [12] in web applications or not and to what discuss the issue of usability directly, but ISO 9241:2008
extent it may be successful. The focus of the study is many as the whole is also aiming on the road to usability,
online references and related literature that work as a basis especially ISO 9241-11 a Guidance on Usability. There is
for suggestion. In this evaluation, The five usability also no direct discussion towards the usability of web
characteristics according to Rubinoff in web application as based application in Section 508- §1192.22 but does
discussed in section 2.1 are; branding, usability, guarantee the success over this challenge.
functionality, and content are in consideration with the
web standards WCAG 2.0, ISO 9241-151:2008 and the Characteristic 3 - Functionality:
Section 508 covering only §1194.22 (web-based intranet Functionality issue had been discussed widely throughout
and internet information and applications). the WCAG 2.0, from the guideline for presenting the
content and media in the most suitable, readable,
compatible and hence accessible forms to the interactivity
5. Evaluation and operable of the functions and navigation through the
whole website in principle 2. ISO 9241-151 contributes
The characteristic of UX which is adopted here belongs to basically one area of interest for content and functionality.
Rubinoff [12], due to the fact that it more conforms to the Section 508- §1192.22 (paragraph n) also guarantee this
UCD aspect. The result shows that the WCAG 2.0 is able characteristic.
to meet the basic demand of end-users more than the ISO
9241-151: 2008 and Section 508-1192.22, as summarized Characteristic 4 - Content:
in table 1. This is about the actual content of the site included text,
images, and multimedia. WCAG 2.0 covers as many
www.IJCSI.org 587
aspects of content’s accessibilities and presentations as [9]. O. Signore, “A Comprehensive Model for Web Sites
possible, due to the evident of an extensive criterion that Quality,” Proc of the 2005 Seventh IEEE International
purely discusses about the information and content within Symposium on Web Site Evolution (WSE’05), IEEE press,
2005
the website. Likewise, ISO 9241-151 cover the aspect of
[10]. T. Jaege, “Assessing Section 508 compliance on federal
content in its four areas of interest. Section 508- §1192.22 egovernment Web sites: A multi-method, user-centered,”
(paragraph d & i) also support content by addressing all evaluation of accessibility for persons with disabilities,
the necessary information. Government
[11]. O. Sohaib, W. Hussain, “Mind the gap! Usability in web
application and web accessibility standards” Proc. 2010
6. Conclusion and Future Work International Conference on Intelligence and Information
Technology (ICIIT 2010) IEEE press, 2010
In this paper, we have evaluated web quality standards [12]. R. Rubinoff, “How To Quantify The User Experience”,
criteria against the Rubinoff characteristics of user SitePoint : New Articles, Fresh Thinking for Web
experience. The standards in the internet industry are in Developers and Designers, [Online], Available:
abundance, the right standard can be chosen that is useful http://www.sitepoint.com/print/quantify-user-experience ,
2004
and efficient enough to accomplish needs of end users.
[13]. J. Garrett, “The Elements of User Experience”, [Online],
Effective usability becomes also vital for the design of Available: Jesse James Garrett:
web-based application. Therefore, it is essential to develop http://www.jjg.net/elements/pdf/elements.pdf , 2000
and implement suitable web design guidelines while [14]. International Organization for Standardization (ISO).
keeping in mind the usability characteristics and “Ergonomics of human-system interaction - Part 151:
challenges. Guidance on World Wide Web user interfaces”, (ISO 9241-
As future work, many groups of challenges and 151:2008), 2008
characteristics of web usability against web accessibility
guideline are still waiting to explore
Osama Sohaib received the BS (Software Development) Hons
degree from Hamdard University Karachi, Post Graduate Diploma
References of AIT (Asian Institute of Technology) in Information Management
[1]. P. K. Ellegård, and P. E. Wihlborg, “ICT-Applications as from AIT- Bangkok and MS (Software Engineering) degree from
Tools for Flexile Everyday Life - Methodological PAF-KIET (Karachi Institute of Economics and Technology),
Karachi Pakistan, in 2005, 2008 and 2010 respectively. He is
Considerations for making ICT-related Activities seen in currently working as a Lecturer in Department of CS & IT in
Everyday Life” Home Oriented Informatics and Telematics. University of Baluchistan, Quetta Pakistan.
Sweden: The Tema Institute, Department of Technology
and Social Change, Linköping University, 2003 Walayat Hussain received the BS (Software Development) Hons
[2]. Tutor2u Ltd. “ICT - What is ICT?”, from tutor2u - learning degree from Hamdard University Karachi, Post Graduate Diploma
resource and teaching materials for Business Education & of AIT (Asian Institute of Technology) in Information Management
the Humanities: [Online], Available: from AIT- Bangkok and MS (Computer Science) degree from
BUITEMS Quetta, Pakistan in 2004, 2008 and 2009 respectively.
http://tutor2u.net/business/ict/intro_what_is_ict.htm,
He is currently working as an Assistant Professor in Department of
Retrieved 05 12, 2010 CS in Baluchistan University of IT, Engineering and Management
[3]. J.M. Spool, “Five Usability Challenges of Web-Based Sciences (BUITEMS), Quetta Pakistan.
Application”, User Interface Engineering: [Online],
Available: M. Khalid Badini received the MCS, and MS (Computer Science)
http://www.uie.com/articles/usability_challenges_of_web_a degree from University of Balochistan, Quetta Pakistan, in 2004,
pps, Retrieved 12- 07- 2010 2007 respectively. He is currently working as Head of the
[4]. S. L. Henry, “Introduction to web accessibility”, [Online], Department and as an Assistant Professor Department of CS & IT
in University of Baluchistan, Quetta Pakistan.
Available: http://www.w3.org/WAI/intro/accessibility.php ,
Web accessibility initiative, 2011
[5]. Web Content Accessibility Guidelines 2.0. [online],
Available: zttp://www.w3.org/TR/WCAG20, World Wide
Web Consortium, 2008
[6]. N. Bevan, “Guidelines and Standards for Web Usability,”
HCI International 2005, Lawrence Erlbaum, 2005.
[7]. Section 508, [online], Available:
http://www.section508.gov/index.cfm?FuseAction=Content
&ID=3
[8]. W. Quesenbery, “Usability Standards: Connecting Practice
Around the World,” Proc of the 2005 IEEE International
Professional Communication Conference, IEEE press, 2005,
pp. 451-457.
www.IJCSI.org 588
Some Topological Properties of Rough Sets with Tools for Data

Mining
A. S. Salama
Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science, Tanta University
Tanta, Egypt
The extent of rough sets applications used today are much

Abstract wider than in the past, principally in the areas of data
Rough set theory has a significant importance in many fields. For mining, medicine, analysis of database attributes and
example, some branches of artificial intelligence, such as process control. The subject of this paper is to present the
inductive reasoning, automatic classification, pattern recognition, topological properties of rough sets [43-45].
learning algorithms, classification theory, cluster analysis,
The key to the present paper is provided by the exact
measurement theory and taxonomy. Also, in the domains of
Medicine, Pharmacology, Banking, Market research and
mathematical formulation of the concept of approximate
Engineering the rough set theory has demonstrated its usefulness. (rough) equality of sets in a given approximation space.
The main aim of this paper is to describe some topological An approximation space is understood as a pair (U, R),
properties of rough sets and open the door about more accurate where U is a certain set called universe, and R  U  U
topological measures of data mining. is an indiscernibility relation. In the basic construction of
Keywords: Rough Sets; Topological Spaces; Rough the theory, R is assumed to be an equivalence relation.
Approximations; Data Reduction; Data Mining; Rule Extraction. The aim of this paper is to describe some topological
properties of rough sets, introduced in [18] and
investigated in [18-23].
1.Introduction Moreover, we give further study on Pawlak rough sets and
Rough set theory, proposed in [18-23], is a good introduce new examples and proofs to simplify some
mathematical tool for data representation. Its methodology rough set theory concepts.
is concerned with the classification and analysis of missing This paper is structured as follows:
attribute values, uncertain or incomplete information In Section 2, we study the notion of rough sets in an
systems and knowledge, and it is considered one of the approximation space and investigate some of its
first non-statistical approaches in data analysis [7,10,12]. properties. The notion of topological rough sets and its
The fundamental concept behind it is lower and upper relation with Pawlak rough sets are discussed in Section 3.
approximations of a set, the approximation of sets being The main goal of Section 4 is to spotlights on the notion of
the formal tool of knowledge discovery and data mining a topological rough classes and investigates some of its
[24, 25,30-33]. properties. Pre-topological rough sets is one of the
The subset generated by lower approximations is topological generalizations of topological rough sets and it
characterized by certain objects that will definitely form is the details of Section 5. Section 6 studied the relative
part of an interest subset, whereas the upper approximation topological rough classes. The conclusion work appears in
is characterized by uncertain objects that will possibly Section 7.
form part of an interest subset. Every subset defined 2. Basics of Pawlak rough sets
through upper and lower approximation is known as rough The following illustrations about rough sets can be found
set. If we considered a topological space instead of in [18-23, 34-41].
approximation space we will generate topological rough Definition 2.1 Let A U, R be an approximation space.
sets using many topological notions such as pre-open The equivalence classes U/R of the relation equivalence
sets[1,26-29,42]. relation will be called elementary sets (atoms) in .
Over the years rough sets have become a valuable tool in Definition 2.2 Let A U, R be an approximation space.
the resolution of various problems, such as: representation Every finite union of elementary sets in will be called a
of missing (uncertain) or imprecise knowledge; knowledge composed set in . The family of all composed sets in
analysis; identification and evaluation of date dependency; will be denoted by com A . The family com A in the
reasoning based an uncertain and reduct of information approximation space A U, R is a topology on the set .
data [2-6,8,9,11].
www.IJCSI.org 589
Definition 2.3 Let A U, R be an approximation space; (v) R( X  Y )  R( X ) R( Y ) .

and let be a certain subset of . The least composed set
in containing will be called the best upper (vi) R( X  Y )  R( X )  R( Y ) .
approximation of in , and is denoted by R( X ) . The (vii) R( X  Y )  R( X ) R( Y ) .
greatest composed set in contained in will be called (viii) R( X  Y )  R( X )  R( Y ) .
the best lower approximation of in , and is denoted by
(ix) R( X  Y )  R( X ) R( Y )
R( X ) .
Definition 2.4 Let is a subset of an approximation space (x) R( X  Y )  R( X )  R( Y )
A U, R . The set Bnd ( X )  R( X )  R( X ) is
3. Topological rough sets and its properties
called the boundary of in . The sets
The main purpose of this section is to point out
Edg ( X )  X  R ( X ) and
that the concept of rough sets have a purely topological
Edg ( X )  R ( X )  X are referred to as an internal nature [26-29,42]. At the same time a more general notion
of a topological rough set will be considered, which has an
and external edges of in , respectively.
independent interest, since its construction depends on a
For a subset of an approximation space A U, R , we different approach than that due to Pawlak in [18].
have Bnd ( X )  Edg( X )  Edg ( X ) . Definition 3.1 Let ( U , ) be a topological space. The
Since the approximation space A U, R , topology  defines the equivalence relation R on the
defines uniquely the topological space
power set P U given by the condition:
R  ( U ,com( A )) , and com A is the family of all
( X ,Y )  R Iff int( X )  int( Y ) and
open sets in τR , and U / R is a basis for τR , then τR is a
quasi-discrete topology on , and com A is both the set cl( X )  cl( Y ) .
of all open and closed sets in τR . Thus , R( X ) and Definition 3.2 Let ( U , ) be a topological space, and ,
R( X ) can be interpreted as the interior and the closure be subsets of . The class RO(U ) of subsets of is
of the set in the topological space τR , respectively. called a topological rough class if for every and in
Definition 2.5 Let A U, R be an approximation space, RO(U ) , we have int( X )  int( Y ) and
and let be a subset of . The set is called rough in if
cl( X )  cl( Y ) .
and only if R( X )  R( X ) , otherwise, is an exact set Example 3.1 Let U  { a ,b, c } with the topology
in .
Example 2.1 Let U  { a ,b , c , d } and
 {U,,{a},{a,b}}, then the equivalence classes of the
R  {(a,a ),( a,c ),( c,a ),( b,b ),( c,c ),( d ,d )}
be an equivalence relation R are
equivalence relation on , then A U, R is an P(U ) / R {{a },{a,c }},{{b },{b,c }},{c },{a,b }}.
approximation space. The set of atoms of is Then each element in P( U ) / R is a topological rough
U \ R  {{a ,c },{b },{ d }}, for X  { a , d } we have set.
R( X )  { d } and R( X )  { a ,c ,d } , i.e., Example 3.2 Let be an equivalence relation on a set ;
let be the set of all subsets of , such that if x  X
R( X )  R( X ) in , then is a rough set in
and ( x , y )  R then y  X .
A U, R .
Some properties of the approximations are given then is a quasi-discrete topology on , and topological
in the following proposition. rough sets in the topological space ( U , ) are the same as
Proposition 2.1 Let A U, R be an approximation space, Pawlak rough sets in the approximation space A U, R .
and let and be subsets of , then we have: Example 3.3 Let U  { a , b , c , d , e } with the
(i) R( X )  X  R( X ) . equivalence relation
(ii) R( U )  R( U )  U , R(  )  R(  )   . R  {(a,a ),( b,b ),( a,b ),( b,a ),( c,c ),( d ,d ),( e,e )}.
Then the equivalence classes of are
(iii) R( R( X ))  R( R( X ))  R( X ) .
U \ R  {{a ,b },{ c },{ d },{ e }}. Then the quasi-
(iv) R( R( X ))  R( R( X ))  R( X ) . discrete topology generated by the equivalence relation
www.IJCSI.org 590
 R  {U , ,{ c },{ d },{ e },{ a ,b },{ c ,d },{ c ,e } In the following we give an example to illustrate
is the above theorem.
,{ d ,e },{ a ,b ,c },{ a ,b ,d },{ a ,b ,e }, Example 3.4 Let U  { a ,b,c ,d }with the equivalence
{ c ,d ,e },{ a ,b,d ,e },{ a ,b,c,e },{ a ,b,c ,d }}. relation
Extending Pawlak's terminology and according to R  {( a,a ),( b,b ),( a,c ),( c,a ),( c,c ),( d ,d )}. Then
Example 3.3, we have:
(i)Any subset of and X   R is a rough set, for
A  ( U , R ) is an approximation space, and
U / R  {{ a , c },{ b },{ d }} is the class of elementary
instance, the X  { a ,c } such that
subset
sets of in . And for X  U , such that X  {b, c } ,
int( X )  { c } and cl( X )  { a ,b, c }.
we have R( X )  { b } and R( X )  { a ,b ,c } , i.e. the
(ii)The element in the rough set X  { a , c } surely
subset is a Pawlak rough set in the approximation space
belongs to a, c since c  int{a , c } , but the element
A  ( U , R ) . Now the topology on generated by ,
possibly belongs to a, c for a  cl{ a , c } . which has U/R as a base is given by:
Lemma 3.1 For any topology  on a set , and for all  R  {U , ,{ b },{ d },{ a ,c },{ b ,d },{ a ,b ,c }
x, y in , the condition x  cl({ y }) and y  cl({x }) . Then
,{ a ,c ,d }}
implies cl({ x })  cl({ y }).
for the same  {b,c }, we have
subset X
Lemma 3.2 If  is a quasi-discrete topology on a set ,
y  cl({x })implies x  cl({ y }) for all int( X )  {b } and, cl( X )  { a ,b,c } i.e. a rough set
then
in the topological space ( U , R ) . Hence Pawlak rough
x, y U .
sets are the same as rough sets for a quasi-discrete
Proposition 3.1 If  is a quasi-discrete topology on a set
topology  R .
, then the family { cl({ x }): x U } is a partition of .
In the classical papers of Pawlak [18-23] , he
Proof: Suppose that C  { cl({ x }): x U }, then mentioned the term rough set in two places with different
(i) Since x  cl({x }) for all x  U , then meaning.
1-The subset of the approximation space A  ( U , R )
 cl({ x })  U .
xU
is called a rough set if R( X )  R( X ) .
(ii) x, y U , either cl({ x })  cl({ y })
For any
A  ( U , R ) is an approximation space, then the
2-If
or cl({ x }) cl({ y })   , such that if
relation  defined by X  Y iff R( X )  R( Y ) and
cl({ x }) cl({ y })   then there is an element
R ( X )  R ( Y ) is an equivalence relation on the power
z  U such that z  cl({x }) and z  cl({ y }), then
set P U . An equivalence class of P( U ) /  is called a
by Lemma 3.1 and Lemma 3.2, we have x  cl({z }) rough set [18].
and ycl({z }), and we have Wiweger in [29] followed Pawlak and used the
same terminology. We see that it is useful to avoid
cl({z }) cl({x }) cl({y }), hence confusion between the two concepts by replacing the term
cl({ x })  cl({ y }) or cl({ x }) cl({ y })   for topological rough set by topological rough class and the
every x  y , hence is a partition of the set . rough set defined in [18] by Pawlak rough class.
Accordingly, Pawlak rough classes are exactly the same as
Proposition 3.2 For every quasi-discrete topology  on a
topological rough classes and Pawlak rough sets are
set , there is an equivalence relation on , such that a exactly the same as rough sets for a quasi-discrete
subset of is open in ( U , ) if and only if x  X , topology.
( x, y )  R , then y  X . 4. An alternative description of topological
Proof: The relation defined by R  {( x , y ): x , y U rough classes
Definition 4.1 Let ( U , ) be a topological space. The
and x  cl({ y })} is an equivalence relation satisfies the
condition of the proposition.
rough pair in ( U , ) is a pair ( M , N ) , where and
Theorem 3.1 Pawlak rough sets are exactly the same as are subsets of , satisfying the following four conditions
rough sets in a quasi-discrete topology. (1) is an open set i.e., .
Proof: Follows from Proposition 3.2. (2) is a closed set i.e., .
www.IJCSI.org 591
(3) M  N . (I) a  M or (II) a  Z or (III) a  M  Z : We

(4) The set N cl M contains a subset that satisfies the prove now that these three cases are two only by proving
conditions int( Z )   and N  cl ( M )  cl ( Z ) . that M  Z   . To this end suppose that M  Z  .
Proposition 4.1 For any subset of a topological space Then there is an element such that xM and
( U , ) , the pair (int( X ),cl( X )) is a rough pair in x  Z . But Z  N cl( M ) . Then x  N and
( U , ) . x cl( M ) i.e. x  M , i.e. x  M and x  M , and this
Proof : Let M  int( X ) and N  cl( X ) , then contradiction. Hence M  Z   . Now X  M  Z ,
M τ and N C
τ . M N, Such that then M  X  Z and Z  X  M . Now if (I) a  M
int( X )  X  cl( X ) . Define the subset holds then int( X )  M , and if (II) a  Z holds, then
Z  X  cl( M ) , Since X  cl( X )  N , then a  X  M i.e. a  X and a  M , hence a  X  Z
X  cl( M )  N  cl( M ) i.e. Z  N  cl( M ) . i.e., a  X , hence a  int( X ) , i.e. if a  M we
For int( Z )   , suppose that int( Z ) 
  , then there have a  int( X ) and this proves that int( X )  M .
exist an open set such that
(2) For N  cl ( X ) . Since X  M  Z , then
G  Z  X  cl( M ) i.e. G  X and G
 cl( M ) cl( X )  cl ( M  Z ) i.e.
, i.e. G  X and G  M , i.e. G  X and
cl ( X )  cl ( M )  cl ( Z ) , but MN i.e.
G  int( X ) , and this contradiction, then must cl ( M )  cl ( N ) , hence
int( Z )   . Finally, for N  cl( M )  cl( Z ) let cl ( X )  cl ( N )  cl ( Z ) i.e.
a  N  cl( M ) then a  N and a  cl( M ) . If cl ( X )  cl ( N  Z ) , but Z  N such that
a  X , then a  Z . Hence a  cl( Z ) . If a  X Z  N  cl( M ) , then cl( X )  cl( N )  N .
and a  N  cl( X ) and a  cl( M ) , let be an open On the other hand,
set containing , i.e. a  G , but a  cl( X ) , then by N  cl( N )  cl [ cl( M )  ( N  cl( M )]
 cl ( cl ( M ))  cl ( N  cl ( M ))
definition of cl( X ),G  X   , but
 cl( M )  cl ( N  cl ( M )) .
a  G  cl( M )  G  cl( M ) which is an open set
c
But N  cl( M )  cl( Z ) , then
containing 
, then G  cl ( M )  X   c hence
cl( N  cl( M ))  cl( Z ) . Consequently
G  X  cl( M )    . HenceG  Z   and N  cl ( M )  cl( Z )  cl ( M  Z )  cl ( X ) .
a  cl( Z ) . Consequently N  cl( M )  cl( Z ) . Example 4.1 Let U  { a ,b,c, d , e } with the topology
Proposition 4.2 For any rough pair ( M , N ) in the   {U , ,{a },{c },{e },{c,e },{b,e },{a,c },{a,e },
topological space ( U , ) , there is a subset of , such { a,c,e },{b,c,e },{ a,b,e },{ a,b,c,e }}
.
that M  int( X ) and N  cl( X ) . Then for the subset X  { d , e } we have

Proof : Let ( M , N ) be a rough pair and let be a subset int( X )  { e }and cl( X )  {b, d , e } , then
of , satisfies that int( Z )   , Z  N  cl( M ) and (int( X ),cl( X ))  ({e },{b, d , e }) is a rough pair in
N  cl( M )  cl( Z ) . Define X  M  Z , ( U , ) .
then:
Example 4.2 Let U  { a ,b, c , d } with the topology
For M  int(X ) , we prove that M  int( X ) and
  {U , ,{ a },{ c },{ a ,c },{ b ,d },{ a ,b ,d },
int( X )  M . For M  int(X ), since X  M  Z , .Then
then MX, hence int( M )  int( X ) but { c ,b ,d }}
the pairs ({ a },{ a ,b, d })and ({c },{ c ,b, d }) are
M  int( M ) , hence M  int( X ) . For
rough pairs in ( U , ) , but the pair ({c },{ a , c }) is not a
int( X )  M let a  int( X ) , hence a  X i.e.
rough pair in ( U , ) .
a  M  Z and we have three cases:
www.IJCSI.org 592
Theorem 4.1 For any topological space ( U , ) , the pair int( X 1 )  int( X 2 ) and cl( Y1 )  cl( Y2 ) then
M, N is a rough pair iff there exists a subset of such ( X 1 , X 2 )  R , hence X 1 , X 2 belong to the same
that M int X and N cl X .
Proof: The proof is given from Propositions 4.1 and 4.2. element of P( U )\ R , hence ( X 1,Y 1 )  ( X 2,Y 2 ) .
The subset , corresponding to the rough pair For the onto part, Proposition 4.2 ends the proof.
(int( X ),cl( X )) is not unique in the topological space 5. Pre-topological rough classes
( U , ) , as illustrated in the following example. In Pawlak approximation space A  ( U , R ) , the
Example 4.3 Let U  { a ,b, c , d } with the topology topological space ( U ,com( A )) is generally a quasi-
  {U , ,{ a },{ c },{ a ,c },{ b ,d },{ a ,b ,d }, discrete space, in which int cl( A )  cl( A ) for any
. For the A  U . Thus every subset in Pawlak space is pre-
{ b ,c ,d }}
open. Using another space
( U , ) , which is not quasi-
rough pair ({ a },{ a , b , d }) there are two subsets
discrete, so it is possible to use pre-open concepts since
X  { a , b } and Y  { a , d }such that PO( U , )  P( U ) . In this space, for any A  U , we
int( X )  int( Y ) and cl( X )  cl( Y ) . have
Definition 4.2 Let ( U , ) be a topological space; and let int( A )  p.int( A )  A  p.cl( A )  cl( A ) . This
the class RO( U ) be a topological rough class in ( U , ) implies decomposition for the boundary region
( cl( A )  int( A )) , which enlarges the range of a
. We define the function f : P( U ) / R 
 PA( U )
membership and consequently helps in applications.
, by f ( X ,Y )  (int( X ),cl( X )) , and Definition 5.1 Let ( U , ) be a topological space. Then
X ,Y  RO( U ) , where P( U ) / R is the set of all we define the equivalence relation  on the set P U , by
topological rough classes in ( U , ) and PA( U ) the set ( X ,Y )   if p  int( X )  p  int( Y ) and
of all rough pairs in ( U , ) . p  cl ( X )  p  cl ( Y ) .
It follows from the above definition that Definition 5.2 Let ( U , ) be a topological space, the
f ( X ,Y ) does not depend on the choice of and in class  is called a pre-topological rough class if it
the equivalence class RO(U ) as illustrated by the contains all subsets and of , with
following example. p  int( X )  p  int( Y ) and p  cl ( X )  p  cl ( Y )
Example 4.4 Let U  { a,b, c } with the topology .
  {U , ,{ a },{ a,b }} be a topological space. Then Example 5.1 Let U  { a , b , c , d } , with topology
P( U ) / R  {{{a },{ a ,c }},{{b },{ b,c }},{ c } U , ,{ a },{ b },{ c },{ a ,b },{ a ,c },
.   
,{ a ,b }} { b ,c },{ a ,b ,c } 
f ({{a },{ a ,c }}) (int{ a },cl{ a })  Then the pre-topological rough classes in
( U , ) are
Hence .
(int{ a ,c },cl{ a ,c })  ({ a },U ) P( U ) /   {{{a },{ a,d }},{{b },{b,d }},
Theorem 4.2 For any topological space ( U , ) the {{c },{c,d }},{{ },{ d }},
function f (( X ,Y ))  (int( X ),cl( X )) and {{a,b },{a,b,d }},{{a,c },{a,c,d }},{{b,c },
X  RO( U ) is a one to one and onto from the set of all {b,c,d }},
topological rough classes onto the set of all rough pairs in {{a,b,c },{U }}}
( U , ) .
The set P( U ) /  of all pre-
Proof: For the one to one part, let ( X 1,Y 1 ) and
topological rough classes in a topological space ( U , ) is
( X 2,Y 2 ) be two topological rough classes in ( U , ) ,
a partition of the set P( U ) .
and let f (( X 1,Y1 ))  f (( X 2,Y 2 )) . Then
6. Relative topological rough classes
(int( X 1 ),cl( Y1 ))  (int( X 2 ),cl( Y2 )) . Hence
www.IJCSI.org 593
Definition 6.1 Let ( U , ) be a topological space, and for X  [ W ]   P( U ) / R ] X and [ A ]  [ W ]  X .

X  U let ( X , X ) be a subspace of ( U , ) . The The following example study the cases when the
topology in the above proposition is not a quasi-discrete
R X
topology  X on defines the equivalence relation topology, and the subset of is open and study the case
when is not open.
on the power set P X such that ( X 1, X 2 )  R X iff
Example 6.1 Let ( U , ) be a topological space, where
int  X ( X 1 )  int X ( X 2 ) and
U  { a ,b ,c , d } and
cl ( X 1 )  cl ( X 2 ), for X 1 , X 2  P( X ) .   { U ,  , { c }, { a , b }, { a , b , c }} , let
Definition 6.2 Let ( U , ) be a topological space, and let X U such that X  { b ,c ,d } , then
( X , X ) be a subspace of ( U , ) , where X  U . The  X  { X , ,{ c }, { b }, { b , c }} and ( X , X ) is
collection P( X ) / R X is a partition of P X , and any the subspace of ( U , ) , then the relative topological
class   P( X ) / R X is called a relative topological rough classes in ( U , ) are:
rough class. P( X ) / R X  {{{b },{b,d }},{c },{c,d }},
Definition 6.3 Let ( U , ) be a quasi-discrete topological {{d }},{{b,c }}},
space, and let ( X , X ) be a subspace of ( U , ) , where But the topological rough classes are:
X  U is an open set in ( U , ) . If P( U ) / R is the P(U ) / R 
collection of all topological rough classes in ( U , ) , then {{{a},{b},{a,d },{b,d }},{{ c},{c,d }},{{
d }},{{ a,b},{a,b,d }}
we call the collection {{a ,b,c }},{{a ,c },{b,c },{b,c,d }},{{a ,c,d }}}.
[ P( U ) / R X ] X  {[ X  W ] : Then the sub-topological rough classes in ( U , ) are:
the sub-
[ W ]  P ( U ) / R } [ P( U ) / R ] X 
topological rough classes in( U , ) . {{{b},{d },{b,d }},{{ c},{c,d }},{{d }},{{
b},{b,d }}
Proposition 6.1 Let ( U , ) be a quasi-discrete space, {{b,c }},{{c },{b,c },{b,c ,d }},{{c ,d }}}
( X , X ) be a subspace of ( U , ) , and let be open in We observe that P( X ) / RX  [ P ( U ) / R ] X where
( U , ) . Then P( X ) / R  [ P( U ) / R ] X .
X
 is not a quasi-discrete topology and X  . Also, we
Proof: We can rewrite the above equality as follows: observe that [ P ( U ) / R ] X is not a partition of . If
[ P( U ) / R X ] X  {[ X  W ] : Y  , say Y  { a ,b,c }, then ( Y , Y ) is a subspace of
.
[ W ]  P ( U ) / R } ( U , ) , and in this case the relative topological rough
Now, let [ A ]  P( X ) / R X , then there are subsets classes are :
P( Y ) / RY  {{{a },{ b }},{{c }},{{a ,b }},
A1 , , An of such that .
{{a ,c },{ b ,c }}}
intX ( A1 )  intX ( A2 )    int X ( An ) , and
The sub-topological rough classes are:
clX ( A1 )  clX ( A2 )    clX ( An ) [ P( U ) / R ] Y  {{{a },{b }},{{c }},
.
but each  X -open is also  X -closed, such that ( U , ) is {{a,b }},{{a,c },{b,c }}}
a quasi-discrete space, since is open and closed in
Then we observe that: P( Y ) / R Y  [ P ( U ) / R ] Y .
( U , ) , then
The following example study the case when the
int( A1 )  X  int( A2 )  X topology  is a quasi-discrete and the subset is open
and
   int( An )  X and is not open.
Example 6.2 Let ( U , ) be a quasi-discrete space, where
cl( A1 )  X  cl( A2 )  X    cl( An )  X i.e.,
U  { a , b , c , d } and
there is [ W ]  P( U ) / R ,such that
www.IJCSI.org 594
  {U , ,{ a },{ d },{ a ,d },{ b ,c },{ b ,c ,d }, 7. Topological Rough sets w ith tools for data
, then mining
{ a ,b ,c }}
The great advances in information technology have made
the topological rough classes in ( U , ) are it possible to store a great quantity of data. In the late
P( U ) / R  nineties, the capabilities of both generating and collecting
data were increased rapidly. Millions of databases have
{{{a }},{{b },{ c }},{{d }},{{a ,b },{ a ,c }}, been used in business management, government
{{a,d }},{{
b,c }},{{
b,d },{c,d }},{{
a,b,c }},{{
b,c,d }} administration, scientific and engineering data
. management, as well as many other applications. It can be
{{a,b,d },{a,c,d }}} noted that the number of such databases keeps growing
Let X  U such that X  { a ,b,c } , then rapidly because of the availability of powerful database
systems. This explosive growth in data and databases has
 X  { X , ,{ a },{ b ,c }} and the sub-topological generated an urgent need for new techniques and tools that
rough classes are: can intelligently and automatically transform the processed
[ P(U ) / R ] X  {{{a }},{{b,c }},{{b },{c }}, data into useful information and knowledge. One of the
, processes used to transform data into knowledge is
{{a,b },{a,c }}} knowledge discovery in database.
but the relative topological rough classes are Rough sets and topological rough sets constitute a
P( X ) / R X  {{{a }},{{b },{ c }},{{a ,b }, consistency base for data mining; they offers useful tools
, for discovering patterns hidden in data in many aspects.
{ a ,c }},{{b ,c }}} Although rough set approach deals with discrete data,
rough set is commonly used in conjunction with other
then we have P( X ) / R X  [ P( U ) / R ] X , for techniques connected to coded on the dataset.
X  . Data mining technology provides a new thought for
organizing and managing tremendous data. Topological
If X    , say X  {a,c,d }, then ( X , ) is a
* * * *
rough sets are one of the important tools for knowledge
subspace of ( U , ) , such that discovery and rule extraction. This tool can used to
analyze intact data, obtain uncertain knowledge and offer
 *  { X * , ,{ a },{ d },{ c },{ a , d },{ a ,c },{ c ,d }}, an effective tool by reasoning.
then the sub-topological rough classes are: 8. Conclusion
[ P( U ) / R ] X *  {{{a }},{{c }},{{d }},{{a }, We conclude that the emergence of topology in the
construction of some rough set concepts will help to get
{ a,c }},{{a,d }},{{d },{ c,d }}, rich results that yields a lot of logical statements which
{{a ,c }},{{c,d }},{{a,d },{ a,c,d }}}. discover hidden relations between data and moreover,
and the relative topological rough classes are: probably help in producing accurate programs. Also, the
topological rough generalizations of rough sets will help to
P( X * ) / R *  {{{a }},{{c }},{{d }}, define topological rough measures which can used to
,
{{a ,d }},{{a ,c }},{{c ,d }}} finding the attribute missing values in information
systems.
then we have P( X * ) / R*  [ P(U ) / R ] X* .
( U , ) be a topological space. If ( X , X )
Let
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IJCSI International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol. 8, Issue 3, 1RMay 2011
www.IJCSI.org
A Low-complexity Power and Bit Allocation Algorithm for Multiuser
MIMO-OFDM Systems
Ayad Habib1, Khalid El Baamrani2 and Abdellah Ait Ouahman1

1
Team Telecommunication and Computer Networks,
FSSM, University Cadi Ayyad, P.O. Box 2390,
Marrakech, Morocco.
2
Department of Telecommunications, ENSA of Marrakech,
University Cadi Ayyad, P. O. Box 575,
Marrakech, Morocco.
applied. One has to note that this algorithm is of high

Abstract computational complexity and yields one bit optimal
In this paper, we present a low-complexity bit and power solution. Most of the existing algorithms are based on
allocation algorithm for multiuser MIMO-OFDM downlink greedy algorithm and require an iterative procedure for
transmission. In order to minimize the total transmit power under their implementation, which delays obtaining an optimal
the condition that users'QoS requirements are satisfied, a novel
solution and affects the quality of service [2].
resource allocation scheme is proposed to exploit the multiuser
diversity gain. The proposed algorithm involves adaptive
subcarrier allocation, adaptive modulation and eigen In MIMO-OFDM systems, the MIMO channel can be
beamforming and achieves significant improvement in overall decomposed to a parallel scalar eigenmode subchannels by
system performance. Simulation results shows that the proposed singular value decomposition (SVD) without crosstalk
algorithm offers a similar performance and a lower complexity from one scalarchannel to the other. The results have
than previous algorithms. shown that the subcarrier andbit allocation achieved
Keywords: Multiuser MIMO OFDM, SVD, bit and power significant reduction in total transmitpower. Most of the
allocation. existing algorithms only use one ortwo of the largest
eigenmode subchannels to transmit data and neglected the
other spatial subchannels. In fact, more eigen subchannels
1. Introduction can be exploited to transmit data [3,4]. In this paper, a low-
complexity adaptive bit and power allocation algorithm for
With the increasing requirements for high-data-rate
downlink MIMO-OFDM systems is investigated. We
multimedia services, multiple-input multiple-output
assume that the CSI is perfectly knowen at both the
(MIMO) and orthogonal frequency division multiplexing
transmitter and receiver. A group of parallel singular value
(OFDM) techniques have received more and more interest.
subchannels are first generated by singular value
MIMO-OFDM is a very promising technology in future
decomposition (SVD) to the MIMO-OFDM channel. In
wireless communication systems. However, it introduces
order to efficiently utilize the spatial resources, the
new problems relating how to utilize systems spatio-
proposed algorithm extends the data transmission to all the
temporal-spectral and power resources appropriately. With
non-zero spatial subchannels. The rest of this paper is
an efficient dynamic resource allocation scheme high data
organized as follows. Section 2 describes the system model
rate can be provided and different users’ QoS requirement
and definitions. In Section 3, the proposed algorithm is
can be guaranteed [1]. In order to obtain optimal subcarrier
explained and in Section 4 the performance obtained from
power or bit allocations the greedy algorithm is usually
www.IJCSI.org
simulations results is presented. Finally, some conclusions Let H k , n denotes the N r × N t channel matrix of user k
are drawn. on subcarrier n. By SVD, the channel matrix can be
decomposed into
M
2. System Description H k , n=U k ,n Λ k , n V kH, n=∑ u ik , n λik , n (v ik , n )H
i=1 (1)
In this paper, we consider a multiusers MIMO-OFDM
system with K users and N subcarriers. The base station
where (.)H represents the complex conjugate transpose
(BS) has N t transmit antennas and each user has N r
receive antennas. The downlink system diagram is shown of a matrix. U k ,n =[u k1 , n , u 2k ,n ⋯u Nk ,rn ] and
in Fig 1. We assume that the channel state information V k , n=[v 1k ,n , v 2k , n⋯v kN, n ] are the singular vectors,
t
(CSI) is perfectly known to the receiver and the

Λ k , n is the diagonal matrix with singular value of H k , n ,
transmitter, and the channel changes little during the
transmission [5]. and M =rank ( H k ,n ) is the rank of H k , n The stream
At the transmitter, we assume that user k has a data-rate data over subcarrier n is demultiplexed into M substream.
T
requirement of Rk bits per OFDM symbol. In each Let S=[s 1 , s 2 ⋯s M ] denotes the transmitted symbol of
symbol duration a data stream composed of Rk bits is fed M substream. The corresponding transmit power diagonal
into a subcarrier and bit allocation block. The proposed matrix is P=diag( p1 , p2 ⋯ p M ) . By precoding the
algorithm is applied to assign different subcarriers to transmitted symbol vector S with
different users. Then the mapped data stream is load to 1 1 2 M
V k , n=[v k ,n , v k , n⋯v k , n ] , the transmitted signal vector
corresponding subcarriers. Transmit precoding matrix V is
can be written as:
derived from singular value decomposition (SVD) for 1 M
every subcarrier, which changes the spatial channel into a P S=∑ v k , n √ p j s j
1 2 j
X =V k ,n
(2)
series of parallel subchannels with no crosstalk from each j=1
other. After precoding, the data stream is sent to inverse T
r k ,n =[r 1 , r 2 ⋯r ] =H k ,n X +n
Nr (3)
fast-Fourier-transformation (IFFT) module to do OFDM
modulation for every transmit antenna, the cyclic prefix Where n is the complex white Gaussian noise vector with
(CP) is added to every OFDM symbol and then every dimension a variance of σ 2 .
transmitted. At the receiver, by decoding the receive symbol vector
At the receiver, the similar adverse process is taken. r k ,n by (u kj , n) H , we get the received data symbol
on spatial subchannel j.
y j=(u kj ,n ) H r k , n=(u kj ,n ) H (H k , n X +n)
M M
y j=(u kj ,n ) H ( ∑ u kj , n λ kj ,n ( v kj ,n ) H )( ∑ v kj , n √ p j s j)+( u kj , n )H n
j =1 j=1
M
y j=λ kj , n (v kj ,n )H (∑ v kj , n √ p j s j )+( u kj ,n )H n
j=1
j j H
y j=λ k , n √ p j s j+(u k , n) n (4)
With precoding and decoding the transmit symbol vector
respectively by V k , n and U k ,n , we can notice from
equation (4) that the MIMO channel is transformed into M
parallel single-input single-output (SISO) subchannels
without crosstalk when the CSI is perfectly known at the
Figure 1: The system model of downlink multiuser MIMO- transmitter and the receiver.
OFDM.
3. Resource allocation algorithm
In this section a resource allocation algorithm is presented

for downlink multiuser MIMO-OFDM system. To avoid
severe co-channel interference (CCI), we do not allow
www.IJCSI.org
2
more than one user to share the same subcarrier, we ∞ −t
1
i j
assume that p k , n is the required power to transmit b k ,n Q( x)= ∫e 2
dt
bits on ith spatial subchannel over nth subcarrier of user k.
√2 π x
In order to guarantee users QoS requirements, the required
S k ⊂{1,2 , ... , N } denote the set of subcarriers of user k, i
power, to transmit b k ,n bit on the ith spatial subchannel
and BER target is the objective bit error rate, the
over nth subcarrier for user k, is given by [9]
optimization problem can be formulated as: i
i f k (b k ,n )
p k ,n = (8)
(λik , n )2
K N M
i
Minimize P T =∑ ∑ ∑ p ik ,n (5) Let Δ P k ,n denote the additional power needed for
k=1 n=1 i=1 transmitting one additional bit on the ith spatial subchannel
M over nth subcarrier for user k. It is given by
Subject to ∑ pik , n=R k ,n
i=1 i i
i f k (b k , n+1)− f k (b k ,n )
BER k ,n =BERTarget Δ Pik ,n= (9)
S i∩S j=∅ ∀i ≠ j (λik ,n )2
S 1∪S 2∪⋯∪S K ={1,2 , ... , N }
We define the term G k as follows
M =rank ( H k ,n )
When S 1 ... S K are disjoint, the system can be viewed as N M i 2
(λ k ,n )
a single user system on each subcarrier. So, we can G k =∑ ∑ (10)
transform the problem of minimizing the total transmit n =1 i =1 N0
power to a problem of minimizing the power required on
each subcarrier [6], then the optimization problem in (5) To solve the problem of minimization the total transmit
can be rewritten as: power, we present our approach in two steps: the first step
is to allocate the subcarriers to the user that has the largest
M G k . In the second step we assign the bits and power to
Minimize ∑ pik , n (6)
user k over all subcarrier in S k on the subchannel that
i=1
M requires the least additional power.
Subject to ∑ pik , n=R k ,n Let Ne (k ) be the number of subcarriers for user k
i=1
BER ki ,n =BERTarget Ne (k )= floor (N / K ) (11)

S i∩S j=∅ ∀i ≠ j
S 1∪S 2∪⋯∪S K ={1,2 , ... , N } We assume that the data rate Rk , n for user k on
M =rank ( H k ,n ) subcarrier n is constant, so Rk , n can be expressed as
Denote f k ( c) be the required transmit power to transmit

Rk
Rk , n=round ( ) (12)
c bits satisfying target bit error rate ( BER k ) when Ne(k )
channel gain is unity. In the case of M-ary Quadrature Our algorithm is described as follows:
Amplitude Modulation (MQAM), f k (c) can be
represented as [7]
2
f k (c)=
3
Q
[ ( )]
N 0 −1 BER k
4
c
( 2 −1) (7)
N0
where denotes the variance of the Additive White
2
Gaussian Noise (AWGN) and Q( x) is the Q-function
[8].
www.IJCSI.org
4. Performance analysis
The performance of the proposed algorithm is investigated
in this section. In our simulation system, the channel is
modeled as Raleigh fading channel. The bandwidth of the
system is 2.5MHz and the number of transmit data for
each user is Rk =192bits .
The proposed algorithm (PA) is compared with a novel
resource allocation algorithm presented in [9] and dynamic
subcarrier allocation with only the best eigen subchannel
(DSA-BES) [10].
Figure 2 shows the total transmit power versus the number
of users for BER=10 −3 , number of subcarriers
N =256 and N t =N r =4 . It can be seen that the
proposed algorithm gives almost the same results as
Algorithm in [9] and gives better results compared to the
DSA-BES especially when the number of users is large.
Figure 2: Total transmit power versus the number of users

forK = 20,N = 256 N r =N t =4 and BER=10− 3 .
Figure 3 shows the same simulation as Figure 2 except in

this case the number of subcarriers is N =128 . When we
compare the result in the Figure 2 with the result in the
Figure 3, we can see that the total transmit power increases
when the number of subcarriers in the system decreases. It
can also see that proposed algorithm (PA) keeps the same
performances that in Figure 2.
www.IJCSI.org
the number of users for different values of BER.

Simulation results shows that the total transmit power is
decreasing with the increase in the BER value.
Figure 3: Total transmit power versus the number of users for

K = 20, N = 128, N r =N t =4 and BER=10− 3

K = 20,N = 128, N r =N t =4 for different values of BER.
In order to investigates the impact of the number of
antenna, Figure 4 shows the total transmit power versus the
number of users for BER=10− 3 , number of subcarriers
N = 128, the number of receive antenna N r =2 and the
number of transmit antenna N t =4 . the simulation results In order to compare the computational complexity between
demonstrate that the required transmit power for proposed the proposed algorithm and the algorithm in [9], we
algorithm (PA) and the algorithm in [9] is increased when compare the needed CPU times for running each
the number of receive antennas is decreased . the reason is algorithm. Figure 6 shows the CPU times needed for
that the number of exploited spatial subchannels decreases. running each algorithm versus the number of users for
K =20, N =128, N t =N r =4 and BER=10− 3 It can
be seen that our algorithm converge rapidly than the
algorithm in [9] especially when the number of users is
large.

K=20,N=128, N r =2 N t=4 and BER=10− 3

K = 20,N = 128, N r =N t =4 and BER=10− 3 .
Figure 5 shows the total transmit power of the PA versus
www.IJCSI.org
Ayad Habib was born in BeniMellal, Morocco in 1979. He

received his License degree (equiv. B.A.) in computer science
4. Conclusion from the University of Cadi Ayyad, Marrakesh, Morocco, in 2002,
his diplomat in Computer Engineering from Ecole Normale
In this paper, a low complexity algorithm for bit, supperieure, Marrakesh, in 2003 and his D.E.S.A. (equiv. M.A.) in
subcarrier and power allocation for MIMO-OFDM Electrical Engineering from the University of Cadi Ayyad,
Marrakech, Morocco, in 2007, He is currently a Ph.D. Student at
downlink system has been presented. The proposed the same university. His research interests include multiuser
algorithm minimizes the total transmit power under the MIMO-OFDM systems, communication theory and computer
condition that users QoS requirements are satisfied. The networks.
simulation results demonstrate that the proposed algorithm
offers almost the same required transmit power than the Khalid El Baamrani was born in Ouarzazate, Morocco in
1976. He received the PhD degrees in telecommunication
algorithm in [9]. Moreover, the proposed algorithm
Engineering from the University of Cadi Ayyad, Marrakesh,
converge rapidly than the previous algorithms especially Morocco in 2005. He is presently working as an Assistant
when the number of users is large. Professor in the ENSA of Marrakesh, University of Cadi Ayyad,
Marrakesh, Morocco. His research interests include
communication theory, multiuser information theory, OFDM
systems, and MIMO-OFDM systems.
References
[1] YJ Zhang and KB Letaief. (2006) ‘Dynamic multiuser resource Abdellah Ait Ouahman received the doctorate thesis in Signal
allocation and adaptation for wireless ystems’, IEEE Wireless Processing from the University of Grenoble, France, in November
Commun, pp.38-47. 1981. His research was in Signal Processing and
[2] Pan YH, Letaief KB, Cao ZG. (2004) ‘Dynamic resource allocation Telecommunications. Then he received the PhD degree in
with adaptive beamforming for MIMO/OFDM systems under perfect Physics Science from the University of Sciences in Marrakesh ,
and imperfect CSI’, Proceedings of IEEE WCNC, Atlanta, Morocco, in 1992. He is now Professor and responsible of the
GA,USA,pp.93-97. Telecommunications and Computer Science and Networking
. laboratory in the Faculty of Sciences Semlalia in Marrakesh,
Morocco. His research interests include the signal and image
[3] Z. Hu and G. Zhu and Y. Xia and et al. (2004) ‘Multiuser subcarrier processing and coding, telecommunications and networking.
and bit allocation for MIMO-OFDM systems with perfect and partial Actually he is a director of National School of Applied Sciences ,
channel information.’, Proceedings of IEEE WCNC, Atlanta, USA, Marrakesh. He has published several research papers in Journals
pp.1188–1193. and Proceedings.
[4] Nana Leng, Shouyi Yang, Yanhui Lu and Lin Qi (2007) ‘Dynamic
Spatial Subcarrier and Power Allocation for Multiuser MIMO-
OFDM System.’, IEEE Wireless Communications, Networking and
Mobile Computing, 2007.WiCom 2007, Shanghai, Vol. 34, No. 4,
pp.46–58.
[5] Leung, R. and Taubman, D. (2005) ‘Dynamic Spatial Subcarrier and
Power Allocation for Multiuser MIMO-OFDM System.’, IEEE
Transactions on Image Processing, pp.180 – 183.
[6] T. Cover and J. Thomas. (2006) Elements of information theory,2nd

ed.,Wiley.
[7] J. Proakis. (2008) Digital communications, 5th ed., McGraw-Hill.
[8] Y. W. Cheong and R.S Cheng and K.B. Latief and R.D. Murch
(1999) ‘Multiuser OFDM with adaptive subcarrier, bit and power
allocation’, PIEEE J. Select.Areas Commun,Vol. 17 , pp.1747-1758.
[9] Qiaoyun Sun and Hui Tian and Shuang Wang and Kun Dong and
Ping Zhang. (2009) ‘Novel resource allocation algorithms for
multiuser downlink MIMOOFDMA of FuTURE B3G systems’,
Progress in Natural Science, Vol. 19, pp.1141-1146.
[10] C. Y. Wong, C. Y. Tsui and R. S. Cheng, and K. B. Letaief. (1999)

‘A real-time sub-carrier allocation scheme for multiple access
downlink OFDM transmission’, IEEE VTC, Vol. 2, pp.1124–1128.
www.IJCSI.org 602
Cross-Layer Design For Energy-Efficient In

Wireless Underwater Communication: Acoustic Frequency
IDentification Case Study
Ghada ZAIBI1, Nejah NASRI1, Abdennaceur KACHOURI1, Laurent ANDRIEUX2 and Mounir SAMET1
1
National Engineering School of Sfax (ENIS), University of Sfax, Laboratory of Electronics and Information
Technologies (LETI), Tunisia
2
IUT Blagnac, University of Toulouse Mirail II, Laboratory of Technology and Engineering Systems of Toulouse (LATTIS),
France
gathering stage. Also, successful underwater navigation is

Abstract not only crucial for any type of mission, it is also an
Thanks to the recent developments on communication interesting application for multi-vehicle scenarios as each
techniques, micro-technology and on digital electronics, vehicle has the possibility to improve the knowledge about
Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks (UWSNs) are its own position by exchanging information with AFID
being employed in several types of underwater sensors fixed in the bottom of see(figure 1)[4].
applications such as wireless identification named
Acoustic Frequency Identification (AFID)[1][2]. In this
research, we are trying to adapt concepts of wireless
acoustic identification to the difficult underwater
environment with its hard constraints especially absence
of high bandwidth communication (no radio).So, there is a
critical parameter in UWSN making challenge because it
determines how longer sensor nodes and the entire
networks would remain functional. However, in these
types of Networks, node’s battery presents a limited
energy resource and network lifetime is related to the
energy consumption by a node. Thus, in this paper we will
Fig. 1 Typical architecture of AFID sensors [4]
propose some contributions and cross-layer design to
prolong the AFID network lifetime. Unlike traditional wireless networks, UWSN are built to
Keywords: UWSNs, AFID, network lifetime, energy be deployed as an autonomous network without any type
consumption, cross layer. of network administration to control data transmission in
the common acoustic link. Gathered information, by AFID
sensor nodes, are routed through the network to AFID
1. Introduction
reader having more powerful units in terms of, energy,
Acoustic Frequency IDentification sensor networks are acoustic unit range and computational operations. Sink’s
formed by a large number of sensor nodes distributed over job is to collect data from AFID sensor nodes and then
an ocean geographical area named AFID sensor; they are transmit them to the user, and also can serve as gateway
designed to communicate with different underwater for interconnection to other networks like UWSN.
objects (Marine vessels, Submarines, some types of fish, (Figure1).
etc.) and to communicate with the reader through acoustic Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks (UWSNs) research
links [1][2][3]. has predominantly assumed the use of a portable and
These networks could be rapidly deployed and need a very limited energy source, viz. batteries, to power sensors [5].
short period to be established and then to reach data Without energy, an acoustic sensor is essentially useless
www.IJCSI.org 603
and cannot contribute to the utility of the network as a intelligent autonomous sensors are also powerful in
whole. Consequently, substantial research efforts have military, surveillance and security applications as
been spent on designing energy-efficient networking underwater detection and tracking systems [8].
techniques to maximize the lifetime of UWSNs [6]. AFID sensors can be used for ocean surveillance and
However, AFID sensors are required to operate for much underwater security. So, this can be applicable around
longer durations (like years or even decades). This paper ships or in entrances of ports. Also, AFID sensor which
surveys related research and discusses the challenges of act as beacons are fitted to aircraft to allow their location
cross layer designing networking for such AFID networks. in the event of a crash in the sea. To improve the quality of
our lives, researches are concentrating in developing
2. Underwater AFID Architecture AFID networks for many underwater applications and to
achieve the full potential of these networks there are a lot
Underwater AFID node is made up of 3 principal units
of challenges and problems to be confronted.
and a power unit (Figure2) [7]:
-Acoustic sensing unit: consists of hardware devices
responsible for detection of signal from underwater reader 3. Problems Statement For AFID Netw ork
and transmitting data from transponder to the reader. In Establishment
this sensing, an analog to digital converter is required to
convert acoustic signals to digital signals comprehensible 3.1 Challenges for establishing an AFID Network
by the processing unit.
-Processing unit: it consists of a microcontroller unit Underwater wireless communication is characterized by
(MCU) that controls the functionality of other units and high level of noise. So, Man-made and natural noises,
components and it is responsible for data processing. Data animal or environmental (waves, rain), can interfere with
are temporary stored in an integrated memory (RAM). good acoustic signal. To resume, this section describes the
-Communication unit: underwater nodes use acoustic main problems for the establishment of AFID network.
wave. This unit is the first responsible unit for energy - Physical constraints [9][10]:
consumption. • The bandwidth of acoustic communications is
-Power supply: it is a battery in general and it has a relatively low (0 400 KHz).
limited energy resource. The battery is responsible for • Low throughput (less than 50 kbps)
energy supply for all units of the underwater node but it • Absorption phenomenon is the fundamental
limitation of maximal frequency
may be very difficult and sometimes impossible to change
• limited, range-dependent bandwidth
or to recharge it; for this reason, it’s very important to
• time-varying multipath
have strategies for energy conservation.
• low speed of sound (1500 m/s)
• Long propagation delay
Power Generator Processing unit Communication unit
• noise problems
- Energy consumption[10][11]:
Waste of energy is the critical parameter for UWSN
MCU
Battery DC-DC ADC Sensors because of its limited resources in which we cannot profit
from energy solar to recharge battery.
Memory
Energy efficient communication is a key requirement of
Power Supply energy-constrained underwater sensor networks
Subsystem Acoustic link
(UWSNs). In this paper, we present a solution which is
conventionally used to improve reliability in AFID
Fig. 2 Typical underwater transponder architecture networks, it can be employed to reduce energy
consumption and preserve a reasonable level of data
To perform some specific applications transponders nodes
reliability.
could be equipped with read write memory or a power
generator. These additional units make the node bigger
3.2 Waste of energy factors
and more expensive.
AFID sensor networks can be more and more deployed in Although energy is necessary for unit’s function’s and it is
a wide variety of underwater applications for gathering needed for reception or transmission of acoustic signal or
information in order to develop wireless underwater energy required for microcontroller to store data there are
identification and control. These AFID networks with also other sources of energy waste in UWSN.
www.IJCSI.org 604
In physical layer waste of energy is due to the bad choice 4. Contributions For Saving Energy In AFID
of physical parameters such as optimal frequency [12][13]. Networks
So, as it is shown in figure 3, saving energy is based on
the finding of optimal frequency for underwater Underwater Network lifetime is the important criteria
communication. when evaluating AFID Network and as we know it
depends on the energy consumption of the node unit’s.
This is related to minimize and optimize energy
dissipation in every node of the network. Our approach is
based on the cross-layering design in which MAC and
physical layers should be investigated together.
Figure 4 shows the major levels of energy saving for
UWSN [4].
Energy conservation levels
Hardware Software level OSI model

level
Fig. 3 Transmission losses versus frequency
This curve confirms that the transmission losses increase -Battery -Operating system Higher layers
-Processors
with frequency and distance between readers and - Security data
-Converters
transponders. -Filters - Aggregation data
Also, in UWSNs, one of the main factors which cause low - Compression data
event reliability and energy consumption is the techniques
Network layer
of access to the medium [14][15]. So, current UWSNs
protocol designs are largely based on a MAC layer - - Handling of routing tables
approach. Thus, MAC issues are designed and operated
Data Link layer
independently. We will focus on energy aware MAC
(Media Access Control) layer protocols for wireless - Using of sleep/active period
underwater networks. - Resolve collisions
- Minimizing retransmissions
The most important sources of energy consumption in the
-Detection and correction of errors
MAC layer are [15][16][17]:
- Idle listening: a node does not know exactly when it Physical layer
will receive information from other nodes; it should be
ready for reception by listening to the underwater channel. - Choice of modulation types
Lost information has to be retransmitted. - Types of wave and amplification
- Overhearing: when a sensor node is listening to the Fig. 4 Level of Optimization energy [4]
radio channel it can receive parquets that does not belong
to it. Energy is wasted for reception and processing. As illustrated in figure 4, there are many levels to reduce
- Overmitting: when a node transmit a message to energy consumption. However, in hardware and software
another node that it is not ready for reception this message levels, energy consumption is very limited and continued
will be lost. to decrease with the progress of microelectronics. For this
- Collisions: they are the first cause of waste of energy reason, a careful design of all layers of OSI model is
and happened when two nodes transmit at the same time. required.
In fact, the retransmission of data demands energy. For underwater wireless communication systems energy
- Overhead: we don’t transmit only user’s data in the consumption is linked to the characteristics of
radio link but also many kinds of data necessary for the communication media. Several studies have been
control of communication and for network management. developed in this field in order to reduce energy
These overhead must be relatively shorter than user’s data consumption. They showed that the physical layer and
to not affect the throughput. MAC layer represent the relevant sources of energy
consumption.
In the physical layer we must make a critical choice of
module. So, the energy consumption in underwater
www.IJCSI.org 605
acoustic networks is due especially to the bad choice of TABLE 1:

BANDWIDTH DEPENDING ON RANGES
signal frequency. In the MAC layer saving energy
ranges(Km) Bandwidth Attenuation
essentially amounts to the choice of access methods to (KHz) (dB)
minimize the numbers of retransmissions. 5 à 10 5 à 10 <88
In this work, cross-layer optimization strategies consist on 1à5 10 -25 <78
determining the optimal way to combine the most 0.1 à 1 25-100 <61
promising solution in physical and MAC layer to obtain ≤0.1 ≤100 <41
the most efficient network solution.
To minimize transmission losses and subsequently energy
4.1 Physical layer solution consumption we choose to use low frequency for long
range.
In this subsection, we discuss the relationship between
According to heavy surveys that establish reliable
transmission distance and bandwidth. Also, we introduce
underwater communication systems need to take into
the frequency allocation methodology that we will
account optimal design parameters that must be
optimize energy consumption. The underwater attenuation
guaranteed. Among these parameters we find the carrier
level is given by the expression [18]:
A(r, f)  20  log(r)  a(f)  r frequency, the power required, the operational range
(1)
and the desired Signal noise ration SNR.
With r is the distance between emitter and receiver, f is the So, optimizing underwater communication is essential to
central frequency and a(f) is the absorption coefficient evaluate its performance in terms of signal to noise ratio
proposed by Wong[18]: (SNR).Wireless underwater communication efficiency
 7,858 .10  2 1,481 .10  4  (2) (measured in terms of SNR) improves dramatically when
a f   f 2  2,692 .10 13  2  2 
 f  1,226 .10 10
f 6 
 1,522 .10  operating near the optimal frequency.

From these equations we note that the attenuation is Using the expressions of the attenuation A(r,f) and power
directly proportional to the distance between the spectral density(PSD) of noise N(f), we purpose to
transmitter and receiver. Also, we note that attenuation evaluate the optimal frequency that yields the best signal
varies with frequency. As a result of simulation figure 5 to noise ratio(SNR) when it emits a signal power P.
present the gain of signal for different distances versus The SNR (r, f) can be expressed by [19]:
P
frequency. From these curves, the effective bandwidth is SNR(r, f) =
A(r, f)  N(f)  Δf (3)
generally estimated as the width of the receiver's channel
pass band between the 3dB points above and below its ∆f is the noise bandwidth of the receiver (a narrow band
center frequency of operation. around the frequency f). The product A(f,r).N(f)
0
Gain(dB) represents the frequency dependent part in the expression
of the SNR.
-50
Figure 6 illustrates the variation of factor 1 / A (r, f) N (f)
-100
versus frequency at different distances.
-150
r=10Km For each transmission distance, it exists an optimal
-200
r=5Km frequency f0 in which a maximum SNR is achieved [20].
Gain(dB)
Figure 6 and table 2 shows the optimal frequency as a

-250
r=1Km
-300
r=0.1Km function of distance for which we have the maximum ratio
-350
of relative SNR.
-400
-450
-500
3 4 5
10 10 10
Frequency (Hz)
fréquence(Hz)
Fig. 5 Gain (dB) for different ranges depending on the frequency
Table 1 summarizes the bandwidth (-3dB) in the wireless

transmission for various underwater range.
www.IJCSI.org 606
TABLE 4:
1Km COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE MAIN PROTOCOLS USED FOR UNDERWATER
-90
COMMUNICATION
-100 Types Reservation Contention Hybrid
5Km Protocols TDMA FDMA CDMA CSMA/CA SMAC
-110
-120
10Km
1/A(f)N(f)
complexity of × × ×
-130
implementation
-140 Flexibility to the × × ×
20Km
number of nodes
-150 Energy × ×
-160
Efficiency
High data rate × × ×
-170
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Fréquence(Hz)
Frequency (Hz)
4
x 10 The reservation based Mac protocols are characterized by
Fig. 6 Relative SNR versus frequencies and distances a low level of energy consumption by reducing the
TABLE 2:
numbers of retransmissions due the message collisions. In
OPTIMAL FREQUENCY VERSUS DISTANCES other hand reservation MAC protocol are not flexible for
Distances (Km) Optimal frequency (KHz) the add or suppression of node. Also, deployment of the
1 25 network is more complex. Contention MAC protocols are
5 10
10 8
suitable for dense network, an acceptable level of
20 5 complexity and they are flexible for different topology.
But, these protocols are characterized by high level of
The modeling and simulation work realized aim to specify energy consumption [27] [28] [29].
physical parameters needed to get wireless underwater Finally, hybrid protocols combine the advantages of
communication characterized by low level of energy contention and reservation of protocols. So, these types of
consumptions. The simulation results obtained are protocols are characterized by a low level of complexity,
consistent to results obtained by the IEEE Oceanic energy efficiency and flexibility to the number of nodes
[21] [22](table 3). [30][31].
TABLE 3: Based on this comparison we notice that, a SMAC
COMPARISON OF RESULTS protocol is promising solution for AFID network. SMAC
IEEE’10[22] IEEE’00[21] Our results
Range (Km) 5
is a slotted energy-efficient medium-access control (MAC)
Attenuation (dB) 78 -- 78 protocol designed to reduce energy consumption in
Bandwidth (KHz) ≤9 -- ≤10 wireless sensor networks. This protocol intends to make
Optimal ~9 -- ~10 the consumption of the limited energy resources of the
frequency (KHz)
Network topology -- Multi-hop Multi-hop
battery more efficient by using three principal techniques:
periodic listen and sleep, collision and overhearing
avoidance and message passing.
4.2 MAC protocol solution
4.3 Modified SMAC
The major challenge for the development of underwater
wireless network is to find a MAC protocol that can To minimizing complexity of implementation and since
support the constraint of underwater environment. MAC the AFID network is a centralized topology it’s not
protocol for UWSN should find compromise between necessary to use packet of synchronization. The modified
three major factors: latency, energy-efficiency and auto- SMAC is characterized by a low complexity of
configuration. After a heavy bibliographic study we notice implementation. Modified S-MAC is a new version of the
the presence of 3 types of protocols used underwater original S-MAC. This protocol is based on the same
communication. The table 4 shows a comparison between approach for energy conservation; the only difference is
the most of them [23][24][25][26]. that it is not necessary to use mechanism of
synchronization between nodes. This approach reduces
latency caused by synchronization algorithm. Figure 5
describes the principal of modified SMAC
implementation.
www.IJCSI.org 607
Turn on the documentation and because it contains libraries to

radio system
generate different functions (topology, traffic routing
MAC…), graphical tools to facilitate interpretation
Wait the
Listen to the active (Xgraph) and visualization (Networtk animators) results.
channel period
The goal now is to evaluate the behavior of MAC
YES protocols based on throughput and energy consumption
Channel
YE
S Listen Data
YES
Build Channel
metrics. We present a simulation of a star topology with
is Idle? RTS/CTS Strung? RTS is Idle?
different types of protocols’ hybrid (Modified SMAC),
NO NO YES reservation (TDMA) and contention (CSMA/CA). We
Wait for the Transmit consider the total energy consumed by the entire network
Wait the
active
period
active period RTS
as a performance metric for AFID network.
Figure 7 shows the centralized topology of AFID network
Turn OFF
the radio
implemented in NS2.
system
NO
Retransmit Received
RTS CTS?
YES
YES
Received Data
CTS? transmit
NO
Turn OFF the radio

system and retry again
NO Received
Failed retry later
ACK? Fig. 7. Scenario of simulation
YES
Turn OFF
the radio
system CSMA/C
Fig. 5 Implementation of modified SMAC TDMA
By this way, AFID nodes are able to immediately pass the Modified
SMAC
data to the readers without synchronization. When the
node does not receive anything (RTS or CTS packet)
during the listening time, it will go back to sleep until it’s
next scheduled listen period. Fig. 8. Energy consumption versus simulation time for the
three protocols, TDMA, CSMA / CA and modified SMAC
5. Simulations Result’s
Simulators represent a good solution for economizing time CSMA/CA
and money before the establishment of a communication TDMA
network. Thus, simulators prove result’s punctuality but

this differs from one to another simulator but it is not so
easy to make a choice when there is a multitude of
simulators. In fact, all depends to the particularity of each Modified SMAC
application that scientist make their one choice. Many

studies have been trying to do a comparative study
between most important simulators (J-SIM, NS-2, Fig. 9. Date Rate of: Modified SMAC, CSMA / CA and TDMA
OPNET, GloMoSim, ATEMU, etc.) in order to determine
what are simulating tools which make possible testing and
evaluation of new communication protocol before its
deployment.
For our application we use NS2 simulators for a reasons of
www.IJCSI.org 608
[5] M. Stojanovic, "Recent advances in high-speed underwater acoustic

communications," IEEE Journal of Oceanic Engineering, vol. 21,
no. 2, pp. 125-136, 1996.
[6] D. B. Kilfoyle and A. B. Baggeroer, "The state of the art in
underwater acoustic telemetry," IEEE Journal of Oceanic
Engineering, vol. 25, no. 1, pp. 4-27, 2000.
[7] B. Benson, Y. Li, R. Kastner.Design of a Low-Cost, Underwater
Acoustic Modem for Short-Range Sensor Networks. California
Institute for Telecommunications and Information Technology,
UCSD La Jolla, CA 92093.2010.
[8] D.B.Kilfoyle and A.B.Baggeroer. The state of the art in underwater
acoustic telemetry. IEEE J. Oceanic Eng., 25(1):4–27, Jan. 2000.
[9] National Research Council. 2003. Ocean Noise and Marine
Fig. 10. Energy consumption for different traffic
Mammals. The National Academies Press, Washington,
Figure 8 shows that energy consumption increase linearly D.C.
[10] M. Stojanovic, “Acoustic (underwater) communications,” in
with simulation time for three protocols in question Encyclopedia of Telecommunications, J. G. Proakis, Ed. John
(TDMA, CSMA/CA and modified SMAC). The result of Wiley and Sons, 2003.
simulation justify the benefits of using hybrid modified [11] G.Zaibi, N.Nejah, A.Kachouri and M.Samet. Survey Of
Temperature Variation Effect On Underwater Acoustic Wireless
SMAC in terms of energy consumption. Transmission. ICGST-CNIR Journal, Volume 9, Issue 2, December
Figure 9 shows that TDMA and CSMA/CA are 2009.
characterized by high date rate compared to modified [12] N.Nejah, A.Kachouri, L.Andrieux, and M. Samet.
SMAC. So we can notice that modified SMAC is more Modulation/Demodulation Techniques With FPGA’s Architecture
to improve OFDM Wireless Underwater Communication
suitable for low data rate this is the case of AFID network. Transceiver. IEEE SCS conference 2006.
From figure 10 we see that depending on the traffic load [13] N.Nejah, A.Kachouri, L.Andrieux, and M. Samet .Efficient
flowing through the network, the modified SMAC has the Encoding And Decoding Schemes For Wireless Underwater
Communication Systems.
best performance in terms of energy consumption. This [14] S. Shahabudeen and M. Chitre, "Design of networking protocols for
low energy consumption due to the fact that this protocol shallow water peer-to-peer acoustic networks," in Proceedings of
mix characteristics of both TDMA and CSMA/CA IEEE Oceans'05 Europe, Brest, France, 2005.
[15] "ISO 7498: Open Systems Interconnection - Basic Reference
(reservation and contention) while exploiting the Model,"1984.
advantages offered by each of them. [16] S. Shakkottai, T. S. Rappaport, and P. C. Karlsson, “Cross-layer
design for wireless networks,” IEEE Communications Magazine,
vol. 41, no. 10, pp. 74–80, 2003.
6. Conclusion [17] Volkan Rodoplu and Min Kyoung Park. An energy-efficient mac
protocol for underwater wireless acoustic networks. In Proceedings
of the IEEE/MTS OCEANS Conference, Washington DC, USA,
We addressed the problem of power-efficient September 2005.
communication in underwater channel with objective of [18] L.Berkhovskikh and Y.Lysanov, Fundamentals of Ocean Acoustics
optimizing energy consumption in physical and MAC ” New York: Springer, 1982.
layers. Work in physical layer is oriented towards the [19] H.M.Kwon and T.Birdsal, ‘Channel capacity in bits per Joule,”
IEEE J.Oceanic Eng., vol.11, No.1, pp.97-99, Jan. 1986.
study of different physical characteristics of the [20] Curt Schurgers, Vlasios Tsiatsis, Saurabh Ganeriwal, and Mani
underwater channel and AFID system. The level data link Srivastava. Optimizing sensor networks in the energy-latency-
work is oriented to present efficient density space. IEEE Transactions on Mobile Computing, 1(1):70–
communication protocols for AFID Networks. 80, 2002.
[21] E. M. Sozer, M. Stojanovic, J. G. Proakis, “Underwater Acoustic
Networks”, Life Fellow, IEEE Journal of Oceanic Engineering, vol.
References 25, N° 1, January 2000.
[1] M.Stojanovic. Department of Electrical and Computer Education – [22] J. Zhang and Y. R. Zheng .Bandwidth-Efficient Frequency-Domain
Northeastern University. Underwater Acoustic Communication. Equalization for MIMO Underwater Acoustic Communications.
Wiley Encyclopedia of Electrical and Electronics Engineering. MTS/IEEE OCEANS, Sydney, Australia, May 24-27, 2010.
[2] Milica Stojanovic, Underwater Wireless Communications: Current [23] M.Ali, U.Saif, A.Dunkels, T.Voigt, K.Römer, K.Langendoen,
Achievements and Research Challenges. Massachussetts Institute J.Polastre, and Z.A.Uzmi. Medium access control issues in sensor
of Technology Sea Grant Program. www.ieee.org/ networks. SIGCOMM Comput. Commun. Rev., 36(2):33–36, Apr.
organizations/pubs/newsletters/oel/html/springg06/underwater.html. 2006.
2006. [24] Wei Ye, John Heidemann, and Deborah Estrin. Medium access
[3] A. B. Baggeroer, "Acoustic telemetry - An overview," IEEE Journal control with coordinated adaptive sleeping for wireless sensor
of Oceanic Engineering, vol. 9, pp. 229-235, 1984. networks. ACM/IEEE Transactions on Networking, 12(3):493–506,
[4] N.NASRI.etude electronique et protocolaire des modules RFID June 2004.
dediés aune communication en milieu aquatique.thesis dec 2010. [25] A.Kebkal, K.Kebkal, and M.Komar. Data-link protocol for
www.lattis.univtoulouse.fr/uploaded/files/.../theses/nejah_these.pdf underwater acoustic networks. In Proc. IEEE Oceans Europe 2005,
pages 1174–1180, 2005.
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[26] K.Foo, P.Atkins, T.Collins, C.Morley, and J.Davies. A routing and

channel-access approach for an ad hoc underwater acoustic
network. In Proc. IEEE Oceans 2004, volume 2, pages 789–795,
Nov. 2004.
[27] F.Salvá-Garau and M.Stojanovic. Multi-Cluster Protocol for Ad
Hoc Mobile Underwater Acoustic Networks. In Proc. IEEE
OCEANS’03 Conf., Sept. 2003.
[28] H.Doukkali and L.Nuaymi. Analysis of MAC protocols for
Underwater Acoustic Data Networks. In Proc. IEEE Vehicular
Tech. Conf., May 2005.
[29] M.K.Park and V.Rodoplu. UWAN-MAC: An Energy-Efficient
MAC Protocol for Underwater Acoustic Wireless Sensor Networks.
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[30] F.Salva-Garau and M.Stojanovic. Multi-Cluster Protocol for Ad
Hoc Mobile Underwater Acoustic Networks. In Proc. IEEE
OCEANS’03 Conf., Sept. 2003.
[31] N.Nejah, A.Kachouri, L.Andrieux, and M. Samet. Surveys of
Design Considerations for Underwater NetworksInternational.
Journal on Information and Communication Technologies, Vol. 3,
No. 1, February 2010.
Nejah NASRI was born in Menzel Bouzaienne in 1980.He is

Doctor -engineer. Received the degree in Electric Engineering in
2004 and the M.Sc. degrees in Electronics and communication in
2006 and the Ph.D degree in 2010 from Toulouse University and
Sfax University. From 2004 to 2010, he was a Graduate Student
Researcher with the LETI Lab and LATTIS Lab. Since august
2010, he has been an assistant professor at Higher Institute of
Electronics and communication of SFAX University, Tunisia. His
current research focuses on Software engineering, modeling and
simulation, wireless communication, Sensor networks, adaptive
arrays and microwave circuits design.
Abdennaceur KACHOURI was born in Sfax, Tunisia, in 1954. He
received the engineering diploma from National school of
Engineering of Sfax in 1981, a Master degree in Measurement and
Instrumentation from National school of Bordeaux (ENSERB) of
France in 1981, a Doctorate in Measurement and Instrumentation
from ENSERB, in 1983. He “works” on several cooperation with
communication research groups in Tunisia and France. Currently,
he is Permanent Professor at ENIS School of Engineering and
member in the “LETI” Laboratory ENIS Sfax.
Mounir SAMET was born in Sfax, Tunisia in 1955. He obtained an
Engineering Diploma from National school of Engineering of Sfax
in 1981, a Master degree in Measurement and Instrumentation
from National school of Bordeaux (ENSERB) of France in 1981, a
Doctorate in Measurement and Instrumentation from ENSERB, in
1981 and the Habilitation Degree (Post Doctorate degree) in 1998.
He “works” on several cooperation with medical research groups in
Tunisia and France. Currently, he is Permanent Professor at ENIS
School of Engineering and member in the “LETI” Laboratory ENIS
Sfax.
Laurent ANDRIEUX received the Ph.D. degree in electrical
engineering from the University Paul Sabatier of Toulouse, France,
in 1995. His thesis was devoted to high power GaAs
heterojunction bipolar transistor in S band for mobile
telecommunications. Since 1996, he has been an Associate
Professor in the Telecommunications and Networks Department of
the Technology University Institute of Blagnac. He is currently
working in LATTIS laboratory of Toulouse. His research interests
include the modelisation and synthesis of global CDMA spread
spectrum systems in noisy environments. He specially focuses his
works on the development of the ASIC, FPGA and Radio
Frequency stages of a demonstration model for wireless indoor
communications. He now investigates wireless underwater
IJCSI CALL FOR PAPERS SEPTEMBER 2011 ISSUE
Volume 8, Issue 5
The topics suggested by this issue can be discussed in term of concepts, surveys, state of the
art, research, standards, implementations, running experiments, applications, and industrial
case studies. Authors are invited to submit complete unpublished papers, which are not under
review in any other conference or journal in the following, but not limited to, topic areas.
See authors guide for manuscript preparation and submission guidelines.
Accepted papers will be published online and indexed by Google Scholar, Cornell’s
University Library, DBLP, ScientificCommons, CiteSeerX, Bielefeld Academic Search
Engine (BASE), SCIRUS, EBSCO, ProQuest and more.
Deadline: 31st July 2011

Notification: 31st August 2011
Revision: 10th September 2011
Online Publication: 30th September 2011
 Evolutionary computation  Software development and

 Industrial systems deployment
 Evolutionary computation  Knowledge virtualization
 Autonomic and autonomous systems  Systems and networks on the chip
 Bio-technologies  Context-aware systems
 Knowledge data systems  Networking technologies
 Mobile and distance education  Security in network, systems, and
 Intelligent techniques, logics, and applications
systems  Knowledge for global defense
 Knowledge processing  Information Systems [IS]
 Information technologies  IPv6 Today - Technology and
 Internet and web technologies deployment
 Digital information processing  Modeling
 Cognitive science and knowledge  Optimization
agent-based systems  Complexity
 Mobility and multimedia systems  Natural Language Processing
 Systems performance  Speech Synthesis
 Networking and telecommunications  Data Mining
For more topics, please see http://www.ijcsi.org/call-for-papers.php
All submitted papers will be judged based on their quality by the technical committee and
reviewers. Papers that describe on-going research and experimentation are encouraged.
All paper submissions will be handled electronically and detailed instructions on submission
procedure are available on IJCSI website (www.IJCSI.org).
For more information, please visit the journal website (www.IJCSI.org)

© IJCSI PUBLICATION 2011
www.IJCSI.org

IJCSI

The International Journal of Computer Science Issues (IJCSI) is a well‐established and notable venue

for publishing high quality research papers as recognized by various universities and international
professional bodies. IJCSI is a refereed open access international journal for publishing scientific
papers in all areas of computer science research. The purpose of establishing IJCSI is to provide
assistance in the development of science, fast operative publication and storage of materials and
results of scientific researches and representation of the scientific conception of the society.

It also provides a venue for researchers, students and professionals to submit ongoing research and
developments in these areas. Authors are encouraged to contribute to the journal by submitting
articles that illustrate new research results, projects, surveying works and industrial experiences that
describe significant advances in field of computer science.
Indexing of IJCSI
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3. CiteSeerX
4. SCIRUS
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6. Scribd
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10. DBLP
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Volume 8, Issue 3, No 2, May 2011

© IJCSI PUBLICATION 2011

Dr. Borislav D Dimitrov

Dr. Vishal Goyal

Mr. Nehinbe Joshua

Mr. Vassilis Papataxiarhis

Considering the growing interest of academics worldwide to publish in IJCSI, we invite

IJCSI Editorial Board

Dr Lamia Fourati Chaari

Dr Karim Mohammed Rezaul

Dr Deepak Laxmi Narasimha

Dr. Prabhat K. Mahanti

Dr Saqib Rasool Chaudhry

Dr. Seema Verma

2. Fundamentals for the Automation of Object-Relational Database Design 9-22

3. Algorithm for Reducing Overhead of Message Purging in Large-Scale Sender-Based 23-29

4. Towards Representation and Validation of Knowledge in Students Learning 30-35

6. Efficient Application-Level Causal Multicasting for Pre-Planned Sensor Networks 45-52

10. Hybrid Algorithm for Multiprocessor Task Scheduling 79-89

11. Neural Networks as Improving Tools for Agent Behavior 90-95

13. Chain-Chain Based Routing Protocol 105-112

17. A New Data Imputing Algorithm 133-139

24. Semantic understanding of Image content 191-195

27. SPC for Software Reliability-Imperfect Software Debugging Model 219-224

33. Design of Arabic Diacritical Marks 262-271

36. Adaptive Multi-model Biometric Fusion for Digital Watermarking 282-289

39. A Review of Packet Reservation Multiple Access 303-312

40. Rule based Word Morphology Generation Framework 313-318

41. E-government Frameworks Survey 319-323

43. An Insight to Build an E-Commerce Website with OSCommerce 332-343

44. Channel Estimation using Adaptive Filtering for LTE-Advanced 344-352

48. ECC over RSA for Asymmetric Encryption-A Review 370-375

51. Energy Efficient Clear Channel Assessment for LR-WPAN 387-393

56. An Efficient Paging Algorithm for Multi-Carrier CDMA System 421-426

60. Hybrid Web Services Ranking Algorithm 452-460

62. Survey of propagation Model in wireless Network 468-472

63. A Recent Survey on Knowledge Discovery in Spatial Data Mining 473-479

65. Surface Plasmon Waves on noble metals at Optical Wavelengths 485-490

70. Issues Challenges and Tools of Clustering Algorithms 523-528

71. Enhanced of color matching algorithm for image retrieval 529-532

76. Contrast of Watermarking Techniques in different domains 559-563

78. Minimization of Handoff Latency by Vector Analysis Method 570-576

80. User Experience-UX-and the Web Accessibility Standards 584-587

83. Cross-Layer Design For Energy-Efficient In Wireless Underwater 602-609

HYBRED: An OCR Document Representation for Classification

the same problems by evaluating OCR documents using

• Lemmatization: lemmatization consists in associating

linguistically determined (examples of border:

Step (c): Representation w ith the N-grams of

4.3 Summary NV (Noun Verb) combination followed by a 4-grams of

In general, improvements have been obtained by applying References

[8] G. Salton and C. Buckley: Term-weighting approaches in

Sami Laroum is a Ph.D. student at the University of Angers,

Fundamentals for the Automation of

Object-Relational Database Design

Abstract Designer4 [8], DatabaseSpy [3], among others, which

instead of one based on SQL:2003 standard. Grissa-