Can you think of a real-life example of a virtuous person? Why do you consider hin/her to be so? 7. How can you apply Aristoti’s eties in improving the | ‘current state of your country? HH Exercises A. Form yourselves into small groups. Evaluate the table ofthe principal virtues end vices. Identify and reflect on your personal experiences where you may Ihave engaged in some of the vices listed there, What factors led to your having such dispositions in these experiences? Do research and find a movie in which Aristotle's virue ethics ie exemplified. | MM Reference pines cs sear Gates cueerl ona | eerste B. CHAPTER II The Natural Law: St. Thomas Aquinas Learning Outcomes [At the end of this chapter, you should be abe to: 1. recognize the meaning of natural law and its relation tocethies; 2. explain how natural law is an imprint of the Divine Will on the free person; 3. appreciate and articulate the role of natural law in ‘rafting an ethical life; and 4. discuss conseience and how this is defined by natural law. Introduction Albert Camus opened his 1942 sominal book, The Myth of Sisyphus, by posing the question, “Why will T not kill myself today?” Locally, such a dramatic recognition of the sorry condition of the World is echoed by a column of Rina Jimenez-David in the daily broadsheet Philippine Daily Inquirer on 25 October 2003 when in frustration she asked “Why woul we not just close down the Philippines?” Camus has lived through the two world wars (19M4~ 1918; 1939-1945) and thus highlights the bitterness of his times and the task of man to lve in sincerity, moderation, land justice with a playful heart even while confronted with utter meaninglessness in life, Jimenez-David saw twoPARY I: THE ACADEMIC ETHICAL TRADITIONS. Philippine people power revolutions (22-25 February 1986; 17-20 January 2001) and some yoars after got so frustrated in the country that she simply wanted to ask every Filipino to live elsewhere. [An tan Catholic priest who balonas to the relinour Order of Precehers of Dominions Si. Thomas Aquinas wosbome 1295 The nee Aquinas identifies Nispiace of ign, Aquino wrich belonged original to the kingdom of Naples and about 120m ‘outhof Rem He wos born to anafuent fond Infuensol fom his fother war ‘recognized othe count Aquino. Hie ory stuias were under the ‘usiage of te Benedictine Abbot of Monte Cosino, But ot the ‘oge of 14, he envaec of the Unversity of Naples. He wes Jcepiy impressed bythe Dominicans wham helatar meta ths Univorsty ‘hot Thoma: decided to jin the Ordor of Preachers atthe oge of {Bin 124d instead ofthe Benedictines who were hs fre taarhers Alter the sruggie wth hs fomly who di not agree wrth Hs being ‘optect wos fal sete, Thomas in 1248 tuced wth Aber the ‘Great (1205-280) Cologne Recogrisingisstudencesa gens, “Abert tok Thomash hen othe Unversity of Pri Thomosloter ‘eecame the mater of Theology this unversty (1256) ond tho remaining 1B years of hi bfe ware spent on ectures,matuctons, “nritngs andquoglvets he woston af ensnenng qvegions posed brrorecpantswhowareln@dcogve somewhat cen tothe ancent smo of he Gros) ‘Thomas ded en 7 March 1274 lsoung behind him notable nak the Suma Contre Gentes, Sunme Thelogiae, and De Vertote The Cathale Church honors him ara Doce asthe ent anes whore recogried as ge af patel mportot sighs inthe understanding of vision doc fat Our present age is not impervious to such attacks of absurdity, frustration, and near desperation, History, however, is gracefully replete with people who have exerted effort in pointing out a viable way out of auch darkness and confusion, One of the options, if one wants to call it that, was arrived at through the meeting between Philosophy and fa religion of revelation that is Christisnity. ‘The best representative of this integration and arguably lso, an ‘excellent thinking through ofa reasonable way that addresses the questions of the human person, is the philosophy of St, Thomas Aquinas. Thomas’ systemic approach that is meant to guide human action is known as an ethies of natural law. While his metaphysics harks back to medieval times of belief in God, his ethical system endures until contemporary times im the moral guidelines followed and lived out by religious baliovers who belong to the Catholic tradition Etsi Deus non daretur ‘Thomas Aquinas begins from the standpoint of faith. Hie perspective presupposes the existence of a God who is the author (source) and the goal (end) ofall realty. This Crestor for Thomas, however, relates in freedom with the human person and so enables him/her in freedom to recognize through reason, the very principle of foundations of al things. In accordance with this foundational knowledge, the human person can choose to act in such a way that is worthy of ‘one's very sfality. One who can reach the wisdom at the very hhoart of all things is obliged to act in accordance with his/ her dignity. The human being then is said to be gifted with ‘the ability to know the highest good” that engages him/ber Jn freedom in “choosing to act on the good that he/she ought {0 do." Froodom here is knowing the best goal and being able to reach for it through decisive action "This is expressedinterirly, that is in the very heart, of every human person as the dictate of “doing good and avoiding evi.” For Aquinas, God reveals his Goodwill as the Bternal Law reflected in the order of reality. Relating with the Law fs governing all is relating with God himself whoso will femanates to govern all that is, The reality then of life as growth, nutrition, and reproduction is founded on the will that is eternal, Even the reality of sensitive consciousness as ruled by instinct that is true of animals is also in accordance ‘with the sume will. That “plants persist to carry themsabves fot to the fullness of being plants” is an imprint of the governing will that comes to human understanding as law. "That “animals governed by instiets behave In such and such way” is also recognized by the human person as following the dictate of law that guides all of coat. ‘The realty ofthe human person who is able, through his/ her intellect, to decide in freedom and, through his/her will, ‘to move himself/herself voluntarily in accordance with the -z00d that he/she can know follows the very will of God who has “created man in His own image” (Genesis 1, 27). Men in His fullness shares life with plants and animals but goes beyond them in his voluntary action and freedom in decisions Human freedom for St. Thomas, therefore, is en imprint of the divine wil in the very being of the oman person. ‘This sharing of human resson in the eternal will or divine law is for him/er the natural law. The relationship betwoon the Eternal and Natural law for hither is expressed in the Sacred book for Christians thus, “since the creation of the ‘world God's invisible willis power and nature—has been clearly seen being understood from what has been made visible so that people are without exeuse” (Romans 1, 20). ‘The Divine will, according to this quote, ean be understood ‘as governing all that is; man’s task isto act in such a way hat his/her part directs it to fullest, tion in the full unfolding of nature This law impinges on the very freedom of the human being who can know his/her options and voluntarily will to tke action. The retinal human person's participation, ability to discern what is good from what is nt, isthe very presence of the dictate of the law within him/her, and is also the imprint on him/hef of the Creator (Divine will), The human person then, who is able to draw up specific laws that govern himself/herself, his/her society, and his/her relationship with all ereation, is also the author of positive Jaws, Natural law necessarily takes precedence over positive Jaws. Not all that is legal in human society reflects the law that dictates on the human person as ethical in accordance ‘with natural law—whatis legal then isnot always necessarily moral ‘This ethies of natural law has gained wide acceptance fat one point in the history of western civilization that it has come to be espoused even if one prescinds fom the faith system that has engendered it, Btsi Deus non davetur is an ‘expression that highlights the validity of this ethical system with or without faith in the Creator God. Literally, etsi Deus non daretur means “oven if there is no God." This implies that the wisdom of the ethical system that is natural law is valid and binding for the human person ven if we bracket ‘elif in God ‘Those yrho came up with the expression etsi Deus non doretur do net advocate atheism or protest against the faith. ‘They simply mean that the deposit of knowledge or “divine wisdom” that comes to us as “natural law” is valid in itself and is, therefore, the reasonable code of conduet even for a man of goodwill who may be without faith. Even the Sacred Scriptures of Christians reflect this, “For when non-believers‘who do not have the law by nature observe the prescriptions of the ln, they axe a law for themselves even though they do rot have the law, They show that the demands of the law are ‘wetten in their hearts” (Romans 2, 14-15). [MMI conscience and Natural Law ‘The ability of man to know is important in his/her acting ethically. Hence, if one follows St. ‘Thomas’ discussion on ‘conscience, one is inclined to conclude that “it is the proper Tunetioning of reason in moving the human person towards ‘an end goal that is fitting of his/her dignity” One cannot do the right thing if one does not know what itis. The famous dictate then to follow the conscience absolutely is tied to an ‘obligation to educate it, Not knowing St. Thomas is not an ‘excuse. Even if one does not know, he/she is obliged to know. fone acts badly out of ignorance and does not act to rectify the situation by bothering to earn, that person isto be held ceauntable according to the Angelie Doctor. While the conscience absolutely binds us in doing the ood end avoiding evil, omscience as resson is also absolutely tasked to be given formation, The conscience, therefore, ean ‘ae mistake, aud being so does not exempt the human person from culpability, If he/she is able to know but fails to act in his/her obligation to do so, thon ho/she isnot fre from blame and responsibilty for what was done. ‘There ate different kinds of conscience that may lead us to wrongdoing: callous, perplexed, scrupulous, end ignorant. ‘The uninformed conscience simply lacks education, while the perplexed one needs guidance in sorting out one's confusion. ‘The callous and serupulows are binary opposites but both are malformed In being too lax or too strict. Callousness of the 50» — (CHAPTER Il: THE NATURAL LAW: ST. THOMAS AQUINAS conscionce results in the long-time persistence in doing evil that the self is no longer concerned whether what he/she does is good or bad. Scrupulousness, on the other hand, fails #0 ‘rust one's ability to do good and, hence, overly concerns itself ‘with avoiding what is bad to the point of seeing wrong where there really is none. If one thinks about it, these different consciences that Jead to badness in action can readily be rectified by education. Putting effort in forming one's own tcnscience beps a person to exit from such malformations, Given such propensity to error of the human conscience, ‘con we then disobey the dictates of our conscience? ‘St. Thomas Aquinas still insists, “absolutely not!” ‘Conscience remains to be our proximate norm that bids 1s todo the good and avoid evil; simply put, going ngainst one's conscience is doing the contrary of the dictate of what one knowingly elects as good. If the extent of what one knows determines what is the good to be done and the evil to be avoided, the self Is obliged to act accordingly, i., “act on the good and shun the bad" ‘These oexasions wgain show the importance of the commitment to edueete one's conscience, basically because one cannot do good if one does not know it and since one's norm for acting isthe obligation that is set by ‘one's conscience: acquisition of knowledge as what ought to be done through education is critical for ethiea living, acconding to St, Thomas Aquinas. Though separated by centuries, the psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg Inter echoes St. Thomas in insisting that “education is erucial for moral living.” Three Contemporary Questions ‘There are relevant questions that eam help the Pilipino student appreciate Thomistie Natural Law. If we follow what thas been earlier said, that natural law is man's participation in the execution of the good and avoidance of evil through stPAR? |: THE ACADEMIC ETHICAL TRADITIONS. the use of his/her reason and will, then three questions that originated from the writing of Alasdair Macintyre can be lappropristed to highlight the relevance of Aquinas today: ‘Who am 1? Who do I want to bo? How ean T get there?” Who om I? Thomistic Natural Law interrogates the identity of the human person. If one is endowed with hie/hor ‘own fecticty, history, and abilities, his/her present reality is accessible to him/her through eelEknowledge and reflection. ‘This ascossment of one's own strengths and weaknesses is critical in being able to do good and avoid evil. This ethical task i not only an outward truth. Doing good determines the factor in reality thet is good and doing bad malforms him/ her too, The realty of human identity is that it is something efined yot also always in process. ‘The task of knowing the self is the point of departure for the task of building up the identity of the human person. Bthies hete does not only cover the issues that usually call ‘our ettention, such a8 abortion, euthanasia, or other burning ‘moral questions of this sort, Ethics for Aquinas is primarily ‘8 question of human identity. “All human acts are moral ‘ctsy" Aquines said. Since it i through his/her acts that man ‘defines himself/herself, the ethical man is the task of his/her froe acts, Defining the self gives one a chance to clatfy his/her goal; hence, it Is important to raise the second question: Who do I want to be? The human person's selF-knowledge fs dynamic, that i, itis always open to the direction set by what one wants to make of himself/herself. SelE-knowledge here is inalleable towards self-determination. Ethical acts sive direction through freedom to build up the self towards a particular goal ” [nesta crore Sore tao emteeeaprerann ear ey 32, an (CHAPTER Il: THE NATURAL LAW: St. THOMAS AQUINAS ‘The human reason is so gifted that it is able to discern trough options and daily realities. Decisions are the basis of one’s freedom in choosing what one wants to be. The self lso considers the truthful transition to what one ought to be. Given this knowledge of himself/herself and the ability to evaluate his/her options and possibilities, the self can also better give direction to himseli/erself ‘The third question is not very far from the other ‘questions. In truth, How can I get there? also fully utilizes he sound judgment of human reason and evaluates the best route to get to the goal decided upon. The last question breaks down the task to be done into the particulars fof actions and daily roitine. Self-knowledge and self determination are here bridged by self-governance. ‘The human person does not only access reason to assess his/her personal identity and personal goal; he/she is also sifted with the will to command the self to go through the steps and, hence, be able to do the transition from Inowledge {o-a fully determined self. Goal setting through reason and decison is complemented by the ability to freely move the self and command the body in action. I is in orchestrating the actions to be consistent with the end in mind that the self reaches improvement. For instance, if one wishes to get ta the goal of finishing 1 degree, one starts with the reality of the self. Knowing what ‘one needs to improve on supports the goal of graduating. A sound decision helps the student to maximize the training fand studies that go with being enrolled in the university. (One knows in honesty that paper diploma that reflects & degre is hardly of value without true knowledge aud mastery of what one is expected to know. Henee, if one's goal is ta graduate with competence, one elects the daily, monthly, semestral, or even yearly tasks that ought to be completed. Professors, lectures, and even exams are then seen in thisPART |: THE ACADEMIC ETHICAL TRADITIONS light as aids in reaching the goal. Furthermore, the self is not only a passive receiver of what transpires externally; one designs the path and cooperates with the situation to reach the end that has been reasonably set by the self The Relational and Perfection of Love in Aquinas Although we have suspended God-talk to make the cate that natural law is relevant even for the human person ‘without faith, the discussion of Thomistic ethics is incomplete if t does not end with the love that is directed towands God. ‘Thomistic natural law is not Christian simply because itis an ethics reconeilable or compatible with faith. Te isa disiptined system that finds ultimate foundation and perfection in the reality of God. While through etsi Deus non daretur we are afforded the autonomy of a reasonable ethies independent from faith, ultimately this ethics is given full meaning and perfection in a relationship with God. ‘The autonomy of ethics from faith afforded a level of isciplined reflection that enables man to not only copy the perfection that is God and apply it to himself/herself and his/her surzoundings, The independence that is given In the ‘ethical order also allows the human person in particularity to be himself/herself, as the singular subject that he/she is. ‘That is, through personal reflection, decisions, goal setting, and praxis, the human person attains the full realization of ‘who he/she is. In this sense, the human being is not merely a stand-in for the Creator God. One is not a robot who learns the direction from everything else and applies it to oneself to function as a tool for Deus ex machina, or the Gol of the machine. The subjectivity of man and one's search for fulfillment readily rest on the decisions and voluntary willing that one makes sa _—— (CHAPTER Il: THE NATURAL Law: ST. THOMAS AQUINAS On the other hand, however, the Divine Will and also the entirety ofall creation cannot be limited by the scope of satisfaction that is exclusively chosen by man, The human being remains to be one particular being among the ‘uultplicity of beings. One cannot, given one's limits, be the fulfilment f everything. Here a protest may arise. Is not is) her goal setting inclusive of “the desire to be everything? Truly, he/she may have the longing, even the potentil, to be what he/she wants to be, stretching itso far as embracing Uxough his/her desire all that is. This potential, however, \lerives from what is actual in the realty of being; wanting to be all in all s not the same as truly being all n all. Yet the \lesre for this has to come from somewhere. Human beings are not eapable of desiring all in all bcause they are limited. Who evokes this thirst in the human person? This desire, therefore, has to come from somewhere or someone else who svakons this in him/her. Hore the relational that is inherent in the natural order ‘nds value. The human person is not ouly bound to find full maximum capacity of one’s being in a search for self sctualization. He/She is not designed to find perfection on his/her own but thoroughly relates with other human persons and all of creation. He/She is not designed to be a Pharisee who is perfect unto himself/herself. He/She is open to be i all and to exist for all. One's goal, therefore, i aot oly to be the “self-made man/woman” but, in his/her full effort, "be open and availabe for everything else” ad “be open for the love or fullags that is beyond him/hes” Ultimately, as held by St. Thomas himself, the true destiny of man lies in a gratuitous perfection that is beyond the human person yet relates with him/her thoroughly in freedom and, therefore, in fullness of love. ‘This relationship and loving invitation excoeds the pos lites of achievernents and realizations that are reachable by the human person in himself/herself. It may be called spiritual, beatific urPART I: THE ACADEMIC ETHICAL TRADITIONS heavenly but in the expanse of what is desired and what is reasonably attainable by the husian person. tis available for him/her only through relating with someone who is beyond him/her. The highest perfection of man for St, Thomas is in his/her wanting to be with God. In the words that are used bby believers, “The ethical man is not the perfect man but one who wants to be saved by cooperating in freedom with what is attainable for him/her” [HEE conclusion ‘Thomas Aquinas was influential in his articulation of the theory of natural law. He showod us that the universe was determined by an order of love that ought to define the Sense of the good of human beings. Whether one believes in «| transcendent, loving god of not, he showed how people could Jntlt an order to things that was inherent to all beings that existed, Whether one was a believer or not, one could se that there fs this order which isthe ground of people's wholeness ‘and selEeallzation. Many philosophers up to this day build ‘upon this ides of a natural order upon which is founded ‘iatural law. Even in legal theories, this foundational idea is influential, However, as Western civilization evolved, other theories also evalved which insisted that the foundation of norms fr the good should be rooted in human reason alone. 1m this school of thought, Immanuel Kent would be one ofthe mast important thinkers. 1. What is the natural law for St. Thomas? How does [EE Guide Questions it guide the human being’s realization of the good? ‘What makes it an imprint of the Divine Will on the fee person? 2. Does obeying the natural law mean that human beings must only conform their self-realization to the Jaws of nature? Explain your answer. 3. Why Is it possible to hold the natural law as a framowork for living a good life even if one does not belove ina god? 4. Why is the quest for doing the good tied to the ‘question “Who am I" 5. Why is the love of God the perfection of the ethical lite Exercise Form groups of five members each. Research and discuss ‘among yourselves the following topics guided by the natural Jaw of St, ‘Thomas. Explain how they can help you decide one ofthe followings > whether abortion is morally acceptable and in what ecumstances >> whether contractual labor is morally acceptable and ‘why oF why not > whether one can charge interest fora Joan and why or why not > whether one can revolt against tyrannical government administration Assign a reporter to share with the class your reflection. Present the main discussions and justifications, and discuss the agreements and disagreements among the members of your group. 97HB References Aquinas, Tomas, Summa thealogiae: Critical essays edited bby Brlan Davies. Oxford: Rowman & Litleficld, 2006, de Finance, Joseph. An Ethical Inquiry. Roma: Bitrice ontitica Universita Gregorians, 1991. Keonan, James. Goodness and Rightness in Thomas Aquinas, Washington DC: Georgetown University Pross, 1992, Pincers, Servins. Sources of Christian Ethics. Washington DC: Catholic University of America Press, 1995. 58, Chapter III Deontological Ethics: Immanuel Kant Learning Outcomes At the end ofthis chapter, you should be able to 1. recognize the meaning of deontological ethos; 2. explain the categorical imperative: 3. appreciate and erticulate the role of duty in crafting fm ethical life; and 44. apply the principle of the categorical imperative in ‘moral dilemma, Introduction Franz Kafka once gave voice to the solitude of man and his/her task to find his/her own way. Kafka wrote the stary of *an imperial message” directly addressing the reader as the pathetic subject. The story started with the sending of ‘a message from the farthest distance. A dying king ordered Ils Herald to bring his whispered message. After confirming the accuracy of the message, the Herald was sent breaking down obstyucting walls and going beyond the great ones of the empire at first. Eventually, however, he is slowed down by the huge crowd and the infinite distance that lie between hhim and the receiver of the message. The reader to whom the message is addressed in the end sits by the window dreaming of the message that may come.