MODULE – II

Spread of flames in solids and liquids, linear and three dimensional fire propagation; Smoke –
constituents of smoke, quantity and rate of production of smoke, quality of smoke, smoke
density, visibility in smoke, principles of spreading quantity of smoke, smoke movement;
Pressurization modeling of smoke movement; Toxicity of smoke- effect of harmful agents
preventing escape and causing injury or death - CO, CO2, Nitrogen oxide, Sulphur dioxide.

References

1. Ron Hirst, “Underdowns Practical Fire Precautions”, Gower Publishing Company Ltd.,
England, 1989.
2. Jain V.K., “Fire Safety in Buildings”, New Age International (P) Ltd., New Delhi, 1996

SPREAD OF FLMAE ON LIQUID

For a pool of liquid at a temperature just above its fire points, if an ignition source is introduced
it will burn as premixed flame. The flame will spread through out the combustible mixture which
is formed close to the surface. Sustained burning will then be established over the whole pool as
a diffusion flame.

The higher is the temperature of the liquid (above fire point), the higher is the rate of spread of
premixed flame. The rate of spread of fire will reach maximum at a temperature at which vapor
pressure corresponds to a stoichiometric vapor/ air mixture. The flame spread may reach up to
five items the fundamental burning velocity. [Velocity at which flame propagates into the
unburned mixture – characteristics of a particular mixture]

- If liquid is at a temperature below its flash point, it is difficult to ignite it.

- Ignition can be achieved only by a prolonged application of a flame on the surface. The
rate of spread of such diffusion flame will be comparatively slow.
- When the liquid beneath the flame is heated (to boiling point), its surface tension reduces
– leading to the spreading of hot layer away from flame over to cooler surface layer. So,
the surface temperature around the flame(about 10cm wide) will be between flash and
fire point – premixed flame occurs ( Bluish colour - flame – pulsating over the zone for a
time until temperature reaches fire point)

SPREAD OF FLAME ON SOLIDS

- To have sustained diffusion flame above a solid fuel, its surface temperature must be
raised to the fire point.
 - For flame to spread over the surface of the fuel, un-burnt materials adjacent to the flame
must also be raised to this temperature. The rate of spread depends on different factors.

Factors Affecting Rate of Spread of Diffusion Flame

(On Solid Surface and to Same Extent on Liquid Surface)

a. Physical and chemical properties

- The surface layers adjacent to flame receive heat by radiation.
- Time taken to reach the surface to fire point depends on absorptivity, thermal
conductivity, specific heat and density of material.
- Low density and low thermal conductivity will increase the ease of ignition
(ex: burning of foam plastic)

b. Thickness
- Higher the surface to volume ratio, rate of fire spread is more.
- Thin section of fuel get heated up rapidly by radiation
- As thickness increases, rate of spread reduces till a critical size, the rate of spread remains
constant.

c. Orientation

The most rapid flame spread over a solid surface is obtained when the surface is vertical and
the flame spread upwards.
- Enhanced heat transfer from the flame occurs, which is very close to the surface.
- The flame becomes very long since it is receiving air from one side only and also the
pyrolysis zone is longer.
- Burning rate can be about 3 times more than the rate of horizontal spread and also 50
times than the spread of a flame in the downward direction.
- Rate of vertical spread increases exponentially with time. [time required for the flame
height to double remains constant]

d. Geometry
- As the width of surface increases, there is an increase in the rate of flame moving in the
upward direction [Due to the increased area of burning].
- Flame will spread more rapidly along an edge or at a corner than on the surface for a
vertical surface and for a flame moving upwards, more than one faces are heated up.
- For vertical surface with flame moving downwards, geometry has no influence.
 e. Temperature
- If unburned fuel is per-heated, flame spread will be enhanced because it requires less
time to heat the surface layers to the fire point.
(Ex: flashover in a compartment)

f. Air flow and oxygen concentration

- Flow of air over a surface in the direction of burning causes an increase in the rate of
spread. [flame bends over towards the surface - efficient combustion]
- If flow of air is more, the flame will be blown off
- Increased O2 content increases the temperature of the flame – enhances the heat transfer.

PROPAGATION OF FIRE

Linear Fire Propagation

In Linear fire propagation, flame travels across the surface of combustible materials in a given
direction at a given velocity and in a given place.

Eg: flame traveling over a liquid, across the ceiling, or up a wall

The area of combustion depends on the velocity and direction of the flame propagation from its
centre. If the fire propagates with the same velocity in all direction, the combustion area will be a
circle. Depending on the geometrical shape of the combustion area, propagation of fire can be
called as circular, angular, ellipsoidal and unidirectional.

The parameters that are important in the linear fire propagation are:

- The linear velocity of flame and

- The rate of growth of flame (expressed in area / unit time)
In practice, the average value of the linear velocity is considered as the primary parameter.

Average linear velocity, v= (rate of change of distance with respect to time)

The linear velocity of fire propagation depends on several factors such as velocity of air in the
burning premises, type of combustible materials, surface conditions, temperature, orientation,
size, etc. however, in general, it can be stated that, for a particular substance in a particular form,
the linear velocity of fire propagation is more or less constant.
 Type of Material Linear Velocity of Fire
Highly inflammable liquid 25 to 30 m/min
Hidden space in wooden structures 2 m/min
Wooden roof 1 m/min
Combustible solids 1 m/min

Even if the linear velocity of fire is 1 m/min, the fire can spread over an area of about 300m 2
within 10 minutes (minimum time for the fire brigade to arrive).

THREE DIMENSIONAL FIRE PROPAGATION

In three dimensional fire propagation or distributed propagation, new fire centers are formed at
different distance from the original fire centre within the premises or in the surrounding space.

Three dimensional fire propagation is possible within a compartment, between two

compartments within a building and between buildings.

Within a compartment, due to linear propagation of fire, hot combustion product will be formed.
These hot gases and flame radiates heat energy to the combustible materials and new fire centers
will be formed away from the area of fire due to linear propagation.

So, three dimensional fire spread can be faster than the linear fire spread. So, it is important to
control the three dimensional fire spread. This can be controlled with in a compartment by
limiting the fire area as well as by limiting the floor area occupied by the combustible materials.

By experiments, it has been established that, during a fire, about 50% of the total heat of the fire
is carried away with the product of combustion, causing formation of new fire centers in adjacent
compartment/ premises.

This mode of fire spread is very critical if there are hollow spaces (air conditioning ducts/space
between wooden ceilings/false ceiling, etc). The product of combustion can travel at a speed of
10 to 15 m/s.

Openings in exterior walls, within the compartment, etc will cause the fire spread in three
dimensional fire mode.

Fire spreads between buildings through primarily by radiation is also a three dimensional fire
mode of fire spread.

Convective current of products of combustions, air born spark and brands flying etc. may cause
three dimensional fire spread.
SMOKE

Most of the materials involved in a fire are capable of burning completely to form gases
products, mainly CO2 and water vapour.

However, this is rarely achieved in diffusion flame unless it is very small.

The flame in the fire is generally open at the top and emits smoke.

Smoke is a mixture of hot gases, small droplets of liquid (0.001 mm diameter) and solid carbon
particles.

- The density and toxicity of smoke depends on the nature of material

- The total quantity of smoke generated depends on the size of fire and prevalent
atmospheric condition
- Large quantity of air is entrained in to the smoke during its production.
- Out of the total volume of smoke generated, the quantity of toxic and hot gases and
vapour is very less compound to the volume of air entrained in to the smoke.

The rate of air entrainment in smoke depends on the

- perimeter of the fire [increases as perimeter increases]

- Heat produced by the fire [increases as perimeter increases]
- Effective height of the column of hot gases
above the fire (in a compartment fire) [decreases as effective height of column
of hot gases decreases]

Fig. : Production of Smoke in a Fire

RATES OF PRODUCTION OF SMOKE

The air entrained with smoke just above the fire will get heated and mixed with the hot smoky
product of combustion and form a large inseparable component of the smoke.

Compared with the total volume of air entrained, the volume of fire gas is relatively small and
hence, it can be said that, the rate of production of smoke by fire is approximately the rate at
which air is entrained in the rising column of hot gases and flames.

The mass of gas entrained by a fire can be estimated by the relation

M = 0.096 Pρ₀ y 3/2 (g To / T)1/2

When,

M = rate of production of smoke

P = perimeter of fire (in m)

y = distance between floor and bottom of smoke layer under ceiling (effective height) (in m)

ρ₀ = density of ambient air

To = absolute temperature of ambient air

T = absolute temperature of flame in smoke plume

g = acceleration dm to gravity 9.81 m/s2

Typical values corresponds to common fires are

ρ₀ = 1.22 kg/m3 at 17 °C

T0 = 290 °K

T = 1100 °K

g = 9.81 m/ s2

So, considering the above values, we can get the rate of production of smoke as

M = 0.188P y3/2

The rate of production of smoke in kg/s can be converted in to equivalent volume rate by
dividing M with the density of air at fire temperature.

The density of air at fire temperature can be obtained from the relation
ρT = ρ0 (T0 +273)/(T +273) Where,

ρ0 and T0 are density and temperature (°C) of air at ambient temp.

ρt and T are density and temperature (°C) of air at T °C

Now,

ρ0 = 1.22 kg/m3 at 17 °C

T0 = 17 °C

So, we can get

ρT = 1.22 [290/(T +273) ] where,

T = temperature of air in °C

However, it may be noted that the actual quantity of smoke production in a compartment fire will
be influenced by other factors also and hence the above formula is only an indicative with
respect to the smoke production.

It may be noted that, even for a small compartment fire (3m x 3m fire), the quantity of smoke
produced will be large and the time taken to fill the compartment with smoke to the shoulder
level is short.

The approximate time taken for the smoke to fill the compartment can be written (by Hinckley)
as

t = 20 A/(Pg ½) [ 1/y 1/2 - 1/ h 1/2 ] where,

t = time taken in seconds

A = floor area of the building (m2)

P = perimeter of the fire (m)

y = distance from the floor to the lower surface of the smoke layer (m)

h = height of the compartment (m)

g = acceleration due to gravity (9.81m/s2)

Illustrative Example
Fire broke out in a building compartment of area 100m2 and height 4.0m. If the fire temperature
is 500 0C and fire is of 3.80m in diameter, determine

i. The rate of production of smoke when the effective height of smoke is 1.5m. What is its
equivalent volume of production?
ii. The time taken for the smoke to fill the compartment for the above effective height
iii. If the building area is 500m2, calculate (i)&(ii)
iv. If height of building is 10m, calculate (i),(ii)& (iii)

Assume suitable data approximately.

QULALITY OF SMOKE

The nature of smoke coming out a fire varies widely in their quantity and composition

The smoke may be

- Light to dense black (sooty)

- Contain un-burnt, decomposition and condensation product
- Major portion of smoke may be gaseous and colourless (like air.CO, CO2, etc).
The visibility in smoke is affected by factors such as

- Colour and size of smoke particles

- Density of smoke
- Physiological effects of the smoke (its irritant nature)
- Size of object being observed, illumination level of the surrounding
- Physical and mental state of the observer age and sex

Quantity of smoke in forms of its density and darkness can be assessed based on its obscurity
value.

The density of smoke can be measured by determining the reduction in the intensity of a light
beam as it passes through the smoke cloud over a specified distance (generally taken as 1.0m).

It is expressed in form of either optical density/ or light obscuration of smoke.

LIGHT OBSCURATION

Light observation, Sx, expressed as percentage is given by

Sx = 100 (1- Ix / Io) where,

Ix = Intensity of light at receiving end

Io = Intensity of incident parallel beam of light

OPTICAL DENASITY

The reduction of light as it passes through smoke will obey a logarithmic law – known as
Lambert’s law of absorption.

Optical density of smoke can be expressed as

ODx = log10 (Io / Ix) where,

ODx = optical density

x = path length of light through the smoke

Io = intensity of incidental parallel beam of light

Ix = intensity of light of receiving end

When optical density of smoke is 1.0, 90% of the incident light is obscured.

RELATION BETWEEN OPTICAL DENSITY AND OBSCUTATION

If same path length, x is used for the measurement of Sx and ODx, the % age obscuration can be
converted into optical density using relation.

ODx = 2-log10 (100-Sx)

If different path length (x & y) are used to measure optical density, they can be related as

ODx = ODy (x/y)

In general, a path length of 1.0m is considered for measuring optical density of smoke

VISIBILITY IN SMOKE

The subjective indication of smoke density is concerned with how far people ca see through
smoke and this is the most important feature which decides the hazard presented by a given
amount of smoke

Simple approximate formula for the determination of visibility can be as follows

a. For front illumination,

Visibility (in meter) = 1/ (OD per meter)
b. For rare illumination,
Visibility (in meter) = 2.5 / (OD per meter)
The minimum visibility acceptable on an escape route is 5 meter, which corresponds to an
optical density of 0.2 per meter.

In order to reduce the optical density or increase the visibility through smoke, the dense smoke is
to be diluted with fresh air. The number and quantity of air exchange depends on the optical
density of smoke and visibility requirement.

For example, if a smoke with optical density P for 1m path length is diluted with n times its own
volume of fresh air, the optical density per meter of the resulting diluted smoke will be P/n.

SMOKE MOVEMENT

Movement of smoke in an enclosed premise depends on two primary factors

 Due to the buoyancy

 Due to the force exerted by the surrounding air

The buoyant force, created by the heat from the fire is the primary factor for the smoke
movement near the fire.

Buoyant force is generated due the pressure difference developed within the mass of the smoke.
Pressure difference develops since the gas above fire expands and thereby reduces its density
compared to surroundings air due to the heat from the fire.

Smoke will normally spread horizontally in a building in a layer beneath the ceiling and will rise
into any part of the ceiling which is higher than the rest.

As smoke moves away from the fire, the influence of buoyant force reduces (since it gets cooler)
and other factors, primarily the forces exerted by the surrounding air, causes the smoke
movement.

The major forces that causes the smoke movement within a building can be those due to

- Wind action and

- Stack effect
WIND ACTION AND NATURAL VENTILATION

When wind blows on the face of a building, the windward side of building will be slightly at a
positive pressure and leeward side will be at a negative pressure. This may cause the smoke to
move from positive pressure to negative pressure instead of moving up to the local ventilation
system at the roof.
Buildings are to be planned with respect to the normal wind direction and openings are to be
provided for natural ventilation. Following guidelines may be followed to ensure an efficient
ventilation system.

 Orientation of building must be such that it faces the wind direction

 Maximum inlet/outlet opening are to be located on opposite sides (windward and leeward
sides) – generally possible for industrial buildings
 Inlet/outlet opening area are to be equal
 Inlet/outlet openings should not be obstructed by adjoining buildings
 Outlets (ventilators) must be always at the top(ceiling level)

STACK EFFEET

For tall buildings, if the air temperature inside is higher than that outside, hot air will move up
through, central core/stair wall, etc. this will cause movement of air into the building through the
opening of lower floors and hot air will move out from upper floor. This phenomenon is called
stack effect.

If fire occurs at lower floors (below neutral plane) then hot smoke entering in the central core
will be carried to the top of the building and some of the upper floors will be affected by smoke.
Smoke may move around a building trough service ducts (heating and ventilating system, air-
conditioning system, etc.) and other openings.

Mechanical Ventilation

Mechanical Ventilation is provided to control smoke movement. Removal of smoke through

natural ventilation may not be effective due to the factors such as low wind velocity and
improper smoke ventilation. So Mechanical Ventilation is also required.

Mechanical ventilations are of different types

 Internal circulation
- Ceiling fans/air circulators
- Exhaust fans
 Roof heat extract units and hoods
 Pressurization method

Exhaust fans, air circulators, etc may be used to remove smoke from occupied areas. However, if
such systems are used in escape routes, due to the development of the lower pressure due to the
working of the exhaust system, more smoke may enter into the area. So, fresh air is to be injected
in to the escape system and a certain level of air flow is to be ensured in the escape routes. This
process is called Pressurization.
PRESSURISATION METHOD

Pressurization is a method adopted for protecting escape routes against ingress of smoke,
especially in high-rise buildings.

In pressurization, air is injected into the protected escape routes such as staircases, lobbies,
corridors, etc. to raise their pressure slightly above the pressure in adjacent parts of the building.
As a result, ingress of smoke or toxic gases into the escape routs will be prevented.

Types of Pressurization

Depending on the importance and level of protection required, pressurization can be carried out
in two stages, namely, single stage and two stage pressurization.

Single stage pressurization is designed for operations only in the event of an emergency. On the
other hand, for the two stage pressurization, a certain level of pressure is maintained in the
protected escape routs under normal condition and the pressure level is increased in an
emergency. The pressurization level depends on building height and is as follows.

Sl. Building Pressurisation Level

No Height
Emergency Reduced operation for stage
Operation 1 of a two stage system

1 <15m 50Pa 8 Pa

2 ≥15m 50Pa 15 Pa

( 1 atmospheric pressure = 760 mm of Hg; 50 Pa – 0.38 mm of Hg; 15 Pa – 0.114 mm of Hg and

8 Pa – 0.06 mm of Hg 0

It is recommended that the pressurization level should not exceed 60 Pa, as this may cause
difficulty in opening exit doors to pressurized areas.

The normal air conditioning system can be used as a pressurization system also, particularly for
the two stage system. In this case, when emergency pressurization is required the following
changes in the normal air conditioning system are to be made.

- Stop the re-circulation of air, if any, and vent exhaust air to atmosphere
- Stop air supply to places other than escape routes.

The pressurization system can be interconnected with the automatic / manual fire alarm system
for activation.
If pressurization system is adopted for staircases in a building, all stair cases shall be pressurized.
Under no circumstances shall a pressurized staircase be connected by a corridor or lobby to an
unpressurised staircase.

There are three component of a Pressurization system:-

a) Air supply to Pressurized space

b) Air leakage from Pressurized space
c) Air venting of unpressurized space

The rate of air supply required for a pressurized space can be obtained from the relation

Q = KAP1/N
= 0.827AP1/N (in S I system)

Where,
Q = rate of air supply (m3/s)
A = c/s area of leakage path (m2)
P = pressure differential
= P1-P2 (Pa)
K = constant (= 0.827 for S I system)
N = index
N = 1.6 for small leakage area
N = 2.0 For large leakage area

The leakage area, A is to be assessed properly. The method of assessment varies for different
parameters such as doors, windows, cracks, toilets, etc.

TOXIC EFFECT OF FIRE GASES

Toxic components which may be produced by combustion of materials

Toxic gas/ vapor Source materials

CO, CO2 All combustible material containing C

Nitrogen Oxide Celluloid, polyurethane

Hydrogen Cyanide Wool, silk, leather, wood, paper
Acrolein Wood, paper
Sulpher Dioxide Rubber
 Concentration of various toxic gases causing danger

Components Maximum permissible Concentration for

short period [exposure 10
prolonged exposure minutes]
(ppm) (Short Term lethal
Concentration)( ppm)
CO2 5000 100000
CO 100 4000
Nitrogen Oxide 5 120
Sulpher Dioxide 5 500

CO

- CO is present in almost all fires

- 1% CO – loss of consciousness in < 5minimum
- 0.2% - lethal in 40 minimum
CO2

- Non toxic, non poisonous, nonflammable

- Causes death by suffocation
- Major component of combustion product
- 5% (by volume) lethal in 40 minimum
- Fire get self extinguished when CO2 >14% by volume

Nitrogen Oxide (NO2)

- Strong pulmonary irritant

- Causes immediate death / delayed injury (septic pneumonia)
- STLC - < 200ppm
Sulpher Dioxide

- Strong irritant
- Intolerable to breath at concentrations below STLC ( 500ppm)
- 2.25times heavier than air
Hydrogen cyanide

Ammonia -