IV.

Biological basis of behavior

I. Objectives:

After the completion of the chapter, students should be able to:

1. Distinguish the parts of the Nervous System
2. Classify the functions of endocrine glands and their relation to behavior

II. Topic Content:

The Nervous System

The nervous system is a highly complex part of an animal that coordinates its actions and
sensory information by transmitting signals to and from different parts of its body.

Divisions of the Nervous System

1. Central Nervous System (CNS) – is made up of the brain and spinal cord. The brain is the
center of our thoughts, the interpreter of our external environment, and the origin of control over
body movement.

2. Peripheral Nervous System – is further subdivided into the somatic division and autonomic
division

 Somatic Nervous System – activates/controls the voluntary muscles

 Autonomic Nervous System – connects the glands, organs which are
involuntary in nature. The autonomic nervous system is further divided into two.

Sympathetic Division
 Cluster of nerve cells or ganglia which originates from the thoracic and lumbar
parts of the spinal cord.
 It assist the body during stressful and threatening situation
 It speeds up the heart rate under stressful condition

Parasympathetic Division
 Consist of nerve cells which originate from the brain and sacral nerves of the
spinal cord
 It slows down the heart rate or calms and relaxes the person

Neuron

 The neuron is the basic building block of the nervous system, which is the body’s
primary communication network.
  The nervous system gathers and processes information from the environment and
allows you to act on the environment.
 The neuron’s basic task is to communicate with in and with other neurons.
 Neurons vary greatly in size and shape, depending on their specialized function:
-Human brain @ 100 billion neurons
-brain tissue @ rice grain -10,000 neurons
 Neurons are simple “cheap” structures, but highly specialized

The neuron is comprised of five basic components:

Dendrites

 receive information from other neurons

 In Greek, dendrites mean branches, hence, they are like extensive tree branches.
 The more branches, the more information a neuron can receive.

Cell Body
 The soma, or more commonly referred to as the cell body, sums and subtracts the
information it receives from the dendrites.
 It also contains the nucleus, which provides energy for neurons to carry out their function

Axon
 The Axon sends messages to other neurons and parts of body (ie. glands, muscles).
 Unlike the dendrites, there is only one axon, which varies in length (few thousandths of
inch to base of spine to big toe).

Myelin Sheath
  To help transmit the message or action potential down the axon, “myelin sheath”
insulates the axon.
 Myelinated axons speed neuronal transmission by about 15 times.
 Most neurons are myelinated, however, not all.

Axon Terminals
 At the end of the axon are axon terminals or terminal buttons.
 They contain neurotransmitters.

Types of Neurons
 Sensory Neurons – picks up the stimuli (nerve impulse) and carries it to the spinal cord
and brain.
 Interneurons- Found within the brain and spinal cord. Relays the message between the
sensory neurons and the motor neurons.
 Motor Neurons – transfers impulses away from the brain to the spinal cord

Neurotransmitters

 Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that cross the small space between
two neurons called the synapse.
 Then the neurotransmitters attach to receptor sites (on the dendrites) of the
surrounding neurons.
 These are the chemicals in the brain that doctors often refer to people with
mental illnesses as having “chemical imbalances.”
 What they are essentially saying is that there is either too much or too little of a
particular chemical or neurotransmitter needed for optimal health.

Types of Neurotransmitters

1. Inhibitory - effects on the neuron. This means they decrease the likelihood that the neuron
will fire an action. Modulatory
Examples: GABA, Glycine, Serotonin, Dopamine

2. Excitatory - effects on the neuron. This means they increase the likelihood that the neuron
will fire an action potential.
Examples: Adrenaline, Glutamate

Different Neurotransmitters and their Functions

Adrenaline
 Adrenaline is primarily a hormone released by the adrenal gland, but some neurons may
secrete it as a neurotransmitter
  It increases heart rate and blood flow, leading to a physical boost and heightened
awareness
 It is produced during stressful or exciting situations

Dopamine
 It is primarily responsible for feelings of pleasure, but is also involved in movement and
motivation
 People tend to repeat behaviours that lead to dopamine release, leading to addictions
 Abnormal dopamine secretion is common in specific movement disorders, like
Parkinson’s disease

Serotonin
 Contributes to feelings of well-being and happiness
 Is affected by exercise and light exposure, and plays a role in the sleep cycle and
digestive system regulation

GABA
 Inhibits neuron firing in the CNS – high levels improve focus whereas low levels cause
anxiety
 Also contributes to motor control and vision\

Acetylcholine
 Involved in thought, learning and memory within the brain
 Activates muscle contraction in the body and is also associated with attention and
awakening

Glutamate
 Most common brain neurotransmitter
 Regulates development and creation of new nerve pathways and hence is involved in
learning and memory

Endorphins
 Release is associated with feelings of euphoria and a reduction in pain (body’s natural
'pain killers’)
 Released during exercise, excitement and happiness

Norepinephrine
 Released as a hormone into the blood, where it causes blood vessels to contract and
heart rate to increase.
 Norepinephrine plays a role in mood disorders such as manic depression.
Endocrine System

The ductless gland that works with the nervous system and controls the bodily functions and
behaviour by maintaining the biochemical balance in the body

Some Common Glands

1. Pituitary Gland - The pituitary gland is a small pea-sized gland that plays a major role in
regulating vital body functions and general wellbeing. It is referred to as the body's 'master
gland' because it controls the activity of most other hormone-secreting glands.

2. Thyroid Gland - The thyroid gland is an endocrine gland in your neck. It makes two
hormones that are secreted into the blood: thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). These
hormones are necessary for all the cells in your body to work normally.

3. Adrenal Glands - Adrenal glands produce hormones that help regulate your metabolism,
immune system, blood pressure, response to stress and other essential functions. It is also the
gland that secretes adrenalin and epinephrine.

4. Gonads - They are the sex organs and include the male testes and female ovaries. Their
main role is the production of steroid hormones. The testes produce androgens, which allow for
the development of secondary sex characteristics and the production of sperm cells.

Biopsychology: Anatomy of the Brain

The Brain

 Most complex organ of the body

 Only weighs 1,300 grams
 Contains billions of neural networks that interact to create human behaviour

Three main sections

 • Cerebrum
• Cerebellum
• Brainstem

The Cerebrum
• Controls conscious activities, intelligence, memory, language, muscles.
• Wrinkled with countless folds and grooves and covered with an outer layer of gray
matter called the cerebral cortex.
• Divided into 4 lobes

Four lobes of the Brain

- Frontal lobe - Located at the front of both cerebral hemispheres. Complex

Functioning- personality, judgement, insight, reasoning, problem solving, abstract
thinking and working memory

- Temporal lobe - Located at each side of the brain. Involved in receiving and
processing auditory information , higher order visual information, complex aspects of
memory and language

- Parietal Lobe - Located behind frontal lobe. Spatial orientation, perception and
comprehension of language function recognising object by touch

- Occipital Lobe - Visual processing area

The Cerebellum

• Scrotum-like structure found in the brain

• Muscle coordination is developed here as well as the memory of physical skills.
• If the cerebellum is injured, your movements become jerky.
• When you see an amazing athlete perform, you are watching a well-trained cerebellum
at work.

The Brainstem

• Made up of the medulla oblongata, pons and midbrain.

– Medulla oblongata controls involuntary activities such as heart rate and breathing
– Pons and midbrain act as pathways connecting various part of the brain with
each other.
• Sometimes called the reptilian brain, because it resembles the entire brain of a reptile.

The Limbic System – The emotional center of the brain or the seat of emotion

 Amygdala- mediates and controls major affective mood states such as friendship , love,
affection, fear, rage and aggression.
 Hippocampus- Memory, particularly the ability to turn short term memory into long term
memory. Alzheimer's disease.
 thalamus- filters sensory information, controls mood states and body movement
associated with emotive states
 Hypothalamus- ‘Central control’ for pituitary gland. Regulates autonomic, emotional,
endocrine and somatic function. Has a direct involvement in stress and mood states.

The Hind Brain

 Pons- Relay station between cerebrum and cerebellum

 Medulla oblongata- Conscious control of skeletal muscles, balance, co-ordination
regulating sound impulses in the inner ear, regulation of automatic responses such as
heart rate, swallowing, vomiting, coughing and sneezing
 Reticular Formation- Important in arousal and maintaining consciousness, alertness
attention and Reticular Activating System which controls all cyclic functions i.e.
respiration, circadian rhythm.