Vector and Tensor Analysis

Introduction

6 hrs sleep
Wake up -7 am
Start studying at 8 am
8 to 10 am – mass transfer
10 30 to 12 30 transport phenomenon

2 pm to 8 pm – ( almost 4 productive hrs for studies ) ( sat and

sunday )

In 8-10 hrs me 2no dino ke … usme 1 hr stoat software kyu

seekha kya motivation tha and usme tumhari obseravtions kya hai
, simulation ka pehle soft tha wo tumhara to , tumhe kaisa lgta hai
ki data given ho to simulate krne se , chem eng ko kitni advantage
mil jaati hai

Simulation software seekne ka baad

Professor inspired you ki ye sirf basic waste water management
ka software hai …. Chemical industries me designing ,
optimisation ke bhot software shote hai ,, to tum usme kis trah
and kitna interested ho , is sb ka ek achha sa mind me answer

And answer should include ki .., exon me work krne se me in skills

ko bho seek paungi.

( this answer ccan be used at this time )

What motivates you to join exon ?

2 dino me basic answers soch lena ki .. tum pehle se exon ke liye

bhot excited the ( and baat dhan se honi chiye , thodi si feelings
honic chaiye ye bolte time ( tumhare answers nakli lgte kabhi kbhi
, jo bolo saaf mn se bolo … and sochkr bolo , English flaunt nhi
krni hai pause le lekr, clarity of thoughts ke saath ,.. answers hone
chiye …

Kuch hard nhi .. inko revise krne ka ya dobara read krne k 15 15

mins baaki dino me nikal lena sb sorted hai phir
Heat exchangers padhne hai ache se .. meri report read krlena .. 1
hr me jaldi jaldi read krna

Pumps ko revise krna hai

Pressure relieves ka basic concept revise krna hai

Iski jyada depth me nhi jaana

Baaki time me jo subjects ab tk revise kiye hai unko dobara revise

krn hai bsssss

9 30 – 11 :00 transport phenomenon

11-12 mass transfer

12 -1 ( both days ---record writing )

1- 7 am sleep

MONDAY

7 AM WAKEUP
8 – 8 50 ( intern subject preparation)

9-10 – ( revise your mass transfer basics for intern and exam
both)

In mass transfer 2 class , go outside the class , ( no attendece )

therefore study in another class and continue your intern subject
preperartion)

---nano tech

No python class on Monday

Therefore go back to room – take some rest till 2 pm ( including
nap )
Start
Studying at 2 pm
2 to 3 study intern related subject , maybe application of
thermodynamics
From 3 pm onwards – you have 2hrs and 30 mins to study for your
mt minor exam

After exam
Come back ,, start revising transport phenomenon
9 – 11 , study transport phenomenon

11- 12 , group discussion.. I will give you the topic , and we will
discuss

12 -1:00 focus on how to remain calm in gd , and focus on

supporting your points , giving your point is not the only thing
required your need to support you idea also , in easy language ..
But should be should

Sleep 1 to 7

Come to only one class transport phenomenon on Tuesday

Then go back to room

Intern time

Main mudda – core subject ke application questions ko answer

krte time sochna hai ki maine khi to iska answer padha ya dekha ,
ya kisi lab me , ya kbhi to suna hai … ek baar saare options
sochna , na aaye mind me to bina ghabraye ,, bolna ki maine ye
pehle nhi padha hai ,, but agr ye topic itna important hai , to me
ispr jrur work krungi and isko seekhungi ………. ( highly optioal
cheez ……Yha pr koi example dal skte ho ki .. ki last interview me ,
mujhse poocha gya tha hi heat exchanger design me konsa
method …. Kern method better hai ya bell method … ( pehle se
answer padhke jaana ) … ..
Tumne tbtk ye sb nhi padha tha pehle kbhi but ab tumne wo padh
liya hai and uspr work krliya hai ….

Ye design wala example .. tumhare interview ko isi direction me

mod skta hai to .. equipment design aata hai tumhe ye sunkr
achha lgega

11 to 1 30 study transport phenomenon

Mess

Then matlab

Notes leke jaana transport phenomena ke

Purane codes copy krne hai assignment me sirf

Koi nya code nhi likhna khudse

Sirf dikhawa krna hai

Copy krne aur dikhawa krne me , at max thoda thoda time doge to
3 hr me se 45 mins hi waste hongi max

Baaki 2 hr , transport phenomena padho

5 to 6 , again revise transport phenomena

After exam

Its an order
Directly go to the mess eat and come back to room and sleep for
two hrs forcefully sona pde to so
…
10 bje se padhna shuru , revise your answers … basic answers …
Your projects , usme ky seekha , usko kaha kaha implement kiya
jaa sktaa hai aage kbhi

2 bj gye

So jao
Jitna hua haai theek hai tumhe bhot kuch aata hai
Bs jo decide krke Rakha hai ki is time ye wo krna hai baaki kuch
nhi sochna hai

WEDNESDAY

SUBAH 8 AM UTHO MESS JAO

NAHAO
Aaj kuch nya padhne ka nhi sochna hai … bs apne answers mind
me read krne hai aur bol bolkr bhi

Mind me thode imaginary questions bnane hai

Example – me hard situation me hu , mujhe answer aata hai pr
bhool rhi hu ,,,, to usko kaise deal krungi ---- maybe ye boldu ki ..
me is question ko interview ke end me answer kr skti hu , bcoz me
aapka time waste nhi krna chahti ,, and bs wo mere mind me hi
hai to maybe me end me ise ache se answer kr pau …

And isliye bhi bcoz , mujhe lgta hai isko baad me answer krne se ,
me abhi baaki answers ko ache se de paungi bina iska soche

And aapk bhi time waste nhi hoga

Aise hi thodi hypothetical situations ,……..

Transport Phenomena is the subject which deals with the movement of

different physical quantities in any chemical or mechanical process and
describes the basic principles and laws of transport. It also describes the
relations and similarities among different types of transport that may occur
in any system. Transport in a chemical or mechanical process can be
classified into three types:

1. Momentum transport deals with the transport of momentum in

fluids and is also known as fluid dynamics.
2. Energy transport deals with the transport of different forms of
energy in a system and is also known as heat transfer.
3. Mass transport deals with the transport of various chemical species
themselves.

Three different types of physical quantities are used in transport

phenomena: scalars (e.g. temperature, pressure and concentration),
vectors (e.g. velocity, momentum and force) and second order tensors
(e.g. stress or momentum flux and velocity gradient). It is essential to have
a primary knowledge of the mathematical operations of scalar, vector and
tensor quantities for solving the problems of transport phenomena. In fact,
the use of the indicial notation in cartesian coordinates will enable us to
express the long formulae encountered in transport phenomena in a concise
and compact fashion. In addition, any equation written in vector tensor
form is equally valid in any coordinate system.
 In this course, we will using the following notations for scalar, vector and
tensor quantities:
a,b,c scalar quantities

s: vector quantities

2nd order tensor quantities

Cartesian coordinates and unit vectors

A xyz cartesian coordinate system may also be conventionally written as

shown in Fig.1.1 below.

Fig. 1.1 3-dimensional cartesian coordinate system with unit

vector
Here, and are the unit vectors in x, y and z direction
respectively.
Tensor quantities

Most of us might have already encountered scalars and vectors in the study
of high-school physics. It was pointed out that the vectors also have a
direction associated with them along with a magnitude, whereas scalars
only have a magnitude but no direction. Extending this definition, we can
loosely define a 2nd order tensor as a physical quantity which has a
magnitude and two different directions associated with it. To better
understand, why we might need two different directions for specifying a
particular physical quantity. Let us take the example of the stresses which
may arise in a solid body, or in a fluid. Clearly, the stresses are associated
with magnitude of forces, as well as with an area, whose direction is also
need to be specified by the outward normal to the face of the area on which
a particular force acting. Hence, we will require 32, i.e., 9 components to
specify a stress completely in a 3 dimensional cartesian coordinate system.
In general, an nth order tensor will be specified by 3n components (in a 3-
dimensional system). However, the number of components alone cannot
determine whether a physical quantity is a vector or a tensor. The
additional requirement is that there should be some transformation rule for
obtaining the corresponding tensors when we rotate the coordinate system
about the origin. Thus, the tensor quantities can be defined by two essential
conditions:

1. These quantities should have 3n components. According to this

definition, scalar quantities are zero order tensors and have 30=
1 component. Vector quantities are first order tensors and have 31 =
3 components. Second order tensors have 32 = 9 components and
third order tensors have 33 = 27 components. Third and higher order
tensors are not used in transport phenomena, and are not dealt here.
2. The second necessary requirement of any tensor quantity is that it
should follow some transformation rule.

Kronecker delta & Alternating Unit Tensor

There are two quantities which are quite useful in conveniently and
concisely expressing several mathematical operations on tensors. These
are the Kronecker delta and the alternating unit tensor.

Kronecker delta

Kronecker delta or Kronecker’s delta is a function of two index variables,

usually integer, which is 1 if they are equal and 0 otherwise.

It is expressed as a symbol δij

δij=1, if i=j

δij=0, if i≠j
Thus, in three dimensions, we may also express the Kronecker delta in
matrix form
Alternating unit tensor

The alternating unit tensor εijk is useful when expressing certain results in
a compact form in index notation. It may be noted that the alternating unit
tensor has three index and therefore 27 possible combinations but it is a
scalar quantity .

• εijk=0 if any two of indices i, j, k are equal. For

example ε113,ε131,ε111,ε222=0
• εijk=+1 when the indices i, j, k are different and are in cyclic
order (123), For example ε123

• εijk=-1 when the indices i, j, k are different and are in anti-cyclic

order. For example ε321

Free indices and Dummy indices

Free indices
Free indices are the indices which occur only once in each tensor term. For
example, i is the free index in following expression vij wj
In any tensorial equation, every term should have an equal number of free
indices. For example, vij wj =cj dj is not a valid tensorial expression since
the number of free indices (index i) is not equal in both terms.
Any free indices in a tensorial expression can be replaced by any other
indices as long as this symbol has not already occurred in the expression.
For example, Aij Bj= CiDjEj is equivalent to Akj Bj= CkDjEj.

The number of free indices in an equation gives the actual number of

mathematical equations that will arise from it. For example, in
equation Aij Bj= CiDjEj corresponds to 31 = 3 equations since there is only
one free indices i. It may be noted that each indices can take value i=1, 2
or 3.

Dummy indices
Dummy indices are the indices that occur twice in a tensor term. For
example, j is the dummy index in Aij Bj.
Any dummy index implies the summation of all components of that tensor
term associated with each coordinate axis. Thus, when we write Aiδi, we

actually imply .

Any dummy index in a tensor term can be replaced by any other symbol as
long as this symbol has not already occurred in previous terms. For
example, Aijkδjδk= Aipqδpδq.

Note: The dummy indices can be renamed in each term separately in a

equations but free indices should be renamed for all terms in a tensor
equations. For example, Aij Bj= CiDjEj can be replaced by Akp Bp= CkDjEj.

Here, i is the free index which has been replaced by k in both terms but j is
a dummy index and can be replaced either in one term or both.

Summation convention in vector and tensor analysis

According to the summation convention rule, if k is a dummy index which
repeats itself in a term then there should be a summation sign associated
with it. Therefore, we can eliminate the implied summation sign and can
write the expression in a more compact way. For example, using the
summation convention

can be simply written as εijkεljk . Since j and k are

repeating, there is no need to write summation sign over these indices
Relation between alternating unit tensor and Kronecker delta

When two indices are common between the two alternating unit tensors,
that the following can be shown easily

.........................................................................(2.1)

When one index is common between the two alternating unit tensors, there
product may be written as

..........................................................(2.2)

Example: A three by three determinant may be written in terms of the εijk as

follows

............................................... (2.3)

Representation of a vector quantity

A vector which has three components , and may be

written as
Therefore, vector may be represented

as or or and so on.

Mathematical operations on vectors

Addition of two vectors

.................................................(2.4)

In the same way, subtraction of vectors may be carried out as follows

................................................(2.5)

Multiplication of two vectors

Any two vectors may be multiplied in three different ways: (a) dyadic
product, (b) dot product, and (c) cross product.

(a) Dyadic Product of two vectors

The dyadic product is a mathematical operation on two vectors, which

changes the order of the resultant quantity by one. Since the order of the
two vectors is one each, the order of the resulting term is 1+1=2. Thus,
the dyadic product of two vectors gives a second order tensor. To
mathematically denote the dyadic product, we simply write the two vectors
next to each other without any sign in between.

Example:

.................................................................................(2.6)
Here is a vector quantity and is the gradient operator,

also a vector quantity. Hence, the resultant quantity is a

second order tensor.

Note that here we have collected scalar quantities together while unit
vectors are also collected but written at the end of the expression.

(b) Scalar product or dot product of two vectors

The dot product is a mathematical operation on two vectors, which reduces

the order of tensor of the resultant quantity by two. Hence, the dot product
of two vectors results a tensor of zero order, i.e. a scalar quantity.
Mathematically, the dot product is defined as

where v and w denote the respective magnitudes of the two vectors,

and Φvw denotes the angle formed between the two vectors.

(c) Vector product or cross product of two vectors

The cross product is a mathematical operation on two vectors, which

reduces the order of tensor of the resultant quantity by one. Hence, cross
product of two vectors results a first order tensor i.e., a vector quantity.
Mathematically, the cross product is defined as

.......................(2.7)

Figure 2.1: Cross product of vector and

Here, v and w denote the respective magnitudes of the two
vectors, Φvw denotes the angle formed between the two vectors, and
is a unit vector which is normal to the plane containing vectors and
.

Vector operations with unit vectors

Dot product of two unit vectors

If , , are the three unit vectors along the axes in a cartesian

coordinate system, then the dot product of these vectors has 9 possibilities

and

Hence, all the nine terms may be written in concise form by using the
Kronecker delta. If i and j are the free indices, then

because then , and

if then

Compaction Operations

Whenever a Kronecker delta is present in an operation, it may be

removed by replacing either i by j or j by i in the expression. For

example, or .

Cross product of two unit vectors

If , , are the three unit vectors, then the cross product of these
vectors has 9 possibilities as shown below

and
and finally

Hence, all nine possible combinations may be written in concise form by

using the alternating unit tensor.

Here, i and j are free indices (hence, 9 equations) and k is a dummy index
(In each term on left and right had side three terms are added together ).

Proof:

Since,

Similarly, all other possible combination may also be shown to follow

Equation (2.10).

Example

, where

In the above equation, k is the free index, whereas i and j are the dummy
indices. If k = 1,
(all other terms are zero)

Similarly, if k=2,

and for k=3,

Hence,

Vector differential operation or del operation

The vector differential operator is defined in the rectangular

coordinate system as follows
The vector differential of the del operation is always followed by a quantity
which can be a scalar or a vector or a tensor.

Del operation on scalars

Del operation of a scalar s is called the gradient of the scalar s and is

defined as follows:

Del operation on vectors

Three types of del operations are possible for vector quantities: (a)
gradient, (b) divergence, and (c) curl of a vector field

(a) Gradient of vector field

Dyadic product of the del operator and a vector quantity is called

the gradient of a vector field and is a second order tensor quantity. If is
a vector quantity then gradient of a vector field is

(b) Divergence of vector field

Dot product of the del operator and a vector quantity is called the
divergence of vector field. It is a scalar quantity. If is a vector quantity
then divergence of a vector field is
(c) Curl of vector field

Cross product of the del operator and a vector quantity is called curl of
vector field. It is a vector quantity. If is a vector quantity then curl of a
vector field is

(d) Laplacian of a scalar field

If we compute the divergence of the gradient of a scalar field s then it is

called the Laplacian of scalar field s. To understand this, let

consider be the divergence of a vector field where is the is

the gradient of a scalar quantity s, i.e.,

Then,
Therefore, the Laplacian operator may be defined as

(e) Laplacian of a vector

Laplacian of a vector field is similarly defined as follows

Second necessary requirement of a vector quantity

Before proceeding further, we would like to revisit the definition of a vector.

As we have discussed earlier there are two necessary requirements for a
physical quantity to be a vector. The first requirement is that any vector
quantity should have three components. The second necessary requirement
is that it should follow certain transformation rule when the coordinates are
rotated by some angle.
Thus a rigorous definition of vector is that it has 31=3 components and it
follows the following transformation rule

where i is the dummy index and p is the free index

v'p are the components of vector in new rotated coordinate system

and vi are the components of vector in the old coordinate system. Here,
For example, for p = 1, we have

Proof of transformation rule in two dimensional coordinate system

Fig 3.1 Rotation of axes

As shown in Fig. 3.1 , x1 and x2 are the old axes and v1 and v2 are
components of vector in the old axes. If axes are rotated by angle α.
Now, new axis are x1' and x2' and the components of vector in new
coordinate are v'1 and v'2. The angle of x1’ axis to line which joins origin
to is θ. therefore, we have

and

Thus,
Similarly, for component v2

From Equation (3.18) and Equation (3.21), we can solve for v'1 and v'2 in
terms of v1 and v2 as shown below

which may be generalized to

This prooves that vector in a two dimentional coordinate systems

follows the transformation rool given above in Equation (3.12).

Second order tensor

Analogous to a vector, second order tensor must also follow some

transformation rules. Firstly, they should contain 32 = 9 components and
secondly, they should also follow the following transformation rule as
follows.

if m=1 and n=1 then, and from Equation (4.1), we have

For a second order tensor, are the normal components of

the tesnor and this second order tensor is symmetric, if

2nd order tensor as dyadic product of two vectors

As we have discussed earlier, the dyadic product of two vectors is

a 2nd order tensor quantity. For example, if and are two vectors, then

From Equation 4.6, we can see that on the right hand side nine terms have
been added together and if we omit the product of unit vectors, the nine
components may written as shown below
Thus,

Mathematical operations for 2nd order tensors

The following mathematical operations are possible for 2nd order tensor
quantities

Addition of 2nd order tensors

Tensors of the same order can be added or subtracted as follows

Similarly,

Multiplication of tensors

Various multiplication operations are possible between two different order

tensors. Some of these are shown below

Multiplication of a 2nd order tensor by a scalar

A scalar and a 2nd order tensor quantity can be multiplied as follows

Multiplication of a 2nd order tensor by a vector

A vector and a 2nd order tensor can be multiplied in various ways:

1. Dyadic product of a vector and 2nd order tensor

Dyadic product of vector and tensor is a third order tensor. Though, it is

not required in transport phenomena, may still be computed as shown
below

2. Dot product of a vector and a 2nd order tensor

Dot operation reduces the order of resulting quantity by two. Hence, the
dot product of a vector and a tensor is a vector quantity. For example,

if is a 2nd tensor and is a vector quantity, then

Next, we perform the dot operation between two the nearest unit vectors
as shown below

replace j by k or k by j

thus

For example, if i = 1, then

3. Cross product of a vector and a 2nd order tensor

Cross operation reduces the order of resulting quantity by one. Hence, the
cross product of a vector and second order tensor is a second order tensor.

For example, if is a tensor and is a vector quantity, then

Multiplication of two 2nd order tensors

Four types of multiplication operations may be performed between two

second order tensor quantities.

Dyadic Product of two tensors

Dyadic product of two second order tensors is a fourth order tensor
quantity. It is not discussed here as this is not required in transport
phenomena.

Cross product of two tensors

Cross product of two second order tensors is a third order tensor quantity
and is not discussed here for the same reason as above

Dot product of tensors (tensor product)

Dot reduces the order of resultant quantity by two. Thus, the dot product
of two second order tensors is a second order tensor quantity.

If and are two second order tensors, then

While performing the dot product between two unit vectors, the order in
which indices appear above, should not be changed and the dot product
should be performed between the two nearest unit vectors.

Replace k by j (or you may also replace j by k) (compaction operation)

Double dot product or Scalar product of two second order tensors

Double dot operation reduces the order of resultant quantity by four. Thus,
the double dot product of two second order tensors is a scalar quantity.

If and are two second order tensors, then

First dot operation should take place between the two nearer vectors and
the next dot operation should take place between two remaining unit
vectors. Hence,

(Replace k by j)

(Replace l by i)

which is a scalar quantity.

Del operations involving second order tensors

Divergence of a second order tensor field

If is a second order tensor then divergence of the tensor field is

Some examples of proof of vector and tensor identities.

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………
NEW
………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………

Momentum Transport

Momentum transport deals with the transport of momentum which is

responsible for flow in fluids. Momentum transport describes the science of
fluid flow also called fluid dynamics. A few basic assumptions are involved
in fluid flow and these are discussed below.

No slip boundary condition

This is the first basic assumption used in momentum transport. It deals

with the fluid flowing over a solid surface, and states that whenever a fluid
comes in contact with any solid boundary, the adjacent layer of the fluid in
contact with the solid surface has the same velocity as the solid surface.
Hence, we assumed that there is no slip between the solid surface and the
fluid or the relative velocity is zero at the fluid–solid interface. For example,
consider a fluid flowing inside a stationary tube of radius R as shown in Fig
7.1. Since the wall of the tube at r=R is stationary, according to the no-slip
condition implies that the fluid velocity at r=R is also zero.
 Fig 7.1 Fluid flow in a circular tube of radius R

In the second example as shown in Fig. 7.2, there are two plates which are
separated by a distance h, and some fluid is present between these plates.
If the lower plate is forced to move with a velocity V in x direction and the
upper plate is held stationary, no-slip boundary conditions may be written
as follows

Fig 7.2 Two parallel plates at stationary condition

Thus, every layer of fluid is moving at a different velocity. This leads to

shear forces which are described in the next section.

Newton’s Law of Viscosity

Newton’s law of viscosity may be used for solving problem for Newtonian
fluids. For many fluids in chemical engineering the assumption of
Newtonian fluid is reasonably acceptable. To understand Newtonian fluid,
let us consider a hypothetical experiment, in which there are two infinitely
large plates situated parallel to each other, separated by a distance h. A
fluid is present between these two plates and the contact area between the
fluid and the plates is A.
A constant force F1 is now applied on the lower plate while the upper plate
is held stationary. After steady state has reached, the velocity achieved by
the lower plate is measured as V1. The force is then changed, and the new
velocity of the plate associated with this force is measured. The experiment
is then repeated to take sufficiently large readings as shown in the following
table.

If the F/A is plotted against V/h, we may observe that they lie on a straight
line passing through the origin.

Fig 7.4 Shear stress vs. shear stain

Thus, it may be said that F/A is proportional to v/h for a Newtonian fluid.

It may be noted that it is the velocity gradient which leads to the

development of shear forces. The above equation may be re-written as

In the limiting case, as h → 0, we have

where, µ is a constant of proportionality, and is called as the viscosity of

the fluid. The quantity F/A represents the shear forces/stress. It may be

represented as , where the subscript x indicates the direction of force

and subscript y indicates the direction of outward normal of the surface on

which this force is acting. The quantity or the velocity gradient is also
called the shear rate. µ is a property of the fluid and is measured the
resistance offered by the fluid to flow. Viscosity may be constant for many
Newtonian fluids and may change only with temperature.

Thus, the Newton’s law of viscosity, in its most basic form is given as

Here, both ‘+’ or ‘–’ sign are valid. The positive sign is used in many fluid
mechanics books whereas the negative sign may be found in transport

phenomena books. If the positive sign is used then may be called the

shear force while if the negative sign is used may be referred to as

the momentum flux which flows from a higher value to a lower value.
The reason for having a negative sign for momentum flux in the transport
phenomena is to have similarities with Fourier's law of heat conduction in
heat transport and Ficks law of diffusion in mass transport. For example, in
heat transport, heat flows from higher temperature to lower temperature
indicating that heat flux is positive when the temperature gradient is
negative. Thus, a minus sign is required in the Fourier's law of heat

conduction. The interpretation of as the momentum flux is

that x directed momentum flows from higher value to lower value
in y direction.

The dimensions of viscosity are as follows:

The SI unit of viscosity is kg/m.s or Pa.s. In CGS unit is g/cm.s and is

commonly known as poise (P). where 1 P = 0.1 kg/m.s. The unit poise is
also used with the prefix centi-, which refers to one-hundredth of a poise,
i.e. 1 cP = 0.01 P. The viscosity of air at 25oC is 0.018 cP, water at 25oC is 1
cP and for many polymer melts it may range from 1000 to 100,000 cP, thus
showing a long range of viscosity.

Laminar and turbulent flow

Fluid flow can broadly be categorized into two kinds: laminar and turbulent.
In laminar flow, the fluid layers do not inter-mix, and flow separately. This
is the flow encountered when a tap is just opened and water is allowed to
flow very slowly. As the flow increases, it becomes much more irregular
and the different fluid layers start mixing with each other leading to
turbulent flow. Osborne Reynolds tried to distinguish between the two kinds
of flow using an ingenious experiment and known as the Reynolds’s
experiment. The basic idea behind this experiment is described below.

Reynolds’s experiment
 Fig 7.5 Reynolds’s experiments

The experiment setup used for performing the Reynolds's experiment is

shown in Fig. 7.5. The average velocity of fluid flow through the pipe
diameter can be varied. Also, there is an arrangement to inject a colored
dye at the center of the pipe. The profile of the dye is observed along the
length of the pipe for different velocities for different fluids. If this
experiment is performed, it may be seen that for certain cases the dye
shows a regular thread type profile, which is seen at low fluid velocity and
flow is called laminar flow. when the fluid velocity is increased the dye starts
to mixed with the fluid and for larger velocities simply disappears. At this
point fluid flow becomes turbulent.
For the variables average velocity of fluid vz avg, pipe diameter D, fluid
density ρ, and the fluid viscosity µ, Reynolds found a dimensionless group
which could be used to characterize the type of fluid flow in the tube. This
dimensionless quantity is known as the Reynolds number. From the
experiment, It was observed that if Re >2100, the dye simply disappeared
and the flow has changed to laminar to turbulent flow.

Thus, for Re <2100, we have laminar flow, i.e., no mixing in the radial
direction leading to a thread like flow and for Re >2100, we have the
turbulent flow, i.e., mixing in the radial direction between layers of fluid.
In laminar flow, the fluid flows as a stream line flow with no mixing between
layers. In turbulent flow, the fluid is unstable and mixes rapidly due to
fluctuations and disturbances in the flow. The disturbance might be present
due to pumps, friction of the solid surface or any type of noise present in
the system. This makes solving fluid flow problem much more difficult. To
understand the difference in the velocity profile in two kinds of fluid flows,
we consider a fluid flowing to a horizontal tube in z direction under steady
state condition. Then, we can intuitively see the velocity profile may be
shown below

For laminar flow, it is observed that fluid flows as smooth stream line and
all other components of velocity are zero. Thus

For turbulent flow, if we observe the fluid flows at a local point. It is

observed that fluid flows in very random manner in all directions where
these local velocities may be the function of any dimensions.

Thus, we see that for laminar flow there is only one component of velocity
present and it depends only on one coordinate whereas the solution of
turbulent flow may be vary complex.
For turbulent flow, one can ask the question that if the fluid is flowing in
the z direction then why are the velocity components in r and θ direction
non-zero? The mathematical answer for this question can be deciphered
from the equation of motion. The equation of motion is a non-linear partial
differential equation. This non-linear nature of the equation causes
instability in the system which produces flow in other directions. The
instability in the system may occur due to any disturbances or noise present
in the environment. On the other hand, if the velocity of fluid is very low
the deviation due to disturbances may decay with time, and becomes
negligible after that. Thus the flow remains in laminar region. Consider a
practical example in which some cars are moving on the highway in the
same direction but in the different lanes at different speeds. If suddenly,
some obstacle comes on the road, then if the car's speed is sufficiently low,
it can move on to other lane smoothly and come back to its original lane
after the obstacle is crossed. This is the regular laminar case. On the other
hand, if the car is moving at a high speed and suddenly encounters an
obstacle, then the driver may lose control, and this car may move
haphazardly and hit other cars and after that traffic may never return to
normal traffic conditions. This is the turbulent case.

Internal and external flows

Depending on how the fluid and the solid boundaries contact each other,
the flow may be classified as internal flow or external flow. In internal flows,
the fluid moves between solid boundaries. As is the case when fluid flows
in a pipe or a duct. In external flows, however, the fluid is flowing over an
external solid surface, the example may be sited is the flow of fluid over a
sphere as shown in Fig. 8.1.
 Fig 8.1 External flow around a sphere

Boundary layers and fully developed regions

Let us now consider the example of fluid flowing over a horizontal flat plate

as shown in Fig. 8.2. The velocity of the fluid is before it encounters

the plate. As the fluid touches the plate, the velocity of the fluid layer just
adjacent to the plate surface becomes zero due to the no slip boundary
condition. This layer of fluid tries to drag the next fluid layer above it and
reduces its velocity. As the fluid proceeds along the length of the plate
(in x-direction), each layer starts to drag adjacent fluid layer but the effect
of drag reduces as we go further away from the plate in y-direction. Finally,
at some distance from the plate this drag effect disappears or becomes
insignificant. This region where the velocity is changing or where the
velocity gradients exists, is called the boundary layer region. The region
beyond boundary layer where the velocity gradients are insignificant is
called the potential flow region.

Fig 8.2 External flow over a flat plate

As depicted in Fig. 8.2, the boundary layer keeps growing along the x-
direction, and may be referred to as the developing flow region. In internal
flows (e.g. fluid flow through a pipe), the boundary layers finally merge
after flow over a distance as shown in Fig. 8.3 below.
 Fig 8.3 Developing flow and fully developed flow region

The region after the point at which the layers merge is called the fully
developed flow region and before this it is called the developing flow region.
In fact, fully developed flow is another important assumption which is taken
for finding solution for varity of fluid flow problem. In the fully developed
flow region (as shown in Figure 8.3), the velocity vz is a function
of r direction only. However, the developing flow region, velocity vz is also
changing in the z direction.

Main axioms of transport phenomena

The basic equations of transport phenomena are derived based on following

five axioms.
1. Mass is conserved, which leads to the equation of continuity.
2. Momentum is conserved, which leads to the equation of motion.
3. Moment of momentum is conserved leads to an important result that

the 2nd order stress tensor is symmetric.

4. Energy is conserved, which leads to equation of thermal energy.
5. Mass of component i in a multi-component system is conserved,
which leads to the convective diffusion equation.

The solution of equations, resulting from axiom 2, 4 and 5 leads to the

solution of velocity, temperature and concentration profiles. Ones these
profiles are known, all other important information needed can be
determined. We first take the axiom -1. Other axioms will be taken up one
by one letter on.
There are three types of control volumes (CV) which may be chosen for
deriving the equations based these axioms.
• Rectangular shaped control volume fixed in space

In this case, the control volume is rectangular volume element and

is fixed in space. This method is the easiest to understand but
requires more number of steps.
 • Irregular shaped control volume element fixed in space

In this case, the control volume can be of any shape, but it is again
fixed in space. This method is somewhat more difficult than the
previous method as it requires little better understanding vector
analysis and surface and volume integrals.

• Material volume approach

In this case, the control volume can be of any shape but moves with
the velocity of the flowing fluid. This method is most difficult in terms
of mathematics, but requires least number of steps for deriving the
equations.

All three approaches when applied to above axiom, lead to the same
equations. In this web course, we follow the first approach. Other
approaches may be found elsewhere.
Axioms-1

Mass is conserved
Consider a fluid of density ρ flowing with velocity as shown in Fig. 8.4.
Here, ρ and are functions of space (x,y,z) and time (t). For conversion
of mass, the rate of mass entering and leaving from the control volume
(net rate of inflow) has to be evaluated and this should be equal to the rate
of accumulation of mass in the control volume (CV). Thus, conservation of
mass may be written in words as given below
 Fig 8.4 Fixed rectangular volume element through which fluid is
flowing

The equation is then divided by the volume of the CV and converted into
a partial differential equation by taking the limit as all dimensions go to
zero. This limit effectively means that CV collapses to a point, thereby
making the equation valid at every point in the system.

Let m and m+Δm be the mass of the control volume at

time t and t+Δt respectively. Then, the rate of accumulation,

In order to evaluate the rate of inflow of mass into the control volume, we
need to inspect how mass enters the control volume. Since the fluid velocity
has three components vx, vy and vz, we need to identify the components
which cause the inflow or the outflow at each of the six faces of the
rectangular CV. For example, it is the component vx which forces the fluid
to flow in the x direction, and thus it makes the fluid enter or exit through
the faces having area ΔyΔz at x = x and x = x+Δx respectively. The
component vy forces the fluid in y direction, and thus it makes the fluid
enter or exit through the faces having area ΔxΔz at y = y and y = y+Δy
respectively. Similarly, the component vz forces the fluid to flow
in z direction, and thus it makes fluid enter or exit through the faces having
area ΔxΔy at z = z and z = z+Δ z respectively.

The rate mass entering in x direction through the surface ΔyΔz is

(ρvxΔyΔz|x), the rate of mass entering in y direction through the
surface ΔxΔz is (ρvyΔxΔz|y) and the rate of mass entering from z direction
through the surface ΔxΔy is (ρvzΔxΔy|z). In a similar manner, expressions
for the rate of mass leaving from the control volume may be written.

Thus, the conservation of mass leads to the following expressions

Dividing the Equation (8.1) by the volume ΔxΔyΔz, we obtain

Note that each term in Equation (8.2) has the unit of mass per unit volume
per unit time. Now, taking the limits Δx→0, Δy→0 and Δz→0, we get
and using the definition of derivative, we finally obtain

Equation (8.4) is applicable to each point of the fluid. Rearranging the

terms, we get the equation of continuity, may be written as given below.

We need not to derive the equation of continuity again and again in other
coordinate system (that is, spherical or cylindrical). The idea is to rewrite
Equation (8.5) in vector and tensor form. Once it is written in this form, the
same equation may be applied to other coordinate system as well. Thus,
the Equation (8.5) may be rewritten in vector and tensor form as shown
below.

Vector and tensor analysis of cylindrical and spherical coordinate systems

is not done here, and can be looked up elsewhere. Thus, the final
expressions in cylindrical and spherical coordinates are given as below.

cylindrical coordinates (r, θ, z)

Spherical coordinates (r, θ, φ)

Equation of continuity in terms of substantial derivative

The second term in Equation (8.6) may be broken into two parts as shown
below. Partial derivative present in the Equation (8.6) can be converted
into substantial derivative using vector and tensor identities.

In the above equation, the first two terms may be combined using the
definition of substantial derivative to obtain the following equation.

In some cases, the fluid may be incompressible, i.e. density ρ is a constant

with time as well as space coordinates. For example, water may be
assumed as an incompressible fluid under isothermal conditions. In fact, all
liquids may be assumed as incompressible fluids under isothermal
conditions. For this special case, the equation of continuity may be further
simplified as shown below

The above equation for an incompressible fluid does not mean that the
system is under steady state conditions. The velocity of the fluid may still
be a function of time. It only implies that if the velocity of the fluid changes
in a particular direction (x, y or z) then it should also change in the other
directions such that mass is conserved without changing its density. The
equation of continuity provides additional information about the velocity
profile and helps in solution of equation of motion.
 Axiom-2

Momentum is conserved

The second axiom of transport phenomena is "the momentum is

conserved". This means that the rate of change of momentum in a CV is
equal to the summation of all applied forces and the net rate of inflow of
momentum by convection (when a fluid enters the control volume, it brings
momentum into the control volume (CV), and when it leaves the control
volume, it takes momentum away from the control volume). Therefore, the
conservation momentum may be written in words as given below.

The forces which are encountered in fluid systems are mainly of two types:
1. Body force: A body force depends on the mass and acts on the whole
volume of the system. The most common example of a body force is
the force due to gravity.
2. Surface force: A surface force does not depend on the mass of the
system but rather acts on surfaces and is therefore proportional to
the area of the surface. Surface forces may be further classified into
two types:

a. Pressure forces

b. Shear force (due to deformation of the fluid or velocity gradients)

Pressure force is equal to the product of pressure and the area of surface
on which it acts. The direction of pressure force is always inwards to a given
control volume. Therefore, it works as the compression force.

Shear forces are the surface forces which are acting on different surfaces
of a control volume. To define a shear stress tensor, consider a shear

force acting on a surface whose unit normal unit vector is . The

shear stress tensor can now be defined as shown below.

In cartesian coordinate systems (for rectangular control volume), the unit

normal vectors are in x, y, and z directions respectively. Now, consider a
surface which has its outward normal in the x direction(This surface is
called x directed surface or simply x surface). Since the fluid is present

outside the control volume, it will apply a shear force on the surface,
which is given by the Equation (9.2) as shown below,

Using compaction operation, we have

Since j is a dummy index there is a summation sign over j and when we

expand it over j we obtain the following expression.

Therefore, interpretation of , and may be understood as

component of forces acting on a surface whose outer normal is in x

direction. Similarly, we can write, and

Thus, we can conclude that there are 9

components of shear stress as given below:

It may be noted that earlier we had seen only one component of shear
stress in the Newton’s law of viscosity for one-dimensional flow. For better
understanding, consider the Newton's experiment where a fluid is filled
between two parallel plates separated by a distance h. As we apply the
force F in the x direction (along the length of the plate), there may
be 9 components of shear stress but the fluid is moving in x direction only.
Therefore, only those components of stress tensor are important in
momentum balance which indicate x directed shear forces, that is

, and . Since, no solid surface is present in x and z directions

which can provide a velocity gradient because of no-slip boundary
condition, there is no velocity gradient present in these direction.
Thus, is the only non-zero component of the shear stress tensor in the

Newton's law of viscosity experiment. As discussed earlier may also

be regarded as the momentum flux. The interpretation is that it
is y directed momentum (fluid layers are moving in y direction) flowing
in x direction from higher momentum to lower momentum values. Thus,