DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

ELECTRIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS 1

LAB MANUAL

By
Engr. Syed Wajid Ali Shah
Engr. Munawar Zaman
Engr. Amir Haider

COMSATS Institute of Information Technology

Abbottabad
 Acknowledgement

Previous version of this document was prepared by Engr. Rabya Bahadar, Engr. Shoaib Khaliq
and Engr. Muhammad Arif
 Table of Contents

1. The Electrical Laboratory

2. DC Sources and Metering
3. Resistor Color Coding
4. Introduction to Oscilloscope
5. Experimental proof of Ohm’s Law
6. Experimental proof of KVL
7. Experimental proof of KCL
8. Experimental proof Tellegen’s Theorem
9. Superposition Theorem
10. Thevenin’s Theorem
11. Maximum Power Transfer
12. Capacitors and Inductors
13. Simulation Tool(s)
SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS:

-It is important to realize that even a small level of current through the human body can cause
serious dangerous side effect. Experimental results reveal that human body begins to react to
current of only few milliamperes. Although most individuals can withstand current up to perhaps
10 mA for short period of time without serious side effects , any current exceeding this should be
considered dangerous. In fact current of 50 mA can cause severs shocks and current of over 100
mA can be fatal.

In most cases the skin resistance of our body when dry is sufficiently high to limit current
through the body to relatively safe levels of voltage. However beware that when skin is wet due
to bathing or skin barrier is broken due to any injury the skin resistance drops dramatically and
current level could rise to dangerous for same voltage level. In general simply remember water
and electricity doesn’t mix.

So treat Electricity with respect-not fear.

Safety Rules:

- Try to work with a partner under the supervision of Lab Engineer.

- If the conditions of any equipment are questionable, talk to the Lab Engineer and do not
proceed until problem is sorted out.
- Avoid using any sort of jewelry while performing any experiment and never touch any
equipment if any part of body is wet or you are standing on wet floor.
- Never leave an active work area unattended. Always turn off the soldering iron and let it
cool down before leaving it.
- Do not use /touch any equipment if you do not know how to use it. Get help from your
Lab Engineer.

Emergency Response:

Keep in mind that some time accidents do happen to in any such scenario follow the given
procedure.

- Turn off the power source if possible.

- Do not touch the victim in an attempt to free him/her from shock.

- Contact Lab Staff immediately.

-Be careful not to be pulled into any accident, protect yourself first.

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-I have read and understood the safety instructions carefully with clear explanations from Lab Staff.

Name of Student: CIIT Reg. No. Signature:

Experiment # 01

Use of Lab Instruments

DC Power Sources, Breadboard and Digital Multi-Meter

Objective
1) To become familiar with the operation and usage of DC power supplies and digital multi-
meters (DMM).
2) How to build the circuit on breadboards.

Basic Concepts:
The adjustable DC power supply is widely used in the Electrical and Electronics lab
experiments. Most of The DC power supplies are used to generate either a constant voltage (CV)
or a constant current (CC). That is, it may be used as either a DC voltage source or a DC current
source. Normally we will be using it primarily as a voltage source.
The voltage produced by the power supply is controlled by the knob labeled voltage. The current
is limited by adjusting the knob labeled current. Similarly DMM. is designed to measure
voltage, current, and resistance at a minimum, although some units may offer the ability to
measure other parameters such as frequency, continuity, Diode, capacitance or transistor beta etc.
LCR meter are used to measure resistance, inductance and capacitance of the corresponding
components.
It is very important to know how to read the DMM correctly. For example If the 2 volt range was
selected it means that Now DMM can measure any value between(0.000 to 1.999),if the value of
voltage you want to measure is greater than 2 volt then your DMM is Overloaded. Overloads are
often indicated by either a flashing display or readout of “OL”. It is very important to set the
DMM to the range that won’t produce an overload in order to achieve the greatest accuracy.
Note that for measuring the current Never connect an ammeter across a voltage source. Only
connect ammeters in series with the load.
Breadboard are used to build prototypes of electronic circuits with or without solder.
Breadboards are widely used in the lab. A typical breadboard or proto board is shown below.

A breadboard has holes all over it, designed to fit the leads of electrical components. These
holes are connected in columns by conductive metal strips. On each breadboard there are always
two sets of two rows on top and bottom. These are connected horizontally. These are usually
used for the + and - contacts of the battery.

Equipment
 Adjustable DC Power Supply (0 - 30)
 Digital Multi-meter
 Breadboard

Procedure
 Take a general DMM.
 Find its Dc and AC measurements Ranges for Voltage. And records the results in the
table.
 Repeat the above steps for the current and resistance ranges. (Note that some of these
values are readout from the device manual occasionally)
 Write down about other functions that your DMM can perform rather than measuring
current, voltage and resistance.
 DC voltage Measurement:
 Turn on the adjustable power supply to 2.2 volts via its display.
 Use both the Coarse and Fine controls to get as close to 2.2 volts as possible.
 Record the displayed voltage in the Table.
 Now adjust the DMM to the DC voltage function. Measure the voltage at the output jacks
of the power supply. Be sure to connect the DMM and power supply red lead to red lead,
and black lead to black lead. Note the voltage shown by the DMM in the Table.
 Repeat the above step for 2 -3 times for different voltages.
 If there is any difference then find the % error and write it in % Error column.
 %Error = 100 * (measured value – calculated value) / Calculated Value
.

DMM Range Table

DC AC DC AC
Ranges Resistance
Voltage voltage Current Current

Minimum
Maximum

Other function on DMM.

DC Voltage measurement Table

Voltage Voltage
Voltage
Sr # On On % Error
(Volts)
Power supply DMM
1 2V
2 4V
3 6V
4 8V

Questions:

1. Explain how you can measure a current flow using a DMM. Justify your answer with
appropriate reason.

2. Assume that you are expecting a voltage between 13-14 volts. Where the selection
knob should be adjusted if options avalailabe ate 5V, 10V, 15V and 20V? Justify your
answer with appropriate reasoning.

Conclusion:

Conclude what you have learnt in this lab.

Experiment # 02

Resistance, Inductor and Capacitor Measurement

Objective
1. To learn the resistor color coding.
2. To become familiar with the measurement of resistance, inductor and capacitor
values using electronic equipment.

Basic Concepts:

Resistors are used in the electrical and electronic circuit to limit. Practical resistors are available
in the market ranges from few ohms to the mega ohms. The approximate value of a carbon
resistor can be found by 4 color bands on it. The 9 colors in the sequence are black, brown, red,
orange, yellow, green, blue, violet, grey and white. Carbon resistors may have a fifth band which
indicates reliability of the resistor and in case of 6th color bands the 6th band represents the
temperature coefficient.

Color coding Table

Color 1st Band 2nd Band 3rd Band 4th Band

Black 0 0 100

Brown 1 1 101

Red 2 2 102 ±2%

Orange 3 3 103

Yellow 4 4 104

Green 5 5 105

Blue 6 6 106

Violet 7 7 107

Gray 8 8 108

White 9 9 109

Gold 10-1 ±5%

Silver 10-2 ±10%

Non ±20%
In case of 6th color band , 6th band represent the temperature coefficient.

Capacitors:

A capacitor stores electric charge. Basically a capacitor consists of two metal plates separated by
an insulating material called “dielectric”. When connected to a power source such as battery, the
capacitor charges up until the potential difference between its terminals become equal to the
voltage of the battery.
Some electrolytic and large body types of capacitors usually have the value printed on the body.
For example: 100uf 250V.It would also have marks pointing to the negative end of the capacitor.
Like resistors, some capacitors are color coded to indicate value, tolerance, working voltage etc.
These color bands are numbered from the top of the capacitor to the base. The color coding is
similar to resistor color coding.
Inductors:
Inductors store energy in the form of an internal magnetic field, and find their behavior
dominated by Faraday’s Law.
The color codes for inductors are identical to that of a resistor; the only thing is to be
remembered is that, the results from this will be in microHenrys, not just Henrys

Procedure
1. Get 3 to 5 carbon resistors of the different values, capacitor and inductors.
2. Read color bands and write down in the table, Find the nominal value i.e.
3. Example: Brown Red Orange Gold
1 2 103
4. Record your results in Table
 5. Adjust the DMM on ohmmeter, measure and record the resistance of each resistor.
6. Repeat the above steps for other remaining resistors.
7. Read the values written on the capacitor and write down in Name plate reading column of
the table.
8. Check your capacitor with LCR meter and write actual reading in the table.
9. If there is any difference then find the % error and write it in % Error column.

10. Repeat above steps for other capacitors.

11. Similarly color code the inductor and find the value and write down in to the Name plate
reading column of the table.
12. Check your inductor with the LCR meter and write actual reading in the table.
13. If there is any difference then find the % error and write it in % Error column.

14. Repeat above steps for other inductors.

Resistor Color Coding Table

Nominal Value (by Actual Value
Sr # Ist band 2nd band 3rd band 4th band
color coding) read by DMM

Capacitor Table:

Sr # Name plate reading RLC meter Reading Error

3
Inductor Measurement Table:

Sr # Name plate reading RLC meter Reading Error

Questions:

1. In a 5 band resistor with color coding Brown, Black, Red, Golden, Silver.
Calculate the resistance using step by step procedure.

Conclusion:

Explain what skills you have mastered in this Lab Session.

Experiment # 03

Introduction to Oscilloscope

Objective:
Core objective in this Lab is to learn the operations of Oscilloscope.

Basic Theory:
Previously called Oscillograph, Scope or Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO), or (DSO ‘Digital
Storage Oscilloscope’) is a type of electronic test instrument that allows observation of
constantly varying signal voltages in a two dimensional plot. Non-electrical signals (such as
sound or vibration) can be converted to voltages and displayed on CRO. The observed waveform
is normally analyzed for properties such as amplitude, frequency and time interval etc.
In this Lab, our focus is to use oscilloscope for following purposes.
- For measuring the Peak-to-Peak voltage of a waveform.
- For measuring the time period of a signal.
- For measuring the Frequency of a signal.
Procedure:

In order to operate the oscilloscope at its optimum performance level, carry out following checks
and adjustments before doing your measurements.

-Adjust the control panel to following settings.

Control Position
On-off Switch Off
Focus Mid-Position
Brightness/Intensity Mid-Position
Vertical Mode Switch CH1
CH1 (AC/GND/DC Switch) GND
CH1 (Volts/Div) 1 volt/div
Trigger Level 12 O’clock
Trigger Mode Auto
Source CH1
Vertical Position 12 O’ Clock
Variable Cal
Horizontal Position 12 O’ Clock
Variable Cal
Sweep Time/Div 1 ms
Slope +

You can use INTEN control so that trace line is easy to see and adjust the FOCUS control to
attain the clearest display possible. Then use TRACE ROTA control to bring the trace line
parallel with the horizontal lines. Adjust the BAL control if the trace line moves up and down
during VOLTS/DIV control.
Now calibrate the Oscilloscope using the built in voltage source which is normally 1 v(p-p) and
IkHz. If you are getting these measurements this means that your device is calibrated. Now
problem is how you can find peak to peak voltage and frequency using oscilloscope to make sure
that your device is actually displaying the specified reading.

Measuring Voltage between Two Points on a Waveform:

Use the following procedure for measuring voltage between 02 points or Vp-p.

1. Apply signal to the INPUT terminal and adjust VOLT/DIV and SWEEP
TIME/DIV controls. Also reset trigger point if necessary. Set AC-GND-
DC control to AC.
2. Work the vertical POSITION control so that the one of the points (A) to
be measured falls on the horizontal line, while other point (B) can still be
observed on CRT Screen.
3. Work the horizontal POSITION control so that point (B) falls on the
vertical scale at the centre of CRT Screen.
4. Measure the vertical distance between two points and multiply that value
by VOLTS/DIV setting. When using a probe, also measure the value by
probe’s attenuation rate.
Voltage b/w 02 points= Vertical Distance (div) X VOLTS/DIV setting X
Probe attenuation rate.
Example: If the vertical distance between the 02 points is 4.4 div and
VOLTS/Div setting is at 0.2v/div and probe (x10) setting is used, then
voltage is calculated as,
Voltage between 02 points= 4.4(div)x0.2 (v/div)x10=8.8v.

Measuring Time between Two Points on a Waveform:

1. Display the waveform by adjusting each control. Set the

VARIABLE control to the CAL Position.
2. Work the horizontal POSITION control to bring one point to be
measured in the line with a vertical graduation line. The work the
vertical POSITION control to bring the other point to be measured
on line with the horizontal scale in the middle of CRT display
screen.
3. Measure the horizontal distance between the two points. Multiply
this value by SWEEP TIME/DIV setting value. If x10 MAG
function has been activated, multiply the value by (1/10).

Time between 02 points= Horizontal Distance (Div) x Sweep Time/Div setting value
 When using the x10 MAG

Time between 02 points= Horizontal Distance (Div) x Sweep Time/Div setting value x (1/10)

Example: If the horizontal distance between the 02 points is 5.4 div. if the SWEEP TIME/DIV
setting value is 0.2 ms/div. Time between 02 points can be calculated as,

Time between 02 points= 5.4 div X 0.2 ms/div= 1.08ms

If the x10 MAG function is used:

Time between 02 points= 5.4 div X 0.2 ms/div x (1/10)= 0.108ms= 108 µs

Measuring Frequency:

Frequency can be calculated as ,

Frequency= (1/Time Period) …Hz

Task 1: Generate a 2 KHz signal from function generator and visualize it on CRO.

Now change the TIME/DIV setting to different 02 values keeping the frequency of original
signal constant and plot the 02 waveforms. Calculate the frequency in both waveforms using the
procedure used above.

Task 2: Draw a 5v p-p signal with volts/div setting is at 1v/div and 2v/div.
Question:

If the frequency of the signal is measured to be 25 kHz, what will be the time period (in divs) if
Sweep Time/Div setting is at 5µs/div and x10 MAG is not used?

Conclusion:

Explain the functionalities of different controls which you have used in this Lab available on the
control panel of CRO.
Experiment # 04

Experimental Proof of Ohm’s Law

Learning Objective:

1) In this experiment Ohm’s law will be examined, which is a fundamental law in electrical
circuits.
2) To learn how to use Ohm's Law in Circuit analysis.

Basic Concepts:

Ohm's law, discovered by a German physicist Simon Ohm (1787-1854), is an important law that
defines the relationships between voltage (V), current (I), and resistance (R).
It is often referred to as the foundation of circuit analysis and expressed as,
V = IR
For a given current, an increase in resistance will result in a greater voltage. Alternately, for a
given voltage, an increase in resistance will produce a decrease in current

Equipment
 Adjustable DC Power Supply (0 - 30)
 Digital Millimeter
 Breadboard
 Resistor
 Wires, etc…

Part-A:
Experimental Circuit:

Procedure
 Build the circuit on Breadboard using the components. Adjust the DMM at DC current to
measure DC current and insert it in-line between the source and resistor.
 First calculate the current through the resistor by using above formula, and record it in the
below Table.
 Now change the power supply voltage from 0 to 30 and record the current reading of the
DMM in the table.
  Compare the Measured and Calculated values and if there is any difference then find the
% error and write it in % Error column.
 %Error = 100 * (measured value – calculated value) / Calculated Value.
 Now repeat all these steps for another resister values.
 Plot the current versus voltage on the given graph paper. Keep Voltage on the horizontal
axis and current on the vertical axis.
Task: Fill the given table in accordance with provided procedure.

Sr.# Current Calculated

Voltage Current Measured % Error
(V=IR)
1
2
3
4
5
6

Task: Plot Voltage Vs Current. (For both calculated and measured values)

Part B: Experimental Proof of OHM’S Law with Alternating Voltage source

Concept: Instantaneous voltage is the voltage between two points at a particular moment in time,
the voltage at a specific instant in time.

RMS voltage is absolutely the most common way to measure/quantify AC voltage. It is also the
most useful. Because AC voltage is constantly changing and is at or near the highest and lowest
points in the cycle for only a tiny fraction of the cycle, the peak voltage is not a good way to
determine how much work can be done by an AC power source. RMS voltage will give you the
same ability to predict how much work will be done by an AC voltage. The RMS voltage of a
pure‡ sine wave is approximately 0.707*peak voltage.

Procedure:

5. Use the same circuit as in part A, and replace DC voltage source with an
alternating voltage source. Plot Vrms and Irms and see whether you give a
straight line as in part A or not.

2. Now plant a LED in the circuit used in step 1 and analyze the behavior of circuit.
Plot the resistor voltage for this circuit.

TORUBLESHOOTING:-
If the results are not matched then follow these steps.

1) Make sure that the power supply is on and working properly.

2) Make sure to use components with correct value.
3) Make sure that all grounds are common
4) Make sure to build circuit properly in accordance with the Figure.
5) Make sure to apply power (+, -) correctly in accordance with circuit Diagram.
6) Check your measuring equipment (Multi-meter, Oscilloscope) is adjusted correctly and
you are measuring parameters correctly.
7) If all above steps are correct and you are unable to find the fault then ask your lab staff
for help
Questions & Answers:

1. Explain the relation of current flowing through the same resistor when voltage is
increased (For DC source).

2. Explain why there is slight difference between calculated and measured current values.
(For DC Source)

3. Calculate mathematically that the RMS value for a periodic sinusoid is 0.707*Peak
Value? (Calculate using step by step procedure)
Experiment #05

Experimental Proof of KVL

Objective

1. To get familiar with Kirchhoff’s voltage law.

2. To analyze the circuit parameters using KVL (on Physical circuit)

Basic Concepts:

There are many circuits that are so complex that they cannot be solved by ohm's law. These
circuits have many branches or many power sources, and Ohm's law would be either impractical
or impossible to use on them.
German physicist, Bustav Kirchhoff developed two conclusions for solving such complex
circuits, one of then called Kirchhoff’s voltage law. It states that the ‘sum of the voltage drops
around any closed loop is equal to zero’.

Equipment
 Adjustable DC Power Supply
 Digital MultiMate
 Breadboard
 R1= __________________
 R2= __________________
 R3= __________________
 R4= _________________
 Wires, etc…

Experimental Circuit:

With all same resistor values:

With different value resistors:

Procedure
 Build the circuit according to the above figure, keeping R1 = 1 k, R2 = 1k, R3 = 1k,
R4=1k, and Vs = 10 volts.
 Calculate the current and determine the expected voltage drops across R1, R2, R3, and R4
using Ohm’s law.
 Now adjust the DMM to measure DC voltage. Place the DMM probes across R1 and
measure its voltage. Record this voltage in Table. Repeat this process for the voltage
across other resistors.
 Compare the measured and calculated values and if there is any difference then find the %
error and write it in % Error row.
 %Error = 100 * (measured value – calculated value) / Calculated Value.
 Now rebuild the circuit according the 2nd figure with different value resistors and Repeat
all above steps to calculate and measure Voltage across each resistor.
Task: Fill the given tables in accordance with provided procedure.

All Resistors with same values

Source Voltage Voltage Voltage Voltage Total Current I
Voltage R1 R2 R3 R4
Calculate
Values
Measure
Values
% Error

Resistors with different values

Source Voltage Voltage Voltage Voltage Total Current I
Voltage R1 R2 R3 R4
Calculate
Values
Measure
Values
% Error
TORUBLESHOOTING:-
If the results are not matched then follow these steps.

1) Make sure that the power supply is on and working properly.

2) Make sure you use components with correct value.
3) Make sure that all grounds are common
4) Make sure that you build your Circuit properly according to the Figure.
5) Make sure that you applied power (+, -) correctly according to the circuit Diagram.
6) Check your mearsuring equipment (Multi-meter, Oscilloscope) is adjust correctly and you
mearsuring parameters correctly.
7) If all above steps are correct and you are unable to find the fault then ask your lab staff for
help
Questions:

1. What is the effect on voltage drop if all resistors are of same value?

2. Which resistor has the highest voltage drop if all the resistors are of different values?

Conclusion:
Conclude the KVL in your own words based upon your experimental experience.
Experiment #06

Experimental proof of KCL

Objective

1. To get familiar with Kirchhoff’s current law.

2. To analyze the circuit parameters using KCL (on Physical circuit)

Basic Concepts:

There are many circuits that are so complex that they cannot be solved by ohm's law. These
circuits have many branches or many power sources, and Ohm's law would be either impractical
or impossible to use on them.
German physicist, Bustav Kirchhoff developed two conclusions for solving such complex
circuits; one of then called Kirchhoff’s current law .It is stated that the current arriving at any
junction point in a circuit is equal to the current leaving that point.

Equipment
 Adjustable DC Power Supply
 Digital Multi-meter
 Breadboard
 R1= __________________
 R2= __________________
 R3= __________________
 R4= _________________
 Wires, etc…

Experimental Circuit:

With all same resistor values:

 With resistors of different values:

Procedure
 Build the circuit according to the above figure, keeping R1 = 1k, R2 = 1k, R3 = 1k,
R4=1k, and Vs =10 volts.
 Apply Ohm’s law to determine the Current through across R1, R2, R3, and R4. Record it
in Calculated Value row.
 Now adjust the DMM to measure DC Current. Place the DMM probes in series with R1
(Remember, ammeters go in-line and require the circuit to be opened for proper
measurement.) and measure its Current. Record this Current in Table. Repeat this process
for the other Currents through other resistors.
 Compare the measured and Calculated values and if there is any difference then find the %
error and write it in % Error row.
 %Error = 100 * (measured value – calculated value) / Calculated Value.
 Now rebuild the circuit according the 2nd figure with different value resistors and repeat
all above steps to calculate and measure Current across each resistors.

Task: Fill the given tables in accordance with provided procedure.

All Resistors with same values

Source Current Voltage across
Current I Current I2 Current I3
Voltage I4 R2=R3=R4
Calculate
Values
Measure
Values
% Error
 Resistors with different values
Source Current Voltage across
Current I Current I2 Current I3
Voltage I4 R2=R3=R4
Calculate
Values
Measure
Values
% Error

TORUBLESHOOTING:-
If the results are not matched then follow these steps.

1) Make sure that the power supply is on and working properly.

2) Make sure you use components with correct value.
3) Make sure that all grounds are common
4) Make sure that you build your Circuit properly according to the Figure.
5) Make sure that you applied power (+, -) correctly according to the circuit Diagram.
6) Check your measuring equipment (Multi-meter, Oscilloscope) is adjust correctly and you
measuring parameters correctly.
7) If all above steps are correct and you are unable to find the fault then ask your lab staff for
help
Questions:

1. What is the effect on current if R2, R3and R4 are of same values?

2. Which resistor has the highest current flow if R2, R3and R4 are of different values?

Conclusion:
Conclude the KCL in your own words based upon your experimental experience.
Experiment #07

Experimental Proof of Tellegen’s Theorem

Objective

- To apply the Tellegen’s Theorem on a physical circuit.

Basic Concepts:

Tellegen’s theorem depends both upon Kirchhoff’s laws and the topology of the network. So, this
theorem applies to all electrical networks that obey Kirchhoff’s laws, whether they be linear or
nonlinear, time-invariant or time-variant. Tellegen’s theorem reduces to many useful network
theorems.
Tellegen's theorem has been introduced in the year of 1952 by Dutch Electrical Engineer Bernard
D.H. Tellegen. This is a very useful theorem in network analysis. According to Tellegen
theorem, the summation of instantaneous powers for the n number of branches in an electrical
network is zero.

where,
Branch Voltages Vk=v1 ,v2 ,v3 ,...vn and
Branch Current Ik= i1 ,i2 ,i3 ,...in

Equipment
 Adjustable DC Power Supply
 Digital Multi-meter
 Breadboard
 R1= __________________
 R2= __________________
 R3= __________________
 R4= _________________
 Wires, etc…
Experimental Circuit:
+V1- I

R1 I2
I1

+ V2 -

+ V2 -
Vs R2 R3

Procedure
 Build the circuit according to the above figure
 Now adjust the DMM to measure DC voltage. Place the DMM probes across R1 in
parallel and measure its voltage. Record this voltage in Table. Repeat this process for the
voltages across other resistors.
 Now adjust the DMM to measure DC Current. Place the DMM probes across R1 in series
(Remember, ammeters go in-line and require the circuit to be opened for proper
measurement.) and measure its Current. Record this Current in Table. Repeat this process
for the other Currents across other resistors.
 After finding the voltage and current across each resistor multiply each branch voltage
with its branch current to find power across every element.
 Put all values in the given formula we get the result of Tellegen's theorem
 Repeat all above steps for the 2nd Table

Analysis:

R1=R2=R3=100Ω
Total current
Vs V1 V2 V3 I1 I2 I3
Is
5V

Vs x Is V1 x I1 V2 x I2 V3 x I3

(Power delivered or absorbed must sum up to zero)

 Now change the resistor’s values (i.e. R1, R2, R3 should be different)
Total current
Vs’ V1’ V2’ V3’ I1’ I2’ I3’
Is'
10V
Vs’ x Is’ V1’ x I1’ V2’ x I2’ V3’ x I3’

(Power delivered or absorbed must sum up to zero)

TORUBLESHOOTING:-

If the results are not matched then follow these steps.

1) Make sure that the power supply is on and working properly.
2) Make sure you use components with correct value.
3) Make sure that all grounds are common
4) Make sure that you build your Circuit properly according to the Figure.
5) Make sure that you applied power (+, -) correctly according to the circuirt Diagram.
6) Check your measuring equipment (Multi-meter, Oscilloscope) is adjust correctly and you
measuring parameters correctly.
7) If all above steps are correct and you are unable to find the fault then ask your lab staff for
help
Question:
1. How would you relate KCL, KVL and Tellegen’s Theorem?

2. What would be the result of Tellegen’s Theorem if R1 and R2 are same and R3 is
different?

CONCLUSION:
Briefly conclude Tellegen’s Theorem in your own words based upon your
experimental experience.
Experiment #08

Experimental Proof of Superposition Principle

Objective

1. To apply superposition principle on a linear circuit.

Core objective of this exercise is to investigate the application of the superposition theorem on
multiple dc source circuits in terms of both voltage and current measurements.
Basic Concepts

When there is more than one energy source in a circuit then current through each source has its
effect on the circuit. To solve such problem there are different theorems such as superposition.
super position states as "in every linear network containing one or more power sources, the
current at any point is the algebraic sum of the currents due to each source considered
individually, by replacing all other sources by their internal resistances only"
In physics and systems theory, the superposition principle, also known as superposition property,
states that, for all linear systems, the net response at a given place and time caused by two or more
stimuli is the sum of the responses which would have been caused by each stimulus individually.
So that if input A produces response X and input B produces response Y then input (A + B)
produces response (X + Y).
Mathematically, for a linear system, F, defined by F(x) = y, where x is some sort of stimulus
(input) and y is some sort of response (output), the superposition (i.e., sum) of stimuli yields a
superposition of the respective responses:

Equipment
 Two Adjustable DC Power Supply
 Digital Multi-meter
 Breadboard
 R1= __________________
 R2= __________________
 R3= __________________
 R4= _________________
 R5= _________________
 Wires, etc…
Experimental Circuit:

Figure 1

Figure 2

Figure 3

Procedure
 Build the circuit according to the above figure
 Use Vs1 = 10 volts, Vs2 = 5 volts, to find the voltage across each resistors, superposition
may be used. Each source is considered by itself.
 First consider source Vs1 by replacing Vs2 with a short .Be sure to note the polarity
  Note: Do not simply place a shorting wire across source Vs2! This will overload the
power supply.
 Determine the voltage at first resistor by adjusting DMM to DC voltage and record it in
Table. Repeat this step for other resistors Make sure to indicate the polarity.
 NOW Repeat the above steps by using Vs2 while shorting Vs1.
 Finally, sum these two voltages. and by using Ohm's law find current across each resistors
 to verify superposition theorem apply both voltage at same time and, Now adjust the
DMM to measure DC Current. Place the DMM probes across R1 in series (Remember,
ammeters go in-line and require the circuit to be opened for proper measurement.) and
measure its Current. Compare these results with the parameter’s values in circuit given in
Figure 1.
 Determine and record the deviations between theory and experimental results.

Analysis:

Results for voltage and current with both sources

Vs1=
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5
Vs2=

Results for voltage and current with Vs1 source only (Vs2=short)
Vs1=
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5
Vs2=
Results for voltage and current with Vs2 source only ( Vs1=short )
Vs1=
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5
Vs2=

Now verify that: V= +

I= +

TORUBLESHOOTING:-
If the results are not matched then follow these steps.

1) Make sure that the power supply is on and working properly.

2) Make sure you use components with correct value.
3) Make sure that all grounds are common
4) Make sure that you build your circuit properly according to the Figure.
5) Make sure that you applied power (+, -) correctly according to the circuit diagram.
6) Check your mearsuring equipment (Multi-meter, Oscilloscope) is adjust correctly and you
mearsuring parameters correctly.
7) If all above steps are correct and you are unable to find the fault then ask your lab staff for
help
Question:
1. Explain that why we can’t use Superposition for calculating the power effects.

2. If we plant a LED in circuit given in Figure 1, will it be possible to apply superposition on

that circuit?

Conclusion:
Conclude superposition principle in your own word based upon your experimental experience.
Experiment #09

Experimental Proof of Thevenin’s Theorem

Objective

- To apply Thevenin’s Theorem on a circuit and visualize the equivalence of original and
equivalent circuit.
Basic Concepts
Thevenin's theorem states that any linear network of resistances and power sources, if viewed
from any two points in the network, can be replaced by an equivalent voltage source Vth and by
an equivalent resistance Rth in series.
The value of the source voltage equals the open circuit voltage of the two terminals under
consideration. The value of the equivalent resistor equals the resistance measured between the
open terminals when all the sources of the circuit are deactivated (voltage source shorted and
current source opened). This is termed as the Thevenin’s theorem. The voltage source is called
Thevenin’s voltage (VTH) and the equivalent resistor, the Thevenin’s resistance (RTH).

Equipment

 Adjustable DC Power Supply

 Digital Multi-meter
 Breadboard
 R1= __________________
 R2= __________________
 R3= __________________
 R4= _________________
 R5= _________________
 Wires, etc…

Experimental Circuit:
Procedure

 Build the circuit according to the above figure, using V = 10 volts,

 Remove the load resistor RL.
 Adjust the DMM on DC voltage to read the open circuit voltage between A and B. This is
VTH for this circuit between A and B.
 Replace the source by a short circuit.
 Adjust the mutineer on the resistance measurement mode (ohmmeter) and place between
A and B. Record the value of the resistor. This is RTH .
 To find the theoretical Thevenin voltage of the circuit is, replace the load with an open and
calculate the voltage produced between the two A and B terminals.
 To calculate the theoretical Thevenin resistance, first remove the load and then replace the
source with its internal resistance (a short). Finally, determine the combination series-
parallel resistance.
 Now Re-Build the circuit by using the measured VTH and RTH. Measure the load voltage
 Also determine and record the deviation
 Determine and record the deviations between theory and experimental results.
 If necessary repeat all above steps for different Value RLs.
Analysis:

Original Circuit

Calculated
Measure voltage
Sr# R(Load) =RL voltage across Error
across RL
RL
1

Thevenized Circuit

Sr # Rth Vth IRl VRl

TORUBLESHOOTING:-
If the results are not matched then follow these steps.

1) Make sure that the power supply is on and working properly.

2) Make sure you use components with correct value.
3) Make sure that all grounds are common
4) Make sure that you build your circuit properly according to the Figure.
5) Make sure that you applied power (+, -) correctly according to the circuit Diagram.
6) Check your mearsuring equipment (Multi-meter, Oscilloscope) is adjust correctly and you
mearsuring parameters correctly.
7) If all above steps are correct and you are unable to find the fault then ask your lab staff for
help
Question:
1. Explain what do you mean by equivalence of two circuits? Are these two circuits are
equivalent internally?

2. What will be the effect on and if you change your terminal ‘a’ and ‘b’.?

Conclusion:
Explain the theoretical concept of Thevenien’s and Norton’s Theorem briefly?
Experiment #10

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

Objective
- To verify maximum power Transfer theorem
- Determine the conditions under which a load will produce maximum power. Further, the
variance of load power and system efficiency will be examined graphically.

Basic Concepts

To achieve the maximum load power in a DC circuit, the load resistance must equal the driving
resistance, that is, the internal resistance of the source.
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem states that "Any load resistance equals to its Thevenin's
equivalent resistance, the load can yield a maximum power from power sources” value above or
below this will produce a smaller load power. System efficiency (η) is 50% at the maximum
power case.
consider a Thevenin equivalent circuit of any circuit, and applying the Ohm's law the power
dissipated in the load PRL can be express as,

I =Vth/(Rth+RL)
PRL= I2xRL
PRL = [ Vth/(Rth+RL)]2xRL
Equipment

 Adjustable DC Power Supply

 Digital Multi-meter
 Breadboard
 R1= __________________
 R2= __________________
 R3= __________________
 R4= _________________
 R5= _________________
 Wires, etc…
Experimental Circuit:

Procedure

 Build the circuit according to the Thevenin equivalent as given in above figure, using V
= 10 volts,
 Now change the value of RL ( ie 1, 2.2, 3.3...........to 10K )
 Adjust the DMM on Voltage and measure load voltage and then measure current.
 Repeat the above step for the remaining RL values
 The larger the value of RL, the greater the load voltage, however, this does not mean that
very large values of RL will produce maximum load power due to the division by RL.
Further, note that as RL increases, total circuit power decreases due to increasing total
resistance. This should lead to an increase in efficiency.
  Now draw two plots between the load power (on vertical axis ) and the load resistance
value ( on Horizontal axis ) using the data from the table, one for theoretical, one for
experimental.
 You can find that the maximum value of PRL occurs at RL = Rth.
Analysis:

Results for maximum power transfer

RL= RL= RL= RL= RL= RL= RL= RL= RL=

RL values

VL

PL(mwatts)

Graph:

TORUBLESHOOTING:-
If the results are not matched then follow these steps.

1) Make sure that the power supply is on and working properly.

2) Make sure you use components with correct value.
 3) Make sure that all grounds are common
4) Make sure that you build your Circuit properly according to the Figure.
5) Make sure that you applied power (+, -) correctly according to the circuit diagram.
6) Check your mearsuring equipment (Multi-meter, Oscilloscope) is adjust correctly and you
mearsuring parameters correctly.
7) If all above steps are correct and you are unable to find the fault then ask your lab staff for
help
Question:
1. From the graph obtained, mathematically calculate the point where power transfer will
be maximum for any general circuit. Also verify that these two points (mathematical
and experimental) are same or not.

2. From the graph obtained, explain how many resistor values will give you same power?

Conclusion:
Explain power transfer theorem in your own words based upon your experimental results?
Experiment #11

First Order RC Circuit

Objective

- The objective of this exercise is to become familiar with the exponential behavior of
capacitors during charging and discharging processes.

Basic Concepts
Capacitor is a passive electric device that stores electric energy. A parallel-plate capacitor is
made of two parallel conductive surfaces, each of area A, separated by an insulation layer of
thickness d, and it has a capacitance of

where C is the capacitance in farads,

A the area of each plate in m2,
d the insulation (dielectric) thickness in (m), and
εo the permittivity of free space (vacuum) for electric field propagation expressed
in F/m.
The factor, κ , pronounced “kappa,” denotes the dielectric constant, and depends on the material
of the insulation layer. The capacitance C does not depend on the material of the conductive
plates. The constant is related to Coulomb’s constant (k) .

Note that the capacitative reactance becomes infinite at zero frequency (DC).
while the capacitor begins to charge. The voltage Vc(t) across the capacitor for t=0 is
given as,

and The current through the capacitor is expressed as,

When the capacitor is begin to discharge, With battery removed, the initial capacitor voltage is
Vo= Q0/C making the initial current I0 = V0 / R the voltage across the capacitor for t=0 is
given as
and the current through the capacitor is

where is called the time constant for the exponential decay, and is a measure of the
duration of transient behavior. The unit of a time constant is seconds, and the smaller it is, the
quicker transient behavior is over.

Examine the values in the above equations by setting t = 0 and t → ∞ in the appropriate
equations. Note that the charge-voltage formula for a capacitor is Q = CV. These variations
will be observed in this experiment

Equipment

 Adjustable DC Power Supply

 Digital Multi-meter
 Breadboard
 Capacitor
 Resistor
 stopwatch (for hardwired experiment)
 Wires, etc…
Experimental Circuit:

Procedure

 Build the circuit according to above figure,

 Note that, Actual values of resistance for resistors and capacitance for capacitors differ
from the value that the manufacturer stamps on them because of “manufacturing
tolerances.”
 Calculate the time constant τ = RC. Try to use a large capacitance and resistance in order
to have a large value for τ for accurate measurements.
 Turn on stopwatch and the power supply for starting the charging process. Using V = 10
volts.
 Note down the current and voltage across the capacitor for equal intervals of time, A good
value for τ is 20 s, and intervals of 10 s
 Obtaining 10 to 15 points for current and voltage is sufficient. But try to charge capacitor
maximum.
 Do not disconnect the circuit. Because while preparation is underway for the discharging
part of the experiment, the capacitor voltage keeps increasing asymptotically toward the
battery voltage.
 Now for discharging the capacitor replace battery with a short and repeat all above steps
and record values of current and voltage in the table.
 Note: Repeat the measurements three times and find the average for each time steps.
Enter the average value in Table. Before repeating the measurements, place a short circuit
across the capacitor to make sure that capacitor has no voltage initially
 Now draw two plots one for charging and one for discharging, between the time
(horizontal axis) and voltage (along vertical axis).
 Now draw two plots one for charging and one for discharging, between the time
(horizontal axis) and voltage (along vertical axis)
  Now draw two plots one for charging and one for discharging, between the time
(horizontal axis) and current (along vertical axis)

Analysis:

Capacitor Charging: (Note that the value of IC at t = 0 is obvious. It is equal to VB/R. Why?)

t (sec) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130

VC
0
(volts)

IC
VB/R
(Amps)

Capacitor Discharging: (Note that the values of VC and IC at t = 0 are obvious. Why?)

t
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
(sec)
VC
VC
(volts)
IC
VC/R
(Amps)
Graph: (Voltage vs. Time in Charging and Discharging Circuit)

Graph: (Current vs. Time in Charging and Discharging Circuit)

Question:
1. For discharging circuit, mathematically calculate an equation for voltage and visualize
whether this is in accordance with experimental results.

2. In charging phase explain the relationship of capacitor voltage with time constant
based upon your experimental results?

Conclusion:
Explain how many time constants are required to get a capacitor fully charged and discharged?
Experiment # 12

First Order RL Circuit

Objective
-To understand the characteristics of RL Series network.
.

Basic concept:
Inductors store energy in the form of an internal magnetic field, and find their behavior dominated
by Faraday’s Law.
An inductor is a coil of wire with the property of electrical inertia. An analogy is the inertia of
mass. Inductors resist increase or decrease in current. The changes of the current through the
inductor create the inductive effect in the coil of wire (inductor) if the current through inductor is
constant or no current then it causes no inductive effect. As we saw that voltage in a capacitor
cannot change instantaneously, similarly current through inductor cannot changes
instantaneously.

As we turn on the power supply the inductor wants to keep the same current as an instant ago
(which is zero)? So, inductor set up an EMF that opposes the current flow. This EMF is identical
to that of the battery (but in the opposite direction) and no current will flow. But, as time passes,
the inductor will gradually relent and current will begin to flow. After a long time a constant
current (I = V/R) will flow through the inductor. General Equations are given below.

In discharging phase equation is ,

τ = L/R is the RL circuit time constant (inductance in Henrys, resistance in Ω), for the exponential
decay, and is a measure of the duration of transient behavior. The unit of a time constant is
seconds, and the smaller it is, the quicker transient behavior is over.
Examine the values in the above equations by setting t = 0 and t → ∞ in the appropriate
equations.

Equipment

 Adjustable DC Power Supply

 Digital Multi-meter
 Breadboard
  inductor
 Resistor
 stopwatch (for hardwired experiment)
 Wires, etc…

Experimental Circuit:

Procedure

 Build the circuit according to above figure,

 Note that, Actual values of resistance for resistors, and inductance for inductors differ
from the value that the manufacturer stamps on them because of “manufacturing
tolerances.”
 Calculate the time constant τ = L/R.
 Turn on stopwatch and the power supply for starting the charging process. Using V = 10
volts.
 For t<0 the power supply is off and no current flows in the circuit. At t=0 the power
supply turns on and current I can begin to flow.
 Note down the current and voltage across the inductor for equal intervals of time, A good
value for τ is 20 s, and intervals of 10 s
 Obtaining 10 to 15 points for current and voltage is sufficient. But try to charge inductor
maximum.
 Do not disconnect the circuit. because while preparation is underway for the discharging
part of the experiment, the inductor current keeps increasing asymptotically toward the
battery voltage/Resistance. Now the inductor is fully charged.
 Now for discharging the inductor replace battery with a short and repeat all above steps
and record values of current and voltage in the table.
 Note: Repeat the measurements three times and find the average for each time steps.
Enter the average value in Table.
  Now draw two plots one for charging and one for discharging, between the time
(horizontal axis) and Current (along vertical axis)

Analysis:

Inductor Charging: (Note that the value of VL at t = 0 is obvious. It is equal to VB. Why?)

t (sec) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130

VL
VBat
(volts)

IL
0
(Amps)

Capacitor Discharging: (Note that the values of VL and IL at t = 0 are obvious. Why?)

t
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
(sec)
VL
Vo
(volts)
IL
VBat/R
(Amps)
Graph: (Current vs. Time in Charging Circuit)

Graph: (Current vs. Time in Discharging Circuit)

Question:
1. For discharging circuit find out the mathematical expression for current and comment
whether this is in consistence with experimental results or not.?

Conclusion:
Conclude mathematically that how many time constant are required to get inductor full
discharged?
Experiment # 13:

Simulation Tool (Optional)

Objective
-To get familiar with any simulation tool for circuit analysis.

Procedure: Procedure varies as per selection of tool (Instructor choice/preference).

-Students are required to include a complete Lab report in manual.